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THE    NEW 

SCHAFF-HERZOG  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


or 


RELIGIOUS  KNOWLEDGE 

KMBRACINQ 

BIBLICAL,  HISTORICAL,  DOCTRINAL,  AND  PRACTICAL  THEOLOGY 

AND  BIBLICAL,  THEOLOGICAL,  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL 

BIOGRAPHY  PROM  THE  EARLIEST  TIMES 

TO  THE  PRESENT  DAY 

Based  on  the  Third  Edition  of  the  RealencyUopadie 
Founded  by  J.  J.  Herzog,  and  Edited  by  Albert  Hauck 

PREPARED  BY  MORE  THAN  SIX  HUNDRED  SCHOLARS  AND  SPECIALISTS 

UNDER  THE  SUPERVISION  OF 

SAMUEL  MACAULEY  JACKSON,  D.D.,  LL.D. 

(£attor-tn-CAt^)" 

WITH  THK  ASSISTANCK  OT 

CHARLES  COLEBROOK  SHERMAN 

AND 

GEORGE  WILLIAM  GILMORE,  M.A. 

(Associate  EdUora) 

AND  THE  FOLLOWINQ  DEPARTMENT  EDITORS 


CLARENCE  AUGUSTINE  BECKWITH,  DJ). 

{Department  of  Systemalic  Theology) 

HENRY  KING  CARROLL,  LL.D. 

{Department  of  Minor  DenominationB) 

JOHN  THOMAS  CREA6H,  D.D. 

{Department  of  LUurgic9  and  Rdigiout  Orders) 

(VOL.  X.) 

JAMES  FRANCES  DRLSCOLL,  D.a 

{Department  of  Liturgies  and  Religious  Orders) 
(YOLS.  II.  TO  zn.) 


JAMES  FREDERIC  MoCURDT,  PH.D.,  LL.D. 
{Department  of  the  (Hd  Testament) 

HENRY  SYLVESTER  NASH,  DJ). 

(Department  of  the  New  Testament) 

ALBERT  HENRY  NEWMAN,  D.D.,  LL.D. 
{DqKortment  of  Church  Hislory) 

FRANK  HORACE  VIZETELLY,  F.S.A. 

{Department  of  Pronunciation  cmd  Tkfpography) 


VOLUME  I 
AACHEN-BASILIANS 


PUNK  AND  WAGNALLS  COMPANY 
NEW  YORK  AND  LONDON 


THE  NEW  YORK 
PUBLIC  LIBEAKY 

329779B 

A0IOB,  LWOX  AND 
llU)Df  rOONDATIONS 
B  1M6  ^ 


GOPTRIGHT,   1908,   BY 

FUNK   &   WAGNALLS   COMPANY 


Registered  at  Statlonen*  Hall,  London,  England 


iPrinUd  in  the  United  StaleB  of  Americd] 
PtibliOied  May,  1908 


EDITORS 


SAMUEL  IKACAXJLEY  JACKSON,  B.B.,  LL.B. 

(£ditor-in-Chibf.  ) 
Fraf esKir  of  Church  History,  New  York  UnlYerslty. 


ASSOCL^TE   EDITORS 


OHABLES  COLEBBOOK  SHESMAN 

Editor  in  Biblical  Crtticiam  and  Theology  on  ^'The  New  Inter- 
nationai  Encyclopedia,"  New  York. 


GEORGE  WILLIAM  GILMOBE,  M.A. 

New  York,  Formerly  ProfesBor  of  Biblical  History  and  Lecturer 
on  OomparaUve  Rellsfon,  Bangor  Theological  Seminary. 


DEPARTMENT  EDITORS,  VOLUME  I 


CLABENCE  ATTGTTSTINE  BECKWITH,  B.B. 

{Department  of  Sustematic  Theologu.) 

Professor  of   Systematic  Theology,  Chicago   Theological 

Seminary. 

HENBT  KING  CABBOLL,  LL.B. 

(Department  of  Minor  Denominations.) 

One  of  the  Corresponding  Secretaries  of  the  Board  of  Foreign 

Missions  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  New  York. 

JOHN  THOMAS  CBEAGH,  B.B. 

(Department  of  Liturgies  and  Reliffious  Orders.) 

Professor  of  Canon   Law,  Catholic  University  of  America, 

Washington,  D.  C. 

HUBEBT  EVANS,  Ph.B. 

(Office  Editor.) 

Member  of  the  Editorial  Staff  of  the  Encyclopsedia  Britannica 

Company,  New  York  City. 


JAMES  FBEBEBICK  McCUBBT,  Fh.B., 
LL.B. 

(Department  of  the  Old  Testament.) 
Professor  of  Oriental  Languages,  University  College,  Toronto. 

HENBT  SYLVESTEB  NASH,  B.B. 

(Department  of  the  New  Testament.) 
Professor  of  the  Literature  and  Interpretation  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament, Episcopal  Theological  School,  Cambridge,  Mass. 

ALBEBT  HENBT  NEWMAN,  B.B.,  LL.B. 

(Department  of  Church  History.) 

Professor   of   Church  History,  Baylor  Theological  Seminaiy 

(Baylor  University),  Waco,  Tex. 

FBANK  HOBACE  VIZETELLY,  F.S.A. 

(Department  of  Pronunciation  and  Typography.) 

fanaging  Editor  of  the  Standard  Dictionabt,  etc. 

New  York  City. 


CONTRIBUTORS  AND  COLLABORATORS,  VOLUME  I 


HANS  ACHELIS,  Ph.B.,  Th.B., 

Professor  of  Church  History,  University  of  Halle. 

SAMUEL  JAMES  ANBBEWS  (f), 

lAte  Pastor  of  the  Catholic  Apostolic  Church,  Hartford,  Conn. 

OABL  FBANKLIN  ABNOLB,  Ph.B., 
Th.B., 

Professor  of  Church  History,  Evangelical  Theological  Faculty, 
University  of  Breslau. 

OLABENCE  ATTGXTSTINE  BECKWITH, 
B.B., 

Professor  of  Systematic  Theology,  Chicago  Theological  Semi- 
nary. 

KABL  BENBATH,  Ph.B.,  Th.B., 

Professor  of  Church  History,  University  of  KOnlgsberg. 

IMMANTJEL   GXHSTAV    ABOLF    BENZIN- 
GEB,  Ph.B.,  Tli.LiG., 

formerly  Prlvat-docent  In  Old  Testament  Theology,  University 
of  Berlin,  Member  of  the  Executive  Committee  of  the 
^  C^erman  Society  for  the  Exploration  of 

Palestine,  Jerusalem. 


OABL  BEBTHEAU,  Th.B., 

Pastor  of  St.  Micbaers  Church  and  President  of  the  Society 
for  the  Inner  Mission,  Hamburg. 

EBWIN  MUNSELL  BLISS,  B.B., 

Editor  of  the  Encyclopedia  of  Af  isstons,  etc,  Washington,  D.  0. 

EBTTABB  BOEHMEB  (f),  Ph.B.,  Th.B., 

Formerly  Professor  of  Bomanoe  Languages,  Unlveraities  of  lialle 
and  Strasburg. 

AMY  GASTON  BONET-MAXJBT,  B.B.,  LL.B, 

Professor  of  Church  History,  Independent  School  of  Divinity, 
Paris. 

GOTTLIEB   NATHANAEL    BONWETSCH, 
Th.B., 

Professor  of  Church  History,  University  of  G()ttingen. 

FBIEBBICH  BOSSE,  Ph.B.,  Th.Lic, 

Professor  of  the  New  Testament  and  Church  History,  University 
of  Greifswald. 

GTJSTAV  BOSSEBT,  Ph.B.,  Th.B., 

Formerly  Pastor  at  Nabem  near  Kirchheim,  WOrttemberg. 


▼i 


CONTRIBUTORS  AND  COLLABORATORS,  VOLUME  I 


JOHAVN  FRAVZ  WILHXLM  B0TTB8BT, 

Prof enor  of  New  TeHament  Exegwif,  UnifeiBttj  of  CKytttngen. 

JOHANNES    FBIEDBIOH   THEODOB 
BBIBOSB,  Fh.B.,  Th.B., 

ProfeMor  of  Ctnireh  Hiitorj,  Unlrenity  of  Lelpilo. 

OHABLES  AUGUSTUS  BBIGOS,  B.B., 

B.Litt.  (Oxon.)) 

ProfetBorof  Tbeoloffteal  Encyclopedia  and  SymboUoi,  Union 

Tbeologlcal  8emlnai7«  New  YoiIl. 

OABIi  VON  BUOHBUCKE&  (f),  Th.B., 
Late  Supreme  Comlstortal  Councilor,  Munich. 

FBAHTS  PEBBB  WILLLAM  BUHL,  Ph.B., 
Th.B., 

ProfetBorof  Ortental  Languacei,  Unirerilty  of  Copenhagen. 

WALTBB  OASPABI,  PI1.B.,  Th.Lic, 

UnlYenlty  Preacher  and  Profesior  of   Practical  Theolocy, 

PedagoslcB,  and  Didactics,  Unlverrtty  of  Erlangen. 

ALEXIS  ntiiriE  bu  povt  oolekan, 

Il.A*, 
Imtmctor  of  Bngllth,  College  of  the  City  of  New  Yoi^. 

JOHN  THOMAS  CBEAGH,  B.B., 

Prafenor  of  Canon  Law,  CathoUo  Unlfenlty   of    America, 
Waahlnffton,  D.  C. 

AUGUST  HEBMANN  OBEMEB  (t),  Th.B., 
Late  ProfetBor  of  gyitemaUc  Theology,nniYeiBlty  of  Grelfiwald. 

GUSTA7  HEBMAN  BALKAN,  Fh.B.,Th.B., 

Prafenor  of  Old  Teetament  Ezegeila,  Univeralty  of  Lelpdo, 

and  President  of  the  German  Evangelical  Archeo- 

logloa  Institute,  Jerusalem. 

SAMUEL  MABTIN  BEUTSCH,  Th.B., 

Professor  of  Church  History,  Univerrity  of  Berlin. 


FBANZ  WILHELM  BIBELIUS,  Ph.B., 
Th.B., 

Supreme  Conslstorfal  Councilor,  City  Superintendent,  and  Pastor 
of  the  Church  of  the  Cross,  Dresden. 

PAUL  GOTTFBIEB  BBEWS,  Th.B., 

Professor  of  Practical  Theology,  Uniferrity  of  Glessen. 

WILHELM  BBEXLEB,  PI1.B., 

Librarian,  University  of  Grelfswald. 


HEZNBICH  BUNOXEB  (t)»  Th.B., 
Late  Conslstorlal  Councilor,  Dessau. 

HENBT  OTIS  BWIGHT,  LL.B.y 

Baoordlng  Secretary  of  the  American  Bible  Society,  New  Tork. 

BAVIB  EBBMANN  (t),  Th.B., 

Vormeriy  General  Superintendent,  and  Honorary  Professor  of 

Church  History,  Evangelical  Theological  Faculty, 

University  of  Breslau. 

HEBMANN   AUGUST  PAUL    EWALB, 
PI1.B.,  Th.B., 

Praf^Hor  of  Dogmatics  and  New  Testament  Exegesis,  Unl- 
ventty  of  Erlangen. 

PAUL  PEINE,  Ph.B.,  Th.B., 

Praf^Hor  of  New  Testament  Exegesis,  University  of  Berlin. 

HAH.it.  PEBBEE. 

Writer  on  Art  and  Architecture,  New  Tork  Ctty. 


JOHANNES  PICKEB,  PI1.B.,  Th.B., 

Professor  of  Church  History,  Evangelical  Theological  Faculty, 
University  of  Strasbuig. 

THEODOB  POEBSTEB  (f),  Th.B., 
Late  Professor  of  Church  History,  University  of  Halle. 

NOBMAN  POX  (t),  B.B., 
lAte  Baptist  Cleigyman  and  Author,  Morristown,  N.  J. 

ALBEBT  PBEYBE,  PI1.B.,  Th.B., 

Gymnaslal  Professor,  Parchlm,  Mecklenburg. 

BMIL  ALBEBT  PBIEBBEBG,  Br.Jur., 

Professor  of  Ecclesiastical .  Public,  and  German  Law,  Univer- 
sity of  Lelpslc. 

HEINBIOH  GELZEB  (f),  Ph.B., 
Late  Professor  of  Classical  Philology  and  Ancient  History,  Uni- 
versity of  Jena. 

GEOBGE   WILLIAM  GILMOBE,   M.A., 

Formerly  Lecturer  on  Comparative  Religion,  Bangor  Theo- 
logical Seminary. 

WALTEB  GOETZ,  Ph.B., 

Professor  of  History,  University  of  Tfiblngen. 

WILHELM  GOETZ,  Ph.B., 

Honorary  Professor  of  Geography,  Technical  School,  and  Pro- 
fessor, Military  Academy,  Munich. 

JOHANNES  PBIEBBICH  GOTTSGHIOK  (t), 
Th.B., 

lAte  Professor  of  New  Testament  Exegesis,  Ethics,  and  Prac- 
tical Theology,  Evangelical  Theological  Faculty, 
University  of  TQbingen. 

HEBMANN  GUTHE,  Th.B., 

Professor  of  Old  Testament  Exegesis,  University  of  Lelpslc 


HEINBICH  HAHN,  Ph.B., 

Formerly  Professor  of  History  and  German  in  the  Luisenstadt 
Beal-Gymnasium,  Berlin. 

ABOLP  HABNAOK,  Ph.B.,  M.B.,  Br.Jur., 
TI1.B., 

Professor  of  Church  History,  University  of  Berlin,  and  Gen- 
eral Director  of  the  Royal  Libraiy,  Berlin.^ 

ALBEBT  HAUCK,  Ph.B.,  Br.Jur.,  Th.B., 

Professor  of  Church  History,  University  of  Lelpslc:  Editor  of 
the  BeaUneyklopiidl^  Founded  by  J.  J.  Herzog. 

HEBMAN  HAUPT,  Ph.B., 

Professor,  and  Director  of  the  University  Library,  Glessen. 

BIOHABB  HAUSMANN,  HUt.B., 

Formeriy  Professor  of  History,  Dorpat,  Russia. 

JOHANNES  HAUSSLEITEB,  Ph.B., 

TI1.B., 

Conslstorial  Councilor,  Professor  of  New  Testament  Theology 
and  Exegesis,  Unlvemity  of  Grelffeiwald. 

CABL  PBIEBBICH  GEOBG  HEINBIOI, 

Ph.B.,  TI1.B., 
Professor  of  New  Testament  Exegesis,  University  of  Lelpslc 

MAX  HEBOLB,  Th.B., 

Dean,  Neustadt-on-the-Aisch,  Bavaria,  Editor  of  SUma, 

PAUL  HINSOHIUS  (t),  Br.Jur., 
Late  Professor  of  Ecclesiastical  Law,  Univeniity  of  Berlin. 


CONTRIBUTORS  AND  COLLABORATORS,  VOLUME  I 


▼il 


HERMANN     WILHELM     HEINBICH 
H0EL80HEB,  Th.B.y 

Futor  of  the  Olrareli  of  St  Nicholas,  Lelpilc,  Sditor  of  the  AUg^ 

meine  evanifeUsch4tUheri8che  Kirehtnzeitung  and 

0itheTheoU)0i»eh€slAUnUm1)UUL 

RUDOLF   HUGO     HOFMANN,     Ph.B., 
Th.D.y 

PrateBsor  of  Homlledos  and  litmsloi,  UnlveraUy  of  Lelpsic. 

ATiFR-BT>  JEREMIAS,  PI1.B.,  Th.IiiG., 

Putor  of  .the  Lather  Ghnroh  and  Priyat-dooent  for  the  History 

of  Religion  and  the  Old  Testament  in  the 

UnlYenity,  Lelpsic 

FSIEDRIOH    WILHELM    FERDINAND 
KATTENBTTSOH9  Th.D., 

FrafesBor  of  Dogmatics,  UnlYenlty  of  HaUe. 

PETER  OTT8TAV  KAWERATT,  TI1.D., 

OoDslstorial  Councilor,  University  Preacher,  and  Professor  of 

Practical  Theology,  Evangelical  Theological  Faculty, 

University  of  Breslau. 

HANS  KESSLER,  Th.D., 

Supreme  Oonaistorlal  Councilor,  Berlin. 

RUDOLF  KITTEL,  PI1.D., 

Professor  of  Old  Testament  Exegesis,  University  of  Lelpsic. 


HEINRIOH     AUGUST     XLOSTERMANN, 
TI1.D., 

Professor  of  Old  Testament  Exegesis,  Univemity  of  KieL 

AUGUST  KOEHLER  (f),  PhJ>.,  TI1.D., 

Late  Professor  of  Old  Testament  Exegesis,  University  of  Erlan- 
gen. 

FRIEDRICH    EDUARD   KOENIG,     Ph.D., 
TI1.D., 

Professor  of  Old  Testament  Exegesis,  Evangelical  Theological 
Faculty,  University  of  Bonn. 

THEODOR    FRIEDRIOH     HERMANN 
KOLDE,  PI1.D.,  Th.D., 

Professor  of  Church  History,  University  of  Erlangen. 

HERMANN    GUSTAV    EDUARD    KRX7E- 
GER,  Ph.D.,  Th.D., 

Professor  of  Church  History,  University  of  Oiessen. 

JOHANNES    WILHELM    KUNZE;    Ph.D., 
TI1.D., 

Professor  of  Systematic  and  Practical  Theology,  University  of 
Greiftowald. 

KARL  LUDWIG  LEIMBAOH  (f),  Ph.D., 
TI1.D., 

Late  Provincial  Councilor  for  Schools,  Hanover. 


Ttoti 


LUDWIG  LEMME,  Th.D., 

of  Systematic  Theology,  University  of  Heidelberg. 


EDUARD  LEMPP,  Ph.D., 

Chief  Inspector  of  the  Royal  Orphan  Asylum,  Stuttgart. 

FRIEDRICH  LEZIUS,  TI1.D., 

Professor  of  Church  History,  University  of  KOnigsbeiv. 

BRX7N0  LINDNER,  PI1.D., 

Professor  of  Aryan  Languages,  University  of  Lelpsic 


FRIEDRICH  LIST  (f),  Ph.D., 
Late  Studiendlrektor,  Munich. 

GEORG  LOESOHE,  Ph.D.,  ThJ>., 

Professor  of  Church  History^  Evangelical  Theologloal  Fionttj, 
Vienna. 

FRIEDRICH  ARMIN  LOOPS,  Ph.D.,  Th.D., 

Professor  of  Church  History,  Univenity  of  Halle. 

WILHELM  LOTZ,  Ph.D.,  TI1.D., 

Professor  of  Old  Testament  Exegesis,  University  of  Erlangen. 

ANDERS  HERMAN  LUNDSTROEM,  Th.D., 

Professor  of  Church  History,  University  of  Upsala,  Sweden. 

JAMES    FREDERICK   McCURDT,    Ph.D., 
LL.D., 

Professor  of  Oriental  Languages,  University  College,  Toronta 

GEORGE  DX7NCAN  MATHEWS,  D.D., 

Secretary  of  the  Alliance  of  the  Bef ormed  Churches,  London. 

PHUiIPP  MEYER,  TI1.D., 

Supreme  Conslstorlal  Councilor,  Member  of  the  Boyal  Consistory, 
Hanover. 

CARL  THEODOR  MIRBT,  Th.D., 

Professor  of  Church  History,  University  of  Marburg. 

ERNST  FRIEDRIOH  KARL  MUELLER, 
TI1.D., 

Professor  of  Reformed  Theology,  University  of  Erlangen. 

GEORG  MUELLER,  PI1.D.,  ThJD., 

Councilor  fOr  Schools,  Lelpsic 

NIKOLAUS  MUELLER,  PI1.D.,  Th.D., 

Professor  of  Christian  Archeology,  UniverBlty  of  Berlin. 

HENRY  SYLVESTER  NASH,  D.D., 

Professor  of  the  Literature  and  hiterpretation  of  the   New 
Testament,  Episcopal  Theological  Scaool,  Cambridge,  Mass* 

CHRISTOF    EBERKARD  NESTLE,  Ph.D., 
TI1.D., 

Professor  in  the  Theological  Seminary  (Teacher  of  Hebrew, 

New  Testament  Greek,  and  Beligion),  Maulbronn, 

WOrttemberg. 

CARL  NEX7MANN,  PI1.D., 
Professor  of  the  History  of  Art,  University  of  KieL 

ALBERT    HENRY     NEWMAN,     D.D., 
LL.D., 

Professor  of  Church  History,  Baylor  Theological   Seminary 
(Baylor  UhiverBlty),  Waco,  Texas. 

JULIUS  NEY,  TI1.D., 
Supreme  O>n8istorial  Councilor,  Speyer,  Bavaria. 

FREDERIK  CHRISTIAN   NIELSEN  (f), 
TI1.D., 

Late  Bishop  of  Aalborg,  Denmark. 

HANS  CONRAD  VON  ORELLI,  Ph.D.,  Th.D., 

Professor  of  Old  Testament  Exegesis  and  History  of  Beligion, 
University  of  BaseL 

CHARLES  PFENDER, 

Pastor  of  the  Evangelical  Lutheran  Church,  Parish  of  St.  Paul, 
Paris. 

WILLIAM  HENRY  PHELEY,  Ph.D., 

General  Secretary  of  the  Brotherhood  of  Andrew  and  PhUlp, 
Philadelphia. 


viii 


CONTRmUTORS  AXD  COLLABORjlTOBS,  TOfXlfE  I 


BBBNHJJtD  PICK,  ThJD^  D J>^ 

FiiCor  of  tbe  Jrim  rkAnuu  EwMMmtslkMi  Laactas  IL 
Cburdi,  Newark,  M.  J. 

WILUAX  PBICX, 

ronnerlr  iDfUiMstorln  fnmcli,  Tato  CoUec«nd  ttcfl 
miUflc  HcbooU  Mew  Uftf  ca,  Coim. 

T&AUaOTT  OTTO  BJkBLACH, 

Paator  at  Gatenleben,  Pmwlan  Sazooy. 


OXOSG  0HBI8TIAV  SIST80HSL,  TliJ>^ 

Unlfenlty  Preacber  and  Vnitmor  of  Pnedeal  neology.  Taft- 
▼entty  of  Lelpaie. 

HENDRIK  C0BVEIJ8  BOOOE  (4),  ThJD., 

Late  Profeaaor  of  History,  Unlyenlty  of  i 


HUGO  SACH8SE,  PI1.B.,  Th.Iac,  Br^ur., 

Prof esHor  of  EccleiUurtical  Law,  Unlferalty  of  Roetciclr. 

KABL  BT7D0LF  8AHBE, 

ProfetBor  for  Ilellirlotui  Instmctloo  and  Hebrew,  Holy  Craai 
Gymnartiim.  Dreaden. 

DAVID  SCHLEY  8CHAFF,  D.D., 

Profeaaor  of  Gburcb  History,  Western  Tbeoloclcal  Semliiary, 
Allegheny,  Pa. 

PHILIP  SCHAFF  (f),  D.D.,  LLJ>., 

Late  Professor  of  Cburcb  History,  Union  Theological  Seminary, 
New  York. 

KABL  SCHMIDT,  Th.D., 

Pastor  at  Goldberg,  MecklenboiK- 

EMIL  SCHUEBEB,  Ph.D.,  Th.D., 

Professor  of  New  Testament  Exegesis,  Unlyersity  of  GAttlngen. 

VICTOB  SCHULTZE,  TI1.D., 

Professor  of  Gburcli  History  and  Christian  Archeology,  Unlyer- 
sity  of  Greifswald. 

LUDWIO  THEODOB  SCHULZE,  PhJ>., 
TI1.D., 

Professor  of  Systematic  Theology,  UniYersity  of  Bostock. 

BEINHOLD  SEEBEBG,  TI1.D., 

Professor  of  Systematic  Theology,  Unlyenity  of  Berlin. 


OBOBO  flXKIMlMnPF,  PhJ). 


PrtfT 


^  2LIAB  raXOnCBTZB.  PliJ>^ 

cfattuta.  Unlieiilsy  oC  ErkyigieB. 

ALFBBD  STOSCXinB,  P%J>., 

AMae  LOnry.  New  Totk  Cliy. 

PAUL  T8CHACKBBT9  PliJ>.9  ThJ)., 

PnCBBor  of  Ctanck  SkSflsy,  Usdiciiliy  of  G^csfngai. 


'        WILHELK  VOLCX  (4),  ThJD.,  ThJ>., 

!   Late  PitftBOT  at  <Md  Tiasaii  itf.  gxegesfc.  rtrenity  ot  Boa- 
j  lock. 


DJ>^   LLJ>^ 

sad  FMcmieal  Theolagy,  Prtaoeloo  llwo- 


JOHAHHE8  WEISS,  ThJ)., 

Professor  of  New  Teattaent  ExegcslB.  rafvcnfty  of  Ifartnirg. 

ATTOUST   WILHELK   EBHST   WEBHEB, 
ThJ>., 

Pilfliarfui^  GnbCB*  Prasria. 


EDTTABD  VON  WOELFFLIHy  ThJD.^ 

Proftanr  of  ClMBleal  PhOology,  niiTcnfty  of  M  ankh. 

THEODOB  ZAHHy  ThJD.,  LittJ)., 

Profeaaor  of  New  Testament  Ezegcafs  and  IntrodocCkm,  Unl- 
Tenlty  of  I 


OTTO  ZOEOXLEB  (f),  PhJ>.,  ThJD., 

Late  Pratasor  of  Church  History  and  Apologedca,  Untfenlty  of 
GreUnrakL 


PREFACE 


This  encyclopedia  presents  in  a  condensed  and  modified  form  that  great  body  of  Prot- 
estant learning  called  the  Realencyklopddie  fur  jjrote8tanti8cheTheologieundKirche,edited  by 
Professor  Albert  Hauck,  Ph.D.,  D.Th.,  D.  Jur.,  the  famous  church  historian  of  Germany.  The 
German  work  is  the  third  edition  of  that  religious  encyclopedia  which  was  originally  edited 
by  the  late  Professor  Johann  Jakob  Herzog  and  bore  his  name  popularly  as  a  convenient 
short  title.  The  late  Professor  Philip  Schaff  was  requested  by  his  intimate  friend  Dr.  Her- 
zog to  adapt  the  encyclopedia  to  the  American  public  and  this  he  did.  To  this  combination 
of  German  and  American  scholarship  the  publishers  gave  the  happy  title  of  The  Schaff- 
Herzog  EncydopcBdia  of  Religious  Knowledge.  This  name  has  been  familiar  to  thousands  of 
the  religious  public  on  both  sides  of  the  sea  for  the  past  twenty-five  years  and  so  has  been 
preserved  as  the  title  of  this  publication,  with  the  prefix  "  New." 

The  history  of  this  encyclopedia  up  to  the  present  is  this:  In  December,  1853,  there  appeared  at  Gotha 
the  first  part  of  the  Realeru:yklop&die  fur  protestantische  Theologie  und  Kirche,  which  was  the  Protestant 
reply  to  the  challenge  of  the  Roman  Catholic  scholars  engaged  upon  the  Kirchenlexikan  oder  Em:yklopddie 
der  katkolischen  Theologie  und  ihrer  Hulfswissenachafteny  which  had  been  appearing  at  Freiburg  im  Breisgau 
since  1846.  The  credit  for  suggesting  the  latter  work  must  be  given  to  Benjamin  Herder  (1818-88),  one 
of  the  leading  publishers  of  Germany.  Its  editors  were  Heinrich  Joseph  Wetzer  (1801-53),  professor 
of  Oriental  philology  in  the  University  of  Freiburg  im  Breisgau,  a  layman,  and  Benedict  Welte  (1805-85), 
a  priest  and  professor  of  theology  in  the  University  of  Tdbingen.  The  proposition  to  do  as  much  for  Prot- 
estant theology  and  research  was  mooted  by  a  company  of  Protestant  theologians,  and  Matthias  Schnecken- 
burger  (1804-48),  professor  of  theology  in  Bern,  had  been  chosen  editor  of  the  projected  work.  But 
the  political  troubles  of  1848  prevented  the  carrying  out  of  the  scheme  and  the  death  of  Schneckenburger 
that  year  made  it  necessary  to  find  another  leader.  At  this  juncture  Friedrich  August  Tholuck  (1799- 
1877),  professor  of  theology  in  Halle,  where  Johann  Jakob  Herzog  was  professor  from  1847  to  1854,  was 
consulted  and  he  named  his  colleague.  It  was  an  ideal  choice,  as  Professor  Herzog  was  a  competent 
scholar,  a  friend  of  progress  in  theology,  moderate  in  his  views,  and  a  persona  grata  to  all  parties  among 
the  Protestants.  The  publisher  of  the  Protestant  encyclopedia  was  Christian  Friedrich  AdoU  Host  (1790- 
1856),  who  was  carrying  on  the  business  of  Johann  Conrsul  Hinrichs,  and  under  that  name. 

Both  the  Roman  Catholic  and  Protestant  religious  encyclop>edias  were  conspicuous  successes  and  came 
to  be  called  popularly,  by  the  names  of  their  editors,  **  Wetzer  und  Welte  "  und  "  Herzog  "  respectively. 
The  former  was  finished  in  1856  in  twelve  volumes,  followed  by  an  index  volimie  in  1860;  the  latter  in 
1868  in  twenty-two  volumes  including  the  index.  In  December,  1877,  the  Herders  entrusted  a  new  edition 
of  "  Wetzer  und  Welte  "  to  Joseph  Hergenr5ther  (1824-80),  at  that  time  a  professor  of  theology  in  Munich. 
On  his  elevation  to  the  cardinalate  in  1879  he  transferred  his  editorial  duties  to  Franz  Philipp  Kaulen 
(1827-1907),  Roman  Catholic  professor  of  theology  in  Bonn,  and  under  him  the  new  edition  was  finished 
in  1901  in  twelve  volimies,  eadi  one  much  larger  than  those  of  the  first  edition.  In  September,  1903,  the 
index  volimie  appeared.  In  1877  the  first  volimie  of  the  second  edition  of  ''Herzog"  appeared,  edited  by 
Professor  Herzog  with  the  assistance  of  his  colleague  in  the  theological  faculty  in  Erlangen,  Gustav  Leopold 
Plitt  (1836-80).  On  Plitt's  death  Herzog  called  in  another  colleague,  Albert  Hauck  (1845-),  the  professor 
of  church  history,  who  survived  him  and  brought  the  work  to  its  triimiphant  close  in  1888  in  eighteen 
volumes,  includingthe  index.  In  the  spring  of  1896  appeared  the  first  part  of  the  third  edition  of  **  Herzog  " 
with  Hauck,  who  meanwhile  had  gone  to  Leipsic  as  professor  of  church  history,  as  sole  editor.  It  is  upon 
this  third  edition  that  the  present  work  is  based. 

The  idea  of  translating  "  Herzog  "  in  a  slightly  condensed  form  occurred  to  John  Henry  Augustus 
Bomberger  (1817-90),  a  minister  of  the  Gennan  Reformed  Church,  and  then  president  of  Ursinus  Col- 
lege, Collegeville,  Pa.,  and  in  1856  he  brought  out  in  Philadelphia  the  first  volume,  whose  title-page 
re^ds  thus:  The  Protestant  Theological  and  Ecdeeiastical  Encyclopedia:  Being  a  Condensed  Translation 
of  Herzog' s  Real  Encyclopedia.  With  Additions  from  Other  Sources.  By  Rev.  J.H.A.  Bomberger,  D.D.,  As- 
nsted  by  Distinguished  Theologians  of  Various  Denominations.    Vol.  I.    Philadelphia :  Lindsay  &  Blakiston, 


X  PREFACE 

1866.  In  this  work  he  associated  with  himself  twelve  persons,  all  but  one  ministers.  In  1860  he  issued  the 
second  volume.  But  the  Civil  War  breaking  out  the  next  year  put  a  stop  to  so  costly  an  enterprise  and  it 
was  never  resimied.  The  first  volimie  included  the  article  "Concubinage/'  the  second  "Josiah."  It 
had  been  issued  in  nimibers,  of  which  the  last  was  the  twelfth. 

In  1877  Professor  Philip  Schaff  (1819-93)  was  asked  by  Dr.  Herzog  himself  to  undertake  an  En^h 
reproduction  of  the  second  ^tion  of  his  encyclopedia,  and  this  work  was  fairly  begun  when,  in  the  autunm 
of  1880,  Clemens  Petersen  and  Samuel  Macauley  Jackson  were  engaged  to  work  daily  on  it  in  Dr.  Schaff's 
study  in  the  Bible  House,  New  York  City.  The  next  year  Dr.  Schafif's  son,  the  Rev.  David  Schley  Scha£F, 
now  professor  of  church  history  in  the  Western  Theological  Seminary,  Allegheny,  Pa.,  joined  the  staff. 
The  original  publishers  were  S.  S.  Scranton  &  Company,  Hartford,  Conn.,  but  a  change  was  made  before 
the  issue  of  the  first  volimie  and  the  encyclopedia  was  issued  by  Funk  &  WagnaUs.  The  title-page  read  thus : 
A  RdigiouB  EncydopiBdia :  or  Dictionary  of  Biblical ,  Historical,  Doctrinal,  and  Practical  Theology,  Based  on  the 
RealrEneyklapddie  of  Herzog,  Plitt,  and  Hauck.  Edited  by  Philip  Schaff,  DJ).,  LLJ).,  Professor  in  the  Union 
Theological  Seminary,  New  York.  Associate  editors :  Rev,  Samuel  M,  Jackson,  M.A.,  and  Rev.  D.  S.  Schaff. 
Volume  /.  New  York :  Funk  &  WagnaUs,  Publishers,  10  and  12  Dey  Street.  The  first  volimie  was  issued 
Wednesday,  November  1,  1882,  the  second  Thursday,  Mareh  1,  1883,  and  the  third  Tuesday,  Mareh4, 
1884.  Volume  I.  had  pp.  xix.  1-847;  volume  II.  pp.  xvii.  848-1714;  and  volimie  III.  pp.  xix. 
1715-2631.  In  November,  1886,  a  revised  edition  was  issued  and  at  the  same  time  the  Encyclopedia  of 
Living  Divines  and  Christian  Workers  of  All  Denominations  in  Europe  and  America,  Being  a  Supplement  to 
Schaff'Herzog  Encyclopedia  of  Religious  Knowledge.  Edited  by  Rev.  Philip  Schaff,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  and  Rev. 
Samuel  Macauley  Jackson,  M.  A.  New  York:  Funk  &  WagnaUs,  Publishers,  18  and  BO  Astor  Place,  1887, 
In  1891  the  third  edition  of  the  encyclopedia  was  issued  and  with  it  was  incorporated  the  Encydopedia 
of  Living  Divines,  with  an  appendix,  largely  the  work  of  Rev.  George  William  Gilmore,  bringing  the  bio- 
graphical and  literary  notices  down  to  December,  1890.  The  entire  work  was  repaged  sufficiently  to 
make  it  one  of  four  volumes  of  about  equal  size,  and  it  is  this  four-volume  edition  which  is  known  to 
the  public  as  the  Schaff -Herzog  Encycyclopedia,  the  volumes  being  respectively  of  pp.  xlviii.  679  and  four 
pages  imnumbered;  680-1378;  1379-2086;  iv.  2087-2629,  viii.  296.  As  the  German  work  at  its  base  was 
overtaken  by  the  time  "S"  had  been  reached,  the  ''Schaff-Herzog"  from  that  letter  on  was  based  on  the 
first  edition  of  "  Herzog."  Therefore  much  of  its  matter  is  now  very  old.  Yet  it  has  been  a  useful  work, 
and  in  1903  its  publishers  determined  on  a  new  edition  based  on  the  third  edition  of  "  Herzog,"  which 
had  been  appearing  since  1896.  But  inasmuch  as  there  was  a  space  of  ten  years  between  the  be- 
ginnings of  the  two  works,  it  has  been  necessary  to  bring  the  matter  from  the  German  down  to  date. 
This  end  has  been  accomplished  by  two  courses:  first  by  securing  from  the  German  contributors  to  "  Her- 
sog  "  condensations  of  their  contributions,  in  which  way  matter  contributed  to  the  Gennan  work  has  in 
many  instances  been  brought  down  to  date,  and  second  by  calling  on  department  editors  for  supplemen- 
tary matter. 

As  appearsfrom  what  has  been  said  above,  this  encyclopedia  is  not  entirely  a  new  work.  It 
isreallyanoldworkreconstructed.  Its  list  of  titles  is  largely  the  same  and  it  follows  the  same 
general  plan  as  in  the  old  work.  The  points  of  identity  are :  (1)  that  at  its  base  lies  the  Realency- 
hUypadie  fur  protestarUische  Theologie  und  KirchCj  once  associated  with  the  name  of  Herzog, 
now  with  the  name  of  Albert  Hauck,  professor  of  church  history  in  the  University  of  Leipsic, 
and  the  author  of  the  authoritative  history  of  the  Church  in  Germany;  (2)  that  it  gives  in 
condensed  form  the  information  in  that  work,  and  takes  such  matter  directly  from  the  Ger- 
man work  in  most  instances,  although  occasionally  while  the  topic  is  the  same  the  treatment 
is  independent  of  the  German  contributor's;  (3)  that  it  has  much  matter  contributed  by 
the  editorial  staff  and  specially  secured  contributors;  (4)  that  in  Biblical  matters  it 
limits  its  titles  to  those  of  the  German  base,  so  that  it  should  not  be  considered  as  a  Bible 
dictionary,  although  the  Biblical  department  comprehends  the  principal  articles  of  such  a 
dictionary.  The  points  of  dissimilarity  are  these:  (1)  It  contains  much  matter  furnished 
directly  by  those  contributors  to  the  German  work  who  have  kindly  consented  to  condense 
their  articles  and  bring  them  within  prescribed  limits.  These  limits  have  often  been  narrow, 
but  in  no  other  way  was  it  possible  to  utilize  the  German  matter.  (2)  It  con- 
idioB  hundreds  of  sketches  of  living  persons  derived  in  almost  every  instance  from  matter 
furnished  by  themselves.  In  writing  these  sketches  much  help  has  been  received,  principally 
in  the  suggestion  of  names,  from  the  English  and  American  Who's  Who  and  from  the  German 
Wer  xsVb  (which  is  a  similar  work  for  Gennany ) ,  and  we  desire  to  acknowledge  our  indebtedness 
with  thanks.  But  comparison  between  the  sketches  in  this  book  and  those  ^ven  of  the  same 
individual  in  the  books  referred  to  will  reveal  many  differences  and  be  so  many  proofs  of  the 


PREFACE  zi 

extensive  correspondence  carried  on  to  secure  the  given  facts.  Every  person  sketched  herein, 
with  abnost  no  exception,  has  been  sent  a  blank  for  biographical  data.  Some  thought  to 
save  themselves  the  trouble  of  filling  out  the  blank  by  referring  to  a  dictionary  of  living 
persons,  but  it  has  generally  turned  out  that  the  requirements  of  this  blank  were  not  met  by 
the  book  referred  to  and  it  has  been  necessary  to  write  to  the  subject,  and  frequently  more 
than  once,  before  the  desired  information  could  be  secured.  (3)  The  matter  in  proof  has  been 
sent  to  persons  specially  chosen  for  eminence  in  their  respective  departments.  These  depart- 
ments with  the  names  of  those  in  charge  of  them  are:  Systematic  Theology,  Rev.  Clarence 
Augustine  BECKwrrn,  D.D.,  professor  of  systematic  theology,  Chicago  Theological  Seminary; 
Minor  Denominations,  Rev.  Henry  King  Carroll,  LL.D.,  one  of  the  corresponding  sec- 
retaries of  the  Board  of  Foreign  Missions  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  New  York  City; 
Liturgies  and  Religious  Orders,  in  the  first  volume.  Rev.  John  Thomas  Creaqh,  D.D., 
professor  of  canon  law.  Catholic  University  of  America,  Washington,  D.  C,  in  subsequent 
volumes.  Very  Rev.  James  Francis  Driscoll,  D.D.,  president  of  St.  Joseph's  Seminary, 
Yonkers,  N.  Y.;  the  Old  Testament,  Rev.  James  Frederick  McCurdy,  Ph.D.,  LL.D., 
professor  of  Oriental  languages,  University  College,  Toronto;  the  New  Testament,  Rev. 
Henry  Sylvester  Nash,  D.D.,  professor  of  the  literature  and  interpretation  of  the  New 
Testament,  Episcopal  Theological  School,  Cambridge,  Mass.;  Church  History,  Rev.  Albert 
Henry  Newman,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  professor  of  church  history,  Baylor  Theological  Seminary 
(Baylor  University),  Waco,  Texas.  Besides  reading  the  proofs  they  were  requested 
to  make  such  additions  as  would  not  only  bring  them  up  to  date  but  represent  the  dis- 
tinctive results  of  British  and  American  scholarship.  (4)  A  much  more  thorough  bib- 
liography is  furnished.  The  attempt  has  been  made  to  give  sources  so  that  students  may 
pursue  a  subject  to  its  roots;  second,  to  supply  the  best  literature  in  whatever  language  it 
occurs;  third,  to  supply  references  in  English  for  those  who  read  only  that  language.  (5)  All 
articles  based  on  German  originals  have  been  sent  in  proof  to  the  writers  of  the  original 
German  articles  when  these  writers  were  still  living.  Some  of  them  had  furnished  the  articles 
and  they  had  merely  been  translated,  but  in  the  great  majority  of  cases  the  German  authors 
had  not  given  that  cooperation;  not  a  few,  however,  have  kindly  read  our  condensations 
and  made  corrections  and  additions.    For  this  cooperation  thanks  are  due. 

We  here  mention  with  gratitude  the  permission  given  by  the  publisher  of  the  Real- 
encyklopddie  fur  proiestanlische  Theologie  und  Kirche,  Mr.  Heinrich  Rost,  the  head  of  the 
great  publishing  house  of  J.  C.  Hinrichs  of  Leipsic,  and  by  the  editor  of  its  third  edition. 
Professor  Albert  Hauck,  Ph.D.,  D.Th.,  D.Jur.,  of  the  University  of  Leipsic,  to  use  its 
contents  in  our  discretion.  Dr.  Hauck  has  done  far  more  than  give  permission.  He  has 
manifested  a  kindly  interest  in  our  work,  has  revised  the  condensations  of  his  articles,  and 
facilitated  our  efforts  to  secure  from  his  contributors  advance  articles.  This  helpfulness  is 
much  appreciated,  and  we  would  f^n  give  it  prominent  recognition. 

Rev.  David  Schley  Schaff,  D.D.,  who  holds  the  chair  of  church  history  in  the  Western 
Theological  Seminary,  Allegheny,  Pa.,  whose  father  was  the  founder  of  this  work  and 
who  was  nimself  one  of  its  original  associate  editors,  felt  unable  on  account  of  other  duties 
to  assume  any  editorial  responsibility  for  the  present  work,  as  he  had  been  asked  to  do  by 
the  publishers  when  the  new  edition  was  determined  on,  but  he  entered  heartily  into  the 
arrangement  whereby  the  sole  responsibility  of  general  editor  should  be  lodged  with  his 
former  associate  editor,  and  has  cooperated  by  bringing  down  to  date  ahnost  all  the  articles 
which  he  and  his  father  contributed  to  the  first  edition. 

The  labor  of  coordinating  the  material  sent  in  by  the  many  persons  who  have  coop- 
erated to  bring  out  this  work  has  fallen  upon  the  managing  editor,  Charles  Colebrook  Sher- 
man, who  has  discharged  his  diflScult  duties  with  conscientious  fidelity  and  marked  ability. 


xii  PREFACE 

The  bibliography,  which  is  probably  the  greatest  novelty  of  this  encyclopedia  and  is  a  fea- 
ture certain  to  be  greatly  appreciated,  has  been  prepared  by  Professor  George  William 
GiLMORE,  late  of  Bangor  Theological  Seminary,  and  the  author  of  Hurst's  Literature  of 
Theology.  The  work  of  condensing  and  translating  the  articles  from  the  contributors  to 
the  Realencyklopddie  fur  proteatantische  Theohgie  und  Kirche  has  been  done  by  Bernhard 
Pick,  Ph.D.,D.D.,  Lutheran  pastor,  Newark,  N.  J.;  Alexis  iRlbfiB  du  Pont  Coleman,  M.A. 
of  Oxford  University,  instructor  in  English  in  the  College  of  the  City  of  New  York;  Alfred 
Stoeckius,  Ph.D.,  of  the  Astor  Library;  William  Price;  and  Hubert  Evans,  Ph.D.  of 
Leipsic.  The  pronunciations  have  been  supplied  by  Frank  Horace  Vizetelly,  F.S.A., 
managing  editor  of  the  Standard  Dictionary, 

When  the  contributors  to  the  Reaiencyklopddie  have  chosen  not  to  condense  their  articles 
themselves,  but  have  preferred  that  this  work  should  be  done  by  the  editors  of  the  New 
Schaff'Herzog,  the  fact  is  indicated  by  the  use  of  parentheses  enclosing  the  signature.  Edi- 
torial additions  or  changes  in  the  body  of  signed  articles  for  which  the  contributors  should 
not  be  held  responsible  are  indicated  by  brackets.  A  double  signature  indicates  that  an 
article  originally  prepared  by  the  contributor  whose  name  appears  first  (in  parentheses)  has 
been  revised  by  the  contributor  whose  name  follows.  The  cross  (f)  following  the  name 
of  a  contributor  indicates  that  he  is  dead. 

September  15,  1907.  THE   EDITOR. 

CONCERNING  BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

For  purposes  of  research  and  definite  information  the  student  is  constantly  under  the 
necessity  of  discovering  not  only  lists  of  works  on  a  given  subject,  but  also  initials  or  full 
names  of  authors  and  place  and  date  of  publication  and  often  the  exact  form  of  the  title 
of  a  book  inaccurately  or  partially  known.  To  furnish  this  information  the  work  which 
will  prove  useful  beyond  all  others  is  the  British  Museum  Catalogue,  which  with  its 
Supplement  records  the  books  received  down  to  1900;  accessions  beyond  this  date 
are  also  recorded  in  supplementary  issues.  Especially  valuable  to  the  theological  stu- 
dent are  the  four  parts  devoted  to  the  Bibles  and  Bible-works  in  the  British  Museum, 
though  the  large  number  of  entries  makes  it  hard  to  consult  these  parts.  Some  help  is 
pven  by  the  tables  of  arrangement.  A  Subject  Index  for  1881-1905,  ed.  G.  K.  Fortescue, 
4  vols.,  London,  1902-06,  mtJces  available  a  very  considerable  part  of  the  late  literature 
upon  all  subjects.  Next  to  this,  if  indeed  not  equally  valuable  so  far  as  it  is  finished,  is 
the  exhaustive  work  doing  for  the  French  National  Library  and  for  publications  in  French 
what  the  work  just  named  does  for  the  British.  This  is  the  Catalogue  g6n£ral  .  .  ,  de  la 
Bibliothkque  Naiionaie,  now  in  course  of  publication,  Paris,  1897  sqq.,  of  which  volume  xxiv., 
the  last  received,  carries  the  list  through  "Catzius."  The  value  of  these  two  publications 
will  be  more  accurately  estimated  when  it  is  recalled  that  the  two  institutions  are  stated 
repositories  for  copyrighted  books  in  the  two  countries  respectively.  An  impor- 
tant feature  of  the  first  volume  of  the  French  catalogue  is  a  helpful  account  of  pre- 
vious catalogues  of  the  French  National  Library.  The  English  work  is  in  folio, 
the  French  in  octavo.  Perhaps  the  next  best  general  work  is  that  of  J.  C. 
Brunet,  Manuel  du  libraire,  3  vols.,  Paris,  1810,  superseded  by  the  5th  ed.,  6  vols., 
1860-65,  with  SuppUmerU,  2  vols.,  1878-80.  After  these  two  works  come  in  point  of 
usefulness  what  may  be  called  the  national  catalogues,  recording  the  books  published  in 
Germany,  France,  Great  Britain,  Italy,  and  America.  For  Germany  the  work  was  begun 
in  the  AUgemeines  Burher-Leoncon,  by  W.  Heinsius,  reedited  and  enlarged  by  O.  A.  Schulz, 
then  by  F.  A.  Schiller,  covering  the  period  1700-1851  in  11  volumes,  Leipsic,  1812-54,  for 


PREFACE  xiii 

the  earlier  period  incomplete.  This  was  continued  by  Hinrichs'  Bucher-Katalog,  cov- 
ering the  years  1851-65  in  one  volume  (1875),  and  from  that  time  to  the  present  by  the 
Funfjdhriger  Bucher-Katalog,  Half-yearly  volumes  are  published  which  are  superseded  in 
course  by  the  five-year  volmnes.  These  were  accompanied  by  a  Repertorium  up  to  1885, 
which  arranged  the  entries  topically.  From  1883  on  the  Repertorium  was  superseded  by  a 
Schtagyxni-Katalog,  by  Georg  and  L.  Ost,  Hanover,  1889-1904  (now  complete  down  to 
1902),  serving  as  an  index  to  the  Hinrichs,  and  arranging  the  catch- words  alphabetically. 

For  publications  in  French  there  is  the  Catalogue  girUral  de  la  Itbrairie  fran^ise,  cover- 
ing the  period  1840-99,  15  vols.,  Paris,  1867-1904,  begun  by  O.  Lorenz  and  continued  by 
D.  Jordell,  with  a  Table  dea  matiires  or  index  published  at  irregular  intervals,  but  exceed- 
ingly full  and  usable.  The  Table  sysUmatique  de  la  bibliographie  de  la  France  is  an  annual 
list  of  copyrighted  books  classified  according  to  subjects,  published  in  Paris. 

For  British  publications  the  London  Catalogue,  London,  1846,  now  very  hard  to  obtain, 
carries  the  list  of  books  from  1800  to  1846  with  Index  to  the  same.  This  was  continued  by 
the  English  Catalogue,  now  complete  down  to  1905, 7  vols.,  London,  1864-1905.  The  three  vol- 
umes for  1890-1905  are  arranged  by  authors  and  subjects  in  one  alphabet.  For  the  period 
1837-89  there  is  an  Index  of  Subjects,  4  vols.,  London,  1858-93.  A  Yearly  Catalogue  is  issued, 
which,  like  the  French  annuals  and  German  semiannuals,  is  superseded  by  the  volume  cov- 
ering a  series  of  years. 

For  modem  Italian  works  the  authoritative  source  is  the  CaUdogo  generale  della  libreria 
Italiana,  1847-99,  compHato  dal  Prof,  AttUio  Pagliaini,  3  vols.,  Milan,  1901-05,  a  work 
singularly  complete  for  the  period  it  covers. 

For  American  publications  the  period  1820-71  is  inadequately  covered  by  the  Biblio- 
theca  Americana,  by  O.  A.  Roorbach  to  1861,  and  then  by  J.  Kelly,  a  set  of  books  rarely 
on  the  market.  The  American  Catalogue  continues  this  to  the  end  of  1905  in  6  vols, 
folio,  2  vols.  roy.  8vo,  New  York,  1880-1906.  This  was  begun  by  F.  Leypoldtand  is  con- 
tinued by  the  Publishers^  Weekly.  In  this  series  a  Yearly  Catalogue  is  issued,  superseded  like 
the  other  annuals  by  the  larger  volume.  The  whole  is  being  supplemented  by  Charles 
Evans  with  the  American  Bibliography,  a  Chronological  Dictionary  of  AU  .  .  .  Publications 
.  .  .  ,  1639-1820.  Of  this  magnificent  work,  vols,  i.-iv.  are  issued,  Chicago,  1903-07,  bring- 
ing the  titles  down  to  1773. 

For  earlier  books  a  valuable  set  of  volmnes  is  L.  Hain,  Repertorium  bibliographicum, 
2  vols,  in  4  parts  and  an  Index,  Stuttgart,  1826-91,  giving  a  list  of  books  printed  from 
the  invention  of  printing  to  1500.  To  this  W.  A.  Copinger  has  added  a  Supplement  in  2 
vols.,  3  parts,  London,  1895-1902,  and  Dietrich  Reichling,  Appendices,  in  course  of  prepa- 
ration and  publication,  containing  corrections  and  additions,  Munich,  1905  sqq. 

Valuable  as  selected  and  classified  lists  of  general  literature,  including  theology,  are 
Sonnenschein's  Best  Books  and  Reader's  Ouide,  London,  1891-95.  The  foregoing  are  all 
in  the  field  of  general  literature  and  are  not  specifically  theological. 

Of  specifically  Theological  Bibliographies,  giving  lists  of  literature  in  the  various  depart- 
ments of  the  science,  the  older  ones  have  principally  a  historic  value.  Some  of  the  best 
are:  J.  G.  Walch,  Bibliotheca  theologica  selecta,  4  vols.,  Jena,  1757-65,  arranged  topically 
with  an  index  of  authors;  G.  B.  Winer,  Handbuch  der  theologischen  Litteraiur,  3d  ed.,  3  vols., 
Leipsic,  1837-42  (gives  little  literature  in  English);  E.  A.  Zuchold,  Bibliotheca  theologica, 
2  vols.,  Gottingen,  1864  (an  alphabetical  arrangement  by  authors  of  books  in  German  issued 
1830-62) ;  W.  Orme,  Bibliotheca  theologica,  London,  1824  (contains  critical  notes).  One  of  the 
older  books,  often  referred  to  for  its  lists  of  editions  of  Scripture,  is  J.  Le  Long,  Bibliotheca  sacra, 
2  vols.,  Paris,  1709,  enlarged  by  A.  G.  Masch,  5  vols.,  Halle,  1778-90.  T.  H.  Home  added 
to  his  Introduction  a  rich  bibliography  of  the  works  issued  before  and  in  his  time  (also  printed 


xSt  preface 

(Kptmiely),  London,  1839,  which,  however,  is  not  found  in  editions  of  the  Iniroduction  latei 
than  that  of  1846.  An  excellent  woiic  is  that  by  James  Darling,  Cyc^opcafta  BMiogra-pkiea ; 
a  Library  Manual  of  Theological  and  General  Literature,  London,  1854,  with  supiJementaiy 
voiuDie,  1859,  particulariy  useful  as  giving  the  contents  of  series  and  even  of  vohimes.  Amodeni 
production,  noting  only  woriu  in  English,  is  J.  F.  Hurst,  Literature  of  Theology,  New  York, 
1896,  fairly  complete  up  to  its  date,  arranged  according  to  the  divisions  in  Theology  and  in 
convenient  smaller  rubrics,  with  very  full  indexes.  Unfortunately,  it  needs  supplementing 
by  the  literature  subsequent  to  1895.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  publishers  will  see  their 
way  to  add  a  supplement,  containing  the  later  literature.  For  Roman  Catholic  theology 
consult  D.  Gla,  SystemaUeeh  geordnetes  Repertorium  der  kathoUechrtheologisdien  Litteratur, 
Paderbom,  1894.  W.  T.  Lowndes,  BMiographer's  Manual,  4  vols.,  Londcm,  1834,  new 
edition  by  Henry  G.  Bohn,  1857-64,  while  not  exclusively  theological,  deals  largely  with 
curious  theological  books  and  is  useful  for  the  aimotations. 

Among  the  most  useful  guides  to  theological  literature  are  the  works  on  Introduction 
to  Theology  or  on  Theological  Encyclopedia  and  Methodology,  most  of  which  give  classified 
lists  of  literature.  Schleiermacher's  Kurze  DarsteUung  des  theologiechen  Studiume,  Beiiin, 
1811, 1830,  was  followed  by  K  R.  Hag^nbach,  Encyklopddie  und  Methodologie,  Leipdc,  1833, 
revised  by  M.  Reischle,  1889.  This  last,  though  not  in  its  latest  form,  was  practically  repro- 
duced by  G.  R.  Crooks  and  J.  F.  Hurst,  New  York,  1884,  rev.  ed.,  1894,  with  copious  lists 
of  literature,  English  and  American,  added.  Better  even  than  this  is  A.  Cave,  Iniroduction 
to  Theology,  2d  ed.,  Edinbur^,  1896,  in  which  the  lists  of  literature  are  especially  valuable, 
thou^  the  lapse  of  a  decade  since  the  publication  makes  a  new  edition  desirable.  Of  very 
high  value  for  its  citation  of  literature,  including  Continental,  En^ish,  and  American,  is 
L.  Emery,  Introduction  ii  Vitude  de  la  thiologie  protestante,  Paris,  1904. 

In  the  way  of  Biblical  and  Theological  Dictionaries  and  Encyclopedias  the  past 
decade  has  witnessed  great  progress.  The  two  great  Bible  Dictionaries,  superseding 
for  English  readers  all  others,  are  A  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  by  J.  Hastings  and  J.  A. 
Selbie,  4  vols,  and  extra  volimie,  Edinburgh  and  New  York,  1898-1904  (comprehensive 
and  fully  up  to  date  in  the  Old  Testament  subjects,  but  conservative  and  often  timid 
in  dealing  with  the  New  Testament),  and  EncydopcBdia  Biblica,  by  T.  K.  Cheyne  and 
J.  S.  Black,  4  vols.,  London  and  New  York,  1899-1903  (also  comprehensive,  much 
more  "advanced"  in  the  Old  Testament  and  admitting  representation  to  the  "Dutch 
School "  in  the  New  Testament  parts,  but  handicapped  by  the  Jerahmeel  theory  of  Prof. 
Cheyne).  F.  Vlgouroux,  Dictionnaire  de  la  Bible,  Paris,  1891  sqq.,  still  in  course  of  pub- 
lication, has  reached  '^ Palestine"  with  part  xxix.,  and  is  an  excellent  specimen  of  the 
conservative  type  of  French  Biblical  scholarship. 

In  Christian  Archeology  the  work  of  W.  Smith  and  S.  Cheetham,  Dictionary  of  Chris- 
tian Antiquities,  2  vols.,  London,  1875-80,  is  still  valuable,  and  there  is  no  later  work  in 
English  to  take  its  place.  Of  high  value  is  F.  X.  Kraus,  Real-Encyklopddie  der  chrisUichen 
AUerthUmer,  2  vols.,  Freiburg,  1881-86.  The  best  work,  which  must  supersede  all  others 
because  of  its  extraordmary  completeness  and  fulness,  but  which  has  been  only  recently  begun 
and  must  take  many  years  to  complete  under  its  present  plan,  is  F.  Cabrol,  Dictionnaire 
d^arcMolcgiechritienneetde  liturgie,  Paris,  1903  sqq.  (parts  i.-xlLare  out,  and  bring  the  reader 
down  to  "BaptAme")-  ^^  a  different  field,  and  worthy  of  high  praise,  is  W.  Smith 
and  H.  Wace,  Dictionary  of  Christian  Biograj)hy,  Literature,  Sects,  and  Doctrines,  4  vols., 
London,  1877-87,  representing  the  best  English  scholarship  of  its  day,  and,  from  the 
nature  of  its  contents,  not  easily  to  be  superseded.  A  help  to  this,  particularly  in  the  matter 
of  early  (Christian  writers,  is  W.  Smith,  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biography  and  Myth- 
ology, 3  vols.,  new  edition,  London,  1890. 


PREFACE  T7 

In  the  general  field  of  Historical  and  Doctrinal  Theology  must  be  men- 
tioned on  the  Roman  Catholic  side  the  KirchenlexUcon  of  Wetzer  and  Welte,  2d 
ed.,  begun  by  Cardinal  HergenrSther,  continued  by  F.  Kaulen,  12  vols,  and  Register, 
Freiburg,  1880-1903.  This  work  must  be  commended  for  its  accurate  scholarship,  its  ad- 
mirable regard  for  proportion,  and  for  the  large  range  of  subjects  it  treats  with  fairness 
and  with  only  a  suspicion  of  a  tendency  toward  ultramontanism.  Briefer  is  the  Handlexi- 
kon  der  katholischen  Theologie,  begun  by  J.  Schafler  (continued  by  J.  Sax),  4  vols.,  Regens- 
burg,  1880-1900.  The  new  KirMichea  HandlexUcon  of  M.  Buchberger,  Mimich,  1904-06 
(in  progress),  is  not  particularly  valuable.  The  evangelical  side  of  (German  scholarship  is 
represented  by  the  great  work  of  J.  J.  Herzog,  Realencyklopddie  fUr  protestantische  Theologie 
und  Kirche,  3d  ed.,  revised  under  A.  Hauck,  Leipsic,  1896  sqq.,  18  vols,  issued  to  date. 
This  is  the  great  storehouse  of  German  Protestant  theology  and  the  basis  of  the  present 
work.  The  most  ambitious  work  of  American  scholarship  is  J.  McClintock  and  J.  Strong, 
Cydopcsdia  of  Biblical,  Theological,  and  Ecdeaiaatical  LUerature,  10  vols..  New  York,  1867- 
1881,  with  two  supplementary  volumes,  1884-86  (claims  to  have  over  50,000  titles;  necessarily 
it  is  now  in  need  of  revision).  Other  works,  each  having  its  distinctive  field,  are:  W.  F. 
Hook,  A  Church  Dictionary,  8th  ed.,  London,  1859,  reprinted  Philadelphia,  1854;  J.  Eadie, 
Ttie  Ecclesiastical  Cyclopedia,  ib.,  1861 ;  J.  H.  Blunt,  Dictionary  of  Doctrinal  and  Historical 
Theology,  2d  ed.,  ib.,  1872;  idem.  Dictionary  of  Sects,  Heresies,  and  Schools  of  Thought,  ib., 
1891  (both  of  considerable  worth,  representing  "High  Anglicanism");  W.  E.  Addis  and 
T.  Arnold,  A  Catholic  Dictionary,  London  and  New  York,  6th  ed.,  1903;  J.  Hamburger, 
ReaJnEncyklopddie  des  Jvdenthums,  3  vols.,  3d  ed.,  Leipsic,  1891-1901  (deals  with  both 
Biblical  and  Talmudic  subjects;  "by  a  Jew  for  Jews");  The  Jewish  Encyclopedia,  published 
under  the  direction  of  an  editorial  board  of  which  I.  K.  Funk  was  chairman  and  Isidore 
Singer  managing  editor,  12  vols..  New  York,  1901-06;  F.  Lichtenberger,  EncydopSdie  des 
sciences  rdigieuses,  13  vols.,  Paris,  1877-82  (for  French  Protestants).  T.  P.  Hughes,  Die- 
tionary  of  Islam,  London,  1885,  is  the  only  encyclopedic  work  on  the  subject,  but 
defective  and  unreliable.  In  Hymnology  there,  are:  H.  A.  Daniel,  Thesaurus  hymnologicus, 
i.  Latin  hymns,  ii.  Latin  sequences,  iii.  Greek  hynms,  iv.-v.  supplement  to  vols,  i.-ii.,  Leip- 
sic, 1841-55  (a  storehouse  of  material  often  inaccessible  elsewhere,  but  ill  digested,  inac- 
curate, and  perplexing  to  consult) ;  E.  E.  Koch,  Geschichte  des  Kirchenliedes  und  Kirchen- 
gesangs  der  dirisUichen  .  .  .  Kirche,  3d  ed.,  partly  posthumous,  8  vols,  and  index,  1866-77 
(the  greatest  collection  of  biographies  of  hymnists,  unfortunately  not  reliable) ;  the  one  Eng- 
lish cyclopedic  work  in  hymnology  is  J.  Julian,  Dictionary  of  Hymnology,  London  and  New 
York,  1907.  A  work  of  immense  erudition  and  alone  in  its  field,  which  comprehends  much 
that  is  theological,  is  J.  M.  Baldwin,  Dictionary  of  Philosophy  and  Psychology,  3  vols.,  New 
York,  1901-06  (vol.  iii.  in  2  parts  is  devoted  to  the  bibliography  of  the  subject,  duly  classified). 

While  most  of  the  Biblical  Helps  are  noted  under  the  appropriate  titles  in  the  text, 
the  following  are  worthy  of  special  mention  here.  For  the  Old  Testament  all  the  books 
except  Exodus  to  Deuteronomy  were  published  in  handy  form  in  the  Hebrew  by  G.  Baer 
and  F.  Delitzsch,  Leipsic,  1869-95  (the  text,  though  critical,  does  not  concern  itself  with 
readings  from  the  versions);  the  best  ed.  so  far  of  the  complete  Hebrew  text  is  C.  D. 
Ginsburg's  Hebrew  Bible,  2  vols.,  London,  1894;  the  text  alone  was  reprinted  in  1906 
(the  Introdvjction  to  the  Hebrew  Bible  by  Ginsburg,  London,  1897,  is  the  one  indis- 
pensable handbook  to  the  text);  yet  a  very  excellent  Btblia  Hebraica  has  been 
published  by  R.  Kittel  with  the  assistance  of  Professors  G.  Beer,  F.  Buhl,  G.  Dal- 
man,  S.  R.  Driver,  M.  Lohr,  W.  Nowack,  J.  W.  Rothstein,  and  V.  Ryssel,  in  2  parts, 
Leipsic,  1905-06,  obtainable  also  in  smaller  sections.  The  new  series  entitled  The  SacreS 
Books  of  the  Old  TestamerU,  ed.  Paul  Haupt,  now  in  course  of  publication,  Leipsic,  London, 


xvi  PREFACE 


and  Baltimore,  1894  sqq.,  and  known  generally  as  the  "Rainbow  Bible"  and  less  widely 
as  the  "  Polychrome  Bible/'  sets  forth  the  composite  origin  of  the  books  and  indicates  the 
separate  documents  by  printing  the  text  on  backgrounds  of  different  tints  (the  critical 
objection  to  the  series  is  that  as  each  book  is  not  directly  the  result  of  a  consensus  of  scholar- 
ship, the  effect  in  each  case  is  the  pronouncement  of  a  single  scholar  and  consequent  in- 
decisiveness  in  the  verdict).  The  lexicons  which  are  most  worthy  of  confidence  are:  W. 
Gesenius,  Thesaurus  philologicus  criticus  lingiUB  HebrcscB,  3  vols.,  Leipsic,  182&-53  (indispen- 
sable for  the  thorough  student) ;  idem,  Hebrdisches  und  Aramdisches  Handtuorterbrich,  14th 
ed.  by  F.  Buhl,  ib.,  1905;  and  (best  for  the  English  student)  F.  Brown,  C.  A.  Briggs, 
and  S.  R.  Driver,  Hebrew  and  English  Lexicon  of  the  Old  Testament,  Oxford  and  Boston, 
1906.  Besides  the  old  Concordance  of  J.  Fiirst,  Leipsic,  1848,  there  is  now  avail- 
able S.  Mandelkem,  Veteris  Testamenti  concordantias  Hebraice  et  ChaMaice,  ib.,  1896, 
which  unfortimately  is  badly  done,  the  errors  being  very  numerous.  The  best  gram- 
mar is  W.  CJesenius,  Hebrdische  Grammatik,  27th  ed.  by  Kautzsch,  1902,  Eng.  transl. 
of  25th  ed.  adjusted  to  the  26th  Germ.  ed.  by  G.  W.  Collins,  London,  1898,  along  with  which 
should  be  used  S.  R.  Driver,  Treatise  on  the  Use  of  the  Tenses  in  Hebrew^  London,  1892.  Re- 
lated to  Old  Testament  study  is  M.  Jastrow,  Dictionary  of  the  Targumim,  Babli  and  Yerur- 
shalmif  and  the  Midrashic  Literature,  2  vols.,  London  and  New  York,  1903.  For  the  Greek 
of  the  Old  Testament  there  is  sadly  needed  a  new  lexicon.  The  only  one  of  moment  is  J.  F. 
Schleusnei,  Lexici  in  interpretesGroscos  Veteris  Testatn^fUi  .  .  .  ,2  vols.,  Leipsic,  1784-86.  The 
ConcordanticB  Gtcbccb  versionis,  by  A.  Tromm,  2  vols.,  Amsterdam,  1718,  ought  not  to  be  dis- 
carded, even  by  those  who  possess  E.  Hatch  and  H.  A.  Redpath,  A  Concordance  to  the  Sep- 
tuagint,  Oxford,  1892-1900,  2d  ed.,  2  vols,  and  supplement,  1906,  the  omissione  in  which 
make  still  necessary  recourse  to  the  older  work. 

For  New  Testament  texts  the  student  will  naturally  turn  either  to  the  Editio  octava 
critica  major  of  Tischendorf,  2  vols.,  Leipsic,  1869-72,  with  Prolegomena  by  C.  R.  Gregory, 
3  vols.,  ib.,  1884-94  (containing  the  most  complete  collection  of  the  variant  readings  with 
description  of  the  sources  from  which  they  are  derived) ;  to  the  edition  by  B.  F.  Westcott 
and  F.  J.  A.  Hort,  2d  ed.,  Cambridge,  1890;  to  R.  F.  Weymouth's  Resultant  Greek  Testor- 
mentf  London,  1892;  to  E.  Nestle's  Novum  Testamentum  GroBce,  3d  ed.,  Stuttgart,  1901;  or 
to  O.  vonGebhardt's  ed.,  combining  the  readings  of  Tischendorf,  Tregelles,  and  Westcott  and 
Hort,  16th  ed.,  Leipsic,  1900.  Of  lexicons  the  best  for  general  purposes  is  J.  H.  Thayer, 
Greek-English  Lexicon  of  the  New  Testament,  New  York,  1895;  but  notice  must  be  taken  of 
H.  Cremer,  Biblisch-theologisches  Worterbitch,  9th  ed.,  Gotha,  1902,  Eng.  transl.  of  2d  ed., 
Edinburgh,  1886,  with  supplement  (a  work  that  aims  to  bring  out  especially  the  the- 
ological, philosophical,  and  psychological  elements  of  the  New  Testament  vocabulary,  and 
is  not  a  general  lexicon).  A  choice  is  given  in  concordances  between  C.  H.  Bruder,  Con- 
cordantuB  .  .  .  Novi  Testamenti,  5th  ed.,  Gottingen,  1900,  and  W.  F.  Moulton  and  A.  S. 
Geden,  Concordance  to  the  Greek  Testament,  Edinburgh  and  New  York,  1897  (good  for 
Westcott  and  Hort's  text).  For  the  English  Bible  the  two  concordances  of  value  now  are 
R.  Young,  Analytical  Concordance  to  the  Bible,  7th  ed.,  Edinburgh  and  New  York,  1899; 
and  J.  Strong,  Exhaustive  Concordance  to  the  Bible,  New  York,  1896.  The  best  grammar  of 
the  New  Testament  is  F.  Blass,  Grammatik  des  neutestamentlichen  Griechisch,  Gottingen, 
1902,  Eng.  transl.  of  2d  ed.,  London,  1905,  along  with  which  should  be  used  E.  D. 
Burton,  Syntax  of  Moods  and  Tenses  in  New  Testament  Greek,  Chicago,  1901  (the  best  work 
on  the  subject).  Of  H.  J.  Moulton's  Grammar  of  New  Testament  Greek,  only  vol.  i.. 
Prolegomena,  is  published,  Edinburgh,  1906.  General  Semitic  and  Oriental  philology  is 
treated  in  separate  volumes  on  the  individual  languages  in  the  Porta  linguarum  orienr 
taUum,  ed.  J.  H.  Petermann,  H.  L.  Strack,  and  others,  Berlin,  1884  sqq. 


PREFACE  xvii 


As  a  directory  upon  the  geography  of  Palestine  the  following  works  represent  the  choi- 
cest: the  latest  and  the  standard  bibliography  of  Palestine  is  R.  Rohricht,  Chronologi- 
8che8  Verzeichnias  der  auf  die  GeograTphie  dea  heiligen  Landes  bezuglichen  LiUeratur  von  SSS 
Ins  1878,  Berlin,  1890.  Earlier  but  still  useful  is  T.  Tobler,  Bibliographia  geograjJUca 
PalestincB,  Leipsic,  1S67.  On  the  topography  there  is  nothing  in  English,  perhaps  nothing 
in  any  other  tongue,  superior  in  its  way  to  G.  A.  Smith,  Historicai  Oeography  of 
the  Holy  Land,  7th  ed.,  London,  1897.  Alongside  this  should  be  put  E.  Robinson's  Bib- 
lical  Researches  in  Palestine,  3  vols.,  London  and  Boston,  1841,  and  in  Germ,  transl.  at 
Halle  the  same  year,  and  IxUer  Biblical  Researches,  1856  (a  second  ed.,  including  both 
works  in  3  vols.,  was  published,  Boston,  1868,  but  omits  some  things  in  the  first  edi- 
tion which  are  sadly  missed).  In  spite  of  its  age  this  book  is  still  useful.  The  Palestine 
Text  Society  of  London  has  since  1887  been  engaged  in  republishing  the  ancient  itineraries 
and  descriptions  relating  to  Palestine,  thus  making  available  to  the  student  material  other- 
wise obtainable  only  by  painful  research.  Special  notice  is  deserved  by  the  monographs 
published  by  the  Palestine  Exploration  Fund  of  London,  including  the  massive  Memoirs. 
An  epoch-making  work  was  W.  M.  Thomson's  The  Land  and  the  Book,  3  vols..  New  York, 
1886  (perhaps  the  most  popular  book  ever  written  on  the  subject).  An  old  classic,  by 
no  means  superseded,  is  H.  Reland,  Palcestina  ex  monumentis  iUustraia,  Utrecht  1714. 
On  the  antiquities  of  Israel  two  works  with  nearly  the  same  title,  Hebrdische  Archdologie, 
were  issued  in  the  same  place  and  year,  Freiburg,  1894,  the  one  by  I.  Benzinger,  in  1  vol. 
(new  ed.,  Tiibingen,  1907),  the  other  by  W.  Nowack,  in  2  vols. 

In  the  department  of  Church  History  the  sources  available  to  the  student  are 
growing  exceedingly  abundant.  For  a  survey  of  early  Christian  literature  the  most 
detailed  work  is  that  of  A.  Hamack,  Geschichte  der  altchristlichen  LiUeratur  bis  Eusebius, 
2  vols,  in  3  parts,  Leipsic,  1893-1904  (a  book  of  reference).  A  handbook  of  great  value 
is  G.  Kriiger,  Geschichte  der  altchristlichen  Liiteralwr  in  den  drei  ersten  Jahrhunderten,  Frei- 
burg, 1895,  2d  ed.,  1898,  Eng.  transl..  New  York,  1897  (a  model  of  compression  and  succinct- 
ness, including  short  lives  of  the  writers  and  good  lists  of  literature).  C.  T.  Cruttwell,  Lit- 
erary History  of  Early  Christianity,  2  vols.,  London,  1893,  is  also  a  work  of  merit.  A 
massive  work,  doing  for  the  Byzantine  and  later  writers  of  the  Greek  Church  what  Hamack 
does  for  the  early  period,  is  K.  Krumbacher,  Byzantinische  LUteraturgeschichte,  627-H5S, 
Munich,  1897.  As  a  guide  to  the  use  of  medieval  literature,  and  as  a  help  to  the 
sources  and  an  indicator  of  all  that  is  best  in  those  sources  in  modem  works,  there  is  no  book 
which  can  be  compared  with  A.  Potthast,  Bibliotheca  historica  medii  am,  Berlin,  1896,  quoted 
in  this  work  as  Potthast,  Wegweiser.  No  student  of  ecclesiastical  history  can  a£ford  to 
be  without  this  most  complete  guide  to  the  MSS.  and  the  editions  of  the  sources  of 
knowledge  of  the  lives  of  the  saints,  notables,  and  writers  down  to  1500  a.d. 

As  a  source  for  original  investigation  in  Patristics,  as  well  as  in  medieval  theological 
writings,  there  is  nothing  so  handy  (because  of  its  comprehensiveness)  as  the  collec- 
tion made  under  the  direction  of  the  Abb6  Migne,  Patrologice  cursvs  completus.  Series 
Latina,  221  vols.,  Paris,  1844-64;  Series  Groeca,  162  vols.,  ib.,  1857-66  (a  set  of  works 
rarely  on  the  market,  costing  about  $1,200,  but  possessed  by  the  principal  general  and  theo- 
logical libraries  in  the  country;  the  drawback  is  that  the  text  is  often  not  critical  and 
is  very  badly  printed).  Subsidiary  to  the  use  of  Migne  the  following  works  are  often 
quoted:  J.  A.  Fabricius,  Bibliotheca  Groeca,  14  vols.,  Hamburg,  1705-28,  new  ed.,  by  G.  C. 
Harles,  12  vols.,  1790-1811,  incomplete  (quoted  as  Fabricius-Harles),  which  is  a  biblio- 
graphical and  biographical  directory  to  early  patristic  writings,  and  contains  textual  matter 
of  great  importance;  J.  S.  Assemani,  Bibliotheca  orientalis  ClementinO'Vaticana,  3  vols., 
Rome,  1719-28  (a  collection  of  Syriac,  Arabic,  Persian,  Turkish,  Hebrew,  Samaritan,  Ar- 


jBffi  PREFACE 

mcsuan,  Ethiopie,  Egyptian,  and  other  docamente,  with  critical  matter  reiating  to  them) ; 
&  Mart&ne  and  N.  Daraod,  VfUrvan  tarijionan  ti  mimumtnianim  .  .  .  cdUtHo^  9  vola^ 
Paria,  VnA-TR'^  k.  Gallandi,  BMidtkeca  veUrum  jtatrum  antiquommque  taipamm  ecdai- 
0tiieorum,  14  rciM.,  Venice,  1765-81  (contains  some  wotks  otherwise  diflkult  of  acceas.  An 
index  of  contenta  to  Gallandi  ia  to  be  foond  in  J.  G.  Dowiing,  XoHHa  teriptomm  mmdonan 
fatrwn^  pp.  l%^'2O0y  Oxford,  1890).  A  woiic  of  great  uaefuhiesB  is  IL  Ceillier,  Histaire 
qtntrdU  da  aideun  9aeri$  d  eedinoMtiqua^  new  ed.,  14  vols,  in  15  and  Table  gtn/trole  des 
matiiret^  2  rob.,  Paris,  1858-60.  Noteworthy  are  the  excellent  and  handy  Corpus  urip- 
iontm  eeeUsiastiecrum  LaHnarum,  Vumia,  1867  sqq.,  appearing  in  parts  and  not  in  r^ular 
order  (rol.  xxxxviL  ^ypeaied  1906),  and  Painan  apotiolieorum  opera,  ed.  O.  von  Gebhardt, 
A.  Hamack,  and  T.  Zahn,  4  vols.,  Leipsic,  1876-78,  the  same,  5th  ed.  minor,  1905;  and  J.  B. 
U^^tfoot,  ApoeioUe  Faiken,  4  vols.,  London,  1877-89  (a  work  which  wiU  stand  as  one  of 
the  monuments  of  English  scholarship,  rich  in  original  investigatbn,  and  with  excursuses 
of  the  first  rank  in  value  and  brilliancy).  All  these  are  supplemented  in  the  case  of  new 
discoveries  or  by  new  treatment  of  works  already  in  hand  in  the  Texie  tmd  Untemichungen 
ruT  Oe$ehiehU  der  aUehri$tliehen  lAUeratvr,  ed.  O.  von  Gebhardt  and  A.  Hamack,  1st  series, 
15  vols.,  2d  series  in  progress  (14  vols,  issued),  Beriin,  1883  sqq.,  and  by  the  English  Texts 
and  Studies,  ed.  J.  A.  Robinson,  7  vols.,  Cambridge,  1891-1906.  For  the  En^ish  student 
there  are  available  the  Library  of  the  Fathers,  ed.  E.  B.  Pusey,  J.  Keble,  and  J.  H.  Newman, 
40  vols.,  Oxford,  1839  sqq.;  and  the  Ante-Nicene,  and  Nicene  and Post-Nicene Fathers,  best 
and  handiest  in  the  Am.  ed.,  published  as  follows:  Ante-Nicene  Fathers,  ed.  A.  Qevdand 
Coxe,  9  vols,  and  Index,  Buffalo,  1887  (Index  vohmtie  contains  a  valuable  bibliography  of 
patristics) ;  Select  Library  of  the  Nicene  and  Post-Nicene  Fathers,  1st  series,  ed.  P.  Schaff, 
14  vols..  New  York,  1887-92,  2d  series,  ed.  P.  Schaff  and  H.  Wace,  14  vols.,  New  York, 
1890-1900.  The  first  series  includes  8  vols,  of  Augustine's  works  (by  far  the  best  collection 
yet  published  in  En^ish)  and  6  of  Chrysostom's;  the  2d  series  includes  the  church  histories 
of  Eusebius,  Socrates,  Sozomen,  and  Theodoret,  and  selected  works  of  Gregory  of  Nyssa, 
Basil,  Jerome,  Gennadius,  and  others.  Not  to  be  left  out  of  account  is  the  RdiquuB  sacrce 
of  M.  J.  Bouth,  2d  ed.,  5  vols.,  Oxford,  1846-48,  a  collection  of  patristic  and  other  frag- 
ments still  of  value  and  constantly  employed  and  referred  to. 

Among  collections  of  Sources  the  first  place  is  easily  held  by  the  masfflve  Momanenta 
OermanicB  hisiorica,  still  in  course  of  publication,  of  which  over  60  volmnes  are  already  issued 
in  folio  and  quarto,  Hanover  and  Berlin.  This  series  origmated  in  the  GeseUschaft  fur  die 
dltere  deutsche  Gesdiichtskunde  in  Frankfort,  1819.  The  work  was  put  into  the  hands  of 
Dr.  G.  H.  Pertz,  to  whom  the  great  comprehensiveness  of  the  series  and  its  consequent  value 
is  largely  due.  Dr.  Pertz  was  editor  and  did  much  of  the  work  till  in  1875  it  passed  into 
the  hands  of  Prof.  G.  Waitz,  at  whose  death  in  1886  Prof.  W.  Wattenbach  took  charge, 
and  in  1888  Prof.  E.  Diunmler.  Most  of  the  German  experts  in  the  branches  which  the 
collected  documents  represent  have  collaborated.  There  are  five  sections,  Scriptores,  Leges, 
Diphmaia,  EpistolcB,  Antiquitaies,  and  many  subsections.  The  documents  in  this  royal 
series  concern  Christendom  at  large  and  not,  as  the  title  suggests,  the  German  empire  alone. 
There  is  a  volume  of  Indices  by  O.  Holder-Egger  and  K.  Zeimier,  Berlin,  1890,  covering  the 
volumes  issued  up  to  that  time,  and  the  table  of  contents  is  carried  five  years  farther  along 
in  the  work  of  Potthast  mentioned  above. 

Other  collections  of  value  to  the  historical  student  are:  the  Bibliotheca  rerum  Germanir 
earum,  ed.  P.  Jaff6,  6  vols.,  Berlin,  1864^73;  M.  Bouquet,  Rerum  GaUicarum  et  Francicarum 
scriptores.  RecueU  des  histariens  des  OauUs  etdela  France,  23  vols.,  Paris,  1738-1876  (begun 
by  the  Benedictines  of  St.  Maur  and  continued  by  the  Academy.  A  new  ed.  was  published 
under  L.  Delisle,  1869-94.    The  record  is  carried  down  to  1328  a.d.)  ;  L.  A.  Muratori,  Rerum 


PREFACE  xix 


Italicarum  scriptcres,  26  vols,  in  28,  Milan,  1723-51  (covers  the  period  500-1500  a.d.;  an 
elaborate  new  ed.  under  the  direction  of  Giosu6  Carducci  and  Vittorio  Fiorini  is  being  pub- 
lished by  S.  Lapi  at  Cittii  di  Castello,  1900  sqq.) ;  Corpus  scriptorum  historicB  Byzantince,  ed. 
Niebuhr,  Bekker,  and  others,  49  vols.,  Bonn,  1828-78  (not  so  good  in  workmanship  as  is 
usual  with  German  issues;  a  new  ed.  is  in  course  of  publication  in  50  vols,  at  Bonn).  In 
connection  with  this  series  of  Byzantine  historians  should  be  noticed  E.  A.  Sophocles,  Greek- 
English  Dictionary,  Memorial  edition.  New  York,  1887  (good  for  the  Greek  of  the  Roman 
and  Byzantine  periods).  RecueU  des  historiens  des  croisades,  13  vols.,  Paris,  1841-85  (pub- 
lished under  the  care  of  the  French  Academy),  is  necessary  for  the  study  of  the  kingdoms 
of  Jerusalem,  Cyprus,  and  Armenia.  The  Corpus  Reformatorum,  begun  at  Halle,  1834,  with 
the  works  of  Melanchthon  in  28  vols. ;  continued  with  Calvin's  in  59;  and  now  presenting 
those  of  Zwingli,  is  the  indispensable  source  for  the  student  of  those  writers.  Of  some 
value  to  the  student,  more  particularly  to  the  archeologist,  are:  Corpus  inscriptionum  Latin 
narum,  Berlin,  1863  sqq.,  and  Corpus  inscriptionum  GrcBcarum,  Berlin,  1825  sqq.  A  mag- 
nificent series  is  in  progress  in  the  Corpus  inscriptionum  Semiticarum,  Paris,  1881  sqq. 

For  those  who  have  not  access  to  large  libraries  a  nmnber  of  selections  from 
historical  docmnents  have  been  printed.  For  church  history  to  the  time  of  Con- 
stantine,  cf.  H.  M.  Gwatkin,  Selection  from  Early  Writers,  London  and  New  York, 
1893;  for  the  medieval  and  modem  periods  one  of  the  best  is  E.  Reich,  Select 
Documents  Illustrating  Mediosval  and  Modem  History,  London,  1905,  with  which  may 
be  compared  the  smaller  collection  by  S.  Mathews,  Select  Mediaeval  Documents,  75j^-1264. 
A.D.,  Boston,  1892  (both  give  the  selections  in  the  original  languages).  For  stu- 
dents of  the  medieval  period  O.  J.  Thatcher  and  E.  H.  McNeal  have  translated  many  impor- 
tant documents  in  A  Source  Book  for  Mediaeval  History,  New  York,  1905.  Other  works  of 
this  character  are  E.  F.  Henderson,  Sdeci  Documents  of  the  Middle  Ages,  London,  1892; 
D.  C.  Munro  and  G.  C.  Sellery,  Medieval  Civilization,  New  York,  1904  (consists  of  translar 
tions  or  condensations  from  European  writers  on  important  topics) ;  J.  H.  Robinson,  Read- 
ings in  European  History,  2  vols.,  Boston,  1904-06  (containing  translations,  condensations, 
and  adaptations  of  selections,  ranging  from  Seneca  to  J.  A.  Hobson,  useful  for  illustration 
of  European  and  American  history,  sacred  and  secular).  The  reader  of  German  will  receive 
efficient  help  in  such  publications  as  M.  Schilling,  Quellenby4Jh  zur  Gesdiichte  der  NevzeU, 
2d  ed.,  Beriin,  1890;  K.  Noack,  Kirchengeschichtliches  Lesebuch,  2d  ed.,  Berlin  1890;  D.  A. 
Ludwig,  QueUenbuch  zur  Kirchengeschichte,  Davos,  1891;  P.  Mehlhom,  Aus  den  Quellen  der 
Kirchengeschichte,  Berlin,  1894;  C.  Mirbt,  Quellen  zur  Geschichte  des  Papsttums,  2d  ed., 
Tubingen,  1901 ;  H.  Rinn  and  J.  Jiingst,  Kirchengeschichtliches  Lesebuch,  Tubingen,  1905. 

To  English  Ecclesiastical  Sources  an  excellent  guide  is  C.  Gross,  Sources  and  Ldterature 
of  English  History  to  14B5,  London,  1900.  First  among  the  collections  of  sources  is 
to  be  mentioned  A.  W.  Haddan  and  W.  Stubbs,  Councils  and  Ecclesiastical  Documents 
relating  to  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  3  vols.  (vol.  ii.  in  2  parts),  London,  1869-78 
(covering  the  period  200-870  a.d.;  a  storehouse  of  original  documents,  unfor- 
tunately left  incomplete  through  the  death  of  Haddan).  Of  high  value  are  David  Wil- 
kins,  Concilia  Magnos  Britannice  .  .  .  44^-1717,  4  vols.,  London,  1737;  MonumerUa  his- 
tarica  Britannica.  Materials  for  the  History  of  Britain  .  .  .  tothe  End  of  the  Reign  of  Henry 
VII.  Notes  by  H.  Petrie  and  J.  Sharpe,  Introduction  by  T,  D.  Hardy,  vol.  i.  folio,  London, 
1848  (no  more  published;  issued  under  the  direction  of  the  Record  Conmiission) ;  J.  A. 
Giles,  Patres  ecdesics  Anglicani  ad  annum  ISOO,  36  vols.,  Oxford,  1838-43  (the  work  not 
well  done,  but  still  useful).  For  the  reader  of  English  alone  a  large  number  of  select  sources 
are  pven  in  H.  Gee  and  W.  J.  Hardy,  Documents  Illustrative  of  English  Church  History, 
London,  1896  (covers  the  period  314:^1700).    Known  by  the  searcher  after  original  sources 


ss  PREFACE 

10  of  the  hi^MUt  rthie  are  the  publicatbos  of  a  number  of  sodetiea.  Bdmigiiig  in  thia 
dMiythoii^  not  under  the  care  of  any  society,  are  Rerum  Britanmearum  medii  am  taip- 
§an$,  fMiMkei  undo'  the  DtneHan  of  the  Matter  of  the  RcOs,  London,  185S-91  (known  aa 
the  BMb  8me9,  One  of  the  moat  important  of  thia  ames  ia  No.  26,  T.  D.  Hardya  Do- 
$enfHve  Catalogue  of  MaieriaU  RdaUng  to  the  History  of  Great  Britain  and  Irdand  .  .  .  to 
Ok  End  of  the  Beign  of  Henry  VIL,  3  vola.  in  4,  1862-71).  The  Henry  Bradahaw  Society 
of  London  b^an  in  1891  to  publiah  monaatic  and  other  documents;  the  Camden  Society 
cadaCa  for  the  purpose  of  publiahing  documenta  illuatrative  of  English  history  (London, 
ltS8  to  date),  many  of  which  are  of  eccleaastical  intereat;  the  Surteea  Society  of  Durham, 
founded  1834,  haa  laBoed  over  100  volumea,  many  of  which  make  available  aources  of  the 
finit  rank. 

In  the  field  of  BiografAy  a  number  of  worka  should  be  known  to  students.  A  monu- 
mental work  begun  by  J.  8.  Erach  and  J.  G.  Gruber,  continued  by  A.  Leskien,  is  AUgemeine 
Eneyklopddie  der  Wissenechaften  und  Kunste  in  alphabetischer  Folge,  Leipsic,  1818-89  and  still 
receiving  additiona.  Already  100  volumes  and  more  have  been  issued,  and  it  is  to  be  contin- 
ued from  time  to  time.  The  biographical  interest  is  so  pronounced  in  this  production  that  it 
takes  a  front  rank  in  this  class  of  works.  The  biographical  interest  is  also  predominant  in 
another  work  to  iiliich  very  frequent  reference  is  made,  L.  S.  Le  Nain  de  Tillemont,  Mhnoires 
pour  servir  d  Fhistoire  eccUmaeiique  dee  six  premiers  si^des,  2d  ed.,  16  vols.,  Paris,  1701-12, 
partsof  it  in  an  English  translation  by  T.  Deacon,  2  vols.,  London,  1721, 1733-35.  J.  P.  Nice- 
ron,  Mhnmres  pour  servir  h  Fhistoire  des  homines  illustris  dans  la  republique  des  lettres,  43  vols., 
Paria,  1729-45,  is  a  work  of  reference  often  used ;  mention  is  due  also  to  the  Biographie  univer- 
selU,  anderme  et  modeme,  45  vols.,  Paris,  1843  sqq.,  and  Nouvelle  biographie  universeUe 
of  J.  C.  F.  Hoefer,46  vols.,  Paris,  1852-56,  both  serviceable  and  sometimes  the  only  avail- 
able worka.  Of  national  biographical  works,  for  Germany  there  is  the  AUgemeine  deutsche 
Biographie,  50  vols.,  Leipsic,  1875-1905  (still  in  progress;  it  is  under  the  auspices  of  the 
Historical  Commission  of  the  Royal  Bavarian  Academy  of  Sciences) ;  for  France,  the  His- 
Urire  litttraire  de  la  France  begun  by  the  Benedictines  of  St.  Maur,  12  vols.,  Paris,  1733-63, 
and  continued  by  members  of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions  and  Belles-lettres  to  vol.  xxxii., 
1898  (a  new  edition  is  in  progress,  completed  as  far  as  vol.  xvi.);  for  Protestant  France 
may  be  consulted  E.  and  £.  Haag,  La  France  protestante,  7  vols.,  Paris,  1846-59,  2d  ed., 
enlarged  by  H.  L.  Bordier,  vols,  i.-vi.,  1887-89;  also  belonging  here  is  A.  C.  A.  Agnew, 
Protestant  Exiles  from  France,  2  vols.,  Edinbur^,  1886  (printed  for  private  circulation  only). 
The  one  work  of  note  for  Holland  is  A.  J.  Van  der  Aa,  Biographisch  Woardenboek  van  der 
Nederlanden,  Haarlem,  1852  sqq.  For  England  there  is  the  noble  Dictionary  of  National 
Biograjjhy,  edited  by  Leslie  Stephen  and  Sidney  Lee,  63  vols.,  and  3  supplement  vols.,  with 
one  of  errata,  London  and  New  York,  1885-1904  (contains  much  of  interest  to  Americans, 
especially  on  the  founders  and  notables  of  colonial  times;  a  cheaper  ed.  is  promised);  F. 
Boaae,  Modem  English  Biography  of  Persons  who  have  died  since  .  .  .  1850,  3  vols.,  Truro, 
1892-1901;  and  J.  Gillow,  Bibliographical  Dictionary  of  English  Catholics,  1534-1885,  5 
vols.,  London  and  New  York,  n.d.  (the  lists  of  works  by  the  subjects  of  the  entries  are  an 
exceedingly  valuable  feature,  being  very  complete).  The  Danes  have  also  a  biographical 
dictionary  like  those  mentioned,  Dansk  biografisk  lexikon,  tiUige  omfallende  Narge  for  tidsrum^ 
met,  16S7'18U,    Udgivet  af  C.  F.  Briska,  Copenhagen,  1887  sqq. 

There  is  still  needed  an  adequate  work  on  American  Biography  which  shall  correspond 
to  the  English  Dictionary  of  National  Biography  cited  above.  There  are  available  the  ATo- 
Honal  Cyclopasdia  of  American  Biography,  13  vols.,  New  York,  1892-1906  (the  alphabetical 
order  is  abandoned  and  no  consistent  substitute  adopted;  an  elaborate  index  volume 
appeared  in  1906) ;  and  Appleton's  Cydopcedia  of  American  Biography  by  James  Grant  Wil- 


PREFACE  xxi 

son  and  John  Fiske,  rev.  ed.,  6  vols.,  ib.,  1898-99  (the  revision  consists  mainly  of  a  sup- 
plement). 

As  a  propsedeutic  to  the  study  of  General  Church  History  an  indispensable 
work  is  E.  Schiirer,  Geschichte  des  judischen  Volkes  im  ZeUaUer  Jesu  Christif  3d  ed.,  3  vols, 
and  Index,  Leipsic,  1898-1901,  Eng.  transl.  of  2d  ed.,  5  vols.,  New  York,  1891.  Of  works 
on  general  Church  History  there  is  a  wide  range  of  choice.  A.  Neander,  History  of  the  Chris- 
tian  Religion  and  Church,  11th  Am.  ed.,  5  vols.,  Boston,  1872  (coming  down  to  1517 
A.D.),  and  Index  volmne,  1881,  is  the  most  philosophical  work  on  the  subject  yet  published, 
superseded  in  parts  by  the  discoveries  made  since  it  was  written,  but  as  a  whole  by  no  means 
obsolete;  with  this  should  go  J.  K.  L.  Gieseler,  whose  Ecclesiastical  History  in  the  German  was 
in  5  vols.,  Darmstadt,  1824r-25,  Eng.  transl.  begun  by  S.  Davidson  and  others,  5  vols.,  Edin- 
burgh, 1848-56,  edited  and  translation  carried  further  by  H.  B.  Smith,  translation  com- 
pleted by  Miss  Mary  A.  Robinson,  5  vols..  New  York,  1857-81  (especially  valuable  for  its 
citation  of  original  documents) ;  and  J.  H.  Kurtz,  a  translation  of  which  from  the  9th  Ger- 
man edition  by  J.  Macpherson  appeared  in  London,  1888-89  (condensed  in  form  and  very 
usable;  new  ed.  of  the  German  by  N.  Bonwetsch  and  P.  Tschackert,  2  vols.,  Leipsic,  1906). 
P.  Schafif,  History  of  the  Christian  Church,  7  vols..  New  York,  1882-92,  coming  down  through 
the  Reformation,  but  omitting  vol.  v.  on  the  scholastic  period,  is  perhaps  the  most  readable. 
A  very  compact  work  is  W.  Moeller,  History  of  the  Christian  Church,  3  vols.,  London,  1892- 
1900  (comes  down  to  1648;  the  2d  ed.  of  the  German  original  by  H.  von  Schubert,  Tubingen, 
1902).  J.  F.  Hurst,  History  of  the  Christian  Church,  2  vols..  New  York,  1897-1900,  is  also 
compact;  it  is  conservative  in  treatment  of  its  subject.  A.  H.  Newman,  Manual  of  Church 
History,  2  vols.,  Philadelphia,  1900-03,  is,  like  Hurst,  compact  but  less  conservative  in  tone. 
The  reader  in  Church  History  will  find  three  works  constantly  referred  to;  viz.,  J.  Bingham, 
Origines  ecdesia^ticce,  or  the  Antiquities  of  the  Christian  Church,  10  vols.,  London,  1708-22, 
often  reprinted,  unfortimately  not  seldom  in  abbreviated  form  (recognized  by  scholars  as  a 
work  of  "profound  learning  and  unprejudiced  inquiry"  and  remaining  one  of  the  standards 
in  this  department;  best  ed.  in  8  vols,  of  his  complete  works  in  10  vols.,  by  R.  Bingham, 
Jun.,  Oxford,  1855) ;  A.  J.  Binterim,  Die  vorzUglichsten  Denkvmrdigkeiten  der  dirist-katholischen 
Kirche,  2d  ed.,  7  vols.,  Mainz,  1837-41  (a  treasury  of  important  notes  on  "  things  worthy 
of  remembrance");  and  J.  C.  W.  Augusti,  DenkwUrdigkeiten  aus  der christlidien  Archdologie, 
12  vols.,  Leipsic,  1817-31.  Out  of  the  number  of  works  on  the  History  of  Dogma  the  one 
likely  to  be  most  useful,  though  by  no  means  the  most  philosophical,  is  A.  Hamack,  Lehr- 
buch  der  Dogmengeschichte,  3d  ed.,  3  vols.,  Freiburg,  1894-97,  Eng.  transl.,  7  vols.,  London, 
1894r-99,  and  Boston,  1895-1900.  A  work  of  the  first  rank  frequently  referred  to  for  the 
history  of  Europe  till  the  fall  of  Constantinople  is  E.  Gibbon,  History  of  the  Decline  and  Fall 
of  the  Roman  Empire,  best  edition  by  J.  B.  Bury,  7  vols.,  London,  189&-1900  (Gibbon  is 
said  to  be  the  only  student  who  worked  over  thoroughly  the  Byzantine  Histories;  formerly 
regarded  as  an  opponent  of  Christianity,  many  of  his  positions  are  now  taken  by  church 
historians). 

For  the  Church  History  of  Germany  three  works  with  the  same  title,  Kirchengeschichte 
Deutschlands,  are  of  supereminent  worth  and  are  generally  used  as  works  of  reference:  A. 
Hauck,  vol.  i.,  4th  ed.,  Leipsic,  1904,  vol.  ii.,  2d  ed.,  1900,  vol.  iii.,  3d  ed.,  1906,  vol.  iv.,  2d 
ed.,  1903  (contains  rich  bibliography);  F.  W.  Rettberg,  2  vols.,  GWttingen,  1846-48  (espe- 
cially good  for  origins);  and  J.  Friedrich,  2  vols.,  Bamberg,  1867-69  O^ke  Hauck,  good  in 
history  of  the  dioceses).  A  handy  help  to  the  early  sources  of  German  Church  History  is 
W.  Wattenbach,  Deutschlands  Geschichtsquellen  ,  .  .  bis  zum  Mittd  des  13.  Jahrhunderts, 
6th  ed.,  2  vols.,  Berlin,  1885,  6th  ed.,  1893-94  (the  changes  are  so  great  that  both  editions 
are  frequently  quoted  side  by  side).    A  work  of  genius,  learning,  and  attractiveness,  but 


PREFACE 


avowedly  from  a  strong  Roman  Catholic  standpoint,  is  Johannes  Janssen's  History  of  the 
Oerman  Peapk  at  the  Close  of  the  Middle  Ages,  Gennan  original  ed.  L.  Pastor,  14th  to  16th 
ed.  completed  in  8  vols.,  1903,  Eng.transl.  by  Miss  Mary  A.MitchelI  and  MissAliceM.  Christie, 
London,  10  vols,  having  appeared  up  to  1907. 

For  the  Church  History  of  France  a  bibliography  is  furnished  by  A.  Molinier,  Les  Sources 
de  FkisUrire  de  France,  2  vols.,  Paris,  1901-02.  Besides  Bouquet,  already  mentioned,  there  are 
available  for  eariy  sources:  F.  Guizot,  Collection  des  mimaires  reUUifs  d  Vhistaire  de  France, 
31  vols.,  Paris,  1823-35;  and  OaUia  Christiana,  16  vols.,  ib.,  1715-1865.  An  unportant 
wofrk  is  J.  N.  JsLgeT,HisUnre  de  VtSglise  catholique  en  France,  20  vols.,  ib.,  1862-78.  In  Eng- 
lish there  are:  W.  H.  Jervis,  The  OaUican  Church,  2  vols.,  London,  1872;  H.  M.  Baird,  Rise 
of  the  Hugvenots,  2  vols..  New  York,  1883;  idem.  The  Hvguenots  and  Henry  of  Navarre,  2 
vols,  ib.,  1886-87;  idem.  The  Huguenots  and  the  Revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  2  vols., 
ib.,  1895. 

A  fair  survey  of  the  course  of  the  Church  in  England  is  obtained  by  combining  W. 
Bri^t,  Chapters  in  Early  English  Church  History,  Oxford,  1906,  with  the  series  edited  by 
W.  R.  W.  Stephens  and  W.  Hunt,  7  vols.,  London,  1899-1906,  as  follows:  W.  Hunt,  The 
English  Church  697-1066  (1899) ;  W.  R.  W.  Stephens,  The  English  Church  1066-1272  (1901) ; 
W.  W.  Capes,  The  English  Church  in  the  Ijfih  and  15th  Centuries  (1900);  J.  Gairdner,  The 
English  Church  in  the  16th  Century  (1903);  W.  H.  Frere,  The  English  Church  in  the  Reigns 
of  Elizabeth  and  James  I.  (1904);  W.  H.  Hutton,  The  English  Church  from  the  Acces- 
sion of  Charles  I.  to  the  Death  of  Anne  (1903);  J.  H.  Overton  and  B.  Felton,  The  Church  of 
England  171^1800  (1906). 

For  the  Church  History  of  Ireland  and  Scotland  the  following  are  valuable:  J.  Colgan, 
Acta  sanctorum  veteris  et  majoris  Scotia  seu  Hibemics  sanctorum  insulce  .  .  .  ,  2  vols.,  Louvain, 
1645-47;  H.  M.  Luckock,  The  Church  in  Scotland,  London,  1893;  J.  Lanigan,  An  Ecdesias- 
Heal  History  of  Ireland  .  .  .  to  the  13th  Century,  2d  ed.,  4  vols.,  Dublin,  1829  (a  very 
important  and  essential  work) ;  J.  O'Hanlon,  Lives  of  the  Irish  Saints,  7  vols.,  Dublin,  1875- 
1877;  J.  Healy,  Insula  sanctorum  et  doctorum,  or  Ireland's  Ancient  Schools  and  Scholars,  Dub- 
lin, 1890;  and  T.  Olden,  The  Church  of  Ireland,  London,  1892.  Consult  particularly  the 
list  of  literature  under  CEi/nc  Church  in  Britain  and  Ireland. 

American  Church  History  as  a  whole  is  treated  in  the  American  Church  History  Series, 
13  vols..  New  York,  1893-97,  issued  under  the  auspices  of  the  American  Society  of  Chiu'ch 
History.  The  principal  denominations  receive  extended  treatment  by  some  of  their  own 
specialists;  for  the  minor  denominations  the  provision  made  is  only  that  given  in  vol.  i. 
by  H.  K  Carroll,  Ttie  Religious  Forces  of  the  United  Stales,  new  ed.,  1896.  It  is  in  respect 
to  the  minor  sects  that  most  difficulty  is  experienced  in  obtaining  data.  Another  series  of 
a  more  popular  character  is  The  Story  of  the  Churches,  New  York,  1904  sqq. 

For  the  history  of  the  Papacy  an  indispensable  work  is  C.  Mirbt,  Qudlen  zur  (kschichte 
des  Papsttums,  2d  ed.,  Tubingen,  1901  (a  guide  to  the  history,  giving  citations  from  original 
sources  and  a  conspectus  of  the  weightiest  literatmre).  The  only  work  which  covers  nearly 
the  entire  history  of  the  popes  is  that  of  A.  Bower,  History  of  the  Popes  to  1758,  7  vols., 
London,  1748-61,  with  Introduction  and  ConHnuaiion  by  S,  H,  Cox,  3  vols.,  Philadelphia, 
1847  (the  latter  is  the  ed.  cited  in  this  work;  the  character  of  the  History  is  poor,  as  was 
that  of  the  author).  H.  H.  Milman,frt8tort/  of  Latin  Christianity,  9  vols.,  new  ed.,  London,  1883, 
is  excellent  and  brings  the  history  down  to  1455;  for  its  period  (590-795,  858-891)  a  worthy 
work  is  R.  C.  Mann,  Lives  of  the  Popes  in  the  Early  Middle  Ages,  vol.  i.,  2  parts,  London, 
1902;  vol.  iii.,  1906;  of  great  value  is  L.  Pastor,  Geschichte  der  Pdpste  seit  dem  Ausgang 
des  Mittelalters,  4  vols.,  4th  ed.,  Freiburg,  1901-07,  Eng.  tran8l.,6  vols.,  London,  1891-1902 
(a  most  industrious  and  honest  work,  based  on  research  in  the  original  archives,  covers  the 


PREFACE  xxin 


period  1305-1534;  vols,  i.,  iii.,  and  v.  of  the  English  contain  bibliographies);  the  period 
1378-1527  is  covered  by  M.  Creighton's  History  of  the  Papacy,  6  vols.,  London,  1897  (an 
invaluable  work);  L.  von  Ranke,  Eomische  Pdpste,  9th  ed.,  3  vols.,  Leipsic,  1889,  Eng. 
transl.,  3  vols.,  London,  1896,  is  indispensable  for  the  period  1513-1847;  the  story  is  con- 
cluded by  F.  Nielsen,  Geschichte  des  PapsUums  im  19.  Jahrhundert,  2d  ed.,  Gotha,  1880,  Eng. 
transl.,  2  vols.,  New  York,  1906.  A  work  which  parallels  part  of  those  mentioned  is 
F.  Gregorovius,  Geschichte  der  Stadt  Ram,  5-16  Jahrhundert,  8  vols.,  Stuttgart,  1886-96,  5th 
ed.,  1903  sqq.,  Eng.  transl.,  from  the  4th  edition,  8  vols.,  London,  1901-02.  The  official 
Catholic  record,  covering  the  early  and  middle  period,  is  the  Liber  jHrntificalis,  best  ed.  of 
the  whole  work  by  L.  Duchesne,  containing  text,  introduction,  and  conmientary,  2  vols., 
Paris,  1886-92,  though  the  ed.  by  Mommsen,  in  MGH,  Gestorum  porUificum  Romanorum 
vol  i,  1898,  is  even  better  so  far  as  it  goes.  The  bulls  and  briefs  of  the  popes  are  best  con- 
sulted in  BvUarium,  privUegiorum  ac  diplomatum  Romanorum  porUificum  coUectio  C.  Cocque- 
lines,  14  vols.,  Rome,  1733-48,  supplemented  by  BvUarium  Benedicti  XIV.,  4  vols.,  ib., 
1754-58,  and  BuUarii  Romani  continuatio  (Clement  XIII.-Gregory  XVI.)  by  A.  Barberi  and 
A.  Spetia,  19  vols.,  ib.,  1835-57,  the  whole  reedited  by  A.  Tomassetti,  24  vols.,  Turin,  1857-72. 
Consult  also  L.  Pastor,  Acta  inedita  ad  historiam  PorUificum  Romanorum,  vol.  i.,  lS76-lJi64, 
Freiburg,  1904. 

A  number  of  collections  and  discussions  of  the  Decrees  and  Proceedings  of  the  Councils 
has  been  made.  Those  most  cited  are  P.  Labbe  and  G.  Cossart,  Sacrosancta  concilia,  17 
vols,  in  18,  Paris,  1672;  J.  Harduin,  ConcUiarum  coUectio  regia  maxima,  12  vols.,  Paris, 
1715;  J.  D.  Mansi,  Sacrorum  conciliorum  nova  et  amplissima  coUectio,  31  vols.,  Venice,  1759- 
1798  (of  the  older  collections  the  one  most  cited) ;  C.  J.  von  Hefele,  ConcUiengeschichte,  7  vols., 
Freiburg,  1855-74  (coming  down  to  1433;  a  2d  ed.  was  begun  by  the  author  and  carried  on 
by  Cardinal  Hergenrother  to  1536,  9  vols,  in  all,  1863-90;  apparently  vol.  vii.of  the  2d  ed. 
never  appeared) ;  the  Eng.  transl.  of  Hefele  by  W.  R.  Clark  includes  only  vols,  i.-iii.  of  the 
German,  down  to  787  a.d.,  5  vols.,  1883-96.  Of  all  these  Hefele  is  the  most  accessible 
and  now  the  oftenest  cited. 

On  the  subject  of  Monasticism  all  students  are  most  deeply  indebted  to  C.  F.  de  T. 
Montalembert,  Les  Moines  d'occident,  5  vols.,  Paris,  1860-67,  authorized  Eng.  transl.,  7 
vols.,  London,  1861-79.  For  the  history  of  religious  orders  the  old  standard,  rich  in  erudi- 
tion, is  P.  Helyot,  Hisloire  des  ordres  monastiques,  rdigieuz  et  militaires  et  des  congregations 
siculaires  de  Vun  et  de  VavJtre  sexe,  8  vols.,  Paris,  1714-19;  the  best  modem  work  is  M.  Heim- 
bucher.  Die  Orden  und  Kongregationen  der  katholischen  Kirche,  2  vols.,  Paderbom,  1896-97, 
2d  and  enlarged  ed.,  3  vols.,  1907,  utilized  from  Vol.  IV.  on;  the  one  work  in  English  to 
be  cited,  which,  however,  leaves  much  to  be  desired,  is  C.  W.  Currier,  History  of  Rdigums 
Orders,  New  York,  1896. 

On  the  history  of  the  separate  Orders  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  the  most 
important  are  the  following :  for  the  Jesuits,  A.  and  A.  de  Backer,  Bibliothique  des 
Scrivains  de  la  sociiti  de  JSsus,  7  vols.,  Li^ge,  1853-61,  new  ed.  by  C.  Sonmier- 
vogel,  Paris,  1891  sqq.;  the  Histories  societaiis  Jesu,  by  a  niunber  of  hands,  6  parts 
in  8  vols.,  Rome,  1615-1759;  J.  A.  M.  Cretineau-Joly,  Hisloire  rdigieuse,  politique 
€t  liitSraire  de  la  compagnie  de  J6sus,  6  vols.,  Paris,  1844-46;  for  the  Benedictines,  J.  Mar 
billon.  Acta  ordinis  sancti  Benedicti,  9  vols.,  Paris,  1668-1702,  and  his  AnruUes  ordinis 
.  .  .  Benedicti,  6  vols.,  Paris,  1703-39;  for  the  Carmelites,  J.  B.  de  Lezana,  Annates 
sacri  prophetid  et  Eliani  ordinis  .  ,  ,  de  Monte  Carmelo,  4  vols.,  Rome,  1651-66;  for  the 
Dominicans,  Monumenta  ordinis  fratrum  prcedicaiorum,  in  course  of  publication  at  Louvain 
since  1896  (the  earlier  works,  now  being  superseded,  are:  A.  Touron,  Histoiredes  hommesiUuS" 
tres  de  Saint-Dominique,  6  vols.,  Paris,  1743-49,  and  T.  M.  Mamachi,  Annales  ordinis 


XXIV  PREFACE 

prcBdicatorum,  5  vols.,  Rome,  1754);  for  the  CSstercians,  A.  Maurique,  ilnna&8  cisterciennes, 
4  vols.,  Lyons,  1642-59,  and  P.  le  Nain,  Essai  de  Vordre  de  Citeaux,  9  vols.,  Paris,  1696- 
1697;  for  the  Franciscans,  the  Analeda  Francwca7ia,3  vols.,  Freiburg,  1885-97,  and  the  Arir 
nalea  fratrum  minorum,  begun  by  L.  Wadding,  8  vols.,  Lyons,  1625  sqq.,  continued  by  J.  de 
Luca  and  various  hands  at  Naples  and  Rome,  26  vols.,  and  covering  the  period  1208-1611. 

Somewhat  akin  to  the  foregoing  is  the  subject  of  Hagiologyi  in  which  two  works 
stand  out  as  preeminent.  The  one  is  the  Acta  sanctorum  of  J.  Bolland,  the  issue 
of  which  was  begun  in  1643,  continued  till  the  dispersion  of  the  Jesuits  compelled 
suspension  of  the  work  from  1794  (when  vol.  liii.  was  issued)  till  1845.  In  all  63 
vols,  have  been  published,  and  a  new  ed.  has  appeared,  Paris,  1863-94  (see  Acta 
Martyrum,  Acta  Sanctorum).  This  is  supplemented  by  the  Analecta  BoUan- 
dianay  edited  by  a  nimiber  of  Jesuits,  Paris  and  Brussels,  1882  sqq.  (still  in  progress;  it 
includes  docmnents  unused  or  passed  by  in  the  Ada,  newly  discovered  material, 
variant  accounts,  notes  on  the  old  accounts,  and  description  of  manuscripts).  The 
other  important  work  is  the  Acta  sanctorum  ardinis  S.  Benedicti  of  J.  Mabillon  and  T. 
Ruinart,  9  vols.,  Paris,  1668-1701,  and  Venice,  1733-40.  Mention  may  be  made  of  the 
Acta  sanctorum  Belgii  of  J.  Ghesquiere  and  others,  6  vols.,  Brussels,  1783-94.  J.  Colgan's 
work  on  Scottish  and  Irish  saints  is  noted  above  (p.  xviii.).  The  plan  of  arrange- 
ment in  these  compilations  is  that  of  the  Roman  calendar,  the  substance  is  the  lives 
and  legends  concerning  the  saints,  and  the  value  of  the  material  varies  greatly.  A  very 
large  amount  of  the  material  is  derived  from  contemporary  sources  and  is  therefore  use- 
ful when  sifted  by  the  critical  processes. 

In  the  comparatively  new  and  certmnly  interesting  region  of  the  Comparison  and  His- 
tory of  Religions  the  series  of  first  importance,  making  available  to  readers  of  English  many 
of  the  Bibles  and  Commentaries  of  the  great  religions,  is  that  of  the  Sacred  Books  of  the  East, 
under  the  editorship  of  F.  Max  Miiller,  48  vols.,  Oxford,  1879-1904.  A  valuable  set  of  his- 
torical expositions  of  the  historical  reli^ons  is  found  in  the  DarsteUungen  aus  dem  Gebiete 
der  nichtchristlichen  Rdigionsgeschichte,  15  vols.,  Miinster,  1890-1903.  The  Anncdes  du  Musie 
Ouimet,  Paris,  1880  sqq.,  combine  the  features  of  the  Sacred  Books  of  the  East  (translations 
of  native  sources)  and  of  the  Hibbert  Lectures  (discussions  of  particular  religions).  The 
Hibbert  Lectiu'es  (q.v.)  are  a  number  of  series,  each  series  amounting  to  a  treatise  on  some  indi- 
vidual religion  or  phase  of  religion,  delivered  in  Great  Britain  between  1878  and  1902  by  spe- 
cialists of  eminence.  A  corresponding  series,  known  as  the  American  Lectures  on  the  History  of 
Religion  (q.v.),  has  been  in  progress  since  1895  and  is  planned  ahead  as  far  as  1910.  A  valuable 
set  is  found  in  the  Handbooks  on  the  History  of  Religions  edited  by  M.  Jastrow,  of  which  the 
following  have  appeared,  Boston,  1895-1905:  E.  W.  Hopkins,  Religion  of  India,  1895;  M. 
Jastrow,  Religion  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria,  1895;  P.  D.  Chantepie  de  la  Saussaye,  Religion 
of  the  Ancient  Teutons,  1896;  A.  Wiedemann,  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians,  1897; 
M.  Jastrow,  Study  of  Religion,  1901 ;  and  G.  Steindorflf ,  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians,  1905. 
The  best  individual  work  on  the  whole  subject  is  P.  D.  Chantepie  de  la  Saussaye,  Lehrhuch 
der  Rdigionsgeschichte,  3d  ed.,  2  vols.,  Tiibingen,  1905  (in  which  the  author  had  the  coopera- 
tion of  numerous  scholars).  Next  to  this  is  C.  P.  Tiele,  Inleiding  tot  de  godsdi€nstv>etenschap, 
2d  ed.,  Amsterdam,  1900.  Other  important  volumes  areE.  B.  Tylor,  Primitive  Culture, 
4th  ed.,  2  vols.,  London,  1903;  J.  G.  Frazer,  TheGolden  Bough,  2d  ed.,  3  vols.,  ib.,  1900;  F.  B. 
Jevons,  IvJtroduction  to  the  History  of  Religion,  ib.,  1896  (all  dealing  with  primitive  religion) . 

Geo.  W.  Gilmobb. 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  APPENDIX 


Abbet:  R.  a.  Cram,  Ruined  Abbeys  of  Great  Brit- 
ain, London,  1906. 
T.  Perkins,    Short  Account  of  Ramsey  Abbey, 

London  and  New  York,  1907. 
Abbott^  E.  A.:    Apologia :  an  Explanation  and  a 

Defense  [of  tne  Bible],  London,  1907. 
Abbott,   L.:    Christ* s  Secret  of  Happiness,   New 

York,  1907. 
Impressions  of  a  Careless  Traveler,  New  York, 

1907. 
Abgab:  F.  C.  Burkitt,  Early  Eastern  Christianity, 

pp.  11  sqq.,  London  and  New  York,  1904. 
Abhedananda:    Vedanta  Philosophy,   New   York, 

1907. 
Abrahams,  I.:    A  Short  History  of  Jewish  Ldtera- 

ture  [70-178  a.d.].  New  York,  1907. 
Judaism,  London,  1907. 
Abtbsinia:    R.  P.  Skinner,  Abyssinia  of  To-day, 

London,  1906. 
Lord  Hindlip,  Abyssinia,  London,  1906. 
F.  Rosen,  Eine  deutsche  Gesandschaft  in  Abes- 

sinien,  Leipsic,  1907. 
Acta  Martyrum,    Acta    Sanctorum:     A.     Du- 

fourcq,    l^tvdes  sur  les  gesta  martyrum  ro- 

mains,  Paris,  1906  sqq. 
Henri  Quentin,  Les  Martyrologes  historiques  du 

moyen  Age.     Etude  sur  la  formation  du  mar- 

tyrologe  romain,  Paris,  1907. 
P.  Saintyves,  Les  Saints,  successeurs  des  Dieux, 

Essais  de  mythologie  chrHienne,  Paris,  1907. 
AcroN,  Lord:    The  History  of  Freedom  and  other 

Essays,  London,  1907. 
Historical  Essays  and  Studies,  London,  1908. 
Adams,  G.  M.:  Life,  by  E.  E.  Strong,  Boston,  1907. 
Addib,  W.  E.:  Christianity  and  the  Roman  Empire, 

new  ed.,  London,  1906. 
Adenet,  W.  F.:    How  to  Read  the  Bible,  new  ed., 

London,  1907. 
Adler,  C:   Jews  in  the  Diplomatic  Correspondence 

of  the  United  States,  Philadelphia,  1907. 
Adrian  IV.:  Life,  by  J.  Duncan  Mackie,  London, 

1907. 
Africa:   In  General:   E.  d'Almeida,  Historia  JEti- 

opicB.    Libri  I -IV,,  Rome,  1907. 

B.  Alexander,  From  the  Niger  to  the  Nile,  Lon- 
don and  New  York,  1907. 

A.  H.  S.  Landor,  Across  widest  Africa,  London 

and  New  York,  1907. 
A.  B.  Lloyd,  In  Dwarf  Land  and  Cannibal 

Country,  London  and  New  York,  1907. 

C.  G.  Schillings,  In  Wildest  Africa,  New  York, 
1907. 

Alters:  Frances  E.  Nesbitt,  Algeria  and  Tunis, 
fainted  and  Described,  London,  1906. 

M.  W.  Hilton  Simpson,  Algiers  and  Beyond, 
London,  1906. 

Efifpt:  W.  S.  Blunt,  Secret  History  of  the  Eng- 
lish Occufxdion  of  Egypt,  London,  1907. 

French  Africa:  G.  Francois,  L'Afrigue  occu- 
denude  fran^ise,  Paris,  1907. 


A.  Chevalier,  VAfrique  eentrale  franpaise  (Mis- 
sion CharinLac  Tchad,  1902-04),  Paris,  1907. 
L.   Desplagnes,   Le  Plateau  central  Nigerien. 
Une  Mission  arch^ologique  et  ethnographique 
au  Soudan  fran^is,  Pans,  1907. 
Portuguese  Africa:  R.  C.  F.  Maugham,  Portia 

guese  East  Africa,  London,  1806. 
G.  M.  Theal,  History  and  Ethnographyof  Africa 
South    of   the  Zambesi.    1.    The  Portuguese 
in  South  Africa,  from  1606-1700,  London, 
1907. 
South   Africa:  S.  Passarge,  Die  Buschmdnner 

der  Kalahari,  Berlin,  1907. 
idem,   Sodafrika,    Eine  Landes-,  Volks-   und 

WiHschaftskunde,  Leipsic,  1908. 
J.    P.   Johnson,   Stone  Implements   of  South 

Africa,  London,  1907. 
West  Africa:    R.  E.  Dennett,  At  the  Back  of 
the  Black  Man's  Mind:    or.  Notes  on  the 
Kingly  Office  in  West  Africa,  London,  1907. 
Agnes,  Saint:  Life,  by  A.  Smith,  New  York,  1907, 

and  by  F.  Jubaru,  Paris,  1907. 
Agnosticism:   W.  H.  Fitchett,  Beliefs  of  Unbelief, 

Cincinnati,  1908. 
Aked,  C.  F.:    One  Hundred  Responsive  Readings 

from  the  Scriptures,  New  York,  1908. 
Albert  of  Brandenburg:  lAfe,  by  H.O.  Nietsch- 

mann,  Burlington,  la.,  1907. 
Alexander   IV.:    Life,   by  F.  Tenckhoff,  Pader- 

bom,  1907. 
Alexander  Severus:  Life,  by  R.  V.  N.  Hopkins, 

New  York,  1907. 
Alfred  the  Great:  Proverbs;  reed,  from  theMSS. 
by  W.  W.  Skeat,  London  and  New  York, 
1907. 
Allard,  Paul:  Eng.  transl.  of  Dix  lemons  sur  le 
martyrs,  "  Ten  Lectures  on  the  Martyrs," 
New  York,  1907. 
Allen,  A.  V.  G.:  Life  of  PhUlips  Brooks,  new  ed., 
Boston,  1907. 
Freedom  in  the  Church,  Boston,  1907. 
cf.  J.  B.  Johnson,  Freedom  through  the  Truth. 
An  Examination  of  the  Rev.  A.  V.  G.  Attends 
"  Freedom  in  the  Church,"  New  York,  1907. 
Alues,  Thomas  William:   Life,  by  Miss  Mary  H. 

Allies,  London,  1907. 
Ambrose,  Saint,  of  Milan:  J.  E.  Niederhuber,  Die 
Eschatologie  des  heiligen  Ambrositis,  Pader- 
bom,  1907. 

Andrews,  L.:  Private  Devotions,  new  ed.,  London, 
1907. 

Angus,  J.:  Bible  Handbook,  rev.  ed.,  2d  impression, 
1907. 

Anna  Cobcnena:  L.  Du  Sommerard,  Anne  Com- 
nkne,  t&moin  des  croisades ;  Agnh  de  France, 
Paris,  1907. 

Aphraates  :  F.  C.  Burkitt,  Early  Eastern  Chris- 
tianity, pp.  133  sqq.,  London  and  New  York, 
1904. 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL   APPENDIX 


Apocrypha,  The  Old  Testament:  Die  Weisheii  des 
Jesus  Sirach.    Hehr&isch  und  detdseh.    Mil 
einem  hebrdischen  Glossary  Berlin,  1906. 
R.  Smend,  Griechisch-syrischrhebrdischer  Index 

mtr  Weisheit  des  Jesus  Sirach,  Berlin,  1907. 
Die  Weisheit  des  Jesus  Sirach  erkldrt,  Berlin, 
1907. 

Apocrypha,  The  New  Testament:  The  Gospel  of  Bar- 
nabas,  ed.  and  transl.  from  the  Italian  MS,  in 
the  Imperial  Library  of  Vienna,  by  Lonsdale 
and  Laura  Ragg,  Ix>ndon,  1907. 

Apollonius  op  Tyana:  T.  Whittaker,  ApoUonius 
of  Tyana  and  other  Essays,  London,  1906. 

Apolooetigb.'    Jean  Riviere,  Saint  Justin  et  les 
apoloffistes  du  second  si^cle,  Paris,  1907. 
E.  F.  Scott,  The  Apologetic  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, London,  1907. 
S.    Weber,    Christliche    ApologeHk,    Freiburg, 

1907. 
O.  Zoeckler,  Geschichte  der  Apologie  des  Chris- 
tentums,  Gtttersloh,  1907. 

Arianism:  S.  Rogala,  Die  Anfdnge  des  arianischen 
Streites  untersucht,  Paderbom,  1907. 

Aristotle:  Transl.  of  the  first  book  of  his  "Meta- 
physics," by  A.  E.  Taylor,  Chicago,  1907. 
New  complete  transl.,  ed.  J.  A.  Smith  and  W. 
D.  Ross,  London  and  New  York,  1908  sqq. 

Arthttr,  W.:  Life,  by  T.  B.  Stephenson,  London, 
1907. 

Asia  Minor:  W.  M.  Ramsay,  The  Cities  of  Saint 
Paul;  their  Influence  on  his  Life  and  Thought. 
The  Cities  of  Eastern  Asia  Minor,  London 
and  New  York,  1908. 

Assyria:  H.  Winckler,  History  of  Babylonia  and 
Assyria,  London  and  New  York,  1907. 

Athanasius:  F.  Cavallera,  S.  Athanase,  Paris,  1907. 

Atonement:    John  Scott  Lidgett,   The  Spiritual 

Principle  of  the  Atonement  as  a  Satisfaction 

made  to  God  for  the  Sins  of  the  World,  4th 

ed.,  London,  1907. 

The  Atonement  in  Modem  Thought,    A  Symr 

posium,  3d  ed.,  London,  1907. 
H.  C.  Beeching  and  A.  Naime,  Bible  Doctrine 
of  the  Atonement,  London  and  New  York, 
1907. 
J.  M.  Campbell,  The  Atonement  the  Heart  of  the 
Gospel,  lx)ndon,  1907. 

Augustine,  Saint,  of  Hippo:  Preachirtg  and  Teachr 
ing  according  to  Saint  Augustine,  Being  a 
new  Translation  of  his  De  doctrina  Chris- 
tiana, Book  4$  and  De  rudibus  catechisandia. 


With  three  introdtuiory  Essays,  by  Rev.  W.  J. 

Vashon  Baker  and  Rev.  C^ril  Bickersteth, 

London,  1907. 
P.   Friedrich,   Die    Marieologie  des    heiligen 

Augustintu,  Cologne,  1907. 
Australia:    N.  W.  Thomas,  Natives  of  Australia, 

London,  1906. 
Kinship  Organizations  and  Group  Marriage  in 

Australia,  London  and  New  York,  1907. 
K.  L.  Parker,  The  Euahlayi  Tribe.    Study  of 

Aboriqinal  Life  in  Australia,  London,  1906. 
A.   Buchanan,   The  Real  Australia,   London, 

1907. 
Babcock,  M.  D.:    Fragments  that  Remain;    Ser~ 

mons.  Addresses  and  Prayers,  ed.  Jessie  B. 

Goetschius,  New  York,  1907. 
Babylonia:  H.  Winckler,  History  of  Babylonia  and 

Assyria,  London  and  New  York,  1907. 
R.  J.  Lau,  Old  Babylonian  Temple  Records, 

London,  1907. 
J.  D.  Prince,  Materials  for  a  Sumerian  Lexicon, 

New  York,  1908. 
E.  Mayer,  Sumerier  und  Semiten  in  Babylonia, 

Berlin,  1907. 
Bampton  Lectures:  1907:  J.  H.  F.  Peile,  The  Re- 

proach  of  the  Gospel :   an  Enquiry  into  the 

apparent  Failure  of  Christianity  as  a  General 

Kute  of  Life  and  Conduct,  London  and  New 

York,  1907. 
Banks,  L.  A.:    The  Sinner  and  his  Friends,  New 

York,  1907. 
Baptism:   R.  Ayres,  Christian  Baptism.    A  Treor- 

tise  on  the  Mode  of  Administering  the  Ordi- 
nance by  the  Aposiles  and  their  Successors  in 

the  Early  Ages  of  the  Church,  London,  1907. 
Philalethes,  Baptismon  Didache;  or,  Scriptural 

Studies   on    Baptisms,    especially   Christian 

Baptism,  London,  1907. 

Baptists:    H.  C.  Vedder,  Short  History,  new  ed., 
Philadelphia,  1907. 

Bardesanes  :  F.  C.  Burkitt,  Earlv  Eastern  Chris- 
tianity, lect.  v.,  London  and  New  York,  1904. 

Baring-Gould:    Sermons  to  Children,  2d  series, 
London,  1907. 
Tragedy  of  the  Ccesars,  new  ed.,  London,  1907. 
Nero,  London,  1907. 

Devonshire  and  Strange  Events,  London,  1907. 
A  Book  of  the  Pyrenees,  London,  1907. 
Restitution  of  All  Things,  London,  1907. 

Barton,  W.  E.:   Sweeten  Story  ever  Told:  Jesus 
and  His  Love,  Chicago,  1907. 


LIST  OF  ABBREVIATIONS 


[Abbreviations  in  common  use  or  self-evident  are  not  included  here.  For  additional  information  con- 
cerning the  works  listed,  see  Concernino  Bibuoorapht,  pp.  viil.-xx.,  above,  and  the  appropriate  artides 
in  the  body  of  the  work.    The  editions  named  are  those  cited  in  the  work.] 


J  no  J  Attfftmeim  deutaAs  Biofftaphie,  50  vols.. 

^^^ 1      Leipttc  1876-1906 

Adv adv€r9%u,  "against" 

.  TD  i  American   Journal  of   PkUotoffy,    Balti> 

^''^ (     more.  ISSOsqq. 

J  r«,  j  American  Journal  of  Tkeology,  Chicaco, 

^''^ 1      1807  aqq. 

.px>  \Ardiiv     ffir    kaihali§dte9     Kirchenrecht, 

^'^'^ 1     Innabruek,  1867-61.  Maina.  1872  sqq. 

lArchiv    for    Litteratur-    und    Kirchtnoe- 

ALKQ <     tkiehie     d—     MiUeUOUn,     Freiburg, 

(      1885  sqq. 
Am. American 

A*M  A  i  AbhanHunoen  der  Mikntkener  Akademie, 

^^^ 1      Munich,  1763  Boq. 

{Anie-Nieene  Father;  American  edition 
by  A.  Cleveland  Coxe,  8  vols.,  and  in- 
dex, Buffalo,  1887;  vol.  U.,  ad.  Allan 
Mensies.  New  York.  1807 

Apoe ApoeryphiL  apocryphal 

ApoL Apolooia,  Apology 

Arab Arabic 

Aram Aramaic 

ut uticle 

Art.  Schmal Schmalkald  Articles 

MQw>  3  Ada  sanctorum,  ed.  J.  Bolland  and  others. 

^^'^ 1      Antwerp.  1643  Boq. 

AQ%£  \Acta  tanctorum  ordinia  S.  Benedicti^  ed. 

-^^^ 1     J.  MabUlon,  0  vols.,  Paris.  1668-1701 

Assyr Assyrian 

A.T AUe9  TetUunent,   **  Old  Testament " 

Aucs.  Con Augsbiirg  Confession 

A.  V Authorised  Version  (of  the  English  Bible) 

AZ AUpemeine  Zeihmg,  Augsbiirg,  TObingen, 

Stuttgart,  and  TObingen,  1798  sqq. 
Bensinger,  j  I.     Bensinger.     Hebr&i$che  Archdologie, 

ArcKAologie.. . .  1      Freiburg.  1894 
Bertholdt.  i  L.    Bertholdt,    Hiaioriach^KriHeche   Ein- 

Einleitung. ..  .<      leitung  .  .  .  dee  AUen  und  Neuen  Tee- 
{      iamenla,  6  vols..  Erlangen,  1812-19 

BFBS British  and  Forei^  Bible  Society 

'Ri*n»ii.>m  (J^*    Bingham.    Ortginee    ecdeaiaatiect^    10 

rSSSS:.  \     ▼<>>«•.     London,     1708-22;  new     ed., 

^^'^'^ }     Oxford.  1856 

(M.   Bouquet,   Reeueil  dee  hieUnriene  dee 

Bouquet,  Rtcueil<      Gaulee  et  de  la  France,  continued  by 

(      various  hands,  23  vols..  Paris.  1738-76 

^  Archibald  Bower,   History  of  the  Popee 
.  .  ,  to  1758,  continued   by  S.  H.  Cox, 
3  vols..  Philadelphia.  1846-47 
QQj%  \  Baptist  Quarterly  Review,   Philadelphia, 

^     (      1867  sqq. 

BRO 8eeJaff<S 

Cant Canticles.  Song  of  Solomon 

cap caput,  *'  chapter  " 

p^niu..     J  «#«..-•  i  R>  Ceillier,  Hiatoire  dea  atUeura  aarrfa  et 
CeiUw^  Auteura  ^     eccUaiaatiquea,    16    vols,   in    17.  Paris, 

•^" I      1858-60 

Chron Chronicon,  "  Chronicle  " 

I  Chron I  Chronicles 

II  Chron II  Chronicles 

QjQ  I  Corpua  inacriptionum  Gracarum,  Berlin, 

fyjj^  ]  Corpua  inacriptionum  Latinarum,  Berlin. 

I      1863  sqq. 

CIS (  Corpua  inacriptionum  Semiticarum,  Paris, 

1      1881  sqq. 

eod codex 

cod.  D codex  Beaa 

eod.  Theod codex  Theodoaianua 

Col Epistle  to  the  Colossians 

col.,  cols column,  columns 

Conf Confeaaionea,  **  Confessions  " 

I  Cor First  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians 

II  Cor Second  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians 

COT See  Schrader 

fjy  i  Corpua   reformatorum,    begun    at    Halle, 

^^ I      1834,  vol.  Ixxxix.,  BerUn,  1906 


fM.  Creighton,  A  Hiaiory  of  the  Papacy 
Creighton,  from  the  Great  Schiem    to  the  Sack  of 

Papacy Rome,  new  ed.,  6  vols..  New  York  and 

London,  1897 
CSSL  S  Corpua  ecriptorum  eceleaiaaticorum  Lai^ 

^^"^ 1      norum,  Vienna,   1867  saq. 

CSHR  S  Corpua    ecriptorum    hiatorxa    Byaanlina, 

^^"^ 1      49  volsy  Bonn.  1828-78 

Currier.  Raigioua  j  C.     W.     Currier,     Hiatory    of    Relioioua 

Ordera 1      Ordera,  New  York.  1896 

D Deuteronomist 

DACL  i^'     Cabrol,     Dictionnaire     d'archMogie 

^  ]      dirUienne  et  de  liturgie,  Paria.  1903  sqq. 

Dan Daniel 

J.   Hastings.  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  4 

vols,    and    extra  vol.,  ^*'*--' »-  — • 

New  York,  1898-1904 

^W.  Smith  and  S.  Cheetham.  Dictionary 
of  Chriatian  Antiq^itiea,  2 vols..  London, 
1876-80 
_^^  4W.  Smith  and  H.  Wace.  Dictionary  of 

DCB <      Chriatian  Biography,  4  vols.,   Boston, 

I      1877-87 

Deut Deuteronomy 

Davir.iU Da  virie  iUuatribua 

DeWette-  (W.  M.  L.  de  Weite,  Lehrbuch  der  hie- 

Schrader,  Ein-(      toriach-kritiachen     Einleitung     in     die 

leitung {      Bibel,  ed.  E.  Schrader,  Berlin,  1860 

DGQ See  Wattenbach 

L.  Stephen  and  S.  Lee,  DieHonary  of 
National  Biography,  63  vols,  ana 
supplement  3  vols..  London,  1886-1901 
S.  H.  Driver.  Introduction  to  the  Literature 
of  the  Old  Teatament,  5th  ed..  New 
York,  1894 

E Elohist 

Chevne  and  J.  S.  Black.  Encyclo- 


DB <     vols.  ^  an3  ,«tni.yolT,  Edinburgh  and 

DCA 


DNB. 


Driver, 
lion. 


Introduc- 


X 


BB 


(T.  K. 
1     filt^ 


cadia    Biblica,  4    vols.,  London    and 
rew  York.  1899-1903 

Bed Ecdeaia,  "  Church  ";  eeeleaiaeticua,   **  ee- 

clesiastical  " 

Ecdes Ecclesiastes 

Ecelus Ecclesiasticus 

ed edition:  edidit,  "  edited  by  " 

EJ Elohist  Jahvist  ( Yahwist) 

Eph Epistle  to  the  Ephcsians 

Epiat Epiatola,  Epiatolce,  "  Epistle."  "  Epistles  " 

Ersch  and  Gni-  f  J.  S.  Ersch  and  J.  G.  Gruber.  AUgemeine 
ber,     Encyklo-  <      Encyklopddie  der    Wiaaenachaften  und 

pOdie, f      KUnate,  Leipsic.  1818  sqq. 

E.V English  versions  (of  the  Bible) 

Ex Exodus 

Esek Esekiel 

faae faaciculua 

J.  Friedrich.    Kirchengeachichte  Deutadi- 

landa,  2  vols..  Bamberg.  1867-60 
O.  F.  Fritische  and  C.  L.  W.  Grimm. 
Kurzgefaaatea     exegetiachea     Handbuch 
tu  den  Apocryphen  dea   AUen    Teata- 
menta,  6  parts.  Zurich,  1851-60 

Gal Epistle  to  the  Galatians 

fimm  «nH  TT^rflv  4  H.  Gcc  and  W.  J.  Hardv,  Documenta 
n.iS«LS?  ^'1  lUuatrative  of  Engliah  Church  Hiatory, 
DocumenU  . . . .  ^      London.  1896 

Gen Genesis 

Germ German 

/j/jA  \  Gdttingiache  gelehrte  Anxeigen,  Gdttingen, 

^^^ 1      1824sqq. 

r<;KW»n      n«>.i.'««  I E.   Gibbon.   Hiatory  of  the  Decline  and 
^^  PnU  \      f^  of  ^  ^omin  Empire,  ed.  J.  B. 

*'^  ^**" I      Bury.  7  vols..  London,  1896-1900 

Gk Greek.  Grecised 

IC.  Gross,   The  Soureea  and  Literature  of 
Gross.  Soureea. . .  <     Engliah  Hiatory  .  .      to  11,86,  London, 

1900 
Hab Habakkuk 


Friedrich,  KD... 

Fritxsche.  Exe- 
getiachea Hand- 
buch   


LIST  OF  ABBREVIATIONS 


TT^Hun  and 
Stubbs,  Coun- 
eila, 


H«r 

Hag 

Harduin,  Con- 
cilia  

Haniack,  Dogma 


Hamack,  LiUera-^ 
tur ^ 


Hauok,  KD.. 


Hauck>Hersog, 
RB 


f  A.  W.  Haddan  and  W.  Stubbs,  CouneiU 
and  Ecclenaatical  DocumenU  RdoHng 
to  Oreat  Britain  and  Ireland,  3  vols., 
,     Oxford.  1869-78 

Refers  to  patristic  works  on  heresies  or 
heretics,  Tertullian's  De  vrascriptione, 
the    Pro9    haireteia    of    IrenjBus,   the 
Panarion  of  Epiphanius,  etc 
..Hacgai 

(J.    Harduin,    ConcUiorum   eoUectio  regia 
.  }     maxima,  12  vols.,  Paris,  1716 

A.  Hamack,  Hittorif  of  Dogma  .  .  .  from 
tKe  3d  German  edition,  7  vols.,  Boston, 
189&-1900 
A.     Hamack,    Geachiehte    der   altchriet- 
liehen    Litteratur  Ms  £u«e6tu«,  2  vols, 
in  3,  Leipsic,  1893-1904 
A.     Hauck,     Kirchengeechiehte    Deutach- 
•{     lande,   vol.   i.,    Leipsic,  1904;  vol.   iL, 
1900;  vol.  iii.  1906;  vol.  iv.,  1903 
RealencyklopOdie  fitr  proteatantitdt*  The- 
ologie  und  Kirche,   founded  by  J.   J. 
Herzog.  3d  ed.  by  A.  Hauck.  Leipsic, 
I     1896  sqq. 

Heb Epistle  to  the  Hebrews 

Hebr Hebrew 

TT.f^u  r^x^^iiM^^  { C.  J.  von  Hefele,  Conciliengeeehichte,  oon- 
tlSlSkSSr        1     ^^^  by   J-   HergenrOther,   9   vols., 

0*^*chU J     Freiburg.  1883-93 

Heimbucher,  Or-  i  M.  Heimbucher,  Die  Orden  und  Kongre- 

den  und  Kon-J     gationen   der    katholiachen    KireKe,    2 

gregaHonen..  . .  f     vols..  Paderbom.  1896-97 

TT«iv/«*   n^^m      \  P«    Helyot.    Hietoire  dee   ordree   monae- 

neiyot.  cmtret      j     Uauee,  reliaieux  et  militairee.  8  vols.. 

n^onaetmuee...]     gj^!' 171^9?  new  id.  1^9^* 

Henderson,   Doc-  \  £.  F.  Henderson,  SeUxt  Hutorieal  Docu- 

umente 1     menta  of  the  Middle  Agee,  London,  1892 

Hist History,  hiatoire,  hiatoria 

HiaL  eed  •!  ^»**?''***  ecdeaiaatica,  ecdeaict,  "  Church 

Horn HomUia,  homiliai,  **  homily,  homilies  " 

Hoe Hosea 

Isa. Isaiah 

Ital Italian 

J Jahvist  (Yahwist) 

J  A Journal  Aaia^jme,  Paris,  1822  sqq. 

T.irz  RP/3  J  P*    Jaff4,    BibLiotheca    rerum    Oermani- 

J»a€,SiCU ^     ^^^^  g  ^^j^    Berhn,  1864-73 

( P.  Jafftf,  Regeata  pontificum  Romanorum 

J»a6,Regeala....'      .  .  .  ad    annum    1198,    Berlin,    1851; 

2d  ed..  Leipsic.  1881-«8 

Journal  of  Biblical  LUerahtre  and  Exege- 

aia,   first  appeared  as  Journal    of  the 

JBL SociUy  of  Biblical  Literature  and  Exe- 

^etis.  Middletown,  1882-88,   then  Bofr- 
l     ton.  1890  sqq. 
70  ( The  Jewiah  Encudopedia,  12  vols..  New 

•'* \     York.  1901-Oe 

JE the  combined  narrative  of  the  Jahvist 

(Yahwist)  and  Elohist 

Jer Jeremiah 

Joaephus,  Ant.  ..  ]*'^^„''<>^P^"^  "  Antiquities   of   the 

Josephus,  Apion.  \  Flavius  Joaephus,  "  Against  Apion  " 

Josephus,  Life Life  of  Flavius  Josephus 

Joaephus,  War...  ]  Flavius  Josephus,  '*  The  Jewish  War  " 
Josh Joshua 


JPT, 
JQR,. 


SJahrbUcher  fUr  proteatantiache  Theologie, 
'  I      Leipsic.  1875  sqq. 

I  The  Jewiah  Quarterly  Review,   London, 
> 1      1888sqq. 
jjtg^  i  Journal  of  Theological  Studiea,  London, 

I      1899  sqq. 

Julian,  Hym-        j  J.  Julian,  A  Dictionary  of  Hymnology, 

nology 1     New  York,  1892 

KAT. See  Schrader 

KB See  Schrader 

KD See  Friedrioh^auck.  Rettberg 

^WetMer  und    Welie*a  Kirchenlexikon,   2d 
ed..  by  J.  Hergenr6ther  and  F.  Kaulen, 
12  vok,  Freiburg.  1882-1903 
( Q.   KrOger,    Hiatory  of  Early  Chriaiian 
Erflger,    Hiatory  <     Literature  in  the  Firat  Three  Centuriee, 
\     New  York,  1897 


Krumbaeher, 


(K.   Krumbaeher,   Oeachiehte    der  byxan^ 


(P.    Labbe,    Sacrorum   eoncUiarum    nova 
Labbe,    Concilia  <     et  ampliaaima  coUectio,  31  vols.,  Flor- 

(     ence  and  Venice,  1759-98 
Lam. Lamentations 

iiiit  ^     ireiana    to  tne  istn  i^entury,  4  vols., 

^  "^ I     DubUn.  1829 

Lat Latin,  Latinised 

Leg Legea,  Legum 


Mann,  Popea... 
Ifansi,  Concilia  . 


Lev Leviticus 

LXX The  Septuagint 

I  Mace I  Maccabees 

II  Mace II  Maccabees 

Mai,    Nova    col-  J  A.    Mai.    Scriptorum  vetarum   nova   col- 

lectio )      lectio.  10  vols.,  Rome.  1825-38 

Mai Malachi 

i  R.  C.  Bfann,  Livea  of  the  Popea  in  the 
I      Early  Middle  Agea,  London,  1902  sqq. 
I G.     D.     Mansi,    Sanctorum    conciliorum 
eoUectio  nova,  31  vols.,  Florence  and 
(      Venice,  1728 

Matt Matthew 

J.  McClintock  and  J.  Strong,  Cydopcodia 
of  Biblical,  Theological,  and  Eccle- 
aiaatical  Literature,  10  vols,  and  sup- 
plement 2  vols..  New  York,  1869-87 
Monumenta  GermanicB  hiatorica,  ed.  Q.  H. 
Perts  and  others.  Hanover  and  Ber- 
lin. 1826  sqq.  The  following  abbrevia- 
tions are  used  for  the  sections  and  sub- 
sections of  this  work:  AnL,  Anftoui- 
tatea,  **  Antiquities  ";  AucL  ant,  Auc- 
torea  anti^iaaimi,  "  Oldest  Writers  "; 
Chron.  min..  Chronica  minora,  ** 
Chronicles  '';  Dip..  Dij^omata, 
plomas.  Documents  ";  Epiat, 
tola,  "  Letters  "iGeat.  ponL 
Geata  pontificum  nomanorum. 


McClintock    and 
Strong,    Cydo--* 
padia  .... 


MGH.. 


Di- 

Epia- 

Rom., 

'Deeds 


of  the  Popes  of  Rome  ";  Leg.,  Let 
**  Laws  ";  Lib.  de  lite,  LibeUi  de  lit* 
inter  regnum  et  aaeerdoHum  aaculorutn 
Tt  el  xti  conaerij^i,  "  Books  concerning 
the  Strife  between  the  Civil  and  Eccle- 
siastical Authorities  in  the  Eleventh 
and  Twelfth  Centuries ";  ^ec..  Ne- 
erologio  Germania,  '*  Necrology  of 
Germany ";  Poet.  LaL  tevi  Car., 
Poeta  Latini  avi  Carolini,  "  Latin 
Poets  of  the  Caroline  Time  ":  PoeL 
LaL  med.  am*.  Poeta  Latini  medii  avi, 
"  Latin  Poets  of  the  Middle  Ages  "; 
ScripL,  Scriptoree,  "  Writers  '*:  Script 
rer.  Germ.^criptorea  rerum  Uermani- 
carum.  "  Writers  on  German  Sub- 
jects ";  Script,  rer.  Langob.,  Seriptorea 
rerum  Langobardicarum  et  Italicarum, 
"  Writers  on  Lombard  and  Italian 
Subjects  ";  ScripL  rer.  Merov.^crip- 
torea  rerum  Merovinficarum,  **  Writers 
on  Merovingian  Subjects  " 
Mio Micah 

H.  H.  Biilman,  Hiatory  of  Latin  Chria- 
Hanity,  Indudina  that  of  the  Popea  to 
.  .  .  Nicholaa  v.,  8  vols.,  London, 
1860-61 

C.  Mirbt,  QueUen  tur  Geadiichte  dea 
Papattuma  und  dea  rdmiachen  Katho- 
liciamua,  TQbingen,  1901 

W.  Moeller,  Hiatory  of  ike  Chriatian 
Churdi,  3  vols..  London.  1892-1900 

J.  P.  Minie.  Patrologia  curaua  completua, 
aeriea  Graca,  162  vols..  Paris,  1857-66 
P.  Migne.  Patrologia  curaua  completua, 
aerieaLatina,  221  vols.,  Paris,  1844-64 


Milman,  Latin 
Christianity.. 


Mirbt,  QueUen. . . 

Moeller.  Chria- 
tian Churdi..., 

MPG 

MPL 


r-: 


MS..  BftSS Manuscript,  Manuscripts 

Muratori,     "    *       »     -    •-       .     .    - 
lorea... 


Scrip- 


It.  A.  Muratori,  Rerum  lialioarum  acrip- 
torea,  28  vols..  1723-51 
^«u«t  Ardiiv  der  GeaeUachaft  fUr  altera 

NA ■<     deutache     GeadiidUakunde,      Hanover, 

(      1876  sqq. 

Nah Nahum 

n.d no  date  of  publication 

K^r^A^w     rh^'m.  { A.  Neander,  General  Hiatory  of  the  Chria- 
^«  r«WA      i     ^o**   Religion  and  Chwch,  6  vols,  and 
tian  Church...  j     ^^^^  Boston.  1872-81 

Neh Nehemiah 

Mi^t^w^iFt       1/^      ( R*  P*  Niceron,  Mhnoirea  pour  aervir  h 

Wioeron,     me-     j     VhiaUrire  dea  hommea  iUuatria  ....  43 

Paris,  1729-45 


Nowack, 

clogia. 

n.p 


(R.  P.  Nio 

<     VhiMtoire 

'  {     vols..  Pa 

\Neu    ''    ' 


jff^2  \  ^*^  yirchliche  ZeitadurifL  Leipsic,  1890 

.    I^owack,     Ldirbtt^  der  hebrAiachen 


NPNF. 


Archa-i  ,     

(     ArehHologie,  2  vols.,  Freiburg.  1894 

no  place  of  publication 

The  Nicene  and  Poat^Nicene  Fathera,  Ist 

series,  14voU.,  New  York.  1887-92;  2d 

series,  14  vols..  New  York,  1890-1900 

1^  qi  I  New   Testament.    Novum    Teatamentum, 

^*     1     Nouveau  TeatamenL  Neuea  Teatament 

Num Numbers 

Ob Obadiah 

O.B \Ordo   aancH   Benedicti,    "Order   of   St. 

O.S.B 1     Benedict  " 

O.  T Old  Testament 

OTJC See  Smith 

P Priestly  document 


LIST  OF  ABBREVIATIONS 


xxiz 


FmIot,  PO]M0. 


(L. ; 


Q.T.t  QQ-T quod  (qiue)  vide. 


ncht ^ 


..  Pastor.  Th€  Hittory  of  the  Popea  from 
th€  ClooB  of  the  MlddU  AgM,  6  vols.. 
.     Loudon.  1801-1902 
BB^  I  Pair§9  eeoMict  Anglieana,  ed.  J.  A.  QUes, 

^^^ 1     34  vob.,  London.  1838-46 

PEF Palestine  Exploration  Fund 

I  Pet First  Epistle  of  Peter 

II  Pet Second  Epistle  of  Peter 

Pliny,  Hiti.  neU. . .  Pliny,  Historia  naturali§ 

n^**u.^  nr..^  (A.  rotthast,  BibliotKeoa  hiMtorica  medii 
,!22?'  ^  i  »w.  WegweUer  durch  dig  OeachiehU- 
^'••^- I     toerifcs.  Berlin.  18»6 

Prov Psoverbs 

Fi Psalms 

BOD  J  \Froceedino9    of    the    Society    of    Biblioal 

^^tSA I      Archeology,  London.  1880  sqq. 

nrhich  see^*^ 
«t6r 

i»...ir.  ip.««.«.       jL.    von   Ranke.    History  of   the   Popee, 

Ranke.  ,Pope»... .  ^     3  ^^^    London.  1896 

RDM Remte  dee  deux  mondee,  Paris,  1831  sqq. 

BS See  Hauok-Uersog 

i>.^>u    n^^  {^-   Reich,   Select  Documente  Uliutrating 

^^iSilJ^^        i     Medicnal  and  Modem  Hietory,  London. 

••«*■ I      1906 

BBJ Revue  dee  Hudee  Juivee,  Paris,  1880  sqq. 

»^_..i,_-_     ». n      j  F.  W.  Rettberg,  Kirchengeechiehte DeiUech- 
Kettbers,  ILU  . .  ^     ^^^  2  voU.,  Gottingen.  184^-48 

Rar Book  of  Revelation 

A.  L.  Riehter,  Lehrbueh  'dee  katholiechen 
und    evangelieehen    Kirchenrechte^    8th 
ed.  by  W.  Kahl.  Leipsio,  1886 
J.  H.   Robinson,  Readinge  in  European 

Hietory,  2  vols..  Boston,  1904-06 
£.     Robinson,     Biblical    Reeeetrchee    in 
Paleetine,    Boston,     1841.    and    Later 
Biblical  Reeearchee  in  Paleetine^  3d  ed. 

of  the  whole,  3  vols..  1867 

Rom. Epistle  to  the  Romans 

D«ri>  3  Revue    de    tMologie   et    de   phUoeophiet 

*^^ 1      Lausanne.  1873 

R.  V Revised  Version  (of  the  English  Bible) 

ette ececiUum,  "  century  " 

I  Smu I  Samuel 

II  Sam. II  Samuel 

i  Sacred  Booke  of  the  Old  Testament  ("  Rain- 

8BOT \     bow   Bible  '').    Leipsio,    London,    and 

.  r      Baltimore,  1894  sqa. 

Schafr,   Christian  j  P.  Schaff,  History  of  the  Christian  Church, 

Church f     vols,  i.-iv.,  vi..  vii..  New  York,  1882-92 

o^k.iv    /^— ^.       ^P-   Schaff,    The  Creede  of  Christendom, 
Behaff,    Creede  . .  ^     3  ^^^   ^^^  york,  1877-84 

^E.  Schrader,  Cuneiform  Inscriptions  and 
the  Old   Teetament,   2  vols..   London, 
1885-88 
\  E.  Schrader,  Die  Keilinschrxften  und  das 
'  t      AUe  Testament,  2  vols.,  Berlin,  1902-03 
kE.  Schrader,  Keilinschnftliche  Bibliothek, 
)      6  vols.,  BerUn,  1889-1901 

E.  SchOrer,  Oeschichte  dee  (Udischen 
J  Volkes  im  Zeitatter  Jesu  ChrisH,  3  vols., 
\  Leipsic,  1898-1901;  Eng.  transl..  5 
I      vols..  New  York.  1891 

Script Scriptores,  "  writers  " 

Sent iSerOen/icr,  "  Sentences  "  I 

8.  J Societas  Jesu,  "  Society  of  Jesus  " 

or  3  Tfieologische  Studien  und  Kritiken,  Ham- 

**^ }      burg.  1826  sqq. 

a»:*k    ?....&.■«    i  W.  R.   Smith.  Kinship  and  Marriage  in 
Smith.  Kxnshxp,.  {      j^.^^^  Arabia,  London,  1903 
fl^j*u   nT  in       J  W.  R.  Smith.  The  Old  Testament  in  the 
Smith,  OTJC. . .  ^     j^^y,^  Church,  London.  1892 
a-.;#K    P....«ju#.  j  W.  R.  Smith.  PropheU  of  Israel  .  .  ,  to 
Smith,  Prophets.  <     ^  ^^^^  Century,  London.  1896 
Smith,     ReL    of  ]W.   R.   Smith.   Religion  of  the  Semites, 
Sem 1     London.  1894 


Robinson.    Euro- 
pean History  . . 

Robinson,    Re- 
searches,     and^ 
Later     Re- 
searches 


Schrader,  KAT.. 
Sehrader,  KB... 

SchOrer, 

OesdUchte 

Scrip 


S.P.C.  K... 
S.  P.  G 


sq.,  sqq . 
Strom... 


S.V 

Thatcher    and 

MoNeal,  Source 

Book 

IThess.... 
II  These... 


ThT 

Tillemont,  MS- 
moires 

ITim 

II  Tim. 


TJB.. 


TLB,.. 

TLZ... 
Tob.... 
TQ.... 

TS 

TSBA. 

TSK  .. 


TU. 


TZT 

Ugolini,    Thesau- 
rus   

V.T 


Wattenbach, 
DOQ 


Wellhausen. 
Heidentum. . . 

ZA 

Zahn,  Kanon... 

ZATW 

ZDMG 


ZDPV. 

Zech 

Zeph. . . 

ZHT.  .. 


ZKG.. 
ZKT.. 
ZKW, 

ZWT, 


Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Christian 

Knowledge 
Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel 

in  Foreiip  Parts 
.and  following 
.Stromata,  '^Miscell*niea " 
sub  voce,  or  sub  verbo 
O.  J.  Thatcher  and   E.  H.  McNeal,  A 
Source    Book    for   Mediwval    History 
(     New  York,  1906 
. .  First  Emstle  to  the  Thessalonians 
.  .Second  Epistle  to  the  Thessalonians 
(  Theologisdie  Tiidschrift,  Amsterdam  and 
i     Leyden,  1867  sqq. 

^L.  S.  le  Nain  de  Tillemont,  Mhnoires 
.  .  .  eeelisiastiques    dee    six    premiers 
siicles,  16  voU.,  Brussels,  1693-1712 
.  .First  Emstlo  to  Timothy 
.  .Second  Epistle  to  Timothy 

Theologisdter  Jahresberieht,  Leipsic,  1882- 
1887,  Freibun,  1888,  Brunswick,  1889- 
1897,  Berlin,  1898  sqq. 
TheologischesLitteratiatlatt,  Bonn.  1866 

The^ooische     LitteraktrMeUung,     Leipsic, 

187dsqq. 
Tobit 
Theologisdie     Quartalschrift,     TObingen, 

1819  sqq. 
J.    A.     Robinson.     Texts    and    Studies, 

Cambridge.  1891  sqo. 
Transactions   of   the  Society  of  Biblical 

Archaology,  London,  1872  sqq. 
Theologisd^e      Studien      und      Kritiken, 

Hamburg.  1826  sqq. 
'  Texts  und  untersuoiungen  sur  Oeschichte 

der  altchristlichen  Lideratur,  ed.  O.  von 

Gebhardt   and   A.   Hamack,    Leipsic, 

1882  sqq, 
TUibinger  Zeiischrift  fUr  Theologie,  TQbin- 

gen.  1838-40 
B.     Ugolinus,     Thesaurus    antiouitatum 

sacrarum,  34  vols.,  Venice,  1744-69 
Vetus  Teetamentum,  Vieux  Testament, "  Old 

Testament " 
W.  Wattenbach,  Deutschlands  Oeschichte- 

quellen,  5th  ed.,  2  vols.,  Berlin,  1885; 

6th  ed.,  1893-94 
J.  Wellhausen,  Reets  arabischen  Heiden- 

tums,  Berlin,  1887 
Zeitschrift     fitr     Assyriologie,     Leipdc, 

1886-88,  BerUn.  1889  sqq. 
T.    Zahn.    Oeechichte    dee    neuteetament- 

lichen  Kanone.  2  vols..  Leipsic.  1888-92 
Zeitschrift  fUr  die  alttestameniliche  Wis- 

senschaft,  Giessen.  1881  sqq. 
Zeitechrift    der    deutschen     morgenl&ndi- 

sdien  Geeellschaft,  Leipsic.  1847  sqq. 
Zeitschrift   dee  deutschen   PalAetina-Ver- 
'  \     eins,  Leipsic  1878  sqq. 
Zechariah 
Zephaniah 
Zeitschrift  fOr  die  historische   Theologie, 

publisned     successively     at     Leipsic, 

Hamburg,  and  Gotha,  1832-75 
Zeitschrift  fUr  Kirchengeschichte.  Gotha, 
1      1876  sqq. 
Zeitsehrift  flkr  katholische  Theologie,loxi%- 

bruck.  1877  sqq. 
Zeitschrift  fUr  kirehliche  WissenschaH  und 

kirchliches  Leben,  Leipsic.  1880-89 
Zeitsdirift  fUtr  wissenschaftliche  Theologie, 

Jena,  1858-60,  HaUe,  1861-«7.  Leipsio. 

1868  sqq. 


SYSTEM  OF  TRANSLITERATION 


The  following  system  of  traiisliteration  has  been  used  for  Hebrew: 

IC  =  '  or  omitted  at  the 

beginning  of  a  word. 

a  =  b 


n  =  bh  or  b 

l  =  g 

i  =  gh  or  g 

•n  =  d 

^  =  dh  or  d 

n  =  h 

1  =  w 


T  =  z 

i  =  y 
3  =  k 
3  =  kh  or  k 

D  =  m 
3  =  n 
D  =  8 


3;=' 

B  =  p 

fi  =  ph  or  p 

V=? 

p  =  ¥ 

n  =  r 

b  =  8 

B>  =  8h 

n  =  t 

n  =  til  or  t 


The  vowels  are  transcribed  by  a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  without  attempt  to  indicate  quantity  or  quality.  Arabic 
and  other  Semitic  languages  are  transliterated  according  to  the  same  system  as  Hebrew.  Greek  is 
written  with  Roman  characters,  the  common  equivalents  being  used. 


KEY  TO  PRONUNCIATION 


When  the  pronunciation  is  self-evident  the  titles  are  not  rcspelled ;  when  by  mere  division  and  accen- 
tuation it  can  be  shown  sufficiently  clearly  the  titles  have  been  divided  into  syllables,  and  the  accented 
syllables  indicated. 

iu        as  in  duration 

c=k     "    "    cat 

eh         "    "   c^iurch 

cw=qu  as  in  ^een 

dh  {th)    "  "  the 

f  "  "  /anpy 

g  (hard)  "  "  go 

H  "  "  loch  (Scotch) 

hw  (wh)  "  "  why 


a 

asm 

sofa 

a 

U    ti 

arm 

a 

«  u 

at 

& 

tt  it 

fare 

e 

u   tt 

pen* 

6 

tt  tt 

fate 

i 

u    tt 

tin 

i 

tt  tt 

machine 

0 

tt  tt 

obey 

6 

tt  tt 

no 

e 

as 

m 

not 

9 

tt 

tt 

nor 

u 

tt 

tt 

full 

Q 

tt 

tt 

rule 

u 

tt 

tt 

but 

tJ 

tt 

tt 

bum 

oi 

tt 

tt 

pine 

au 

tt 

tt 

out 

ei 

tt 

tt 

oa 

ia 

tt 

tt 

few 

^  In  •coented  syUables  only ;  in  anaooeiited  syllables  it  approximates  the  sound  of  e  In  oyer. 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 

ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  RELIGIOUS  KNOWLEDGE 


AACHEN,  ancen,  SYNODS  OF:  The  political 
importance  of  the  town  of  Aachen  (Latin  Aquia- 
granum;  French,  Aix4arChapeUe)  under  Charle- 
magne and  his  successors  made  it  a  favorite  meeting- 
place  for  various  assemblies.  The  first  synod  of 
Aachen  (or  Aix)  is  usually  reckoned  as  ha\dng  met 
on  Mar.  23,  789,  and  there  \a  no  doubt  that  a 
gathering  took  place  on  that  day;  but  its  results 
are  known  only  from  two  royal  decrees,  the  so- 
called  Admonilio  generalia  {MGH,  Leg.^  i.,  Capittt- 
laria  reffum  Francorum,  ed.  A.  Boretius,  i.,  1883, 
cap.  22),  and  the  instructions  for  the  royal  repre- 
sentatives (cap.  23).  The  former  repeats  a 
summary  of  the  earlier  canonical  legislation  on  the 
duties  of  the  clergy,  and  adds  further  regulations 
for  the  improvement  of  clerical  and  social  life, 
dealing  with  diligence  in  preaching,  the  education 
of  the  clergy,  the  observance  of  the  Lord's  Day, 
just  judgment,  equal  weights  and  measures,  hos- 
pitality, and  the  prevention  of  witchcraft  and  per- 
jury. The  other  document  treats  of  monastic 
discipline  and  the  regulation  of  civil  society.  It 
is  questionable  if  this  gathering  can  be  properly 
called  a  synod;  and  still  less  can  the  name  be  applied 
to  that  of  797  (cap.  27),  which  regulated  the  con- 
dition of  the  conquered  Saxons.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  assembly  of  June,  799,  in  which  Alcuin 
disputed  with  Felix  of  Urgel  (see  Adoptionism) 
may  be  so  called,  and  likewise  the  three  meetings 
in  the  years  801  and  802.  Their  deliberations  led 
to  a  series  of  decrees  (cap.  33-35  and  35-41)  which 
throw  light  on  Charlemagne's  endeavors  to  elevate 
clergy  and  laity.  The  most  important  is  the  great 
instruction  for  the  mUsi  dominici  sent  out  in  the 
spring  of  802,  dealing  with  the  discipline  of  bishops, 
clergy,  monks,  and  nuns,  the  faithful  performance 
of  their  duties  by  public  officials,  and  the  establish- 
ment of  justice  throughout  the  empire.  Among 
the  results  of  the  autumn  synod  of  802,  cap.  36 
and  38  deserve  special  attention;  they  deal  with 
the  duty  of  intercession  for  the  emperor  and  bishops, 
the  education  of  the  people,  tithes,  divine  worship 
and  the  sacraments,  clerical  discipline,  and  the 
system  of  ecclesiastical  visitations.  The  next 
synod  (Nov.  809),  was  occupied  with  the  doctrine 
of  the  procession  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  In  the  autumn 
of  816,  or  the  sunmier  of  817,  Louis  le  Ddbonnaire 

I— 1 


assembled  his  first  sjmod  at  Aachen,  when  the 
bishops  laid  down  new  regulations  for  the  com- 
munity life,  both  of  canons  and  nuns.  In  the 
summer  of  817  an  assembly  of  abbots  discussed 
the  observance  of  the  Benedictine  rule.  The  diets 
of  819  and  825  and  similar  later  assemblies  can 
again  scarcely  be  counted  as  synods,  though  the 
one  held  in  the  sacristy  of  the  cathedral,  Feb.  6, 835, 
has  a  synodical  character.  It  adopted  a  thorough- 
going pronouncement  on  the  life  and  teaching  of 
bishops  and  inferior  clergy,  and  on  the  position  of 
the  king,  his  family,  and  his  ministers,  with  a  view 
to  regulating  the  confusion  which  the  strife  between 
Louis  and  his  sons  had  caused.  It  also  required 
of  P6pin  of  Aquitaine  that  he  should  restore  the 
church  property  which  he  had  appropriated.  For 
the  synod  held  at  Aachen  in  connection  with  the 
question  of  Lothaire's  divorce,  see  Nicholas  I. 
The  last  two  synods  of  Aachen  were  held  under 
Henry  II.,  one  in  the  year  1000  in  connection  with 
the  restoration  of  the  bishopric  of  Merseburg  (see 
WiLLiois);  the  other,  in  1023,  when  the  contest 
between  the  dioceses  of  Cologne  and  Li^ge  for  the 
possession  of  the  monastery  of  Burtscheid  was 
decided  in  favor  of  the  latter. 

(A.  EUuCK.) 

Biblxoobapht:  Fraomentum  hiatorieum  de  coneilio  Aqui»- 
granenai,  in  BfabilloD.  AnaJUtia,  i.  52.  Paris,  1723,  and  in 
Bouquet,  R^eutil,  vi.  416-443;  Bpi§toia  Synodi  Aqui^* 
ffranenaia  ad  Pippin,  in  Labbe,  Concilia,  vii.  1728.  and  in 
Bouquet,  Recueil,  vi.  354;  A.  J.  Binterim.  Prat/matUchs 
Oetchichte  der  deuUchen  .  .  .  Concilien,  ii.,  iii..  Maim. 
1836-37;  MQH,  Leg.  i.  (1835)  465;  ib.  Capitularia  rtg. 
Franc.,  ii.  2  (1803).  463-466;  Hauck,  KD,  ii.;  Hefele. 
Conciliengeachichte,  vols,  iii.,  iv.;  MQH,  Leo,  teciio  Hi., 
ConcUia,  i.  1  (1904). 

AARON:  The  brother  of  Moses.  In  the  Yah- 
wistic  sources  of  the  Pentateuch  he  is  called 
"  Aaron,  the  LeviU,"  i.e.,  the  priest.  He  is  first 
mentioned  when  Yahweh  appoints  him  as  spokes- 
man for  Moses  in  the  mission  to  Pharaoh  (Ex.  iv. 
10-17,  27-31);  and  consistently  he  always  appears 
with  Moses  before  the  Egyptian  king.  Later  Aaron 
and  Hut  support  Moses  during  the  battle  with  the 
Amalekites  (Ex.  xvii.  8-13).  When  the  covenant 
was  made  at  Sinai,  Aaron,  Nadab,  and  Abihu,  with 
seventy  elders,  accompanied  Moses  to  the  moun- 
tain; but  Moses  alone  "  went  up  into  the  mount 


iSSS^ 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


of  God  "  (Ex.  xxiv.  1-2,  ^18;  cf.  xix.  24;.  Whfle 
Moecs  delayed  on  the  mountain  Aaron  made  the 
golden  calf;  and  later  he  nought  to  excuse  him- 
self by  Baying  that  he  had  acted  under  compulsion 
of  the  people,  who  were  impatient  at  the  long 
absence  of  their  leader  (Ex.  xxxii.).  In  the  narra- 
tive of  Num.  xii.,  Aaron  again  appears  in  an  un- 
favorable light.  He  is  said  to  have  died  at  Mosera, 
in  the  wilderness,  and  Eleazar,  his  son  took  his  place 
as  priest  (Deut.  x.  6).  Finally,  he  is  incidentally 
mentioned  in  Josh.  xxiv.  5  and  33.  The  significant 
fact  in  all  these  notices  is  that  the  Yahwistic  sources 
recognize  Aaron  as  priut.  In  the  Priest  code 
Aaron's  genealogy  and  family  are  given  in  detail 
(Ex.  vi.  20,  23).  He  is  three  years  older  than 
Moses  (Ex.  vii.  7).  He  is  made  Moses's  "  prophet " 
before  Pharaoh  (Ex.  vii.  1-2),  and,  accordin^y,  plays 
an  important  part  in  all  transactions  at  the  Egyp- 
tian court.  By  means  of  his  rod  the  miracles  are 
performed  (Ex.  vii.,  viii.).  During  the  wandering 
Aaron  retains  his  prominent  position,  although 
subordinate  to  Moses.  The  hungry  people  murmur 
against  both  brothers,  and,  at  Moses's  command, 
Aaron  replies  to  them,  and  later  preserves  a  pot  of 
manna  before  Yahweb  (Ex.  xvi.).  The  priesthood 
is  instituted  at  Sinai  and  solemnly  conferred  upon 
Aaron,  his  four  sons,  and  their  descendants  (Ex. 
zxviii.).  Of  these  four  sons,  only  Eleazar  and  Itha- 
mar  remain  after  the  destruction  of  Nadab  and 
Abihu  (Lev.  x.  1-7).  Aaron  is  not  only  original 
ancestor  and  type  of  the  priests  as  distinguished 
from  the  Levites,  but  also,  in  narrower  sense, 
prototype  of  the  high  priest,  who  was  always  from 
his  fandly  and  apparently  the  first-bom  son  in 
direct  line.  A  few  of  the  laws  of  P  are  delivered 
to  Aaron  as  well  as  Moses  (Lev.  xi.  1,  xiii.  1,  xiv. 
33,  XV.  1;  Num.  xix.  1).  After  the  departure  from 
Sinai,  Korah  and  his  followers  rebel  against  Moses 
and  Aaron;  and  Yahweh  miraculously  vindicates 
the  supremacy  of  the  latter  (Num.  xvi.-xvii.;  the 
narrative  is  amplified  by  an  account  of  the  up- 
rising of  Dathan  and  Abiram  and  a  contest  between 
Levites  and  priests).  Aaron  dies  on  Mount  Hor, 
and  Eleazar  becomes  priest  in  his  stead  (Num. 
XX.  22-29,  xxxiii.  38-39).  Of  other  Old  Testament 
passages  in  which  Aaron  is  mentioned  none  is  note- 
worthy except  Mic.  vi.  4,  where  he  is  joined  with 
Motes  and  Miriam.  (F.  Buhl.) 

It  is  important  for  the  history  of  the  priesthood 
in  Israel  to  notice  that  in  the  narratives  of  J  and  E 
(called  "Yahwistic"  above)  the  priestly  function 
of  Aaron  is  quite  subordinate,  he  being  mainly 
represented  there  as  the  spokesman  and  the  minis- 
ter of  Moses  and,  along  with  Hur,  as  his  represen- 
tative— a  "judge  "  of  the  people  (Ex.  xxiv.  13, 14). 
It  is  in  the  priestly  tradition  that  the  idea  of  Aaron's 
sacerdotal  functions  is  elaborately  developed. 

J.  F.  M. 

BiBLiooftAPHT:  8.  Barin^-Oould.  LegetuU  of  O.  T.  Charac- 
Un,  2  yob.,  London.  1871;  J.  WellhauBen.  Ge»chichte  /•- 
ratU,  ebap.  iv..  Berlin.  1878;  H  .ran  Oort,  Die  Aaroneiden  in 
ThT,  zviu.  (1884)  289  «nd  235;  J.Bensinger.  Hebrikiache 
ArekAologts,  pp.  405-428.  Freiburg.  1894;  W.  Nowack. 
ArckAologU,  U.  87-130.  ib.  1894;  A.  Kuenen  in  ThT,  xxiv. 
(1800)  1-42;  A.  ran  Hoonacker.  Le  Sacerdoce  Uvitique 
dan§  laUri  €t  dan»  Vhiaioire  tUt  Htbreux,  Louvain.  1899; 
8.  I.  Curtiee,  Th»  Levitieal  PriuU.  Edinburgh.  1877. 


AAROV  AHD  JULIUS:  Eo^iah  Martyrs.  See 
Albaw.  Saoit,  or  Vbruulm . 

ABADDOH,  a-bad'en  ("  Destnietion  "):  In  the 
Old  Testament  a  poetie  name  for  the  kingdom  of 
the  dead.  Hades,  or  Shed  (Job  xzvi.  6;  Prov.  xv. 
11,  where  Abaddon  is  parallel  to  Sbeol).  The 
rabbis  used  the  name  for  the  nethermost  part  of 
heU.  In  Rev.  ix.  11  the  **  nn^A  of  the  bottomless 
pit "  is  called  Abaddon,  idiich  is  there  explained 
as  the  Greek  ApoUyon  (**  destroyer  ");  and  he  is 
described  as  kiiig  of  the  locusts  idiich  rose  at  the 
sounding  of  the  fifth  trumpet.  In  like  manner,  in 
Rev.  vi.  8,  Hades  is  personified  following  after 
death  to  conquer  the  fourth  part  of  the  earth.  In 
rablHnical  writings  Abaddon  and  Death  are  also 
personified  (cf.  Job  xxviii.  22). 

AB'ADDL    SeeTAUffUD. 

A-BAR'BA-HEL.    See  Abrabankl. 

ABAUZIT,  a'^bd'^zS',  FIRMIH:  French  Reformed 
scholar;  b.  of  Huguenot  parentage  at  Uada  (20  m. 
w.n.w.  of  Avignon),  Languedoc,  Nov.  11,  1679; 
d.  at  (Geneva,  ^far.  20, 1767.  After  the  revocation 
of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  ( 1685)  an  attempt  was  made 
to  bring  him  up  as  a  Roman  Catholic,  but  it  was 
frustrated  by  his  mother.  After  some  hardships 
and  sufferings,  mother  and  son  settled  in  Gieneva, 
where  Abauzit  was  educated  and  where,  with  the 
exception  of  visits  to  Holland  and  England  in 
1698,  he  spent  his  long  life  devoted  to  study  and 
the  service  of  the  city  library.  He  was  one  of  the 
most  learned  men  of  his  time,  possessed  much  ver- 
satility, and  enjoyed  the  friendship  of  scholars  like 
Bayle,  Jurieu,  Basnage,  and  Newton.  Neverthe- 
less, he  published  practically  nothing;  and  after 
his  death  many  of  his  manuscripts  were  destroyed 
by  his  heirs.  A  volume  of  (Euvres  divenes  appeared 
at  Cxeneva  in  1770;  and  a  different  edition  in  two 
volumes  at  London  and  Amsterdam  in  1770-73. 
They  include  essays  against  the  doctrine  of  the 
Trinity  as  commonly  received,  upon  the  Book  of 
Daniel,  and  the  Apocalypse.  He  rendered  much 
service  to  a  society  for  the  translation  of  the  New 
Testament  into  French  (published  1726).  Many 
of  his  theological  writings  are  translated  in  E. 
Harwood's  MiaceUctnies  (London,  1774),  with 
memoir;  and  seven  essays  are  reprinted  thence  in 
Sparks's  Collection  of  Essays  and  Tracts  in  Th^- 
ologyy  vol.  i.    (Boston,  1823). 

Bibuoobapht:  J.  Senebier.  Hutovrt  UtUrain  d*  (Ten^ee, 
Geneva.  1786;  E.  and  E.  Haac.  La  France  protMiaiUe^ 
ed.  H.  L.  Bordier.  i.  2.  Paris.  1877;  A.  Gibart.  AbaugU 
et  M  Th4oloou,  Straebuis.  1865. 

ABBADI£,a'l>a"di',  JACQUES:  Protestant  apol- 
ogist; b.  at  Nay  (10  m.  s.  by  e.  of  Pftu),  France, 
1654  (7);  d.  at  Marylebone,  London,  1727.  He 
studied  in  the  French  Reformed  Church  academies 
of  Saumur  and  Sedan,  and  early  showed  much 
talent.  On  invitation  of  the  elector  of  Branden- 
burg, he  became  pastor  of  the  French  Refonned 
congregation  in  Berlin  in  1680;  after  the  death  of 
the  elector  (1688),  he  followed  Marshal  Schomberg 
to  England;  and  became  pastor  of  the  French 
church  in  the  Savoy,  London,  in  1689.  In  1099 
he  was  made  dean  of  Killaloe,  Ireland.  His  TraiU 
de  la  v&riii  de  la  religion  Chritienne  (vols.  i.  and  ii.« 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Aarou 
Abbey 


Rotterdam,  1684;  vol.  iii.,  1689:  Eng.  transl.,  2 
vob.,  London,  1694),  became  one  of  the  standard 
apologetic  works  in  French  literature.  Of  his  other 
works,  VAri  de  8e  connaitre  aoi-mhne  (Rotterdam, 
1692),  giving  an  outline  of  his  moral  system,  at- 
tracted much  attention  and  was  warmly  defended 
by  Malebranche. 

BiBUOORArHT:  For  full  list  of  his  writincs,  oontult 
R  and  £.  Haag.  La  France  proteetarUe,  i.,  8.y..  Paris, 
1846;  for  hia  life,  the  collection  of  his  sermonB,  Am- 
sterdam. 1760,  iii..  and  D.  C.  A.  Acnew,  ProteHarU 
Exilsa  from  France,  pp.  223-228.  Edinbursh.  1886;  on 
his  work.  R.  Elliott.  The  ConaiatetU  FroteetatU  .  .  .  vnth 
eome  obeervoHone  on  a  treoHee  ...  by  J'  Abbadte,  Lon- 
don. 1777.  and  M.  lUaire.  j6tude  eur  J,  Abbadie  eoneidiri 
eomme  prtdieaieur,  Strasbuis,  1868. 

ABBATE;  ABBfi.    See  Abbot. 

ABBESS:  The  title  of  the  head  of  many  monastic 
communities  of  women,  even  in  some  orders  where 
the  head  of  the  monasteries  for  men  does  not  bear 
the  title  of  abbot.  An  abbess  is  commonly  elected 
by  the  community.  Cases  of  appointment  by 
the  pope  on  the  nomination  of  the  sovereign  have 
occurred  less  frequently  than  in  the  case  of  abbots. 
By  the  ruling  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  only  those  are 
eligible  who  have  been  eight  years  professed  and 
reached  the  age  of  forty,  except,  in  exceptional 
circumstances,  when  a  dispensation  is  granted  by 
the  pope.  An  absolute  majority  on  a  secret  ballot 
is  required.  The  election  must  be  confirmed  by 
the  bishop  (or,  in  certain  cases  of  exemption,  by 
the  pope,  or  the  head  of  the  order),  before  the  new 
abb^  possesses  full  jurisdiction.  A  formal  bene- 
diction, for  which  there  is  a  form  in  the  Pontificale 
Romanum,  is  also  given  by  the  bishop  in  many 
cases.  The  power  thus  assigned  to  the  abbess  is 
merely  that  requisite  to  rule  her  community,  and 
in  no  sense  a  spiritual  jurisdiction;  she  can  not 
commute  or  dispense  from  vows,  laws  of  the  Church, 
or  statutes  of  the  order.  She  may  inflict  light 
punishments  in  the  spirit  of  the  rule;  but  the  more 
severe  ones  are  reserved  to  the  ecclesiastical  su- 
perior of  the  convent,  who  has  jurisdiction  in  the 
Jorum  externum.  In  general  it  may  be  said  that 
the  power  of  an  abbess  has  been  and  is  much  more 
restricted  than  that  of  an  abbot.  For  the  pecul- 
iarly wide  jurisdiction  of  abbesses  over  men  as 
well  as  women  in  the  order  of  Font^vraud  (not 
without  precedent  in  the  Celtic  monastic  system), 
see  FoNT^VRAUD,   Order  of.    See    also  Abbotu 

MONASTICISM. 

ABBEY:  A  monastic  house  imder  the  rule  of  an 
abbot  or  an  abbess.  The  name  is  strictly  appli- 
cable only  to  the  houses  of  those  orders  in  wUch 
these  titles  are  borne  by  the  superiors.  While  in 
the  Elast  the  free  form  of  a  group  of  scattered  cells 
(known  as  a  laura)  continued  side  by  side  with  the 
common  dwelling  of  a  cenobite  community,  the 
West  developed  a  distinct  style  of  its  own  in  monas- 
tic architecture.  The  extant  plan  of  the  monastery 
of  St.  Gall  (820)  may  be  taken  as  typical  of  the 
construction  of  Western  monasteries  in  the  early 
Middle  Ages.  The  center  of  the  entire  group  of 
buildingB  was  occupied  by  an  open  rectangular 
space,  on  the  north  side  of  which  was  the  church, 
while  on  the  other  three  sides  ran  the  cloister  or 
ambulatory,  a  vaulted  passage  open  on  the  inner 


side,  and  serving  both  as  a  means  of  communication 
and  as  a  place  for  exercise  in  bad  weather.  CJon- 
nected  with  the  cloister,  on  the  ground  floor,  were 
the  refectory  and  kitchen;  the  chapter-house,  in 
which  the  reading  and  exposition  of  the  rule  and 
the  chapter  of  faults  took  place;  the  calefactarium 
or  winter  dining-room;  and  the  parleatorium  or 
reception-room  of  outsiders.  (}n  the  floor  above, 
opening  on  a  similar  passage  which  connected  with 
the  choir  of  the  church  or  the  organ-loft,  were  the 
vestiarium,  where  the  clothes  were  kept,  the  library, 
the  dormitory,  the  infirmary,  the  rooms  for  the 
novices,  and  the  apartments  of  the  abbot,  which 
were  supposed  to  be  accessible  from  outside  without 
passing  through  the  enclosure  into  which  strangers 
were  not  allowed  to  penetrate.  The  kitchen,  which 
lay  within  this  enclosure,  had  in  like  manner  a 
connection  with  the  house  for  the  reception  of 
pilgrims,  and  with  the  various  farm-buildings, 
which  usually  formed  a  separate  quadrangle.  The 
entire  group  of  buildings  was  surrounded  by  a 
high,  solid  wall,  which  in  some  cases  was  fortified 
against  the  dangers  of  rude  times  by  towers  and 
strong  gates.  The  monks'  burying-ground  was 
also  within  the  enclosure. 

This  system  was  preserved,  with  slight  modifi- 
cations, throughout  the  Middle  Ages,  the  Cistercians 
adhering  to  it  with  especial  closeness,  as  may  be 
seen  at  Clairvaux  and  Maulbronn."   Sometimes  it 
was  enriched  by  architectural  decoration,  as  in  the 
high-vaulted  double  refectories  of  St.  Martin  at 
Paris  and  of  Maulbronn,  or  adorned  with  painting, 
as  the  world-famous  "  Last  Supper  "  of  Leonardo 
da  Vinci  in  the  refectory  of    Santa   Maria  delle 
Grazie  at  Milan.    In  houses  occupied  by  female 
religious  the  extensive  farm-buildings  were  natu- 
rally   lacking.    The    combination   of   hermit   and 
community  life  among  the  Carthusians  required  a 
larger  space,  which  was  obtained  by  adding  to  the 
original  quadrangle  on  the  basis  of  the  church  a 
second  larger  one,  commonly  surrounded  also  by 
a  cloister,  with  an  open  space  or  garden  (containing 
a  cemetery)   in  the  center,  and  with  individual 
dwellings  for  the  monks  around  it.    The  mendicant 
orders  strove  for  simplicity  in  building  as  in  other 
things,  and  were  forced  by  their  situation  in  towns 
to  a  more  restricted  plan.    The  teaching  orders 
added  a  wing  or  a  separate  house  for  their  pupils. 
The  Jesuits  completely  abandoned  the  traditional 
plan,  and  built  themselves  large  palatial  houses, 
while  modem  monasteries  have  little  to  differen- 
tiate them  from  other  large  institutions.    For  a 
more  detailed  treatment  of  the  structural  system 
of  abbeys  and  monastic  buildings,  consult  the  ex- 
haustive monograph  by  Venables  in  the  Encydo- 
p<Bdia  BriUmnicaf  s.v.  Abbey.    See  Monasticism. 
Biblioqrapht:     In    general:    DC  A,     ii.    (1880)     1243-68 
(gives  a  list  of  1.481  monasteries   founded    before  814); 
DACL,  i.  26-39;   A  BaUu.   Le   Monaetkre  de    T^>eeea, 
Paris.  1807  (valuable  for  detailed  description  of  a   typi- 
cal abbey).     Austria  :  G.  Wolfsgruber.  A.  HQbl,  and  O. 
Schmidt.    Abteien    und    Kldeter  in   Oeterreiek,    Vienna, 
1902.     France  :   L.  P.  H^rard.  ttudee  arcKSoloffiquee  eur 
lee  abbauee  de  Vaneien  dioeiee    de    Parie,    Paris.    1852; 
M.     F.     de     Montrond.      Dictionnaire     dee    abbaj/ee  et 
monaetiree,  ib.    1856;   J.  J.  Bourass^,  Abbatfee  et  monae- 
tiree;    hieUriret   monumental  eouvenire   et  ruinee,  ib.  1869; 
E.     P.    M.    Sauvage.     Hietoire      lUtSraire   dee     ahbauee 
Normandee,  ib.  1872;    A.  Peigne-Delaoourt.    Tableau  dee 


Abbo 
Abbot 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


abbav4t  ei  det  mana$Uret  d'kommf  tn  Franee  ....  1768,  ib. 
1875;  J.  M.  Beaae,  L—  vrtmien  maruutint  ds  la  Oaule,  in 
Rmnte  d—  questioru  hiMtoriquet,  Apr.,  1902.  OnufAirr: 
O.  OfX>te,  Lexicon  dniUcher  SUfie,  KUtler,  und  OnUn*- 
hAuur,  6  paru,  Otterwiek,  1874-80;  H.  Q.  Hjmw,  Gfchiehr 
U  der  §achn§ehen  KUMer  in  der  Mark  Msiaaen  und  Ober- 
launtz,  Qotha,  1887;  H.  H.  Koch.  Die  Karmelilenkl(f»ter 
der  niederdeutechen  Provinz,  19-16  Jahrhundert,  Freiburg. 
1889;  H.  Hauntinger,  Soddeuteche  Kloater  vor  100  Jahren, 
CologiM,  1889;  L.  Sutter,  Die  Dominiean^KlOeter  auf  die 
Oebiete  d.  heukoen  deutechen  SchweiU  tm  15  JahrkunderU 
Luoeme,  1893;  A.  Hohencgcer,  Dae  Kavminer-KloaUr 
zu  Meran,  luiubruck,  1898;  F.  M.  Herhagen.  IHe  Klotler- 
Ruinen  su  Himmerod  in  der  Eifel,  Treves.  1900.  Great 
BarrAiN  and  Irjcland:  M.  Arehdall,  Monaatieon  Hiber- 
nieon ;  ...  the  Abbey;  Prioriee  ...  in  Ireland,  Loo- 
don.  1786.  ed.  by  P.  F.  Moran.  Dublin,  1871;  W.  Beattie. 
CaeUea  and  Abbeye  of  England,  2  vols.,  London.  1851 :  M. 
E.  C.  Waloott.  Mineter  and  Abbey  Ruins  of  the  United 
Kingdom,  ib.  1860;  W.  and  M.  Howitt.  Ruined  Abbey 
and  Caetlee  of  Great  Britain,  2  ser..  ib.  1862-64;  Reliffioua 
liouaee  of  the  United  Kingdom,  ib.  1887;  T.  G.  Bonney. 
Cathedrala,  Abbeys  and  Ckurehea  of  England  and  Walee,  2 
vol*.,  ib.  1888-91  (reviijed.  18d8);  W.  C.  l^efroy.  Ruined 
Abbey  of  Yorkehire,  ib.  1890;  J.  Timbs.  Abbey 9,  CaaUee 
and  Ancient  HalU  of  England  and  Wale*,  3  vol«..  ib.  1890; 
W.  A.  J.  Archbold.  Someraet  Reltgioue  Hounee,  ib.  1892. 

ABBO  OF  FLEURY,  flO^'ri':  French  abbot 
of  the  tenth  century,  one  of  the  few  men  of  that 
time  who  strove  to  cultivate  learning  and  led  the 
way  for  the  later  scholasticism;  b.  near  Orleans; 
d.  Nov.  13,  1004.  He  was  brought  up  in  the  Bene- 
dictine abbey  of  Fleury  (25  m.  e.s.e.  of  Orleans); 
studied  at  Paris  and  Reims;  in  985-987  was  in  Eng- 
land, on  invitation  of  Archbishop  Oswald  of  York, 
and  taught  in  the  school  of  the  abbey  of  Ramsey; 
was  chosen  abbot  of  Fleury  in  988,  and  brought 
the  school  there  to  a  flourishing  condition.  He 
upheld  the  rights  of  his  abbey  against  the  Bishop 
of  Orleans,  and  at  the  synod  of  St.  Denis  (995) 
took  the  part  of  the  monks  against  the  bishops. 
He  twice  represented  King  Robert  the  Pious  as 
ambassador  at  Rome,  and  gained  the  favor  of  Pope 
Gregory  V.  He  upheld  strict  monastic  discipline; 
and  an  attempt  to  introduce  reforms  in  the  monas- 
tery of  La  R6ole  (in  Gascony,  30  m.  s.e.  of  Bordeaux), 
a  dependency  of  Fleury,  led  to  a  mutiny  by  the 
monks  in  which  he  was  fatally  wounded.  He 
wrote  upon  such  diverse  subjects  as  dialectics, 
astronomy,  and  canon  law;  and  his  extant  letters 
are  of  much  value  for  the  history  of  the  time. 

Biblioobapht:  For  his  works,  and  his  life  by  his  pupil 
Almoin,  consult  MPL,  cxxxix.;  for  his  Epietolae,  Bou- 
quet, Recueil;  for  his  life,  J.  B.  Pardiac,  Hiatoire  de  St.  Ab- 
bon,  Paris,  1872. 

ABBOT:  The  head  of  one  of  the  larger  houses 
in  the  Benedictine  and  other  older  Western  monastic 
orders.  The  term  originated  in  the  East,  where 
it  was  frequently  used  as  a  title  of  respect  for  any 
monk  (being  derived  from  the  Aramaic  abba, 
'*  father  ");  but  there  it  was  replaced,  as  the  title 
of  the  superior  of  a  monastery,  by  archimandrite 
and  other  titles.  In  the  Western  orders  founded 
before  the  end  of  the  eleventh  century  the  title  is 
still  in  use.  According  to  the  present  system, 
abbots  are  divided  into  secular  and  regular;  the 
former  are  secular  clerics  who  are  incumbents  of 
benefices  originally  bearing  the  title  of  abbey  but 
since  secularized;  the  latter  are  classified  accord- 
ing as  they  have  authority  only  over  the  mem- 
bers of  their  house,  or  over  certain  of  the 
faithful,  or  enjoy  a   quasi-episcopal  jurisdiction 


over  a  definite  territory,  or  are  merdy  titular 
abbots,  their  houses  having  fallen  into  decay. 
They  are  further  di\ided  aooording  to  the  term  of 
their  office,  which  may  be  either  for  life  or  for  three 
years.  A  special  class  known  as  mitered  abbots 
have  permission  to  wear  episcopal  insignia.  The 
election  of  an  abbot  is  commonly  by  vote  of  the 
professed  brothers,  in  most  cases  only  those  in  holy 
orders.  The  candidate  must  be  twenty-five  years 
of  age,  a  professed  brother  of  the  order,  and  a  priest. 
Actual  jurisdiction  is  not  conferred  until  his  con- 
firmation either  by  the  bishop  or,  in  the  case  of 
exempt  abbeys,  by  the  superior  in  the  case,  fre- 
quently the  pope.  His  benediction  is  the  next 
step,  which  takes  place  according  to  the  office  in 
the  PotUificale  Romanum,  usually  at  the  hands  of 
the  bishop  of  the  diocese.  He  has  the  power  to 
regulate  the  entire  inner  life  of  the  abbey  in  accord- 
ance with  the  rule,  and  to  require  obedience  from 
his  subordinates;  according  to  the  rule  of  St. 
Benedict,  however,  abbots  are  required  not  to 
exercise  their  authority  in  an  arbitrary  manner, 
but  to  seek  the  counsel  of  their  brethren.  In  many 
particulars  a  quasi-episcopal  jurisdiction  has  in 
course  of  time  been  conceded  to  them.  Since  the 
eighth  century  they  have  been  allowed  to  confer 
the  tonsure  and  minor  orders  on  their  subjects,  to 
bless  their  churches,  cemeteries,  sacred  vessels, 
etc.,  to  take  rank  as  prelates,  and,  if  generals  ex- 
ercising quasi-episcopal  jurisdiction,  to  sit  and  vote 
in  general  councils. 

The  practise  of  granting  abbeys  in  commendam 
to  deserving  clerics,  or  even  to  laymen,  led  to  the 
creation  of  a  class  of  merely  titular  abbots,  who  had 
nothing  of  this  character  but  the  name  and  the 
revenues.  This  practise,  which  was  the  source  of 
many  abuses,  was  regulated  by  theCJoundl  of  Trent. 
From  it  sprang  the  custom  in  France  of  applying 
the  title  abb^  to  any  prominent  clergyman  who 
might,  according  to  the  custom  of  the  time,  lay 
claim  to  such  an  appointment,  and  then  to  the 
secular  clergy  in  general.  A  somew^hat  analogous 
custom  existed  in  Italy,  where  many  professional 
men,  lawyers,  doctors,  etc.,  though  laymen  and 
even  married  men,  retained  some  marks  of  the 
clerical  character  which  had  earlier  distinguished 
the  majority  of  scholars  in  their  dress  and  in  the 
title  of  abbate.  In  some  Protestant  countries  the 
title  of  abbot  still  clung  to  the  heads  of  institutions 
that  had  grown  out  of  monasteries  suppressed  at 
the  Reformation.    See  Monasticism. 

ABBOT,  EZRA:  Unitarian  layman;  b.  at  Jack- 
son, Waldo  0)unty,  Me.,  Apr.  28*  1819;  d.  at  Cam- 
bridge, Mass.,  Mar.  21,  1884.  He  was  fitted  for 
college  at  Phillips  Academy,  Exeter,  N.  H.,  and 
was  graduated  at  Bowdoin,  1840.  He  then  taught 
in  Maine  and,  after  1847,  in  Cambridge,  Mass., 
also  rendering  service  in  the  Harvard  and  Boston 
Athensum  libraries.  In  1856  he  was  appointed 
assistant  librarian  of  Harvard  University,  in  1871 
he  was  university  lecturer  on  the  textual  criticism 
of  the  New  Testament,  and  in  1872  he  became 
Bussey  professor  of  New  Testament  criticiam  and 
interpretation  in  the  Harvard  Divinity  School. 
From  1853  he  was  secretary  of  the  American  Orien- 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


JLbbo 
JLbbot 


tal  Society.  He  was  one  of  the  original  members  of 
the  American  New  Testament  Revision  Company 
(1871),  and  in  1880  he  aided  in  organizing  the 
Society  of  Biblical  Literature  and  Exegesis.  He 
was  a  scholar  of  rare  talents  and  attainments. 
He  stood  first  and  foremost  among  the  textual 
critics  of  the  Greek  Testament  in  America;  and 
for  microscopic  accuracy  of  biblical  scholarship 
he  had  no  superior  in  the  world.  On  account  of 
the  extreme  attention  he  paid  to  minute  details,  the 
number  of  his  independent  publications  was  small, 
and  the  results  of  his  labors  have  gone  into  books 
of  other  writers,  to  which  he  was  willing  to  con- 
tribute without  regard  to  reward  or  adequate 
recognition.  His  Literature  of  the  Doctrine  of  a 
Future  Lifej  first  published  as  an  appendix  to  Alger's 
History  of  the  Doctrine  of  a  Future  Life  (Philadel- 
phia, 1864),  and  afterwwd  separately  (New  York, 
1871),  is  a  model  of  bibliographical  accuracy  and 
completeness,  embracing  more  than  5,300  titles. 
He  enriched  Smith's  Bible  Dictionary  (Am.  ed., 
1867-70)  with  careful  bibliographical  lists  on  the 
most  important  topics,  besides  silently  correcting 
innumerable  errors  in  references  and  in  typography. 
His  most  valuable  and  independent  labors,  how- 
ever, were  devoted  to  textual  criticism  and  are  in 
part  incorxx)rated  in  Gregory's  Prolegomena  to  the 
Ed.  viii.  crUica  major  of  Tischendorf 's  Greek  Testa- 
ment; the  chapter  De  versibua  (pp.  167-182)  is 
by  him,  and  he  read  the  manuscript  and  proofs 
of  the  entire  work.  His  services  to  the  American 
Bible  Revision  Committee  were  invaluable.  The 
critical  papers  which  he  prepared  on  disputed 
passages  were  uncommonly  thorough,  and  had  no 
small  influence  in  determining  the  text  finally 
accepted.  His  defense  of  the  Johannean  author- 
ship of  the  fourth  Gospel  (The  Avlhorahip  of  the 
Fourth  Gospel;  External  Evidences,  Boston,  1880; 
reprinted  by  his  successor  in  the  Harvard  Divinity 
School,  J.  H.  Thayer,  1888)  is  an  invaluable  con- 
tribution to  the  solution  of  that  question. 

Of  his  writings,  besides  those  already  adduced, 
may  be  mentioned:  an  edition  of  Orme*8  Memoir 
of  the  Controversy  respecting  the  Three  Heavenly 
Witnesses  (New  York,  1866);  work  upon  G.  R. 
Noyes's  (posthumous)  Translation  of  the  New 
Testament  from  the  Greek  Text  of  Tischendorf  (1869); 
work  upon  C.  F.  Hudson's  Greek  and  English  Con- 
cordance of  the  New  Testament  (1870);  The  LaU 
Professor  Tischendorf,  in  The  Unitarian  Review, 
Mar.  1875;  On  the  Reading  "  an  only  begotten  God/* 
or  "God  only  begotten,**  John  i.  18,  ib.  June  1875; 
On  the  Reading  "  Church  of  God,**  Acts.  xx.  28y  in 
the  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  Apr.  1876  (like  the  preceding, 
first  privately  printed  for  the  American  Bible 
Revision  Conmiittee);  Recent  Discussions  of  Ro- 
mans ix.  6,  an  exhaustive  article  on  the  punctuation 
of  this  passage  in  Journal  of  the  Society  of  Biblical 
Literature  and  Exegesis,  June  and  Dec.  1883. 
The  four  articles  mentioned  last,  together  with  that 
on  the  fourth  Gospel  and  seventeen  others,  were 
published  in  1888,  under  the  editorship  of  J.  H. 
Thayer.         (Praup  ScHAFFf)    D.  S.  Schaff. 

Bibuoobapht:  Ezra  Abbot,  a  memoir  edited  by  S.  J.  Bar- 
rows, Cambridce.  1884;  Andover  Review,  i.  (1884)  554; 
LiUroni  World,  zv.  (1884)  113. 


ABBOT,  GEORGE:    Archbishop  of  Canterbury; 
b.  at  Guildford  (30  m.  s.w.  of  London)  Oct.  29, 
1562;  d.  at  Croydon  (10  m.  s.  of  London)  Aug.  4, 
1633.    He    studied    at    Balliol    College,    Oxford 
(B.A.,  1582;  probationer  fellow,  1583;  M.A.,  1685; 
B.D.,  1593;  D.D.,  1597),  took  orders  in  1585,  re- 
mained at  Oxford  as  tutor,  and  became  known  as 
an  able  preacher  and  lecturer  with  strong  Puritan 
sympathies.    He  was  made  master  of  University 
College  1597;  dean  of  Winchester  1600;  vice-chan- 
cellor of  the  university  1600,  1603,  1605;  bishop 
of  Coventry  and  Lichfield,  1609;  bishop  of  London 
1610;  archbishop  of  Canterbury  1611.    His  learn- 
ing and  sincerity  can  not  be  questioned;  but  he 
was  austere,  narrow,  almost  a  fanatic.    His  one 
great  idea  was  to  crush  "  popery,"  not  only  in 
England,  but  in  all  Europe;  and  popery  to  him 
meant  every  theological   system  except  that  of 
Calvin.    To  further  his  purposes  abroad,  he  meddled 
persistently  in  the  foreign  policy  of  the  State  and 
chose  arbitrary,  high-handed,  and  cruel  means  to 
accomplish    his    ends    at    home.     His    principles 
allowed  him  to  flatter  the  king,  to  help  him  gener- 
ously in  money  matters,  and  to  serve  him  in  certain 
political  undertakings,  such  as  the  restoration  of 
episcopacy  in  Scotland  in  1608-10.    At  other  times 
his  conscience  compelled  him  to  be  just,  and  con- 
sequently he  could  not  retain  the  royal  favor.    A 
Presbyterian    at    heart,    he    accepted    episcopacy 
only  from  a  love  of  order  and  sense  of  loyalty  to 
constituted    authority;  and    his    appointment    as 
archbishop  was  displeasing  to  the  Anglican  party, 
who  had  wanted  Launcelot  Andrewes  (q.v.).     His 
undiplomatic  course  incensed  his  opponents,  and 
they  pursued  him  relentlessly  and  cruelly.     In  1621 
he  killed  a  gamekeeper  while  hunting.     It  was 
purely  accidental,  and  he  was  deeply  shocked  and 
grieved;  nevertheless,  William  Laud  (his  successor  as 
archbishop  and  his  personal  enemy  for  years)  and 
others  seized  upon  the  incident  to  annoy  him  and 
weaken  his  influence.     Charles  I.,  after  his  acces- 
sion, favored  Laud,  who  brought  about  Abbot's 
sequestration  for  a  year  (1627-28)  because  he  had 
refused  to  sanction  a  sermon  by  Dr.  Robert  Sib- 
thorp,  vicar  of  Brack  ley,   indorsing  an  unlawful 
attempt  by  the  king  to  raise  money,  and  showing 
little  sympathy  with  Abbot's  favorite  policy  of 
support  to  the  German  Protestants.     After  this 
his  public  acts  were  few.     But  with  all  his  faults 
and  disappointments  he  was  faithful  to  duty  as  he 
understood  it;  and  he  was  generous  with  money, 
charitable  to  the  poor,  and  a  patron  of  learning. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Oxford  New  Testament 
Company  for  the  version  of  1611;  and  through  him 
CJyril  Lucar   (q.v.)   presented  the  Codex  Alexan- 
drinus  to  Charles  I.    With  other  works,  he  pub- 
lished  A    Brief  Description   of  the    Whole    World 
(London,  1599;  5th  ed.,  1664),  a  geography  pre- 
pared for  his  pupils  at  Oxford,  containing  an  inter- 
esting description  of  America;  and  An  Exposition 
upon  the  Prophet  Jonah  (1600),  which  was  reprinted 
in  1845  with  a  life  by  Grace  Webster. 

Biblioorapht:  T.  Fuller,  Chwch  History,  6  parts.  London, 
1655  (ed.  Brewer,  1845);  Biooraphia  BrUannica,  6  vols., 
ib.  1747-66  (oontaina  his  life  by  W.  OWys,  reprinted  by 
Arthur  Onslow JGuildford,  1777);  W.  F.  Hook.  Eccleaiae- 
Heat  Biography,  8  vols.,  London,  1845-52;   idem.  IAvm  of 


Abbot 
AbdlM 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


ArckbiMhop*,  12  yob.,  ib.    IB60-72;   8.  R.  GArdiner,  11  it- 

ABBOT,  ROBERT;  1<  Bishop  of  Salisbury ;  elder 
brother  of  George  Abbot,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury; 
b.  at  Guildford  (30  m.  b.w.  of  Ivondon)  about  1560; 
d.  at  Saibbuiy  Mar.  2,  161 3.  He  studied  at  BalHol 
CoUege,  03tford  (feUow,  \m\\  M.A.,  1582;  D.D.» 
1597 J,  and  held  several  important  Urings.  In  1609 
he  became  master  of  Balliol-  in  1612  repiis  pro- 
fessor of  divinity  at  Oxford;  in  1615  bishop  of 
Salisbufy.  He  waa  a  learned  man^  on  able  preacher, 
and  a  prolifie  writer}  holding  in  general  the  same 
views  as  his  brother^  but  advocating  them  with 
more  diacretion  and  tact,  Hia  works  include  two 
treatises  in  reply  to  Bellannine,  A  Mirror  of  Popish 
S'M'ilties  (London J  15S4),  and  Antwhristi  dtmon- 
ttrtUio  (1603);  and  A  De fence  of  ih^  li^fortmd  Caihoii^ 
of  Mr.  WiUuxm  Perkim  (3  parts,  1606-09),  which 
won  him  royal  favor  and  a  promise  of  preferment. 

BinuotinAPixT:  Tbos.  Fuller,  AUi  Rechvivtii^  London,,  1651 
(etL  W.  Nicbob,  2  vob.,  1867):  idem.  Ckureh  tfwtory, 
6  ptci..  ib.  1655  (ed.  by  Brewer,  1845) ;  A,  WockI, 
AthinfX  Oxonie7V€t,  ii.  224^227.  lb.  Iflfl2  j  Hiagraphia 
Britannim,  6  vob.,  ib,  1747''€ie  Oife  reprinted  by  A. 
OiialDW,  Guildford,  1777);  Criminfii  Trial*,  illutittativM  of 
Bfiti*K  HiMiory.  ii.  366-357.  ib.  1S37  (iJeab  with  Abbot '• 
put  ia  tbe  contFov&rsy  over  the  Gimpofrder  Plot) ;  DNB^ 
L  24. 

2.  Vicar  of  Cranbrook,  Keot,  1616-43;  b. 
probably,  158S;  d,  about  1657.  He  studied  at 
Cambridge  (college  unknown )(  took  the  degree 
of  M,A.  there,  and  was  incori^ruted  at  Ox- 
ford. Parliampnt  having  decided  against  plurali- 
4ies  of  eci:lesiasticai  offices,  he  resigned  his  Cran- 
brook  vicarage  in  1643,  retaining  that  of  South- 
wick,  Hampshire,  although  much  smaller.  He  was 
afterward  rector  of  St.  Austin's,  Ixmdon.  He  was 
a  strong  churchman;  and  engaged  in  many  con- 
troversies, particularly  with  the  Brownists,  to 
whom  he  was  not  always  fair.  Many  of  hia  writings, 
as  his  MUk  for  Babes,  or  a  M other* »  Caiechijxm  for 
her  ChMrcn  (London,  1646),  were  very  popular. 

BtauooftAFHT^  A*  Wood,  FatHt  Appended  to  Atk^m  Ojm- 
mmma,  London,  ltJ91-92  (ed.  P.  Bliaa,  i.  323.  Oxftircl, 
1848) i  Jobo  WiJlttH-,  Suffering  of  th*  Cleryu,  ii.  183 >  Lon- 
doot  in  A;  B.  Brook,  Ltvef  o/  th$  Puti^na,  ui.  182»  ib. 
1813;  DNB,  i.  25-26. 

ABBOTTp  EDWARD:  Protestant  Episcopalian; 
b.  at  Farmington,  Me.,  July  15,  1841.  He  was 
educated  at  the  University  of  the  City  of  New  York 
(B.A.,  1860)  and  at  Andover  Theological  Seminary 
(1860-62;  did  not  graduate).  In  1862-63  he  was  an 
agent  of  the  United  States  Sanitary  Concimissioji, 
and  in  the  latter  year  was  ordain etl  to  the  Congre- 
gational ministry.  Two  years  later  he  founded 
thj  Stearns  C^fiel  Congregational  Church  (now 
the  Pilpim  Chureh)  at  Oinbridg^,  Mass.,  of  which 
he  was  pastor  four  year«.  In  1872-73  he  was  chap- 
lain of  the  Massachusetts  Senate,  In  1879  he  was 
ordered  deacon  in  the  Prot-estant  Episcopal  C3hurch, 
and  priested  in  1880,  hk  parish  being  that  of  St. 
James,  Cambridge,  which  he  still  holds.  He  refused 
the  proffered  missionary  bishopric  of  Japan  in  IS89. 
At  various  times  he  has  been  a  member  of  the 
Board  of  Visitors  of  Wellesley  College ,  trustee  of 
the  Society  for  the  Relief  of  the  Widows  and  Or- 


phans of  CHergymen  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church,  director  and  president  of  the  Associated 
Charities  of  Cambridgej  viceKiean  and  dean  of  the 
Eastern  Convocation  of  the  Diocese  of  Massachu- 
setts, president  of  the  Cambridge  Branch  of  the 
Indian  Rights  Association,  member  of  the  ^tiasion- 
ary  Council  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church, 
secretary  of  the  Standing  Committee  of  the  Diocese 
of  Massachusetts,  member  of  the  Provisional 
Committee  on  Church  Work  in  Mexico,  president 
of  the  Indian  Industries  League,  president  of  the 
Cambridge  City  Mission,  and  has  been  active  in 
other  religious  and  philanthropic  movementa,  Hia 
theological  position  is  that  of  the  Broad  Cburchp 
sympathising  neither  mth  the  extreme  of  medi- 
evalism nor  liigher  criticism.  In  ]  869-78  he  was 
associate  editor  of  the  Boston  CongregtUtawiliit^ 
and  was  joint  proprietor  and  editor  of  the  Bostim 
Literary  World  from  1877  to  18S8,  again  editing  it 
in  1895-1903.  His  principal  works  are  The  Boh^'9 
Things  :  A  Story  m  V'mre  (New  York,  1871);  Para- 
^apA  HisUyry  of  the  UniUd  Siotea  (Boston,  187S); 
Paragraph  History  of  the  American  Revolidion 
(1876);  Revdutionary  Times  (1876);  History  of 
Cambridge  (1880);  Philtipn  Brooks  (Cambridge, 
1900);  and  Meef  for  the  Master's  Use  ;  An  Alle- 
gory (1900). 

ABBOTT,   EDWm   ABBOTT:    Church   of  Eng- 

land,  author  and  educator,  b.  in  London  Dec.  20, 
1838.  He  studied  at  St.  John's  (College,  Cambridge 
(B.A.,  1S61),  where  he  was  elected  fellow  in  1862. 
He  was  assistant  master  at  King  Edward's  Hchool, 
Birmingham,  in  1862-64,  and  at  Clifton  College  in 
the  foU owing  year»  while  from  1865  to  1889  he  was 
headmaster  at  City  of  London  School.  He  was 
Hulsean  lecturer  at  Cambridge  in  1876  and  select 
preacher  at  Oxford  in  the  succeeding  year.  Hb 
works  include  BMe  Lessons  (London,  1872); 
Cambridge  Serm^ma  (1875);  Through  Nature  to 
Christ  (1877);  Oxford  Si^mon§  (1879);  the  artiele 
Gospels  in  the  9th  ed.  of  the  Enqfdoptrdiii  BrU- 
annica]  The  Common  TradtHon  of  the  Synoptic 
OospeU  (1884;  in  collaboration  with  W.  0.  Rush- 
brooke);  The  Good  Voices,  or  A  Child's  Guide  to 
the  Bible,  and  Parables  for  Children  (1875);  Baam 
and  Essex  (1877);  Fhilochristus  (1878);  Onesimus 
(1882);  Flaiiandf  or  A  Romance  of  Many  Dimerwions 
(1S84);  FranHs  Bacon,  an  Account  of  his  Life  and 
Works  (188,5);  The  Kernel  and  the  Husk  (1886); 
The  Anglican  Career  of  Cardinal  Xemnan  (1892); 
The  SpirU  on  ths  Waters  (IS97);  SL  Thofwu  of 
Canterbury  (Edinburgh,  1898);  Correctiona  of  Mark 
Adopted  by  Matthew  ortd  Luke  (1901) ;  From  LeUer 
to  SpirU  (1903);  Paradosis  (I9m);  Johannine 
Vocabulary,  A  Comparison  of  the  Wards  of  the  Fourth 
Qospetwith  Those  of  the  Three  (1905);  and  SildmuM 
the  Chmfton  (1906). 

ABBOTT,  JACOB:  .American  Congregation&list; 
b.  at  Hallowell,  Me.,  Nov,  H,  1803;  d.  at  Farming- 
ton,  Me.,  Oct.  31,  1879.  He  waa  graduated  at 
Bowdoin,  1820;  studied  theology  at  Andover, 
1822-24;  was  tutor  and  professor  of  mat  hematic* 
and  natural  philosophy  at  Amherat,  1824-29; 
principal  of  the  Mount  Vernon  School  for  Girls, 
Boston,  1829-33;  ordained  evangeliat  and  pastor 


REUGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Abbot 

AbdlM 


of  the  Eliot  Congregational  Churchy  Roxbury, 
Masa.^  1834.  In  1E39  he  removed  to  Farmtngton^ 
Me.f  and  spent  the  remainder  of  hia  U£e  there  and 
in  New  York  devoted  to  literary  work  and  teaching. 
He  wrote  many  Btory-books  which  had  a  wide  cir- 
culation ^  such  as  the  Youn^  Ckristian  eeriea  (4 
vob.;  new  edition  of  the  Young  ChrMaUf  with 
life,  New  York,  1882),  the  Rolh  Boaks  (14  vole.) 
and  HoUo^9  Tour  in  Europe  (10  vole.),  the  Fran- 
cania  Stories  (10  vols.),  Science  for  the  Young  (4 
vols.). 

iUBBOTT,  JUSTHf  EDWARDS:  Presbyterian; 
b.  at  Portamouth,  N.  H.,  Dee.  25,  1853.  He  was 
Vacated  at  Dartmouth  College  (A3,,  1876)  and 
Union  Theological  Seminary,  from  which  he  was 
graduated  in  1879.  He  was  ordained  to  the  Con- 
gregational ministry  in  the  following  year,  and 
after  acting  as  stated  supply  at  the  Presbyterian 
church  at  Norwood,  N.  J.,  in  1881^2,  went  to 
India  under  the  auspicea  of  the  American  Board  of 
Commissioners  for  Foreign  Missions.  Since  that 
time  he  has  been  stationed  at  Bombay  in  the 
Maratha  Mission ,  and  haa  contributed  a  number 
of  monographs  to  sci entire  periodicals  on  the 
epigraphy  and  numismatics  of  India,  id  addition 
to  preparing  rcligpoua  works  in  Maratbi  for  the 
use  of  Hindu  converts. 

ABBOTT,  LYMAH;  American  Cbngregational* 
iat;  b.  at  Roxbury,  Mass.,  Dec,  18,  1835.  He  was 
educated  at  New  York  University  (B.A.,  1853), 
and  after  practisijig  law  for  a  time  was  ordained  a 
minister  in  the  Congregational  Church  in  1860. 
He  was  pastor  in  Terre  Haute,  Ind.,  from  1860 
to  1865,  after  which  he  held  the  |>flstorate  of  the 
New  England  Church,  New  York  City,  for  four 
yeare,  resigning  to  devote  himself  to  literary  work, 
Jn  188S  he  Bucceeded  Henry  Ward  Bcccher  as  pastor 
of  Plymouth  Church,  Brooklyn,  but  resigned  in 
1898.  He  was  secretary  of  the  American  Union 
Commission  from  1865  to  1869,  and  later  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  New  York  Child  Labor  Committee  and 
of  the  National  Child  Labor  Committee.  Among 
other  societies,  he  is  a  member  of  the  Bar  Asso- 
ciation of  New  York,  New  York  Btat€  Historical 
Association,  National  Conference  of  Charities  and 
Correction,  Indian  Rights  Association,  New  York 
Association  for  the  Blind,  Association  for  Improv- 
ing the  Condition  of  the  Poor,  The  Religious  Ekiuca- 
tion  Association,  American  Board  of  Commissioners 
for  Foreign  Missions.  American  Institute  of  Sacred 
Literature,  American  Pcac«  Society,  New  York 
State  Conference  of  Religion,  and  the  l^niversal 
Peace  Union.  His  theological  position  is  that  of  a 
CongregationaUst  of  the  Liberal  Evangelical  type. 
In  addition  to  editing  the  "  Literary  Record  "of 
Harper's  Magarine,  he  edited  The  lUuxtToted  Chris- 
tian Weekly  (1871-76)  and  since  1876  The  ChrtM^ 
lion  Uni&n  (with  Henry  Ward  Beecher  till  1881  j 
name  changed  to  The  Outlook ,  1893),  He  has 
written  Jemis  of  Nazareth  (New  York,  1869);  Old 
Testament  Shadows  of  New  Testommt  Trvih  (1870); 
lUmiraied  Commentary  on  the  New  Testament  (New 
York,  1875);  Dictionary  of  Reiigi&iis  Knowledge  (Boa- 
ton,  1876;  in  collaboration  withT.  J.  Conant);  How 
to  Study  the  BibU  (1877);  In  Aid  of  FaUh  (New 


York,  1886);  Emi\Uiem  of  Christianity  (Boston, 
1896);  The  Theology  of  an  Emluiionist  (1897); 
Christianity  and  Social  Problems  (1897);  Life  and 
Letters  of  Paid  (1898);  Problems  of  Life  (New  York, 
1900);  Life  and  Literature  of  the  Ancient  H^ews 
(Boston,  1900);  The  Rightt  of  Man  (1901);  Henry 
Ward  BeecJuT  {1903);  The  Other  Room  (New  York, 
1903);  The  GreiU  Companion  (1904);  Christian 
Ministry  {Boston,  1905);  Personality  of  God  (New 
York,  1905);  and  IndustTi4il  Problems  (Philadel- 
phia, 1905). 

ABBOTT,  THOMAS  EDIGSMILL:  Church  of 
Ireland,  author  and  professor;  b.  at  Dublin  Mar. 
26,  1829.  He  was  educated  at  Trinity  College, 
Dublin  (B.A.,  1851;  M.A.,  1856;  B.D.,  1879), 
where  he  was  elected  fellow  in  1854.  From  1867 
to  1872  he  was  pn>feasor  of  Moral  Philosophy  at 
Trinity  College,  of  BibUcal  Greek  from  1875  to 
1888,  and  of  Hebrew  from  1879  to,  1900,  and  has 
also  been  librarian  of  the  College  since  1887.  He 
liaa  been  chairman  of  the  Governors  of  Sir  P.  Dun's 
Hospital  since  1S97.  In  theology  he  is  a  Broad 
Churchman.  His  works  include  Sight  and  Touch, 
an  Attempt  to  Disproi^  (he  Bcrkleyan  Theory  of 
Vision  (Dublin,  1864);  Par  palimpscstontm  Ihib- 
linensium  {1880);  Elements  of  Lo^ic  {1883);  Evan- 
gelioTum  versio  Antihieronymiana  (2  vols.,  1884); 
Theory  of  tlie  Tides  (1888);  Celtie  Ornaments  from 
the  Book  of  Kelts  (1892);  Notes  on  SL  PauV* 
Epistles  (1892);  Essays^  Chiefly  on  the  Original 
Texts  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  (Edinburgh, 
1897);  Catalogue  of  Manuscripts  in  the  Library  of 
THnUy  College,  Dublin  (Dublin,  1900);  and  Cata- 
logue of  Incunabula  in  the  Library  of  Trinity  College, 
Dublin  (1905),  in  addition  toKant's  Theory  of  Ethka, 
a  translation  (1873). 

ABBHEVIATQRS :  OiFicials  of  the  papal  chan- 
cery whose  duty  it  is  to  prepare  aF>ostoLic  letters 
expedited  through  that  ofhce.  'Hie  name  is  derived 
from  the  fact  that  part  of  their  work  consists  in 
taking  minutes  of  the  petitions  addressed  to  the 
Holy  See  and  of  the  answers  to  be  returned,  Foi^ 
merly  they  were  divided  into  two  classes,  di  parca 
maggiore  and  di  parco  minaret  hut  the  latter  class 
has  long  been  abolished.  In  the  College  of  Abbre- 
viators  at  the  present  time  there  are  twelve  clerics 
and  seventeen  laymen.  Legielation  of  Feb.  13, 
1904,  define  their  duties  anew.  The  office  dates 
from  the  eariy  part  of  the  fourteenth  century,  and 
has  bt>en  filled  by  many  distinguiabecl  prelates. 
In  1406  Paul  II.  aboliahed  it  because  it  had  been 
corrupted^  but  it  was  restored  by  Sixtus  IV.  in  1471, 
There  is  also  an  Mrreviatare  di  curm  attached  to 
the  datary,  who  prepares  minutes  of  papal  letters 
addressed  motu  propria  to  the  entire  Church. 

John  T.  Creagh. 

ABDIASf  ab'd!-as:  Legendary  first  bishop  of 
Babylon.  Under  the  title*  De  historia  certaminis 
Qpostolici  there  exists  a  collection  of  myths,  legends, 
and  traditions  relating  to  the  lives  and  works  of 
the  apostles,  and  pret-cnding  to  be  the  Latin  trans- 
lation of  the  Greek  translation  of  the  Hebrew  work 
of  Ahdias.  Neither  the  book  nor  its  author  was 
known  to  Eusebius  or  to  Jerome,  nor  do  they  find 
mention  before  Ordericus  Vitalis  (12th  cent,). 


Abeel 
Abelard 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


Bibuoorapht:  W.  Lasuiod.  D«  hittoria  ctrtaminia  apo»- 
tolid,  Paris,  1560.  and  often  reprinted;  Fabricius,  Codex 
apocryphu;  ii.  (Ist  ed..  1703).  and  ii..  iii.  (2d  ed..  1719); 
C.  Oudin,  Commerdariua  de  tcriptoribut  tcelenaalieia,  ii. 
418-421.  Leipsic.  1722;  O.  J.  Voas,  De  kialoricU  Grade, 
p.  243,  ib.  1838;  J.  A.  Giles,  Codex  apocryphue  Novi  Tee- 
tamenH,  London,  1852;  Migne.  Troieihne  el  demiire  en- 
eyelopidie  OUolooique,  xxiv.  (66  vols..  Paris.  1855-66);  S. 
C.  Malan.  Conflicte  of  the  Holy  Apoetlee  .  .  .  traneUUed 
from  an  Ethiopie  MS.,  London.  1871;  DCB,  i.  1-4. 

ABEEL,  DAVID:  Missionary;  b.  at  New  Bruns- 
wick, N.  J.,  June  12,  1804;  d.  at  Albany,  N.  Y., 
Sept.  4,  1846.  He  was  graduated  at  the  New 
Brunswick  Theological  Seminary  in  1826;  in  1829 
he  went  to  Canton  as  chaplain  of  the  Seaman's 
Friend  Society;  and  in  1831-33  he  visited  Java, 
Singapore,  and  Siam  for  the  American  Board. 
Returning  to  America  by  way  of  Europe  in  1833, 
he  aided  in  founding  in  England  a  society  for  pro- 
moting the  education  of  women  in  the  East.  He 
went  back  to  China  in  1838  and  founded  the  Amoy 
mission  in  1842.  He  published  a  Journal  of  his 
first  residence  in  China  (New  York,  183,'>),  The 
Missionary  Convention  at  Jerusalem  (1838),  Claims 
of  the  World  to  the  Gospel  (1838). 
Bibuoorapht:     G.   R.  Williamson,      David    Aheel,    New 

York.  1849. 

A'BEL  ("Breath")-  Second  son  of  Adam  and 
Eve  and  the  brother  of  Cain,  who,  according  to 
Gen.  iv.  1-16,  killed  him  from  envy. 

ABELARD,  ab'e-lOrd. 

I.  Life. 

Student  Life  and  Lecturer  on  Philosophy  (|  1). 

Ueloise  (|  2). 

Monk  and  Abbot  (|  3). 

Second  Condemnation  for  Heresy  (|  4). 

Last  Days  ({  5). 

II.  System. 

Philosophy  ($1). 
Theology  (5  2). 

III.  Writings. 

Abelard  is  a  name  used  as  the  common  desig- 
nation of  Pierre  de  Palais  (Petrus  Palatinus),  the 
first  notable  representative  of  the  dialectico-critical 
school  of  scholasticism  founded  by  Anselm  of 
Canterbury,  but  kept  by  him  within  the  limits  of 
the  traditional  orthodoxy.  The  meaning  as  well 
as  the  original  form  of  the  by-name  is  uncertain; 
it  has  been  connected  with  the  Latin  hajulus^ 
"  teacher,"  and  with  the  French  abeiUe,  "  bee." 
The  •nding  ''  -ard  "  is  Prankish,  and  the  entire 
name  may  be. 

L  Life:  Abelard  was  bom  at  Palais  (Le 
Pallet),  a  village  of  Brittany,  about  12  m.  e.  of 
Nantes,  in  1079;  d.  in  the  Priory  of  St.  Marcel, 
nearChalon-sur-Sadne  (36m.n.  of  Mdcon).  Apr.  21, 
1142.  He  voluntarily  renounced  his  rights  as 
first-bom  son  of  the  knight  Berengar,  lord  of  the 
village,  and  chose  a  life  of  study.  His  first  teacher 
was  Roecelin,  the  Nominalist,  at  Locmenach,  Brit- 
tany, now  Looming,  80  m.  s.  w.  of  Brest.  Then  he 
wandered  from  one  teacher  to  another 
X.  Student   until  he  came  to  Paris,  where  William 

Life  and  of  Champeaux.  the  Realist,  was  head 
Lecturer  on  of  the  cathedral  school  and  attracting 
Philosophy,  great  crowds.  Young  as  he  was, 
Abelard  was  bold  enough  to  set  him- 
self up  as  William's  rival;  he  lectured,  first  at  Melun 
(27  m.  8.8.6.  of  Paris),  then  at  Ck)rbeil  (7  miles  nearer 


Paris),  and,  after  a  few  years,  in  Paris  itself  at  the 
cathedral  school.  His  success  was  sufficient  to 
make  William  jealous,  and  he  compelled  Abelard 
to  leave  the  city.  About  1113  he  betook  himself 
to  Anselm  of  Laon  at  Laon  (86  m.  n.e.  of  Paris)  to 
study  theology,  having  hitherto  occupied  himself 
wholly  with  dialectics.  His  stay  at  Laon  was  short 
and  was  followed  by  a  few  years  at  Paris,  where 
crowds  flocked  to  hear  his  lectures  and  brought 
him  a  considerable  income. 

This  brilliant  career  was  suddenly  checked  by 
the  episode  of  Heloise,  a  young  girl  of  eighteen, 
said  to  hf  ve  been  the  natural  daughter  of  a  canon 
of  Paris,  living  with  her  uncle.  Canon  Fulbert  of 
Paris.  Her  education  was  confided  to  Abelard, 
and  a  passionate  love  sprang  up  between  them. 
When  Fulbert  attempted  to  separate  them,  they 
fled  toward  Brittany,  to  the  home  of  Abelard 's 
sister,  Dionysia,  where  Heloise  bore  a  son,  Astra- 
labius.  To  satisfy  Fulbert  the  lovers  were  married, 
Abelard  asking  that  the  marriage  be 
2.  Heloise.  kept  secret  out  of  regard  for  his  eccle- 
siastical career.  Fulbert  disregarded 
this  request  and  also  treated  his  niece  badly  when 
she  returned  to  liis  house.  Abelard  accordingly 
removed  her  to  the  Benedictine  nunnery  of  Argen- 
teuil  (11  m.  n.e.  of  Versailles),  where  she  had  been 
brought  up,  and  where  later  she  took  the  veil,  a 
step  which  Fulbert  interpreted  as  an  attempt  by 
her  husband  to  get  rid  of  her.  In  revenge  he  had 
Abelard  attacked  by  night  in  his  lodgings  in  Paris 
and  mutilated,  with  the  view  probably  of  rendering 
him  incapable  of  ever  holding  any  ecclesias- 
tical office.  Abelard  retired  to  the  Benedictine 
abbey  of  St.  Denis  in  Paris  (probably  about  1118), 
where  he  became  a  monk  and  lived  imdisturbed 
for  a  year  or  two,  giving  instruction  in  a  secluded 
place  (the  "  cella  "). 

He  received  much  sympathy  and  had  many  pupils. 
In  1121  a  synod  at  Soissons  pronounced  heretical 
certain  opinions  expressed  by  him  in  a  book  on  the 
Trinity  (De  unitaie  et  trinitate  divina ;  discovered 
by  R.  StOlzle  and  published,  Freiburg.  1891).  He 
was  required  to  bum  the  book,  and 
3.  Monk  to  retire  to  the  monastery  of  St.  Med- 
and  Abbot  ard,  near  Soissons.  In  a  short  time, 
however,  he  was  allowed  to  return  to 
St.  Denis,  but  was  ill  received  there;  and  his 
assertion  that  the  patron  saint  of  the  monastery 
and  of  France  was  not  the  same  as  Dionysius  the 
Areopagite  (see  Denis,  Saint)  made  more  trouble 
with  the  abbot,  the  monks,  and  the  court.  He 
fled,  but  was  compelled  to  return  and  recant  his 
opinion  concerning  St.  Denis.  Afterward  he  was 
allowed  to  retire  to  Champagne,  near  Nogent-sur- 
Seine  (60  m.  s.  e.  of  Paris)  where  he  built  an  oratory 
to  the  Trinity.  Pupils  again  gathered  about  him 
and  the  original  building  of  reeds  and  sedges  was 
replaced  by  one  which  he  called  the  Paraclete. 
But  he  was  still  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  abbot 
of  St.  Denis  and  suffered  much  annoyance.  He 
accepted  the  election  as  abbot  of  the  monastery  of 
St.  Gildas  in  Brittany  (on  the  peninsula  of  Ruis, 
10  m.  8.  of  Vannes),  and  stayed  there  ten  3^^ear8,  but 
he  found  it  impossible  to  control  the  immly  m<Hik8 
and  they  tried  to  poison  him.    He  foimd  refuge 


9 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Abeel 
AbeUzd 


from  time  to  time  at  the  Paraclete,  which  he  had 
presented  to  Heloise  after  the  nimnery  of  Argen- 
teuil  was  closed  (c.  1127);  but  his  visits  as  spiritual 
director  of  the  nuns  who  gathered  about  his  wife 
caused  scandal,  and  he  had  to  give  them  up.  An- 
other attempt  was  made  on  his  life;  and  once  more 
he  sought  safety  in  flight,  whither  is  not  known. 

For  several  years  his  life  is  obscure;  it  is  only 

known  that  in  1136  John  of  Salisbury  heard  him 

lecture  in  the  school  on  the  hill  of  St.  Genevieve  in 

Paris,  and  that  during  this  period  he  wrote  his 

autobiography,  the  Hiatoria  calamitatum.    In  1141 

a  council,  instigated  mainly  by  Bernard  of  Clair- 

vaux,  a  man  thoroughly  antipathetic   to  Abelard, 

who  had  long  considered  his  teaching  wrong  and 

his  influence  dangerous,  met  at  Sens  (61  m.  s.8.e.  of 

Paris).    Certain  extracts  from  Abelard 's  writings 

were  pronounced  erroneous  and  hereti- 

4.  Second   cal  (June  4,  1141).    Abelard  declined 

Condemna-  to  defend  himself;  he  appealed  to  the 

tion  for     pope,  and  with  his  followers  left  the 

Heresy,  council.  His  former  pupil,  Cardinal 
Guido  de  Castello  (afterward  Pope 
Celestine  II.),  took  his  part  at  Rome;  but  Bernard 
wrote  a  letter  denouncing  Arnold  of  Brescia, 
another  pupil,  as  one  of  the  champions  of  Abelard, 
and  thereby  influenced  the  decision  of  Pope  Inno- 
cent II.,  who  condemned  Abelard  to  silence,  ex- 
communicated his  followers,  ordered  him  and 
Arnold  to  retire  to  a  monastery,  and  their  books  to 
be  burned  (July  16,  1141).  Abelard  wrote  an 
apology  defending  himself  against  the  action  of  the 
council,  and  sent  a  letter  to  Heloise  maintaining  his 
orthodoxy.  He  wrote  a  second  apology  submitting 
to  the  Church,  and  made  peace  with  Bernard. 

By  the  friendly  intervention  of  Peter  the  Vener- 
able, Abbot  of  Cluny,  permission  was  given  him  to 
spend  the  rest  of  his  days  at  Cluny.  He  continued 
his  studies,  '*  read  constantly,  prayed 

5.  Last     often,  gladly  kept  silence."    But,  bro- 

Days.  ken  by  his  sufferings  and  misfortunes, 
he  did  not  live  long  there.  With  a 
view  to  his  physical  betterment  Peter  sent  him  to 
the  neighboring  priory  of  St.  Marcel,  at  Chalons 
and  there  he  died.  His  body  was  taken  to  the 
Paraclete;  and  on  the  death  of  Heloise  (May  16, 
1164)  her  body  was  placed  in  the  same  coffin.  In 
1817  their  remains  were  removed  to  the  cemetery 
of  P^re  Lachaise,  Paris,  and  a  monument  was 
erected  of  stone  from  the  ruins  of  the  Paraclete. 

n.  System:  Abelard  belonged  to  the  school 
of  Anselm  of  Canterbury,  but  he  did  not  follow 
him  slavishly;  and  he  was  more  critic  than  apolo- 
gist of  any  system.  He  borrowed  much  from 
Augustine,  Jerome,  and  older  Church  Fathers,  as 
well  as  from  Agobard,  Claudius  of  Turin,  Engena, 
and  Fredegis.  His  originality  is  seen  in  his  doc- 
trine of  the  Trinity  and  the  Atonement  and,  as  a 
philosopher,  particularly  in  his  teaching  concerning 
the  prindpia  and  his  position  toward  the  question 
of  tmivenalia.  The  latter  is  not  quite 
X.  Philoso-  clear;  but  it  appears  that  he  was 
phy.  neither  nominalist,  realist,  nor  con- 
ceptuaUst.  William  of  Champeaux, 
the  extreme  realist,  declared  the  univeraalia  to  be 
the  very  essence  of  all  existence,  and  individuality 


only  the  product  of  incidental  circumstances.  To 
this  Abelard  objected  that  it  led  to  pantheism; 
and  he  pursued  his  criticism  so  keenly  that  he  forced 
William  to  modify  his  system.  He  rejected  nomi- 
nalism also,  according  to  which  the  univeraalia  are 
mere  names,  declaring  that  our  conceptions  must 
correspond  to  things  which  occasion  them.  This 
view  is  not  conoeptualism  in  so  far  as  it  does  not  in 
one-sided  fashion  emphasise  the  assertion  that  the 
general  ideas  are  mere  canceptua  mentiaf  mere  sub- 
jective ideas. 

As   theologian   Abelard   is  noteworthy  for  his 
doctrine  of  revelation,  his  attitude  toward  belief 
on  authority,  and  his  conception  of  the 
2.  The-     relation    between    taith    and    knowl- 
ology.      edge.    CJonceming   revelation  he  em- 
phasizes the  inner  influence  on  the 
human  spirit  rather  than  its  external  manifestation, 
and  does  not  limit  inspiration  to  the  writers  of  the 
Scriptures,  but  holds  that  it  was  imparted  also  to 
the  Greek  and  Roman  philosophers  and  to  the 
Indian  Brahmans.    He  teaches  that  the  Scriptures 
are  the  result  of  the  cooperation  of  the  Spirit  of 
God  with  the  human  writers,  recognizes  degrees 
of    inspiration,    and    admits    that    prophets    and 
apostles  may  make  mistakes.    He  does  not  hesitate 
to  disclose   the  contradictions  in   tradition,   and  / 

distinguishes  like  a  good  Protestant  between  the  {/^ 
authority  of  the  Scriptures  and  that  of  the  Fathers. 
Faith  means  to  him  a  belief  in  things  not  susceptible 
to  sense  which  can  be  grounded  on  rational  demon- 
stration or  satisfactory  authority.  He  opposes 
the  compulsion  of  authority,  will  have  free  dis- 
cussion of  religious  things,  and  everywhere  follows 
his  own  conviction;  but  he  sets  narrow  limits  to 
what  can  be  known.  An  adequate  knowledge  of 
the  unity  and  trinity  of  God  he  declares  impossible, 
as  well  as  a  scientific  proof  that  shall  compel  belief 
in  the  existence  of  God  and  immortality.  Here 
he  asserts  merely  a  possibility  of  belief.  He  con- 
demns the  acceptance  of  formulas  of  belief  without 
knowing  what  they  mean,  and  will  have  no  one 
required  to  believe  anything  contrary  to  reason; 
he  found  nothing  of  the  kind  himself  in  the  Scrip- 
tures or  the  teaching  of  the  Church,  and  does  not 
mean  to  exclude  the  supernatural.  The  doctrine 
of  the  Trinity  he  always  treats  in  connection  with 
the  divine  attributes;  and  in  spite  of  all  precautions 
the  Trinity  always  becomes  in  his  thought  one  of 
the  attributes.  He  qualifies  omnipotence  by 
teaching  that  God  does  everything  which  he  can, 
and  therefore  he  could  not  do  more  than  he  has  done. 
He  can  not  prevent  evil,  but  is  able  only  to  permit 
it  and  to  turn  it  to  good.  As  for  his  ethics,  he 
teaches  that  moral  good  and  ill  inhere  not  in  the 
act  but  in  the  motive.  The  evil  propensity  is  not 
sin;  it  is  the  pctna  merely,  and  not  the  ciUpa,  which 
has  passed  from  Adam  upon  all.  His  theory  of 
the  Atonement  is  moral.  The  aim  of  the  incarna- 
tion and  sufferings  of  Christ  was  to  move  men  to 
love  by  this  highest  revelation  of  the  divine  love. 
The  love  thus  awakened  frees  from  the  bondage 
of  sin,  enables  to  fulfil  the  law,  and  impels  to  do  the 
will  of  God,  no  longer  in  fear,  but  in  the  freedom  of 
the  sons  of  God.  By  law  he  understands  the  natural 
law  which  Christ  taught  and  fulfilled,  giving  thereby 


AIMUurd 
Abhadananilft 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


10 


the   highest  example.    Bj   his  love^  faitbfi^  to 
de&thf  Ghrist  hms  won  merit  with  God;  and  because 
of  thk  merit  God  forgives  those  who  enter  into 
eomm union  with  Christ  and  enftblea  them  to  fulfil 
the  law.    It  i«  in  petsonal  cominunioD  with  Christ p 
therefore,  th«t  the  re&l  Atonement  conaiMa.     Onl^r 
such  as  let  themeelvea  be  impraaBed  with  the  love 
of  Chrifit  enter  into  thia  communion.     By  the  curae 
of  the  law  from  which  Christ  frees,  Abelard  imder- 
fftonda  the  Moaaic  religion  with  its  hard  i^uniah* 
menta.     Inaamuch  as  Christ  made  an  end  of  the 
Mosaic  religion,  he  abolished  its  punisbmenta  also, 
in.  Writings:     A  practically  complete    edition 
of  the  works  of  Abelard  (including  certain  writings 
which  sjie  spurious  or  of  doubtful  origin)  was  fur- 
nished by  Victor  Cousin  in  the  OuwoQes  inMUs 
d'Abilcrd  (Paris,  1836)  and  P^ri  AbdaTdi  opera 
nunc  primufn  tn  unuwi  eoUec^  (2  vols.,  1849-69); 
the  Opera,  from  the  edition  of  A<  Duchesne  and  F. 
Amboise   (Paris,   1616),  with  Opuacula  published 
later,  are  in  MPL^  clxxviii,  (lacks  the  Sic  ei  iw?n, 
that   brilliant   piece   of    skeptical   writing).     Par- 
ticular works  have  been  published  as  follows:  the 
Theohgia  ChriMiana  and  the  Hexameron,  ^.  Mar^ 
t^ne  and  Durand,  in  the  Thesaurus  norms  anecdo* 
torum,  V.  (Paris,  1717);  the  Eihica  {Seiloie  ipsum)^ 
ed.  B,  Pes,  in  the  Tkesaurus  anet^otorum  novi»- 
timuMj  m.  (1721  )i  the  Dudogus  and  the  Epiiome  or 
Smieniuie,  ed.  F,  U.  Rheinwald  (Berlin,  1831, 1835); 
the  Sic  ei  rum,  ed.  T.  Henke  and  G.  S.  Lindenkohl 
(Marburg,  1851;  incomplete    in   Cousin's    edition, 
1836);  the  Hishna  calam^nlum,  ed.  Orelli  (Zurich, 
1$41);  the  Plandus   virginum   Israel    mtper    fUva 
JepttE  Galadilm,  ed.  W*  Meyer  and  W.  Brambach 
(Munich,  1886);  the  Hymruirim    paraclilenaisr  ed, 
G.  M.  Dreves  (Paris,  1891);  the  Tradaim  de  unitaU 
et  iHnUaie  divina,  ed.  R.  Stable  ( Freiburg,  1891). 
The  letters  have  been  often  published  in  the  originaJ 
Latin  and  in  translation  (Latin,  ed.  R.  RawUnaon, 
London,  1718;  Eng.,  ed.  H,  Mills,  London,  1850; 
ed.  H.  Morton,  New  York,  1901 ;  G«rm.,  with  the 
HisUma  calamitGlum,  ed.  P.  Baumgartner,  Reekm, 
Leipsic,  IS^;  French,  with  Latin  temt,  ed,  Gr^rard, 
Paris,  1885);  and  selections  will  be  found  in  some 
of  the  works  cited  in  the  bibliography  below. 
Bibuoorapitt:    J.   Eterioeton.  ,  ,  .  Livea    of  dbg^hrd   arwi 
HehUa^   with  .  .  .  Their    Leiiera^    2d   ed.,    BiirmiashflLtn. 
17S8;    C.  de  E4fmiiBat,  AhSand,  2  V^U.,  PwjiB,  IMS  (the 
standard  bioerapli}r);   J.  L.  Ja<3obi,  Abitlard  und  H^hi^, 
Bariin,  laaOi   F.  P,  G.  Guiiot,  Leffrw  d'AbaUard  H  d'Hi- 
lm40,  pricid4e»  d'un  eaai  hiHorvjue,  PmriH,  IB39,  18^;   C. 
PrtJiteU  GetcAioWc  dir  Logik  im  Ahendifmde,  u.  160-204, 
LeipAic.  t8«l:    O.  W.  Wight.  Ahfiajd  and  HtlmM,  New 
York,   1861;    E.  Bonniern  AUlatd  id  SL  Bernard,  P*ri». 
ia«2;     Hefele,    ConrtlitnflWKAicAle,    v.     321-^26.     39^ 
43S-   A.  BtdcU,  a&diii:kte  da-  PhUfrnphie  dmt  Mi^elatten, 
i.  218-272.  Mftint.  1864:    H.  Reuter.  OttchiehUf  dtr  reOtfi- 
d«rti  Aufklarutm  im  Mintlali^r.  I  183-269.  Berlin*  187S; 
K  Vacaudard,  A  bttard  ei  m  f ufte  atec  SU  Bgmard,  ta  doc* 
frifM,  «a  mithode.  Paris.  1831:   S.  M.  Deutach,  Pater  AbA- 
IftjiJ,  LeipHic.  1883;  A.  S.  RichardsiQn,  Ahilard  and  H^oi**, 
with  a  SeUtHon  of  dmr  UUert,  New  York.  1884;    J.  G. 
ComiHiyFi.N  Abtisrd  and  ifc*  .  .  .  HuUsrp  of  Univermtu*, 
LondoD,  18^3;  A.  Hmuinth,  Petm-  AbHtlard,  Leip«ic*  18fl£: 
Jot  McC»he.P«ter  Abiiard,  New  York.  1901  (an  «3EC«lteiit 
bookn   Hmuck,  KD.  iv,  409  sqq. 

ABEUTES,  fe'bel-flitfl  (ABELUHS,  ABELOITIAHS) : 

A  sect  mentioned  by  Augustine  (Haer.,  Ixxxvii.; 
cf.  Prtedesiinalm,  L  87)  aa  formeriy  living  in  the 
.neighborhood  of  Hippo,  biit  already  extinct  when 


he  wnit«.  Their  naine  wma  derired  from  Abd, 
the  son  of  Adam.  Each  man  look  &  wife^  but 
refrained  from  eonjug;al  relations,  and  each  pair 
adopted  a  boy  and  a  girl  who  inherited  the  property 
of  their  foater-^jents  on  eonditioD  of  living  t^ 
getber  in  like  manner  in  mature  hfe.  They  were 
probably  the  remnant  of  a  Gnostic  aect,  tlng^ 
perhapa  by  Maniehean  influenoee.  {The  n^me  grew 
out  of  a  wide^-Hpread  belief  that  Abel  though  mar- 
ried had  lived  a  hfe  of  continenoe.] 

BwmuoamAM-mr-  a  W.  F.  Waloli,  SnAnvf  mitm-  waiijUSftdHn 
ffittmi*  dm-  £cCMrvH»,  L  607-40S,  Lapne,  1702. 


ABELLI,  o4>el1i,  LOUIS:  French  Roman 
Catholic;  b*  1603;  d.  at  P&rii  Oct.  4,  1691.  He 
waa  made  biahop  of  Rhodes,  eouthem  France,  m 
1664^  but  resigned  three  yeara  laAer  and  retijfed  to 
the  monastery  of  St.  La£are  in  Paria,  He  was  a 
vehement  opponeait  of  Janaenism.  Hia  nmneroui 
worka  include:  Medulla  thetyloffica  (2  vols.,  Paria, 
1651 ),  a  treatise  on  dogmatics;  La  Traditmn  de 
I'^gtim  iouchara  la  d^voivm  envers  ia  SmnU  Vkrgt 
(1652);  Vis  de  51.  VineeM  de  Paul  (1664);  Ds 
PabHsaanee  et  soumission  due  au  Fape  (ed.  Cfaeniel, 
1870) ;  and  two  volumen  of  meditationa,  La  Caunmnt 
ds  i'annie  cArSHenne  (1657). 


ABEir  EZHA  (Abraham  ben  Melr  Ibn  Em): 
Jewish  poet,  grammarian,  and  commeiitator;  b. 
in  Toledo,  gpain,  1092;  d.  Jan.  23, 1167.  He  Idt 
Toledo  about  1138  and  ia  known  to  have  viaited 
Bagdad,  Rome  (1140),  Mantua  and  Lucca  (1145), 
Dreux  (45  m.  W.8.W.  of  Paria;  1155-57),  and  Lon- 
don (115S);  in  1166  he  waa  in  eouthem  France. 
Hia  poema  ahow  a  maateiy  of  the  metrical  art  bat 
have  no  inapiiation,  hia  grammatical  worka  are  not 
logically  arranged,  and  his  oommentanee  lack 
religioufl  feeling.  Hie  exegptical  principle  waa  to 
follow  the  grammatical  sense  rather  than  the  nSk- 
fEorical  method  of  the  Church;  yet  he  leeortA  to 
figurative  interpretation  when  the  literal  meaning 
ia  repugnant  to  i^ason.  Hie  critical  inj^ight  is 
shown  by  Mnt^  that  the  Pentateuah  and  Isaiah 
contain  interpolations  (cf.  H.  Hokinj^Br,  EmleUwi^ 
in  den  Hexaieuch,  F>eiburg<  189S,  pp.  28  sqq.; 
J-  Ftlrst,  Der  Kamm  dm  AUen  Temameniaf  Leipsic, 
1868,  p.  16),  though  he  lacked  the  eouiBg^  to  aay 
ao  openly.  His  chief  importance  is  that  he  made 
the  grammatical  ajid  religio-philoeopMcal  worict 
of  the  Spamsb  Jews,  written  in  Arabic,  known  out^ 
mde  of  Spain.  His  commentaries  (on  the  Pentap 
teuch.  Isaiah,  the  Minor  Propheta,  Job,  Psahns, 
the  five  MegiUoth,  and  [>aniel)  are  usually  found 
in  rabbinic  Bibles.  Hia  introduction  to  the  Pen- 
tateuch has  been  edited  by  W.  Bacber  (Vienna, 
1876);  the  commentaiy  on  Isaiah,  with  Eng. 
trana.  and  two  volumea  of  Essays  on  the  WriHn^ 
&f  Abraham  'ibn  Esra,  by  M.  Friedl&nder  (4  vols., 
London,  1873--77).  HLa  poema  have  been  pub- 
liahed  by  D.  Roein  (4  parta,  Brealau,  1885-01) 
and  J.  Egpra  (Berlin,  1886).  (G.  Dalmak.) 
BiBUoaRAPar:  L.  Zuoa^  1Kb  wtrtaaoQaU  Foetim  d*t  MiU^ 
tOi^rM,  Berlin,  1855;  a.  I.  KAmpf,  NuMtndolumw^  PeamM 
andaluMchgr  Diehier,  i.  213-240,  P^n«i]fl,  ISSS;  M,  E^iakr, 
l^or/efunoen  iibtfr  Hit  jiidiMche  Phiiomophie  dot  MitUiaUt^, 
L  113-120,  VienbA,  1876;  W.  Buher.  Ahr4iham  i6fi  Bum 
o.ta  Grammatik^,  Stnaburg,  IS&2;  J,  B.  Bpiester,  G*^ 
tehiehU  dmr  Philo^pkU  d«i  Judtntums,  pp.  263-365.  Leip- 


11 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


▲belaid 


rie.  1800;  H.  Qrtti.  GMdkieAte  der  Juden,  vi.  (1894)  184- 
101.  280-306.  733-735:  iiL  (1807)  131-140.  Ens-  trmiuL. 
London.  1801H)8;  J.  Winter  .and  A.  WOnsche.  Dm  jfl- 
di»eh0  LiUeratur,  iL  184-101.  280-306.  Berlin.  1804. 

ABERCIUS.    See  Avbrciub. 

ABERCROMBIE,  ab'eiH;nnn-bi,  JOHH:  Scotch 
physician  and  writer  on  metaphysics;  b.  at  Aber- 
deen Oct.  10, 1780 ;  d.  at  Edinburgh  Nov.  14,  1844. 
He  studied  medicine  at  Edinburgh  and  London, 
and  settled  in  the  former  city  as  practising  physician 
in  1804.  He  became  one  of  the  foremost  medical 
men  of  Scotland,  but  is  best  known  as  the  author 
of  Inquiriea  concerning  the  InteUedtud  Powers  and 
the  Investigation  of  Truth  (Edinburgh,  1830)  and 
The  Philoeophy  of  the  Moral  Feelings  (London, 
1833),  worics  which  he  wrote  from  a  belief  that  his 
knowledge  of  nervous  diseases  fitted  him  to  discuss 
mental  phenomena.  The  books  long  enjoyed  great 
popularity,  but  were  not  written  in  the  real  spirit 
of  a  truth-seeker,  have  little  originality,  and  are 
now  superseded.  A  volume  of  Eesays  and  Tracts, 
mainly  on  religious  subjects,  was  published  post- 
humously (Edinburgh,  1847). 
BiBUOOEArHT:  W.    Anderson.  ScoUi^  ffaUan,  i.  2,  Edin- 

bursh.  1864;  D.VB.  i.  37-38. 

ABERNETHY,  ab'er-neth-i,  JOHN:  Irish  Pres- 
byterian; b.  at  Brigh,  County  lyrone,  Oct.  19, 1680; 
d.  at  Dublin  Dec.,  1740.  He  studied  at  Glasgow 
(M.A.)  and  Edinburgh,  and  became  minister  of  the 
Presbyterian  congregation  at  Antrim  in  1703.  In 
1717,  following  his  own  judgment  and  desire,  he 
chose  to  remain  at  Antrim,  although  the  synod 
wished  him  to  accept  a  call  from  a  Dublin  congre- 
gation. To  disregard  an  appointment  of  the  synod 
was  an  unheard-of  act  for  the  time,  and  the  Irish 
Church  was  split  into  two  parties,  the  "  Subscri- 
bers "  and  "  Non-Subscribers,"  Abemethy  being 
at  the  head  of  the  latter.  The  Non-Subscribers 
were  cut  off  from  the  CJhurch  in  1726.  From  1730 
till  his  death  he  was  minister  of  the  Wood  Street 
Church,  Dublin.  Here  he  again  showed  himself 
in  advance  of  his  time  by  opposing  the  Test  Act 
and  "  all  laws  that,  upon  account  of  mere  differences 
of  religious  opinions  and  forms  of  worship,  ex- 
cluded men  of  integrity  and  ability  from  serving 
their  country."  His  published  works  are*.  Dis- 
eourees  on  the  Being  and  Perfections  of  God  (2  vols., 
London,  1740-43);  Sermons  (4  vols.,  1748-51).  with 
life  by  James  Duchal;  Tracts  and  Sermons  (1751). 
BiBUoaaAPHT:   J.  8.  Reid.  Prttbyierian  Church  in  Ireland, 

2  vols..  Edinbursh.  1834-37;   DNB.,  i.  48-40. 

ABERT,  a'bert,  FRIEDRICH  PHILIP  VON: 
Roman  Ciatholic  archbishop  of  Bamberg;  b.  at 
MOnnerstadt  (35  m.  n.n.e.  of  WQrzburg)  May  1, 
1852.  He  was  educated  at  the  Passau  Lyceum 
(1870-71)  and  the  University  of  WOrzburg  (Ph.D., 
1875),  and  from  1875  to  1881  was  active  as  a  parish 
priest.  In  the  latter  year  he  was  appointed  an 
assistant  at  the  episcopal  clerical  seminary  at 
Wdrzburg,  and  four  years  later  was  made  professor 
of  dogmatics  at  the  Royal  Lyceum,  Regensburg. 
In  1880  he  was  appointed  professor  of  dogmatics 
and  83rmbolica  at  WQrzburg,  where  he  was  dean  in 
1894-05, 1899-1900,  and  rector  in  1900-01.  In  1905 
he  was  consecrated  archbishop  of  Bamberg.  He 
has  written  Einheit  des  Seins  in  Christus  nach  der 


Lehre  des  heiligen  Thomas  von  Aquin  (Regensburg, 
1889);  Von  den  gdttlichen  Eigenschaften  und  von 
der  Seligkeit,  ewei  dem  heiligen  Thomas  von  Aquin 
Mugesehriebene  Abhandlungen  (WOnburg,  1893); 
Bibliotheca  Thomistiea  (1895);  and  Das  Wesen  des 
Christentums  naeh  Thomas  von  Aquin  (1901). 

ABOAR  (Lat.  Abgarus):  Name  (or  title)  of 
eight  of  the  kings  (toparchs)  of  Osrhoene  who 
reigned  at  Edessa  for  a  period  of  three  centuries 
and  a  half  ending  in  217.  The  fifteenth  of  these 
kings,  Abgar  V.,  Uchomo  ("  the  black,"  ^-46  a.d.), 
is  noteworthy  for  an  alleged  correspondence  with 
Jesus,  first  mentioned  by  Eusebius  {Hist,  eccl.,  i.  13), 
who  states  that  Abgar,  suffering  sorely  in  body 
and  having  heard  of  the  cures  of  Jesus,  sent  him  a 
letter  professing  belief  in  his  divinity  and  asking 
him  to  come  to  Edessa  and  help  him.  Jesus  wrote 
in  reply  that  he  must  remain  in  Palestine,  but  that 
after  Us  ascension  he  would  send  one  of  his  dis- 
ciples who  would  heal  the  king  and  bring  life  to  him 
and  his  people.  Both  letters  Eusebius  gives  in 
literal  translation  from  a  Syriao  document  which 
he  had  found  in  the  archives  of  Edessa.  On  the 
same  authority  he  adds  that  after  the  ascension 
the  Apostle  Thomas  sent  Thaddsus,  one  of  the 
seventy,  to  Edessa  and  that,  with  attendant 
miracles,  he  fulfilled  the  promise  of  Jesus  in  the 
year  340  (of  the  Seleucidan  era=29  a.d.).  The 
Doetrina  Addon  (Addseus  =  Thaddseus;  edited  and 
translated  by  G.  Phillips,  London,  1876),  of  the 
second  half  of  the  fourth  century,  makes  Jesus 
reply  by  an  oral  message  instead  of  a  letter,  and 
adds  that  the  messenger  of  Abgar  was  a  painter  and 
made  and  carried  back  with  him  to  Edessa  a  por- 
trait of  Jesus.  Moses  of  Chorene  (c.  470)  repeats 
the  story  (Hist.  ArmeniacOj  ii.  29-32),  with  additions, 
including  a  correspondence  between  Abgar  and 
Tiberius,  Narses  of  Assyria,  and  Ardashes  of  Persia, 
in  which  the  **  king  of  the  Armenians  "  appears 
as  champion  of  Christianity;  the  portrait,  he  says, 
was  still  in  Edessa.  Gross  anachronisms  stamp 
tho  story  as  wholly  unhistorical.  Pope  Gelasius 
I.  and  a  Roman  synod  about  495  pronounced  the 
alleged  correspondence  ^ith  Jesus  apocryphal.  A 
few  Roman  Catholic  scholars  have  tried  to  defend 
its  genuineness  (e.g.  Tillemont,  Mhnoires,  i.,  Brussels, 
1706,  pp.  990-997;  Welte,  in  TQ,  Tttbingen,  1842, 
pp.  335-365),  but  Protestants  have  generally  re- 
jected it.  See  Jebub  Christ,  Pictures  and  Im- 
ages OF.  (K.  Schmidt.) 

Bibuoobapht:  R.  A.  Lipsius.  Die  ede^tniacKt  Ahoor^agt* 
BruDBwick.  1880;  K.  C.  A.  Matthes.  DiB  ede—eniaehe  Ab- 
goTMoe,  Leipsic,  1882;  ANF,  viii.  702  aqq.;  L.  J.  Tixeront, 
Le9  originM  de  l'eoli»e  d*Ede—e  el  la  UgeruU  d'Ahifor,  Paris. 
1888;  Lipsiiia  and  Bonnet,  Ada  apottolorum  apoaryphat 
vol.  i..  Leipsic.  1891;  W.  T.  Winghille,  The  Letter  from 
Jennu  Christ  to  Abgarue  and  the  Letter  of  Abgartie  to  Christ, 
1891;  Harnack.  LiUeratur,  i.  533-540.  ib.  1893;  TU,  new 
eer.  iii..  1899.  102-196. 

ABHEDANANDA,  d-bed^a-nan-dd',  SWAMI: 
Hindu  leader  of  the  Vedanta  propaganda  in  Amer- 
ica; b.  at  Calcutta  Nov.  21, 1866.  He  was  educated 
at  Calcutta  University,  and  after  being  professor 
of  Hindu  philosophy  in  India  went  to  London  in 
1896  to  lecture  on  the  Vedanta.  In  the  following 
year  he  went  to  New  York,  where  he  has  since 


Abiathar 
Abraham 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


18 


remained,  succeeding  Swami  Vivekananda  as  head 
of  the  Vedanta  Society  in  America.  Theologically 
he  belongs  to  the  pantheistic  and  miiversalistic 
Vedanta  school  of  Hindu  philosophy.  His  works 
include,  in  addition  to  numerous  single  lectures, 
Reincarnation  (New  York,  1899);  Spiritval  Un- 
foldment  (1901);  Philosophy  of  Work  (1902);  How 
to  be  a  Yogi  (1902);  Divine  Heritage  of  Man  (1903); 
Self-Knowledge  (Atma-Jnana)  (1905);  India  and 
her  People  (1906);  and  an  edition  of  The  Sayings 
of  Sri  Ramakrishna  (1903). 

ABIATHAR.    See  Ahtmelech. 

ABIJAH,  a-boi'ja  (called  Abijam  in  I  Kings  xiv. 
31,  XV.  1,  7,  8):  Second  king  of  Judah,  son  of  Reho- 
boam,  and,  on  his  mother's  side,  probably  a  great 
grandson  of  David,  since  his  mother  Maachah  is 
called  a  daughter  of  Absalom  (II  Chron.  xi.  20; 
"  Abishalom,"  in  I  Kings  xv.  2).  In  I  Kings  xv. 
10,  however,  Maachah,  the  daughter  of  Abishalom, 
appears  as  mother  of  Asa;  and  in  II  Chron.  xiii. 
2  the  mother  of  Abijah  is  called  Michaiah,  the 
daughter  of  Uriel.  "  Michaiah  "  here  is  probably 
a  scribal  error  for  "  Maachah,"  the  addition  "daugh- 
ter of  Abishalom  '*  in  I  Kings  xv.  10  probably  a 
copyist's  mistake;  and  it  is  possible  that  Uriel  was 
son-in-law  of  Absalom,  and  Maachah,  therefore, 
his  granddaughter.  Abijah  reigned  three  years 
(957-955  B.C.  or,  according  to  Kamphausen,  920- 
918).  The  Book  of  Kings  says  that  he  walked  in 
all  the  sins  of  his  father,  which  probably  means  that 
he  allowed  idolatrous  worship,  and  adds  that  the 
war  between  Judah  and  Israel,  wliich  followed  the 
division,  continued  during  his  reign.  According 
to  II  Chronicles  xiii.,  Abijah  gained  some  advantages 
in  the  war,  which,  though  soon  lost,  were  not  unim- 
portant. He  may  have  been  in  alliance  with 
Tabrimon  of  Damascus  (I  Kings  xv.  18-19).  His 
history  is  contained  in  I  Kings  xiv.  31-xv.  8,  and 
II  Chron.  xiii.  1-22.  (W.  Lotz.) 

According  to  the  more  correct  chronology  Abijah 
reigned  918-915  B.C.  J.  F.  M. 

Biblioorapht:  See  under  Ahab. 

ABILENE,  ab"i-li'ne:  A  district  mentioned  in 
Luke  iii.  1  as  being  under  the  rule  of  the  tetrarch 
Lysanias.  It  is  evidently  connected  i^ith  a  town 
Abila,  and  Joeephus  {Ant.,  XVIII.  vi.  10,  XIX.  v. 
1,  XX.  vii.  1;  War,  II.  xi.  5,  xii.  8)  indicates  that 
the  town  in  question  was  situated  on  the  southern 
Lebanon.  Old  itineraries  {Itinerarium  Antonini^ 
ed.  Wesseling,  Amsterdam,  1735,  p.  198;  Tabula 
Peutingeriana,  ed.  Miller,  Ravenslaurg,  1887,  x.  3) 
mention  an  Abila,  eighteen  Roman  miles  from 
Damascus,  on  the  road  to  Heliopolis  (Baalbek), 
the  modem  Suk  Wady  Barada,  on  the  south  bank 
of  the  river,  in  a  fertile  and  luxuriant  opening 
surrounded  by  precipitous  cliffs.  Remains  of  an 
ancient  city  are  found  on  both  banks  of  the  river, 
and  the  identification  is  confirmed  by  an  inscrip- 
tion (C/L,  iii.  199)  stating  that  the  emperors  Marcus 
Aurelius  and  Lucius  Verus  repaired  the  road,  which 
had  been  damaged  by  the  river,  "  at  the  expense 
of  the  Abilenians."  The  tomb  of  Hahil  (Abel, 
who  is  said  to  have  been  buried  here  by  Cain),  which 
is  shown  in  the  neighborhood,  may  also  preserve 


a  reminiscence  of  the  ancient  name,  Abila.  It 
has  generally  been  assumed  that  the  Lysanias 
intended  by  Luke  was  Lysanias,  son  of  Ptolemy 
who  ruled  Iturea  40-36  B.C.  (Josephus,  Ant.,  XIV. 
xiii.  3;  War,  I.  xiii.  1).  If  this  be  correct,  Luke, 
is  in  error,  since  he  makes  Lysanias  tetrarch  of 
Abilene  in  28-29  a.d.  It  may  be  noted,  however, 
that  the  capital  of  Iturea  was  Chalcis,  not  Abila; 
and  Josephus  does  not  include  the  territory  of 
Chalcis  in  the  tetrarchy  of  Lysanias.  Furthermore, 
there  is  an  inscription  (CIO,  4521)  of  a  certain 
Nymphaios,  "  the  freedman  of  the  tetrarch  Lysa- 
nias," the  date  of  which  must  be  between  14  and 
29  A.D.  Hence  it  is  not  improbable  that  there 
was  an  earlier  and  a  later  Lysanias  and  that  the 
latter  is  the  one  who  is  mentioned  as  tetrarch  of 
Abilene.  (H.  Guthb.) 

Bibuooraphy:  A.  Reland,  PalauHna,  527  aqq.,  Utredit, 
1714;  Robinson,  Later  Reaearche;  pp.  479-484;  J.  L. 
Porter.  Qiani  CUieM  of  Baahan,  i.  261,  New  York.  1871;  C. 
R.  Conder,  TerU^Work  in  PeUetHM,  p.  127,  London,  1880; 
ZDP,  viii.  (1886)  40;  Ebera  and  Guthe.  PaUuHna  in  BHi 
und  WoH,  i.  456-460.  Stuttgart.  1687;  BehOrer.  Gtaehiekte, 
i.  716  aqq.,  Eng.  transl.,  I.  ii.  335  sqq.;  W.  H.  Wadding- 
ton,  InscripHom  Orecquea  et  Latinea  de  la  Syrie,  Paris,  1870. 

ABISHAI,  Q-bish'a-oi:  Elder  brother  of  Joab 
and  Asahel  (I  Chron.  ii.  16);  like  them  the  son 
of  Zeruiah,  David's  sister  (or  half-sister;  cf.  II 
Sam.  xvii.  25,  where  Zeruiah's  sister  Abigail  is 
called  daughter  of  Nahash,  not  of  Jesse).  His  father 
is  not  mentioned.  He  was  David's  companion  in 
his  time  of  persecution  (I  Sam.  xxvi.  6  sqq.),  saved 
his  life  (II  Sam.  xxi.  17),  and  served  him  faithfully 
to  the  end  of  his  reign.  He  was  the  first  among 
the  "  thirty  "  in  the  catalogue  of  David's  mighty 
men  (xxiii.  18-19,  reading  "thirty"  instead  of 
"three;"  cf.  WeUhausen,  Der  Text  der  Backer 
Samuelis,  G5ttingen,  1871,  and  Klostermann's 
commentary  on  Samuel  ad  loc.).  While  Joab 
was  commander-in-chief  Abishai  often  commanded 
a  division  of  the  army  (against  the  Ammonites, 
II  Sam.  X.  10-14;  against  Edom,  I  Chron.  xviii.  12; 
against  Absalom,  II  Sam.  xviii.  2;  against  Sheba, 
11  Sam.  XX.  6).  He  was  valiant  and  true,  but 
severe  and  passionate  toward  David's  enemies 
(cf.  I  Sam.  xxvi.  8;  II  Sam.  iii.  30,  xvi.  9,  xix.  21). 

C.  VON  Orelu. 

ABJURATION:  A  formal  renunciation  of  heresy 
required  of  converts  to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 
The  First  and  Second  Councils  of  Nicsea  insisted 
on  a  written  abjuration  from  those  who,  after 
having  fallen  into  the  religious  errors  of  the  time, 
desired  to  be  restored  to  membership  in  the  Church. 
The  necessity  of  abjuration  is  reafiirmed  in  the 
Decree  of  Gratian  and  in  the  Decretals  of  Gregory 
IX.,  and  found  an  important  place  in  the  procedure 
of  the  Inquisition.  This  tribunal  distinguished 
four  kinds  of  abjuration,  according  as  the  heresy 
to  be  renounced  was  a  matter  of  notoriety  or  of 
varying  degrees  of  suspicion, — de  formali,  de  2ert, 
de  vehementi,  de  violenio.  Abjuration  of  notorious 
heresy  or  of  very  strongly  suspected  heretical 
inclinations  took  the  form  of  a  public  solemji  cere- 
mony. In  modem  times  the  Roman  Inquisition 
requires  that  a  diligent  investigation  shall  be  con- 
ducted regarding  the  baptism  of  persona  aeekiiig 


18 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Abiathar 
Abraham 


admission  into  the  Church.  If  it  is  ascertained 
that  baptism  has  not  been  received,  no  abjuration 
is  demanded;  if  a  previous  baptism  was  valid,  or 
was  of  doubtiful  validity,  abjuration  and  profession 
of  faith  are  necessary  preliminaries  to  reception 
into  the  Church.  A  convert  under  fourteen  years 
of  age  is  in  no  case  bound  to  abjure.  The  act  of 
abjuration  is  attended  with  little  formality, — all 
that  is  necessary  is  that  it  be  done  in  the  presence 
of  the  parish  priest  and  witnesses,  or  even  without 
witnesses  if  the  fact  can  otherwise  be  proved. 
The  modem  formula  of  abjuration  found  in  Roman 
Catholic  rituals  is  really  more  in  the  nature  of  a 
profession  of  faith,  the  only  passages  savoring  of 
formal  renunciation  of  heresy  being  the  following, — 
"  With  sincere  heart  and  unfeigned  faith  I  detest 
and  abjure  every  error,  heresy,  and  sect  opposed  to 
the  Holy,  Catholic,  and  Apostolic,  Roman  Church. 
I  reject  and  condemn  all  that  she  rejects  and  con- 
demns." John  T.  Creagh. 

ABLON:  Village  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Seine, 
about  9  m.  s.  of  Paris,  noteworthy  as  the  place 
where  public  worship  was  first  conceded  to  the 
Protestants  of  Paris.  Notwithstanding  the  edict 
of  Nantes  (May  2,  1598),  the  Protestants  of  the 
capital  were  not  allowed  a  church  within  the  city 
itself,  but  had  to  travel  to  Ablon.  In  1602  they 
petitioned  the  King  for  a  place  nearer  the  city, 
alleging  that  during  the  winter  forty  children  had 
died  from  being  carried  so  far  for  baptism.  In 
1606  their  petition  was  granted  and  the  church 
was  removed  to  Charenton,  at  the  junction  of  the 
Seine  and  Mame,  six  or  seven  miles  nearer  the  city. 
The  toilsome  and  sometimes  dangerous  "  expe- 
ditions "  to  Ablon  are  often  spoken  of  by  Sully 
and  Casaubon. 

ABLUTIONS  OF  THE  MASS:  The  rubrics  of 
the  mass  prescribe  that  immediately  after  com- 
munion the  celebrant  shall  purify  the  chalice  with 
wine,  and  his  fingers  with  wine  and  water.  These 
ablutions,  as  they  are  called,  are  drunk  by  the  priest 
unless  he  is  obliged  to  celebrate  a  second  time  on 
the  same  day,  in  which  case  he  pours  the  wine  and 
water  of  the  last  ablution  into  a  special  vessel, 
kept  for  the  purpose  near  the  tabernacle,  and 
consumes  them  at  the  next  mass.  Pope  Pius  V. 
in  1570  intxxxluced  into  his  Missal  the  rubrics  on 
this  matter  as  they  exist  to-day.  The  first  clear 
references  to  the  ablutions  as  practised  to-day  are 
found  in  the  eleventh  century.  Ablution  of  the 
hands  is  also  prescribed  before  mass,  before  the 
canon,  and  after  the  distribution  of  communion 
outside  of  mass.  John  T.  Creagh. 

ABNER.    See  Ish-boshbth. 

ABODAH  ZARAH.    See  Talmud. 

ABOT  (PIRKE  ABOT).     See  Talmud. 

ABOT  de-RABBI  NATHAN.    See  Talmud. 

ABRABANEL,  Q-bra"ba-nel'  (ABRAVANEL, 
ABARBANEL),  ISAAC:  The  last  Jewish  exegete 
of  importance;  b.  of  distinguished  family,  which 
boasted  of  Davidic  descent,  at  Lisbon  1437;  d.  in 
Venice  1509.  He  was  treasurer  of  Alfonso  V.  of 
Portugal,  but  was  compelled  to  flee  the  country 
under  his  successor,  John  II.,  in  1483.    He  lived  in 


Spain  until  the  Jews  were  expelled  thence  by  Fer- 
dinand and  Isabella  (1492),  when  he  went  to  Naples. 
In  both  countries  he  rendered  important  services 
to  the  government  as  financier.  From  1496  till 
1503  he  lived  at  Monopoli  in  Apulia,  southern  Italy, 
occupied  with  literary  work,  and  later  settled  in 
Venice.  He  wrote  commentaries  on  the  Penta- 
teuch (Venice,  1579)  and  on  the  earlier  and  the  later 
Prophets  (Pesaro,  1520  [?])  which  show  little  origi- 
nality, and  are  valuable  chiefly  for  the  extracts 
he  makes  from  his  predecessors.  In  his  Messianic 
treatises  (Yeahu'ot  meshihho,  "  The  Salvation  of  his 
Anointed,*'  Carlsruhe,  1828;  Ma*yene  horyeahu^ahf 
"Sources  of  Salvation,"  Ferrara,  1551;  Maahmia* 
Yeshu'ah,  "  Proclaiming  Salvation,"  Salbnica,  1526) 
he  criticizes  Christian  interpretations  of  prophecy, 
but  with  no  great  insight.  His  religio-philosophical 
writings  are  less  important.  In  the  interest  of 
Jewish  orthodoxy  he  defends  the  creation  of  the 
world  from  nothing  (in  Mifaloi  Elohim^  "  Works 
of  God,"  Venice,  1592)  and  advocates  the  thirteen 
articles  of  faith  of  Maimonides  (in  Roah  amanah, 
"The  Pinnacle  of  Faith,"  Constantinople,  1505). 
His  eschatological  computations  made  the  year 
of  salvation  due  in  1503.  (G.  Dalman.) 

Abrabanel  held  a  place  of  some  importance  in 
the  history  of  Christian  exegesis  due  to  the  facts 
that  he  appreciated  and  quoted  freely  the  earlier 
Christian  exegetes  and  that  many  of  his  own  writings 
were  in  turn  condensed  and  translated  by  Christian 
scholars  of  the  next  two  centuries  (Alting,  Bud- 
dffius,  the  younger  Buxtorf,  Carpzov,  and  others). 

J.  F.  M. 
Biblioobapht:  J.  H.  Majus,  Vita  Don  Isaac  Abrabanielit^ 
Gie88en(7),  1707(7);  C.  F.  BUchoff.  Disaertaiio  .  .  .  de 
.  .  .  vita  atque  9cripti»  laaaci  AbrcU>anielis,  Altdorf, 
1708;  M.  Sohwab.  Abravanel  et  son  Spoque,  Paris.  1865; 
JQR,  i.  (1888)  37-52;  H.  Grsetz.  OeschichU  der  Juden,  viii. 
324-334.  ix.  6-7,  ii.  208,  213.  Eng.  transl.,  London,  1891- 
98;  Winter  and  WQnBche,  OeschichU  der  jUdiachen  LiU 
teratur,  ii.  333.  339,  443,  451.  791-792.  BerUn.  1894;  D. 
Gassel,  JQdische  Oeachichte  und  Litieraiwr,  Leipaic,  1879, 
pp.  321  sqq.,  427,  425  sqq. 

ABRAHAM,  6'bra-ham  or  a'bra-hOm. 
Sources  of  his  Biography  Analyzed  ({  1 ). 
Historicity  of  Abraham  Defended  ($2). 
Historicity  of  the  Patriarchs  Defended  ({  3). 
Impossibility  of  Fully  Reconstructing  the  Sources  ( S  4). 

This  article  will  be  limited  to  an  attempt  to 
establish  the  credibility  of  the  tradition  which 
represents  Abraham  as  the  first  ancestor  of  the 
Israelites,  against  the  arguments  of  those  who  doubt 
or  deny  the  existence  of  the  patriarch  as  an  histori- 
cal personage. 

lOiowledge  of  Abraham's  history  must  be  derived 
exclusively    from    Gen.    xi.    26-xxvi.  10.    Other 
accounts — Josephus,    Ant.f    I.    vi.     6-xvii;  Fhilo, 
De  AbrahamOf  De  migratione  Abrahami,  De  con- 
greasu   qiuBrendcB   eruditionis   causa,    De   profugiSf 
Quis   rerum   divinarum   hceres   aU ;  the    haggadic 
narratives  (collected  by  B.  Beer,  Leben 
I.  Sources   Abrahams  nach  Auffaasung  der  jiidi- 
of  His       schen  Sage,  Leipsic,  1859);  the  notices 
Biography    in  Eusebius,  ProeparaHo  evangelical  ix. 
Analyzed.    16-20 — ^are  all  excluded  by  their  late 
origin.     Many  maintain  that  the  Bib- 
lical narrative  is  also  discredited  for  the  same  reason. 
It  is  true  that  the  beginnings  of  the  patriarchal 


Abraham 

Abraham  A  Saaota  Olara 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


14 


history  cannot  be  dated  later  than  about  1900  b.c, 
and  even  if  Genesis  was  written  by  Moses  (c.  1300 
B.C.)  its  account  is  from  500  to  600  years  later  than 
the  life  of  Abraham.  If,  as  so  many  believe,  the 
present  Genesis  originated  between  500  and  400 
B.C.,  a  period  of  from  1,400  to  1,500  years  inter- 
venes. Whenever  it  may  have  been  written, 
however,  the  Book  of  Genesis  presents  the  concep- 
tion of  the  life  of  Abraham  current  in  the  pious 
circles  of  Israel  at  the  time  of  composition;  and 
this  conception  may  be  shown  to  have  been  handed 
down  from  earlier  periods.  The  narrative  is  a 
piecing  together  of  the  sources  (E,  J,  and  P)  without 
essential  additions  by  R.  For  the  present  purpose 
it  matters  little  when  P  originated,  since  this  por- 
tion of  the  narrative  is  a  mere  sketch,  barren  of 
details.  It  is  generally  assumed  that  E  and  J  origi- 
nated between  the  time  of  Jehoshaphat  and  Uzziah 
(850-750  B.C.);  others  think  it  more  probable  that 
E  belongs  to  the  time  of  the  Judges  (c.  1100  B.C.), 
J  to  that  of  David  (c.  1000  B.C.).  If  the  latter 
assimiption  be  correct,  the  combination  of  E  and 
J  (which  are  supplementary  rather  than  contra- 
dictory) gives  what  passed  for  the  history  of  Abra- 
ham at  the  end  of  the  period  of  the  Judges  and  at 
the  beginning  of  the  monarchy.  The  Book  of  Deu- 
teronomy contains  passages  which  imply  facts  and 
conceptions  written  down  in  EJ  (cf.  vi.  3,  10,  18; 
vii.  7,  8,  12,  13;  viii.  1,  18;  ix.  5,  27;  xiii.  18; 
xix.  8;  xxvi.  3,  7,  15).  If,  then,  Deuteronomy  be 
Mosaic,  the  history  of  Abraham  is  traced  back  to 
the  Mosaic  time.  It  can  not  be  the  product  of  the 
inventive  fancy  of  Israel  during  the  sojourn  in 
Egypt;  for  during  the  first  half  of  the  sojourn  the 
patriarchal  period  was  too  near  to  admit  of  fancies, 
and  during  the  oppression  there  was  no  thought  of 
migrating  to  Caiiaan  and  settling  there.  It  is 
thus  quite  improbable  that  fancy  transformed 
wishes  into  promises  once  given  to  the  fathers. 

Most  of  the  critics  ascribe  Deuteronomy  to  the 
last   century   of   the   monarchy   of   Judah.    The 

narrative  of  EJ  is,  then,  the  oldest 

2.  Historic-  written  attestation  of  Abraham;  and 

ity  ot       the  question  arises,  how  far  can  this 

Abraham    narrative  be   accepted  as  historical? 

Defended.    If  it  is  not  historical  the  origin  of  its 

conception  of  Abraham  must  be  ex- 
plained. It  has  been  suggested  that  Abraham 
was  a  deity  adored  in  antiquity  and  afterward 
humanized  (Dozy,  Ndldeke,  E.  Meyer).  But  in 
all  Semitic  literature  no  god  named  Abraham  is 
found;  and  no  indication  exists  that  Abraham 
was  ever  conceived  of  in  Israel  as  a  deity  or  higher 
being.  More  plausible  is  the  view  that  Abraham, 
Isaac,  and  Jacob  were  ethnographic  collective 
names  (Wellhausen,  Prolegomena,  Berlin,  1895, 
pp.  322  sqq.).  Abraham  in  particular  was  a  com- 
bination of  Israelitic,  Edomitic,  Moabitic,  and 
Ammonitie  nations.  These  collective  names  were 
afterward  conceived  of  as  names  of  individuals  of 
remote  antiquity,  to  whom  fancy  involuntarily 
ascribed  a  history  reflecting  the  views  and  wishes 
of  the  later  period.  But  there  is  tittle  to  prove 
that  the  names  of  the  patriarchs  were  originally 
collective  names;  and  against  the  supposition  is 
the  fact  that  the  Israelites  did  not  call  themselves 


after  the  name  of  Abraham  but  after  that  of  Isaac, 
Jacob,  Israel.  Moreover,  the  picture  of  Abraham 
presented  by  EJ  is  not  what  one  would  expect 
Israel's  fancy  of  the  time  of  the  Prophets  to  paint 
as  the  portrait  of  a  patriarch  par  exeeUenoe.  Wdl- 
hausen  says  of  the  patriarchs  as  they  appear  in  EJ: 
"  They  are  not  courageous  and  manly,  but  good 
house-masters,  a  little  under  the  influence  of  their 
more  judicious  wives.''  It  is  hardly  conceivable 
that  the  Israel  of  the  monarchy  should  have  im- 
agined as  the  type  of  an  Israelite  indeed  a  man 
without  courage,  devoid  of  manliness,  and  ruled 
by  his  wife.  Abraham's  faith  and  obedience  are 
emphasized  and  he  is  depicted  as  interceding  with 
Yahweh;  but  EJ  also  makes  him  marry  his  half- 
sister,  which  was  incest  according  to  the  Israelitic 
conception;  he  took  Lot  with  him  against  Yah- 
weh's  command;  though  Yahweh  had  promised 
him  Canaan  as  his  abode,  he  went  thence  to  Bgypt; 
more  than  once  he  endangered  the  honor  of  his 
wife;  his  faith  is  occasionally,  though  only  momen- 
tarily, not  free  from  doubt  (Gen.  xv.  8,  xvii.  17, 18). 
If,  then,  the  origin  of  Abraham  as  a  fictitious  pei^ 
sonage  can  not  be  explained  and  traced,  nothing 
remains  but  to  conclude  that  his  history  rests  upon 
tradition.  Like  all  tradition,  that  of  Abraham  may 
contain  inaccuracies,  amplifications,  or  gaps;  but 
the  less  it  answers  the  expectation  of  an  idc»l  form 
or  can  be  proved  to  be  a  product  of  later  times 
developed  from  the  past,  the  greater  is  its  claim  to 
credibility. 

Another  point  raised  against  the  historicity  of  the 

Biblical  narratives  of  the  patriarchs  is  that  in  the 

time  of  Moses,  and  later,  Yahweh  was 

3.  Historic-  a  thimdei^god  dwelling  on  Sinai  and 

ity  of  the    was  worshiped  in  a  fetishistic  manner 

Patriarchs   by  the  Israelitic  tribes,  which  at  the 

Defended,    same  time  were  devoted  to  totemism. 

But  this  objection  rests  upon  a  rash 

inference,  from  single  phenomena  of  the  religious 

life  at  the  time  of  Moses  and  the  subsequent  period, 

that  the  religious  conceptions  and  usages  of  the 

Israelites  were  identical  with  those  of  the  Arabs 

who  lived  two  thousand  years  later  in  the  time 

before    Mohammed's  appearance.    The    Israelites 

were  not  conscious  of  any  special  relationship  with 

the  Arabs,  and  the  religion  of  the  latter  befors 

Mohammed  can  not  be  proved  to  be  a  petiifactioa 

of  former  millenniums. 

The  effort  to  prove  the  patriarchs  unhistorical 
from  the  narrative  of  the  sending  of  the  spies  (Num. 
xiii.-xiv.) — because  it  appears  questionable  in  that 
narrative  whether  it  was  worth  while  or  possible 
for  Israel  to  take  Canaan,  whereas  on  the  basis  of 
the  history  of  the  patriarchs  both  were  certain — 
falls  to  the  ground  when  it  is  remembered  that  the 
authors  who  wrote  the  story  of  the  spies  were  fully 
convinced  that  Yahweh  had  promised  Canaan  to 
the  fathers,  and  that  they  wrote  with  the  supposition 
that  no  intelligent  reader  would  see  in  thor  nana- 
tive  a  contradiction  of  this  conviction.  The  most 
plausible  objection  to  the  historicity  of  the  nana- 
tives  of  the  patriarchs  is  the  length  of  time  between 
the  events  recorded  and  the  origin  of  the  documen- 
tary sources  extant  in  Genesis.  But  that  traditioii 
may  preserve  a  faithful  record  of  former  eventa 


15 


REUGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Abntham 

Abraham  ASanota  Olara 


especially  where  matters  of  a  religious  nature  are 
concerned,  will  be  denied  only  by  those  who  judge 
the  remote  past  by  the  concQtions  of  the  present. 
The  Indians  and  the  Gauls  for  centuries  handed 
on  their  religious  conceptions  by  means  of  oral 
tradition;  and  it  is  very  possible  that  the  authors 
of  the  documents  of  Genesis  had  records  from  very 
ancient,  even  pre-Mosaic,  time.  The  possibility 
once  admitted,  that  a  faithful  tradition  concerning 
Abraham  may  have  been  preserved  to  the  time 
when  the  documents  of  Genesis  originated,  the 
last  reason  for  considering  him  a  product  of  later 
Israelitio  fancy,  is  removed. 

No  one  of  the  three  sources  which  are  pieced 
together  in  the  present  Genesis  can  be  fuUy  re- 
constructed.   The  document  P  must 
4.  Impo»-   have  contained  much  more  material 
tibility  of   than  the  sum  total  of  all  the  excerpts 
Fully  Re-    from  it.      The  source  E  appears  first 
construct-    with  certainty  in  chapter  xx. ;  and  J, 
ing  the      especially  for  Abraham's  later  years, 
Sources,     is  preserved  only  in  fragments.    There 
is  thus  no  means  of  knowing  all  that 
the  sources  originally  contained;  and,  furthermore, 
many  passages  of  Genesis  can  be  assigned  with 
certainty  neither  to  one  nor  another  of  the  sources. 
Hence  the  accuracy  and  completeness  of  our  knowl- 
edge of  Abraham's  history  is  dependent  on  the 
fidelity  and  good  judgment  with  wldch  the  compiler 
of  Genesis  has  done  his  work;  and  in  attempting 
to  delineate  the  true  story  of  Abraham's  life  it  is 
an  imperative  duty  to  wdgh  carefully  the  possi- 
bility and  probability  of  each  detail. 

(A.  KOHLERf*) 

The  historicity  of  the  personal  as  distinguished 
from  the  tribal  Abraham  is  still  held  by  a  wide 
though  perhaps  narrowing  circle  of  scholars.  In  the 
above  article  the  difficulties  are  too  lightly  treated. 
The  embarrassing  question  of  Abraham's  date 
is  disposed  of  (§  1)  by  the  assimiption  that  it  can 
not  have  been  later  than  1900  B.C.  But  Gen.  xiv., 
by  its  Babylonian  synchronism,  puts  it  in  the 
twenty-third  century  B.C.,  at  least  one  thousand 
years  before  Moses,  and  fifteen  hundred  years 
before  the  generally  accepted  date  of  Abraham's 
first  biographer.  Moreover,  practically  nothing 
is  known  of  the  history  of  his  descendants  imtU 
the  era  of  Moses.  When  we  seek  for  at  least  a 
substantial  personality  amid  the  vagueness,  incon- 
sistencies, and  contradictions  direct  or  inferential, 
that  marie  the  several  accounts,  we  are  thrown 
back  upon  the  fact  of  the  persistent  general  tra- 
dition, which  evidently  had  a  very  early  origin, 
and  to  which  great  weight  should  in  fairness  be 
attached.  J.  F.  M. 

BiBUOoaAPHT:  Bendes  the  historiM  of  larael  and  oommen- 
tariea  on  Genesis,  consult  W.  J.  Deane,  Abraham  :  Hit 
Lif€  and  TVme*,  London,  1886;  H.  C.  Tomkins,  Abraham 
ani  Hit  Age,  ib.  1897;  C.  H.  OorniU,  OtachiehU  du  VoUcm 
Imud,  Leipsie,  1896,  Eng.  transl.,  Chioaco,  1898;  P. 
Domstetter,  Abraham  ;  Studien  Hber  dis  AnfOno*  det  h0- 
hrikuchm  VolkM,  Freiburg,  1902.  For  the  extra-Biblical 
traditions:  O.  Weil,  BiblitdM  Leffenden  d«r  MwOmUmntr, 
Frankfort.  1845;  H.  Beer,  Le6«n  AbrahamM,  naeh  Auffa»- 
tmng  d«r  judiadun  Sagt,  Leipsie,  1869;  T.  P.  Hughes, 
Dictionary  of  Itlam,  pp.  4-7,  London,  1896  (giyes  Abra- 
ham passages  in  the  Koran);  B.  W.  Bacon,  Abraham  the 
How  of  Yokwoh,  in  the  Now  World,  roL  Till  (1899);  JE, 
L88-92. 


ABRAHAM,  APOCALYPSE  OF.  See  Fisbud- 
BPiGRAPHA,  Old  Tbbtamxnt,  II.,  21. 

ABRAHAM  A  SA5CTA  CLARA :  Monastic  name 
by  which  a  famous  German  preacher,  Ulrich 
Megerle,  is  usually  known;  b.  at  Kreenheinstetten 
(20  m.  n.  of  Ck>nstance),  Baden,  July  2,  1644;  d.  in 
Vienna  Dec.  1,  1700.  He  was  the  son  of  an  inn- 
keeper, and  received  his  education  from  the  Jesuits 
at  Ingolstadt  and  from  the  Benedictines  at  Salz- 
burg. In  1662  he  entered  the  order  of  the  bare- 
footed Augustinians,  and  rose  to  positions  of 
authority,  becoming  prior  of  his  house,  provincial, 
and  definitor.  After  1668  or  1669,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  seven  years  (1682-89)  spent  at  Graz, 
he  was  attached  to  the  Augustinian  (Jhurch  in 
Vienna.  He  was  primarily  a  preacher,  and  his 
first  published  works  were  reprints  of  sermons. 
His  definite  literary  activity  dates  from  the  plague 
of  1679,  which  called  forth  three  small  books;  but 
these,  as  well  as  similar  occasional  writings — such 
as  Auf,  auf,  ihr  Christen  (1683),  inspired  by  the 
danger  of  the  Turkish  invasion  and  imitated  by  Schil- 
ler in  the  Gapuchin's  address  in  WaUensteina  Lager, 
viii.;  Gack  Gack  (1685),  a  book  for  pilgrims; 
Heileamea  Gemiach-Oemaach  (1704)— are  of  com- 
paratively slight  importance.  His  principal  work, 
Judas,  der  ErzSchelm  (4  parts,  1686-95),  is  an 
imaginary  biography  of  the  betrayer  of  Ghrist, 
written  from  the  standpoint  of  a  satirical  preacher. 
About  the  same  time  he  wrote  a  compendium  of 
moral  theology,  Grammatica  religiosa  (1691)  in 
which  the  more  dignified  Latin  precludes,  the 
characteristic  pimgent  flavor  of  his  vernacular 
works. 

Abraham  represents  the  Gatholicism  of  his  age 
not  in  its  noblest,  but  in  its  most  usual  form.  He 
is  fanatical,  eager  to  make  converts,  intolerant; 
constant  in  praise  of  the  Jesuits,  full  of  the  bitterest 
reproaches  against  Protestants  and  Jews.  He  has 
the  most  childish  notions  of  science;  but  he  makes 
very  skilful  use  of  his  scanty  equipment  of  learning. 
He  has  a  perfect  command  of  every  rhetorical 
artifice,  and  knows  how  to  play  upon  the  feelings 
of  his  hearers,  to  appeal  to  their  weaknesses,  and 
to  call  up  vivid  pictures  before  their  minds,  not 
disdaining  to  raise  a  laugh.  Satire  is  his  strongest 
weapon;  and  he  is  a  direct  inheritor  of  the  old 
German  satiric  tradition.  He  exercises  the  func- 
tions of  a  critic  with  the  fearlessness  of  a  mendicant 
friar;  neither  his  audience,  nor  the  court,  nor  his 
brethren  of  the  clergy  are  spared.  The  burlesque 
manner  which  he  uses  in  treating  the  most  serious 
subjects  was  popular  in  the  fifteenth  century,  and 
may  have  suited  that  age;  but  it  was  out  of  place 
in  the  second  half  of  the  seventeenth.  The  force  of 
the  contrast  becomes  apparent  when  it  is  remem- 
bered that  Abraham  was  appointed  court  preacher 
in  1677,  sixteen  years  after  the  same  title  had  been 
conferred  on  a  Bossuet.  It  is  only  fair,  however, 
to  recall  what  the  general  level  of  education  was 
in  Roman  Catholic  Germany  at  the  time,  and  to  see 
in  Abraham  rather  a  popidar  entertainer  than  a 
preacher. 

A  complete  edition  of  his  works  in  twenty-one 
volumes   was   published   at   Passau   and   Lindau 


Abraham  EoohellenaUi 
Abraaax 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


16 


(l83S-B4)r  ajid  eelectionfi  at  Heilbrpnn  (7  vols,^ 
1840-^4)  and  Vienna  (2  vob.,  1846).  Single  works 
are  accessible  in  many  editions  {Judas  der  Erz- 
ScMm,  Stuttgart,  1882;  Auf,  auf,  ihr  ChriMtm, 
Vienna,    1883).  (E.  Steinmtyer.) 

BiBUOORJiPHT^  T.  G.  van  Karaj&iir  Abraham  a  Sancta 
Ctera,  Vienna,  1807;  W.  Sclusrar^  VortrJJm  und  AuUmxt 
gw  Ge9chichte  de*  tfmistl^Jien  LiehmnM  in  D'rtx/acUarki  urid 
Oat^rmch.  Berlin,  1874;  M.  Mar&ta.  Veber  JiAdoM  den  Err- 
ffcAe^ffl.  Vienna,  1875;  A.  Silberstein^  D^nkMaulen  iwi  Gb~ 
fntte  der  CuUur  und  Literatu^.  Abraham  a  Sanct^  Ciars,  ib. 
1879;  E^  8cJlin.el!,  PoCer  Abraham  a  Sancta  Ciara.  Municb, 
lBd5;  C.  Bl&nck^nbiiirg,  Studi^ti  fi£«f  dii  Spradu  Abra- 
ham* a  Saneta  CUtra,  Halle,  1897, 

ABRAHAM  ECCHELLERSIS,  ek"el-en'sis:  A 
leajned  Maronite;  b.  at  Eckel.  Syria,  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  sixteenth  century;  d,  at  Rome  in  1664. 
He  was  educated  m  tbe  college  of  the  Maronites  at 
Home  and  was  promote  to  doctor  of  philosophy 
and  theology.  For  a  time  he  was  professor  of 
Arabic  and  Syriac  at  Pisa,  and  afterward  at  Romei 
where  he  wa5  called  by  Urban  IIL  He  was  one 
of  the  first  to  promote  Syriac  studies  in  Europe, 
and  his  Syriac  grammar  (Rome,  1628)  was  long 
used.  In  1640  he  was  called  to  Paris  by  Le  Jay  to 
assist  in  the  Paris  Polyglot,  The  Arabic  and  Syriac 
texts  for  this  work  had  been  entrusted  to  Gabriel 
Bionita,  a  Maronite  professor  at  Paris ^  ^'ho  per- 
formed his  work  in  an  nni&atiifactory  maimer, 
Abraham  iigreed  to  undertake  the  books  of  Ruth, 
Esther^  Tobit,  JutUth,  Baruch,  and  Maccabees,  on 
the  ground  that  he  poaaeeaed  better  codices  than 
Gabrieh  The  latter,  however^  took  offense;  w^here- 
upon  Abraham  rt^sif^ed  the  work  and  returned  to 
Rome  (1642),  having  edited  only  the  booka  of  Ruth 
and  III  Mjiecat>ees.  He  was  attacked  in  four 
letters  (Paris,  1646)  by  Val6rien  de  Flavigny,  who 
wrote  on  the  side  of  his  friend  Gabriel,  and  a  sharp 
controversy  ensued  (cf.  A.  G.  Maech,  Bihlioiheca 
Bocra,  Halle,  1778,  p.  358)*  During  a  second  resi* 
dence  in  Paries  (1645-53)  Abraham  taught  at  the 
Sorbonne,  and  published  the  concluding  volume 
of  an  edition  of  the  works  of  St*  Anthony  (1646; 
voL  i.»  containing  the  letters,  had  ap;x^a^ed  in  1641), 
as  well  as  Calalj^gus  librorfim  Chdtimontm  auci^re 
Hebed  Jeau.  (1653)  and  Chronimn  orienlak  (1653), 
a  history  of  the  patriarchate  of  Alexandria^  trans* 
lated  from  the  Arabic  of  Ibn  al-Rahib,  with  an 
appendix  treating  of  Arabia  and  the  Arabs  before 
Mohammed*  In  1653  he  returned  to  Rome,  He 
published  two  works  in  answer  to  the  views  of  Jolm 
Selden  (q,v*)  concemiiig  the  eariy  position  of  the 
episcopate,  vii,,  Z)e  origins  nominis  papa  (Home, 
1660)  and  Eulychius  p€^riaTcha  Ahxandrinm 
vindicatm  (1661).  {k.  Jeremias.) 

Biblioohapht:  For  his  life  ooosult,  J.  !?,  ErBch  aod  J,  O. 
Gniber,  AUoem^nx  Efv-udop^im  dtr  W i*§cn9dui!itn,  L  30, 
360f  Lftipaic,  3 SIS;  Biographic  unit-erteUa  andentw  etmo- 
deme,  idi,  457-458,  Pari**  1814* 

ABRAHAMITES:  A  deist ie  sect  which  appeared 
in  the  district  of  Pardubitz,  eastern  Boheniia,  after 
1782.  They  claimed  to  hold  to  the  faith  of  Abra- 
ham before  his  circumcision;  rejected  most  of  the 
Christian  doctrines,  but  professed  behef  in  one 
God,  and  accepted,  of  the  Scriptures,  only  the 
Decalogue  and  the  Lord's  Prayer*  The  govern- 
ment took  mcasuFes  against  them,  and  they  were 


soon  suppressed*     The  name  was  also  applied  to 
the  followers  of  one  Abraham  (Ibrahim)  of  Anti- 
och  at  the  beginning  of  the  ninth  centiuy;  they 
were  charged  with  idolatrous  and  licentious  prac- 
tises, probably  on  insufficient  groundar  ^^^  i°ay 
have  been  related  to  the  Pauliciana. 
BifliJOrtiiAPift:   [P,  A.  WInlcoppK  GeMchuMe  d«r  hdkmimhm 
DtitUn,    LeipaiCF,    1785;    J.  G*  Meiiael.   V^rmiKhte   Natk' 
richten    und   Btm^kuno^n^  ErLancBH,  ISlS;  H^  Gr^fciif^ 
Hisiaife  dtn   aedts*  rtliffieu$9»^  v*  419  aqq.,  6  Toll.,  Twin, 
1828-45. 

ABRAHAMS,  ISRAEL:  English  rabbinical  schol- 
ar and  author;  b.  at  London  Nov.  26,  1S58.  He 
was  educated  at  Jews'  College  and  Univermty 
College,  London  (M.A.,  1881)*  After  teaching  al 
Jews'  (Allege  for  several  yearSp  he  wa^s  appointed 
senior  tutor  there  in  1900,  but  in  1902  accepted  a 
call  to  Cambridge  as  reader  in  Tahnudie  and  Rab- 
binic Literature.  He  has  been  a  member  of  the 
Committee  for  Traimug  Jewish  Teachers,  the  Com- 
mittee of  tbe  Anglo- Jewish  Association,  was  the 
first  president  of  the  Union  of  Jewish  Literary 
Societies,  and  has  been  successively  honorary 
secretary  and  president  of  the  Jewish  Historical 
Society* 

.Abrahams  has  been  one  of  the  editors  of  tbe 
Jewish  Quarterly  Review  since  1889,  and  contributes 
each  week  to  the  Jewish  Chnmide.  His  works 
include  Aspects  of  Judaism  (London,  lSd5;  in 
collaboration  with  Claude  G*  Monte  liore):  Jewish 
Life  m  the  Mitldle  Agea  (1896);  Chapters  on  Jewish 
Liieraiure  (1899);  Maiwmuies  (Philadelpy a,  190S; 
in  collaboration  with  D.  Yellin);  and  Festiwd 
Thcmghta  (London,  1905-06)* 

ABRAHAMSON,  LAXmEHTTOS  GUSTAV:  Lu- 
theran; b.  at  Medaker,  Sweden,  Mar.  2,1856.  He 
was  educated  at  the  public  schools  of  his  native 
country,  and  at  Augustan  a  College  and  Theological 
Seminary  (Rock  Island,  Ill.)r  p^ftduating  in  1880. 
He  entered  the  Lutheran  ministry  in  the  eam^  year, 
and  in  1886  was  called  to  the  pastorate  of  the  Salem 
Lutheran  Church,  Chicago,  w^iiere  be  has  ainee 
remained.  He  was  associate  editor  of  Atigu^tana, 
the  official  organ  of  the  Augustana  Synod,  from 
1885  to  1896,  and  for  six  years  was  president  of  the 
Illinois  Conference  of  the  same  synod.  He  is  also 
a  member  of  the  board  of  directors  of  Augustana 
College  and  Theological  Seminary,  president  of  the 
board  of  directors  of  Augustana  Hospital^  Chicago, 
a  member  of  the  board  of  missions  of  the  Augustana 
Synod  and  the  Illinois  Cbnference,  and  was  a  dele- 
gate to  the  International  Lutheran  World's  Con- 
gress at  Lund,  Sweden,  in  1901  *  In  1894  he  ree^ved 
the  Swedish  decoration  of  Knight  Royal  of  the 
Order  of  the  Polar  Star  from  King  Oscar  II.  In 
theology  he  belongs  to  the  historic  Evangelical 
Lutheran  Church,  and  adheres  to  its  original  un- 
altered creeds.  He  has  written  Jubel  Album 
(Chicago,  1893). 

ABRASAX,  ab'rn-aax  (ABRAXAS,  ab-rax'as). 

VarJDiis  CxplaaatioDB  (fit).     Tbe  AbmsaJi  Genu  (|  2). 

Abrasax  (which  is  far  commoner  in  the  source 
than  the  variant  form  Ahraitas)  is  a  word  of 
mystic  meaning  in  the  system  of  the  Gnostic 
Basilides,    being    there    applied    to    the   *'  Great 


17 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Abraham  BooheUensis 
Abraaax 


Archon  "  (Gk.,  megaa  archdn),  the  princepSf  of  the 
365  spheres  (Gk.,  ouranai;  cf.  Hippolytus,  Refu- 
tatio,  vii.  14;  Iremeus,  Adveraus  hoBreaeSf  I.  xxiv. 
7).  Renan  considers  it  a  designation  of  the  most 
high,  unspeakable  God  lost  in  the  greatness  of  his 
majesty;  but  he  has  probably  been  misled  by 
erroneous  statements  of  the  Fathers,  such  as  Jerome 
on  Amos  iii.  {**  Basilides,  who  calls  the  onmipotent 
God  by  the  portentous  name  '  abraxas  '  "),  and 
pseudo-TertuUian  (Adversua  omnes  hoereseSf  iv.: 
"  he  [Basilides]  afi&rms  that  there  is  a  supreme  God 
by  the  name  '  Abraxas  ' ''). 

Much  labor  has  been  spent  in  seeking  an  explana- 
tion for  and  the  etymology  of  the  name.    Salmasius 
thought  it  Egyptian,  but  never  gave  the  proofs  which 
Various  ^®  promised.   Munter  separates  it  into 

ExDlana-  ^^^  Coptic  words  signifying  "  new- 
^  "  fangled  title."  Bellermann  thinks  it 
a  compound  of  the  Egyptian  words 
abrcJc  and  sax,  meaning  "  the  honorable  and 
hallowed  word,"  or  "  the  word  is  adorable."  Sharpe 
finds  in  it  an  Egyptian  invocation  to  the  Godhead, 
meaning  "  hurt  me  not."  Others  have  endeavored 
to  find  a  Hebrew  origin.  Geiger  sees  in  it  a  Grecized 
form  of  ha-berakhahf  "  the  blessing,"  a  meaning 
which  King  declares  philologically  untenable. 
Passerius  derives  it  from  abh,  "  father,"  baraf 
"  to  create,"  and  o-  negative — "  the  uncreated 
Father."  Wendelin  discovers  a  compound  of  the 
initial  letters,  amoimting  to  365  in  numerical  value, 
of  four  Hebrew  and  three  Greek  words,  all  written 
i^-ith  Greek  characters:  ab,  ben,  rouach,  hakadOs ; 
sGteria  apo  xylau  ("  Father,  Son,  Spirit,  holy; 
salvation  from  the  cross  ").  According  to  a  note 
of  De  Beausobre's,  Hardouin  accepted  the  first 
three  of  these,  taking  the  four  others  for  the  ini- 
tials oltheGreek anthr&pousadzOn  hagiOi  xylOi,  "sa- 
ving mankind  by  the  holy  cross."  Barzilai  goes  back 
for  explanation  to  the  first  verse  of  the  prayer 
attributed  to  Rabbi  Nehunya  ben  ha-Kanah,  the 
literal  rendering  of  which  is  "  O  [God],  with  thy 
mighty  right  hand  deliver  the  imhappy  [people]," 
forming  from  the  initial  and  final  letters  of  the 
words  the  word  Abrakd  (pronounced  Ahrakad), 
with  the  meaning  "  the  host  of  the  winged  ones," 
i.e.,  angels.  But  this  extremely  ingenious  theory 
would  at  most  explain  only  the  mystic  word  Abra- 
cadabra, whose  connection  with  Abrasax  is  by  no 
means  certain.  De  Beausobre  derives  Abrasax 
from  the  Greek  haJbros  and  so5,  "  the  beautiful,  the 
glorious  Savior."  It  is  scarcely  necessary  to 
remark  upon  the  lack  of  probability  for  all  these 
interpretations;  and  perhaps  the  word  may  be 
included  among  those  mysterious  expressions 
discussed  by  Hamack  (Ueber  daa  gnostische  Buck 
PistiaSophia,  TU,  vii.  2,  1891,  86-89),  "  which 
belong  to  no  known  speech,  and  by  their  singular 
collocation  of  vowels  and  consonants  give  evidence 
that  they  belong  to  some  mystic  dialect,  or  take 
their  origin  from  some  supposed  divine  inspiration." 
That  the  numerical  value  of  the  letters  amounts  to 
365,  the  number  of  the  heavons  of  Basilides  and 
of  the  days  of  the  year,  was  remarked  by  the 
early  Fathers  (Irenjeus,  Hippolytus,  the  pseudo- 
Tertullian,  and  others);  but  this  does  not  explain 
the  name  any  more  than  it  explains  Meithraa  and 
L-2 


Neilos,  of  which  the  same  is  true.  And  the  num- 
ber 365  is  made  use  of  not  only  by  Basilides,  but 
by  other  Gnostics  as  well. 

The  Gnostic  sect  which  comes  into  light  in  Spain 
and  southern  Gaul  at  the  end  of  the  fourth  century 
and  at  the  beginning  of  the  fifth,  which  Jerome 
connects  with  Basilides,  and  which  (according  to 
his  EpisL,  Ixxv.)  used  the  name  Abrasax,  is  con- 
sidered by  recent  scholars  to  have  nothing  to  do 
with  Basilides.  Moreover,  the  word  is  of  frequent 
occurrence  in  the  magic  papyri;  it  is  found  on  the 
Greek  metal  iesaercB  among  other  mystic  words, 
and  still  more  often  on  carved  gems.  The  fact 
that  the  name  occurs  on  these  gems  in  connection 
with  representations  of  figures  with  the  head  of  a 
cock,  a  lion,  or  an  ass,  and  the  tail  of  a  serpent  was 
formerly  taken  in  the  light  of  what  Iremeus  says 
(Adversns  hcereses,  I.  xxiv.  5)  about 
2.  The  the  followers  of  Basilides:  "  These 
Abrasax  men,  moreover,  practise  magic,  and 
Gems,  use  images,  incantations,  invocations, 
and  every  other  kind  of  curious  art. 
Coining  also  certain  names  as  if  they  were 
those  of  the  angels,  they  proclaim  some  of  these 
as  belonging  to  the  first,  and  others  to  the 
second  heaven;  and  then  they  strive  to  set  forth 
the  names,  principles,  angels,  and  powers  of  the 
365  imagined  heavens."  From  this  an  attempt 
was  made  to  explain  first  the  gems  which  bore  the 
name  and  the  figures  described  above,  and  then  all 
gems  with  imintelligible  inscriptions  and  figures 
not  in  accord  with  pure  Greco-Roman  art,  as 
Abrasax-stones,  Basilidian  or  Gnostic  gems.  Some 
scholars,  especially  Bellermann  and  Matter,  took 
great  pains  to  classify  the  different  representations. 
But  a  protest  was  soon  raised  against  this  inter- 
pretation of  these  stones.  De  Beausobre,  Passe- 
rius, and  Caylus  decisively  declared  them  to  be 
pagan;  and  Hamack  has  gone  so  far  as  to  say  that 
it  is  doubtful  whether  a  single  Abrasax-gem  is 
Basilidian.  Having  due  regard  to  the  magic 
papyri,  in  which  many  of  the  unintelligible  names 
of  the  Abrasax-gems  reappear,  besides  directions 
for  making  and  using  gems  with  similar  figures 
and  formulas  for  magical  purposes,  it  can  scarcely 
be  doubted  that  these  stones  are  pagan  amulets 
and  instruments  of  magic.  (W.  Drexler.) 

Biblioqrapht:  C.  Salmasius.  De  ormts  clintactericia,  p.  572, 
Leyden,  1648;  Wendelin,  in  a  letter  in  /.  Macarii  Abraxtu 
.  .  .  accedil  Abraxas  Proteu$,aeu  mtUHformiaoernma Banlir- 
diana  portentosa  varietas,  exhUnta  .  .  .  a  J.  Ckiftetio,  pp. 
112-115.  Antwerp.  1657;  I.  de  Beausobre.  HUtoire 
critique  de  ManichSe  et  du  ManicKii9me,  [ii.  50-60,  Amster- 
dam, 1739;  J.  B.  Passerius,  De  oemmie  Baeiltdianie  dia- 
trtbOt  in  Gori,  Theeaunu  gemmarum  antiquarum  aatrifera- 
rum,  ii.  221-286,  Florence,  1750;  Tubiferes  de  Grimvard, 
Count  de  Caylus,  Recueil  d'anHguiUe,  vi.  65-66,  Paris, 
1764;  F.  MQnter,  Vereuch  €ber  die  kvrcMichen  AUerthUmer 
der  Onoatiker,  pp.  203-214,  Anspaoh,  1790;  J.  J.  Beller- 
mann, Vereueh  aber  die  Oemmen  dtr  AUen  mit  dem  Abraxtu- 
BUde,  3  parts,  Berlin.  1818-19;  J.  Matter,  Hietoire  cri- 
tique du  Onoetieiwie,  i.,  Paris.  1828,  and  Strasburg,  1843; 
idem,  Abraxae  in  Hersog.  RE,  2d  ed..  1877;  S.  Sharpe, 
Egyptian  Mythology,  p.  252,  note,  London,  1863;  Geiger, 
Abraxae  und  Elxai,  in  ZDMO,  xviii.  (1864)  824-825; 
G.  Bariilai.  Oli  Abraxae,  etudio  areheologico,  Triest,  1873; 
idem,tii ppendice cUla  dieeertatione  eugli  A braxae,  ib.  1874;  £. 
Renan,  Hietoire  dee  crigineedu  Chrietianieme,  vi.  160,  Paris, 
1879;  C.  W.  King,  The  Onoetice  and  their  Remaine,  Lon- 
don, 1887;  Hamack,  Oeeehichte,  i.  1 61 .  The  older  material  is 
listed  by  Matter,  ut  sup.,  and  Wessely,  ^pAena  grammaUi, 


Abravanel 
AbyMdnia 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


18 


ToL  li.^VieciDa,  1SS&.  Worth  consulting  mra  B.  de  Mo[if»u<»n, 
L'AnHguiUcxpliquie.ii.  366,  ParJM  1710-24,  Eag.  trmmt. 
10  vok.«  LaadoQ.  1721-25;  R.  E.  Rupe,  DetcripHv^cata- 
toffut  f}/  .  .  .  en0Tiav«/  GemM  ,  ,  ^  etut  ^  .  .  by  J.  Tatw 
.  .  ,  2  voU.,  Loadoii.  1761;  J.  M.  A.  Ch»boiiillet,  Cata- 
loff%t9  giTi^^  ft  raiaonne  des  cameei  gt  putrreM  ffraviۤ 
de  la  Bihliothktpit  Imp^riate,  Pariffi  18A8:  BACL,  L 
127-155.  riaces  of  the  no-called.  Abro^As^eEEidi  mre  to  be 
foun.d  in,  the  worki  of  Ck>unt  da  Cayliu,  MAttei,  Kiac. 
emd  ip  the  DjICL. 

ABRAVAH EL.     See  Abrabanxl. 
ABSALOU .     Bee  David. 

ABSALOir  (AXEL):  Archbishop  of  Lund  (1178- 
1201 ),  one  of  the  principal  figyras  in  Scandinavian 
medieval  history;  b»  on  the  island  of  Zealandj 
then  under  liis  father's  government ,  probably  in 
Oct»,  1128;  d.  in  the  abbey  of  Sord  (on  the  Island 
of  Zealand^  44  m.  w.b.w.  of  Copenhagen)  Mar.  21  ^ 
1201.  He  waa  brought  up  with  the  future  king 
Waldemari  amid  surroundings  which  befitted  his 
birth.  When  he  was  eighteen  or  nineteen,  his 
father  retired  from  the  world  to  the  Benedictine 
monastery  of  Sor6,  which  he  had  built,  and  the  lad 
went  to  Fans  to  study  theology  and  canon  law. 
He  came  back  to  Denmark  to  find  civil  war  raging 
among  the  partizans  of  three  princes.  As  he  was 
already  a  priest,  he  probably  took  no  part  in  the 
bloody  battle  of  Gradehede  near  Viborg  (1157) 
which  finally  decided  the  strife  in  favor  of  his  old 
playmat'e  Waklcmar;  but  in  the  following  spring 
he  and  his  retainers  repelled  an  attack  of  Wendish 
pirates  who  were  ravaging  Zealand.  When  Bishop 
Asaer  of  Roskilde  died  (on  Good  Friday,  1158), 
the  chapter  and  the  citi^ns  quarreled  over  the 
choice  of  a  successor,  and  the  armed  intervention 
of  Walderaar  became  necessary.  At  an  election 
held  in  his  presence,  Abealon  was  unanimously 
chosen,  and  soon  showed  that  he  conmdered  the 
defense  of  bis  country  not  the  least  among  hii 
episcopal  duties.  The  Danee  now  a«stimed  the 
offeneive  against  the  pagan  Wends,  and  two  cam- 
paigns were  made  against  them  in  1 159.  The  next 
.  year  Waldemar  joined  forces  ^ith  Henry  the  Lion, 
with  the  result  that  Mecklenburg  was  added  to  the 
German  territory,  and  the  iuland  of  Ri)gen  to  the 
Danish. 

All  this  time  Absalon  waa  busy  building  fort- 
re^ea  and  providing  guards  for  the  cosjjtSj  some- 
time underta-king  perilous  winter  voyages  to  inspect 
the  defenses,  with  the  aspect  of  a  viking  but  the 
spirit  of  a  crusader.  At  the  same  time  he  was 
laboring  for  internal  peace  by  endeavoring  to  attach 
the  partizans  of  the  defeat<^  factions  to  the  king, 
and  busily  providing  for  monastic  reform  and  ex- 
tendon.  He  brought  to  Denmark  his  old  fellow 
student  William,  canon  of  St,  Genevieve  at  Paris, 
and  placed  him  over  the  canons  of  E^kils5  near 
Roskilde,  whose  house  he  later  removed  to  Ebel- 
holt  near  Arresd,  helping  them  to  build  their  new 
church  and  richly  endowing  it.  After  his  father's 
death  (c.  1157)  diaeiplme  had  decayed  araong  the 
Benedictines  of  Sor6,  and  Absalon  brought  Cister- 
cian monks  from  Earom  to  restore  it,  making  it  one 
of  the  richest  of  Cistercian  abbeye.  He  and  his 
kinsfolk  were  buried  in  the  great  church  there 
which  he  began  to  buBd  after  1174.  In  1162  he 
accompanied  Waldemar  to  St.  Jean  de  Laune  on 


the  Sadne,  where  Frederick  Barbarossa  solemnly 
recognized  Victor  IV.  as  the  legitimate  pope  and 
banne<l  Alexander  ILL  and  his  adherents.  Absa- 
lon was  much  dissatisfied  with  this  result;  h« 
desired  Waldemar  to  refuse  the  oath  of  allegianoe 
to  the  emperor,  and  induced  him  to  withdraw  from 
the  sitting  in  which  Alexander  was  denounced. 
He  also  prot^ted  later  when  Victor  IV.  undertook 
to  consecrate  a  bishop  for  Odense,  and  was  sup- 
ported in  his  attitude  by  the  bishops  of  Viborg  and 
BSrglum  and  by  most  of  the  monastic  communities, 
while  Archbishop  Eskil  of  Lund  took  the  same 
position  so  strongly  that  he  had  to  spend  seven 
years  in  exile  at  Clairvaux.  The  bishops  of  Sles- 
wick,  Ribe,  Aarhus,  and  Odenie  were  od  the  side 
of  the  imperial  pope. 

In  the  fresh  catnpaigns  against  the  Wenda, 
between  1164  and  11S5,  Absalon  took  an  active 
part,  winning  from  his  contemporaries  the  name  of 
pater  pGix%(£,  In  1167  the  king  gave  him  the  tawn 
of  Havii  (Copenhagen),  and  he  erected  a  stroog 
fortress,  which  was  of  great  importan*^  for  the 
development  of  commerce.  He  was  active  in  ee- 
tablishitig  a  system  of  tithes,  which  aroused  much 
opposition.  The  disturbances  in  Eskil's  juris- 
diction (he  had  now  become  reconciled  with  the 
king)  induced  him  to  resign  his  archbishopric, 
nanung  Absalon  as  his  successor.  The  latter 
accepted  bis  promotion  unwillingly,  and  was  allowed 
to  retain  the  see  of  Roskilde  for  thirteen  years 
after  his  assumption  of  the  liigher  office  in  1178, 
As  arehbishop  he  withdrew  more  and  more  from 
political  activity  to  devote  himself  to  the  intereata 
of  the  Cliurch.  The  part  taken  by  the  Danes  in 
the  third  crusade  was  no  doubt  due  to  Ida  inSuence. 
He  was  a  strong  upholder  of  clerical  celibacy,  and 
the  purity  of  his  own  fife  was  univeTsaDy  admired. 
He  is  also  credited  with  having  done  much  for 
liturgical  uniformity;  and  it  was  at  his  ^isb  that 
Saxo,  one  of  his  clergy,  undertook  to  write  his 
Hist&ria  Danica^  one  of  the  most  important  sources 
for  Danish  history,  (F.  Nielsen,} 

BiBLioaHApinT:  J.  Lainjit!b«k  {oontLnued  by  P.  F,  fiubm  and 
others],  ±Saiptor«9  Ftntm  Daniccwm  medii  am^  9  vobv, 
C-opeQh&Ken,  1774-87;  H.  J.  F.  Eairup,  Lift  {tn  DiujidbJ, 
eorO«t  1326,  G«rm,  Crania..  Lelpdc,  1832:  S&xo  Ormniiiia- 
timiB.  HiMtanUi  Danim.  part  i..  «d.  P.  E.  Maij|«r«  pan  iL, 
«d.  J.  M.  VelJH^how,  Coponl^Bicen.  183&-^fiS, 

ABSOLUTIOH.    See  Confession  of  Snra. 

ABSTIKEHCE*  See  FAs-nNo;  Totai.  Absti- 
nence. 

ABULFARAJ  (Abu  al-Faraj  ibn  Harmn,  com* 
monly  called  Bar  Hehrmxis ;  his  real  name  was 
Gregory):  Syriac  writer  and  bishop;  b.  in  the 
Cappadocian  town  of  MeUtene  (200  m.  n,e.  of  Anti- 
och)  1226;  d,  at  Maragha  (60  m.  s.  of  Tabrij), 
Aserbaijan,  Persia,  July  30,  1286.  He  belonged 
to  a  Jewish  family  which  had  gone  over  to  Jacobite 
Christianity,  but  whether  his  father  or  a  more 
remote  anceatot  made  the  change  is  uncertain. 
He  finished  his  studies  at  Antioch  and  Uved  for  a 
time  there  as  a  monk  in  a  cave;  he  went  to  Tripali^ 
Syria,  to  perfect  himself  in  medicine  (hie  f&ther'a 
profession)  and  rhetoric ;  became  bishop  of  Gnhcm, 
near  Melitene  (1246),  of  Lakabhin  (1247),  of  Alepfm 
(1253);  maphriun   (primate)  of  the  Jftcobitea  in 


10 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Abravanel 
Abyssinia 


Chaldea,  Mesopotamia,  and  Afisyria,  with  his  seat 
at  Takrit  on  the  Tigris  (1264).  It  was  the  time  of 
the  Idongol  inroads  imder  Hidaku,  and  the  country 
was  sorely  devastated;  but  by  his  discretion  and 
the  high  repute  in  which  he  was  held  at  the  Tatar 
court,  Abulfaraj  was  able  to  do  much  to  ameli- 
orate the  condition  of  the  Christians.  As  a  writer 
his  importance  is  due  to  his  wide  acquaintance  with 
the  knowledge  of  his  time;  his  works  are  exceedingly 
numerous  upon  the  most  diverse  subjects.  A  few 
of  them  are  in  Arabic,  but  the  greater  number  in 
Syriac. 

Bibuoorapht:  E.  Neetlo,  Syritehe  OrammaHk,  "  LiUra- 
tura,"  pp.  46-50,  Berlin,  1888  (gives  pubUahed  worlu  of 
Abulfaraj);  life  by  T.  N6ldeke,  in  OrientalitdM  Skizzen, 
pp.  260  iqq.,  Berlin,  1892,  Eng.  transl..  London,  1892; 
W.  Wright,  Short  Hittory  of  Syriae  LiUrature,  pp.  266- 
281,  London,  1894  (reprinted,  with  additions,  from  Encyc. 
BriL,  xxii.;  gives  complete  list  of  works  of  Abulfaraj); 
Hauek-Hersog,  RE,  i.  123-124,  ii.  780;  E.  A.  W.  Budge. 
The  LaughabU  StoriM  collected  by  Mar  Qreoory  John  Bar 
HebratUt  Syriac  Text  .  .  .  and  Eng.  tranel.,  London, 
1897. 

ABUNA.    See  Abyssinia  and  the  Abyssinian 
Church,  §§  2, 5. 
ABTSSmU  kSD  THE  ABYSSINIAN  CHURCH. 

Worthlessness  of  Traditional  History  ($1.) 

Introduction  of  Christianity  (S  2). 

Close  Connection  with  £g31>t  in  Doctrine  (f  3). 

The  Canon  and  Creed  (S  4). 

Organisation  of  the  Church  (f  6). 

Beliefs  and  Practises  (S  6). 

The  Falashas  (S  7). 

Christian  Missions  (f  8). 

The  modem  Abyssinia  is  a  country  of  Eaat  Africa, 
between  the  Red  Sea  and  the  Blue  Nile,  to  the 
southeast  of  Nubia.  Its  boundaries  are  not  defi- 
nite, and  its  area  is  variously  given  from  150,0(X) 
to  240,000  square  miles.  Estimates  of  the  popu- 
lation vary  from  3,600,000  to  8,500,000.  In  an- 
tiquity the  term  "  Ethiopia "  was  used  rather 
vaguely  to  signify  Ab3rssinia  (with  somewhat 
wider  extent  than  at  present),  Nubia,  and  Sennar. 
These  were  the  lands  of  the  Ethiopian  Church,  of 
which  the  Abyssinian  Church  is  the  modem  rep- 
resentative. Christianity  is  now  confined  to  the 
plateau  and  mountain  regions  of  Abyssinia. 

Native  tradition  fuscribes  the  name  of  the  country 

and  the  foundation  of  the  state  to  Ethiops,  the  son 

of  Cush,  the  son  of  Ham.    The  queen 

X.  Worth-  of    Sheba    who    visited    Solomon    is 

lessness  of  identified  with  an  Abyssinian  queen. 
Traditional  Makeda;  and  her  visit  is  said  to  have 

Higtory.  led  to  the  conversion  of  the  people 
to  Judaism.  The  tradition  continues 
that  she  bore  to  Solomon  a  son,  Menelik,  who  was 
educated  in  Jerusalem  by  his  father.  He  then 
retiurned  to  the  old  capital,  Axum,  and  brought 
with  him  both  Jewish  priests  and  the  ark,  which 
was  carried  away  from  the  Temple  in  Jerusalem 
and  deposited  in  the  Ethiopian  capital;  and  from 
that  time  to  the  present  Abyssinia  is  said  to  have 
been  ruled  by  a  Solomonic  dynasty,  the  succession 
having  been  broken  only  now  and  then  by  usurpers 
and  conquerors.  Of  course,  all  this  has  no  historic 
value.  That  Judaism  preceded  Christianity  in  the 
land  is  not  proved  by  the  observance  of  certain 
Jewish  customs  (such  as  circumcision,  the  Mosaic 
laws  about  foods,  the  Sabbath,  etc.) ;  these  may 


have  been  introduced  from  ancient  Egypt  or  the 
Coptic  Church.  A  Jewish  immigration,  however, 
must  have  taken  place,  as  it  is  proved  by  the 
presence  in  the  land  of  numerous  Jews,  the  so- 
called  Falashas  (see  below,  §7);  but  the  time, 
manner,  and  magnitude  of  this  immigration  can 
not  be  ascertained. 

There  is  no  independent  native  tradition  of  the 

conversion  of    the    Abyssinians   to    Christianity. 

According  to  the  Greek  and  Roman 

2.  Intro-    Church    historians    (Rufinus,    i.    9; 
ductionof  Theodoret,    i,    22;  Socrates,    i.    19; 

ChriBti-     Sozomen,  ii.  24),  in  the  time  of  Con- 
anity.      stantine  the  Great  (about  330),  Fm- 

mentius  and  Edesius  accompanied 
the  uncle  of  the  former  from  Tyre  on  a  voyage  in 
the  Red  Sea.  They  were  shipwrecked  on  the 
Ethiopian  coast  and  carried  by  the  natives  to  the 
court  at  Axum.  There  they  won  confidence  and 
honor,  and  were  allowed  to  preach  Christianity. 
Edesius  afterward  retumed  to  Tyre;  but  Frumen- 
tius  continued  the  work,  went  to  Alexandria,  where 
Athanasius  occupied  the  patriarchal  see,  obtained 
missionary  coworkers  from  him,  and  was  himself 
consecrated  bishop  and  head  of  the  Ethiopian 
Chiurch,  with  the  title  Abba  Salamaf  "  Father  of 
Peace,"  which  is  still  in  use  along  with  the  later 
Abuna,  "  Our  Father."  It  is  not  improbable  that 
Christianity  was  known  to  the  Abyssinians  before 
the  time  of  Frumentius  (whose  date  has  been 
fixed  by  Dillmann  at  341);  but  he  is  properly  re- 
garded as  the  founder  of  the  Ethiopian  Church. 
In  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries  the  mission  received 
a  new  impulse  by  the  immigration  of  a  nimiber  of 
monks  (Monophysites)  from  upper  Egypt. 

The  close  connection  between  the  Abyssinian 
Church  and  Egypt  is  very  apparent  in  the  sphere 

of  doctrine.     Like  the  Coptic  Church, 

3.  Close    the  Abyssinian  holds  a  monophysitic 
Connection  view  of  the  persoQ  of    Christ.    This 

with  question  has  long  been  settled;  but 
Egypt  in  it  is  still  debated  whether  Christ  had 
Doctrine,  a  double  or  threefold  birth.  The 
Abuna  and  the  majority  of  the  priests 
hold  to  the  twofold  view,  which  is  the  more  purely 
monophysitic.  The  threefold  view  was  introduced 
by  a  monk  about  100  years  ago,  and  is  prevalent 
in  Shoa  (the  southern  and  southeastern  district). 
Also  the  questions  of  the  person  and  dignity  of 
Mary, — whether  she  really  bore  God,  or  was  only 
the  mother  of  Jesus;  whether  she  is  entitled  to 
the  same  worship  as  Christ,  etc., — are  eagerly 
debated  though  it  seems  to  be  the  general  view- 
that  an  almost  divine  worship  is  due  to  the  Virgin, 
and  that  she  and  the  saints  are  indispensable 
mediators  between  Christ  and  man.  Some  even 
assert  that  the  saints,  who  died  not  for  their  own 
sins,  died  like  Christ  for  the  sins  of  others. 

The  church  books  are  all  in  the  Ethiopic  language, 
which  is  a  dead  tongue,  studied  only  by  the  priests, 
and  not  understood  by  them.  For  the  Ethionic 
Bible  translation  see  Bible  Versions,  A,  VUI. 
The  Abyssinian  canon,  called  Semanya  Ahadu, 
"  Eighty-one,"  because  it  consists  of  eighty-one 
sacred  books,  comprises,  besides  the  sixty-five 
books  of  the  usual   canon,    the  Apocrypha,    the 


AbysdJiUk 
Aoaciiia  of  Cteaarea 


THE   NEW   SCHAFF-HERZOG 


80 


Epistles  of  Clement,  and  the  Sjrnodus  (that  is,  the 
decrees  of  the    Apostolic    Council  of  Jerusalem; 

cf.    W.    Fell,     Canonea     apoatolorum 

4.  The      /Ethiopice,    Leipsic,    1871).      Only    a 

Canon  and  very    slight    difference,    however,    is 

Creed.      made  between   this  canon  and  some 

other  works  of  ecclesiastical  literature, 
— the  Didaacalia  or  Apostolic  ConatittUions  (text 
and  transl.  by  T.  P.  Piatt,  published  by  the  Oriental 
Translation  Fimd,  London,  1834);  the  Haimanot- 
Abo,  giving  quotations  from  the  councils  and  the 
Fathers;  the  writings  of  the  Eastern  Fathers, 
Athanasius,  Cyril,  and  Chrysostom;  and  the  Fethtk- 
Nagaat,  the  royal  law-book.  On  the  whole,  the 
tradition  of  the  Church  has  the  same  authority 
as  the  Scriptures.  Of  the  councils,  only  those 
before  the  Council  of  Chalcedon  (451)  are  recog- 
nized, because  at  Chalcedon  the  monophysite 
heresy  was  condemned.  The  Apostles'  Oeed  is 
unknown;  the  Nicene  is  used. 

At  the  head  of  the  Church  stands  the  Abuna, 
who  resides  in  Gondar.     He  is  appointed  by  the 

Coptic   patriarch   of   Cairo;  and,    ac- 

5.   Organi-  cording   to   a   law,    dating   from   the 

zation  of    thirteenth    century,    no    Abyssinian, 

the  Church,  but  only  a  Copt,  can  be  Abuna.     He 

alone  has  the  right  to  anoint  the  king 
and  to  ordain  priests  and  deacons.  Both  in  secular 
and  in  ecclesiastical  affairs  he  has  great  power. 
The  duties  of  the  priests  are  to  conduct  divine 
service  three  or  four  times  daily  and  for  three  or 
four  hours  on  Sunday,  to  attend  to  the  church 
business,  and  to  purify  houses  and  utensils.  Priests, 
monks,  and  scholars  celebrate  the  Holy  CJom- 
munion  every  morning.  The  deacons  bake  the 
bread  for  the  Lord's  Supper  and  perform  menial 
duties.  Any  one  who  can  read  may  be  ordained 
deacon,  and  a  priest  is  merely  required  to  recite 
the  Nicene  Creed.  To  learn  the  long  liturgies, 
however,  is  often  a  matter  of  years.  It  is  usual  to 
marry  before  ordination,  as  marriage  is  not  allowed 
afterward.  Besides  priests  and  deacons  each 
church  has  its  alaka^  who  looks  after  church  prop- 
erty and  attends  to  secular  business.  The  debturas 
sing  at  divine  service;  and  the  larger  churches  have 
a  komofat  who  settles  disputes  among  the  clergy. 
Beside  the  secular  clergy  stand  the  monastic  imder 
the  head  of  the  Etsh'ege,  who  ranks  next  to  the 
Abuna  and  decides  many  ecclesiastical  and  theo- 
logical questions  in  common  with  him.  The  num- 
ber of  monks  and  nuns  (living  after  the  rule  of 
Pachomius)  is  very  great.  At  Debra  Damo,  one 
of  the  chief  monasteries,  about  300  monks  live 
together  in  small  huts.  A  part  of  their  duties 
is  the  education  of  the  young.  The  church  build- 
ings are  exceedingly  numerous,  generally  small, 
low,  circular  structures,  with  a  conical  roof  of  thatch 
and  four  doors,  one  toward  each  of  the  cardinal 
points.  Surrounding  the  building  is  a  court, 
occupied  during  service  by  the  laymen,  and  often 
serving  at  night  as  a  place  of  refuge  to  travelers. 
The  interior,  dirty  and  neglected,  is  divided  into 
two  apartments, — the  holy  for  the  priests  and 
deacons,  and  the  holy  of  holies,  where  stands  the 
ark.  This  ark  is  the  principal  object  in  the  whole 
church.     Neither  the  deacons,   laymen,  nor  non- 


Christians  dare  touch  it;  if  they  do,  the  church 
and  the  adjacent  cemetery  become  unclean,  and 
must  be  purified.  Indifferent  pictures  of  the 
nimierous  saints,  the  Virgin,  the  angelfi,  and  the 
devil  adorn  the  interior;  but  statues  are  forbidden. 
Crosses  are  found,  but  no  crucifixes. 

Service  consists  of  singing  of  psalms,  recitals 
of  parts  of  the  Bible  and  liturgy,  and  prayers, 
especially  to  the  Virgin  and  the  wonder-working 
saints;  it  is  imdignified  and  unedifying.  They 
believe  that  every  one  has  a  guardian  spirit  and 
therefore  venerate   the   angels.    The 

6.  Beliefs   archangel   Michael    is   consdered  es- 
and        pecially  holy.      They  divide  the  good 

Practises,  angels  into  nine  classes,  of  which  there 
were  originally  ten,  but  one  fell  away 
under  Satanael.  Relics  are  preserved  and  ven- 
erated as  by  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  Of 
sacraments,  the  Chiurch  numbers  two,  baptism  and 
the  Lord's  Supper.  Both  adults  and  children  are 
baptized,  the  former  by  immersion,  the  latter  by 
sprinkling.  For  boys  the  rite  is  performed  forty 
days  after  birth;  for  girls,  eighty  days.  The 
purpose  of  baptism  is  the  forgiveness  of  sins.  The 
Lord's  Supper  is  preceded  by  a  severe  fast;  and 
offerings  of  incense,  oil,  bread,  and  wine  are  usually 
brought.  The  Je>\ish  Sabbath  is  kept  as  well  as 
the  Christian  Sunday;  and  altogether  there  are  one 
hundred  and  eighty  holidays  in  the  year.  Fasting, 
observed  with  great  strictness,  plays  a  prominent 
part  in  the  discipline,  and  about  half  the  days  of 
the  year  are  nominally  fast-days. 

Not  all  the  inhabitants  of  Abyssinia  are  Chris- 
tians; and  not  all  Christians  belong  to  the  State 
Church.    The  Zalanes,  a  nomadic  tribe,  consider 
themselves  to  be  Jews,  and  keep  aloof  from  the 
Christians,  though  they  are  described 
7.   The     as  being  really  Christians.     The  Cha- 

Falashas.  mantes  are  baptized,  and  have  Chris- 
tian priests;  but  in  reality  they  are 
nearly  pagans,  and  celebrate  many  thoroughly 
pagan  rites.  The  real  Jews,  the  Falashas,  live 
along  the  northern  shore  of  Lake  Tsana,  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Gondar  and  Shelga,  where  they 
pursue  agriculture  and  trade.  They  are  more 
industrious  than  the  Christians,  but  also  more 
ignorant  and  spiritually  more  forlorn.  Moham- 
medanism is  steadily  progressing.  In  order  to 
distinguish  themselves  from  all  non-Christians, 
the  Christians  receive  at  baptism  a  cord  of  blue 
silk  or  cotton,  called  maiebf  which  they  always 
wear  around  the  neck. 

The  first  missionary  work  which  the  Western 
Church  undertook  in  Abyssinia  was  the  Jesuit 
mission  of  1555,  which  labored  there  for  nearly 
a  century;  but  the  missionary  activity  of  the 
Jesuits  was  deeply  mixed  with  the  politics  of  the 
country;  and  their  main  purpose  seems  to  have 
been  to  establish  there  the  authority  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church.  At  last  they  reached  the  goal. 
After  a  frightful  massacre  of  the  opposite  party, 
King  Sasneos  declared  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
the  Church  of  the  State.  In  1640,  however,  the 
Jesuits,  with  their  Roman  archbishop,  were  com- 
pelled to  leave  the  country,  and  the  old  religion 
with  its  old  Church  was  reestablished.    With  the 


81 


REUGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


AbyssinlA 
Aoaoina  of  Ctesaroa 


new  Abuna  who  followed  after  this  Roman  Catholic 
interregnum,  Peter  Heyling,  from  Lilbeck,  a  Protes- 
tant missionary,  came  into  the  country,  but  his 
great  zeal  led  only  to  small  results.  The  Church 
Bfisdonary  Society  had  more  success  in  the  first 
half  of  the  nineteenth  century.  The  circumstance 
that  a  pious  Abyssinian  monk,  Abi-Ruch  or  Abre- 
ka,  who  had  been  guide  to  the  traveler  Bnice, 
translated  the  whole  Bible  into  the  Amharic  lan- 
guage (1808-18),  gave  the  first  occasion  to  this 
attempt.  The  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society 
bought  and  printed  the  translation,  and  in  1830 
the  missionaries  Gobat  and  Kugler 
8.  Chris-  were  sent  to  Abyssinia.  The  latter 
tian  Ifis-  was  succeeded  by  Isenberg,  and  Gobat 
tions.  by  Blumhardt  in  1837.  Later  came 
Krapf.  The  work  was  partly  spoiled 
by  the  opposition  of  the  native  priests  and  the 
intrigues  of  newly  arrived  Roman  Catholics,  and 
the  missionaries  were  expelled  in  1838.  Krapf 
then  spent  three  years  in  Shoa,  but  was  driven 
thence  in  1842.  The  Roman  Catholics  were  ex- 
pelled in  1854.  In  1858  a  Coptic  priest  who  had 
frequented  the  school  of  a  Protestant  missionary 
in  Alexandria,  and  favored  the  Protestant  mission, 
became  Abuna,  and  the  St.  Chrischona  Society  of 
Basel  now  sent  a  mmiber  of  Protestant  missionaries 
into  the  country.  They  labored  with  considerable 
success;  but  the  disturbances  of  the  reign  of  King 
Theodore  overtook  them,  and  almost  destroyed 
their  work.  They  were  thrown  into  prison  and 
were  only  released  after  the  victory  of  the  British. 
Since  that  time,  few  missionary  attempts  have 
been  made  in  Abyssinia.  The  Swedes  have  one 
or  two  stations  in  the  country;  and  during  the 
past  ten  years  there  has  been  some  effort  to  resume 
work  on  the  part  of  the  Roman  Catholics  (mainly 
French).  There  is  a  vicar  apostolic  for  Abyssinia 
with  residence  in  Alitiena,  Tigre;  and  a  Uniat 
"  Geea  Church  "  is  said  to  number  10,000  members. 
See  Africa,  II.,  Abyssinia. 

Bibuoorapht:  Makritd  (d.  1441),  HUUrria  Copiorum  Chri*- 
tianorum,  ed.  T.  WOstenfeld,  Gdttingen,  1845;  H.  Ludolf, 
Historia  cUhiopioa  and  CommeniariuB,  Frankfort,  1681, 
1693;  J.  Lobo.  Voyage  d'Ahysntiie  (Eng.  transl.,  xvUh  con- 
Hnuaiion  of  the  kUtory  of  AhyBnnia  .  .  .  hy  M.  Le  Grand, 
.  .  .  London,  1735;  J.  Stoecklein,  AUerhand  ao  Lehr-  aU 
OeUt-reichet  Brief,  9ckriften  und  Reia-Beachreibungen  .  .  . 
von  denen  Miaaumarxia  der  Geaellachaft  Jeau,  I.  viii.,  Augs- 
hurg,  1728;  V.  de  la  Croie,  Hiatotredu  Chriatianiame  d'Ethi- 
ope^  .  .  .  The  Hague.  1739;  J.  Bruce.  Travela  to  Diacover 
the  Sotarcea  of  the  Nile,  1768-177S,  Edinburgh,  1790  (often 
reprinted);  O.  A.  Hosklns,  Travela  in  Ethiopia,  London, 
1835;  C.  W.  Isenberg  and  J.  L.  Krapf,  Joumala  de- 
lailinc  their  Proceedinca  in  the  Kingdom  of  Shoa,  London, 
1843;  C.  W.  Isenberg,  Abeaainien  und  die  evangeliache 
Miaaion,  Bonn.  1844;  J.  L.  Krapf,  Travela  in  Eaat  Africa, 
London,  1860;  idem,  Travela  and  Miaaionary  Laboura  in 
Africa  and  Abyaainia,  ib.  1867;  Lady  Mary  E.  Herbert, 
Abyaeinia  and  iU  ApoatU,  ib.  1868;  J.  M.  Flad,  The  Fal- 
aahaa  of  Abyaeinia,  ib.  1869;  idem,  Ztodlf  Jahre  in  Abea- 
ainien, 2  vols.,  Basel.  1869-87 ;  A.  Dillmann,  Die  Anfdnge 
dea  axumiiiachen  Reichea,  Berlin,  1879;  A.  Raffray,  Lea 
tffliaea  ntonolithea  de  la  vHU  de  LalibHa,  Paris,  1882;  T- 
Waldmeier,  Aulobiography,  London,  1890;  J.  T.  Bent, 
The  Sacred  City  of  the  Ethiopiana,  ib.  1893;  A.  B.  Wylde. 
Modem  Abyaainia,  ib.  1901;  H.  Vivian,  Abyaainia,  ib. 
1901;  M.  Fowler,  Chriatian  Egypt,  ch.  vii.,  ib.  1901.  For 
the  liturgy,  etc.:  J.  A.  Giles,  Codex  apocryphua  Novi  Tea- 
iamenH,  ib.  1852;  E.  Trumpp,  Daa  Taufbuch  der  athiopi- 
than  Kvrcka,  Munich.  1878;  C.  A.  Swainson.  Greek  LHur- 
ffiea,  Cambridge.  1884;  C.  von  Amhard,  Liturgie  turn 
Tauf'Feat  der  tathiopiaehen  Kvrcka,  Munich,  1888. 


ACACIUS,  Q-kd'shi-xTS.  OF  BERCEA :  A  monk 
of  the  monastery  of  Gindanus  near  Antioch,  after- 
ward abbot  of  a  monastery  near  Bercea  (Aleppo), 
and  from  378  bishop  of  that  city;  d.  about  435. 
He  took  an  active  part  in  the  ecclesiastical  con- 
troversies of  the  East,  and  was  one  of  the  principal 
complainants  against  Chrysostom  at  the  s3mod 
held  in  403  in  a  suburb  of  Chalcedon  known  as 
Ad  Quercum.  For  this  reason  he  fell  out  with 
Rome,  but  was  acknowledged  again  by  Innocent  I. 
in  415.  In  the  Nestorian  controversy  he  occupied 
a  mediating  position.  The  Syrian  Bakeus  wrote 
five  songs  in  his  praise.  His  extant  writings  are 
a  letter  to  Cyril  of  Alexandria  and  two  to  Alexander 
of  Hierapolis,  as  well  as  a  confession  of  faith  (MPOj 
bcxvii.  1445-48).  G.  KrCger. 

Biblioorapht:  M.  Le  Quien,  Oriena  Chriatianua,  ii.  782- 
783,  Paris.  1763;  Q.  Bickell,  AuagewAfiUe  Gedichte  der  ay- 
riachen  KirchenvMer  Cyrillonaa,  Balcaua,  ...  in  Bib- 
liothek  der  KirchenviUer,  pp.  83-89,  Kempten.  1872-73; 
Hefele.  Conciliengeachiehte,  ii.  passim;  DCB,  i.  12-14. 

ACACIUS  OF  CffiS AREA:  One  of  the  most  influ- 
ential bishops  in  the  large  middle  party  which  opposed 
the  Nicene  Creed  during  the  Arian  controversy.  He 
was  the  disciple  of  Eusebius,  and  his  successor  in 
the  bishopric  of  Csesarea.  He  took  part  in  the 
Eusebian  synod  at  Antioch  in  the  spring  of  341, 
and  in  another  at  Philippopolis  in  343.  By  the 
orthodox  council  of  Sardica  in  the  same  year  he  was 
regarded  as  one  of  the  heads  of  the  opposing  party, 
and  threatened  with  deposition.  Common  oppo- 
sition to  the  Nicene  doctrine  held  the  party 
together  imtil  about  356.  Thus,  on  the  death 
of  Maximus  of  Jerusalem  (350  or  351),  Acacius 
helped  to  get  the  vacant  see  for  Cyril,  who  belonged 
rather  to  the  opposite  wing  of  the  party,  the  later  Ho- 
moiousians  or  Semi-Arians.  That  he  fell  out  with 
Cyril  and  procured  his  deposition  (357  or  358)  was  due 
partly  to  jealousy  between  the  two  sees,  partly  to  the 
changed  attitude  of  parties  under  Ck>nstantius  (351- 
361).  The  two  wings  fell  apart,  and  Acacius  became 
the  leader  of  the  court  party,  the  later  Homoians, 
in  the  East.  In  355  he  seems  to  have  been  one  of 
the  few  Easterns  who  represented  the  emperor  at 
the  Council  of  Milan;  and,  according  to  Jerome, 
his  influence  with  Ck>nstantius  was  so  great  that  he 
had  much  to  do  with  setting  up  Felix  as  pope  in 
the  place  of  the  banished  Liberius.  After  the  so- 
called  Second  CJoimcil  of  Sirmium  (357)  had  avoided 
the  controverted  terms  altogether  and  said  nothing 
about  the  ousia  ("  substance  "),  it  was  imdoubtedly 
Acacius  who  at  the  Coimcil  of  Antioch  (358)  influ- 
enced Eudoxius  to  accept  this  compromise  for  the 
East.  At  the  Synod  of  Seleucia  (359)  he  took  a 
prominent  part.  In  obvious  concert  with  the  im- 
perial delegates,  he  seemed  to  favor  what  Ursacius 
and  Valens  tried  to  carry  in  the  Sjrnod  of  Ri- 
mini, the  acceptance  of  the  so-called  third  Sirmian 
formula  ("  similar  [homoios]  according  to  the  Scrip- 
tures .  .  .  similar  in  all  things  ")•  He  and  his 
party,  it  is  true,  expressly  condemned  the  anomoioa 
{"  dissimilar  *')  theory,  but  they  omitted  the  "  in  all 
things,'*  which  agreed  as  little  with  the  real  views 
of  Acacius  as  with  those  of  the  Western  Homoians. 
The  council  ended  in  a  schism;  the  Homoiousian 
majority,  in  a  separate  session,  deposed  Acacius 


,       I  of  Oonstantinopla 
^obonunodfttion 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


28 


and  other  leading  Homoians.  But  he  was  in  touch 
with  the  court;  and  at  the  discussions  in  Con- 
stantinople which  continued  those  of  Seleucia, 
the  imperial  wishes,  represented  by  Acacius, 
Ursacius,  and  Valens,  prevailed.  He  was  able  to 
celebrate  his  victory  the  next  year  at  the  Council  of 
Constantinople,  and  commanded  the  situation  in 
the  East.  With  the  death  of  Constantius  the  day 
of  this  imperial  orthodoxy  was  done;  and  under 
Jovian  (363-364)  Acacius  succeeded  in  accepting 
the  Nicene  orthodoxy  which  was  now  that  of  the 
court.  His  name  appears  among  the  signatures 
of  those  who,  at  the  Synod  of  Antioch  presided  over 
by  Meletius  (363),  accepted  the  Nicene  formula 
in  the  sense  of  homoioa  kaV  ousian  (''  similar  as  to 
substance  ")•  With  the  accession  of  the  Arian 
Valens  (364),  the  situation  changed  once  more; 
and  apparently  Acacius  changed  with  it.  He  and 
his  adherents  were  deposed  by  the  Homoiousian 
Synod  of  Lampsacus  (365),  after  which  he  is  heard 
of  no  more;  probably  he  soon  died.  He  was  a 
voluminous  writer,  but  nothing  remains  except 
the  formula  of  Seleucia,  a  fragment  in  Epiphamus 
{Adversus  hcereses,  bodi.  6-10;  MPO,  xlii.  589-596) 
of  his  polemic  against  Marcellus,  and  scattered 
quotations  in  some  of  the  Catense.      (F.  Loofb.) 

Along  with  Eunomius  and  Aetius,  Acacius  may 
be  said  to  have  given  dialectic  completeness  to 
Arianism.  In  their  polemics  against  the  Nicene 
Symbol  they  laid  chief  stress  on  the  fact  that  the 
Father  was  "  unbegotten,"  depending  for  his  being 
neither  upon  himself  nor  another,  which  could  not 
be  said  of  the  Son.  They  insisted  also  upon  the 
complete  comprehensibility  of  God.        A.  H.  N. 

BrauooBAPHT:  Tillemont,  Af^motre*,  vi.  1699;  M.  Le  Quien. 
Oriena  Chriatianiu,  iii.  559.  Paris,  1740;  Fabrioius-Har- 
1m.  vii.  (1801)  336.  ix.  (1804)  254.  256;  James  Raine. 
Priory  of  Heaham,  vol.  i..  Newcastle.  1864;  Hefele.  Con- 
eaiengetchiehte,  i.  677.  712.  714  sqq..  721  sqq..  734-735; 
DCB,  i.  11-12. 

ACACroS  OF  CONSTANTINOPLE.     See  Mono- 

PHTSITES. 

ACACIUS  OF  MELITENE,  mel-i-ti'ne:  A  bitter 
opponent  of  Nestorius  in  the  Council  of  Ephesus 
in  431;  d.  after  437.  A  homily  delivered  by  him 
at  Ephesus  and  two  letters  to  Cyril  are  in  MPG^ 
Ixxvii.  1467-72.  Melitene  was  a  town  of  Armenia 
Secunda,  the  modem  Malatie.  G.  KrCger. 

Biblioorapht:  M.  Le  Quien,  Orieru  ChrUHanua,  i.  441, 
Paris.  1762;  Hefele,  ConcUienoeMchichte,  ii.  271,  275,  314; 
DCB,  i.  14-15. 

ACCA,  aklca:  Fifth  bishop  of  Hexham  (18  m. 
w.  of  Newcastle,  Northumberland);  d.  there  740. 
He  was  the  devoted  friend  of  Wilfrid  of  York  (q.v.), 
shared  his  missionary  labors  in  Friesland  and 
Sussex,  accompanied  him  to  Rome  in  704,  and 
succeeded  him  as  bishop  in  709.  He  was  also  the 
intimate  friend  of  Bede,  who  received  help  and 
encouragement  from  Acca  in  his  scholarly  labors, 
and  dedicated  to  him  his  Hexameron  and  several 
of  his  commentaries.  Acca  seems  to  have  been 
worthy  of  his  friends.  He  completed  and  adorned 
the  buildings  begun  at  Hexham  by  Wilfrid  and 
collected  there  a  large  and  excellent  library.  He 
T/as  a  good  musician,  and  induced  a  famous  singer, 
liaban  by  name,  to  come  to  Hexham  and  instruct 


the  rude  Northumbrians.    In  732  he  was  expelled 
from  his  bishopric  for  some  unknown  reaaon,  but 
returned  before  his  death. 
Biblioorapht:   Bede,  Hi9t,  ^ccl.,  v.  19-20;  J.  Raine.  Prioni 

of  Hexham,  i.  pp.  xxx-xxxv.,  31-36,  Newcastle,  1864;    W. 

Bright,  Earlv  Bnffluh  Church  Hutory,  pp.  447-448.  Ox> 

ford.  1897. 

ACCAD  (AKKAD).     See  Babylonia,  IV.,  §  11. 

ACCEPTANTS:  The  name  of  that  party  which 
in  the  Jansenist  controversy  accepted  the  buU 
Unigenitus,    See  Janben,  Cornelius;  Jansenism. 

ACCOLTI,  ak-kel'ti :  The  name  of  two  cardinals 
who  have  sometimes  been  confused. 

1.  Pietro  Accolti:  "The  Cardinal  of  Anco- 
na  ";  b.  at  Florence  1456;  d.  at  Rome  Dec.  12, 
1 532.  He  studied  law,  but  later  entered  the  Church, 
and  was  made  bishop  of  Ancona  and  cardinal  by 
Julius  II.  He  was  the  author  of  the  famous  bull 
of  1520  against  Luther. 

2.  Benedetto  Accolti :  "  The  Cardmal  of  Ra- 
venna," nephew  of  the  preceding;  b.  at  Flor- 
ence, Oct.  29,  1497;  d.  there  Sept.  21,  1549.  He 
belonged  to  the  college  of  abbreviators  under  Leo 
X.,  and  was  made  a  cardinal  by  Clement  VII.  in 
1527.  In  1535  Paul  III.  for  some  obscure  reason 
imprisoned  him  in  the  castle  of  St.  Angelo;  and 
he  obtained  his  release  after  some  months  only  by 
payment  of  a  large  sum  of  money.  He  left  some 
Latin  writings  including  a  few  poems  (published  in 
Quinque  iUustrium  poetarum  carminaf  Florence, 
1562). 

ACCOMMODATION. 
Greek  Philosophieal  and  Theologieal  Uaacee  (f  1). 
Required  by  Ethics  (S  2). 
Negative  Accommodation  (S  3). 
Poaitive  Accommodation  (S  4). 
Modem  Theory  of  Accommodation  (S  6). 
Untenablenees  of  the  Theory  (S  6). 
When  Aecommodation  is  Admiaaible  (S  7). 
Accommodation  and  the  New  Testament  ($8). 
Controversy  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  (S  9). 
The  word   "  Accommodation "  is   used  in  the- 
ology in    two  senses :     (1)    the  wider,    that    of 
a    general  ethical  conception;  and     (2)  the  nar- 
rower,   by    certain    writers    of    the  latter   half 
of    the    eighteenth    century,   in   reference    to    a 
particular  method  of  Biblical  exegesis. 
I.   Greek     The  ethical  reserve  denoted  by  this 
Philosoph-     term  was  known  to  the  Greek  philoso- 
ical  and     phers   as  synkatabasisy  and  the  same 
Theological    word  is  used  by  the  Greek  Fathers 
Usages,      for  that  method  of  teaching  which 
adapts  itself  to  the  needs  or  to  the 
preconceived  ideas  of  the  scholars;  the  expression 
kat*  oikonomian  didaakein  is  also  employed,  whence 
the  word  "  economy "  is  often  applied  to   this 
method  by  later  writers. 

Such  accommodation  or  economy  is   required 
by  ethics  in  two  cases:    (1)  when,  in  a  spirit  of 
love,  it  spares  a  condition  of  ignorance 
2.  Re-     existing  in  another's  mind,  or  (2)  when, 
quired  by  in  the  same  spirit,  it  keeps  back  some 
Ethics,     truth   which   the  imperfect   state  of 
development  of  the  other  is  not  ready 
to  receive.    Love  bids  to  have  patience  with  erring 
or  weak  consciences,  so  long  as  they  are  uncon- 
scious of  their  error  or  weakness,  and  therefore 


88 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Aoaoina  of  Constantiiiople 
AooonunodatLon 


might  be  more  injured  than  helped  by  a  too  hasty 
attack  (I  Cor.  viii.  9-13).  The  aim  must  be  im- 
provement, not  punishment — that  one  may  **  by 
all  meana  save  some.''  This  consideration,  how- 
ever, is  not  due  to  conscious  and  obstinate  sin- 
ners, in  which  case  it  would  be  a  denial  of  duty 
for  the  sake  of  pleasing  men.  But  this  duty  has 
its  limits;  it  imports  and  enforces  certain  ethical 
requirements  and  certain  spiritual  truths;  and  in 
both  cases  its  action  must  be  adapted  to  the  ca- 
pacity of  the  receiver.  The  very  nature  of  the 
human  mind  prescribes  gradual  progress  in  knowl- 
edge; and  thus  Christian  teach^g  often  requires 
reserve  and  silence,  where  strict  enforcement  of 
the  command  or  full  unfolding  of  the  truth  might 
give  offense.  Thus  Christ  kept  back  from  his 
disciples  certain  things  which  they  could  not  yet 
bear  (John  xvi.  12);  and  thus  Paul  does  not  exact 
the  same  requirements  from  all  members  of  the 
churehes  under  his  care  (I  Cor.  vii.  17,  26,  35  sqq.), 
feeding  the  "  babes  in  Christ "  with  "  milk,  and 
not  with  meat "  (I  Cor.  iii.  2).  The  Christian 
teacher  can  not,  indeed,  preach  a  different 
gospel  to  different  hearers;  but  the  manner  of 
the  preaching  and  the  selection  of  material  will 
vary  with  the  stages  in  spiritual  growth  attained 
by  the  hearers.  To  this  manner  belong  such  things 
as  the  popular  exposition  of  the  truth,  the  use  of 
comparisons  and  examples,  and  argumenta  ad 
haminem.  This  kind  of  accommodation  is  not  only 
not  blameworthy,  but  is  prescribed  by  the  example 
of  Christ. 

The  use  of  accommodation  in  matter,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  manner,  is  more  disputable.  It 
may  be  either  negative,  dissimulatiot  when  the 
teacher  passes  over  in  silence  the  existence  of 
erroneous  ideas  in  his  scholars;  or  positive,  aimu- 
laiiOf  when  he  distinctly  approves  such  erroneous 
ideas  or  consciously  sets  them  forth  as  the  truth, 
with  the  piupose  in  both  cases  of  thus  leading  by 
an  indirect  road  to  the  truth.  Negative  accom- 
modation may  be  justified  pedagogically  by  the 
fact  that  no  teacher  is  in  a  position  to  remove  all 
obstacles  at  one  stroke,  the  gradual  process  being 
equivalent  to  a  toleration  of  a  certain  amount  of 
error  for  the  time.    Thus  no  reproach 

5.  Nega-  can  lie  against  Christ  because  in  some 
tive  Accom-  particulars  he  allowed  his  disciples 
moda-  to  remain  temporarily  under  the  in- 
tion.  fluence  of  false  impressions,  as  long 
as  he  did  this  not  by  declared  approval 
and  with  the  distinct  looking  forward  to  the  time 
when  the  Spirit  of  Truth  should  lead  them  into  all 
truth;  this  covers  the  Jewish  beliefs  and  prac- 
tises which  they  were  allowed  to  retain  in  his  very 
presence.  The  apostles  also  tolerated  the  con- 
tinued existence  of  numerous  ancient  errors  in  their 
converts,  being  sure  that  these  would  fall  away 
with  their  gradual  growth  in  Christian  knowledge 
(L  Cor.  ix.  20  sqq.;  Rom.  xiv.  1  sqq.;  Heb.  v.  11 
aqq.). 

The  case  is  quite  different,  however,  with  regard 
to  positive  accommodation  in  the  matter  of  the 
teaching.  There  is  no  purely  objective  system  of 
commandments,  the  same  for  all  alike.  Ethical 
law  is  subjective,  varying  with  the  individual  and 


his  cireumstances — position,  calling,  age,  sex,  and 
the  like.  One  is  not  to  be  a  slave  to  prevailing 
oxistoms,  but  is  boimd  to  take  them  into  account, 
so  as  not  to  offend  othere.  The  same  thing  applies 
to    prevailing    beliefs    and    views;  a 

4.  Positive  man  has  to  consider  that  he  will  be 
Accommo-  judged  by  his  contemporaries  accord- 

dation.  ing  to  the  standards  of  the  time  and 
place;  nay,  that  if  he  is  to  be  under- 
stood by  them  at  all,  he  must  accommodate  himself 
to  their  standpoint,  and  speak  to  a  certain  extent 
as  they  speak.  This  leads  to  a  point  which  has 
been  in  the  paat  vehemently  discussed  by  theo- 
logians. The  truth  just  stated  was  pressed  by  cer- 
tain writers  for  the  purpose  of  rendering  more 
acceptable  their  doctrines  in  regard  to  revelation. 
It  is  their  attitude  which  gave  rise  to  the  narrower 
meaning  of  the  word  "  accommodation." 

A  transition  to  the  theory  that  many  things  in 
the  Bible  are  to  be  taken  as  spoken  only  in  this 
accommodated  sense  is  to  be  found  in  the  treatise 
of  Zachari^,  Erkldrung  der  Herdblaasung  GoUes  xu 
den  Menachen  (Schwerin,  1762):  it  asserted  that 
the  revelations  of  God  in  the  Old  Testament,  the 
establishment  of  the  old  and  new  covenants,  the 
incarnation  of  Christ — ^in  other  words,  the  facts  of 
revelation  in  general — were  only  set  forth  as  an 
"  accommodation  "  of  God  to  men.  It  was  seen 
that  this  struck  at  the  very  root  of  the  Christian 
faith;  and  the  question  was  hotly  discussed  how 
far  many  Biblical  expressions  were  mere  conces- 
sions to  the  ideas  prevalent  at  the 

5.  Modem  time.  The  controversy  lasted  until  the 
Theory  of  rise  of  the  modem  critical  school, 
Accommo-   early  in  the  nineteenth  century,  af- 

dation.  forded  an  easier  way  of  meeting  the 
difficulties  which  these  theologians 
had  thus  sought  to  avoid.  With  the  help  of  their 
theory,  such  writers  as  Behn,  Senf,  Teller,  Van 
Hemert,  and  Vogel  sought  to  bring  about  a  harmony 
between  their  views  of  reason  and  the  Scriptural 
expressions.  Thus,  for  example,  they  got  rid  of 
the  Messianic  prophecies  which,  they  said,  Jesus 
referred  to  himself  merely  to  convince  the  Jews 
that  he  was  the  Messiah,  without  himself  believing 
that  they  were  written  of  the  Messiah;  the  doc- 
trine of  angels  and  devils  was  simply  a  use  of  the 
common  conceptions;  that  of  the  atonement  be- 
comes only  a  condescension  of  the  same  kind  to 
popular  ideas,  intended  to  reconcile  the  Jews  to 
the  loss  of  their  sacrifices. 

In  more  recent  times  this  theory  has  been  in- 
creasingly recognized  as  scientifically  and  theo- 
logically untenable.    It  is,  of  course, 

6.  tJnten-  obvious  that  many  expressions  of 
ablenesB      Christ  and  the  apostles  relate  to  merely 

of  the  local  and  temporal  cireumstances, 
Theory.  and  do  not  contain  permanent  rules 
of  conduct.  The  apparent  contra- 
dictions between  revelation  and  the  facts  of  physics 
and  chemistry  offer  no  more  difficulty;  Christ  did 
not  come  to  teach  natural  science;  and  he  was 
obliged  to  adapt  himself  to  current  forms  of  ex- 
pression in  order  to  be  understood,  just  as  one 
speaks  of  the  rising  and  setting  of  the  sun,  when 
he  knows  it  is  the  motion  of  the  earth  and  not  that 


Accommodation 
Acolyte 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


24 


of  the  sun  which  is  referred  to.  But  there  ia  no 
case  of  concession  to  real  error,  stiU  less  of  assertion 
of  eiTOT;  in  any  of  thia  accommodation. 
Ai  to  the  general  ethical  use  of  accommodation, 
a  case  may  arise  in  which  one  is 
7.  When  bound  by  the  law  of  love  not  to  make 
Accommo-  use  of  a  Uberty  which  in  the  abstract 
dation  is  he  possesses,  lest  the  iveakcr  brethren 
Admissible,  should  be  scandalized.  From  this 
point  of  view  Paul  lays  down  hb  rule 
m  regard  to  the  eating  of  meats  offered  to  idols 
(I  Cor.  viii,  13),  In  like  manner  one  may  be  bounds 
like  Fau]  again ^  by  the  love  of  hia  neighbor  to 
do  something  he  would  not  otherwise  do  (Acts 
xvi.  3,  xxi,  17  sqq.).  Paul's  acceptance  of  Tim- 
othy's circumcision  was  no  concisision  to  error; 
he  did  not  cease  to  teaeb  that  the  rite  was  unnec- 
essary for  Gentile  converts;  and  he  stoutly  resisted 
an  attempt  to  impose  it  on  Titus  (Gal.  ii.  3-5), 
Limitations  which  he  willingly  imposed  on  his  o^'n 
per^onaL  liberty  in  the  accommodation  of  pastoral 
wisdom  wotUd  have  been  unworthy  weakness  if 
he  had  yielded  to  them  when  imposed  by  others 
when  the  circumstances  did  not  justify  them. 
This  is  the  standpoint  of  the  Formidu  Cfmcijrdim 
(art,  X.)  in  reference  to  the  Adlaphora  (q.v.).  In 
such  matters,  what  in  itself  is  innocent  and  may 
be  used  with  Christian  freedom  becomes,  when  it 
is  sought  to  be  imp>osed  as  an  obligation,  an  attack 
on  evangeUcal  liberty  which  must  be  resisted. 
(Rudolf  HorMANN.) 
The  theory  of  theological  accommodation ,  so 
far  as  it  is  drawn  from  the  New  Testament,  grows 
out  of  a  particular  conception  of  the  knowledge  of 
Christ  and  the  scope  of  inspiration.  (1)  If  one 
holds  that  Christ  possessed  complete  knowledge 
of  all  matters  relating  to  the  natural 
8-  Accom-  world,  the  Old  Testament,  the  events 
™^d^ttf °  of  his  own  time,  and  the  future  of  the 
Hew  Testa-  ^^"K*^*^"*  ^^  ^^  ^^  earth,  he  may 
ment,  '  alfirm  either  that  all  of  Christ's  teach- 
ing on  these  subjecta  is  authoritative 
and  finals  or  else  that  in  many  inatancen  he  fitted 
his  teaching  to  the  immediate  needs  of  his  hearers; 
in  the  latter  case,  one  could  not  be  sure  as  to  the 
precise  nature  of  the  objective  fact.  (2)  If,  how- 
ever, it  be  alleged  that  Jesus's  intelligence  followed 
the  laws  of  human  growth,  tlmt  he  shared  the 
common  scienti5c,  historical,  and  critical  beliefs  of 
his  day,  and  that  for  us  his  knowledge  is  restricted 
to  the  spiritual  content  of  revelation,  then  his 
allusions  to  the  natural  world,  to  persons,  events, 
books,  and  authors  of  the  Old  Testament,  to  demons, 
and  the  like  are  to  be  interpreted  according  to 
universal  laws  of  human  intelUgence;  thus  the 
principle  of  accommodation  drops  away.  (3)  In 
like  mannerp  inspiration  may  be  conceived  of  either 
as  equipping  the  sacred  writers  with  an  accurate 
knowledge  oonceming  all  thinp  to  which  they 
refer,  and  yet  leading  them  to  fit  their  communica- 
tions to  the  temporary  prejudice  or  ignorance  of 
their  readers,  or  as  quickening  their  consciousness 
concerning  spiritual  truth,  while  they  were  left 
unillumined  about  matters  which  belong  to  literary, 
historical,  or  scientific  inquiry.  It  is  thus  evident 
th.«t  the  question  of  theological  accommodation  in 


the  New  Testament  turns  in  part  on  a  solution  of 
two  previous  questions — the  content  of  our  Lord's 
knowledge,  and  the  scope  of  inspiration  in  the  au- 
thors of  the  various  books  (cf.  0-  J-  Ellicott,  CArtshu 
Comprobaiart  London,  18R2;  J.  Moorbouae*  The 
Teaching  of  Christ,  ib.  1892;  H.  C.  Powell,  Ths 
PHfwiple  0/  the  /ncam^ion,  ib.  1896;  G.  B.  Stev- 
ens, The  Theohgy  of  the  New  Tutunient,  New  York, 
1899;  L.  A.  Mmrhead,  The  Eschatoiogy  of  Jesm, 
London,  1904).  C- A,  B. 

Under  the  title  "  Accommodation  Controversy  " 
is  also  frequently  understood  the  long  and 
bitter  dispute  between  the  Jesuits  and  the 
Dominicans  as  to  the  extent  of  lawful  con* 
cessions  to  the  prejudices  of  their 
g.  Contro-  pagan  hearers  by  missionaries.  The 
ver^y  in  the  Jesuits  were  the  first  to  preach  Cbris- 
Romao  tianity  in  China^Xavicr  went  there 
Catholic  in  1552.  They  were  attacked  by  the 
Church,  Dominicans  and  Franciscans,  when, 
forty  years  later,  th4^e  orders  entered 
the  same  field,  on  the  charge  of  having  made  an 
improper  compromise  with  Chinese  belief s^  espe* 
cially  in  regard  to  the  practise  of  ancestor  w^oiship 
and  to  the  name  adopted  to  designate  the  Supreme 
Being  in  Chinese,  They  maintained,  however,  that 
such  concessions  were  an  inevitable  condition  of 
the  toleration  of  Christian  missions  in  the  em- 
pire* The  '*  Chinese  rites "  were  provisionally 
forbidden  by  Innocent  X.  in  1545,  but  were  again 
tolerated  by  Alexander  VII.  in  1656,  on  the  ^t>und 
that  they  might  be  regarded  as  purely  civil  c^ie- 
monies,  Oement  IX.  took  a  middle  oourae  in 
1609;  but  at  the  end  of  the  century  the  eontroveny 
broke  out  with  renewed  violence,  to  be  terminat'ed 
orily  by  a  bull  of  Qement  XL  in  1715,  absolutely 
proliibiting  the  "  Chinese  rites."  The  legate 
Mezzabarba  attempted  to  mitigate  the  strict  en- 
forcement of  this  ruling;  but  Benedict  XIV.  con- 
firmed it  in  1742,  with  the  result  of  provoking  a 
severe  persecution  which  almost  determinated 
Chrktianity  in  China-  A  somewhat  similar  contro- 
veray  raged  in  the  eighteenth  century  over  the 
so-caUed  Malabar  rites,  terminated  in  the  same 
sense  by  the  bull  Omnium  soUidiudinum  of  Bene- 
diet  XIV.  (1742),  the  pope  refusing,  even  at  the 
coat  of  imperiling  the  future  of  missions,  to  per- 
mit any  compromise  with  paganism,  A  heated  con* 
troveray  on  the  general  subject  of  accommodation 
WB3  provoked  in  England  by  the  publication  of  No. 
80  in  the  Oxford  Tracts  for  th^  Times,  On  R^mrt 
in  Communicating  Religious  Knowi&ige,  written 
by  Isaac  Williams  (q*v.),  which  caused  the  authcir 
to  be  accused  of  Jesuitical  and  un-Engljah  inBin- 
cerity,  and  provoked  additional  anta^nkm  to 
the  Oxford  movement. 

BiEiLioGnAPHT:  On  ibe  general  nubjeet:  K.  F,  8«3iff*  Vtr^ 
tiick  aferr  die  HiTablaisu.n4i  Ootk*  mm  den  ArffucAen,  Letp- 
Btc*  179ZS  W.  A.  TcU«r,  Die  Hrli&i&^  d«r  VoUkammtm, 
Berlin,  1702:  P>  van  Hemert>  Ac&fimm>da!tiim,  DoTtmund. 
1797.  On  the  AcisoDmiDdatiQn  Controvwriiy:  G»  Dudei 
HiMtoirg  apaiotfftique  dt  la  mndut^  dat  JStmta  dt  la  CAtliMt 
in  Reeutil  d^  divis-t  mivragejt.  voL  iii,  3  toIj».»  Pmsia^  IT34; 
Th  M.  M&miuihi,  Oriffinum  et  aniv/uitoium  £fu%i^ittfHnim 
libn  rj,  ii.  37:*,  424.  42J^-42fl.  441-442:  «  vok,,  Eotxw, 
1740-55:  O.  V^y,  HiJii&ria  tonitatm'tianafit  dt  riiSbmM 
*uticif.  BudapMl,  1789. 


86 


REUGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Aooommodation 
Aoolyte 


ACHELIS,  ERNST  CHRISTIAN:  Reformed 
Church  of  Germany;  b.  at  Bremen  Jan.  13,  1838. 
He  studied  theology  at  Heidelberg  and  Halle  from 
1857  to  1860,  and  was  pastor  successively  at  Arsten 
near  Bremen  (1860-62),  Hastedt«  a  suburb  of  Brem- 
en (1862-75),  and  Barmen-Unterbarmen  (1875- 
82).  Since  1882  he  has  been  professor  of  practical 
theology  in  the  University  of  Marburg.  He  is 
president  of  the  Marburg  branch  of  the  Evange- 
lischer  Bund,  a  member  of  the  Freie  detUsche  evan- 
Qelische  Konferem,  and  since  1888  has  been  the 
representative  of  the  University  of  Marburg  at  the 
Hessian  General  Synod  at  Cassel,  while  in  1897  he 
was  appointed  a  royal  Konsistorialrai,  He  was 
created  a  knight  of  the  Order  of  the  Red  Eagle, 
fourth  class,  in  1896  and  of  the  Order  of  the  Prus- 
sian Oown  in  1905.  His  theological  position  is 
that  of  "  the  ancient  faith,  but  modem  theology.'' 
His  writings,  in  addition  to  numerous  articles  in 
the  AUgemeine  deutache  Biographie  and  other  stand- 
ard works  of  reference,  as  well  as  monographs  in 
theological  magazines,  include:  Die  biblischen  That- 
aachen  und  die  religiose  BedetUung  ihrer  Geachicht- 
lichkeil  (Gotha,  1869);  Der  Krieg  im  LichU  der 
christlichen  Moral  (Bremen,  1871);  Die  Bergpredigt 
nach  Matthdus  und  Lukas,  exegetisch  und  krUisch 
untersucht  (Bielefeld,  1875);  Parteixveaen  und  Evan- 
gelium  (Barmen,  1878);  Die  Entatehungazeit  von 
Luthera  geiatlichen  Liedem  (Marburg,  1884);  Die 
evangeliache  Predigt  eine  Groaamacht  (1887);  Aua 
dem  akademiachen  Gotteadienat  in  Marburg  (1888; 
a  collection  of  sermons  delivered  in  1886-^);  Die 
Geataltung  dea  evangeliachen  GoUeadienatea  (Herbom, 
1888);  Gottfried  Menkera  Homilien  in  Auavmhl 
und  mil  Einleitung  (2  vols.,  Gotha,  1888);  Chria- 
tusreden  (3  vols.,  Freiburg,  1890-97;  new  edition, 
in  1  vol.,  Leipsic,  1898;  collected  sermons);  Lehr- 
buck  der  praktiachen  Theologie  (2  vols.,  Freiburg, 
1890-91;  revised  edition,  2  vols.,  Leipsic,  1898); 
Zur  Symbolfrage  (Berlin,  1892);  Grundriaa  der 
praktiachen  Theologie  (Freiburg,  1893;  5th  ed., 
1903);  Achelia  und  Lacheae  :  Die  Homiletik  und 
die  Katechetik  dea  Andreaa  Hyperiua,  verdeutacht 
und  mil  Einleitungen  veraehen  (Berlin,  1901); 
Bjomaona  Ueber  unaere  Kraft  und  daa  Weaen  dea 
Chriatentuma  (1902);  and  Der  Dekalog  ala  kate- 
chetiachea  Lehratuck  (Giessen,  1905). 

ACHELIS,  HANS:  Reformed  Church  of  Crer- 
many;  b.  at  Bremen  Mar.  16,  1865.  He  studied 
at  Erlangen,  Berlin,  and  Marburg  (Ph.D.,  Marburg, 
1887);  became  privat-docent  at  Gdttingen  in  1893; 
was  appointed  professor  there  in  1897;  went  to 
Kdnigsberg  in  1901,  and  to  Halle  in  1907.  His 
theological  position  is  that  of  a  ''  modem  repre- 
sentative of  the  ancient  faith.''  He  has  published: 
Daa  Symbol  dea  Fiachea  (Marburg,  1888);  Acta 
acmdarum  Nerei  et  AchiUei  (TU,  Leipsic,  1890); 
Die  dlteaten  Quellen  dea  orientaliachen  Kirchen- 
rechta,  I.  Canonea  Hippolyti  (1891),  II.  Die  ayri- 
achen  Didaakalia,  tiberaetzt  und  erkldrt  (1903;  in  col- 
laboration with  J.  Flemming);  Hippolyt-atudien 
(1897);  Die  Martyrologien,  ihre  Geachiehte  und  ihr 
Wert  (Berlin,  19(X));  Virginea  aubintroductcs,  Ein 
BeHrag  zu  I.  Kor,  vii  (Leipsic,  1902);  and  an 
edition  of  the  works  of  Hippolytus,  in  collabora- 
tion with  G.  L.  Bonwetsch  (Leipsic,  1897). 


ACHERY,  a^shfi^'ri'.  JEAN  LUC  d'  (Dom  Luc 
d'Achery;  Lat.  Dacheriua):  Benedictine;  b.  at 
St.  Quentin  (80  m.  n.e.  of  Paris),  Picardy,  1609; 
d.  in  Paris  Apr.  29,  1685.  He  entered  the  Bene- 
dictine order  while  still  very  young,  and  in  1632 
joined  the  congregation  of  St.  Maur  at  Vend6me. 
He  was  of  weak  constitution  and  su£fered  much 
physically,  which  led  his  superiors  to  send  him 
to  Paris.  There  he  became  librarian  of  St.  Ger- 
main-des-Pr6s,  and  for  forty-five  years  lived  solely 
for  his  books  and  scholarly  work.  He  took  es- 
pecial delight  in  searching  out  unknown  books 
and  bringing  unprinted  manuscripts  to  publication, 
and  was  ever  ready  to  help  others  from  his  vast 
store  of  leaming.  His  chief  work  was  the  Spici- 
legium  veterum  aliquot  acriptorum  qui  in  GaUia 
bibliotheciaf  maxime  Benedidinorumf  latueranl  (13 
vols.,  Paris,  1655-77;  2d  ed.,  by  De  la  Barre,  with 
comparison  of  later-found  manuscripts  by  Baluze 
and  Martdne,  3  vols.,  1723,  better  arranged  but  less 
correct).  He  edited  the  first  edition  of  the  Epiaile 
of  Bamabaa  (1645),  the  life  and  works  of  Lanfranc 
(1648),  the  works  of  Guibert  of  Nogent  (1651), 
and  the  ReguLa  aolitariorum  of  a  certain  priest 
Grimlaic  (1656);  he  compiled  a  catalogue  of  ascetic 
writings  (1648);  and  he  gathered  the  material  for 
the  Acta  aanctorum  ordinia  S.  Benedicti,  which  was 
published  by  his  scholar  and  assistant,  Mabillon 
(9  vols.,  1668-1701),  and  for  which  the  latter  has 
usually  received  the  credit.  (C.  Pfender.) 

Biblioorapht:  L.  E.  Dupin.  BiblioVUque  des  aiUsur*  eccU- 
tiaaHquea,  xviii.  1445,  AmBterdam  ed.;  Tasain.  Hiatoin 
liUiraire  de  la  eangrfgiition  de  St.  A/aur,  pp.  103  sqq.,  Bnu- 
bbU.  1770. 

ACHTERFELDT  JOHANN  HEIlfRICH.  See 
Hermes.  Georo. 

ACCEMETI,  Q-sem'e-toi  or  Q"cei-m6'tt,-t6  ("  Sleep- 
less'0-  An  order  of  monks  who  sang  the  divine 
praises  in  their  monasteries  night  and  day  without 
cessation,  dividing  themselves  into  three  choirs 
for  the  purpose  and  undertaking  the  service  in 
rotation.  A  certain  Alexander  {ASB,  Jan.,  i. 
1018-28)  founded  their  first  monastery  on  the 
Euphrates  about  the  year  4(X),  and  a  second  at 
O)nstantinople.  The  abbot  Marcellus  spread  the 
custom  in  the  East.  Monks  from  his  monastery 
were  transferred  in  459  by  the  consular  Studius 
to  the  monastery  newly  founded  by  him  in  Con- 
stantinople and  called,  after  his  name,  the  Studium, 
which  later  became  famous.  The  members  of  the 
order  are  sometimes  called  Studites.  In  the  con- 
troversy with  the  Theopaschites  (q.v.)  they  opposed 
the  views  of  the  papal  legate,  and  in  534  they  were 
disavowed  and  excommunicated  by  Pope  John  II. 

G.  KrCoer. 

ACOLYTE:  A  member  of  the  highest  of  the 
minor  orders  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  The 
order  was  established  in  the  fourth  or  fifth  decade 
of  the  third  century,  at  the  same  time  as  the  other 
minor  orders,  probalaly  by  Pope  Fabian  (236-250), 
but  was  not  known  to  the  East.  The  name  (from 
the  Gk.  akolouihoa,  "  a  follower,  attendant ") 
indicates  that  the  acolyte  was  originally  the  per- 
sonal attendant  of  the  bishop  or  of  the  presbyters. 
In  this  capacity  he  appears  in  C3rprian's  epistles, 
where  acolytes  carry  letters  and  fraternal  gift«  as 


Acta  Martyr 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


26 


directed  by  their  biahop;  and  the  &ania  thing  ii 
seen  in  AuguMiae's  time.  This  close  connection 
with  the  higher  clergy  explains  the  poeition  of  the 
acolytes  at  the  head  of  the  minor  orders.  In  the 
year  251  the  lociil  Roman  Church  had  not  le^s  than 
forty-two  BColytes  (Euaebius,  Hist.  eccL,  VL  xliii. 
11),  When  the  canonical  age  for  the  different 
orders  was  fixed,  acolytes  were  required  to  be  under 
thirty  (Siricius,  Ad  Himerium,  xiii.;  3S5  A.n.)*  In 
the  Middle  Ages  the  liturgical  functions  of  the 
acolyte  assumed  greater  prominence,  including  the 
charge  of  the  altar-lighia  and  the  eucharistk  ydm^. 
In  Rome  the  acolytes  were  divided  by  special  aasiga- 
fxient  among  the  various  churches  and  rtgionet  ot 
the  city.  Since  the  close  of  the  Middle  Ages,  the 
order  has  had  only  a  nominal  existence,  though 
the  Council  of  Trent  tSession  X3£iii.»  De  rtform., 
xvii.)  expressed  a  desire  to  see  it  restored  to 
its  former  practical  activity.  In  his  investigation 
of  the  origin  of  the  minor  orders,  Hamack  has 
given  Fabian  as  the  founder  of  that  of  the  acolytes; 
but  he  considers  that  it  was  an-  imitation  of  the 
pagan  ritual  system,  in  which  special  attendants 
{calat€fre8)  were  assigned  to  the  priei^t^.  However* 
this  and  the  other  minor  orders  may  perfectly  well 
have  grown  out  of  the  needs  of  the  Church  without 
any  copying  of  the  pagan  system.     H.  Acheus. 

Since  the  Middle  Ages  the  order  has  been  under- 
stood OS  conferring  the  right  to  act  as  official  assist- 
ant of  the  subdeacon  in  a  solemn  mass.  No 
canonical  age  is  now  explicitly  pre^ribed,  but 
the  requirement  of  a  knowledge  of  Latin  excludes 
the  very  young*  J.  T-  C. 

Biblickihaprt:  Binf^ham,  OriGine*.  book  i;  J.  MabilJon. 
MuM^m  Italioim,  ii.  S4.  Part?*,  1687-80:  L.  A,  Muratod, 
Litutffia  Romajus  vvtut,  il.  407,  VeaiM,  174&;  A.  li&riuiilc^ 
Die  QmeUen  der  tofffnannten  api>*toiiKhen  Kirchenordnung 
nebat  ciruir  UnterEuchung  Ubtt  die  UrM^jrrunff  dm  L&Uatatt 
und  der  attdertn  nindertn  W^ihm,  TU\  li.  £  (18S0),  ©4  aqq.; 
IL  Sobm*  Kirchem-fchi.  I  12ft-137,  L*?ijraic»  18B2. 

ACOSTAf  JOS€  DE:  Jestiit;  b.  at  Medina  del 
Campo  (26  m,  s.s.w*  of  Valladolid),  Spain,  about 
1539;  d.  at  Salamanca  as  rector  of  the  university 
Feb.  l\t  1600.  He  joined  the  Jesuits  as  early  as 
1553.  In  1571  he  went  to  the  West  Indies  and 
later  became  second  provincial  of  Peru.  He  wrote 
ConfmBwnario  para  log  euros  de  Indim,  in  Kechua 
and  Aymara  (1583),  perhaps  the  first  book  printed 
at  Lima;  a  catechism  in  Spanish  and  the  native 
tongues  (Lima,  1585)?  De  ntdura  jwvi  of  bis  et  de 
promutgatione  evangelii  aptid  barharoji  (Balamanea, 
1569),  which  he  afterwatti  translated  into  Spanish 
and  incorporated  in  the  HuUtria  natural  y  Trwral 
d€  Im  indias  (Seville,  1590;  Eng.  transL,  Ths  Nat- 
uTol  QTid  Moral  History  of  th^  East  and  West  Indies, 
London,  1604).  one  of  the  moat  valuable  of  the 
early  works  on  America;  De  Chrinio  revd^Uo  d  de 
Umporibut  novwsimis  (Rome,  1590);  Concilium 
pTQfvinciale  Limense  in  anno  MDLXXXIIL  (Ma- 
drid, 1590);  CoTwionum  lomiiiL  (Salamanca,  1596) 

ACO^A,  URIEL  (originally  Gabriel  da  Costa)  ^ 

Jewish  rationalist;  b.  at  Oporto,  Portugal^  1594; 
d,  at  Amsterdam  1647  He  belonged  to  a  noble 
family  of  Jewish  origin  but  Chrislian  confession , 
and  was  educated  as  a  Roman  CathoUe.  In  early 
manhood  be  wished  to  return  to  the  faith  of  his 


fathers;  and,  as  an  open  change  from  Ctmstiaiuty 
to  Judaism  was  not  allowed  in  Portugal^  he  ded  to 
Amsterdam,  where  he  was  circumcbed  and  admitted 
to  the  synagogue.  Disappointed  in  the  teachinf 
and  practise  of  the  Amsterdam  Jews^  he  criticised 
them  unsparingly;  in  particular  he  aroused  their 
resentment  by  declaring  that  the  Law  made  no 
mention  of  the  immortality  of  the  soul  or  a  f uiuft 
life.  After  the  publication  of  his  Examen  dot 
tradi^^ens  phariseas  eonfendas  am  a  hy  escrOa 
(1624)  they  put  him  out  of  the  synagogue  and 
brought  him  to  trial  before  the  magistrates  on  a 
clmrge  of  atheism.  He  was  imprisoned,  fined,  and 
his  book  was  burned.  After  some  year^  he  made 
public  recantation  of  his  alleged  errors,  was  scourged 
in  the  s3rnagogue,  and  trampled  upon  at  the  door. 
According  to  rumor,  he  died  by  hie  own  hand. 
He  left  an  aut-obiography,  Exemplar  humanm  cifar, 
published  by  Philip  Limborch  (Gouda,  1687;  repub- 
lished in  Latin  and  German,  with  introduction, 
Leipaic,  1847). 

Blbuoo&afbt:  T.  Whiaton,  Tht  RemarkabU  Life  of  Vrial 
AeoMta,  an  Emintnt  Fnt-Tkinker^  Londoa*  1740;  H.  Jel^ 
Iwwk*  U.  Acosta'e  Uben  und  U^re.  Zerhst,  1S47;  I.  d« 
CoBta.  fwrast  m  dc  pctlk*,  H&ftrlemt  1S49^  Eng.  trftzuLt 
London,  ISAQ:  H.  Gnetx,  €**:^icHio  dm-  Jud^m,  3d  «d.,  X. 
120-12S,  39£h-i01. 

ACTA  MARTYRUM,  ACTA   SAKCTORUMp 
ftc'ta  mar^ter-OTU,  ac'ta  sane" tQ' rum. 

I,  Acta  of  iSmttyn. 

AcU  tAATtynui]  linrerft  (f  1). 

QilflnduiA  And  Geitm  martytmn  (|  S). 

II.  Hiatariesi  of  thfi  Saints, 

In  the  Chxjrchert  of  the  Eut  (f  I), 
In  the  W©rtt^^m  Church  (I  2>. 
English  Livraa  of  SaJnta  (S  3). 

By  Ada  Martyrum  B-nd  Acta  Sanctorum  nrem^mt 
collections  of  biographiea  of  holy  persona^  esi>ecially 
of  the  older  Church.  The  former  title  refere  par- 
ticularly to  those  who  have  suffered  death  for  the 
faith;  the  latter  la  more  general,  including  all 
"  saints,"  i.e.,  Christians  canonised  by  the  Church 
on  account  of  their  eminently  pious  and  pure  Uvea. 

I,  Actt  of  Martjra  {Ada  sive  passiones  mar- 
tyrum  ;  M artyrohgia):  The  oldest  authentic 
Bourcea  for  the  biitory  of  the  f*arty  martyrs  are  the 
court  Tecorda  of  the  Roman  empire  (Ada  procon- 
sularia,  prtMidialia),  They  are  not  preserved  in 
their  original  form,  hut  more  or  \mR  complete 
extracts  from  them  constitute  the  kernel  of  the 
passion  histories  rec<jrd^  by  Christian  hands; 
and  they  are  acknowledgied  to  be  the  authentie 
bases  of  these  histories  (cf ,  the  works  of  Le  Blant 
and  Egli  cited  below),  which,  so  far  as  they  are 
based  upon  these  official  documents  and  thus 
demonstrate  that  they  belong  to  the 

I.  Acta  class  of  ada  martyrum  sincerat  ar@ 
Marty  rum  either  written  in  the  form  of  a  letter 

Sincera*  or  are  devotional  narratives  without 
the  epistolary  character  (pamem«s, 
gesta  mariyrum).  The  former  class  includes  the 
oldest  of  these  histories;  the  chief  examples  are: 
the  Pasaio  Poiycarpi,  m  a  letter  of  the  congregation 
of  Smyrna,  of  which  extracts  are  given  by  Euse- 
hms(Hifit.eed.ylY,  x\\),  while  the  complete  text  ia 
handed  down  in  five  Greek  manuscripta-  the  letter 
of  the  churches  of  Lyons  and  Yienne  to  the  Chna- 


27 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


AoolTte 

Acta  Aartsrroin 


tians  of  Asia  and  Phrygia  concerning  their  sufferingiR 
under  BlarcuB  Aurelius  in  177  (Eusebius,  Hist, 
ted,,  V.  i.-iii.);  the  report  of  the  Alexandrian  bishop 
Dionysius  to  the  Antiochian  Fabianus  on  the  suf- 
ferings of  the  Christians  of  his  church  during  the 
persecutions  under  Decius  (Eusebius,  Hist,  eccl., 
VI.  xli.-xlii.);  and  certain  reports  concerning 
North- African  martyrs  and  confessors  of  the  same 
time,  in  Cyprian's  collection  of  epistles  (xx.,  xxi., 
xxii.,  xxvii.,  xxxix.,  xl.,  etc.). 

Passions  in  narrative  form  are  more  numerous. 
Among  the  oldest  and  historically  most  important 
are:  From  the  second  century,  the  Acta  Justini 
philosophi  et  martyria  ;  the  Acta  Carpi,  Papyli, 
et  AffothoniccB  (cf.  Eusebius,  IV.  xv.  48);  the 
Pasaio  sanctorum  Scilitanorum  of  the  year  180,  a 
report  of  the  martyrdom  at  Carthage  of  six  Numidian 
Christians  under  the  proconsul  Vigellius  Satumi- 
nus  July  17,  180,  distinguished  by  its  strictly 
objective  form,  reproducing  the  official  proconsular 
acts  without  Christian  additions;  the  Acta  Apol- 
lonii,  belonging  to  the  time  of  Commodus  (cf. 
Eusebius,  V.  xxi.).  To  the  third  century  be- 
long the  Passio  Perpetxuz  et  Felicitatis,  covering 
the  martyrdom  of  certain  Carthaginian  Christians, 
belonging  probably  to  Tertullian's  congregation, 
Mar.  7,  203;  the  martyrdom  of  Pionius  (cf.  Euse- 
bius, IV.  XV.  47),  of  Achatius,  and  of  Conon,  all 
three  belonging  to  the  epoch  of  Decius;  the  Ada 
proconsularia  which  record  the  trial  and  execution 
of  Cyprian  of  Carthage  under  Valerianus,  Sept.  14, 
258.  Finally,  belonging  to  the  beginning  of  the 
fourth  century  (the  time  of  persecution  under  Dio- 
cletian and  his  coempcrors,  303-323),  there  are 
the  records  collected  by  Eusebius,  which  now  form 
an  appendix  to  book  VIII.  of  his  church  history, 
and  treat  of  the  Palestinian  martyrs  of  that  time, 
as  well  as  somewhat  numerous  martyria  of  the  period, 
to  which  must  be  ascribed  a  greater  or  less  histor- 
ical value  (such  as  the  TestamerUum  xl  martyrum 
from  Sebaste  in  Armenia,  belonging  to  the  time  of 
Licinius,  the  newly  discovered  Greek  text  of  which 
has  full  documentary  value). 

Much  greater  than  the  number  of  such  acta  mar- 
tyrum sincera  sive  genuina  is  that  of  the  non-authen- 
tic histories  of  martyrs  which  contain 
2.   Legend-  little  or  nothing  of  contemporaneous 

ary  Acts,  notices  and  have  an  essentially  leg- 
endary character.  To  these  belong, 
among  others:  two  accounts  of  the  martyrdom  of 
Ignatius  of  Antioch;  the  Martyrium  Colbertinum 
and  the  Martyrium  Vaticanum ;  the  Acta  Nerei 
et  AchiUei  ;  the  Passio  Felicitatia  et  aeptem  filiorum  ; 
the  Acta  S.  Cypriani  et  JuatincB ;  the  legends  of 
St.  Agnes,  St.  Cecilia,  St.  Catherine,  St.  Maurice 
(qq.  v.),  and  others. 

After  the  cessation  of  persecutions  the  memory 
of  the  martyrs  was  cherished  mainly  by  two  kinds 
of  written  records:  (1)  calendaria,  i.e.,  lists  of  the 
names  of  martyrs  in  calendar  form  for  the  purpose 
of  fixing  their  memorial  days  for  the  liturgical  use 
of  individual  congregations  or  greater  church 
dioceses;  (2)  more  detailed  memorial  books  (gesta 
martyrum)  for  the  purpose  of  private  devotion  and 
instruction,  incorporating  also  longer  passion  nar- 
ratives,  and   avoiding  as  much   as   possible   the 


putting  together  of  mere  names  in  calendary  statis- 
tical form.  Of  the  latter  kind  may  have  been  that 
copious  collection  of  martyrological  material  from 
all  branches  of  the  Chim^h  which  Eusebius  com- 
posed in  addition  to  the  booklet  on  the  Palestinian 
martyrs  already  mentioned  (cf.  his  references  to 
this  collection.  Hist,  ecd.,  IV.  xv.  47;  V.  Proem., 
iv.  3;  also  V.  xxi.  5),  but  which  was 
3.  Galen-  lost  at  a  very  early  period  (cf.  Greg- 
dariaand  ory  the  Great,  Epi8t.,vm.  29).  Bio- 
Gesta  Mar-  graphical  and  other  notices  were 
tyrum.  gradually  added  to  the  names  of  the 
martyrs  in  many  of  the  calendaria; 
and  by  such  inclusion  of  general  hagiological  matter 
they  somewhat  approached  the  character  of  the 
devotional  reading-books.  This  enrichment  of  the 
calendaria  with  material  not  strictly  mart3rr- 
ological  in  its  nature  (i.e.,  additions  of  a  nar- 
rative character,  not  mere  names)  conunenced  in 
the  West.  While  a  calendarium  of  the  Syriac 
Church  from  the  year  412  (ed.  W.  Wright,  1865) 
still  shows  a  strictly  martyrological  character,  the 
old  calendar  of  the  Roman  congregation  from  the 
year  354  (ed.  iEgidius  Bucher,  Antwerp,  1633; 
T.  Mommsen,  in  AbhancUungen  der  sdchsischen 
GeseUschaft  der  Wisaenschaften,  1850)  gives,  besides 
the  names  of  martyrs,  those  of  Roman  bishops 
(twelve  in  number).  The  same  is  true  of  the  Calen- 
darium Africanum  vetus  from  the  year  500, 
edited  by  Mabillon  (Vetera  Analecta,  iii.  398  sqq.). 
The  martyrologium  of  the  Church  of  Rome  men- 
tioned by  Gregory  the  Great  in  his  epistle  to  Eu- 
logius  of  Alexandria  {Epist.,  viii.  29)  consisted  of 
martyrological  and  non-martyrological  (especially 
papal)  elements,  and  had  even  admitted  the  older 
Roman  festival  calendar.  The  so-called  Martyro- 
logium Hieronymianum  is  an  enlarged  revision  of 
this  Roman  calendar.  In  its  present  form  it  is  a 
compilation  edited  about  the  year  600  at  Auxerre 
in  Gaul;  but  it  was  previously  recast  in  upper 
Italy,  as  is  indicated  in  the  correspondence  of  the 
alleged  author  Jerome,  with  the  bishops  Chroma- 
tius  of  Aquileia  and  Heliodorus  of  Altinum,  which 
stands  at  the  beginning.  ^It  is  a  medley  of  names 
of  places  and  saints,  data  of  martyrs,  and  the  like, 
collected  from  older  local  and  provincial  calendars. 
The  Syriac  calendarium  already  mentioned  was 
used  (in  a  somewhat  enlarged  form)  by  the  com- 
piler as  a  source  of  information  for  the  East;  for 
North  Africa  a  Calendarium  Carthaginense  (proba- 
bly from  pre-Vandalic  times)  was  used;  and  for 
Rome,  no  doubt,  the  Roman  martyrologium  to 
which  Gregory  the  Great  referred.  Jerome  proba- 
bly contributed  nothing  to  the  collection  (cf.  the 
critical  edition  of  the  work,  ed.  J.  B.  de  Rossi  and 
L.  Duchesne,  from  numerous  manuscripts,  in 
ASB,  Nov.,  ii.,  1894,  and  the  criticism  of  B.  Krusch 
in  Neues  Archiv  fur  dUere  deutsche  Geschichtakunde, 
XX.,  1895,  437-440).  To  still  later  times  belong 
similar  compilations  ascribed  to  the  Venerable 
Bede,  to  Florus  Magister  of  Lyons  (c.  840),  to  the 
abbot  Wandelbert  of  PrQm  (848),  and  others  (see 
below,  II.,  2). 

n.  Histories  of  the  Saints  (Acta  sive  vila  aanc- 
torum)  :  From  the  end  of  the  fourth  century, 
under  the  influence  of  the  Vita  patrum,  dissemi- 


Acta  Mart3miin 
Acton 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


28 


nated  at  first  from  the  Eastern  but  soon  also  from 
the  Western  monasteries,  true  biographies  of  the 
saints  became  much  more  numerous.  The  bi- 
ographies contained  in  the  Hiatoria  monachorum  of 
Rufinus,  the  Historia  Lausiaca  of  Palladius,  the 
Hiatoria  rdigiosa  of  Theodoret,  as  well  as  in  other 
works  like  the  Pratum  ajnrUuale  of  Johannes 
Moschus,  and  the  Vita  patrum  and  Lnbri  miracu- 
lorum  of  Gregory  of  Tours,  furnish  much  more 
devotional  matter  than  the  histories  of  martyrs  of 
former  centuries.  This  hagiological  literature,  of 
monastic  origin,  had  the  advantage  that  it  was  not 
so  much  exposed  to  suspicion  of  falsification  by 
heretics  or  the  incompetent  (idiotoB)  as  were  pro- 
ductions of  the  older  passion  literature  (the  reading 
of  which  in  divine  service  in  the  Roman  Church 
was  forbidden  by  edict  of  Gelasius  I.  in  494). 
Under  the  influence  of  the  new  kind  of  biographies 
of  monks  and  hermits  a  general  hagiological  ele- 
ment entered  also  to  an  ever-increasing  degree  into 
the  martyrological  collections  of  the  older  type, 
and  thus  brought  about  their  constant  expansion. 

In  the  Churches  of  the  East,  the  older  calendary 

statistical    form    of    the    compilations,    confining 

itself  to  martyrological  material  proper 

I.  In  the    and  serving  only  liturgical  purposes. 

Churches  was  still  cultivated,  especially  in  the 
of  the  so-called  menologia,  or  montWy  regis- 
East  ters,  as  well  as  in  the  liturgical  antho- 
logia  ("  collections ").  But  besides 
these  arose  hagiological  collections  of  considerable 
copiousness:  the  menwa  arranged  in  a  calendary 
form  and  divided  according  to  months;  and  shorter, 
condensed  synaxaria  (from  synaxiSf  "  religious 
gathering  ")  or  extracts.  In  the  Byzantine  Church 
the  large  collection  of  legends  by  Simeon  Meta- 
phrastes  (10th  cent.),  which  is  preserved  in  a 
greatly  revised  and  corrupt  form,  exercised  much 
influence  (see  Simeon  Metaphrastes).  Of  the 
editors  of  the  martyrologies  and  mencea  literature 
of  the  Syriac  Church  in  the  earlier  time,  Stephan 
Evodius  Assemani  (q.v.)  deserves  mention,  more 
recently  Paul  Bed j an  {Ada  martyrum  et  sanctorum 
Syriace,  7  vols.,  Paris,  1890-97);  of  those  of  the 
Russian  Orthodox  Church,  Joseph  Simonius  Asse- 
mani (q.v.),  and  in  recent  times  J.  E.  Martinov 
(Annus  ecdesiasticus  Grcsco-SlavicuSy  Brussels,  1863, 
—ASB,  Oct.,  xi.  1-385)  and  V.  Jagic  C  The  Mensea 
of  the  Russian  Church  from  Manuscripts  of  1095- 
97,"  St.  Petersburg,  1886,  Russian);  of  those  of  the 
Armenian  Church,  the  Mekhitarists  (q.v.),  who 
published  a  martyrologium  in  two  voliunes  at  Venice 
in  1874;  and  of  those  of  the  Coptic  Church,  H. 
Hyvemat  (Les  Actes  des  martyrs  de  V^gypte,  Paris, 
1886  sqq.). 

In  the  Western  Church,  during  the  Middle 
Ages  the  hagiological  literature,  critically  con- 
sidered, deteriorated.  Ado  of  Vienne  and  Usuardus 
(both  c.  870);  the  author  of  the  Martyrologium 
Sangalense  (c.  900);  Wolfard  of  Herrieden  (c.  910); 
later,  especially  Jacobus  de  Voragine  (d.  1298), 
author  of  the  so-called  "  Golden  Legend,"  and  Petrus 
de  Natalibus  (d.  1382),  author  of  a  Catalogus  sanc- 
torum (often  reprinted  since  1493),  are  the  main 
representatives  of  the  writers  of  this  legendary 
literature,  of  whose  eccentricities  and  extravagan- 


cies   humanists    and    reformers    often    complain. 
Since    the    end  of   the   fifteenth  century    efforts 
have  been  made  to  publish  criticaUy 
2.  In  the    genuine  and  older  texts.     Early  at- 
Westem     tempts    were:     the    Sanctuarium    of 
ChurclL     Boninus   Mombritius    (Venice,    1474; 
Rome,  1497);  the  first  (and  only)  vol- 
ume of  the  Martyrum  agones  of  Jacobus  Faber  Stapu- 
lensis  (1525);  and  the  De  probatis  sandorum  his- 
toriis  of  the  Carthusian  Laurentius  Surius  (d.  1578; 
arranged  according  to  the  calendar;  6  vols,  folio, 
Cologne,   1570  sqq.;    2d  ed.,  7  vols.,   1581   sqq.). 
As  concerns  the  abundance  of  matter  and  critical 
treatment  of  the  documents,  these  first  labors  of 
modem  times  are  far  surpassed  by  the  gigantic 
hagiological  work  the  Ada  Sandorum  quotquot  tolo 
orbe  coluntur,  the  publication  of  which  began  at  Ant- 
werp in  1643.     It  was  conceived  by  the  Jesuit 
Heribert    Rosweyde    (q.v.);  and   after   his   death 
(1629)  was  undertaken  by  Jan  Bolland  and  others. 
From  the  name  of  the  first  actual  editor  it  is  gen- 
erally known  as  the  Ada  Sandorum  BoUandi  or 
BoUandistarum  (cited  in  this  encyclopedia  as  ASB). 
With  the  exception  of  a  period  somewhat  less  than 
fifty  years,  consequent  upon  the  disturbances  of 
the  French  Revolution,  the  labor  of  preparation 
and   publication    has    proceeded   continuously   to 
the  present  time,  when  the  editors  (following  the 
calendary    arrangement)    are    engaged   upon    the 
month  of  November  (see  Bolland,  Jan,  Bolland- 
ibtb).     More  or  less  valuable  are  the  extracts  from 
the  BoUandist  main  work  in  collections  like  that 
of  Alban  Butler    (The  Lives  of  the  Fathers,  Mar- 
tyrSf  and  Other  Principal  Saints,  4  vols.,  London, 
1756-59;  see  Butler,  Alban),  his  French  imitator, 
the  Abb^  J.  F.  Godescard  (Vies  des  Pkres,  des  mar- 
tyrs d  autres  principaux  saints,  traduit  librement  de 
Vanglais  d*  Alban  Butler,  12  vols.,  Paris,  1763  sqq.), 
and  A.  Rass  and  N.  Weiss,  the  German  successors 
of  both  Butler  and  Godescard  (Let)en  der  Heiligen, 
23  vols.,  Main2,  1823  sqq.);  mention  may  also  be 
made  of  a  later  French  work  by  Paul  Gu^rin,  Les 
Pdits  Bollandistes  (7th  ed.,  18  vols.,  Paris,  1876). 
In  lexical  form  the  lives  of  the  saints  are  treated 
by   the  Abb^   P^tin   (Didionnaire  hagiographique, 
2  vols.,  Paris,  1850)  and  J.  E.  Stadler  and  F.  J. 
Heim  (Vollstandiges  HeUi^en  lexikon,  5  vols.,  Augs- 
burg,  1858    sqq.).     There    are    also    hagiological 
collections  devoted  to  the  members  of  particular 
orders,  of  which  the  Ada  Sanctorum  ordinis  S.  Bene- 
didi  of  J.  Mabillon  and  others  (9  vols.,  Paris,  1668- 
1701)  is  the  most  important.         O.  ZOcKLERt. 

The  best-known  work  in  English  is  that  of  Alban 
Butler,  already  mentioned.  It  is  written  in  a 
heavy  eighteenth  century  style.  Much  pleasanter 
reading  is  the  work  of  Sabine  Baring-Gould,  The 
Lives  of  the  Saints  (15  vols.,  London,  1872-77; 
new  illustrated  ed.,  revised  and  enlarged,  16  vols., 
1897-98).  The  author  is  a  High-church  Anglican, 
not  untouched  by  the  modem  critical  spirit.  He 
states  in  his  introduction  that  his  work  is  not 
intended  to  supplant  Butler,  being  prepared  on 
somewhat  different  lines.  Butler  "  confined  his 
attention  to  the  historical  outlines  of  the  saintly 
lives,  and  he  rarely  filled  them  in  with  anecdote. 
Yet  it  IS  the  little  details  of  a  man's  life  that  give 


99 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Acta  Kartyrom 
Aoton 


it  character  and  impress  themselves  on  the  mem- 
ory. People  forget  the  age  and  parentage  of 
St.  Gertrude,  but  they  remember 
3.  Eng-  the  mouse  running  up  her  staff."  The 
1^  Lives  style  is  diversified  by  occasionally  in- 
of  Saints,  troducing  translations  and  accounts  by 
other  writers.  The  Sanctorale  Caiho- 
licumf  or  Book  of  Saints  ^  by  Robert  Owen  (London, 
1880),  is  a  single  octavo  volume  of  516  pages,  pro- 
vided with  critical,  exegetical,  and  historical  notes. 
The  SaxnU  in  Christian  Art  (3  vols.,  London,  1901- 
04),  by  Mrs.  Arthur  George  Bell  (n^  Nancy  Meu- 
gens,  known  also  by  the  nom  de  plume  "  N.  d'An- 
vers  "),  contains  sketches  of  the  lives  of  the  saints 
treated,  written  with  little  discrimination  as  to 
sources  and  in  an  uncritical,  credulous  spirit.  The 
Saints  and  Servants  of  God  is  a  series  of  lives,  origi- 
nal and  translated,  edited  by  Frederick  William 
Faber  and  continued  by  the  Congregation  of  St. 
Philip  Neri  (42  vols.,  London,  1847-56).  A  second 
series  was  begun  in  1873,  in  which  the  lives  for 
the  most  part  are  translations  of  those  drawn  up 
for  the  processes  of  canonization  or  beatification. 
Another  series,  consisting  of  single-volume  lives 
of  various  saints,  specially  prepared  by  modem 
writers,  is  being  issued  in  authorized  English  trans- 
lation under  the  editorship  of  Henri  Joly  for  the 
original  (French)  volumes,  and  of  the  Rev.  Father 
George  Tyrrell,  S.J.,  for  the  translations  (Paris 
and  London,  1898  sqq.). 

A  number  of  works  are  devoted  to  saints  of  the 
British  Isles.  As  to  the  older  works  of  this  charac- 
ter Baring-Gould  remarks  (Introduction,  i.,  pp. 
xxix.-xxx.,  ed.  1897): 

"  With  regard  to  England  there  is  a  Martyrology  of  Christ 
Church,  Canterbury,  written  in  the  thirteenth  century,  and 
now  in  the  British  Museum;  also  a  Martyrology  written 
between  1220  and  1224  from  the  southwest  of  England; 
this  also  is  in  the  British  Museum.  A  Saxon  Martyrology. 
incomplete,  is  among  the  Harleian  MSS.  in  the  same  museum; 
it  dates  from  the  fourteenth  century.  There  is  a  transcript 
among  the  Sloane  MSS.  of  a  Martyrology  of  North-English 
origin,  but  this  also  is  incomplete.  There  are  others,  later, 
of  less  value.  The  most  interesting  is  the  MartUoge  in  Eng- 
lyMaht  after  ths  U9e  of  the  chvrc?ie  of  Salisbury,  printed  by 
Wynkyn  de  Worde  in  1526,  reissued  by  the  Henry  Brad- 
shaw  Society  in  1893.  To  these  Martyrologies  must  be  added 
the  Leoenda  of  John  of  Tjmemouth,  1350;  that  of  Capgrave, 
1450,  his  Nova  leffenda,  printed  m  1516;  Whitford's  Martyr- 
ology. 1526;  Wilson's  Martyrologe,  1st  ed.,  1608,  2d.  ed.. 
1640;  and  Bishop  Challoner's  Memorial  of  Ancient  British 
Fiety,  1761." 

Bishop  Challoner's  larger  Britannia  Sancta,  or  the 
Lives  of  the  Most  Celebrated  British,  English,  Scot- 
tish, and  Irish  Saints  (2  parts,  London,  1745)  may 
also  be  mentioned.  The  Saints  and  Missionaries 
of  the  Anglo-Saxon  Era,  by  D.  C.  O.  Adams  (2  ser., 
Oxford,  1897-1901),  is  a  collection  of  brief  and 
popular  lives  brought  down  to  Queen  Margaret  of 
Scotland  (d.  1093).  A  Menology  of  England  and 
Wales,  compiled  by  Richard  Stanton,  priest  of 
the  Oratory,  London  (London,  1887;  Supplement, 
1892),  is  probably  the  fullest  list  in  existence  of 
names  of  English  and  Welsh  saints,  with  brief  bio- 
graphical notices.  It  is  a  scholarly  work  based  upon 
sources  (calendars,  martyrologies,  legends,  his- 
tories, acts)  many  of  which  were  previously  in- 
edited.  A  somewhat  wide  interpretation  is  given 
to  the  terms  "  English  "  and  "  saint."    The  Lives 


of  the  Irish  Saints,  with  Special  Festivals  and  th^ 
Commemoration  of  Holy  Persons,  by  John  O'Hanion, 
is  an  exhaustive  work,  in  somewhat  florid  style, 
arranged  according  to  the  calendar,  one  volume 
being  devoted  to  each  month  (Dublin,  1876  sqq.). 
Scottish  calendars  have  been  edited,  with  brief 
biographies  of  the  saints,  by  A.  P.  Forbes  in  his 
KaJendars  of  Scottish  Saints  (Edinburgh,  1874). 
For  Wales  there  is  W.  J.  Rees's  lAves  of  the  Cambro- 
British  Saints  of  the  Fifth  and  Immediate  Succeeding 
Centuries  (Llandovery,  1853).  Cardinal  John  Henry 
Newman's  Lives  of  the  English  Saints  (15  vols., 
London,  1844-45,  and  often)  is  more  interesting 
now  for  the  history  of  the  movement  which  called 
it  forth  than  as  a  contribution  to  hagiology.  See 
also  the  bibhography  of  the  article  Celtic  Chubch 
IN  Britain  and  Ireland. 

Biblioorapht:  For  elaborate  bibliographical  lists  of  acts 
and  lives  of  saints:  A.  Pottbast.  Bibliotheai  histortca  medii 
cevi,  pp.  xxxii.-xxxv.,  1131-1646.  Berlin,  1896  (the  most 
complete  list  yet  made  in  which  the  editions  are  accu- 
rately given);  MGH,  Index  volume,  Hanover.  1890;  T. 
Ruinart,  Acta  primorum  martj/rum  stncera  et  aelecta^  Paris, 
1689  (latest  ed.,  Ratisbon,  1859) ;  Gross,  Sourcee,  pp. 
84^89.  213-222,  245-249.  390-400.  442,  617-625 ;  R. 
Knopf,  AuagewdhUe  M&rtyrakten,  Tubingen,  1901;  O.  von 
Gebhardt,  Acta  Martyrum  selecta^  Leipsic.  1902.  For 
history  and  criticism:  A.  Ebert,  AUgemeine  Geechtchte  der 
Literatur  dee  Mttlelalters  im  Abendlande,  3  vols.,  ib.  1874- 
87  (2d  ed.  of  vol.  i..  1889.  perhaps  the  best  survey  of  the 
subject);  C.  Jauningus.  Apologia  pro  Actie  Sanctorum, 
Antwerp,  1696;  A.  Scheler.  Zur  Geschtchte  dea  Werkes 
Acta  Sanctorum,  Leipsic.  1846;  J.  B.  Pitra,  Etudes  eur  la 
collection  des  Actes  dee  Saintia  publvia  par  lee  BoUandistes, 
Paris,  1850;  J.  Carnandet  and  J.  F^vre.  Le»  Bollandistee 
et  Vhagiographie  ancienne  et  modeme,  ib.,  1866;  Dehaisnes, 
Lee  Ongtnea  dee  Acta  Sanctorum  et  lee  protecteura  dee  Bol- 
landiatea  dans  le  nord  de  France,  Douai,  1870;  A.  Tougard, 
De  I'hietotre  profane  dane  lee  actea  grace  dea  Bollandietea, 
Paris,  1874;  C.  de  Smodt.  Introductw  generalia  ad  hiet. 
eccl.,  Ghent,  1876  (contains  a  bibliography  in  pp.  111-197); 
E.  le  Blant,  Acta  Sanctorum  et  leur  aourcea,  Paris,  1880; 
idem,  Lee  Actee  dee  martyrea ,  auppUment  aux  Acta  e%n- 
cera  de  Dom  Ruinart,  ib.  1882;  E.  EgU,  AUchrtaaiche 
Martyrien  und  Martyrologien  Alteater  Zeit,  Zurich,  1887; 
A.  Ehrhard.  Dte  altchriaUiche  Litteratur  und  ihre  Erf  or- 
achung,  i.  539-592,  Freiburg,  1900;  Uamack,  Litteratur, 
ii.  2,  463-482. 

ACTON,  JOHN  EMERICH  EDWARD  DALBERG, 
first  Baron  Acton:  Roman  Catholic  layman;  b. 
in  Naples,  Italy,  Jan.  10,  1834;  d.  at  Tegem- 
see  (31  m.  s.  of  Munich)  June  19, 1902.  He  was 
educated  at  Oscott  College,  Birmingham,  from 
1843  to  1848,  then  at  Edinburgh,  finally  at  the 
University  of  Munich.  At  Oscott  the  president, 
Nicholas  Wiseman,  afterward  archbishop  and 
cardinal,  greatly  influenced  him,  but  at  Munich 
the  greater  scholar,  Dr.  Ddllinger,  still  more. 
These  men  fostered  his  love  of  truth  and  passion 
for  accurate  historical  knowledge.  Being  wonder- 
fully gifted  and  highly  trained,  he  set  forth  upon 
a  career  of  learned  acquisition  which  made  him 
the  admiration  of  his  associates.  But  in  his  own 
communion  he  soon  became  unpopular  because  he 
was  a  pronounced  liberal.  He  conducted  the 
"  Home  and  Foreign  Review  "  trom  1862  to  1864 
m  the  interest  of  anti-Ultramontanism,  and  so  was 
condemned  by  the  hierarchy  and  his  Journal  vir- 
tually suppressed.  He  then  pursued  the  same 
course  in  the  '*  North  British  Review  "  from  1868 
to  1872.  His  chief  object  of  attack  was  the  doc- 
trine of  papal  infallibihty,  and  he  did  all  he  could 


Acton 

Adalbert  of  Pra^rae 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


80 


to  prevent  its  adoption,  but  when  it  was  promul- 
gated by  the  Vatican  Council  of  1870  he  did  not 
follow  his  preceptor  and  friend  Dollinger  into  the 
ranks  of  the  Old  Catholics,  but  remained  in  the 
Roman  obedience.  He  showed  that  he  had  neither 
altered  his  views  nor  would  he  give  up  his  independ- 
ence when  in  1874  he  criticized  with  learning  and 
candor  the  views  of  his  patron  and  friend  Glad- 
stone upon  Vaticanism.  From  1859  to  1864  he 
represented  Carlow  in  Parliament.  In  1869  Mr. 
Gladstone  raised  him  to  the  peerage.  In  1886  he 
foimded  "  The  English  Historical  Review."  with 
Professor  (afterward  Bishop)  Mandell  Creighton 
as  editor.  In  1895  he  was  made  regius  professor 
of  modem  history  at  Cambridge.  He  planned  the 
Cambridge  Modem  History  series,  but  did  not  live 
to  see  any  of  it  published. 

Lord  Acton  possessed  vast  stores  of  accurate  in- 
formation, but  he  wrote  very  little  except  review 
articles  and  book-notices.  So  his  list  of  separate 
publications  is  singularly  short  for  so  great  a  scholar. 
He  edited  La  Matindea  royaleSf  ou  Vart  de  regner, 
the  work  of  Frederick  the  Great  (London,  1863); 
made  a  great  sensation  by  his  Sendschreiben  an 
einem  deuUchen  Bischof  des  vaticaniachen  Concila 
(Nftrdlingen,  1870);  by  his  Zur  GeschichU  des 
vaticaniachen  Concila  (Munich,  1871);  and  by  his 
letters  as  correspondent  of  the  London  "  Times  " 
during  the  Council.  His  lectures.  The  War  of  1870 
(London,  1871),  and  especially  those  masterly 
ones  on  The  Hiatory  of  Freedom  in  Antiquity  and 
on  The  Hiatory  of  Freedom  in  Chriatianiiy  (both 
Bridgnorth,  1877),  fragments  of  that  complete 
history  of  freedom  which  he  dreamed  he  should 
one  day  write,  and  finally  his  inaugural  lecture  at 
Cambridge  on  The  Study  of  Hiatory  (London,  1895), 
show  his  range  of  knowledge  and  love  of  truth. 
Since  his  death  his  Lettera  to  Mary  [now  Mrs.  Drew], 
Daughter  of  the  Right  Honorable  W.  E.  Gladatone 
(1904),  edited  with  a  memoir  by  Herbert  Paul, 
his  Cambridge  Lectures  (1906),  and  Lectures  on 
Modem  Hiatory  (1906)  have   been  published. 

Biblioorapht:  Wm.  A.  Shaw's  BibUoQraphy  of  Lard  Acton, 
London.  Royal  Historical  Society,  1903;  Lard  Acton 
and  Hu  Circle,  edited  by  F.  A.  GaRquet.  London,  1906  (178 
letters,  mostly  on  literary  subjects,  by  Lord  Acton,  with 
introduction  by  Gasquet). 

ACTS  OF  THE  APOSTLES.  See  Luke  II. 
For  Apocryphal  Books  of  Acts,  see  Apocrypha, 
B.II. 

ADALBERT  (ADELBERT,  ALDEBERT) :  Frank- 
ish  bishop;  contemporary  of  Boniface  (q.v.).  He 
is  known  only  from  the  letters  of  Boniface,  who 
was  his  bitter  opponent,  and  from  the  accounts  of 
the  proceedings  instituted  against  him  for  heresy, 
which  represent  him  as  a  dangerous  misleader  of 
the  people,  a  skilful  impostor,  and  arrogant  block- 
head, who  thought  hhnself  equal  to  the  apos- 
tles, declared  himself  canonized  before  birth,  and 
claimed  the  power  of  working  miracles  and  of  re- 
mitting sins.  It  is  said  that  he  pretended  to  have 
a  letter  from  Jesus,  which  the  archangel  Michael 
had  found  in  Jerusalem,  and  other  relics  brought 
o  him  by  angels.  He  disregarded  confession,  not 
thinking  it  necessary  for  the  remission  of  sins,  and 
plant<»d  crosses  and  founded  chapels  on  the  hills  I 


and  by  the  streams,  inducing  the  people  to  come 
thither  for  service  instead  of  going  to  the  churches 
of  the  apostles  and  martyrs.     In  his  prayers  un- 
known and  suspicious  names  of  angels  were  found. 
At  the  instigation  of  Boniface  two  Frankish  synods 
(744  and  745)  deposed  Adalbert  and  condemned 
him  to  penance  as  a  ''  servant  and  forerunner  of 
Antichrist."    A  Roman  synod  confirmed  his  sen- 
tence and  added  excommunication.     In  747  a  gen- 
eral  Frankish   synod   received  a  conmiand   from 
the  pope  to  apprehend  Adalbert  and  send  him  to 
Rome.    The  major  domua,  Pepin,  burned  his  crosses 
and  chapels;  but  the  people  seem  to  have  sympa- 
thized with  their  bishop,  who  did  not  acknowledge 
the  authority  of  his  judges  and  who  was  not  allowed 
to  defend  himself.    His  fate  is  unknown.     Mains 
tradition  relates  that  he  was  defeated  in  a  discus- 
sion  with  Boniface,   that  he  was  imprisoned  at 
Fulda,  and  was  killed  by  a  swineherd  while  trying 
to  escape.    Opinions  concerning  him  differ.     Some 
look  upon  him  as  mentally  unsound,  as  an  impostor, 
or  as  a  fanatic.    Others  see  in  him,  as  in  his  coun- 
tryman Clement   (q.v.)  among  the  East  Franks, 
freedom  from  Rome,  an  opponent  of  the  roman- 
izing  tendencies  of  his  time,  and  a  victim  of  the 
ecclesiastical  policy  of  Boniface.        A.  Werner. 
Bibuogbapht:    Rettberg.  i.  (1846)  314-317,  368-370;    H. 
Hahn,  JahrbOcher  dee  fr&nkitchen  Reicha,  pp.  67-82.  Ber- 
lin. 1863;    Boniface.  Ejristolce,  in  Jaff^.  Monumenia  Mo- 
guntina,  1866;    J.  H.  A.  Ebrard.  Die  iroechotHacKe  Mie- 
aionakirche  der  eecheten,  «ie6enten.  und  aehten  Jahrhund- 
erten,  pp.  341 ,  432--134,  GOtersIoh.  1873;  A.  Werner.  Bom- 
foHue,  pp.  279-297,  Leipsic.  1875;  DCB,  i.  77-78;  Hauck, 
/CD.  i.  (1904)  607-613. 

ADALBERT  OF  HAMBURG-BREMEN  (formerly 
often  called  Albert):  Archbishop  of  Hamburg- 
Bremen  1(H5(1043?>-1072;  d.  at  Goslar  Mar.  16, 
1072.  He  came  of  a  noble  Saxon-Thuringian 
family ,  is  first  heard  of  as  canon  of  Halberstadt, 
and  followed  the  head  of  his  chapter,  Hermann,  to 
Bremen  when  the  latter  was  made  archbishop,  in 
1032;  on  Hermann's  death,  three  years  later,  he 
returned  to  Halberstadt  and  became  provost  there 
himself.  He  is  probably  the  Adalbert  who  early 
in  1045  was  acting  as  chancellor  for  Henry  III.  in 
Italian  affairs.  Henry  nominated  him  to  the  arch- 
bishopric of  Hamburg,  probably  in  1045,  though 
some  recent  historians  have  placed  the  date  at  1043. 
He  soon  showed  that  he  had  a  lofty  conception  of 
the  dignity  of  his  office;  and  his  ambition  was 
supported  by  many  advantages — a  handsome  and 
imposing  presence,  intellectual  force,  and  the  repu- 
tation of  singular  personal  purity  and  moderation 
at  a  time  when  such  qualities  were  rare.  The  reign 
of  Henry  III.  was  the  period  of  his  success  and 
domination.  King  and  archbishop,  endowed  with 
similar  gifts,  were  attracted  to  each  other,  and  f oimd 
it  necessary  to  make  common  cause  against  the 
Saxon  dukes  of  the  Billung  house,  who  had  alieady 
troubled  the  Church  of  Hamburg.  Adalbert's  fre- 
quent absences  from  his  diocese  gave  the  Billungs 
opportunity  to  attack  it;  but  the  archbishop,  often 
accompanied  by  his  vassals,  could  not  avoid  spend- 
ing considerable  time  on  the  king's  business.  He 
accompanied  Henry  on  his  campaign  of  1045,  and 
went  to  Rome  with  him  in  the  next  year,  taking 
part  in  the  synods  which  deposed  the  three  rival 


81 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


JLCtOXL 

Adalbert  of  PraffiM 


claimants  for  the  papal  see  (Benedict  IX.,  Sylvester 
III.,  and  Gregory  VI.,  qq.v.).  Henry  was  minded 
to  make  him  pope,  but  he  firmly  declined,  and 
suggested  the  candidate  on  whom  the  choice  finally 
fell,  Suidger,  bishop  of  Bamberg  (see  Clem- 
ent II.). 

Adalbert  retiuned  with  Heniy  in  May,  1047, 
and  devoted  himself  to  diocesan  affairs.  In  the 
territories  of  the  Abodrites  (Obotrites)  €k>ttschalk 
had  gained  supreme  power,  and  worked  with  Adal- 
bert for  the  introduction  of  Christianity  (see  Gott- 
BCHALK,  2).  Norway,  Sweden,  and  Denmark  had 
all  recognised  the  spiritual  jurisdiction  of  Hamburg; 
but  an  effort  was  now  made  to  break  away  from  it. 
Svend  Estridsen,  king  of  Denmark  after  1047, 
made  an  alliance  with  Henry  through  Adalbert's 
mediation,  and  brought  forward  a  plan  for  the  es- 
tablishment of  a  separate  ecclesiastical  province  in 
Denmark,  with  an  archbishop  and  seven  suffragans. 
Adalbert  naturally  could  not  look  with  complacency 
on  the  withdrawal  of  so  large  a  part  of  his  juris- 
diction, after  the  sacrifices  which  the  Church  of 
Hamburg  had  made  in  the  previous  two  hundred 
years  for  the  evangelization  of  the  northern  king- 
doms; and  he  feared  that  Sweden  and  Norway 
would  follow.  Yet  he  could  not  deny  that  there 
was  some  justification  for  Svend's  desire.  The  em- 
peror and  Pope  Leo  IX.,  who  took  part  in  the  Coun- 
cil of  Biainz  in  1049,  seemed  not  indisposed  to  grant 
it.  Adalbert  offer^  to  consent,  on  condition  that 
he  should  have  the  rank  of  patriarch  for  the  whole 
north.  This,  he  thought,  would  solve  the  difficulty; 
one  archbishop  could  not  be  subject  to  another, 
but  might  be  to  a  patriarch.  The  project  grew  on 
him;  and  he  planned  the  establishment  of  eleven 
new  German  sees  to  serve  as  a  basis  for  his  dignity. 
He  did  not  contemplate  any  immediate  rejection 
of  Rome's  suzerainty;  but  it  was  obvious  that  his 
plan  might  easily  give  him  a  position  in  the  north 
not  far  short  of  that  which  the  pope  held  in  the 
south.  Leo  died  in  1054,  and  Henry  in  1056; 
and  further  thought  of  so  far-reaching  a  scheme  had 
to  be  postponed. 

Deprived  of  Henry's  support,  Adalbert  suffered 
much  at  the  hands  of  the  Billung  dukes.  Henry's 
son  and  successor  (but  five  years  old  at  his  father's 
death)  in  1062  fell  into  the  power  of  Anno,  arch- 
bishop of  Cologne  (q.v.);  but  the  latter  was  soon 
forced  to  share  his  power  with  Adalbert,  and  then 
to  see  it  passing  more  and  more  into  his  rival's 
hands.  Of  the  two,  Adalbert  had  much  the  better 
influence  on  the  yoimg  king.  He  reached  the 
height  of  his  power  when  he  had  the  king  pro- 
claimed of  age  at  Worms  (Mar.  29, 1065),  and  prac- 
tically held  the  government  in  his  own  hands. 
But  in  Jan.,  1066,  the  princes,  with  Anno  at  their 
head,  forced  Henry  to  banish  Adalbert  from  court; 
and  his  remaining  years  were  clouded  by  many 
troubles.  New  assaults  of  the  Billimgs  forced  him 
to  flee  from  Hamburg.  Paganism  once  more  got 
the  upper  hand  among  the  Wends,  who  laid  waste 
the  neighboring  Christian  lands;  in  Sweden  the 
Church  had  to  fight  for  its  very  existence.  He  was 
recalled  to  court  in  1069,  but  did  not  succeed  in 
restoring  the  prestige  of  his  position.  He  still 
worked  for  the  consolidation  of  the  royal  power  in 


Gennany,  but  had  to  leave  the  Saxon  problem 
behind  him  unsolved.  He  bore  long  physical 
sufferings  with  remarkable  fimmess,  laboring  to 
the  last  for  the  king  and  for  his  diocese.  He  wished 
to  be  buried  at  Hamburg;  but  the  destruction  of 
that  city  by  the  Wends  prevented  this;  and  his 
body  was  lidd  in  the  cathedral  of  Bremen,  the  re- 
building of  which  he  had  himself  completed. 

(Cabl  Bertheau.) 
Biblzoorapht:  Bruno,  D€  hello  Saxonieo,  in  MOH,  Script., 
Y.  (1844)  327-384  (2d  ed.,  by  W.  Wattenbaoh.  in  Saript. 
rer.  Oerm.t  acK.xit  1880);  Adam  of  Bremen,  Oeeta  HfmunO' 
burgenaia  eceUna  ponHfieum,  in  MGH,  Script,  vii.  (1846) 
267-389  (printed  separately.  Hanover.  1846;  2d  ed..  1876). 
Germ,  tranal.  by  J.  C.  M.  Laurent  (2d  ed..  by  W.  Watten- 
baoh. Leipdo,  1888);  Chronicon  Ootecenaia,  in  MOH, 
Script.,  X.  (1862)  140-167;  Ck>lmar  Orflnhagen.  Adalbert 
Brxbieehof  von  Hamburo,  Leipsio.  1864;  Lambert.  Annalea, 
in  MOH,  Scnpt,  xvi.  (1860).  646-660  (2d  ed..  by  Holdeiw 
Ecger.  in  Script,  rer.  Oerm.,  1894);  E.  Steindorff.  Jahr- 
bOcher  dee  deutecKen  Reiche  unter  Heinridi  III.,  2  toIb.. 
Leipsio.  1874-81.  and  in  ADB,  i.  66-61;  G.  Dehio, 
OeeehitJUe  dee  Ertbietume  HanUmro-Bremen,  i.  178-277. 
Berlin,  1876;  R.  Ballheimer.  Zeittafeln  sur  hamburoiedien 
Oeechxehie,  pp.  18-24.  Hamburi^.  1896;  Hauck.  KD,  iii. 
649-664. 

ADALBERT  OF  PRAGUE  (Czech,  Woitech, 
"  Comfort  of  the  Army "):  An  early  German 
missionary,  sometimes  improperly  caJled  "  the 
Apostle  of  the  Slavs  "  or  "  of  the  Prussians  ";  b. 
about  950;  murdered  Apr.  23,  997.  He  was  the 
son  of  a  rich  Czech  nobleman  named  Slavenik,  con- 
nected with  the  royal  house  of  Saxony.  He  was 
educated  at  Magdeburg,  but  on  the  death  of  Adal- 
bert (981 ),  first  archbishop  of  that  place,  whose 
name  he  had  taken  at  confirmation,  he  returned 
home  and  was  ordained  priest  by  Thietmar,  the 
first  bishop  of  Prague,  whom  he  succeeded  two 
years  later.  He  received  investiture  at  Verona 
from  Emperor  Otho  II.,  his  kinsman,  and  was  con- 
secrated by  Willigis,  archbishop  of  Mainz,  his 
metropolitan.  His  troubles  soon  began.  The 
attempt  to  execute  strictly  what  he  conceived  to 
be  his  episcopal  duties  brought  him  into  conflict 
with  his  countrymen,  who  were  hard  to  wean  from 
their  heathen  customs.  After  five  years  of  struggle, 
he  left  his  diocese,  intending  to  make  a  pilgrimage 
to  Jerusalem;  but  after  a  sojourn  at  Monte  Cassino, 
he  entered  the  monastery  of  St.  Boniface  at  Rome, 
where  he  led  a  singularly  devoted  and  ascetic  life. 
In  992,  however,  he  waf  required  by  the  pope  and 
his  metropolitan  to  return  to  Prague.  The  con- 
flict with  stubbornly  p>er6istent  heathen  customs — 
polygamy,  witchcraft,  slavery — proved  as  hard 
as  ever,  and  he  once  more  left  his  diocese,  returning, 
after  a  missionary  tour  in  Hungaiy,  to  the  peaceful 
seclusion  of  his  Roman  cloister. 

In  996  Willigis  visited  Rome  and  obtained  fresh 
orders  for  Adelbert  to  return  to  his  see,  with  permis- 
sion to  go  and  preach  to  the  heathen  only  in  case 
his  flock  should  absolutely  refuse  to  receive  him. 
He  went  north  in  company  with  the  young  emperor, 
Otho  III.,  and  in  the  next  spring,  through  Poland, 
approached  Bohemia.  Things  had  grown  worse 
than  ever  there:  his  family  had  fallen  under  sus- 
picion of  treason  through  their  connections  with 
Germany  and  Poland;  and  the  greater  part  of  them 
had  been  put  to  death.  His  offer  to  return  to 
Prague  having  been  contumeliously  rejected,  he 


Adalbold 


THE  NEW   SCHAFF-HERZOG 


88 


felt  himself  free  to  turn  to  the  work  which  he  desired 
among  the  heathen  Prussians.  Here  he  was  killed 
by  a  pagan  priest  before  he  had  succeeded  in  accom- 
plishhig  much.  His  body  was  brought  by  the  Duke 
of  Polajid  and  buried  at  Gnesen,  whence  it  was 
taken  to  Prague  in  1039.  (A.  Hauck.) 

Bibuoorapht:  J.  CanapariuB,  VUa  Adalberti,  in  MGH, 
Scripl.,  iv.  (1841)  574-620;  Bruno.  VUa  AdalberH,  ib.  pp. 
505-612;  Miracula  AdelberH,  ib.  613-616;  Pauio  Adal- 
berH, ib..  TV.  part  2  (1888).  705-708;  De  St.  AdaJherto, 
ib.  pp.  1177-84;  AfPL,  cxxxvii.  859-888  (life  and 
miraclefl);  H.  Zeirabergt  Die  polnuche  Oeachichtuehrei- 
buno  d—  MiUelaUer;  pp.  10  sqq.,  Leipsic.  1873;  H.  G. 
Voigt.  Adalbert  von  Prao,  Berlin.  1808:  Hauck.  KD,  iii. 
(1006)  1041  sqq. 

ADALBOLD,  ad'al-b6ld:  Bishop  of  Utrecht; 
d.  Nov.  27,  1026.  He  was  bom  probably  in  the 
Low  Countries,  and  received  his  education  partly 
from  Notker  of  Li^ge.  He  became  a  canon  of 
Laubach,  and  apparently  was  a  teacher  there. 
The  emperor  Henry  II.,  who  had  a  great  regard  for 
him,  invited  him  to  the  court,  and  nominated  him 
as  Bishop  of  Utrecht  (1010),  and  he  must  be  re- 
garded as  the  principal  founder  of  the  territorial 
possessions  of  the  diocese,  especially  by  the  acqui- 
sition in  1024  and  1026  of  the  counties  of  Thrente 
and  Teisterbant.  He  was  obliged  to  defend  his 
bishopric  not  only  against  frequent  inroads  by  the 
Normans,  but  also  against  the  aggressions  of  neigh- 
boring nobles.  He  was  unsuccessful  in  the  attempt 
to  vindicate  the  possession  of  the  district  of  Merwede 
(Mircvidu),  between  the  mouths  of  the  Maas  and 
the  Waal,  against  Dietrich  III.  of  Holland.  The 
imperial  award  required  the  restitution  of  this 
territory  to  the  bishop  and  the  destruction  of  a 
castle  which  Dietrich  had  built  to  control  the  navi- 
gation of  the  Maa8;  but  the  expedition  under  God- 
frey of  Brabant  which  undertook  to  enforce  this 
decision  was  defeated ;  and  in  the  subsequent  agree- 
ment the  disputed  land  remained  in  Dietrich's 
possession.  Adalbold  was  active  in  promoting 
the  building  of  churches  and  monasteries  in  his 
diocese.  His  principal  achievement  of  this  kind 
wajs  the  completion  within  a  few  years  of  the 
great  cathedral  of  St.  Martin  at  Utrecht.  He  re- 
stored the  monastery  of  Thiel,  and  completed  that 
of  Hohorst,  begun  by  his  predecessor  Ansfried. 
To  the  charge  of  the  latter  he  appointed  Poppo  of 
Stablo,  and  thus  introduced  the  Cluniac  reform 
into  the  diocese. 

Adalbold  is  also  to  be  mentioned  as  an  author. 
A  life  of  Henry  II.,  carried  down  to  1012,  has  been 
ascribed  to  him;  but  the  evidence  in  favor  of  at- 
tributing to  him  the  extant  fragment  of  such  a  life 
(MGH,  Script.,  iv.,  1841,  67^-695;  MPL,  cxl.  87- 
108)  is  not  decisive.  He  wrote  a  mathematical 
treatise  upon  squaring  the  circle  (MPL,  cxl.  1103- 
08),  and  dedicated  it  to  Pope  Sylvester  II.,  who 
was  himself  a  noted  mathematician.  There  is 
also  extant  a  philosophical  exposition  of  a  passage 
of  Boethius  (ed.  W.  Moll  in  Kerkhistorisch  Archief, 
iii.,  Amsterdam,  1862,  pp.  198-213).  The  discussion 
Quemadmodum  indubitanter  musicas  consonantice 
jtidicari  possint  (ed.  M.  Gerbert,  in  Scriptores 
ecclesiastici  de  mitsica  sacral  i.,  St.  Blasien,  1784, 
pp.  303-312;  MFL^  cxl.  1109)  seems  to  have  been 
ascribed  to  him  on  insufficient  grounds 

(A.  Hauck.) 


Bibuoorapht:   Van  der  Aa.  AdeSbeUi,  bieedtop  van  Utrteht, 
Utrecht.  1862;  Hauck,  KD,  iiL 

ADALDAG,  ad'ol-dOg:  Seventh  archbishop  of 
Hamburg-Bremen  (937-988);  d.  at  Bremen  Apr.  28 
or  29,  988.  He  was  of  noble  birth,  a  relation  and  pu- 
pil of  Bishop  Adalward  of  Verden  and  became  canon 
of  Hildesheim.  Otho  I.  made  him  his  chancdlor 
and  notary  immediately  after  his  accession,  and 
on  the  death  of  Archbishop  Unni  of  Hamburg- 
Bremen  (936)  nominated  him  to  the  vacant  see. 
None  of  the  early  incumbents  of  the  see  ruled  so 
long  a  time;  and  none  did  so  much  for  the  diocese, 
though  his  success  was  partly  the  fruit  of  his  pred- 
ecessors' labors  and  of  peculiarly  favorable  dr- 
cumstances.  Under  Adaldag  the  metropolitan 
see  obtained  its  first  suffragans,  by  the  erection  of 
the  bishoprics  of  Ripen,  Sleswick,  and  Aarhus; 
and  that  of  Aldenburg  was  also  placed  under  Ham- 
burg, though  the  Slavic  territories  of  the  present 
Oldenburg  had  formerly  belonged  to  the  diocese 
of  Verden.  He  resisted  successfully  a  renewal  of 
the  efforts  of  Cologne  to  claim  jurisdiction  over 
Bremen  (see  Adaloar).  He  gained  many  privi- 
leges for  his  see,  in  jurisdiction,  possession  of  land, 
and  market  rights,  by  liis  close  relations  with  the 
emperors,  especially  Otho  I.  He  accompanied 
the  latter  on  his  journey  to  Rome,  and  remained 
with  him  from  961  to  965,  and  is  mentioned  as  the 
emperor's  chief  counselor  at  the  time  of  his  corona- 
tion in  Rome.  Otho  placed  the  deposed  pope 
Benedict  V.  in  his  custody.  After  Adaldag's 
return  to  Hamburg,  he  still  maintained  these 
relations,  and  his  privileges  were  confirmed  by 
Otho  II.  and  by  the  regency  of  Otho  III.  The 
later  years  of  his  life  were  troubled  by  inroads  of 
the  Danes  and  Slavonians  on  the  north,  and  he 
may  have  witnessed  the  sack  of  Hamburg  by  the 
latter  under  Mistiwoi  (if  its  date,  as  Usinger  and 
Dehio  think,  was  983).  (Carl  Bertheau.) 

Biblioorapht:  Adam  of  Bremen.  Oetta  HammenburffeneiM 
eccieeia  pontificum,  in  MGH,  Script,  vii  (1846)  267-389 
(issued  separately,  Hanover.  1846;  2d  ed..  1876);  W. 
von  Gieaebrecht,  Geechiehte  der  deulMchen  KaiaeneU,  L, 
Brunswick.  1874;  R.  Kfipcke  and  E.  Dflmmler.  Kaieer 
Otto  der  Gro—e,  Leipsic.  1876;  G.  Dehio.  GeeehiekU  dee 
Erzbi^tum*  Hamburo-Bremen,  i.  65.  104-132,  Berlin.  1877; 
Hauck,  KD,  vol.  il. 

ADALGAR,  ad'ol-gflr:  Third  archbishoD  of  Ham- 
burg-Bremen (888-909);  d.  May  9.  909.  When 
Rimbert,  who  was  appointed  in  865  to  succeed 
Ansgar,  the  first  archbishop  of  Hamburg,  stopped 
at  the  abbey  of  CJorvey  on  his  way  to  his  field  of 
labor,  the  abbot  Adalgar  gave  him  his  brother, 
also  named  Adalgar,  as  a  companion.  The  yoimger 
Adalgar  was  then  a  deacon.  Toward  the  end  of 
Rimbert 's  life  he  was  consecrated  bishop  to  assist 
the  latter;  and  he  succeeded  him  in  the  arch- 
bishopric (June  II,  888).  During  the  latter  half 
of  his  twenty  years'  rule,  age  and  infirmity  made 
it  necessary  for  him  also  to  have  a  coadjutor  in  the 
person  of  Hoger,  another  monk  of  Gorvey;  and 
later  five  neighboring  bishops  were  charged  to 
assist  the  archbishop  in  his  metropolitan  duties. 

Adalgar  lived  in  troublous  times.  Although 
Amulf's  victory  over  the  Normans  (891)  was  a 
relief  to  his  diocese,  and  although  under  Louis  the 
Child  (900-911)  it  suffered  less  from  Hungarian 


88 


REUGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Adalbold 


onslaughts  than  the  districts  to  the  south  and  east 
of  it,  yet  the  general  confusion  restricted  Adalgar's 
activity,  and  he  was  able  to  do  very  little  in  the 
northern  kingdoms  which  were  supposed  to  be 
part  of  his  mission.  There  were  also  new  con- 
tests over  the  relation  of  Bremen  to  the  archiepis- 
copal  see  of  Cologne.  Bremen  had  originally  been 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  Cologne;  but  this  relation 
was  dissolved  on  the  reestablishment  of  the  arch- 
bishopric of  Hamburg  in  848;  and  Pope  Nicholas 
I.  had  confirmed  the  subordination  of  Bremen  to 
Hamburg  in  864  (see  Ansgar;  Hamburg,  Arch- 
bishopric of).  In  890  Archbishop  Hermann  of 
Cologne  wrote  to  Pope  Stephen  VI.,  demanding 
that  the  archbishop  of  Hamburg,  as  bishop  of 
Bremen  be  subject  to  him.  The  course  of  the  con- 
troversy is  somewhat  obscure;  but  it  is  known  that 
Stephen  cited  both  contestants  to  Rome,  and  when 
Adalgar  alone  appeared,  Hermann  being  represented 
by  delegates  with  unsatisfactory  credentials,  the 
pope  referred  the  matter  to  Archbishop  Fulk  of 
Reims,  to  decide  in  a  synod  at  Worms.  In  the 
mean  time  Stephen  died;  and  his  successor  For- 
mosus  placed  the  investigation  in  the  hands  of  a 
synod  which  met  at  Frankfort  in  892  imder  Hatto 
of  Biainz.  On  the  basis  of  its  report,  Formosus 
decided  that  Bremen  should  be  united  to  Hamburg 
so  long  as  the  latter  had  no  suffragan  sees,  but 
should  revert  to  Cologne  when  any  were  erected, 
the  archbishop  of  Hamburg  meanwhile  taking  part 
in  the  provincial  synods  of  Cologne,  without  thereby 
admitting  his  subordination.  Little  is  known  of 
Adalgar's  personality.  From  the  way  in  which 
Rimbert's  biographer  and  Adam  of  Bremen  speak 
of  him,  he  seems  to  have  been  a  man  of  some  force, 
but  perhaps  not  strong  enough  for  the  difficult 
times  in  which  his  activity  was  cast. 

(Carl  Bertheau.) 
Bibuoorapht:  Viia  RimberH,  in  MOH,  Script.,  u.  (1820) 
764-776,  ahd  in  MPL,  cxxvi.  991-1010;  Adam  of 
Bremen,  Oata  Hammenburoenna  eccienae  pontificum,  in 
MOH,  Script,  vii  (1846)  267-389  (issued  separately. 
Hanover,  1846;  2d  ed..  1876);  Jaff^.  Regeata,  vol.  i. ; 
G.  Dehio,  Ge$chiehte  d—  Erzbiatuma  Hamburo-Bremen,  i. 
97-100.  Berlin,  1877;  Hauck.  KD,  vol.  ii. 

ADALHARD  AND  WALA,  ad'al-hOrd,  waaa: 
Abbots  of  Corbie  (10  m.  e.  of  Amiens)  from  about 
775  to  834.  They  were  brothers,  cousins  of  Charle- 
magne, pupils  and  friends  of  Alcuin  and  Paul  the 
Deacon,  and  men  of  much  authority  and  influence 
in  both  church  and  state.  The  elder,  Adalhard 
(b.  about  751;  d.  Jan.  2, 826),  was  interested  in  the 
German  language  and  the  education  of  the  clergy, 
and  is  especially  famous  for  the  establishment  of 
diocesan  colleges  and  the  foundation  of  the  abbey 
of  New  Corbie  (Corvey)  on  the  Weser  (see  Cor- 
vey).  He  gave  new  laws  to  his  monastery  of 
Corbie  (MPL,  cv.  535-550),  and  defended  against 
Pope  Leo  III.  the  resolutions  de  exitu  SpirUus 
Sandi  passed  in  the  autumn  of  809  by  the  Synod 
of  Aachen  (see  Filioque  Controversy).  When 
Charlemagne's  son  Pepin,  king  of  Italy,  died  (810), 
Adalhard  was  appointed  counselor  of  his  young 
■on  Bernard  in  the  government  of  Italy. 

The  younger  brother,  Wala  (d.  at  Bobbio  in  Italy 
Sept.  12,  836),  also  enjoyed  the  confidence  of 
Chaileinagne,  and  became  chief  of  the  counts  of 
I.-3 


Saxony.  In  812  he  was  sent  to  join  Adalhard  and 
Bernard  in  Italy  and  work  for  the  choice  of  the 
last-named  as  king  of  the  Lombards.  After  the  death 
of  Charlemagne  and  the  accession  of  the  incapable 
Louis  (814),  whom  the  brothers  had  always  op- 
posed, they  returned  to  Corbie,  and  fell  into  dis- 
grace for  having  favored  Bernard.  They  were 
deprived  of  their  estates  and  Adalhard  was  ban- 
ished. After  seven  years,  however,  a  reconciliation 
took  place  between  them  and  Louis.  Wala,  as  suc- 
cessor of  Adalhard  at  Corbie,  continued  his  brother's 
work  and  gave  especial  care  to  the  mission  in  the 
north.  As  head  of  the  opposition  to  the  repeal  of 
the  law  of  succession  of  817  and  a  bold  defender 
of  the  rights  of  the  Church,  he  was  imprisoned  by 
Louis  in  830,  and  regained  his  liberty  only  when, 
in  833,  Louis's  eldest  son,  Lothair,  the  future  em- 
peror, came  north  with  an  army,  accompanied  by 
Pope  Gregory  IV.  Wala's  counsel  was  gratefully 
received  by  both  Lothair  and  Gregory;  and  the 
former  rewarded  him  with  the  abbey  of  Bobbio  in 
northern  Italy.  Just  before  his  death  Wala  became 
reconciled  with  Louis,  and,  at  the  head  of  an  em- 
bassy sent  to  that  monarch  by  Lothair,  made  peace 
between  father  and  son.  A.  Werner. 

Biblioqrapht:  Paschaaius  Radbertus.  Vila  Adelhardi,  com- 
plete in  ASM,  iv.  1,  pp.  308-344;  Viia  Walce,  ib.  pp.  466- 
522;  also  in  AfPL,  oxx.  1607-1650;  extracta  in  MGH, 
Script.,  ii.  (1829)  524-569;  F.  Funk,  Ludwig  der  Fromme, 
Frankfort.  1832;  Uimly.  Wala  et  Louia-U-D&>onnaire, 
Paris,  1849;  Jaff^,  Regeata,  vol.  i.;  A.  Enck,  De  St. 
Adalhardo  ablxUe  Corbeia  arUiquce  et  nova,  MQnster,  1873; 

B.  E.  Simson,  JahrbUcher  dea  frankiarJien  Reicha  unler  Lud- 
wig dem  Frommen,  i..  Munich,  1874;  Hauck, /JCD.  vol.  ii  ; 
W.  Wattenbach.  DGQ,   i.  (1893)  260.  ii.  (1894)   170;    D. 

C.  Munro  and  G.  C.  Sellery,  Medicnal  CivilixaHon,  pp. 
319-320.  New  York.  1904. 

ADAM. 

I.  Doctrinal. 

The  Biblical  Statement  Interpreted  Literally  (f  1). 
The  Poflition  of  Adam  to  the  Race  (f  2). 
The  Orthodox  Views  (§  3). 
The  Evolutionary  Views  (f  4). 

II.  Historical. 

The  Use  of  "  Adam''  as  a  Proper  Name  (}  1). 

Foreign  Influence  in  P  (}  2). 

The  Aim  and  Plan  of  P  ii  3). 

The  Narrative  of  J  (J  4). 

Parallels  in  Other  Literatures  (S  5). 

The  Literary  Material  Mythical  in  Character  (f  6). 

New  Testament  References  (§  7). 

I.  Doctrinal:  According  to  the  literal  statement 
of  Genesis  (v.  2),  the  name  "Adam  "  (Heb.  adham, 
"  man  ")  was  given  by  God  himself  to  the  first  human 
being.    The  important  place  occupied  by  man,  ac- 
cording to   the  Biblical  idea,  is    the 
I.  The  Bib-  close,  the  appointed  climax,  of  creation, 
lical  State-  Inanimate  nature  looked  forward    to 
ment  Inter-  man.    To  hU  creation  God  gave  special 
preted       care.    It  was  sufficient  for  the  Creator 
Literally,    to  order  the  other  creatures  into  be- 
ing;   but   man  was    molded   by    the 
divine  fingers  out  of  the  dust  of  the  earth.    Thus  far 
he  belonged  to  the  created  world;  but  into  him 
God  breathed  the  breath  of  life,  and  thus  put  him 
in  an  immeasurably  higher  place;  for  the  posses- 
sion of  this  breath  made  him  the  **  image  "  of  God. 
What  this  "  image  "  was  is  learned  from  the  Bible 
(Gen.  i.  26,  ii.  7);  it  was  likeness  to  God  in  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  creatures  and  in  the  possession  of 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


84 


the  same  spirit  (see  Image  of  God).  God,  the  ab- 
■olute  personality,  reflects  himself  in  man  and,  there- 
fore, the  latterbecomes  the  lord  of  creation.  Adam 
was  the  representative  of  the  race — humanity  in 
person.  Opposite  to  the  species  and  genera  of  beasts 
stood  the  single  man.  He  was  not  a  male,  still  less 
a  man-woman;  he  was  man.  Out  of  him,  as  the 
progenitor  of  the  race,  Eve  was  taken. 

But  man's  true  position  can  not  be  comprehended 
until  he  is  considered  in  relation  to  Christ,  the 
second  man,  as  is  most  clearly  expressed  in  Rom. 
V.  12  sqq.;  I  Cor.  xv.  21-22,  45-49.  By  Adam's 
fall,  sin  and  death  entered  into  the  world,  and  con- 
demnation has  come  upon  all  through  him;  but 
from  the  second  Adam  has  come  just  the  opposite — 
righteousness,  justification,  and  life.  Those  who 
by  sin  are  united  to  the  first  Adam  reap  all  the 
consequences  of  such  a  union;  similarly  do  those 
who  by  faith  are  united  to  the  second  Adam.  Each 
is  a  representative  head. 

Materialism  sees  in  man  a  mere  product  of 
nature.  It  is  difficult  to  see  how  it  makes  place 
for  self-consciousness.  The  unity  of  the  race  is 
also  given  up;  and  so  logically  Darwinism  leads 
to  belief  in  a  plurality  of  race  origins.  Theology, 
on  the  other  hand,  holds  fast  to  the 
2*  The  Posi-  personality  of  man,  but  has,  from  the 

tion  of      beginning  of  the  science,  wavered  in 

Adam  to    regard    to  the  position  occupied  by 

the  Race.  Adam  toward  the  race.  The  oldest 
Greek  Fathers  are  silent  upon  this 
point.  Irenseus  is  the  first  to  touch  it;  and  he  main- 
tains that  the  first  sin  was  the  sin  of  the  race,  since 
Adam  was  its  head  (III.  zxiii.  3;  V.  xii.  3;  cf.  R. 
Seeberg,  DogmengeschichUy  i.,  Leipsic,  1895,  p.  82). 
Origen,  on  the  other  hand,  holds  that  man  sinned 
because  he  had  abused  his  liberty  when  in  a  pre- 
existent  state.  In  Adam  seminally  were  the  bodies 
of  all  hift  descendants  (Contra  CeUunij  iv.;  cf.  C.  F. 
A.  Kahnis,  Dogmatiky  ii.,  Leipsic,  1864,  pp.  107 sqq.). 
Gregory  Nazianzen,  Gregory  of  Nyssa,  and  Chrysos- 
tom  derive  sin  from  the  (all.  Tertullian,  Cyprian, 
Hilary,  Ambrose,  and  Augustine  represent  the 
Biblical  standpoint.  Pelagius  saw  in  Adam  only 
a  bad  example,  which  his  descendants  followed. 
Semi-Pelagianism  similarly  regarded  the  first  sin 
merely  as  opening  the  fiood-gates  to  iniquity; 
but  upon  this  point  Augustinianism  since  it  was 
formulated  has  dominated  the  Church — in  Adam 
the  race  sinned.  (Carl  von  BucHiiucKERt.) 

The    prominent   orthodox    views    are:  (1)    The 

Augustinian,    known    as    realism,    which    is    that 

human  nature  in  its  entirety  was  in  Adam  when 

he  sinned,  that  his  sin  was  the  act  of  human  nature, 

and  that  in  this  sin  human  nature  fell ; 

3.  The      that  is,  lost  its  freedom  to  the  good, 

Orthodox  becoming  wholly  sinful  and  producing 
Views,  sinners.  *'  We  sinned  in  that  man 
when  we  were  that  man."  This  is 
the  view  of  Anselm,  Peter  Lombard,  Thomas 
Aquinas,  and  Luther.  (2)  The  federal  theory  of 
the  Dutch  divines  Cocceius  and  Witsius  is  that 
Adam  became  the  representative  of  mankind 
and  that  the  probation  of  the  human  race  ended 
once  for  all  in  his  trial  and  fall  in  the  garden 
of  Eden.    Accordingly   the  guilt  of  Adam's  sin 


was  imputed  to  his  posterity.  This  is  the  theory 
of  Turretin  and  the  Princeton  theologians.  (3) 
The  theory  of  mediate  imputation  (Placsus)  is 
that  the  sin  of  Adam  is  imputed  to  hia  descendants 
not  4irectly,  but  on  account  of  their  depravity 
derived  from  him  and  their  consent  to  his  sin.  (See 
Imputation;  Sin.) 

According  to  the  evolutionary  view  of  man's 
origin,  which  is  not  necessarily  materialistic,  Adam 
may  be  designated  as  the  first  individual  or  indi- 
viduals in  the  upward  process  of  de- 
4.  The  Evo-  velopment  in  whom  self-consciousneaB 
lutionary  appeared  or  who  attained  such  sta- 
ViewB.  bility  of  life  that  henceforth  humanity 
was  able  to  survive  the  shock  of  death. 
By  some,  the  first  man  is  conceived  of  as  a  special 
instance  of  creative  wisdom  and  power;  by  others, 
as  the  natural  result  of  the  evolutionary  process. 
Whether  the  human  race  sprang  from  one  individual 
or  from  several  is,  for  lack  of  evidence,  left  an  opean 
question.  In  this  position  the  unity  of  the  race 
is  in  no  wise  compromised,  since  this  is  grounded 
not  in  derivation  from  a  single  pair  but  in  identity 
of  constitution  and  ideal  ethical  and  spiritual  aim. 
This  view  of  the  first  man  brings  into  prominence 
the  dignity  of  human  nature  and  its  kinship  with 
the  divine,  yet  at  the  same  time  profoundly  modifies 
the  traditional  doctrine  of  original  sin.  In  the 
disproportion  between  the  inherited  instincts, 
appetites,  and  desires  of  the  animal  nature  and 
the  weak  and  struggling  impulses  of  the  moral 
consciousness  there  arises  an  inevitable  conflict 
in  which  the  higher  is  temporarily  worsted  and 
the  sense  of  sin  emerges.  By  virtue  of  heredity 
and  the  organic  and  social  imity  of  the  race,  all 
the  descendants  of  the  earliest  man  are  involved 
with  him  in  the  common  struggle,  the  defeat,  and 
the  victory  of  the  moral  and  spiritual  life.  This 
conflict  IB  a  sign  that  man  is  not  simply  a  fallen 
being,  but  is  in  process  of  ascent.  The  first  man, 
although  of  the  earth,  is  a  silent  prophecy  of  the 
second  man,  the  Lord  from  heaven. 

C.  A.  Beckwtth. 
n.   Historical:    The   sources   of   knowledge   of 
Adam  are  exclusively  Biblical  and,  indeed,  wholly 
of  the  Old  Testament,  since  the  New  Testament 
adds  nothing  concerning  his  personality  and  his 
doings  to  what  is  recorded  of  him  in  the  Book  of 
Genesis.    The   main   inquiry,  therefore,    must   be 
as  to  the  place  occupied  by  Adam 
I.  The  Use  in  the  Old  Testament.     Here  several 
of  "Adam"  striking  facts  confront  us:     (1)  There 
as  a        is  no  allusion  to  Adam  direct  or  in- 
Proper      direct    after    the     early    genealogies. 
Name,      In  Deut.  xxxii.  8  and  Job  xxviii.  28 
the    Hebrew    adham    (adam)  means 
**  mankind."     In  Hos.  vi.  7  the  reading  should  be 
"  Admah  "  (a  place-name).    The  latest  references 
(apart  from  the  excerpt  in  I  Chron.  i.  1)  are  Gen. 
iv.  25  (Sethite  line  of  J)  and  Gen.  v.  1,  3  (Sethite 
line  of  P).     (2)  Outside  of  the  genealogies  there  is 
no  clear  instance  of  the  use  of  the  word  as  a  proper 
name.    The  definite  article,  omitted  in  the  Ma»- 
oretic  text,  should  be  restored  in  Gen.  iii.  17,  21 
(J)  in  harmony  with  the  usage  of  the  whole  context, 
which   reads   ''  the  man "   instead  of   "  Adam." 


85 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Eve  (Gen.  iii.  20;  !▼.  1)  is  the  first  proper  name 
of  our  Bible.  (3)  Whatever  may  have  been  the 
origin  of  the  proper  name  "Adam,"  its  use  here 
seems  to  be  derived  from  and  based  upon  the 
original  generic  sense.  Even  in  the  genealogies 
the  two  significations  are  interchanged.  Thus 
while  Gen.  v.  1  substitutes  "Adam  "  for  " the  man  " 
of  i.  27,  chap.  v.  2  continues:  "  Male  and  female 
created  he  them  .  .  .  and  called  their  name  Adam." 
It  is  a  fair  inference  that  the  genealogies  are  in  part 
at  least  responsible  for  the  individual  and  personal 
usage  of  the  name.  When  it  is  considered  that 
all  Semitic  history  began  with  genealogies,  of  which 
the  standing  designation  in  the  early  simmiaries 
is  "  generations "  (Heb.  toledhoth),  the  general 
motive  of  such  a  transference  of  ideas  is  obvious. 
The  process  was  easy  and  natural  because  in  the 
ancient  type  of  society  a  community  is  thought 
of  as  a  unit,  is  a  proper  name  without  the  article, 
and  is  designated  by  a  single  not  a  plural  form. 
The  first  oommimity  having  been  "  man  "  ("  the 
adam  "),  its  head  and  representative  was  naturally 
spoken  of  as  "  Man  "  ("  Adam  ")  when  there  was 
need  of  referring  to  him.  On  the  etymological 
side  a  p>artial  illustration  is  afforded  by  the  French 
an  (Lat.  homo)  and  the  German  man,  which  express 
individualization  anonymously. 

The  secondary  character  of  the  notion  of  an 

individual  Adam  is  also  made  probable  by  the  fact 

that  the  genealogical  system  of  P  is  artificial  and 

of  foreign  origin  or  at  least  of  foreign 

2.  Foreign    suggestion.    The  whole  scheme  of  the 
Influence    ten  generations  of  Gen.  v.  is  modeled 

in  P.  upon  and  in  part  borrowed  from  the 
Babylonian  tradition  of  the  first  ten 
kings  of  Babylon.  Of  these  lists  of  ten  there  are 
five  names  in  either  list  which  show  striking  corre- 
spondences with  five  in  the  other,  ending  with  the 
tenth,  which  in  either  case  is  the  name  of  the  hero 
of  the  flood  story.  These  Babylonian  kings  also 
were  demigods,  having  lives  of  immense  duration, 
two  of  them,  moreover  (the  seventh  and  the  tenth), 
having,  like  Enoch  and  Noah,  special  commu- 
nications with  divinity. 

In  brief,  as  regards  P,  the  matter  stands   as 

follows: — His    first   theme   was   the   process    and 

plan  of  creation  according  to  an  ascending  scale 

of  being.    At   the  head  of    creation 

3.  The  Aim  were    put    the     first    human  beings, 
and  Plan    "  man "   or   mankind    (Gen.    i.    26). 

olP,  The  second  leading  thought  in  P's 
"  generations  of  the  heavens  and  the 
earth"  was  the  continuance  of  the  race  or  the 
peopling  of  the  earth.  Expression  was  given  to 
it  by  the  statement  that  "  the  man  "  was  created 
"  male  and  female  "  (i.  27).  The  third  stage  in  the 
narrative  is  reached  when  the  descent  of  Abraham 
from  the  first  man  is  established,  in  order  to  pro- 
vide a  necessary  and  appropriate  pedigree  for  the 
bouse  of  Israel.  At  the  head  of  this  line  was  placed 
the  individual  "  Man  "  or  "  Adam." 

Turning  now  to  the  story  of  Paradise  and  the  Fall, 
which,  as  has  been  seen,  speaks  of  the  first  man 
only  as  "the  man"  and  not  as  "Adam," 
the  main  motive  of  Gen.  ii.-iv.  is  to  account  for 
certain   characteristics    and    habits    of    mankind, 


above  all  to  set  forth  the  origin,  nature,  and 
consequences  of  sin  as  disobedience  to  and  alien- 
ation from  Yahweh*  Man  is  presented 
4-  The  first  as  a  single  individual;  next  as 
Narrative  being  mated  with  a  woman,  with  and 
of  J.  for  whom  he  has  a  divinely  constituted 
affinity;  then  as  the  head  of  the  race 
upon  which  he  brings  the  curse  due  to  his  own 
disobedience.  At  first  sight  this  might  seem  to 
imply  a  preconception  of  the  individuality  and 
personality  of  the  first  man,  who  may  as  well  as 
not  have  borne  the  name  "  Adam,"  which  J  him- 
self gives  him  in  the  fragmentary  genealogy  of 
Gen.  iv.  25-26.  But  the  inference  is  not  justified. 
The  pictures  drawn  by  J  and  the  conceptions  they 
embody  are  not  spontaneous  effusions.  They  are 
the  result  of  careful  selection  and  of  long  and  pro- 
found reflection,  and  when  the  problems  which  J 
sets  out  to  solve  and  the  incidents  which  convey 
and  embody  the  solution  be  considered,  it  must 
be  concluded  that  the  answers  to  the  questions 
could  have  been  arrived  at  only  through  the  study 
of  man,  not  in  individuals  but  as  a  social  being. 
In  other  words,  this  "  prophetic "  interpreter 
worked  his  way  backward  through  history  or  tra- 
dition along  certain  well-known  lines  of  general 
human  experience,  and  at  the  heart  of  the  story 
appears  not  a  single  but  a  composite  figure,  not 
an  individual  but  a  type,  while  the  story  itself  is 
not  history  or  biography  but  in  part  mythical  and 
in  part  allegorical.  Thus  the  unhistorical  char- 
acter of  Adam  is  even  more  demonstrable  from 
the  narrative  of  J  than  from  that  of  P. 

Some  of   the   primitive   mythical   material   in 
Genesis  has  analogies  in  other  literatures.     Not 
to  mention  the  more  remote  Avesta,  attention  must 
again  be  called  to  some  of  the  Babylonian  parallels. 
It  is  now  indisputable  that  Eden  is  a  Babylonian 
name;  that   the  whole  scenery  of   the  region   is 
Babylonian;  that  the  tree  of  life,  the  cherubim, 
and  the  serpent,  the  enemy  of  the  gods  and  men, 
are  all  Babylonian.    There  is  also  the  Babylonian 
story  of  how  the  first  man  came  to  forfeit  inunor- 
tality.    Adapa,  the  human  son   of  the  good  god 
Ea,  had  offended  Anu,  the  god  of  heaven   (see 
Babylonia,  VII.,  3,  J  3),  and  was   siunmoned  to 
heaven    to    answer    for    his    offense. 
5.  Paral-   Before   his   journey   thither   he    was 
lels  in      warned  by  his  divine  father  to  refuse 
Other       the    "food   of   death"    and    "water 
Litera-     of  death"  which  Anu  would  offer  to 
tures.       him.    At  the  trial,  Anu,  who  had  been 
moved   by   the    intercession   of    two 
lesser  gods,  offered  him  instead  "food  of  life" 
and  "  water  of  life."    These  he  refused,  and  thus 
missed  the  inunortality  intended  for  him;  for  Anu 
when  placated  had  wished  to  place  him  among  the 
gods.    Some  such  story  as  this  by  a  process  of 
reduction  along  monotheistic  lines  may  have  con- 
tributed its  part  to  the  framework  of  the  narrative 
of  the  rejection  of  Adam.    It  is  indeed  possible 
that  Adam  and  Adapa  are  ultimately  the  same 
name. 

An  important  element  in  the  whole  case  is  the 
general  character  of  the  literary  material  of  which 
the  story  of  Adam  forms  a  portion.    Apart  from 


Adamites 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


86 


the  conceptions  proper  to  the  religion  of  Israel, 

which  give  them    their   distinctive    moral  value, 

the     events     and     incidents     related 

6.  The     belong    generically    to    the  mythical 
Literary    stories  of  the  beginnings  of  the  earth 

Material     and   man,  which  have   been    related 
Mythical    among    many    ancient    and    modem 
in  Char-    peoples,  and  specifically  to  the  cycle 
acter.       of  myths  and  legends  which  reached 
their     fullest     literary     development 
in  Babylonia,  and  which  undoubtedly  were  orig- 
inally the  outgrowth  of  a  polytheistic  theory  of 
the  origin  of  the  universe.    Much  weight  must  also 
be  attached  to  the  fact  that  the  story  of  Adam 
is  practically  isolated  in  the  Old  Testament,  above 
all  to  the  consideration  that  prophecy  and  psalmody, 
which  build  so  much  upon  actual  history,  ignore  it 
altogether. 

The  New  Testament  references  show  that  Jesus 

and  Paul  used  the  earliest  stories  of  Genesis  for 

didactic    purposes.    The    remark    is 

7.  New  often  made  in  explanation  that  their 
Testament  age  was  not  a  critical  one  and  that 

Refer-  the  sacred  authors  did  not  in  their 
encet.  own  minds  question  the  current  belief 
in  the  accuracy  of  the  oldest  docu- 
ments. This  is  probably  true,  at  any  rate  of  Paul 
(cf.  especially  I  Cor.  xi.  8-9;  I  Tim.  ii.  13-14).  His 
view  of  the  relation  between  the  first  and  second 
Adam  (I  Cor.  xv.  22,  45;  Rom.  v.  12  sqq.)  is  the 
development  of  an  idea  of  rabbinical  theology, 
and  has  a  curious  primitive  analogy  in  the  relation 
between  Merodach,  the  divine  son  of  the  good  god 
Ea,  and  Adapa,  the  human  son  of  Ea  (cf.  Luke  iii. 
38).  Jesus  himself  does  not  make  any  direct  ref- 
erence to  Adam  in  his  recorded  sayings. 

J.  F.  MCCURDT. 
Biblioorapht:  I.  {{1,2:  Jo8.B}it\er,Sermon9onHumanNa- 
ture,  in  vol.  ii.  of  his  Works,  Oxford,  1844;  S.|Baird.  The  First 
Adam  and  the  Second,  Philadelphia,  1860;  J.  Holler. 
Chrietliche  LehrevonderSUnde,  Brealau,  1867.  Eng.  transl.. 
Doctrine  of  S%n,  Edinburgh,  1868;  Chas.  Hodge,  Suetematic 
Theology,  ii..  ch.  ▼..vii.,  viii..  New  York.  1872;  R.W.  Lan- 
^B,Oriffinal  Sinand Imputation,  Richmond,  1884;  W.G.T. 
Shedd.  Dogmatic  Theology,  ii.  1-257.  iii.  249-377.  New 
York.  1888  (vol.  iii.  gives  catena  of  eitations  from  early 
Christian  times  to  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century); 
H.  B.  Smith,  System  of  Christian  Theology,  pp.  273-SOl, 
ib.  1890;  W.  N.  Clarke.  OuUine  of  Christian  Theology,  pp. 
182-198.  227-259.  ib.  1898;  R.  V.  Foster.  Systematic 
Theology,  pp.  348-355.  363-381,  NashvUle.  1898;  A.  H. 
Strong,  Systematic  Theology,  pp.  234-260.  261-272.  New 
York,  1902. 

L  S  3:  H.  B.  Smith,  System  of  Christian  Theology,  New 
York,  1886;  G.  P.  Fisher.  Discussions  in  History  and 
Theology,  pp.  355-409,  ib.  1880;  cf.  Calvin.  Institutes,  book 
ii.,  ch.  i.,  S§  6-8. 

I.  i  4:  H.  Drummond.  The  Ascent  of  Man,  New  York, 
1894;  J.  Le  Conte.  Evolution  and  its  Relation  to  Religious 
Thought,  ib.  1894;  J.  Fiske.  The  Destiny  of  Man  Viewed  in 
th9  Light  of  his  Origin,  Boston,  1895;  idem.  Through 
Nature  to  God,  ib.  1899;  J.  M.  Tyler.  The  Whence  and  the 
Whither  of  Man,  ib.  1896;  C.  R.  Darwin.  The  Descent  of 
Man,  pp.  174-180.  New  York.  1896;  J.  Deniker.  The 
Races  of  Man,  London.  1900. 

II.  %%  1-7:  H.  Jastrow.  Religion  of  Babylonva  and  As- 
syria, pp.  511.  544  sqq..  Boston.  1898;  idem,  in  DB,  sup- 
plement vol.,  pp.  573-574;  H.  Gunkel.  SchUpfung  und 
Chaos,  pp.  420  sqq..  Qottingen.  1895;  idem.  Oenesie,  pp. 
5 sqq..  33.  98  sqq.,  ib.  1902;  Sohrader.  KAT,  pp.397.  520 
sqq. 

ADAM,     BOOKS     OF.      See  Pseudbpiqrapha, 
Old  Tkstamsnt,  II.,  39. 


ADAM  OF  BREMEH:  Author  of  the  Gesto 
HammeribuTqentiM  eeeUHa  pofUifieunij  a  histoiy  of 
the  archbishops  of  Hamburg-Bremen  extending 
down  to  the  death  of  Adalbert  (1072).  Tho  work 
itself  tells  of  its  author  only  that  his  name  b^gan 
with  "  A,"  that  he  came  to  Bremen  in  1068  and 
ultimately  became  a  canon  there,  and  that  he  wrote 
the  book  between  the  death  of  Adalbert  and  that 
of  King  Svend  Estridsen  of  Denmark  (1072-76). 
But  there  is  no  doubt  that  this  is  the  work  referred 
to  by  Helmold  and  assigned  to  a  M agister  Adam ; 
in  which  case  the  author  must  be  the  Adam  magitUr 
schdarum  who  wrote  and  was  one  of  the  signatories 
to  an  extant  document  of  Jan.  11,  1069,  and  also 
the  same  whose  death  on  Oct.  12,  year  not  given, 
is  recorded  in  a  Bremen  register. 

It  may  be  conjectured  from  scanty  indications 
that  Adam  was  bom  in  upper  Saxony  and  educated 
at  Magdeburg.  His  education  was  in  any  case  a 
thorough  one  for  his  time.  His  book  is  one  of  the 
best  historical  works  of  the  Middle  Ages.  Not  only 
is  it  the  principal  source  for  the  early  history  of 
the  archbishopric  and  its  northern  missions,  but  it 
gives  many  valuable  data  both  for  Germany  and 
other  countries.  The  author  was  unusually  well  pro- 
vided with  documents  and  with  the  qualities  nec- 
essary for  their  use.  His  general  credibility  and 
love  of  truth  have  never  been  seriously  challenged; 
and  his  impartiality  is  shown  by  the  way  in  which 
he  records  the  weaknesses  of  Adalbert,  with  whom 
he  was  in  close  relations  and  whom  he  admired. 
The  best  edition  of  Adam's  book  is  by  J.  M.  Lappen- 
berg,  in  MGH,  Scnpt,,  vu.  (1846)  267-389  (issued 
separately,  Hanover,  1846;  2d  ed.,  with  full  intro- 
duction and  notes,  1876);  the  work  is  also  in  MPL, 
cxlvi.  451-620.  There  is  a  German  translation  by 
J.  C.  M.  Laurent  (2d  ed.,  revised  by  W.  Wattenbach, 
Leipsic,  1888).  (Carl  Bertheau.) 

Biblioorapht:  J.  H.  a  Seelen.  De  Adamo  Bremensi,  in 
his  MiscManea,  ii.  415-493.  Labeck.  1736;  L.  Giesebreeht. 
HiHorische  und  literarische  Abhandlung  der  KOnigsberger 
d€utecKen  OeseUschaft,  ed.  F.  W.  Schubert,  iii.  141.  Kdnica- 
berg,  1834;  W.  Gieaebreoht.  Geschichts  der  deuteehen  Kai- 
serweit,  I  752.  Brunswick.  1874;  G.  Dehio.  Oeschu^te  dee 
Ertbistums  Hamburg-Bremen,  i.  176-177,  Berlin,  1877; 
W.  Wattenbach,  DQQ,  iii.  (1894)  78-82;  Hauok.  XD.iiL 

ADAM,  MELCHIOR,  meKki-9r:  Protestant  bi- 
ographer; b.  at  Grottkau  (35  m.  s.e.  of  Breslau), 
Silesia;  d.  at  Heidelberg,  where  he  was  rector  of 
the  city  school.  Mar.  23,  1622.  He  is  remembered 
for  his  series  of  136  biographies,  mostly  of  Ger- 
man Protestant  scholars,  especially  theologians  (5 
vols.,  Heidelberg  and  Frankfort,  1615-20;  2d  ed., 
under  the  title  Dignorum  laude  virorum  tmmorta/i- 
tas,  1653;  3d  ed.,  1706). 

ADAM  OF  SAINT  VICTOR:  One  of  the  most 
important  of  the  liturgical  poets  of  the  Middle  Ages; 
his  nationality  is  described  by  the  Latin  word  Btito 
("  Breton  "?),  and  he  was  canon  of  St.  Victor  of 
Paris  in  the  second  half  of  the  twelfth  century. 
From  his  sequence  upon  Thomas  Becket  of  Canter- 
bury it  is  inferred  that  he  survived  the  latter's 
canonization  (1174).  His  poems  do  not  include 
all  of  his  writings,  but  are  the  most  important. 
From  the  ninth  century  it  was  customary  to  set 
words  (called  pro$a  and  tequenHa)  to  the  melodiei 


87 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


AdamitM 


(jvbUi,  sequenHa)  with  which  the  Hallelujah  of  the 
gradual  in  the  man  closed  (see  Sbquence).    In 
the  twelfth  century  a  more  artificial  style  of  com- 
position, according  to  strict  rules,  took  the  place  of 
the  freer  rhythms  of  the  earlier  time,  and  for  this 
period  of  sequence  composition  Adam  has  an  im- 
portance comparable  to  that  of  Notker  (q.v.)  for 
the  former  period.    He  shows  a  real  talent  in  his 
mastery  of  form;  and  his  best  pieces  contain  true 
poetiy,  although  as  concerns  power  to  excite  the 
emotions  and  the  higher  flights  of  the  poetic  fancy, 
his  compositions  are  not  equal  to  a  Salve  capiU, 
Stabat  mater ^  or  Lauda  Sion.         S.  M.  Dexttbch. 
Bibuoorapht:   L.  Osutaer,  (Eutrta  poHiquf  d*Adam  <U  St, 
Viekr,  2  toU.,  Paris,  1858  (oomplete  and  eritioal  ed..  with 
life  in  toI.  L;    3d  ad.,  1894).   reprinted  in  AfPL,   czevi. 
1421-1534  (Enc.  transL  by  D.  8.  Wrangiiam,  The  lAiur- 
gieal  Poetry  of  Adam  of  SL  Victor,  3  vols.,  London,  1881); 
K.  Bartech,  Die  laieinieehen  Seqtteruen  dee  MitUUUtere,  pp. 
170  sqq.,  Rostock.  1868;    Hieioire  litUraire  de  la  France, 
XT.  39-45;  £.   Misset,  PoUie  ry^hmiq^e  du  mot/en  dge  ; 
•Mat   .    .   .   eur  lee  cnwree  poHiquee  d'Adam  de  SLVictor, 
Paris,  1882. 

ADAM  THE  SCOTCHMAll  (Adamiu  Scatua, 
called  also  Adamus  Anglicus):  A  mystic-ascetic 
author  of  the  twelfth  century.  According  to  his 
biographer,  the  Premonstrant  Godefroi  Ghiselbert 
of  the  seventeenth  century,  he  was  of  north-English 
origin,  belonged  to  the  Premonstrant  order,  was 
abbot  at  Whithorn  (Casa  Candida)  in  Galloway 
toward  1180,  and  about  the  same  time  also  lived 
temporarily  at  Pr6montr6,  the  French  parent 
monastery  of  the  order.  He  seems  to  have  died 
soon  after.  It  is  highly  improbable  that  he  was 
living  in  the  thirteenth  centuiy,  as  Ghiselbert 
thinks,  who  identifies  him  with  the  English  bishop 
of  the  Order  of  St.  Norbert  mentioned  by  Cssarius 
of  HeiBterbach  {Miraculorum,  iii.  22).  The  first 
incomplete  edition  of  Adam's  works  was  published 
by  .£gidius  Gourmont  (Paris,  1518).  It  contains 
his  tlu'ee  principal  writings  of  mystic-monastic 
content:  (1)  Liber  de  ordtne,  habilUf  et  professione 
PrctmonetrateMium,  fourteen  sermons;  (2)  De  tripar- 
tito  tabemaculo;  (3)  De  triplici  genere  eorUempla- 
Honie,  The  ec^tion  of  Petrus  Bellerus  (Antwerp, 
1659)  contains  also  Ghiselbert's  life  and  a  collection 
of  forty-seven  sermons  on  the  festivals  of  the  church 
year,  which  seem  to  have  belonged  to  a  larger 
collection  of  100  sermons  comprising  the  whole 
church  year.  In  1721  Bemhaid  Pez  (Thesaurus 
anecdotorum,  i.  2,  335  sqq.)  published  SolUoquia  de 
instructiane  discipuli,  sive  de  instructione  aninus, 
which  has  been  ascribed  to  Adam  of  St.  Victor, 
but  belongs  probably  to  Adam  the  Scotchman. 
An  of  these  worics  with  Ghiselbert's  life  are  in  MPL, 
excviii.  9-872.  O,   ZocKLBRf. 

Bzbuoobaprt:  Godefroi  Qhiaelbert.  Vita  Adami,  in  MPL, 
ezeriiL;  C.  Oudin,  De  eariptoribue  eedeeia,  ii.  1544 
•qq.,  Frankfort,  1722;  A.  Mineus,  Chrontoon  ordxnie 
F^mmonetraieneie,  in  M.  Kuen,  CoUeetio  eariptontm  vario- 
nem  rtlMnoeontm  ordinum,  vi.  36,  38,  Ulm,  1768;  Q.  Mae- 
kensie.  The  lAvee  and  Charaetere  of  the  moot  Eminent  Wri- 
ten  of  the  Scote  Nation,  L  141-145,  Edinburgh,  1708. 

ADAMITES  (ADAMIANI):  1.  Epiphanius  {Hcer., 
iii.)  gives  an  account  of  a  sect  of  "  Adamiani," 
that  held  their  religious  assemblies  in  subterranean 
chambers,  both  men  and  women  appearing  in  a 
state  of  nature  to  imitate  Adam  and  Eve,  and  call- 
ing  their   meetings   paradise.    Since    Epiphanius 


knew  of  them  only  from  hearsay,  and  is  himself 
doubtful  whether  to  make  of  them  a  special  class 
of  heretics,  their  existence  must  be  regarded  as 
questionable.  There  are  further  unverifiable  no- 
tices in  John  of  Damascus  (Opera,  i.  88;  following 
the  Anakephalaiosis,  attributed  to  Epiphamus), 
in  Augustine  (Hapt.,  Ixxxi.),  and  in  Hcereticarum 
fabuUsTum  epitome ,  i.  6).  G.  KrCger. 

2.  Charges  of  community  of  women,  ritual 
child-murder,  and  nocturnal  orgies  were  brought 
by  the  heathen  world  against  the  early  Christians, 
and  by  the  latter  against  various  sects  of  their  own 
number  (Montanists,  Manicheans,  Priscillianists, 
etc.).  Similar  accusations  were  made  against 
almost  all  medieval  sects,  notably  the  Cathari,  the 
Waldensians,  the  Italian  Fraticelli,  the  heretical 
flagellants  of  Thuringia  in  1454,  and  the  Brethren 
of  the  Free  Spirit.  All  of  these  allegations  are  to 
be  regarded  with  much  suspicion.  The  doctrine 
of  a  sinless  state,  taught  by  the  Brethren  of  the 
Free  Spirit,  and,  in  other  cases,  extravagant  acts 
of  overwrought  mystics  may  have  furnished  a 
basis,  which,  without  doubt,  was  often  elaborated 
from  the  accounts  of  ''  Adamites "  mentioned 
above. 

8.  The  name  "  Adamites  "  has  become  the  per- 
manent designation  of  a  sect  of  Bohemian  Tabor- 
ites,  who,  in  Mar.,  1421,  established  themselves  on 
an  island  in  the  Luschnitz,  near  Neuhaus,  and  are 
said  to  have  indulged  in  predatory  forays  upon 
the  neighborhood,  and  to  have  committed  \\41d 
excesses  in  nocturnal  dances.  They  were  sup- 
pressed by  Ziska  and  Ulrich  von  Neuhaus  in  Oct., 
1421.  It  is  probable  that  they  were  merely  a 
faction  of  the  Taborites  who  carried  to  an  extreme 
their  belief  in  the  necessity  of  a  complete  separation 
from  the  Church  and  resorted  to  violence  to  spread 
their  principles.  The  charges  against  their  moral 
character  are  in  the  highest  degree  suspicious. 
Even  in  the  eighteenth  and  nineteenth  centuries 
certain  religious  sectaries  were  persecuted  in  Bo- 
hemia as  ''Adamites.'' 

4.  An  Anabaptist  sect  in  the  Netherlands  about 
1580  received  the  name  '*  Adamites  "  because  they 
required  candidates  for  admission  to  appear  un- 
clothed before  the  congregation  and  thus  show  that 
physical  desire  had  no  power  over  them.  Mem- 
bers of  an  Amsterdam  congregation  who  in  1535 
ran  through  the  streets  naked  and  crying  wo  to 
the  godless  were  probably  insane.  The  followers 
of  Adam  Pastor  (q.v.)  were  called  "  Adamites  " 
from  their  leader.  Silly  stories  of  orgies  by  so- 
called  devil-worshipers  (the  "  black  mass ")  are 
sometimes  heard  at  the  present  time. 

(Herman  Haupt.) 
Bibuoorapht:  (1)  I.  de  BeauBobre,  Dieeertatxon  eur  tee 
Adamitee  de  Bohhne,  in  J.  Lenfant.  Htetovrt  de  la  guerrt 
dee  Hueeitee,  ii.  355-358.  Amsterdam.  1731;  C.  W.  F. 
Walch.  Eniwurf  einer  voUetAndioen  Hutorte  der  Kettereien, 
i,  327-336.  Leipeic.  1762.  (2)  J.  Nider.  Formicanue,  111. 
vi.,  Cologne.  1470;  C.  Schmidt,  Hietovre  et  doctrine  de  la 
•ecu  dee  Catharee,  ii.  150  sqq..  Paris.  1849;  W.  Preger, 
OeechichU  der  deuttchen  Myttik,  i.  207  sqq..  461  sqq.,  Leip- 
tie,  1874;  A.  Jundt.  Hietovre  du  panthHeme  populavre,  pp. 
48-49.  56.  Ill  sqq..  Paris.  1875;  H.  Haupt.  in  ZKO.  n. 
(1885)  552  sqq.:  H.  C.  Lea.  Hxetory  of  the  Inquiextxon,  i. 
100  sqq..  New  York.  1888;  K.  MQlier,  Ktrchenoeechtchte, 
i  610.  Freiburg,  1892.  (3)  J.  Dobrowsky,  GeechtchU  der 
bohmtechen  Pxkarden  und  Adamiten,  m  Abhandlungen  der 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


88 


300-343-  K,  Hi^ticr.  GcKkichtMchrtihtr  dtr  huttiHtehen 
B*tMtfU*Ht  in  Biyhmen,  h  452,  499  9qq.  iF^mUa  rvrufn  A^U- 
^iaearum,  1.  ii..  VieiiQ&,  1&56).  ii.  336*  34£  (lb.  I.  vt., 
186fi)^  F.  PmJscky,  Gemcki€hta  van  B&hmtn,  iii,  2. 
227  iqq.,  238  aqq^.  Prmgue,  185h  iv.  1  (18£7).  462;  A. 
OiDcklyi  OetcAi^Ate  c^er  b^hmUcKm  BrQdtr,  L  18,  36*  56- 
67,  97-0S.  Pra^rue.  1356;  Beftiuobre,  ut  aup.;  J.  GoU, 
Queilen  und  UntertucAun^tn  tur  G^jdiifAfe  <£<t  6^>AniU€A#n 
trader.  L  11  &♦  Prague,  1878;  ii.  (lftS2j  10  sqci.;  II  Haupt, 
fFaJd«n««r£^um  unJ  Inquititmn  im  §iiti0§UicAcn  Deutt€:h' 
land,  pp.  23.  100.  note  I,  Freibui^.  tB90.  (4)  Prateolm. 
D*  nti»  hareiicarum^  \,  Golofpie,  1569;  C.  SchlOsiwlburc, 
Cataloffui  hftrAtieurum^  xii.  20.  Fr&tikfort,  1599;  F.  Nip- 
poM  in  ZHT,  Ttxxiii.  (1863)  102;  C\  A.  Ck>meliu«,  m  Ab^ 
hi^ndiunffen  of  tlue  iloyikl  B&vmfiAn  Ac&demy*  liittaritche 
doHV,  xi,  2t  67  K^.t  Uumch,  1872;  Nfttaliii  Alexander, 
Hiut.  «xL,  XTii.  183,  Parut  1600;  J.  Boi^,  L«  SaJbnuiM 
<t  U  miw»«>  ib.  1806. 

ADAMHAH  (''little  Adam*'):  Ninth  abbot  of 
lona  (679-704);  b.  probably  at  Dnimhome  in  the 
aouthwest  pari  of  Oounty  Donegal,  Ireland  (50  in. 
B.w.  of  Londonderry) J  c.  625;  d,  on  the  island  of 
lono  Sept,  23r  704.  He  wr»  a  relative  of  Columba 
and  the  gre^it^^t  of  the  abbots  of  lona  after  its 
iUustrioUB  founder,  famed  alike  for  learning  (he 
had  some  knowledge  of  even  Greek  and  Hebrew), 
piety,  and  practical  wbdom.  He  was  a  fnend 
(and  perhaps  the  teacher)  of  Aldfrid,  king  of  North* 
umbria  (685-705),  viflited  his  court  in  686  and 
again  in  688,  and  was  convert^  there  to  the  Ho- 
man  tonaure  and  Eaater  computation  by  C^olfrid 
of  J  arrow.  He  was  unable,  however,  to  win  over 
hisi  monks  of  lona,  but  had  more  success  in  Ireland, 
where  he  spent  considerable  time^  attended  several 
aynoda,  and  warmly  advocated  the  Roman  usages. 
Many  churches  and  wells  are  dedicated  to  him  in 
Ireland  and  Scotland,  and  his  name  appears  cor- 
rupted into  various  forms,  as  "  Ownan/'  *'  Kunan  " 
(the  patron  of  Raphoe),  *'  Dewnan,"  **  Thewnan/' 
and  the  like. 

The  extant  writings  of  Adanman  are;  (1)  Arculfi 
relatio  de  hcii  mndis,  written  down  from  inform  a- 
tion  furnished  personally  by  Arculf,  a  Gallic  bishop 
who  was  driven  to  England  by  stress  of  weather 
when  returning  from  a  %^isit  to  Palestine,  Syria, 
Alexandria,  and  Constantinople,  Adamnan  added 
notes  from  other  sources  known  to  him,  and  pre- 
sented the  book  to  King  Aldfrid,  Bede  made  it 
the  basis  of  his  De  tods  nanctU  and  gives  extracts 
from  it  in  tho  Hi»L  ecd.,  v.  16,  17,  (2)  Vila  S. 
ColumbfBf  written  between  692  and  697,  not  so  mucli 
a  life  as  a  presentation  without  order  of  the  saint's 
prophecies  J  miracles,  and  visions,  but  important 
for  the  information  it  gives  of  the  customs,  the  land, 
the  Irish  and  Scotch  tongues,  and  the  history  of 
the  time,  (3)  The  "  Vision  of  Adamnan, 'Mn  old 
Irish,  describing  Adamnan 's  journey  through 
heaven  and  hell^  is  probably  later  than  his  time, 
but  Diajr  present  his  real  spiritual  experiences  and 
Ilia  teaching.  Other  works  are  ascribed  to  him 
without  good  reason,  H.  Earn, 

Bist^sooRAFHt:  For  worka  ooniult  MPL,  Ijtixviii.; 
Arctdii  reiaHQ,  in  Itinera  Hierotolirmitana  hellU  me- 
r*i  antfriom.  i..  pp.  iitxjL.-X3Citlij..  139'2]0.  23ft-240,  302- 
418  iPiibliaiHont  of  tht  Saei^U  de  Vflrient  Intin.  SMe  gfo- 
l^rapAifjru* J..  Geneva.  ISTOj,  and  in  Itifiem  nwrnaotymiltna 
■cftfa/i  iiiC-viit,  «1.  P.  C*yer,  pp.  210-297  iCSEL^  xjxiit,. 
1898);  Eng.  tniul.  by  J.  R,  Mnepheraoo  (Pnlestine  PiU 
KTiniA'  Toit  SoQBty,  1880);  Vila  8.  Columhm,  ed.  W, 
Rnvefl.  Dublin,  1857  (mw  <sd,p  with  Eng.  truul.  &ad  ^a 
unfortunate  EfamngemeDt  of  th«  qqCu,  by  W.  F.  Skene, 


Edinburih,  1874>;  abo  by  J.  T,  Fo»ler,  O^oH,  1804 
C£ail.  tr&ul.,  1805):  the  text  of  the  Vinon,  with  Eug. 
tntul..  faAH  boett  pubUiiwd  by  Whitby  Stakes,  Fu  Adam' 
nain,  Simlm,  1870;  K  Wiuduch.  Iriaeht  Tezte,  pp.  165- 
106,  Leipaic,  1880  (ooniAinj  the<  text).  For  Aftamnan'n 
bfa:  Laujgati,  £c£L  HiML.  p&uini;  Raev«8|  in  bi4  wL  of  the 
Vi&i  Colnmbm,  pp.  xJ-.lxrm,,  Dublin*  lSfi7;  A-  P. 
Forb«a,  Kal^miart  of  Smttah  Samtm,  Edixibur^sb.  IS7% 
DCB,  l.  41-^43;  W.  F.  Skiuu,  Ctitic  Scotland,  ii.  170-175, 
EdiJiburffh,  1877;  DNB,  i.  02-03;  J.  Hedy,  inmOa 
Sandomm,  pp.  334-347*  DubiiJi*  1890;  P,  Gcyer*  Adam- 
Ttan,  A^UEsburjr,  1805;  T.  Olden,  ChttttA  d/  irtlamd,  pp,  50, 
77^  101.  119.  London »  1895;  Coin  Adamnan^  an  aid  triak 
TrmH9€on  the  JUiu»  of  Adamnain^  ed.  Kuno  II«y«r,  m  An- 
ecdoia  O^oniensa,  Oxford,  1905. 

ABAUS,   GEORGE    MOULTON:    Congregation- 

alist;  b,  at  Castine,  Me,,  July  7,  1824;  d,  at  Au- 
bumdale,  Mass.,  Jan.  11,  1906.  Ho  was  educat.ed 
at  Bowdoin  College  (B.A.,  1844),  Bangor  Theological 
Seminary  (1M4-46),  the  universities  of  Lelpdc, 
Halle,  and  Berlin  (1847^9),  and  Andover  Thoo- 
logieal  Seminary  (1849-50).  He  held  successive 
pastorates  at  Conway,  Maas,  {1851--63);  Ports- 
mouth, N.  H.  (1863-71);  and  Holliston,  Mass, 
(1873^-89),  and  also  acted  as  supply  at  Mentham, 
Mass.  (1890-91 ),  and  Waban,  Mass.  (1905),  although 
after  1889  he  was  engaged  chiefly  in  literary  work. 
In  his  theologies  J  position  he  was  a  Trinitarian 
Congregation  alist.  He  was  historian  of  the  New 
England  Historic-Genealogical  Society  and  a  mem- 
ber of  its  Council,  a  member  of  the  Board  of  Over- 
seers of  Bowdoin  College,  the  treasurer  of  the 
Trustees  of  Donations  for  Education  in  Liberia 
and  of  the  Mount  Coffee  Association  for  the  pro* 
motion  of  education  in  Liberia,  and  in  1903  was 
made  Knight  Commander  of  the  Libcrian  Hnmane 
Order  of  African  Redemption,  In  addition  to  a 
number  of  briefer  studi<^  and  occasional  addreeees, 
he  revised  the  Biblical  Museum  of  Jamei  Comper 
Gray  (8  vob.,  New  York  and  London,  1871-81) 
under  the  title  of  The  Biblic^d  Encyclopedia  (S  vols., 
aevelantl,  0„  1903). 

ABAMS,  JABCES   ALONZO;    CongregationaliM; 

b,  at  Asldand,  O.,  May  21, 1842;  He  was  educat€d 
at  Knox  College  (AM,,  1867)  and  Union  Theological 
Seminary  (1870),  after  having  served  in  the  Civil 
war  0*1  a  member  of  C^impany  D,  09th  Illinois 
Volunteers.  He  was  psstor  of  the  Congregational 
Church  at  Marshfield,  Mo.,  in  1870-71;  of  the 
Ryroouth  Congregational  Church,  St.  Louis,  in 
1880-86;  of  the  Millard  Avenue  Congregational 
Church,  Chicago,  in  1887-88;  and  of  the  Warren 
Avenue  Congregational  Church  in  the  same  city 
in  18S9-95,  In  1 891  he  was  a  delegate  from  the 
Congregational  churches  of  nUnois  to  the  Inter* 
national  Congregational  Council  in  London,  and 
has  also  been  their  representative  at  a  number  of 
national  councils.  He  was  professor  in  Straight 
University,  New  Orleans,  1873-77,  and  president 
in  1875^77,  and  then  became  editor  of  the  Z)aUtu 
Da%  CQmmercudt  Dallas,  Tex,  From  1887  to 
1903  he  was  editorial  writer  on  the  Chicago  Ad- 
mncff,  becoming  its  editor-in-chief  in  the  latter  year. 
His  principal  works  are  Colonel  HungerfoTd'f 
Daughter  (Chicago,  1896)  and  Life  (yf  Quern  F«^ 
tona(1901), 

ADAMS,  JOHlf  COLEMATT:     Umveraaliat;  b.  U 
Maiden,  Mass.,  Oct,  25,  1849.     He  was  educated 


89 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Adanman 
Adamaon 


at  the  high  schools  of  Ftovidenoe,  R.  L,  and  LoweU, 
Haas.,  and  at  Tufts  College  (A.B.,  1870)  and  Divin- 
ity School  (B.D.^  IS72).  He  haa  held  paatorates 
at  the  Newton  Universalist  Churchy  Newtoa^  M^e. 
(1^72-^);  Firat  Univeraalist  Church,  Lynn,  Mass. 
(1880-S4)i  St.  Paul's  UniverBaliat  Church,  Chicago, 
m.  (1^4-90);  All  Souls'  Universaliat  Church, 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  flS90-1901);  and  Church  of  the 
Redeemer,  Hartford,  Conn.,  from  1901  to  the 
preseDt  time.  He  has  been  a  truBtee  of  Tufta 
Cdlle^  since  1880  and  of  the  UniversaUst  General 
Convention  eince  1865.  In  hia  theological  position 
he  is  a  pronounced  Universalist.  Hia  works  in- 
clude The  Fatherhood  of  God  (Boston,  1888); 
Christian  T^pm  of  Heroism  <1891);  The  l^etsure 
of  God  (18sfe);  Nature  Siudie*  in  the  Berkshires 
(New  York,  1899);  and  Life  of  WiUiam  HamiUm 
GOmm  (1901). 

ADAMS,  SARAH  (FULLER)  FLOWER:  English 
Unitarian;  b,  at  Harlow  (25  m.  n.e.  of  London), 
Essex,  Feb.  22,  1805;  d.  in  London  Aug.  14,  1S48. 
Her  father  was  Benjamin  Flower  (1756-1829), 
printer,  editor,  and  poUticaJ  writer,  and,  Sept,  24, 
1S34,  she  married  William  Bridges  Adama  {!797-i^ 
1872),  an  inventor  and  engineer  of  distinction,  also 
a  writer  on  political  subjects.  She  W3J$  a  highly 
gifted  woman,  much  esteemed  by  a  circle  of  fnend? 
which  included,  among  others,  W,  J.  Lin  ton  ^ 
Harriet  MartincAu,  Leigh  Hunt,  and  Robert  Brown- 
ing, Inherited  deafneas  and  a  weak  constitution 
prevented  her  from  foUowng  the  stage  as  a  profes- 
aion,  which  she  had  chosen  in'  the  belief  that  ''the 
drama  is  an  epitome  of  the  mind  and  manners  of 
mankind,  and  wise  men  in  all  ages  have  agreed  to 
make  it,  what  In  truth  it  ought  to  be,  a  supplement 
to  the  pulpit."  She  wrote  poems  on  social  and 
political  subjects,  chiefly  for  the  Anti-C^m-Law 
League;  eoncributed  poems  and  art  idea  to  the 
Monlhty  Repository  during  the  years  1S32-53, 
when  it  was  conducted  by  her  pastor  W.  J.  Fox 
(q.v.),  and  pubbsbed  a  long  poem,  The  Royal 
FrogrtBSf  m  the  Illuminate  Magazine  in  1S45,  In 
book  form  she  published  Vivia  Perpetua^  a  Dra* 
matic  Poem  (London,  1841;  reprintiHl  with  her 
hymns  and  a  memoir  by  Mrs.  E,  F.  Bridell-Pox, 
18®3),  and  The.  Flock  at  the  FourUain  (1845),  a  cat- 
echism. In  addition,  she  furnished  fourteen  original 
hymns  and  two  translations  to  Hymrm  and  An- 
tkems  (1840),  a  collection  for  Fox's  chapel  at  Fins- 
bury,  including  her  best -known  production,  Nearer, 
my  God,  to  thee.  Her  siater,  Eliza  Flower  (1803^ 
46),  possessed  much  munical  talent  and  furnished 
the  origiiial  music  for  this  hymn  as  well  as  for  others 
in  the  book. 

Bibliookapht:  DNB.  I.  101;  8.  W.  DuBleld,  En0li§h 
HymnM,  pp.  3S2-3S6,  New  Ycirk,  1880;  Juliwi.  Hummd'- 
o^y,  p,  16;   N.  Srnitb,  Hum^  HittorienUif  Farngm*,  pp,  174- 

ADAMS)  THOMAS:  Enghsb  preacher  and  com- 
mentator of  the  seventeenth  century,  called  by 
Southey  "  the  prose  Shakejspeare  of  Puritan  theo- 
logians .  .  .  scarcely  inferior  to  Fuller  in  wit  or 
to  Taylor  in  fancy."  Little  is  known  of  his  life 
beyond  what  may  be  gathered  from  the  title-pag^ 
and  dedications  of  his  books.  He  was  preaching 
in  Bedfordshire  in  1612;  in  1614  became  vicar  of 


Wingrave,  Bucks;  from  1618  to  1623  preached  in 
London;  he  was  chaplain  to  Sir  Henry  Montagu, 
lord  chief  justice  of  England,  in  1653  was  a  ''  neces- 
sitous and  decrepit  "  old  man,  and  died  probably 
before  the  Restoration.  He  published  many  oc- 
casional sermons  (collected  into  a  folio  volume^ 
London,  1 630). besides  a  commentary  on  the  Second 
Epiatle  of  Peter  (1633;  od.  J.  Sherman,  1S39). 
His  works,  ed.  Thomas  Smith,  with  life  by  Joseph 
Angus,  were  published  in  Nichora5crMa  of  Stand- 
ard Ditnn€S  (3  vols.,  Edinburgh,  1862-63). 

ADAMS,    WTLLIAM:     American    Presbyterian; 

b.  at  Colchester,  Conn.,  Jan.  25,  1807;  d.  at  Orange 
Mountain,  N.  J.,  Aug,  31,  1880.  He  was  graduated 
at  Yale  (1827)  and  at  Andover  Theological  Semi- 
nary (1S30);  was  pastor  at  Brighton,  Mass.  (1831- 
34);  of  the  Broome  Street  (Central)  Presbjrterian 
Church,  New  York  (1834-53);  and  of  the  Madison 
Square  Preibyterian  Church,  formed  from  the 
Broome  Street  Church  (1853-73).  From  1873 
tM  his  death  he  was  president  and  professor  of 
sacred  rhetoric  and  pastoral  theology  in  Union 
Theological  Seminary,  He  was  one  of  the  leading 
clergymen  in  New  York  in  his  time,  and  Jus  influ- 
ence was  not  bounded  by  hi;*  own  denomination  or 
land.  Besides  many  individual  sermons  he  pub- 
liflhed  an  edition  of  Isaac  Taylor's  Spirii  of  Hebrew 
Poetri/,  with  a  biographical  introduction  (New  York, 
1862);  The  Three  Gardens  (ISm);  In  the  World  and 
not  of  the  World  (1867);  Com'ersaiions  of  Jesitx 
Christ  with  Eepresentaiive  Men  (1868);  ThuTika* 
giving  (1859), 

ADAMS,  WILLIAM  FORBES:  Protestant  Epis- 
copal bishop  of  Eaiiton  (Md,);  b.  at  Enniskillen 
(70  m.  e.w.  of  Belfast),  County  Fermanagh, 
Ireland,  Jan.  2,  1833.  He  came  to  America  at 
the  age  of  eight,  was  educated  at  the  Univeraity 
of  the  South,  and  was  admitted  to  the  Mis- 
sissippi bar  in  1854,  but  subaequently  studied 
theology,  and  was  ordained  deacon  in  1869,  and 
priest  in  the  following  year.  He  was  rector  of 
St.  Paul's  Church,  Woodville,  Mass.,  from  1S60  to 
1866,  when  he  was  called  to  the  rectorate  of  St, 
Peter's,  New  Orleans,  but  went  in  the  following 
year  to  St.  PauPs  in  the  same  city,  where  he  re- 
mained until  1875.  In  that  year  he  waa  conse- 
crated first  missionary  bishop  of  New  Mexico  and 
Arizona,  but  was  compelled  by  Ulneaa  to  resign. 
He  then  accepted  the  rectorate  of  Holy  Trinity 
Church,  Vicksburg,  Miss.,  where  he  remained  from 
1876  to  1887,  when  he  waa  consecrated  bishop  of 
Easton. 

ADAM50H,  PATRICK:  Scotch  prelate;  b.  in 
Perth  Mar.  15,  li'V37  (according  to  another  account, 
1543);  d.  at  St.  Andrews  Feb,  19,  1592.  He  was 
educated  at  the  University  of  St,  Andrews;  preached 
for  two  or  three  years  in  Scotland;  was  in  France 
as  private  tutor  at  tli^  time  of  the  Massacre  of  St. 
Bartholomew;  returned  to  Scotland  and  to  the 
ministry;  and  waa  made  arclibishop  of  St.  Andrews 
in  1576.  Thenceforth  his  life  was  a  continual 
struggle  with  the  Presbyterian  party,  and  he  died 
in  poverty.  His  enemies  have  assailed  his  charac- 
ter, but  ail  agree  that  he  was  a  scholar  and  an  able 
preacher  and  writer.     He  composed  a  Latin  cate- 


Adiaphora 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


40 


chiflin  for  the  young  King  James,  translated  the 
Book  of  Job  into  Latin  hexameters,  and  wrote  a 
tragedy  on  the  subject  of  Herod.  His  collected 
works  were  published  by  his  son-in-law,  Thomas 
Wilson  (London,  1619),  who  also  added  a  life  to 
an  edition  of  his  treatise  De  pastoris  muneref  pub> 
lished  separately  the  same  year. 

ADAMSOH,  WILLIAM:  Evangelical  Union;  b. 
at  New  Galloway  (20  m.  w.  of  Dumfries),  Kirk- 
cudbrightshire, Aug.  29,  1830.  He  was  educated 
at  Glasgow  and  St.  Andrews  Universities  and  at 
Evangelical  Union  Theological  Hall.  He  was  pastor 
in  Perth  eleven  years  and  in  Edinburgh  twenty- 
seven  years,  and  also  conducted  a  public  theological 
class  in  the  latter  city  for  eighteen  years.  He  was 
for  several  years  a  member  of  the  Edinburgh  School 
Board,  and  took  an  active  interest  in  politics  and 
movements  for  reform.  He  is  now  pastor  of  the 
Carver  Memorial  Church,  Windermere,  Westmore- 
landshire.  His  writings  include  The  RighleotLsnesa 
of  God  (London,  1870);  The  Nature  of  the  AUmement 
(1880);  Reliffioua  Anecdotes  of  Scotland  (1885); 
KnoviUdge  and  Faith  (1886);  Robert  MiUigan  : 
A  Story  (Glasgow,  1891);  Missionary  Anecdotes 
(1896);  Argument  of  Adaptation  (London,  1897); 
lAfe  of  the  Rev,  James  M orison  (1898);  Life  of  the 
Rev,  Fergus  Ferguson  (1900);  and  Life  of  the  Rev. 
Joseph  Parker  (1902).  He  is  also  the  editor  of 
The  Christian  News, 

ADDICKS,  GEORGE  B. :  Methodist  Episcopalian ; 
b.  at  Hampton,  111.,  Sept.  9,  1854.  He  was 
educated  at  the  Central  Wesleyan  College,  War- 
renton.  Mo.,  and  at  the  Garrett  Bible  Institute, 
Evanston,  111.  (1876-77).  He  taught  in  the  pre- 
paratory department  of  the  Central  Wesleyan  Col- 
lege in  1875-76,  and  in  1877-78  preached  at  Gene- 
seo.  111.,  being  ordained  to  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
ministry  in  the  latter  year.  From  1878  to  1885 
he  taught  the  German  language  and  literature  in 
Iowa  Wesleyan  University  and  German  College, 
Mount  Pleasant,  la.,  and  from  1885  to  1890  held  a 
pastorate  at  Pekin,  111.  In  1890  he  returned  to  the 
Central  Wesleyan  College  as  professor  of  practical 
theology  and  philosophy,  and  since  1895  has  been 
president  and  professor  of  philosophy  of  the  same 
institution.  In  1900  he  was  a  delegate  to  the  Gen- 
eral Conference  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church 
and  was  a  member  of  the  University  Senate  of  the 
same  denomination  from  1896  to  1904. 

ADDIS,  WILLIAM  EDWARD:  Church  of  Eng- 
land; b.  at  Edinburgh  May  9,  1844.  He  was 
educated  at  Glasgow  University  and  Balliol 
College,  Oxford  (B.A.,  1866).  Originally  a  member 
of  the  Church  of  England,  he  became  a  convert  to  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  in  1866,  and  was  ordained 
to  the  priesthood  in  1872  at  the  London  Oratory, 
being  parish  priest  of  Sydenham  from  1878  to  1888. 
In  the  latter  year  he  renounced  this  faith  and  be- 
came minister  of  the  Australian  Church,  Melbourne, 
Australia,  an  imdenominational  institution,  where 
he  remained  until  1892,  when  he  took  a  similar 
position  at  the  High  Pavement  Chapel,  Nottingham 
(1893-98).  In  1899  he  was  appointed  Old  Testament 
lecturer  at  Manchester  College,  Oxford,  and  shortly 
afterward   returned   to   the   Church  of    England. 


His  college  accordin^y  attempted  to  expel  him  and 
to  declare  itself  officially  non-eonformist,  but  the 
movement  was  proved  illegal,  and  he  still  retains 
his  position,  although  the  hostile  attitude  of  the 
trustees  of  Manchester  College  prevents  him  from 
resuming  his  work  as  a  priest  of  the  Church  of 
England.  He  has  written  A  Catholic  Dtdumary 
(London,  1883;  in  collaboration  with  Thomas 
Arnold);  Christianity  and  the  Roman  Empire  (1893); 
Documents  of  the  Hexateuch  (2  vols.,  1893-98);  and 
Hebrew  Religion  to  the  Establishment  of  Judaism 
Under  Ezra  (1906). 

ADDISON,  DANIEL  DULANT:  Protestant 
Episcopalian;  b.  at  Wheeling,  W.  Va.,  Mar.  11, 
1863.  He  received  his  education  at  Union  Col- 
lege and  the  Episcopal  Theological  School,  Cam- 
bridge, Mass.  (1886).  He  was  curate  of  Christ 
Church,  Springfield,  Mass.,  in  1885-89  and  rector 
of  St.  Peter's  Church,  Beverly,  Mass.,  in  1889-95, 
while  since  1895  he  has  been  rector  of  All  Saints' 
Church,  Brookline,  Mass.  He  is  examining  chap- 
lain to  the  bishop  of  Massachusetts,  director  of  the 
Church  Temperance  Society,  member  of  the  execu- 
tive committee  of  the  archdeaconry  of  Boston, 
president  of  the  New  England  Home  for  Deaf-Mutes 
and  the  Brookline  Education  Society,  vice-presi- 
dent of  the  Trustees  of  Donations  for  Education 
in  Liberia,  and  a  trustee  of  the  College  of  Monrovia, 
Liberia,  and  of  the  Brookline  public  library.  In 
1904  he  was  made  Knight  Commander  of  the  Li- 
berian  Humane  Order  of  African  Redemption.  He 
has  written:  Lucy  Ijarcom^  Life^  Letters  and  Diary 
(Boston,  1894);  Phillips  Brooks  (1894);  Life  and 
Times  of  Edxnard  Bass,  First  Bishop  of  Massachu- 
setts (1897);  All  Saints*  Church,  Brookline  (Cam- 
bridge, 1896);  The  Clergy  in  American  Life  and 
Letters  (New  York,  1900);  and  The  Episcopalians 
(1904). 

ADELBERT.     See  Adalbert. 

ADELMANN :  Bishop  of  Brescia  in  the  eleventh 
century.  The  time  and  place  of  his  birth  are  un- 
known, and  the  date  of  his  death,  as  well  as  that  of 
his  consecration  as  bishop,  is  imcertain.  Gams  (Series 
episcoporum,  Regensburg,  1872,  p.  779)  assigns  the 
latter  two  events  to  1053  and  1048,  respectively. 
Adelmann  himself  states  that  he  was  not  a  German; 
he  has  been  commonly  taken  for  a  Frenchman,  but 
may  have  been  a  Lombard.  The  first  certain  fact 
of  his  life  is  that,  together  with  Berengar  of  Tours, 
he  studied  under  Fulbert  at  Chartres.  Afterward 
he  studied,  and  later  taught  (probably  from  1042), 
in  the  school  of  Li^ge,  then  at  Speyer.  The 
works  which  have  made  him  known  are:  (1)  a 
collection  of  Rhythmi  alphabetici  de  viris  iilustrOms 
sui  temporis,  devoted  to  the  praise  of  Fulbert  and 
his  school,  and  (2)  a  letter  to  Berengar  on  his 
eucharistic  teaching;  the  letter  was  written  before 
Berengar's  first  condemnation,  but  after  his  de- 
parture from  the  traditional  doctrine  was  noto- 
rious (both  works  in  MPL,  cxliii.  1289-98).  The 
letter  is  not  so  much  an  independent  investigation 
as  a  solemn  warning  to  his  friend  against  the  danger 
of  falling  into  heresy.  Adelmann  treats  the  sub- 
ject from  the  purely  traditional  standpoint,  and 
considers  it  settled  by  the  words  of  institution. 


41 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Adamson 
Adiaphozm 


The  eliAngfi  (he  uses  the  words  iran&ferTt, 
trmiKfmdfxrt)  of  the  bread  and  wine  into  the 
body  and  blood  of  Christ  takes  place  invisibly  in 
order  to  afford  an  opportunity  for  the  exercise  of 
faith;  such  occurrences,  accordingly,  can  not  be 
inveeii^ted  by  reason,  but  must  be  believed. 

(A.  Hauck.) 
Btau:cMiaA.FEfr:    Hiiktitm  liK^rowe  di  ia  Frane^t  ^u-  542; 
Haiick,  KD.  vol.  iij..  p.  &e3. 

ABELOPHAGI,  ad"el-ora-jai  or  -gf  {*'Not  Eating 
in  Public  '*):  Certain  people,  mentioned  in  Frs- 
€i£*tinatux  (i.  71  )♦  as  tljinking  it  unseemly  for  a 
Christian  to  eat  while  another  looked  on.  They 
ai«  also  referred  to  by  Augustine  {Hmr.,  IxxL),  who 
copies  Philaatriua  (fft^.,  \xxvi.)  and  is  uncertain 
whether  their  scruple  included  members  of  their 
own  sect  or  applied  only  to  others.  Further  state- 
ments in  Pre^estinatus  are  to  be  accepted  with  ex- 
treme caution.  G.  KeOqer. 

ADEKEY,  WALTER  FREDERIC:  Congrega- 
tionalist;  b.  at  Ealing  (9  m.  w.  of  London),  Mid- 
dlesex, Eng.^  Mar,  J4.  1849,  He  received  his  edu- 
cation at  New  College  and  UniverHity  College, 
London.  He  was  minister  of  the  Congregational 
Church  at  Acton,  London,  from  1872  to  1889,  and 
from  1S87  to  the  same  year  was  lecturer  in  Biblical 
and  syidcmatic  theology  at  New  College,  London, 
In  1889  he  was  appointed  professor  of  New  Testa- 
ment exegesis  and  church  history  in  the  same 
institution,  holding  this  position  until  1903^  as 
weU  as  a  lectureslop  on  church  history  in  Hackney 
College,  London,  after  189S.  In  1903  he  waa  chosen 
principal  of  Lancastershire  College,  in  the  Ijiiver- 
sity  of  Manehester,  and  two  years  later  was  ap- 
pointed lecturer  on  the  history  of  doctrine  in  the 
same  university.  As  a  theologian,  he  accepts  the 
results  of  Biblical  criticism  w^hich  he  feels  to  be 
warrant^,  and  welcomee  scientific  and  philosophic 
Investigation  and  criticism  of  religion,  although  he 
seeks  to  adhere  firmly  to  biisal  Chiistian  truths  and 
to  harmonise  them  with  what  he  holds  to  be  other 
ascertained  verities.  His  works  include,  in  addition 
to  numerous  articles  in  magastines  and  Hastings's 
Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  as  well  as  in  nine  volumes  of 
the  PidpU  Commeniary  (1881-90),  The  Hebrew 
Utopia  (London,  1877);  Fmm  Christ  lo  Convian- 
fine  (1886);  Fr&m  Comiantine  to  Charks  the  Great 
(1888);  two  volumes  in  the  Expositor's  Bible 
(1803-94;  the  first  on  Eira,  Nehemiah,  and  Esther; 
and  the  second  on  Ecclesiastes  and  the  Song  of 
Solomon);  The  Theology  of  the  New  Teet<iment 
(18IH):  Hmo  to  Read  the.  Bibk  (1896);  Women  of 
the  New  TeM4i7nmi  (1899);  the  section  on  the  New 
Testament  in  the  Biblical  Introduction  written  by 
him  in  collaboration  with  W.  H.  Bennett  (1899); 
and  A  CerUury's  Progteu  (1901).  He  ii  likewise 
editor  of  The  CvfUury  BQfle,  to  which  he  himself 
bae  contributed  the  volumes  on  Luke  (London, 
1901)  and  the  Epistles  to  the  Thessaloniana  (1902). 

ADEODATUS,  fld^'f-fl-dil'ttm:  Bishop  of  Rome 
from  Apr.  U,  672,  to  his  death,  June  16.  676,  His 
pontificate  was  unimportant.  The  Liber  pontifi- 
co/m  (ed.  Duchesne,  i.  346)  ascribes  to  hira  the 
restoration  of  the  basilica  of  St.  Peter  at  Campo 
di  Merlo,  near  La  MagUana  (7i  m.  from  Eonie)^ 


and  the  enlargement  of  the  monastery  of  St.  Eras- 
mus in  Rome,  where  he  had  been  a  monk.  The 
only  documents  of  bis  extant  {MPL,  bocxvii.  1139- 
46)  are  concessions  of  privileges  to  the  churcbei 
of  St.  Peter  at  C>anterbury  and  St.  Martin  at  Tours, 
For  his  participation  in  the  MonotheUte  contro- 
versy, see  MoNOTHBUTEs.  He  is  sometimes  known 
as  Adeodatus  IL,  because  the  form  "  Adeodatua  '* 
is  used  also  for  the  name  of  a  fornjer  pope  Deusdedit 
(61&-618). 

ADIAPHORA,     ad"i-af'o-r<i,     AKD      THE     ADI- 
APHORISTIC   COrTTROVERSIES. 

CloMieAl  Gnnk  IT»««  (f  1). 

Cbdftt's  Ung9  (I  2). 

F&ui'a  Ui«ge  (13). 

Pfttri^ntlo  and  Hedieval  Usaga  (|  4). 

Ltitber'n  UiAee  (f  5)- 

First  AdiAphDrirtCio  ControTeniy  (f  0>. 

Fladus'»  ReBtriqlloa  of  AdinpUom  Cf  7). 

Second  Ck>titr(jveri>y  i.\  £). 

Recent  Di8cu«aion  (S  0). 

In  the  history  of  Christian  ethics  the  term  "adi- 
aphora''  (pL  of  Gk.,  aditipkoron,  "indifferent") 
signi^ea  actions  which  God  ncith&r  bids  nor  forbids, 
the  performance  or  omission  of  which  is  accordingly 
left  as  a  matter  of  indifference.  The  term  waa 
employed  by  the  Cynics,   and   borrowed   by  the 

Btoica.     To  the  latter  that  only  was 
I.   Clas-    good  or  evil  which  was  alw^ays  so  and 
sical  Greek  which  man  could  control.     Such  mat- 
Usage,      tera  as  health,  riches,  etc.,  and  their 

oppoaites  were  classed  as  adiaphora, 
being  regarded  for  this  purpose,  not  as  actions, 
but  as  things  or  conditions.  Adiaphora  were 
divided  into  absolute  and  relative;  the  fomif^r  l>eing 
such  as  had  to  do  with  meaningless  distinctions, 
while  the  latter  involved  preference,  as  in  the  case 
of  aicknesa  versua  health.  The  Stoics  did  not, 
however,  from  the  adiaphoristic  nature  of  external 
things  deduce  that  of  the  actions  connected  there- 
with. 

Jesus 's  id^  of  righteousness  as  devotion  of  the 
entire  person  to  God  revealed  as  perfect  moral 
character,  signified,  on  the  one  aide,  freedom  from 
every  obbgation  to  a  statutory  law,  particularly 
precepts  concerning  worship-  He  regarded  the 
observance  of  external  rites  as  a  matter  of  indif- 
ference so  far  as  real  personal  purity  was  concerned, 
and,  with  his  disciples  observed  the  Jewish  ritea 

as  a  means  to  the  fulfilment  of  bis 

2,   Christ's  mission  to  Isjacl  when  they  did  not 

Usage*      interfere  with  doing  good  (Mark  iii.  4). 

Yet  thjH  ideal  involved  such  a  Bbarpen* 
ing  of  moral  obligation  that  in  the  presence  of  its 
unqualified  earnestness  and  comprehensive  scope 
there  waa  no  room  for  the  question,  so  important 
to  legalistic  Judaism,  how  much  one  might  do  or 
leave  undone  without  transgressing  the  Law.  The 
eUghteat  act,  like  the  individual  word,  had  the  high- 
est ethical  significance  to  the  extent  that  it  was  an 
expression  of  the  "  abundance  of  the  heart  "  (Matt, 
xii.  25-37). 

Paul  emphasizes,  on  the  one  hand,  the  compre- 
hensive  character  of  Christian  ethics  and,  on  the 
other,  the  freedom  which  is  the  Christian's;  and 
he  concludes  that  the  observance  or  disregard  of 
dicta  pertaining  to  external  things  is  a  matter  of 


▲diaphora 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


42 


indifference  in  its  bearing  on  the  kingdom  of  God 

(Rom.  xiv.  17;  I  Cor.  vi.  12,  viii.  8;  Gal.  v.  6; 

Col.  ii.  20).    He  recognizes,  with  the  exception  of 

the  Lord's  Supper,  no  forms  for  Chris- 

3.  Paul's  tian  worship,  but  merely  counsels 
Usage,  that  '*  all  things  be  done  decently  and 
in  Older  "  (I  Cor.  xiv.  40).  From  the 
fact  that  the  Christian  belongs  to  God,  the  Lord  of 
the  world,  Paul  deduces  the  authority  (Gk.  exouaia) 
of  Christians  over  all  things  (I  Cor.  iii.  21-23),  espe- 
cially the  right  freely  to  make  use  of  the  free  gifts  of 
God  (I  Cor.  X.  23,  26;  Rom.  xiv.  14,  20).  Ability  to 
return  thanks  for  them  is  made  the  subjective 
criterion  of  their  purity  (Rom.  xiv.  6;  I  Cor.  x.  30). 
Those  things  also  are  permissible  which  are  left 
free  by  implication  in  the  ordinances  of  the  Church, 
or  are  expressly  allowed.  But  action  in  the  domain 
of  the  permissible  is  restricted  for  the  individual 
by  ethical  principles  according  to  which  he  must 
be  boimd  (Rom.  xiv.  2  sqq.;  I  Cor.  vi.  12,  viii. 
9,  x.  23).  Concrete  action  in  all  such  cases  he  re- 
gards as  not  at  the  pleasure  of  the  individual,  but 
as  bidden  or  forbidden  for  the  sake  of  God. 

In  place  of  this  view  of  freedom,  combining  obli- 
gation with  unconstraint,  there  soon  arose  one  of 
a  more  legal  cast.  At  the  time  of  Tertullian  there 
was  in  connection  with  concrete  questions  a  conflict 
between  the  two  principles  (1)  that  what  is  not 
expressly  permitted  by  Scripture  is  forbidden;  and 
(2)  that  what  is  not  expressly  forbidden  is  permitted. 
The  restriction  of  the  idea  of  duty  by  that  of  the 
permissible,  and  the  recognition  of  an  adiaphoristic 
sphere  were  further  confirmed  by  the  distinction 
between  proecepta  and  consUia  and  by  the  doctrine 
of  supererogatory  merits.  The  question  of  adi- 
aphora  was  argued  by  the  schoolmen.  Thomas 
Aquinas  and  his  followers  held  that 

4.  Patris-  there  were  certain  actions  which,  so 
tic  and      far  as  being  intrinsically  capable  of 

Medieval  subserving  a  good  or  an  ill  purpose. 
Usage,  were  matters  of  indifference;  but  they 
recognized  no  act  proceeding  from 
conscious  consideration  which  was  not  either  dis- 
posed toward  a  fitting  end  or  not  so  disposed,  and 
hence  good  or  bad.  Duns  Scotus  and  his  adherents 
recognized  actions  indifferent  in  individiu),  i.e.,  those 
not  to  be  deemed  wrong  though  without  reference, 
actual  or  virtual,  to  God.  The  early  Church  at 
first  appropriated  the  Cynic  and  Stoic  opposition 
to  culture,  holding  that  it  interfered  with  the  con- 
templation of  God  and  divine  things.  But  with 
large  heathen  accessions,  this  attitude  was  no  longer 
maintained.  The  primitive  Christian  ideal  was, 
to  be  sure,  preserved;  but  its  complete  fulfilment 
was  required  of  only  those  bound  thereto  by  the 
nature  of  their  calling. 

Luther  based  his  position  on  that  of  Paul.  He 
appears,  indeed,  to  determine  the  idea  of  adiaphora 
(the  expression  does  not  occur  in  his  works)  accord- 
ing to  a  legalizing  criterion  when  he  distinguishes 
between  things  or  works  which  are  clearly  bidden 
or  forbidden  by  God  in  the  New  Testament  and 
those  which  are  left  free — to  neglect  which  is  no 
wrong;  to  observe,  no  piety.  But  he  further  says 
in  the  same  connection  that  under  the  rule  of 
faith  the  conscience  is  free,  and    Christians  are 


superior  to  all  things,  particularly  externals  and 
precepts  in  connection  therewith.  In  accordance 
with  this  view  he  considers  that  an 
5.  Luther's  external  form  of  divine  worship  is 
Usage.  nowhere  enjoined  (the  Lord's  Supper  is 
Abeneficium,  not  anofficium);  and  he 
distinguishes  between  the  necessary  and  the  free 
in  churchly  forms  by  their  effects.  Prayer,  the 
Lord's  Supper,  and  preaching  are  necessary  to 
edification;  but  the  time,  place,  and  mode  have  no 
part  in  edification,  and  are  free.  His  standpoint, 
then,  was  not  simply  that  there  were  certain  things 
left  free,  but  that  the  assertion  of  freedom  (or  adi- 
aphorism)  applied  to  the  whole  realm  of  externals. 
In  individual  cases,  however,  a  limitation  was  im- 
posed by  ethical  aims  and  rules.  Christians  were 
to  take  part  in  the  external  worship  of  God  to  fulfil 
the  duty  of  public  confession  and  that  they 
might  "  communicate  "  (Heb.  xiii.  16).  Ceremonial 
forms  served  to  perpetuate  certain  effective  modes 
of  observance;  but  they  were  not  to  be  idolatrous, 
superstitious,  or  pompous.  Luther,  in  opposition 
to  Carlstadt,  urged  that  in  the  forms  of  worship 
for  the  sake  of  avoiding  offense  to  some,  whatever 
was  not  positively  objectionable  should  be  suffered 
to  remain.  He  was  ready  to  concede  the  episcopal 
form  of  church  government  and  other  matters, 
if  urged  not  as  necessary  to  salvation,  but  as 
conducive  to  order  and  peace.  He  wished,  also, 
to  maintain  Christian  freedom  against  stubborn 
adherents  of  the  Law. 

The  churchly  adiaphora  formed  the  subject  of 
the  first  adiaphoristic  controversy.    The  Witten- 
berg   theologians    believed    that    the 
6.  First     concessions   on   the    basis   of   which 
Adiapho-   the    Leipsic   interim    was   concluded 
risticCon-  could  be  justified  by  the  principles 
troversy.     enunciated   and    exemplified    at   the 
outset    of    the    Reformation.    They 
held    that,    despite    formal    modifications,  they 
had  surrendered  only  traditional  points  of  chilurch 
government   and   worship,  and  even    then   only 
such    as    were     unopposed    by    Scripture,     had 
been  so  recognized  in  the  primitive  Church,  and 
had  seemed  to  themselves  excellent  arrangements, 
conducive  to  order  and  discipline.     Further,  they 
maintained  that  every  idolatrous  usage  had  been 
discountenanced,  and  that  from  what  was  retained 
idolatrous    significance    had    been    excluded.    It 
may  be  mentioned,  by  way  of  example,  that  the 
Latin  liturgy  of  the  mass  was  admitted,  with  lights, 
canonicals,  etc.,  though  with  commimion  and  some 
German  hymns;  also  confirmation.  Corpus  Christ! 
day,  extreme  unction,  fasting,  and  the  jurisdiction 
of  bishops. 

Before  the  interim  had  been  authentically  pub- 
lished there  arose  a  controversy  in  which  the  attack 
was  led  by  Flacius.  In  his  Z>e  verU  el  falsis 
adiaphoris  (1549),  he  raised  the  question  by  not 
only  maintaining  that  preaching,  baptism,  the 
Lord's  Supper,  and  absolution  had  been  commanded 
by  God,  but  even  by  concluding  from  I  Cor.  xiv.  40 
that  the  ceremonial  usages  connected  therewith 
had  been  divinely  ordained  in  genere.  He  also 
sought  to  limit  the  Lutheran  indifference  to  detail 
by  insisting  on  what  he  deemed  seriousnesB   and 


43 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


▲diaphora 


dignity  in  the  liturgy,  as  opposed  to  the  canonicab, 
music,  and  spectacles  of  the  Catholic  Chiuxsh.  In 
addition  he  protested  that  what  might  be  called 
the  individual  character  of  the  Chiuxsh 
7.  Fladus's  was  to  be  conserved,  and  that  existing 
Restriction  means  of  edification  should  be  altered 
of  Adi-  only  in  favor  of  better  ones.  Under 
aphora.  the  circimistances  obtaining  at  the 
time,  he  said,  even  a  matter  in  itself 
unessential  'K>uld  not  be  treated  as  permissible,  and 
the  c<mcessions  of  the  interim  were  an  act  of  treach- 
eiy:  they  were  occasioned  by  the  endeavors  of  the 
emperor  to  restore  the  Catholic  Church,  the  pro- 
mulgators being  moved  by  fear,  or  at  best  by 
lack  of  faith;  and  in  effect  they  were  an  admission 
of  past  errors,  strengthening  their  opponents,  while 
the  rank  and  file,  looking  at  extemais  only,  would 
see  in  the  restoration  of  discarded  usages  a  rever- 
sion to  the  old  conditions.  The  dispute  sontinued 
after  the  peace  of  Augisbiu'g;  and  the  Formvla 
ConcordioB  not  only  drew  the  distinction  (art.  X.) 
that  in  time  of  persecution,  when  confession  was 
necessary,  there  should  be  no  concession  to  the 
enemies  of  the  Gospel,  even  in  adiaphora,  since 
truth  and  Christian  freedom  were  at  stake,  but  to 
some  extent  appropriated  Flacius's  restriction  of 
the  idea  of  adiaphora. 

In  the  so-called  second  adiaphoristic  controversy 
the  Lutheran  and  Calvinistic  systems  came  into 
conflict.  Luther  had  maintained  the  right  of 
temperate  enjoyment  of  secular  amusements.  Cal- 
vin, on  the  other  hand,  stood  for  fundamentally 
different  principles,  in  accordance  with  which  he 
enforced  his  Genevan  code  of  discipline.  Voetius 
carried  these  principles  still  further.  On  the  Lu- 
theran side  was  Meisner,  who  is  in  this  respect  the 
classic  opponent  of  the  Calvinists.  He  puts  secu- 
lar amusements  under  the  head  of  adiaphora  as 
being  actions  neither  right  nor  wrong  per  se  but  per 
o/tW, — the  person  and  the  purpose  especially  to 
be  considered, — and  in  concrete  instances  becoming 
always  either  right  or  wrong.  The  controversy 
began  at  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
when  secular  amusements  were  attacked  per  se 
by  several  writers,  such  as  Reiser  and  Winkler, 
the  Pietistic  theologians  of  Hamburg,  Vockerodt, 
Lange,  and  Zierold.  Lange,  for  example,  contended 
that  in  the  light  of  revealed  law  there 
8.  Second  are  no  indifferent  acts.  Those  actions 
Contro-  alone  are  right  which  are  under  the 
▼eny.  influence  of  the  Holy  Spirit  for  the 
honor  of  God  in  the  faith  and  name  of 
Christ;  and  he  holds  that  the  divine  will  exercises 
a  direct  and  inunediate  control.  Hence  actions 
not  bidden  of  God  are  necessarily  actions  which 
profit  not  and  are  therefore  collectively  wrong. 
He  enumerates  nineteen  separate  reasons  why 
Christians  should  take  no  part  in  secular  amuse- 
ments, and  would  exclude  from  the  Lord's  Supper 
those  who  do.  He  regards  the  defense  of  adiaphora 
as  a  heresy  which  abrogates  all  evangelical  doc- 
trine. Spener's  theory  was  equally  severe,  but  his 
practise  was  wisely  modified.  He  counseled  that 
those  who  participated  in  secular  amusements 
should  be  dissuaded  therefrom  not  harshly,  but 
by  indirect  exhortations  to  follow  Christ;  and  he 


would  not  refuse  absolution  to  such,  since  many 
of  them  did  not  really  appreciate  the  wrong  of 
those  things.  Rothe,  Wanisdorf,  and  Schelwig 
were  the  principal  champions  of  the  previously 
existing  Lutheran  teaching;  but  their  defense  was 
far  less  resolute  than  the  attack. 

The   question   of   adiaphora   has   subsequently 
been  a  subject  of  discussion.    The  first  to  intro- 
duce a  new  point  of  view  of  any  con- 
9.    Recent  siderable    value    was   Schleiermacher 
Discussion.  (Kritik  der  bisherigen  SiUenUhre,  2d 
ed.;  Werke  zur  PhUosophie,  ii.),  who 
contested  the  ethical  right  of  adiaphora  on  the 
basis  of  the  necessity  in  the  moral  life  of  unity  and 
stability.    Only  in  the  realm  of  civil  law,  and  in 
the  moral  judgment  of  otherp,  whose  actions  must 
frequently,  for  lack  of  evidence,  remain  unexplained, 
does  he  admit  of  adiaphora.    Most  later  evangelical 
authorities,    for    example    Martensen,    Pfleiderer, 
Wuttke,  and,  most  closely,  Rothe,  are  in  substantial 
agreement  with  this  position,    though  introducing 
some  variations  and  modifications. 

(J.  GOTTBCHICK.) 

Among  British  and  American  Christians  no  adi- 
aphoristic controversy  has  found  place;  but  the 
types  of  religious  and  ethical  thought  that  underlay 
the  opposing  forces  in  the  controversies  above  con- 
sider^ have  been  in  conflict  at  all  times  and  every- 
where. English  Puritanism  and  early  Scottish 
Presbyterianism,  as  well  as  New  England  Puritan- 
ism, either  rejected  adiaphora  wholly  or  reduced 
them  to  the  smallest  proportions.  The  English 
Tractarians  in  seeking  to  overcome  the  diffi- 
culties involved  in  uniting  with  the  Church  of 
Rome  gave  earnest  attention  to  adiaphora.  A 
sign  of  the  times  is  the  watchword  of  the  Evan- 
gelical Alliance,  "  In  essentials,  unity;  in  non- 
essentials, liberty;  in  all  things,  charity."  The 
Lambeth  articles  proposing  the  Nicene  and  Apos- 
tles' Creeds,  the  two  sacraments,  the  open  Bible, 
and  the  historic  episcopate  as  the  basis  of  union 
with  non-conforming  Churches  treated  as  adiaph- 
ora the  Atl^anasian  Creed,  uniformity  of  worship, 
and  use  of  the  Prayer  Book.  The  Protestant 
iBpiscopal  Church  in  America  has  settled  the  chief 
point  in  dispute  between  Churchman  and  Puritan 
by  eliminating  the  State  from  necessary  union 
with  the  Church.  In  the  union  of  religious  bodies 
both  in  Great  Britain  and  America,  for  which  there 
is  a  growing  tendency,  minor  differences  are  ig- 
nored in  favor  of  essential  principles.  In  all 
Churches  some  dogmas  once  deemed  essential  to 
the  integrity  of  truth  are  laid  aside  never  to  regain 
their  former  position  (cf.  the  Westminster  Con- 
fession with  the  "Brief  Statement  of  Faith" 
published  by  authority  of  the  Presbyterian  Church 
in  the  United  States).  With  reference  to  conduct 
prescribed  by  ecclesiastical  bodies  or  recognized 
as  belonging  to  personal  responsibility — the  "  per- 
sonal instance  " — two  diametrically  opposite  ten- 
dencies are  evident.  In  the  first  case,  the  spirit 
of  democracy  and  of  enlightened  public  sentiment 
is  rapidly  withdrawing  many  actions  once  regarded 
as  legitimately  under  church  jiuisdiction,  bb 
amusements  and  the  like,  from  such  supervision.  In 
the  second  case,  if  life  is  to  be  ruled  by  moral 


Adler 
Adoption 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


44 


nmirims,  many  actions  must  be  left  morally  inde- 

tenninate^  yet  when  every  deed  ia  seen  to  be  not 

atomistic  but  m^  integral  part  of   self-realization ^ 

then  all  actioni^   take  their  organic  place  in  the 

aerious  or  happy  fulfilment  of  life's  aim.     In  both 

instancea    alike,    however,    the    moral    adiaphora 

disappear.  C.  A.  B, 

Bt^uCioaAPiiT:    For  the  ethical  and  theological  treatment 

of  AdJ&i>hora  ooEmuJt  In  ^nerah  the  treatiiea  on  ethici, 

Gtuuiatr>%  dJugtniitlcfi.  t^ad  the  bfj^t^rry  of  phiJoaophy.     Bjm- 

fii&l  creatmcnt  will  be  found  io  C  C,  E.  Schmid,  Afiiapfu^j 

winensdiafUv:h   tind  hittoriMch  uni^rwucM,   I^ipftic*   18<00; 

J.  SehUler,  PrtibUfne  der  ehriMUitAen  Ethik,  Berlin,  1888;  J. 

H.  Blunt »  Dicti&narjf  of  BecU^  Hert^wt^  ,  .  .  g.r.^  Philfr- 

delpbia,  1S74;    KL,  i.  223-232.      On   the  AdinphoriBiic 

Controveny  conflult:    SchniJd,  CatnJtr&versia  de  adiaphoria, 

Jena,  1807;   J»  L,  v^  McMhisiai,  inttituttM  of  Eccl.  Hiat.,  kL 

W.  Stubbft.  ii.  674-fi7fl,  London.  1S63;     KL,  i.  i^2-23a. 

7©Q:   iv.  1528;   r.  7«l;   xii.  1508.  1719. 

ADLERp  CYRUS:  American  Jewish  scholar; 
b.  at  Van  Buren,  Ark.,  Sept.  13,  1803.  He  was 
educated  at  the  Philadelphia  High  School ^  the 
University  of  Pennf?yivania  (B,A.,  1883)  and  Johns 
Hopkins  (Ph.D.,  18S7).  He  was  fellow  in  Sem- 
iticaat  Johns  Hopkins  in  1885-87,  and  was  appointed 
instructor  in  the  same  subject  in  1887^  and  asso- 
ciate profesHor  five  years  later.  In  1887  he  was 
also  matle  assistant  curator  of  Oriental  antiquities 
in  the  United  Btateii  Museum,  Wai^hington,  and 
custodiati  of  the  section  of  liistoric  religious  cere- 
momalfl  in  1889,  In  1905  he  was  appointed  as- 
siAtant  secretary  of  the  Smitlisonian  Institution. 
He  was  virtually  the  founder  of  the  American 
Jewish  Historical  Society  in  1892  and  has  been  it^ 
president  since  1898*  and  waa  likewise  one  of  the 
reorganizera  (1902)  of  the  Jewish  Theological  Sem- 
inary of  America  (New  York  City),  of  which  he 
is  a  life  trust^ee,  besities  serving  as  president 
in  1902-(J5.  He  has  edited  the  Amtrican  Jewish 
Ytar  Book  since  1899,  has  been  a  member  of 
the  editorial  staff  of  the  Jewish  Encyclop^in,  in 
which  he  had  charge  of  the  departments  of  post- 
Biblical  antiquities  and  the  history  of  the  Jews  in 
America,  and  has  published,  in  collaboration  with 
Allan  Ramsay,  ToM  in  Ike  Coffee  House  (New  York, 
1898). 

ADLER,  FELIX:  Founder  of  the  Society  for 
Ethical  Cilture;  b.  at  Al^ey  (20  m.  s,w.  of  Mainz) 
Aug.  13,  1851.  He  came  to  America  in  1857,  when 
hia  father  was  called  to  the  rabbinate  of  Temple 
Emanu-El,  New  York  City,  and  was  educated  at 
Columbia  College  (A.B.,  1870),  the  Hochschule 
fiir  die  Wisaenschaft  des  Judenthuma  at  Berlin 
and  the  university  of  the  same  city,  and  the  Univer- 
sity of  Heidelberg  (Ph.D.,  1873).  From  1874  to 
1876  he  was  professor  of  Hebrew  and  Oriental 
literature  at  Cornell,  but  in  the  latter  year  went  to 
New  York  and  established  the  Society  for  Ethical 
Culture,  a  non-religious  ftssociation  for  the  ethical 
improvement  of  its  members,  of  which  he  has  since 
been  the  he^.  He  has  been  active  in  various 
philanthropic  ent^?rprisea  and  in  popular  education, 
being  a  member  of  the  State  Tenement  Committee 
in  1884  and  of  the  Committee  of  Fifteen  in  1901, 
and  in  1902  was  appointed  professor  of  poUtical 
and  social  ethics  at  Columbia  University.  He  is  a 
member  of  the  editorial  board  of  the  Intemoiionul 
Jmimal  of  Ethica  and  has  written  Creed  and  D&ed 


(New  York,  1877);  Th^  Moral  Instrudum  of  Chil- 
df €71  (1898)  J  Life  and  Destiny  (1903);  Marriage 
and  Divorce  (1905);  Religion  of  Duly  (1905)^  and 
Easentiah  of  SpiniuaMty  (1905). 

ADLER,  HERMAHir  KATHAH:  Chief  rabbi 
of  the  United  Hebrew  Congregations  of  the  British 
Empire;  b.  at  Hanover,  Germany,  May  30,  1^9. 
He  was  educated  at  the  University  College  School 
and  University  College,  London  (B.A*,  1S59),  and 
also  at  the  universities  of  Prague  and  Leipeic 
(Ph.D.,  Lcipsic,  1861).  He  received  the  rabbinical 
diploma  at  Prague  in  1862,  and  in  the  following  year 
was  appointed  principal  of  Jew^s'  C4>llege*  Lon- 
don. In  1S64  he  became  minister  of  the  Bayswater 
Synagogue f  London,  but  continued  to  be  tutor  in 
theology  in  Jews'  College  until  1879,  when  he 
was  appointed  delegate  chief  rabbi  to  relieve  his 
father,  Nathan  Marcus  Adler,  whom  agie  had  ren- 
dered unable  to  perform  all  the  duties  of  chief  rabbi. 
On  the  death  of  his  father,  Adler  was  chosen  his 
successor  as  chief  rabbi  in  1891,  and  at  the  same 
time  v?as  elected  president  of  Jcivb'  Ck>lleget  where 
he  had  already  been  chairman  of  the  council  since 
1387.  He  is  also  president  of  Aria  College  and  the 
London  beth  dm,  vice-president  of  the  National 
Society  for  the  Prevention  of  Cruelty  to  Children 
and  the  Mansion  House  Association  for  Improving 
the  Dwelhngs  of  the  Poor,  governor  of  Univereity 
College,  and  a  member  of  the  committee  of  the  King 
Edward  Hospital  Fund  and  the  Metropolitan 
Hospital  Sunday  Fund.  He  has  likewise  been 
president  of  the  Jewish  Historical  Society,  vice- 
president  of  the  Jewish  Religious  EducatlDnal  Board 
and  the  Anglo-Jewish  Association,  and  represen- 
tative of  the  Ruseo-Jew^ish  Committee  at  Berlin 
(1889)  and  Paris  (1890).  In  addition  to  numenous 
briefer  contributions,  he  has  wTitten  Sotomon  t&n 
Gabirol  and  hi$  Infliience  upon  Scholastic  Philosophy 
(London,  1865)  and  Bermmis  on  the  Biblicai  Pas- 
sages  adduced  by  Christian  Theologians  in  Support 
of  the  Dogmas  of  their  Faith  (1869). 

ADLER,  NATHAir  MARCUS:  EngUsh  chief  rabbi; 
b.  at  Hanover,  Germany,  Jan.  15,  lEOi$;  d.  at 
Brighton  (50}  m.  s.  of  London )f  Sussex,  England, 
Jan.  21,  1890,  He  was  educated  at  the  univer- 
sitiee  of  G6ttingen,  Erlangen  (Ph.D.,  1826),  Wiirz- 
burg,  and  Heidelberg,  and  in  1830  was  appointed 
chief  rabbi  of  OJdenburg.  Before  a  year  had  passed 
he  was  made  chief  rabbi  of  the  kingdom  of  Han- 
over, and  in  1845  he  was  installed  in  the  for  more 
important  post  of  chief  rabbi  of  the  Bri^sh  Empire. 
In  1845  he  received  the  assistance  of  a  deputy 
delegate  chief  rabbi,  but  retained  his  own  position 
until  his  death.  Acti%^e  both  in  philanthropic 
and  educational  measures,  he  was  the  founder  of 
Jews'  College,  London,  in  1855,  besides  being  the 
real  originator  of  the  Hospital  Sabbath  among  his 
coreligionists*  He  was  the  author  of  many  works 
in  English,  German,  and  Hebrew,  incluting  Di^ 
Liebe  zum  Vaierlande  (Hanover,  1838);  The  Jewish 
FaOh  (London,  1867);  and  NetMnah  la-Ger  (com- 
mentary on  the  Targum  of  Onkelos,  Wilna,  1875). 

ADO,  a"d6':  Archbishop  of  Vienne  860-875; 
b.  near  Sens  about  800;  d.  at  Vienne  Dec.  16,  875. 
He  was  considered  one  of  the  principal  upholders 


45 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Adler 
Adoption 


of  the  papal  hierarchy,  and  wrote  a  Mariyrologium 
(best  ed.  hy  D.  Giorgi,  2  vols.,  Rome,  1745),  which 
mirpaaseB  ail  its  predecessors  in  richness  of  material, 
and  a  Chronicon  de  sex  cUatibuB  mundi  (Paris,  1512; 
Rome,  1745  et  al.;  extracts  in  MGH,  Script,^  ii., 
1829,  pp.  315-323)  from  the  creation  of  the  world  to 
874.    His  works  are  in  MPL,  cxxiii.  1-452. 

ADONAI.    See  Yahwsh. 

ADONAI    SHOMO.     See    Communism,    II.,    1. 

ADOPTION. 
Old  TesUment  Coneeption  The  Apologista  (§  6). 

(I  1).  Augustine  (§  6). 

The  Coneeption  of  Jeeus  (|  2).  ScholasticiBm  (§  7). 
Paul's  Coneeption  (§  8).  Luther  (§  8). 

The  Goepel  and  EpisUee  of  Later  Gennan  Theology  (§  9). 
John  (I  4).  Two  Views  Held  at  Present 

(§  10). 

Adoption  is  a  term  of  theology  denoting  the  new 
relation  to  God  which  Jesus  experienced  and  into 
which  he  brings  his  followers.  In  tracing  the  his- 
tory of  this  conception,  attention  is  to  be  paid  to 
the  different  senses  in  which  the  analogy  is  used 
in  rdigion, — the  idea  of  homogeneousness  with 
God,  of  the  relation  to  him,  and  the  divine  basis 
of  both. 

In  the  Old  Testament,  the   people,  the  king, 
and  individual  pious  men  and  women  are  called 
children   of  God.     The  people  become    children 
of  God  by  their  introduction  into  the  promised 
land,  the  king  by  his  election,  individual  persons  by 
their  physical  creation.    It  is  only  with  regard  to 
the  heavenly  spirits  that  the  state  of  being  a  child 
of    Cjod    (GotUskindschaft)    expresses 
I.  Old      homogeneousness  of  being.     The  rela- 
Testament  tion  is  one  in  which  God  helps,  par- 
Con-       dons,  educates,  even  through  suffering, 
ception.     and  in  which  men  have  to  obey  God  and 
trust  in  him.  But  the  obedience  of  chil- 
dren is  not  different  from  that  of  servants,  and  their 
trust  is  paralysed  by  God's  inexplicable  disposition 
to  wrath.    In  later  Judaism  the  relation  became 
one  of  ri^t, — the  pious  man  must  secure  his  reward, 
which  is  a  matter  of  natural  desire,  by  his  own 
merits  and  sacrifices,  and  he  always  wavers  between 
aelf-ri^teous  security  and  anxiety. 

Jesus  as  seen  in  the  synoptic  Gospels,  knows  God 
as  the  lofty  lord  to  whom  men  are  subjected  in 
servioe,  and  as  the  just  judge;  but  by  inner  ex- 
periences he  recognizes  this  God  as  his  father  who 
disdoaes  to  him  his  love,  and  he  encourages  men 
to  bdieve  not  that  they  are  God's  children,  but  that 
ihey  become  such  by  conducting  themselves  and 
fe^ng  as  children.    The  innovation  lies  in  the 
quality  of  the  relation.    In  spite  of  God's  physical 
and  spiritual  superiority,  man  is  free  from  the  feeling 
of  oppression  and  insecurity,  in  the  first  place, 
before  the  demanding  will  of  God.    Through  the 
recognition  of  God  as  Father,  Jesus 
3.  The     knows  himself  lurged  to  the  service  of 
Coocep-     saving  love,  renouncing  every  worldly 
tkm  of      desire,  but  this  service  means  for  him 
JmoM.      freedom   and   blessedness   (Matt.   xi. 
28-30),  because  he  feels  it  as  the  ful- 
fifaDentof  his  own  desire  (Matt.  ix.  36-38),  and  even 
as  a  giun  in  greatness  and  power  (Matt.  xx.  2&-28), 
because  in  it  he  is  raised  above  the  Mosaic  law  (Matt. 


V.  22).  In  the  same  way  he  delivers  those  whom 
he  encourages  to  believe  in  God's  fatherly  love 
and  forgiveness,  from  the  oppression  of  the  law  by 
showing  them  as  its  innermost  core  (Matt.  v.  9,  48) 
the  imitation  of  the  example  of  the  perfect  God  in  a 
love  which  surpasses  all  bounds  of  human  love. 
From  this  conception  of  the  divine  law  all  hedonistic 
elements  have  been  removed;  it  expresses  a  rev- 
erent and  cheerful  devotion  to  an  ideal.  Where 
Jesus  also  uses  God's  retribution  as  an  ethical 
motive  and  thus  seems  to  substitute  a  relation  of 
right  for  the  relation  of  adoption,  he  deepens  and 
purifies  the  traditional  view.  Reward  goes  hand 
in  hand  with  conduct;  a  childlike  disposition  is 
rewarded  with  the  dignity  due  to  God's  children 
(Matt.  V.  9)  and  with  physical  homogeneousness 
(Luke  vii.  36);  justice  is  rewarded  with  justice 
(Matt.  V.  6;  vi.  33).  He  promises  the  kingdom 
(Matt.  X.  13-16)  to  the  unassuming  childlike  dis- 
position, and  promises  reward,  not  to  individual 
performance,  but  to  the  spirit  which  reveals  itself 
in  it  (Matt.  vii.  15,  xxv.  23),  excludes  the  equiva- 
lence between  work  and  reward  (Matt.  xx.  1-16), 
and  appeals  to  fear  not  as  dread  of  physical  evil, 
but  as  anxiety  lest  the  life  with  God  (Matt.  x.  18)  be 
lost.  In  the  second  place,  the  trust  in  God's 
fatherly  guidance  which  Jesus  himself  proves  and 
encourages,  is  of  a  singular  surety  and  joyfulness. 
Whoever  through  fear  of  God  is  kept  in  his  way, 
may  be  certain  of  the  acquisition  of  salvation  (Luke 
X.  20)  and  may  hope  not  only  to  gain  eternal  life 
(Luke  xii.  32),  but  already  here  on  earth  he  knows 
himself  to  be  lifted  above  all  oppression  of  the 
world  since  he  may  be  sure  that  liis  prayers  are 
granted  (Matt.  vii.  7)  and  may  expect  from  God 
his  daily  bread  and  know  himself  protected  by  God 
in  every  way  (Matt.  x.  28-31)  and  may  venture 
even  that  which  seems  impossible  (Mark  xi.  22) 
and  be  sure  of  the  forgiveness  of  his  sins  and  of  his 
protection  in  temptation  (Matt.  vi.  12,  13)  and 
triumph  over  all  hostile  powers  (Luke  x.  19). 

In  opposition  to  philosophy,  this  idea  is  new 
in  so  far  as  God  in  the  current  systems  of  philos- 
ophy was  represented  as  father  only  as  the  shaper 
of  the  world,  and  the  capacity  of  becoming  a 
child  of  God  was  merely  a  general  function  of 
reason.  The  religious  importance  of  the  ideal  is 
here  only  secondary;  it  originates  rather  in  per- 
sonal dignity  and  is  an  altruism  which  does  not  ex- 
tend to  the  love  of  enemies.  As  faith  in  a  fatherly 
providence,  it  believes  only  in  an  order  of  the  world 
which  offers  an  opportunity  to  prove  one's  strength 
of  will,  and  thus  does  not  attain  submission  as 
expressed  in  Christian  adoption,  but  only  resig- 
nation. 

Jesus  speaks  of  adoption  only  in  the  imperative, 
— we  must  become  children  of  God  by  imitation  of 
God  and  trust  in  God;  but  he  admonishes  to  be- 
come such  by  pointing  to  God's  disposition  and 
promise.  His  word  receives  additional  emphasis 
from  his  personality  which  lives  in  God;  and  he 
judges  the  conduct  of  God's  child  in  the  last  analysis 
as  an  effect  of  God  (Matt.  xi.  28,  xv.  3;  Mark  x.  27). 
Therefore  it  is  the  natural  expression  of  the  ex- 
perience of  the  Christian  Church  when  in  the  New 
Testament  the  awakening  of  the  child's  life  by  the 


Adoption 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOO 


46 


effect  of  divine  grace  is  considered  fundamental 
(II  Cor.  V.  17;  I  Pet.  i.  3,  23;  John  iii.  6). 

This  effect,  according  to  Paul,  is  juridical,  i.e., 
a  real  adoption,  a  granting  of  the  ri^t  of  children 
(Gal.  iii.  26-27),  synonymous  with  justification;  but 
it  is  also  a  real  change  through  the  overwhelming 
influence  of  the  Holy  Spirit  as  an  unconscious  power 
like  the  impersonal  powers  of  nature  (Rom.  viii.  11 ; 
Gal.  V.  22).  Paul  bases  the  certainty  of  the  right  of 
children  upon  the  fact  that  through  faith  and  baptism 
believers  belong  to  Christ,  but  also  upon  the  ex- 
perience of  the  liberating  effect  of  the 
3.  Paul's  spirit.  The  right  of  children  means 
Concep-  for  him  the  claim  upon  the  future 
tion.  heritage  of  the  kingdom  of  God; 
namely,  the  participation  in  God's 
fatherhood  (Rom.  iv.  3)  and  the  spiritualization 
of  the  body  in  conforming  it  to  the  body  of  Christ, 
the  first  of  the  sons  of  God  (Rom.  viii.  2^30). 
These  figures  express  the  idea  that  the  prevening 
grace  of  God  establishes  a  personal  relation  of  love 
which  has  an  analogy  in  the  intimate  communion 
between  father  and  child.  As  I  am  certain  that  God 
is  on  my  side  and  that  I  am  called  to  eternal  life, 
I  may  surely  trust  that  he  will  grant  me  everything 
(Rom.  viii.  31-32),  not  only  eternal  life,  but  also 
everything  in  the  world  which  is  not  against  God 
(I  Cor.  iii.  21-22)  and  that  he  will  lead  me  through 
all  temptations  to  that  sanctity  which  belongs  to 
the  kingdom  of  God  (I  Thess.  v.  23).  The  faith 
which  corresponds  on  our  part  to  God's  intention  of 
love  remains  secure  even  against  troubles  and  hos- 
tile world  powers  because  the  latter  can  not  separate 
from  the  love  of  God  (Rom.  viii.  38-39)  and  the 
former  must  subserve  the  upbuilding  of  the  inner 
man  (II  Cor.  iv.  16-18).  Thus  the  essential  feature 
of  this  child-life  is  not  fear,  as  under  the  Law  and 
its  curse,  but  rather  unshakable  joy  which  ex- 
presses itself  in  giving  thanks  as  the  key-note  of 
prayer.  The  unconscious  impulse  which  the  ethical 
life  of  the  Christian  assumes  if  he  puts  the  impulse 
of  the  spirit  in  place  of  the  Law,  he  modifies  by 
bringing  to  expression  also  conscious  ethical  motives; 
namely,  the  love  of  God  as  experienced  by  him, 
and  his  call  to  the  kingdom  of  God,  which  demand 
a  conduct  worthy  of  both.  Even  an  overpowerful 
desire  of  his  nature  he  begins  to  transform  into  an 
impulse  for  consciousness  if  he  g\iides  it  into  the 
channel  of  experienced  love  (II  Cor.  v.  15:  Gal.  ii.  20). 
But  in  all  joy,  happiness,  and  freedom  with  relation 
to  God,  the  Christian  is  prevented  from  excesses 
by  that  humility  which  in  all  progress  and  success 
gives  due  honor  to  God  (I  Cor.  xv.  10).  It  seems 
a  contradiction  when  Paul  in  spite  of  all  speaks  of 
a  retribution  on  the  part  of  God  according  to  works 
and  awakens  fear  of  the  judgment.  The  seeming 
relation  of  right  is  only  an  expression  for  the  fact 
that  the  relation  of  father  and  children,  although 
resting  upon  God's  free  love,  is  mutual.  The  re- 
ward is  a  success  of  mutual  effort  (Gal.  vi.  7,  8). 
It  is  attained,  not  by  a  sum  of  individual  works, 
but  by  a  sanctified  personality  (Thess.  v.  23)  which 
is  absorbed  in  a  uniform  activity  of  life  (II  Cor.  v. 
10;  I  Cot.  iii.  13).  The  fear  of  which  Paul  speaks 
is  the  fear  of  watchfulness  which  takes  possession 
of  us  in  looking  at  the  world  and  the  flesh,  but  this 


disagreeable  feeling  is  immediately  conquered  by 
the  joyful  trust  that  God  will  protect  and  perfect 
us  (I  Cor.  XV.  2;  Rom.  xi.  2(^21). 

The  Gospel  and  Epistles  of  John  trace  adoption 
back  to  the  testimony  of  God  (Gospel  iii.  5;  First 
Epistle  ii.  19).  According  to  them,  adoption  con- 
sists in  a  close  and  intimate  life  in  and  with  God 
by  which  there  is  vouchsafed,  on  the  one  hand,  the 
impossibility  of  sinning  and  the  self-evidence  of 
justice  and  love  to  God  and  our  brethren,  and,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  victory  over  the  world  and  blessing 
and  the  future  homogeneousness  with  God  (I  John 
iv.  3;  V.  4,  18).  However  natural  all  this  may 
sound,  these  expressions  are  only  figures  for  an 
ethico-personal  communion  with  God,  analogous 
to  that  between  father  and  child  which  has  its  basis 
in  the  influence  of  Christ  upon  our  consciousness, 
not  in  a  reflected,  but  spontaneous 

4.  The      way.    The  knowledge  of  God  or  the 

Gospel  and  word  of  Cimat  (I  John  ii.  3;   Gospel 

Epistles    XV.  3)  is  parallel  to  the  seed  of  God 

of  John,  which  remains  in  the  regenerated  per- 
son and  guarantees  his  sanctity  (I  John 
iii.  9).  Unity  of  life  with  God  is  an  analogon  for 
that  unity  which  on  earth  exists  between  the  Father 
and  Jesus  (John  xvii.  21-22),  where  the  Father  in 
preceding  love  discloses  to  his  Son  his  whole  woric 
and  the  Son  remains  in  the  love  of  the  Father 
(John  XV.  10)  by  speaking  and  acting  according  to 
the  conunandment  of  the  Father  and  being  solely 
concerned  with  his  Father's  honor  (John  v.  44)  and 
yet  enjoying  full  satisfaction,  eternal  life  (John  iv. 
34,  xii.  50),  and  at  the  same  time  fully  trusting  that 
the  Father  is  with  him  and  always  hears  him  and 
in  spite  of  the  world  brings  his  work  to  perfection 
which  through  death  leads  to  glory  (John  viii.  29, 
xvi.  32,  xvii.  4).  Correspondingly  there  follows  for 
his  disciples  from  the  certainty  of  the  love  of  God 
the  duty  to  love  one  another  and  to  show  the  self- 
evident  love  of  children  by  keeping  the  conunand- 
ments  (I  John  iv.  11,  v.  3)  which  are  freedom  and 
life  because  the  disciples  are  not  slaves,  but  friends 
of  the  son  of  God  (John  xv.  15)  and  continuators 
of  his  work  (John  xviii.  18).  In  this  tendency  of 
life  they  may  possess  joyfulness  (I  John  ii.  28,  iv.  17, 
18)  in  a  world  full  of  temptations  and  enemies  and 
in  face  of  death  and  judgment  and  may  count  upon 
the  return  of  their  love  on  the  part  of  God  through 
the  gift  of  the  spirit  and  the  help  of  God  which  is 
always  near,  upon  the  forgiveness  of  accidental 
sins,  purification,  hearing  of  their  prayers,  and  a 
place  in  the  heavenly  mansion  of  the  Father  (John 
xiv.  2,  3;  xiii.  21-22;  xv.  2;  xvii.  17;  I  John  i.  9). 

According  to  Jesus,  Paul,  and  John,  the  child  of 
God  IB  independent  of  men  and  yet  he  must  seek 
communion  with  men.  Jesus  teaches  to  pray 
"  Our  Father  ";  and  according  to  Paul  and  John, 
the  spirit  communicates  with  the  individual  through 
baptism  and  makes  him  a  member  of  the  com- 
munity. 

The  Church  has  not  always  maintained  this  ideal. 
When  its  growth  necessitated  a  stricter  inculcation 
of  the  ethical  conditions  of  salvation,  the  relation 
of  children  was  changed  under  the  influence  of  the 
Jewish  idea  of  retaliation,  of  philosophical  moralism, 
and  the  ideas  of  Roman  law.  According  to  the  apolo- 


47 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Adoption 


getic  writers,  to  be  a  child  of  God  means  subjectively 
the  ethical  resemblance  with  God  which  man  realizes 
in  himself  by  his  free  action  on  the  basis  of  the  knowl- 
edge of  God  as  taught  by  Christ.  Since  ethics  was 
absorbed  in  individual  practise  of  virtue  and  con- 
sciousness of  moral  freedom,  the  desire  for  a  coun- 
terbalance against  the  moral  checks  from  the  world 
was  not  felt  so  much.  Irensus  follows  Paul  by 
conceiving  adoption  as  the  specific  effect  of  redemp- 
tion; but  he  understands  it,  in  the 
5.  The  first  place,  in  a  moralistic  sense,  as  a 
ApologistB.  call  to  the  fulfilment  of  the  deepened 
law  of  nature,  not  only  in  increased 
love,  but  fear;  in  the  second  place,  in  a  physical 
sense,  as  the  sacramental  elevation  of  the  spirit  to 
deification  or  imperishableness.  This  combination 
remains  a  characteristic  feature  of  the  Greek  Church. 
Augustine  deepened  the  physical  change  into  an 
ethical  change  which  governs  ethical  actions. 
Because  God's  nature  is  first  of  all  justice,  and  only 
secondarily  inunortal,  adoption,  as  being  deifica- 
tion, is  in  the  first  place  justification,  infusion  of 
love  {amando  Deum  efficimur  dii — "  by  loving  God 
we  are  made  gods";  again — ''he  who  justifies 
also  deifies,  because  by  justifying  he  makes  sons  of 
God"),  which  takes  place  under  the  influence  of 
faith,  i.e.,  hopeful  prayer,  or  through  baptism. 
Thus  man  faces  the  task — Reddite  diem,  efflcimini 
tpiritua  ("  Do  your  part,  and  become  spirit "). 
Adoption  becomes  a  reality  in  a  process  in  which 
the  capacity  for  it  increases  by  continual  forgive- 
ness and  inspiration  of  love  until  after  death  the 
second  adoption  occurs,  the  liberation  from  the 
body  which  contains  the  law  of  sin. 

6.  Angus-  Our  life  is  a  relation  between  child 
tine.        and  father  in  so  far  as  love  to  God, 

childlike  fear,  and  hope  rule  in  it. 
But  the  idea  of  the  New  Testament  is  curtailed  in 
so  far  as  forgiveness  concerns  always  only  past 
sins,  and  hope  is  bound  to  rely  upon  one's  own 
consciousness  of  love  to  God  and  upon  merit,  and 
forgiveness  becomes  uncertain  in  consequence  of 
predestination,  and  in  so  far  as,  with  the  task  to 
serve  God  in  the  world,  the  New  Testament  manner 
of  trusting  in  God  is  also  done  away  with,  and  a 
holy  indifference  takes  its  place.  The  relation  of 
God  seems  to  be  intensified  in  so  far  as  there  is  added 
aa  a  new  element  the  highest  stage  of  divine  love — 
the  mystical  contemplation  of  God;  but  the  appar- 
ent plu8  discloses  itself  as  a  minus,  since  love  to 
God  is  now  conceived  of  by  analogy  with  that 
between  man  and  woman  instead  of  that  between 
father  and  child.  Mysticism,  it  is  true,  elevates 
man  to  freedom  from  the  Church,  but  it  effects  also 
indifference  toward  men ;  however,  in  the  preraystical 
stage  there  shows  itself  lack  of  independence  of 
the  Church. 

In  the  Occident  the  curtailment  of  the  childlike 
in  Christian  life  was  still  further  indulged  in  by 

bringing  to  prominence  the   ideas  of 

7.  Scholas-  the  natm>al,  juridical,  and   mystical; 
tidtm.      of  the  natural  in  so  far  as  according 

to  the  scholastics  a  habit  of  grace  is  in- 
fused into  the  secret  recesses  of  the  soul,  the  exist- 
ence of  which  can  only  be  surmised  by  way  of  infer- 
ence from  one's  own  ethical  transformation;  of  the 


juridical  in  so  far  as  the  provenience  of  hope  from 
merit  ("  spea  provenU  ex  merUia  ")  is  more  strongly 
emphasized;  of  the  mystical  inasmuch  as  the 
higher  stage  of  the  love  of  God  seems  realizable 
only  in  a  thorough  separation  from  occupation 
with  worldly  matters  (the  lower  stage  is  identified 
with  childlike  fear)  and  inasmuch  as  even  the 
mysticism  of  calmness  and  resignation  over  against 
an  arbitrary  Lord  is  far  inferior  to  trust  in  the 
Father. 

It  was  Luther  who  again  conceived  the  relation 
of  Christians  to  God  as  that  of  children  to  a 
father  in  the  full  sense  of  the  word.  For  Luther  Christ 
is  the  "  mirror  of  the  fatherly  heart  of  God,"  the 
revelation  and  security  of  God's  gracious  disposition, 
and  he  draws  from  this  "  image  of  grace  "  faith 
and  individual  trust.  He  differs  from  Paul  in  so 
far  as  he  understands  by  the  inner  testimony  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  the  personal  certainty  of  faith  which 
has  its  basis  in  Christ.    As  for  Paul,  so  for  Luther, 

forgiveness  of  sins  or  justification  or 
8.  Luther,  adoption  is  a  declaration  of  the  will  of 

God  that  he  adopts  us  as  children. 
It  is  more  than  the  remittance  of  past  sins,  it  is  the 
reception  of  the  whole  personality  into  the  grace 
of  God,  the  transposition  into  a  permanent  state 
which  always  has  to  be  seized  again  by  faith.  Thus 
it  is  shown  to  be  an  error  that  meritorious  works 
are  necessary  in  order  to  obtain  grace  and  eter- 
nal life.  In  this  way  Luther  does  not  destroy 
the  ethical  quality  of  adoption,  but  makes  it  more 
prominent.  For  secure  trust  unites  the  will  with 
God's  entire  will  in  love  and  thus  spontaneously 
produces,  without  needing  the  instruction  and  in- 
culcation of  the  law,  the  free  and  cheerful  fulfilment 
of  the  will  of  God  which  takes  place  without  any 
thought  of  reward  and  in  which  eternal  life  is  en- 
joyed. This  psychological  derivation  of  morality 
from  the  nature  of  faith  actually  invalidates  Lu- 
ther's other  derivation  from  the  natural  or  uncon- 
scious impulse  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  Only  his  oppo- 
sition to  the  doctrine  of  merits  made  him  forget 
to  do  justice  to  the  eschatological  motives  of  mo- 
rality as  they  are  found  in  Jesus  and  Paul,  although 
he  might  have  done  so,  considering  his  premises; 
for  will  needs  an  aim  and  for  the  will  united  with 
God  in  faith  and  love,  this  aim  can  only  be  the  com- 
pletion of  that  which  was  begun  here.  Faith  gives 
him  new  courage  and  power  for  trust  in  the  guidance 
of  the  whole  life  by  the  Father  in  which  again  the 
joy  of  eternal  life  is  anticipated,  and  thus  lays  the 
basis  for  the  freedom  of  the  Christian  or  his  royal 
dominion  over  all  things  which  manifests  itself  in 
fearlessness  and  pride  and  defiance  of  Satan,  world, 
and  death  as  the  counterpart  of  humble  submis- 
sion to  God  and  which  through  the  certainty  of  the 
blessing  of  divine  guidance  surpasses  mysticism — 
ecstasies  as  well  as  resignation  in  God.  This  atti- 
tude of  children  is  a  life  which  is  homogeneous  to 
that  of  the  Father,  in  the  first  place,  to  his  dispo- 
sition, in  so  far  as  our  trust  is  a  reflex  of  God's 
disposition  toward  us  and  our  love  corresponds 
to  the  love  of  God  since  it  is  not  borrowed  from 
the  amiability  pf  men,  but  is  spontaneous,  and  not 
a  divided  love  like  that  of  men,  but  an  all-com- 
prehending one;  in  the  second  place,  to  the  nature 


Adoption 
Adoptionism 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


48 


of  God,  because  this  love  is  superhuman,  divine, 
and  because  faith  conquers  for  itself  the  power  of 
divine  omnipotence.    This  life  of  adoption,  accord- 
ing to  its  whole  character,  can  only  originate  by  a 
birth  from  above  which,  according  to  Luther,  takes 
place  since  adoption,  as  vouchsafed  by  Christ,  pro- 
duces faith  and  with  it  new  life.    Luther  also 
traces  back  the  new  life  to  a  problematic  effect  of 
the  Spirit,  like  the  working  of  the  impersonal  pow- 
ers of  nature,  which  God  according  to  his  predesti- 
nation adds  to  the  word  of  Christ  in  the  inner  life. 
During  the  period  of  orthodoxy  in  Germany 
trust  in  God  on  the  part  of  his  children  was  regarded 
as   natural   religion.    Pietism   subor- 
9.  Later    dinated    adoption    to    regeneration. 
German     In  theology  as  influenced  by  Hegel, 
Theology,    childlike    union    with  God  after  the 
example    of    mysticism    was    traced 
back  to  an  inner  self-manifestation  of  the  absolute 
spirit.     It  was  Ritschl  who  renewed  the  specific 
ideas  of  Luther.  J.  Gottbcmick. 

At  the  present  time  two  ideas  of  adoption  are 
advocated:  (1)  Resting  back  on  Calvin,  it  is  held 
that  the  primary  relation  of  God  to  man  was  that 
of  Creator  and  Governor.  Man  is  son  of  God, 
not  by  virtue  of  anything  in  his  con- 
10.  Two  stitution  as  a  creature  of  God,  nor 
Views  Held  on  account  of  a  natural  relation  to 
at  Present  him  as  subject  of  the  divine  govern- 
ment, but  solely  by  reason  of  gra- 
cious adoption.  The  only  essential  sonship  is 
that  of  Christ  primarily  as  the  eternal  Son,  and 
secondarily  as  his  humanity  shares  this  prerogative 
through  union  with  the  divine  nature.  Through 
adoption  the  elect  in  Christ  become  partakers 
of  Christ's  sonship.  Adoption  is  ground^  neither 
in  justification  nor  in  regeneration,  but  in  God's 
free  and  sovereign  grace  alone.  Through  justifi- 
cation the  legal  and  judicial  disabilities  caused 
by  sin  are  removed;  through  regeneration  the  na- 
ture is  changed  so  as  to  become  filial.  Thus  a 
basis  is  laid  for  the  distinction  between  the  state 
of  adoption  and  the  spirit  of  adoption  (R.  S.  Cand- 
lish.  The  Fatherhood  of  God,  London,  1870;  J.  Mac- 
pherson,  Christian  Dogmatics,  Edinburgh,  1898). 
(2)  According  to  the  other  view,  man's  filial  relation 
to  God  is  archetypal  and  inalienable.  Adoption,  in 
order  to  be  real,  necessarily  involves  the  essential 
and  universal  Fatherhood  of  God  and  the  natural 
and  inherent  sonship  of  man  to  God.  By  becom- 
ing partaker  of  the  spirit  of  Christ,  who,  as  Son, 
realized  the  filial  ideal  of  the  race,  one  passes  out 
of  natural  into  gracious  sonship;  that  is,  is  adopted 
into  the  ethical  and  spiritual  family  of  God,  and 
so  enters  upon  his  ideal  filial  relation  to  God  and 
his  brotherly  relation  to  men  (A.  M.  Fairbaim, 
The  Place  of  Christ  in  Modem  Theology,  New  York, 
1893;  J.  S.  Lidgett,  The  Fatherhood  of  Ood,  pp. 
20-21,  Edinburgh,  1902;  James  Orr,  Progress  of 
Dogma,  pp.  325-327,  New  York,  1902).    C.  A.  B. 

Biblioorapbt:  J.  Gerhard.  Loci  TheoloQiei,  iv.  311.  374.  vii. 
219-222,  ix.  296-297.  Berlin.  1866-76;  R.  L.  Dabney, 
8yUabu9  of  .  .  .  SyiemaHc  and  Polemic  Theology,  pp.  627 
§qq..  St.  Louis.  1878;  B.  Weiss.  BibliaU  Theology  of  the 
New  Teetament,  ffl7.  20-21.  46.  71.  83.  100.  118.  160, 
Edinburgh,  1882-83;  W.  Bousset.  Jeeu  Predigt  in  ihrem 


GegeneaU  Mwn  Jvdenhtwi,  pp.  41-42,  OdttincMi,  18B2;  E 
Shults.  Old  Te9tam9nt  ThMlogy,  ii.  264  sqa..  EdinbiDili. 
1892;  R.  A.  Lipuua.  LehHmek  der  wvamo^Hmgk  pnimtm 
Hteh^  Dogmatik,  pp.  126-129.  684-606.  668-708.  Bmw- 
wiek.  1893;  J.  McL.  CbmpbeU.  Naiuf  0/  A«  AitmmtnU 
pp.  298  sqq..  London,  1896;  A.  Titius.  Die  nnttmlamn4 
liche  Lehre  van  dm  Setigkeit,  i.  103-104.  iL  27-28.  188- 
139.  266-267.  TQbincen.  1896-1900;  W.  BeyBehlac  Nem 
Teetameni  Theology.  1 60-70. 241, 8ia  ii.  418-419. 480,  Edin- 
burgh. 1896;  E.  Hatch.  Greek  Ideae  and  Ueagee,  Aetr  /». 
fluenee  upon  the  ChrieHan  Church.  London.  1807;  R.  V. 
Foster,  SyetemaHe  Theology,  p.  679.  Naahvilto.  1898;  H. 
Cremer,  Die  paulinieehe  Reehtfertigungelekre,  pp.  71-78^ 
224-233.  247-248.  266-266.  369-370.  Gdtertloh.  1899;  A. 
Ritschl.  Chrietian  Doctrine  of  Juetifieation  and  AmohoIm- 
tion.  pp.  76.  96.  607.  634.  603.  New  York.  190a 

ADOPTIOmSM  (ADOPTIANISM). 
The  Controversy  of  the  Eighth  Oentury.  Ita  RooU  (§  1). 
Elipandus.  Bishop  of  Toledo  (§  2). 
Felix.  Bishop  of  Urgel  (§  3). 
RacanUtion  of  Felix  (§  4). 
Later  Adoptionist  Tendencies  (§  6). 
Explanation  (§  6). 

Adoptionism — a  heresy  maintaining  that  Qirist 
is  the  Son  of  God  by  adoption — is  of  interest  chiefly 
for  the  commotion  which  it  produced  in  the  Span- 
ish and  Prankish  Churches  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  eighth  century,  although  the  foi^ 
I.  The  Con-  mulas  around  which  the  conflict  raged 

troversy  of   can  indeed  be    traced   back   to  the 

the  Eighth    earliest  period  of  Western  theology; 
Century,     but  the  spirit  of  the  controversy  and 

Its  Roots,  the  result  showed  that  the  orthodoxy 
of  the  eighth  century  could  no 
longer  entirely  accept  the  ancient  formulas.  The 
phrases  in  which  such  writers  as  Novatian,  Hilary, 
and  Isidore  of  Seville  had  spoken  not  merely  of  the 
assumption  of  human  nature  by  the  Son  of  God, 
but  also  of  the  assumption  of  man  or  the  son  of 
man,  led  by  an  easy  transition  to  words  which 
seemed  to  imply  that  Christ,  according  to  his 
humanity,  was  the  adopted  son  of  God;  and  formu- 
las of  this  kind  occur  not  infrequently  in  the  old 
Spanish  liturgy. 

The  Spanish  bishops  of  the  eighth  century,  and 
especially  their  leader,  Elipandus  (b.  718;  bishop 
of  Toledo  from  about  780),  so  used  such  phrases 
as  to  provoke  criticism  and  disapproval  first  in 
Asturia,  then  in  the  neighboring  Prankish  kingdom, 
and  finJally  at  Rome.  A  certain  Migetius  (q.v.), 
preaching  in  that  part  of  Spain  which  was  held  by 
the  Moors,  had  given  a  very  gross  exposition  of  the 
doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  teaching  that  there  were 
three  bodily  persons,  and  a  triple  manifestation 
in  history  of  the  one  God.  Against  him  Elipandus 
wrote  a  letter  vindicating  the  orthodox  idea  of  the 
inunanence  of  the  Trinity,  but  at  the  same  time 
establishing  a  very  sharp  distinction  between  the 
second  person  of  the  Trinity  and  the 

3.  Elipan-  human  nature  of  Christ.    The  person 
dus,  Bishop  of  the  Son  was  not  that  made  accord- 

of  Toledo,  ing  to  the  flesh,  in  time,  of  the  seed 
of  David,  but  that  begotten  by  the 
Pather  before  all  worlds;  even  after  the  incarnation, 
the  second  person  of  the  Godhead  is  not  the  bodily, 
of  which  Christ  says  "  My  Father  is  greater  than 
I,"  but  that  of  which  he  says  "  I  and  my  Father 
are  one."  Elipandus  did  not  mean  to  do  violence 
to  the  orthodox  teaching  by  this  distinction;  but 
if  the  expression  were  pressed,  the  human  nature 


49 


REUGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Adoption 
AdopUonimi 


appeared  a  different  person  from  the  person  of  the 
Eternal  Word,  and  the  single  personality  of  Christ 
disappeared.  Elipandus  defended  himself  in  letters 
in  which  he  used  the  expression  that  Christ  was 
only  according  to  his  Godhead  the  true  and  real 
(proprtus)  Son  of  God,  and  according  to  his  manhood 
an  adopted  son.  The  opposition  to  this  view  was 
voiced  by  Beatus,  a  priest,  and  the  monk  Heterius 
of  Libana.  Elipandus  wrote  in  great  excitement 
to  the  Asturian  abbot  Fidelis,  bitterly  attacking 
his  opponents,  who  first  saw  the  letter  when  they 
met  Fidelis  in  Nov.,  785,  on  the  occasion  of  Queen 
Adosinda's  taking  the  veil.  In  reply  they  wrote  a 
treatise,  discursive  and  badly  arranged,  but  strong 
in  its  patristic  quotations,  emphasizing  the  unity 
of  Christ's  personality.  The  conflict  was  com- 
I^icated  by  political  circumstances  and  by  the 
efforts  of  Asturia  to  attain  independence  of  the 
most  powerful  Spanish  bishop.  Complaints  were 
carried  to  Rome,  and  Adrian  I.  pronounced  at 
once  against  Eli[)andus  and  his  supporter,  As- 
caricus,  whom  he  judged  guilty  of  Nestorianism. 

At  what  period  the  most  prominent  represent}*^ 

tive  of  Adoptionism,  Felix,  bishop  of  Urgel  in  the 

Pyrenees,  firat  took  part  in  the  strife  is  imknown. 

At  the  synod  of  Regensburg  in  792,  he  defended 

the  heresy  in  the  presence  of  Charle- 

3,  Felix,  magne,  but  the  bishops  rejected  it. 
Bishop  of  Felix,  although  he  had  retracted  his 
Urgd-  doctrine,  was  sent  by  the  emperor  to 
Rome,  where  Pope  Adrian  kept  him  a 
priaoner  until  he  signed  an  orthodox  confession, 
which  on  his  return  to  Urgel  he  repudiated  as  forced, 
and  then  fled  to  Moorish  territory.  In  793  Alcuin, 
just  back  from  England,  wrote  to  Felix  begging 
him  to  abandon  the  suspicious  word  ''  adoption/' 
and  to  bring  Elipandus  back  into  the  right  path; 
and  he  foUowed  this  up  by  his  controversial 
treatise  Adversua  hceresim  Felicia.  About  the  same 
time  Elipandus  and  the  Spanish  bishops  who 
belonged  to  his  party  addressed  a  letter  to  the 
bishops  of  Gaul,  Aquitaine,  and  Asturia,  and  to 
Charlemagne  himself,  asking  for  a  fair  investigation 
and  the  restoration  of  Felix.  Charlemagne  com- 
municated with  the  pope,  and  caused  a  new  inves- 
tigation of  the  case  in  the  brilliant  assembly  at 
Frankfort  (794).  Two  separate  encyclicals  were 
the  result— one  from  the  Prankish  and  German 
bishops;  the  other  from  those  of  northern  Italy — 
which  agreed  in  condemning  Adoptionism.  Charle- 
magne sent  these,  with  one  from  the  pope  (repre- 
senting also  the  bishops  of  central  and  southern 
Italy)  to  Elipandus.  urging  him  not  to  separate 
himaftlf  from  the  authority  of  the  apostolic  see  and 
of  the  universal  Church.  Strong  efforts  were  put 
forth  to  recover  the  infected  provinces.  Alcuin 
wrote  repeatedly  to  the  monks  of  that  region; 
Leidrad,  bishop  of  Lyons,  and  the  saintly  Abbot 
Benedict  of  Aniane  worked  there  personally,  sup- 
porting Bishop  Nefrid  of  Narbonne.  In  798  Felix 
wrote  a  book  and  sent  it  to  Alcuin,  who  replied  in 
the  following  spring  with  his  more  extended  treatise 
AdivenuM  Fdicem,  Felix  must  by  this  time  have 
been  able  to  return  to  Urgel,  as  he  wrote  thence  to 
Elipandus.  Leo  III.  decisively  condemned  him  in 
m  Roman  synod  of  798  or  799.  Alcuin  received  a 
I.— 4 


contmnelious  answer,   and  was  anxious  to  cross 
swords  personally  with  his  antagonist. 

Leidrad  induced  Felix  to  appear  before  Charle- 
magne, with  the  promise  of  a  fair  hearing  from  the 
bishops.    They  met  at  Aix-la-Chapelle 

4.  Recan-  in  June,  799   (others  say  Oct.,  798). 
tationof    After  a  lengthy  discussion  Felix  ac- 

Felix.  knowledged  Limsclf  defeated  and 
was  restored  to  communion,  though 
not  to  his  see,  and  he  was  placed  in  Leidrad 's  charge. 
FeUx  then  composed  a  recantation,  and  called  on 
the  clergy  of  Urgel  to  imitate  his  example.  Leid- 
rad and  Benedict  renewed  their  endeavors,  with 
such  success  that  Alcuin  was  soon  able  to  assert 
that  they  had  reclaimed  20,000  souls.  He  supported 
them  with  a  treatise  in  four  books  against  Eli- 
pandus, and  prided  himself  on  the  conversion  of 
Felix.  The  heretical  leader  seems,  however,  to 
have  quietly  retained  his  old  beliefs  at  Lyons  for 
the  rest  of  his  life,  and  even  to  have  pushed  them 
logically  further,  since  Agobard,  Leidrad 's  succes- 
sor, accused  him  of  Agnoetism,  and  wrote  a 
reply  to  some  of  his  posthumous  wTitings.  In  the 
Moorish  part  of  Spain,  Elipandus  seems  to  have 
had  a  numerous  following;  but  here  also  he  found 
determined  opponents.  The  belief  was  gradually 
suppressed,  though  Alvar  of  Cordova  (d.  about 
861)  found  troublesome  remnants  of  it. 

With  the  rise  of  scholastic  theology  there  was  a 
natural  tendency  of  rigid  dialectic  to  lead  away 
from  the  Christology  of  Cyril  and  Alcuin  toward  a 
rational  distinction  between  the  two  natures,  not 
so  much  with  any  wish  to  insist  on  this  as  from  a 
devotion  to  the  conception  of  the  immutability  of 
God.  This  caused  the  charge  of  Nestorianism  to 
be  brought  against  Abelard.  Peter  Lombard's 
explanations  of  the  sense  in  which  God  became 
man  leaned  in  the  same  direction.  A  German 
defender  of  this  aspect  of  the  question.  Bishop 
Eberhard  of  Bamberg,  in  the  twelfth  century, 
accused  his  opponents  roundly  of  Eutychianism. 
In  fact,  the  assailants  of  Adoptionism,  starting 
from  their  thesis  that  Christ  is  really  and  truly  the 
Son  of  God,  even  according  to  his  human  nature, 
because  this  nature  was  appropriated  by  the  Son 
of  God,  came  ultimately,  for  all  their  intention  of 
holding  the  Church's  doctrine  of  the 

5.  Later  two  natures  and  the  two  wills,  to  a 
Adoptionist  quite  distinct  presentation  of  an 
Tendencies,  altogether    divine    Person    who    has 

assimied  impersonal  human  substance 
and  nature.  They  really  deserted  the  posi- 
tion taken  by  Cyril,  though  he  was  one  of 
their  main  authorities.  If  one  seeks  the  his- 
torical origin  of  this  late  form  of  Christological 
controversy,  distinguisliing  it  from  the  immediate 
cause,  it  must  be  found  in  the  unsettlement  of  mind 
necessarily  consequent  upon  the  attempts  of  the 
ecclesiastical  Christology  to  reconcile  mutually 
exclusive  propositions. 

The  intellectual  mood  which  led  directly  to  this 
distinction  between  the  Son  of  God  and  the  man  in 
Christ  has  been  variously  explained.  Some  as- 
cribe it  to  the  surrounding  Mohammedanism, 
making  it  an  attempt  to  remove  as  far  as  pos- 
sible the  stumbling-blocks  in  the  doctrine  of  Christ's 


Adorati 
Adrian 


.oration 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


60 


n&iyrOr  but  thi^  may  be  doubted,  since  the  main 

diffieuliics  from  the  Moslem  standpoint — the  Trinity* 

and  the   idea  of   a  God  who   begets 

Q«  Ejipla^    and  is  begotten— remain    untouched. 

HAtioii.      Qthera    ^iee   in   it    n  sur^uval  of    the 

epirit  of  the  old  Germanic  Arianism, 

which   ifl  excluded  by  the  adherence  of  the  Adop- 

tioniata  to  tlie  orttiodox  Trinitarian  teaching.    The 

obvious     relation    with    NeBtorianiam     and     the 

theology  of  the  school  of  Antioch  has  led  others 

to  assume   a  direct    influence  of   the  writings   of 

Theodore  of  Mopaueetia;  but  there  is  as  little  evi- 

denoe  for  this  as  theie  ii^  for  the  theory  that  those 

whom  Ehpandus   r^lla    his  '^  orthodox  brethren  ^' 

in    Cordova^  and  whom    Alcuin    Huppoaes   to   be 

responsible  for  theee  aberrations,  were  a  colony  of 

eastern  Christians  of  Nestorian  tendencies  w^ho  had 

come  to  Spain  with  the  Arabs,        (A.  Hacck.) 

BiBuiKiiiAi>HT:   Tbfl  wTtlinffs  or  Elipuidus,  Fetuc,  ttP-d  He^ 

tfirm.^  m  MPL,  xevLi   P^uiUitu*,  Vila  «l   LilC^ct,  ib.  xcix.; 

Alcuin^  Oprtwt.  ib.  e.-d»;   Monumtrda  Attuiniaaa^  in  Jaff4 

S^iaiuca   Twmm   Grrmaniftwum.   vot  iK..  Berlin.   1B73; 

MQB,    Ep%M.,    fv.,    1$95;    A«ob»nl,    VHa  et   Opera,   in 

MPL,  dT.;  the  jlctoof  ttw  Synocb  ol  Karboiui«*  Uita- 

Ixuk,   fVitiikfort..  utd  Aix~lA-C^«pel]«,   in   H&rduin,  €tm^ 

ciii**,     iv..      in     M&ni^,     Cmtiri/ra,     Jiiii.,      in      Gijlubdi 

Bibiiodu^,   aiii..   uid  MGH^  C^nnluk    ii..  1904;   a   W. 

F.    Waldi»    HuJbria    Adi^ptiatkiirum^    GottinceD.     1755; 

iflHa«  ffnlmW  tifwr  rttiiHiimi*g€n  tiiflerif  tier  ICrlscrriin» 

vol.  iii..  11  roljk,  Lfip«ie,  ird2-£5:   h\  C.  Baiir,  I>m;  ChHst- 

hfhr  Ltiir^  rim  dtr  Ihr-i^iniffkeiit  vnd  Meii*tAvtTiii*ng  G&tU*, 

S  Ti>U..  EWrlin.  l!!i41-iJ;  Rettb^is,  i.  kIS4&)  42$:  X  CRob- 

«rtP09i,  l/M4n>  t*f  tkf  Ckrii^im  Churth,  &90-I122.  Loadoti. 

4w   Mpmmim^    KtiMerv^mrkt^Me^    B^rlio,  186D;    J.     B«eh« 
Dv^mi ntf *w li'i#Al>  J#f    AfiMi^^lnni.    t    102   9iq<|.i    ViemuL, 

bom..     ISTlft^;  r.   J.  B    Ga^kviin.  Akuin..  pp,  T9  SQ<3..  Lop- 
4aii,  I9CH:  ZX^S.  t,   44^7;   Ut^feK  Cr/n^vfUTwAidlfe.  iiL 

ADORATIOH  OF  THE  SACRAMEHT :  A 
t«fTO  of  the  Hoiuan  Catholic  Chuifh,  where,  in 
eiiiiaKlueQce  of  the  doctrine  of  transubstaniiation 
whkAk  aflfum?  the  pnssenoe  of  Christ  in  ibc  Eucharist 
timler  f  h*  species  of  bread  and  nine*  diirine  woiship 
b  p^l  to  tlM^  Sacrament  of  the  altar,  «  worship 
chat  indiKko  adcvralioQ*  This  adofatioa  is  mani* 
ftmtd  in  variaus  waja,  especially  in  feenuflexbiis 
azktl.  if  the  S^kcrament  be  solenmly  exposed*  in 
ffvi^rtficQ^.  Cvft4iin  fonn^  of  devolioa  are  in* 
iciKk^i  tt>  pncinKvte  ador&tioQ  of  the  Sacrament, 
ttL^dbty  tbe  ^seivnHMiy  callc^l  Benediction  of  the 
Bleievd  :^twnefif*  the  Forty  Hour?  Devotion, 
and  the  pratfiac  of  pcrpeti^  adoration  wliitb 
«efurc«  the  preswnce  of  adorefs  before  the  altar 
at  all  Kmirf  of  the  «1ay  and  ni|tht*  A  ocHLgivfration 
*if  f^wstis,  the  Si,iwty  of  Pri«»t4t  of  ihe  Mivt  Holy 
S«mmfnl,  is  ile\v«c4  particulaHy  to  the  wx^rship 
^d  Ch^nf^  on  the  ^lar,  Jobx  T,  CmiLiGH. 

AH  QtTERCUlt  SmODDS.     See  CtenTs^iiSTV^M. 

ADRAJOtSLECH.  a^iram'«4-ec:  1,  Naiae  of 
a  tVity  »%Trshipevl  miih  chikl-^oicnfit^  by  the  cc4o- 
msi*  wh^yn  Sarcv^n.  kinc  €*f  .\^*yria,  transplanted 
ftvim  SephATViim  io  Samaria  ill  lunp  xvii.  ^l: 

^pfiwrmtn  la  probabh*  the  Syrian  city  5 Mwr«'tJi. 
»entM^et\i  in  a  Bahyionian  chroniclie  a*  having 
hefn  *«trv^yi^i  by  Shahnan«mT  IV,.  the  isckl  Adram- 
imIpcK  »  w>  ^^H  a  Syrian  di%*imty.  The  name  ha# 
hHi&  ^fifUxaed  aA  metaning  "  Adar  the  pwiiK^." 


"  splendor  of  the  king^"  and  **  fire-king»"  while 
otheis  think  that  the  original  reading  was  "  Adad« 
melech/'  Bince  the  name  is  Aramaic^  the  last  is 
to  be  preferred, 

2*  According  to  II  Kings  3dx.  37  und  Isa.  xxxvii. 
38f  Adrarnnielech  was  the  name  of  the  8on  and 
mimlerer  of  the  Assyrian  king  Sennacherib.  The 
form  correspondi  to  the  "  Adraraelus  "  of  Abyde- 
nus  in  the  Armenian  chronicle  of  Eueebius  (ed.  A. 
Schdne^  L,  Berlin,  1875,  p*  35)  and  the  "  Ardumusa- 
nus  "  of  Alexander  Polyhistor  (p.  27). 

G^tiendigntt  uid  Zaubfrweaen  bei  den  alten  HebraeT-n,  pp. 
401^105*  Ratiabonp  1S77.  <2)  U.  Winckler.  Der  M&rdtr 
Sanh^^bn,  inZA.u,  <1887>  392-396. 

ABRIAI9:  Author  of  an  extant  Introdudum 
to  the  Holif  Scriptvreg,  written  in  Greek »  He  was 
evidently  a  Greek-speaking  Syiiaji;  but  nothing 
is  to  be  learned  of  his  life  from  the  book.  There 
is  no  doubt,  however,  that  he  is  identical  with  the 
monk  and  presbyter  Adrian  to  whom  St.  Nilus 
addresied  three  lettera  (ii.  60,  iii,  118,  266,  in  MPG, 
bodx.  225-227,  437,  516^17),  and  who  lived  in  the 
fimt  half  of  the  ^th  century.  This  work  is  no 
introduction  in  the  modem  sense,  but  a  piece  of 
BibUcal  rhetoric  and  didactics,  aioung  to  explain 
the  figurative  phraseology  of  the  Scripturea,  es^ 
pecially  of  the  Old  Testament*  from  numerous 
examples.  It  closes  with  hints  for  correct  exegesis. 
The  henneneutical  and  exegetical  principles  of 
the  author  are  thode  of  the  Antiochian  school. 
F.  GAseling  edited  the  Creek  text  with  German 
translation  and  an  intrcxtuction  (Beilin,  1S87). 

G.  EbCoeb, 
BmuoGftATifT:    A*  lJ«rE«  BadM  tarn  Aualipen^  pf»,  M-67, 

ABRIAIf :    The  name  of  six  pnpefl. 

Adrian  L:  Bope  772-795.  A  Rotnan  of  noble 
birth,  he  entered  the  clerical  state  under  PlsuI  L,  and 
was  ordained  deacon  by  Stephen  II L,  whom  be 
succeeded  Feb.  1, 772,  not,  appajnenttyf  by  as  unani- 
moiK  a  choice  as  the  official  record  of  his  election 
a^eerts;  for  soon  aftenrard  he  encountered  vehe- 
ment oppoeilion  from  the  Lombard  party  in  Rome 
led  by  Paul  A&arta^  His  adherence  to  the  Prankish 
faction^  hk  hesitation  to  cro^n  the  sonA  of  Kari* 
oian.  who  had  fled  to  Pavia,  and  thus  to  aet  than 
1^  aa  pRieodefn  apumt  Charlemagne,  and  the 
imprispnment  of  Afiarta  by  Arcbbi^op  Leo  of 
RaTMiiia  at  his  ntdert  incited  the  Lombarti  Idng 
Desidmut  to  invade  the  Ranan  territory,  and 
finaOy  to  march  on  Rxme  itKlf .  Adrian  appealed 
for  help  to  Ch^rlfioapse,  vhn  urived  in  Italy  in 
6ept^  TT3,  and  forced  DeaderiiM  to  shut  himsdf 
up  in  Pavia^ 

During  the  acfie  of  that  Uywn,  which  lasted  till 
the  fuQoving  Ju&r,  Charlgmagae  aoddenly  appealed 
unannoimeed  in  Rome.  Adiiaxu  though  alarmed, 
gavT  him  a  bn^ant  ncepttoai.  On  Apr.  6  a  meet- 
ing took  placie  in  ^.  Frt^'a.  at  which,  aecofdin^ 
to  the  Fdfi  H^rioni  the  emperor 
MMni  %f      was  ediorted  by  the  pope  lo  oonfirm 

CkM^^      itm  donation   of   hk   fatlter,    Pepin, 

Bignk      ajfed  did  an*  eien  making  aoooie  ad- 

ditionA  of   toritovy.    tisli  donation, 

vhich  nmi  «le^  i^nn  the  mmJbotkf  of  tl^  FaCa 


51 


REUGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Adoration 
Adrian 


(xli.-xliiL),  if  substantiated,  has  a  great  importance 
for  the  development  of  the  temporal  sovereignty 
of  the  popes.  The  question  has  received  much  atten- 
tion, and  its  literature  is  scarcely  exceeded  in  bulk 
by  that  of  any  other  medieval  controversy.  No 
sure  and  universally  recognized  result,  however, 
has  been  reached.  Some  modem  historians  (Sybel, 
Ranke,  Martens)  consider  the  story  a  pure  inven- 
tion; others  (Ficker,  Duchesne)  accept  it;  and  a 
middle  theory  of  partial  interpolation  has  also 
been  upheld  (Scheffer-Boichorst).  All  that  can 
be  maintained  with  certainty  is  that  Charlemagne 
gave  a  promise  of  a  donation,  and  the  geographical 
delimitations  give  rise  to  difficult  problems. 

In  the  years  immediately  following  Charlemagne's 
return  from  Italy,  his  friendly  relations  with  Adrian 
were  disturbed  by  more  than  one 
Disagree-  occurrence.  Archbishop  Leo  of  Ra- 
ments  venna  seized  some  cities  from  the 
withCharle-  pope,  who  complained  to  Charlemagne; 
magne.  but  Leo  visited  the  Prankish  court  to 
defend  himself,  and  met  with  a  not 
unfavorable  reception.  Charlemagne's  keen  insight  - 
can  not  have  failed  to  read  imperfectly  masked 
oovetousness  between  the  lines  of  Adrian's  repeated 
requests  for  the  final  fulfilment  of  the  promise  of 
774;  e.g.,  in  the  hope  held  out  of  a  heavenly  reward 
if  he  should  enlarge  the  Church's  possessions;  in 
the  profuse  congratulations  on  his  victory  over  the 
Saxons,  which  was  attributed  to  the  intercession  of 
St.  Peter,  grateful  for  the  restitution  of  his  domain; 
in  the  comparison  drawn  by  Adrian  between  Charle- 
magne and  "  the  most  God-fearing  emperor  Con- 
stantine  the  Great,"  who  "  out  of  his  great  liberality 
exalted  the  Church  of  God  in  Rome  and  gave  her 
power  in  Hesperia  [Italy]" — expressions  which 
have  caused  a  subordinate  controversy  as  to  whether 
the  so-called  Donation  of  Constantine  (q.v.)  is 
referred  to.  How  far  Adrian's  consciousness  of 
his  own  importance  had  grown  is  evident  from  the 
fact  that  while  in  the  beginning  of  his  reign  he  had 
dated  his  public  dociunents  by  the  years  of  the 
Greek  emperors,  from  the  end  of  781  he  dated  them 
by  the  years  of  his  own  pontificate. 

Yet  Adrian  could  not  afford  to  despise  the  Greeks; 
they  joined  the  Lombard  dukes  of  Benevento  and 
Spoleto,   and  forced    him  once  more 
Charie-     to  turn  for  help  to  Charlemagne,  who 
magne      made  a  short  descent  into  Italy  in 
Again      776,    put    down    the  revolt    of    the 
Helps.      duke  of  Friuli  against  both  him  and 
the  pope,  but  did  nothing  more  until 
780.    In  781  he  visited  Rome  again  when  his  sons 
were  anointed  as  kings — Pepin  of  Italy  and  Louis 
of  Aquitaine.    Charlemagne  came  to  Italy  for  the 
fourth  time  in  786  to  crush  Arichis  of  Benevento, 
and  Adrian  succeeded  in  obtaining  from  him  ad- 
ditional territory  in  southern  Italy.     But  various 
misunderstandings  in  Adrian's  last  years  gave  rise 
to  a  report  that  Charlemagne  and  Offa  of  Mercia 
had  taken  counsel  together  with  a  view  to  the  pope's 
deposition.    The     iconoclastic     controversy     (see 
IifAOES  AND  Imaoe-worship,  II.,  §  3)  brought  fresh 
humiliations  from  Charlemagne  and  from  the  Greek 
emperor  Constantine  VI.  and  his  mother,  the  em- 
press Irene.    When  the  last-named  was  taking  steps 


to  restore  the  veneration  of  images  in  the  Eastern 
Church  she  requested  Adrian  to  be  present  in  person 
at  a  general  council  soon  to  be  held,  or  at  least  to 
send  suitable  legates  (785).  In  his  reply,  after 
commending  Irene  and  her  son  for  their  deter- 
mination respecting  the  images,  Adrian  asked  for  a 
restitution  of  the  territory  taken  from  the  Roman 
see  by  the  iconoclastic  emperor  Leo  III.  in  732, 
as  well  as  of  its  patriarchal  rights  in  Calabria, 
Sicily,  and  the  lUyrian  provinces  which  Leo  had 
suppressed.  At  the  same  time  he  renewed  the 
protest  made  by  Gregory  the  Great  against  the 
assumption  of  the  title  of  univeraalis  patriarcha 
by  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople. 

When,  however,  the  council  met  at  Nicsa  in 
787,  while  it  removed  the  prohibition  of  images, 
it  paid  no  attention  to  any  of  these  demands.  The 
acts  of  this  council,  which  Adrian  sent  to  Charle- 
magne in  790,  provoked  the  emperor's  vigorous 
opposition,  and  led  ultimately  to  the  drawing  up 
of  the  Caroline  Books  (q.v.),  in  which 
Coun-  the  position  of  the  Fnmkish  Church 
dl  of       with  reference  to  both  the  Roman  and 

Nicssain  the  Greek  was  made  plain,  and  the 
787.  decisions  of  the  Council  of  Nicsea  were 
disavowed.  Although  Adrian,  after  re- 
ceiving a  copy,  took  up  the  defense  of  the  council 
with  vehemence,  Charlemagne  had  the  contention 
of  the  Caroline  Books  confirmed  at  the  Synod  of 
Frankfort  in  794.  It  may,  however,  have  been 
some  consolation  to  Adrian's  legates  that  the  same 
synod  publicly  condemned  Adoptionism  (q.v.), 
against  which  the  Roman  as  well  as  the  Prankish 
Church  had  been  struggling.  Adrian  died  not  long 
after  (Dec.  25,  795). 

Throughout  his  long  pontificate  Adrian  had  been 
too  exclusively  dominated  by  the  one  idea  of 
gaining  as  much  advantage  as  possible  in  lands  and 
privileges  from  the  strife  between  the  Franks  and 
Lombards.  He  rendered  no  slight  services  to  the 
city  of  Rome,  rebuilding  the  walls  and  aqueducts, 
and  restoring  and  adorning  the  churches.  His 
was  not  a  strong  personality,  however,  and  he  never 
succeeded  in  exercising  a  dominant  or  even  a 
strongly  felt  influence  upon  the  policy  of  western 
Europe.  (Carl  Mirbt.) 

Bibliography:  VUa  Hadriani,  in  Liber  ponHfioalit,  ed. 
Duchesne,  i.  486-523;  Einhard.  Vita  Caroli,  in  MOH, 
ScripU  ii.  (1829)  42&-463:  Vita  Caroli,  ed.  G.  Waiti,  in 
Script  rer.  Oerm.,  4th  ed..  18S0;  also  in  Jaff^,  Reoetta, 
iv.,  Eng.  transl.  in  Thatcher  and  McNeal.  Source  Book, 
pp.  38-45;  Codicia  Carolini  epietoloB,  in  Jaff^,  I.e.  iv. 
and  in  MPL,  xovi.;  one  of  Adrian's  letters,  in  verse, 
dated  774.  in  MOH,  Poet.  lot.  ctvi  Caroli,  i.  (1881) 
00-01;  Jaff«.  Reoeeta,  i.  280-306.  Leipsic.  1885;  De  eaneto 
Hadriano  papa  I  an  III  NonanttdcB  in  editione  Mutinenei, 
in  ASB,  July,  viii.  643-640;  P.  T.  Hald.  Donatio 
Caroli  Magni,  Copenhagen.  1836;  T.  D.  Mack.  De  donor 
tione  a  Carolo  Magno,  MOnster.  1861;  J.  Ficker.  Fortchunf 
gen  xur  Reicha-  und  Rechta-Oeechichte  Italient,  ii.  320  sqq., 
347  sqq..  Innsbruck,  1860;  A.  O.  Legge.  Growth  of  the 
Temporal  Power  of  the  Papacy,  London,  1870;  W.  Watten- 
baoh.  Oeschichte  dee  r&miachen  Pap»tthum»,  pp.  47  sqq. .  Ber- 
lin. 1876;  O.  Kuhl.  Der  Verkehr  KarU  dee  Qroeten  mit  Papet 
Hadrian  /.,  Kdnigsberg.  1870;  R.  (jenelin.  Dae  Schenkunat- 
vereprechen  und  die  Schenkung  Pippins,  Vienna.  1880; 
W.  Martens.  Die  rOmieche  Frage  unter  Pippin  und  Karl 
dem  Chroeeen,  pp.  120  sqq..  368-387.  Stuttgart.  1881; 
idem.  Die  Beeeteung  dee  pAptUichen  StuMee  unter  den  Kai- 
eem  Heinrich  III.  und  IV.,  Freiburg,  1886;  idem,  Beleueh- 
tung  der  neueeten  Kontrovereen  Hber  die  r&mieche  Frage 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


62 


tmlcr  Pippin  und  Karl  dam  Orotten,  Munich,  1898;  H.  ▼on 
Ssrbel.  Dm  Sehenkungen  der  KarolinQer  an  die  POpeUt  in 
Kleins  hiatoriaehe  Schriften,  m.  66-116.  Stuttgart.  1881; 
Liber  PonHficalie,  ed.  Duohesne.  i.,  pp.  ooxxxiv.-ooxUii., 
Paris,  1884;  J.  von  Pflugk-Harttung,  Ada  pontilieum 
Romanorum  inedita,  ii.  22  sqq.,  Stuttgart,  1884;  P.  Schef- 
fer-Boiohorst,  Pippine  und  Karla  de$  Orouen  Schenkunge- 
vtrBpreehuno,  pp.  193-212.  Innsbruck.  1884;  L.  von 
Ranke,  WeUgeechichie,  ▼..part  1.  p.  117.  Leipsic.  1886; 
S.  Abel,  JakrbUcher  dee  frAnkischen  Reichee  unter  Karl  dem 
Orouen,  i.  708-788.  Leipsic.  1883  (and  ii.  789-814.  by  B. 
Simson,  1888).  and  for  donation  of  Charlemagne,  ib.  i. 
159  sqq.;  P.  Kehr,  Die  eooenannte  karolinoitchen  Schen- 
tuno  von  111*,  in  Sybel's  Historieche  ZeUechrift,  Ixx.  (new 
ser.,  1893)  xzxiv.  386-441;  HeMe.Concilienoeechiehte,  ▼ol. 
iii.;  Eng.  transl.,  ▼ol.  ▼.;  Hauck,  KD,  ▼ol.  ii.;  Mann, 
Pope9,  I.,  ▼ol.  ii.  396-497. 

Adrian  IL:  Pope  867-872.  He  was  the  son  of 
Talarus,  of  a  Roman  family  which  had  already 
produced  two  popes,  Stephen  IV.  (768-772)  and 
Sergius  II.  (844-847).  He  was  a  married  man 
before  entering  the  clerical  state.  Gregory  IV. 
made  him  a  cardinal.  His  great  benevolence  won 
the  hearts  of  the  Romans,  and  he  twice  refused  the 
papacy,  after  the  death  of  Leo  IV.  (855)  and  of 
Benedict  III.  (858).  A  unanimous  choice  by  both 
clergy  and  people,  however,  forced  him  at  the  age  of 
seventy- five  to  accept  it  in  succession  to  Nicholas  I. 
(d.  Nov.  13,  867).  The  election  was  confirmed  by 
Emperor  Louis  II.,  and  Adrian's  consecration  fol- 
lowed on  Dec.  14. 

His  predecessor  had  left  him  a  number  of  un- 
finished tasks.  In  the  first  place,  it  was  necessary 
to  arrive  at  a  final  decision  concerning 
Forces  a  matter  which  had  long  and  deeply 
Lothair  XL  troubled  the  Prankish  Church;  namely, 

to  Take     the    matrimonial    relations    of    King 

Back  His  Lothair  II.  Adrian  firmly  insisted 
Wife.  that  Lothair  should  take  back  his 
legitimate  wife  Thietberga,  at  the 
same  time  releasing  his  mistress  Walrade  from 
the  excommunication  pronounced  against  her  by 
Nicholas,  at  the  request  of  Louis  II.,  on  condi- 
tion that  she  should  have  nothing  more  to  do 
with  Lothair.  The  last-named  visited  Rome  in  869 
for  the  purpose  of  gaining  the  pope's  consent 
to  his  divorce  from  Thietberga.  Adrian  promised 
no  more  than  to  call  a  new  council  to  investigate 
the  matter,  but  restored  Lothair  to  communion 
after  he  had  sworn  that  he  had  obeyed  the  command 
of  Nicholas  I.  to  break  off  his  relations  with  Wal- 
rade. The  king's  sudden  death  at  Piacenza  on  his 
homeward  journey,  a  few  weeks  later,  was  con- 
sidered to  be  a  divine  judgment.  The  efforts  of  the 
pope  to  enforce  the  claim  of  Louis  II.  to  Lorraine 
were  fruitless;  immediately  after  Lothair 's  death 
his  uncle,  Charles  the  Bald,  had  himself  crowned  at 
Metz,  though  less  than  a  year  later  he  was  forced 
by  his  brother,  Louis  the  German,  to  divide  the 
inheritance  of  Lothair  in  the  treaty  of  Meersen 
(Aug.  8,  870). 

Adrian's  attempts  to  interfere  in  Prankish  affairs 
were  stubbornly  resisted  by  Hincmar  of  Reims 
(q. v.),  who  wrote  (Eynsi.,  xxvii.),  ostensibly  as  the 
opinions  of  certain  men  friendly  to  the  West- 
Prankish  king,  that  a  pope  could  not  be  bishop 
and  king  at  one  and  the  same  time;  that  Adrian's 
predecessors  had  claimed  to  decide  in  ecclesiastical 
matters    only;    and   that    he  who    attempted    to 


excommunicate  a  Christian  unjustly  deprived  him- 
self of  the  power  of  the  keys.  When  a  synod  at 
Douxy   near   Sedan    (Aug.,  871)  ex- 

Oppoeed  communicated  Bishop  Hincmar  of  Laon 
by         on  grave  charges  brought  against  him 

Hincmar    both  by  the  king  and  by   his  own 

of  Reims,  uncle,  the  more  famous  Hincmar,  the 
pope  allowed  an  appeal  to  a  Roman 
council,  and  brought  upon  himself  in  consequence 
a  still  sterner  warning  from  Charles  the  Bald  by  the 
pen  of  Hincmar  of  Reims  (Af  PL,  cxxiv.  881-806), 
with  a  threat  of  his  personal  appearance  in  Rome. 
Adrian  executed  an  inglorious  retreat.  He  wrote 
to  Charles  praising  him  for  his  virtues  and  his 
benefits  to  the  Church,  promised  him  the  imperial 
crown  on  Louis's  death,  and  offered  the  soothing 
explanation  that  earlier  less  pacific  letters  had 
been  either  extorted  from  him  during  sickness  or 
falsified.  In  the  matter  of  Hincmar  of  Laon,  he 
made  partial  concessions,  which  were  compbted 
by  his  successor,  John  VIIL 

Another  conflict  which  Nicholas  I.  had  left  to 
Adrian,  that  with  Photius,  patriarch  of  Constan- 
tinople, seemed  likely  to  have  a  hap- 

Conflict  pier  issue,  when  Photius  was  con- 
with        demned    first    by    a  Roman    synod 

Photius.  (June  10,  869),  and  then  by  the 
general  council  at  Constantinople  in 
the  same  year,  the  papal  legates  taking  a  position 
which  seciued  to  xnake  good  the  claims  of  the 
Roman  see.  But  Emperor  Basil  the  Macedonian 
dealt  these  claims  a  severe  blow  when  he  caused 
the  envoys  of  the  Bulgarians  (see  Bulqarianb, 
(Inversion  of  the)  to  declare  to  the  legates  that 
their  country  belonged  to  the  patriarchate  not  of 
Rome,  but  of  Constantinople.  Adrian's  protests 
were  in  vain;  a  Greek  archbishop  appeared  among 
the  Bulgarians,  and  the  Latin  missionaries  had  to 
give  place.  Moravia,  on  the  other  hand,  was  firmly 
attached  to  Rome,  Adrian  allowing  the  use  of  a 
Slavic  liturgy,  and  naming  Methodius  archbishop 
of  Sirmium.  After  a  pontificate  marked  princi- 
pally by  defeat,  Adrian  died  between  Nov.  13  and 
Dec.  14,  872.  (Cakl  Mirbt.) 

Bibliography:  The  Letters  of  Adrian  in  Manai,  CoUeeUo, 
XV.  819-820;  in  MPL,  oxzii.,  cxxix..  and  in  Bouquet, 
Recueil,  vol.  vii. ;  Vita  Hadriani  II.,  in  Liber  ponHfiadiat  ed. 
Duchesne,  ii.  173-174,  and  in  L.  A.  Muratori,  Rerum  ItaU- 
carum  Scriptoree,  III.  ii.  306,  25  vols.,  Biilan,  1723-51: 
Ado,  Chronicon,  in  MOH,  Script,  ii.  (1829)  315-326; 
idem,  in  MPL,  cxxiii.;  Annalee  Fulden$e9,  in  MGH, 
Script.,  i.  (1826)  375-395,  and  separately  in  Script  rer. 
Germ.,  ed.  F.  Kurse.  Hanover,  1891;  Hincmar.  Annalee, 
in  MQH,  Saript.,  i.  (1826)  455-515,  and  in  MPL,  cxxv.; 
Hincmar,  Epietola,  in  MPL,  oxxiv.,  cxxvi;  Regino, 
Chronicon,  in  MOH,  Script,  i.  (1826)  580  sqq.;  idem,  in 
MPL,  cxxxii.  (separately  ed.  F.  Kurse.  Hanover.  1890  >; 
P.  Jaff^,  Regetta,  i.  368,  369,  Leipdc,  1885;  Bower, 
Popee,  ii.  267-282;  F.  Maassen.  Eine  Rede  dee  Pap^lee 
Hadrian  IL  von  Jahre  869,  die  ertte  umfaeeende  BewuiM^ 
una  der  falechen  Decretaien,  in  Sitzunaeberiehie  der  Wiener 
Akademie,  Ixxii.  (1872)521;  Hefele.  ConcUiengeedtiehie, 
vol.  iv.;  P.  A.  Lapotre,  Hadrian  II.  et  lee  faueeee  dt- 
crStalee,  in  Revue  dee  queetione  historiQuee,  zxviL  (1880) 
377  sqq.;  B.  Jungmann.  DieeertoHonee  edecta  in  hiet 
eccl.,  iii..  Ratisbon,  1882;  Milman,  Latin  Chrittianity, 
iii.  35-80;  H.  Schrdrs.  Hinkmar,  Freiburs,  1884;  J. 
J.  Bdhmer.  Regeeta  imperii,  1.  Die  Regeelen  dee  Kaieer- 
reicha  unter  den  Karolingem,  pp.  751-918;  idem,  ad.  K 
MQhlbacher,  i.  460  sqq.,  Innsbruck,  1889;  Hauok,  KD, 
ii.  557  sqq.,    699-700;    J.  LAngen,    GeetAichle   der  rOm- 


58 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Adrian 


uektn  Kirekt  van  Nikolaua  I.  bit  Qregor  VIL,  pp.  113-170, 
Bonn,  1802;  E.  Mahlb»eh«r.  Deuiaehe  Oe9ehichte  unier  den 
KaroUnoem,  1896;  E.  DOmmler.  Vber  eine  Synodalrede 
Paptt  Hadrian*  //..  Berlin,  1800;  Treaty  of  Meeraen,  Eng. 
timnsL  in  Thatcher  and  MoNeal,  Source  Book,  pp.  64-66. 

Adrian  m.:    Pope  884-S85.    He  was  a  Roman 
by  birth,  the  son  of  Benedict.    The  story  of  severe 
punishments  inflicted  by  him  points  to  revolts  in 
the  city  during  his  rule.    The  assertion  of  the  un- 
trustworthy   Martinus    Polonus   that   he  decreed 
that  a  newly  elected  pope  might  proceed  at  once 
to  consecration  without  waiting  for  imperial  con- 
firmation,  and   that   the   imperial   crown   should 
thenceforth  be  worn  by  an  Italian  prince,  are  con- 
firmed by  no  contemporary  evidence.    He  died 
near  Modena  Aug.,  885,  on  his  way  to  attend  a 
diet  at  Wonns  on  the  invitation  of  Charles  the  Fat, 
and  was  buried  at  Nonantula.    [He  was  the  first 
pope  to  change  his  name  on  election,  having  pre- 
viously been  called  Agapetua.]        (Carl  Mirbt.) 
BxBUOoaAPHT:  Epiatcda,  in  Bouquet,  RectieU,  ix.  200,  and  in 
MPL,  ezxvL;   BiUla  anni  885,  in  Nettee  Archiv  der  Oe- 
eeUechaft  fUr  A.  d.  GeechichU,  zi.  (1885)  374.  376;    Vito,  in 
Liber  PonHfUsalie,  ed.  Duchesne,  ii.  (1802)  225,  and  in  L. 
A.  If uratori,  Rerum  Italiearum  Sariptoree,  III.  ii.  440-446, 
25  vols..  Milan.  1723-51;   Annalee  Fuldeneee,    in  MOH, 
Script,,  i.  (1826)  375-305  (separately  in  Script,  rer.  Germ., 
ad.   F.    Kurse,    Hanover,  1801);    Chronica   BenedicH,   in 
MGH,  Script,,  iu.  (1830)  100;  J.  M.  Wattericb,  PonHfieutn 
Romanorum  vitce,  i.  20,  650.  718,  Leipsic,  1862;    P.  Jaff^, 
Regeela,    i.   426-427;     Bower,   Popee,    ii.    203-204;    R. 
Baxmann,    Die  PoliHk  der  P&peie  von  Gregor  I.  hie  auf 
Gregor    VII.,  ii.  60  sqq.,  Elberfeld,  1800;  E.  DOmmler. 
OeechidUe  det  Oetfrdnkiechen  Reichee,  ii.  247,  248,  Berlin, 
1888;    J.    Langen.  Geechichte   der  rfimiedten    Kirche  von 
Nikolauel.  bieGregor  VIL,  pp.  208 sqq..  Bonn.  1802;  T.R.  v. 
Sickel.  Die  Vita  Hadriani  Nonanhilana  und  die  Diumue 
Handechrift,  in  Neuee  Archiv  der  Geeelleehaft  fUr  A.  d.  Ge- 
eckiekle,  xriii.  (1802)  100-133. 

Adrian  IV.  (Nicholas  Breakspeare;  the  only 
Englishman  in  the  list  of  the  popes):  Pope 
1154-59.  He  was  bom  in  England  about  the 
beginning  of  the  twelfth  century.  He  went  to 
France  as  a  boy,  studied  at  Paris  and  Aries,  en- 
during severe  privations,  and  finally  settled  down 
in  the  monastery  of  St.  Rufus  near  Avignon.  Here 
he  became  prior,  then  abbot  (1137),  but  met  with 
bitter  opposition  from  the  monks  when  he  attempted 
to  introduce  reforms.  Eugenius  III.  made  him 
iHirHifntl  bishop  of  Albano,  and  chose  him  (1152) 
for  the  difficult  mission  of  regulating  the  relations 
of  Norway  and  Sweden  to  the  archbishopric  of 
Lund.  Returning  to  Rome,  he  was  welcomed 
with  high  honors  by  Anastasius  IV.,  whom  he 
succeeded  on  Dec.  4,  1154. 

His  first  troubles  came  through  Arnold  of  Bres- 
cia (q.v.),  who,  besides  his  ethical  opposition  to  the 
hierarchy,  aimed  at  reestablishing  the 

Arnold  ol  ancient  sovereignty  of  Rome  and  its  • 
Brescia  and  independence  of  the  papal  see.    Adrian 

Frederick  strove  to  secure  Arnold's  banishment, 
Barbaroflsa.  and  succeeded  in  1155  only  by  pro- 
nouncing an  interdict  on  the  city. 
He  made  Arnold's  capture  and  delivery  to  the  ecclesi- 
astical authorities  a  condition  of  crowning  Frederick 
Barbarossa,  who  thus  sacrificed  a  man  who  might 
have  been  a  powerful  auxiliary  in  his  conflicts 
with  this  very  pope.  The  first  meeting  between 
FVederick  and  Adrian  (June  9,  1155)  was  marked 
by  friction;  but  Frederick  managed,  in  return  for 


substantial  concessions,  to  secure  his  coronation 
nine  days  later.  The  Romans,  however,  whose 
subjection  to  the  papal  see  the  new  emperor 
had  promised  to  enforce,  refused  their  recog- 
nition; and  when  Frederick  left  Rome,  the 
pope  and  cardinals  accompanied  him,  practically 
as  fugitives.  Frederick  had  also  promised  to  sub- 
due William  I.  of  Sicily,  and  was  inclined  to  carry 
out  his  promise,  but  the  pressure  of  the  German 
princes  forced  him  to  recross  the  Alps. 

Adrian  then  attempted  to  pursue  his  conflict 
with  William,  and,  by  the  aid  of  the  latter's  dis- 
contented vassals,  forced  him  to  offer 
William  I.  terms.  When,  however,  these  were  not 
of  Sicily,  accepted  the  king  rallied  his  forces,  the 
tide  turned,  and  Adrian  was  obliged 
to  grant  his  opponent  the  investiture  of  Sicily, 
Apulia,  and  Capua,  and  to  renounce  important 
ecclesiastical  prerogatives  in  Sicily  (Treaty  of 
Benevento  June,  1156).  In  consequence  of  this 
settlement,  he  was  enabled  to  return  to  Rome  at 
the  end  of  the  year,  but  the  emperor  resented  this 
apparent  desertion  of  their  alliance,  as  well  as  the 
injury  to  his  suzerainty  by  the  papal  investiture. 
An  open  breach  came  when,  at  the  Diet  of  Besangon, 
in  Oct.,  1157,  the  papal  legates  (one  of  them  the 
future  Alexander  III.)  delivered  a  letter  from  their 
chief  which  spoke  of  the  conferring  of  the  imperial 
crown  by  the  ambiguous  term  heneficium.  The 
chancellor,  Reginald,  archbishop  of  Cologne,  in  his 
German  rendering,  gave  it  the  sense  of  a  fief  of  the 
papal  see;  and  the  legates  thought  it  prudent  to 
leave  the  assembly  and  retreat  speedily  to  Rome. 
Imperial  letters  spread  the  same  indignation 
among  the  people;  and  when  Adrian  required  the 
prelates  of  Germany  to  obtain  satis- 
Rebuffed  faction  from  Frederick  for  his  treat- 
by  ment  of  the  legates,  he  was  met  by 
Frederick  the  decided  expression  of  their  dis- 
Barbarossa.  approval  of  the  offending  phrase. 
Adrian's  position  was  rendered  more 
difficult  by  the  appearance  of  a  Greek  expedition 
in  Italy  and  by  a  revolt  in  Rome;  he  offered  the 
concession  of  a  brief  in  which  he  explained  the  ob- 
jectionable word  in  the  innocent  sense  of  "  benefit." 
Frederick  took  this  as  a  confession  of  weakness, 
and  when  he  crossed  the  Alps  to  subdue  the  Lom- 
bard towns  (1158),  he  required  an  oath  of  fealty 
to  himself,  as  well  as  substantial  support  from  the 
Italian  bishops.  Attaining  the  summit  of  his 
power  with  the  conquest  of  Milan  in  September,  two 
months  later  he  had  the  imperial  rights  solemnly 
declared  by  the  leading  jurists  of  Bologna.  This 
declaration  constituted  him  the  source  of  all  secular 
power  and  dignity,  and  was  a  denial  equally  of  the 
political  claims  of  the  papacy  and  of  the  aspirations 
of  the  Lombard  towns.  The  breach  with  Adrian 
was  still  further  widened  by  his  hesitation  to  con- 
firm the  imperial  nomination  to  the  archbishopric 
of  Ravenna;  and  an  acute  crisis  was  soon  reached. 
An  exchange  of  communications  took  place,  whose 
manner  was  intended  on  both  sides  to  be  offensive; 
and  Frederick  was  roused  to  a  higher  pitch  of  anger 
when  the  papal  legates,  besides  accusing  him  of  a 
breach  of  the  treaty  of  Constance,  demanded  that 
he  should  thenceforth  receive  no  oath  of  fealty  from 


Adrian 
Advent 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


64 


the  Italian  bishops,  that  he  should  either  restore 
the  inheritance  of  Countess  Matilda,  Spoleto, 
Sardinia,  Ck>rsica,  Ferrara,  etc.,  to  the  Roman  see, 
or  pay  a  tribute  for  those  lands,  and  that  he  should 
recognize  the  right  of  the  successor  of  St.  Peter  to 
•joraplete  and  uidimited  dominion  in  Rome.  These 
claims  he  met  by  declaring  roundly  that  on  any 
strict  interpretation  of  his  rights  the  pope  also 
would  be  bound  to  take  the  oath  of  fealty,  and  that 
all  the  latter's  possessions  were  but  imperial  do- 
mains held  in  consequence  of  Sylvester's  investi- 
ture by  Ck)nstantine. 

Both  the  opponents  sought  for  allies  in  the  im- 
pending  struggle.     Adrian,    who   was   the   sworn 
foe  of  the  Roman  republic  and  its 
Impending  liberties,  joined  hands  with  the  Lom- 
Conflict     bard  communes  who  were  struggling 
Stopped  by  for    their   own.    The    emperor,    who 
Adrian's     was  doing  his  best  to  abolish  com- 
Death.      munal  liberty  in  the  north  of  Italy, 
aided  the  Romans  to  uphold  the  prin- 
ciples of  Arnold  of  Brescia.     Adrian  was  already 
talcing  counsel  with  the  cardinals  as  to  the  advisa- 
bility of  pronouncing  a  sentence  of  excommunica- 
tion against   Frederick  when  death  overtook  him 
at  Anagni  Sept.  1,  1159. 

Adrian  was  a  ruler  who  grasped  clearly  the  ideal 
of  a  papacy  striving  for  universal  domination,  and 
contended    passionately   for   its    accomplishment; 
but  John  of  Salisbury  (who,  as  ambassador  of  the 
king  of  England,  had  opportunity  to  study  him  at 
close  range)  records  that  there  were  moments  when 
the  terrible  burden  of  his  office  weighed  almost  un- 
bearably upon  him.  (Carl  Mirbt.) 
BiBLioaRAPHY:    EpUttolcB  et  privUegiat  in  Bouquet.  Recueil, 
XV.  666-603;   idem,  in  MPL,  dxxxviii.;   BiUla,  in  Neues 
Archiv  der  OetelUchaft  fUr  A.  d.  Qfchichie,  ii.  (1876)  211- 
213.  XV.  (1889)    203-206;    Viia,  in  Liber  PonHficalia,  ed. 
Duchesne.  1802.  ii.  388  sqq.;    Otto  of  Frisensen.  Oetta 
Friderxci  /.,  in  MOH,  Script,  xx.  (1868)  403  aqq.;   Raderi- 
CUB  of  Frisengen,  ConHnuatio  [of  Otto's  (Teste],  ib.  pp. 
464  sqq.;    Jaff^.   Regetta,  i.;   J.    M.   Watterich,  Romano- 
rum    pontificum   vita,    i.   323-336.  Leipsic,  1823;  Bower. 
PopeM,  1845.  ii.  487-502;    R.  Raby.  Hiatarical  Sketch  of 
Pope  Adrian  IV.,  London,  1849;    H.  Renter.  GeechichU 
Alexander't  III.,  voL  i.,  Leipsic,  1860;  Fr.  v.  Raumer.G«- 
tchichte    der   Hohenataufen,   ii..  ib.    1871;   Milman.  Latin 
Chri$Hanitv,    London,    1883;    DNB,    i.  143-146;    Hefele. 
ConcUiengeachichte,  v.  527-566;    J.  Lan^^n.  Oe^hichte  der 
r&miechen  Kirche  von  Oregor  Vll.  bia   Innocent  III.,  pp. 
417-438,  Bonn,  1803;    Eog.  tranal.  of  Letter  to  Barbaro»9a 
(Sept.  20.  1157).  Manifeeto  of  Frederick  /.,  Letter  to  the 
German  Biahop$  and  their  Letter  to  Adrian,  and  Letter  to 
the  Emperor  (Feb.,  1158),  in  E.  F.  Henderson.  5«Zec(  ^it- 
torical  Documents  of  the  Middle  Agee,  London,  1802;    J. 
Jastrow  and  G.  Winter.  Deuteche  Geechichte  im  Zeitalter 
der  Hohenataufen,    vol.    i.,    Stuttgart,    1897;    S.  Malone, 
Adrian  IV.   and  Ireland,  London,  1800;    O.  J.  Thatcher, 
Studiea  Concerning  Adrian  IV.,  Chicago.  1003;    Hauck, 
KD,  iv.   35,   100-227;   Eng.    transl.    of    Treaty    of  Con- 
atance.  Stirrup  Episode,  Treaty  of  Adrian  IV.  and  William 
of  Sicily,  Lettera  of  Adrian  (1157-58),  and  Manifeato  of 
Frederick  I.,  in  O.  J.  Thatcher  and  E.  H.  McNeal,  Source 
Book  for  Medicnal  Hiatory,  New  York,  1005. 

Adrian  V.  (Ottobuono  de' Fieschi):  Pope  1276. 
He  was  the  nephew  of  Innocent  IV.,  and  as  car- 
dinal deacon  had  been  sent  to  England  by  Clement 
IV.  to  mediate  between  Henry  III.  and  his  barons. 
He  was  elected  July  12, 1276,  in  a  conclave  on  which 
Charles  of  Anjou  had  enforced  all  the  rigor  of  the 
regulations  of  Gregory  X.;  and  one  of  Adrian's  first 
acts  was  to  abrogate  them  as  oppressive  to  the  cardi-  | 


nals.  Before  he  oould  promulgate  any  new  system, 
however,  and  even  before  he  had  been  Qrdained 
priest,  he  died  at  Viterbo  Aug.  18,  1276. 

(Carl  Mibbt.) 

Biblioorapht:  A.  Chrouat,  Sin  Brief  Hadriana  V„  in  Nema 
Archiv  der  GeaeUachaft  fUr  &.  d.  Geaehiekte,  zx.  (1804)  233 
sqq.;  Bower.  Popea,  iii.  24;  A.  Potthaat.  Regea/ta  ponH- 
ficum  Romanorum,  ii  1700.  Berlin,  1876;  Milman,  Lotta 
ChriaUaniiy,  vi.  134. 

Adrian  VL  (Adrian  Rodenburgh  or  Dedel, 
more  probably  the  latter):  Pope  1522-23.  He 
was  bom  in  Utrecht,  was  educated  by  the  Brethren 
of  the  Ck>mmon  Life  and  at  Louvain,  and  became 
professor  and  vice-chancellor  of  the  university. 
During  this  period  he  composed  several  theological 
writings,  including  a  commentary  on  the  SententuB 
of  Peter  Lombard.  In  1507  Emperor  Maximilian 
I.  appointed  him  tutor  to  his  grandson,  diaries  of 
Spain,  and  in  1515  Ferdinand  the  Catholic  made 
him  bishop  of  Tortosa.  In  1517  he  was  created 
cardinal  by  Leo  X.  When  Charies  was  made 
German  emperor  and  went  to  the  Netherlands  in 
1520,  he  appointed  Adrian  regent  of  Spain.  In 
1522  the  cardinals  almost  unanimously  elected  him 
pope. 

The  vexation  of  the  Romans  at  the  choice  of  a 
German,  moreover  a  very  simple  man  who  was  not 
inclined  to  continue  the  splendid  traditions  of  the 
humanistic  popes,  lasted  during  his  entire  pontifi- 
cate; more  serious  minds,  however,  looked  forward 
to  his  reign  with  hope.     In  spite  of  the  fact  that  he 
consented    to    the    condenmation    of 
Friend      Luther's    writings    by  the    Louvain 
of         theologians,  and  although  as  inquisitor- 
Reform,     general  he  had  shown  no  clemency, 
yet  Erasmus  saw  in   him   the  right 
pilot  of  the  Church  in  those  stormy  times,  and  hoped 
that  he  would  abolish  many  abuses  in  the  Roman 
court.     Luis  de  Vives  addre^ed  Adrian  with  his  pro- 
posals for  reform;  and  Pirkheimer  complained  to 
him  of  the  opposition  of  the  Dominicans  to  learning. 
Even  in  the  college  of  cardinals,  the  few  who  favored 
a   reformation   looked  up  to  him  hopefully,  and 
iEgidius  of  Viterbo   (q.v.)  transmitted  to  him  a 
memorial   which   described  the  corruption  of  the 
Church  and  discussed  the  means  of  redress. 

Adrian  fulfilled  these  expectations.  Concerning 
indulgences  he  even  endeavored  to  find  a  way  which 
might  lead  to  a  reconciliation  with  Luther's  con- 
ception, viz.,  to  make  the  effect  of  the  indulgence 
dependent  on  the  depth  of  repentance  on  evi- 
dence of  it  in  a  reformed  life.  But  here  Cardinal 
Cajetan  asserted  that  the  authority  of  the  pope 
would  suffer,  since  the  chief  agent  would  no  longer 
be  the  pope,  but  the  believer,  and  the  majority 
agreed  with  the  cardinal.  Nothing  was  done  in 
the  matter,  no  dogma  was  revised,  and  the  com- 
plaints of  the  Germans  increased.  Nevertheless, 
Adrian  simplified  his  household,  moneys  given  for 
Church  purposes  were  no  longer  used  for  the  sup- 
port of  scholars  and  artists,  he  sought  to  reform  the 
abuse  of  pluralities,  and  opposed  simony  and  nepo- 
tism. His  effort  to  influence  Erasmus  to  write 
against  Luther  and  to  bring  Zwingli  by  a  letter  to 
his  side  shows  his  attitude  toward  the  Reformation 
in  Germany  and  Switzerland. 


56 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Advent 


When  the  diet  at  Nuremberg  was  opened  in 
Dee.,  1522,  he  complained  in  a  brief  of  the  rise  of 
heresy  in  Gennany  and  asked  the  diet,  since  mild 
measures  could  not  be  effectual,  to  employ  the 
means  formerly  used  against  Hubs.  But  in  his 
instructions  to  his  legate  at  the  diet,  Bishop  Chiere- 
gati,  he  took  a  different  tone,  and  acknowledged 
that  "  wantonness,"  "  abuses,"  and  "  excesses  " 
were  found  at  the  curia.  This  is  the  only  instance 
where  such  a  confession  received  official  sanction. 
An  answer  was  prepared  by  a  committee,  which 

took  notice  of  the  confession,  refused 

His  to  execute  the  edict  of  Worms  before 

Confession,    an    improvement    was    visible,    and 

asked  for  the  meeting  of  a  council  in 
a  German  city,  promising  to  prevent  Luther  from 
publishing  his  polemical  writings  and  to  see  to  it 
that  the  preachers  proclaimed  the  pure  gospel, 
but  "  according  to  the  teaching  and  interpretation 
of  the  Scriptures  approved  and  revered  by  the 
Christian  Church."  Chieregati  accepted  neither 
this  nor  any  other  answer,  but  left  Nuremberg  in 
haste.  In  strict  papal  circles  Adrian's  confession 
has  not  yet  been  forgiven.  He  died  at  Rome 
Sept.  14,  1523.  K.  Benrath. 

BiBUOoaAPHT:  P.  Bunnannua,  Hadrianut  VI.  aive  analeda 
kUloriea,  .  .  .  Utrecht,  1727;  G.  Moringus.  Vita  Ha- 
driani  VI.,  Louvain,  1636;  Bower,  Pope»,  iii.  299- 
302;  L.  P.  Gschard,  Correapondanca  de  Chctrlea  V.  et 
d'Adrien  VI.,  BruseeU,  1869;  J.  S.  Brewer,  LettertandPa- 
ptn.  .  .  o/ t^Aet^o//f«nr]/y///.,  4  vols.,  London,  1862- 
1001  (especially  vol.  iii.);  G.  A.  Bcrgenroth,  Calendar  .  .  . 
rdaHno  to  the  NegoHationa  between  England  and  Spain,  ii., 
London,  1866;  idem.  Supplement  to  vols.  i.  and  ii.  (1868); 
M.  Broseh.  Geechichte  dee  Kirchenetaatee,  vol.  i.,  Hamburg, 
1880;  C.  V.  H6fler.  Papet  Hadrian  VI.,  Vienna,  1880;  A. 
Lapitre,  Adrien  VI.,  Paris,  1880;  L.  v.  Ranke,  Deuteche 
Gudti^te  im  Zeitalter  der  Reformation,  ii.,  Leipsic,  1880; 
idem.  Die  r&miaehen  PUpete,  i.,  ib.  1889;  Eng.  transl.,  i. 
71-74,  London,  1896;  Milman.  LaJtin  Chriatianity;  Hefele, 
ConeiHenoeeehiefUe,  ix.  271-299;  Creigbton,  Papacy,  vi. 
214-273. 

ADSO:  One  of  the  more  prominent  of  the 
reforming  abbots  of  the  tenth  century.  He  be- 
longed to  a  noble  family  in  the  Jura  Mountains , 
became  a  monk  at  Luxeuil,  and  went  later  to  the 
monastery  of  Montier-en-Der  (120  m.  e.s.e.  of  Paris), 
in  the  diocese  of  Ch&lons-sur-Mame,  reformed 
about  935  by  the  abbot  Albert,  whom  he  succeeded 
in  967  or  968.  He  laid  the  foundation  for  a  splendid 
new  basilica,  remains  of  which  are  still  standing 
(cf.  Sackur,  Die  Cluniacenaer,  ii.  391),  and  under- 
took to  reform  other  monasteries,  e.g.,  St.  Benig- 
nus  at  Dijon.  Like  his  friends  Abbo  of  Fleury  and 
Gerbert  of  Reims  (cf .  Havet,  Lea  LeUree  de  Oerbert, 
pp.  6,  74,  Paris,  18i89),  he  was  interested  in  learning 
and  investigation;  and  his  library  included  the 
writings  of  Aristotle,  Porphyry,  Terence,  Caesar, 
and  Vergil.  He  was  often  urged  to  write  books, 
especially  the  lives  of  saints,  and  several  works 
of  this  class  by  him  may  be  found  in  ASM  (ii.  and 
iv.;. copied  in  MPL,  cxxxvii.  597-700). 

The  most  famous  of  Adso's  writings  is  the  earliest, 
an  Epistola  ad  Oerhergam  reginam^  de  vita  et  tempore 
AnHchristif  composed  before  954,  in  which  he 
opposes  the  prevalent  notion  that  the  appearance 
of  Antichrist  was  near  at  hand.  The  work  was 
much  read,  and  suffered  greatly  from  mutilations 
and  interpolations    (cf.   MPLy    ci.    1289>98);   its 


original  form  has  been  restored  by  E.  Sackur,  in 
Sibylliniache  Texte  und  Forachungen,  pp.  104-113, 
Halle,  1898.  S.  M.  Deutbch. 

Bibuooraphy:  The  chief  source  for  Adso'e  life  ia  an  addi- 
tion of  the  eleventh  century  to  his  Vita  S.  Bercharii,  the 
patron  saint  of  Montier-«n-Der,  ch  zi.,  in  MPL,  cxxxvii. 
678-679.  and  in  MQH,  Script,  iv.  (1841)  488.  Consult 
also  the  Hiatoire  littSraire  de  la  France,  vi.  471-492;  A. 
Ebert,  AUgemeine  Oeachichte  der  Litteraiur  dea  Mittelaltera 
im  Abendlande,  iii.  472-484,  Leipsic,  1887;  and,  especially, 
£.  Sackur,  Die  Cluniacenaer,  vol.  i.,  Halle,  1892. 

ADULTERY.     See  Marriage. 

ADVENT:  The  first  season  of  the  church  year. 
The  celebration  of  Advent  in  the  Western  Chm^h 
was  instituted  toward  the  close  of  the  fifth  centujy, 
in  Gaul,  Spain,  and  Italy  [but  traces  of  it  are  found  in 
the  Council  of  Saragossa,  380].  The  term  was  first 
understood  as  referring  to  the  birth  of  Christ,  and 
so  the  Advent  season  was  a  time  of  preparation  for 
Christmas.  Since  it  commenced  at  different  periods 
(e.g.,  at  Milan  with  the  Sunday  after  St.  Martin 
[Nov.  11];  in  Rome  with  the  first  in  December), 
the  number  of  Sundays  in  Advent  differed  in  the 
individual  churches.  The  term  adventua  was  also 
taken  in  the  wider  sense  of  the  coming  of  Christ 
in  general;  hence  the  lessons  for  Advent  which 
refer  to  the  second  coming  of  Christ  and  the  last 
judgment.  With  it  was  also  connected  the  notion 
of  the  coming  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven.  Thus 
originated  the  idea  of  the  triple  coming  "  to  man, 
in  man,  and  against  man  '*  or,  corresponding  to 
the  number  four  of  the  Sundays  which  afterward 
became  general,  the  notion  of  the  quadruple  com- 
ing "  in  the  flesh,  in  the  mind,  in  death,  in  majesty." 

In  the  medieval  church  the  Advent  season  was  a 
time  of  fasting  and  repentance.  Hence  one  finds  in 
it  the  figure  of  John  the  Baptist,  as  the  precursor 
of  Christ  and  the  preacher  of  repentance.  The 
whole  season  from  Advent  to  the  octave  of  Epiph- 
any was  a  tempua  clattaum  (q.v.)  until  the  Council 
of  Trent,  which  took  off  the  last  week.  In  the 
Church  of  Rome  Advent  has  still  the  character  of 
a  penitential  season.  The  color  of  the  vestments 
then  worn  is  violet.  This  character  of  earnest  and 
serious  devotion  appears  in  more  preaching,  teach- 
ing, and  insistence  upon  attendance  at  communion. 
Fasting  during  Advent  is  not  a  general  ordinance 
of  the  Church  of  Rome  [being  required  only  on  all 
Fridays,  the  vigil  of  Christmas,  and  the  three  em- 
ber-days in  the  last  week  of  the  season]. 

With  the  adoption  of  the  medieval  church  cal- 
endar, the  Protestants  also  accepted  the  Advent 
season  and  Advent  lessons.  Thus  the  season 
retained  its  double  character,  preparation  for  the 
Christmas  festival  and  contemplation  of  the  dif- 
ferent ways  of  the  coming  of  Christ.  Since  it  has 
become  customary  to  separate  the  civil  and  ecclesi- 
astical chronology  and  to  distinguish  between  the 
civil  and  church  years,  the  first  Sunday  of  Advent 
has  been  dignified  as  the  solemn  beginning  of  the 
new  church  year.  These  various  relations  of  the 
first  Sunday  of  Advent  and  the  whole  Advent 
season  explain  the  variety  of  the  contents  of  the 
Advent  hymns  and  prayers.  Among  Protestants 
also  the  Advent  season  has  a  twofold  character, 
that  of  holy  joy  and  of  holy  repentance.  The 
first  Sunday  in  Advent  is  no  church  festival  in  a 


Advent  Christiaiui 
AdTooatus  Dei 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


66 


full  sense,  but  the  relations  referred  to  lift  it  and 
the  succeeding  Sundays  above  ordinary  Sundays. 
See  Church  Year.  W.  Caspari. 

In  the  present  usage  of  the  West,  the  season 
begins  on  the  nearest  Sunday  to  St.  Andrew's  day 
(Nov.  30),  whether  before  or  after.  In  the  Anglican 
prayer-book  the  service  for  the  first  Sunday  em- 
phasizes the  second  coming;  that  for  the  second, 
the  Holy  Scriptures;  that  for  the  third,  the  Christian 
ministry;  while  only  the  fourth  relates  specific- 
ally to  the  first  coming.  Advent  in  the  Eastern 
Church  begins  on  Nov.  14,  thus  making  a  season  of 
forty  days  analogous  to  Lent. 

Bibuoorapht:  The  lectionaries  in  Liber  comicua,  i.,  Oxford, 
1893.  and  in  Scuramentarium  Qeltuianum  published  in  L. 
A.  Muratori,  Liturgia  romanum  vetua,  vol.  i.,  Venice,  1748, 
and  in  MPL,  Ixxiv.;  Smaragdus,  in  MPL,  cii.;  Ama- 
larius  Metenais,  De  eccleaiaaUcia  ofjicxia,  ib.  cv.;  Bemo  of 
Reichenau,  De  oelebratione  adventut,  MPL,  cxlii.;  Isidore 
of  Seville,  De  officiia,  ed.  Cochlseus,  Leipsic.  1534,  and  in 
M.  de  la  Digne,  Magna  biblioOieca  veterum  patrum,  x.,  Paris, 
1654;  E.  Mart^ne,  De  antiquiM  eccleaicB  ritibuSt  Rouen, 
1700. 

ADVENT   CHRISTIANS.     See  Adventists,  3. 

ADVENTISTS:  The  general  name  of  a  body 
embracing  several  branches,  whose  members  look 
for  the  proximate  personal  coming  of  Christ.  Will- 
iam Miller  (q.v.),  their  founder,  was  a  converted 
deist,  who  in  1816  joined  the  Baptist  Church  in 
Low  Hampton,  N.  Y.  He  became  a  close  student 
of  the  Bible,  especially  of  the  prophecies,  and  soon 
satisfied  himself  that  the  Advent  was  to  be  personal 
and  premillennial,  and  that  it  was  near  at  hand. 
He  began  these  studies  in  1818,  but  did  not  enter 
upon  the  work  of  the  ministry  until  1831.  The 
year  1843  was  the  date  agreed  upon  for  the  Advent; 
then,  more  specifically,  Oct.  22,  1844,  the  failure 
of  which  divided  a  body  of  followers  that  had 
become  quite  numerous.  In  the  year  of  his  death 
(1849)  they  were  estimated  at  50,000.  Many  who 
had  been  drawn  into  the  movement  by  the  preva- 
lent excitement  left  it,  and  returned  to  the  churches 
from  which  they  had  withdrawn.  After  the  second 
failure.  Miller  and  some  other  leaders  discouraged 
attempts  to  fix  exact  dates.  On  this  question  and 
on  the  doctrine  of  the  immortality  of  the  soul  there 
have  been  divisions.  There  are  now  at  least  six 
distinct  branches  of  Adventists,  all  of  which  agree 
that  the  second  coming  of  Christ  is  to  be  personal 
and  premillennial,  and  that  it  is  near  at  hand. 
The  Seventh-day  Adventists  and  the  Church  of 
God  are  presbyterial,  the  others  congregational 
in  their  polity.  All  practise  immersion  as  the  mode 
of  baptism. 

1.  Evangelical  Adventists:  This  is  the  oldest 
branch,  indeed  the  original  body.  The  members 
adopted  their  Declaration  of  Princijiles  in  confer- 
ence in  Albany,  N.  Y.,  in  1845,  and  in  1858  formed 
the  American  Millennial  Association  to  print  and 
circulate  literature  on  eschatology  from  their  point 
of  view.  Their  organ  was  the  weekly  paper  The 
Signs  of  the  Times,  which  had  been  established  in 
Boston  in  1840;  subsequently  its  name  was  changed 
to  The  Adi^ent  Herald,  and  later  still  to  Messiah* s 
Her  aid,  its  present  (1906)  title.  The  paper  has 
always  been  published  in  Boston.  The  Evan- 
gelical Adventists  differ  from  all  the  other  branches 


in  maintaining  the  coDBciousneflB  of  the  dead  in 
Hades  and  the  eternal  sufiPeringe  of  the  lost. 
Bxblxoorapht:  H.  F.  Hill,  Tht  Sainta  /nAariCofuas.  Bortoo, 

1852;   D.  T.  Taylor,  Ths  Rngn  of  Ckritl,  PoMedde.  R.  L, 

1855.  and  Boston,  1889. 

2.  Seventh-day  Adyentista:  This  branch  datei 
from  1845,  in  which  year,  at  Washington,  N.  H., 
a  body  of  Adventists  adopted  the  belief  that  the 
seventh  day  of  the  week  is  the  Sabbath  for  Chris- 
tians and  is  obligatory  upon  them.  In  1850  their 
chief  organ,  The  Advent  Review  and  Sabbath  Herald^ 
was  first  issued  at  Battle  Creek,  Bfich.,  which  was 
made  the  headquarters  of  the  body;  and  there  in 
1860  a  publishing  association,  in  1862  a  general 
annual  conference,  in  1866  a  health  institute,  and 
in  1874  an  educational  society  and  a  foreign  mission 
board  were  established.  In  1903  the  publishing 
business  and  the  general  headquarters  were  re- 
moved to  Washfaigton,  D.  C.  Their  organ  is  now 
styled  The  Review  and  Herald,  Besides  the  tenet 
which  gives  them  their  name  they  hold  that  man 
is  not  inmiortal,  that  the  dead  sleep  in  uncon- 
sciousness, and  that  the  unsaved  never  awake. 
They  practise  foot-washing  and  accept  the  charis- 
mata, maintain  a  tithing  system,  and  pay  great 
attention  to  health  and  total  abstinence.  They 
accept  Mrs.  Ellen  G.White  as  an  inspired  prophetess. 
Bibliographt:    J.  N.  Andrews.  History  of  the  Sabbat  and 

Firtt  Day,  Battle  Greek.  1873  (3d  ed..  1887);  Life  Skeldua 

of  Elder  Jamee  White  and  hie  wife  Mr:  Ellen  O.  TTAite. 

1880;  J.  N .  Loughborough.  Riee  and  Progrtee  of  the  SevenOk- 

Day  Adventiate,  ib.  1892. 

8.  Advent  Christians:  The  organization  under 
this  name  dates  from  1861,  when  a  general  asso- 
ciation was  formed.  The  organ  of  these  Advent- 
ists is  The  World's  Crisis  and  Second  Advent  Mes- 
sengeTy  published  in  Boston.  Their  creed  is  given 
in  the  Declaration  of  Principles,  approved  by  the 
general  conference  of  1900.  They  beUeve  that 
through  sin  man  forfeited  immortality  and  that 
only  through  faith  in  Christ  can  any  live  forever; 
that  death  is  a  condition  of  unconsciousness  for 
all  persons  until  the  resurrection  at  Christ's  second 
coming,  when  the  righteous  will  enter  an  endless 
life  upon  this  earth,  and  the  rest  will  suffer  com- 
plete extinction  of  being;  that  this  coming  is  near; 
that  church  government  should  be  congregational; 
that  immersion  is  the  only  true  baptism;  and  that 
Sunday  is  the  Christian  Sabbath. 
Bibliooraphy:  I.  C.  Wellcome.  Hiatary  of  the  Second  Ad- 
vent Meaaage,  Yarmouth,  Me.,  1874. 

4.  Life  and  Advent  Union:  This  may  be  said 
to  have  existed  since  1848,  but  it  was  not  until 
1862  that  it  was  organized,  at  Wilbraham.  Mass., 
under  the  leadership  of  Elder  George  Stores.  Its 
organ  is  The  Herald  of  Life  and  of  the  Coming  King- 
dom, published  at  Springfield,  Mass.,  weekly  since 
1862.  It  holds  that  all  hope  of  another  life  is 
through  Jesus  Christ,  and  that  only  believers  in 
him,  who  have  manifested  in  their  daily  lives,  the 
fruits  of  the  Spirit,  attain  to  the  resurrection  of  the 
dead,  which  will  take  place  at  Christ's  coming, 
and  that  such  coming  will  be  personal,  visible,  and 
literal,  and  is  impending.  The  Union  holds  four 
camp-meetings  annually:  two  in  Maine,  one  in 
Connecticut,  which  is  the  principal  one,  and  one  in 
Virginia. 


57 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Advent  Ohristiaiui 
AdTooatns  Dei 


BiBLiooRAmrr:  O,  S.  Halatedp  Th*  Thtoioffv  of  the  BihU, 
Kvwark,  1800;  DiscuMnon  fcefiMWA  MUm  Grant  and  J.  T. 
CwTV.  Bofttoti,  1863. 

G.  Church  of  God:  This  is  a  branch  of  the 
Sev^enth-day  Adveotjfitfl,  which  seceded  in  1866 
becaum  ita  membeis  denied  that  Mrs*  EUen  Gould 
White  was  an  inspired  prophetefs.  Their  organ 
n  The  Bibk  AdtocaU  end  Herald  of  ifu  Cmning 
KmQdam^  pubUshed  at  Stauberry,  Mo,^  which  is 
their  center.  like  the  parent  body,  the  Church  of 
God  has  tithes,  sanatorium Sj  and  a  publishing  houfie. 

BlBUCmltAlniT:  A.  F*  Ihigser,  PHni*  of  Diff rrrnce  between 
tke  Churdk  of  Uod  Qtid  Stf'enfh^DGy  Advtmti*iti  Stanberry, 
Uo-^  J.  BriiikFrboff^  Mrt,  WHiic^n  ViMionm.  Campari^on 
of  Ae  mriu  Writini^  af  Mrt.  E.  O.  Whiie  with  Uiier  Fubtica- 
(hMif »  fA<Hnnjf  the  Supj/rstnonM  nmde  in  thiem  to  dtny  0i€ir 
mroiiMau*  Tmdiing:,  D.  Nidd,  Tha  Good  Friday  Proh- 
Im,  Mkojpim^  from  ScripHire,  Astronomy  and  HUtory  (hat 
A«  Crmcifttuirn  of  Christ  took  Piac^  on  fVedneKiayt  and  hiM 
Beturr^ction  &n  Saturday. 

6.  Churches  of  God  in  Christ  Jesus,  popularly 
known  as  the  Age-to-comc  AdventistB :  These  have 
eiisted  since  1851*  when  their  or^n,  The  RcsiUu- 
tim  (Plymouth,  Ind,),  was  established,  but  they 
w«re  not  organized  till  1888,  when  the  general 
conference  was  formed.  They  believe  in  the  res- 
toration of  Israel,  the  Uteral  resurrection  of  the 
deadp  the  immortalization  of  the  righteous,  and 
the  final  destruction  of  the  wicked ^  eterual  life 
being  through  Christ  alone, 

UtuLKoomA^ni:    X   P.  Weelbee.  The  Comino  A  ga,  Chit^ga, 

ISM. 

The  statistics  of  the  Adventists  are  thus  given 
t^  H.  K.  Carroll  in  The  ChrUiiim  Advocate  for 
Jan-  25.  1906: 

Commu- 

_    N&iBA.                                  MinifltflirB-  Churehea.  Dif^anu, 

EmiKpUcal. , .  . . ........       34  30  1,H7 

Scrpmh^ay.. 4S6  1.707  60.471 

AdTeot  Chri«tiftn» 012  610  39.600 

Life  vid  Ad  rent  Omon.,  .. ...       AO  28  3.S00 

Qinreb  of  God ...              . 10  2Q  «47 

Cbtircbei    of    God    in    Oirut 

JMUi.... „.. . 54  95  2.872 

Total  Adrootitla I,fi65         2.400  ftfi.437 

ADVlRTlSEMEirrs  OP  ELIZABETH:  Name 
cocunonly  applied  to  the  regulationa  promulgated 
in  1566  by  Matthew  Parker,  archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury ^  for  the  purpose,  as  allege d,  of  securing  uni- 
formity and  decency  in  pubhc  worship,  against 
the  tendenci^  of  the  extr^ne  Protefltant  party 
(see  PuiirrANS,  Puritanism,  j  6).  It  is  now 
CeneraUy  admitted  that,  though  they  represented 
Eli^abeth'B  policy  in  ritual  mattera^  they  never 
received  her  formal  sanction.  They  assumed  some 
importance  in  the  ritual  controversies  of  the  nine- 
teenth centuryt  the  High-Church  party  contei^iing 
that  they  were  merely  an  archiepiacopal  injunction 
enforcing  an  irreducible  minimum  of  ritual,  while 
their  opponents  attempted  to  ihow  that  they  were 
A  legal  prescription  of  a  positive  kind,  which  made 
the  surpHce  the  only  lawful  vestment  of  the  clergy 
in  parish  churches. 

BCBuooiRAFar  :  The  text  of  lh«  AdT*rtii*nieTitii  in  siven  Is 
Gee  An d  H«rdy ,  Da€^mmii»,  p p.  467-475.  Conault  tJ.Bt rype, 
Life  and  AetM  of  Matihev  Parker,  LoudoD*  li21;  Chvrch 
QuarUris/  Rttfi^.  xvii.  (1881)  54-60. 

ADVOCATE  OF  THE  CHUHCH  (Lat.  Advoeaiux 
or  Defensor  Eeele»im)i  An  officer  charged  with 
the  aeeular  affairs  of  an  eccleaiaatical  establishment, 


more  especially  its  defense,  legal  or  armed.    The 

beginnings  of  the  office  appear  in  the  Roroan  em- 
pire. From  the  end  of  the  fifth  century  there  were 
defen^&res  in  Italy,  charged  with  the  protection  of 
the  poor  and  orphans  as  well  as  with  the  care  of 
Church  rights  and  property.  In  the  Merovingian 
kingdom  legal  representatives  of  the  churches  had 
the  title.  In  the  Carlo vingian  period ,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  effort  to  keep  tlie  clergy  as  far  as 
possible  from  worldly  affairs,  bishops,  abbots,  and 
other  ecclesiastics  w^ere  required  to  have  such  an 
official.  The  development  of  the  law  of  immunity 
made  such  advocati  necessary — on  the  one  hand, 
to  uphold  Church  rights  against  the  State  and  in 
court  J  on  the  other  hand  to  perform  judicial  and 
pohce  duties  in  ecclefiiai*tical  territory.  The  Carlo- 
vingian  kings  had  the  right  of  appointment,  but 
Bometimes  waived  it  in  individual  cases.  These 
officers  were  at  first  generally  clerics,  later  laymen, 
and  finally  the  office  became  henjditary.  Often 
this  advocate  of  the  Church  developed  into  a  tyrant, 
keeping  the  establishment  in  absolute  submission, 
despoiling  and  plundering  it.  He  usurped  the 
whole  power  of  admimstration,  limited  the  authority 
of  the  bishop  to  purely  spiritual  affairs,  absorbed 
the  tithes  and  all  other  re%''enues,  and  doled  out  to 
the  clergy  a  mean  modicum  only.  Innocent  III. 
{1198-1216),  howeverj  succeeded  in  checking  the 
growing  importance  of  this  institution,  and  soon 
the  office  itself  disappeared. 

BtDLiooaAPHT:  lU  H«»pp,  i>«  adifpeaiia  eeeienoMtiett,  Bonn, 
1870;  H.  Bninner.  DeiittcAe  Rechttgttchwhte,  ii.  302*  Lcip- 
aic>  18©  2. 

ADVOCATES,  C0I7SIST0RIAL :  Twelve  lawyers 
who  outrank  all  the  advocates  in  the  papal  court. 
They  trace  their  origin  from  the  close  of  the  sixth 
century,  when  Gregory  the  Great  appointed  seven 
deferism^s  in  the  city  of  Rome  to  plead  the  cause 
of  poor  litigants  who  would  otherwise  he  without 
le^  counsel.  Sixtus  IV.  increased  the  number  by 
the  addition  of  five  junior  advocates^  but  the 
memory  of  the  historical  origin  of  the  body  was 
preserved  by  reserving  to  the  seven  senior  mem- 
bers certain  privileges,  among  them  the  right  to 
constitute  the  college  proper  of  consistorial  advo- 
cates. This  college  at  the  present  time  is  made 
up  of  two  clerics  aod  five  laymen,  one  of  the  latter 
being  dean.  The  name  ''  consistorial "  comes  from 
the  fact  that  their  principal  duties — presenting  the 
claims  of  candidates  for  canonisation  and  petition- 
ing for  the  pallium — are  performed  in  papal  con- 
sistories. John  T.  Creaoh. 

ADVOCATES  OF  ST.  PETER:  An  associa* 
tion  of  Roman  Catholic  jurists  formed  on  the 
occasion  of  the  episcopal  jubilee  of  Pius  IX.  in  1876^ 
for  the  purpose  of  asserting  and  vindicating  the 
rights  and  teaching  of  the  Church  and  of  the  Holy 
See.  The  organization,  which  was  blessed  by 
Pius  IX.,  received  a  signal  mark  of  approbation 
from  Leo  XIII.  in  187S,  when  its  conatitution  was 
approved  in  a  papal  brief.  From  Rome,  where 
its  headquarters  were^tablished,  it  has  spread  into 
all  the  countries  of  Europe,  but  is  unknown  in  the 
United  States.  John  T.  Creagh. 

ADVOCATXJS   DEI,   DIABOLL    See   Canoniia^ 

HON. 


AdTowson 
Aftre 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


68 


ADVOWSON:  In  the  Church  of  England,  the 
right  of  nominfltion  to  a  vacant  ecclesiastical 
benefice,  vested  in  the  crown,  the  bishop,  one  of 
the  univerHitiea,  or  a  privat-e  person.  Such  nomi- 
natioQ,  or  presentation,  3&  it  is  called,  is  the  rule 
in  England,  election  by  the  congregation  being 
almost  unknown, 

^DITDTJS,  i-dit'fl-ijs;  A  term  applied  to  a 
peraon  having  the  care  of  ec^^lesiastical  property. 
Among  the  Romans  it  described  one  who,  with  the 
local  priest ,  if  there  was  one,  had  charge  of  a  temple. 
The  Roman  customs  in  regard  to  this  office  had  their 
influence  on  the  development  of  eimilar  functions 
In  the  Christian  Church,  They  were  at  first  dis- 
charged  by  the  mliarius  (q.v.),  to  whom  the  term 
mdituvs  was  sometimes  applied  (cf.  Paulinus  of 
Hola,  EpisLj  i.).  By  degrecfl,  as  the  major  and 
minor  orders  developed,  and  Church  property 
became  more  valuable,  permanent  subordinate 
officials  were  required  to  look  after  it.  The  func- 
tions and  designations  of  these  official*  varied, 
however,  in  different  provinces.  The  name  (tdituu^ 
feU  into  disuse,  probably  from  its  original  associa- 
tion with  heathen  worship.  It  was  employed  in 
the  Vulgate  version  of  Ezek.  xliv.  11-  Hoa.  x.  5; 
Zeph.  i.  4 1  and  Durand  (RaHonale,  ii,  5)  says  of 
the  ottiarii  that  their  functions  resemble  those  of 
the  trdUui.  In  the  Middle  Agie^  the  execution  of 
the  lesi  dignified  functions,  which  were  thought 
incompatible  with  the  clerical  office,  was  committed 
more  and  more  to  subordinates,  and  by  the  end  of 
that  period  almost  entirely  to  laymen.  The  name 
(Bdituut  was  still  used  for  thcso  officials,  being  thus 
equivalent  to  the  later  sacrii^tan.  But  this  was 
principally  in  central  Europe*  especiaEy  in  Germany, 
where  conciUar  decrees  show  that  their  duty  was 
to  ring  the  bells,  to  open  and  close  the  church,  etc. 
In  the  more  western  countries  the  atditui  became 
rather  identified  with  the  procurt^oren  or  jyrovisorm 
(qq*v,)  who  had  charge  of  the  ecclesiastical  prop- 
erty, though  this  included  in  some  degree*  the  main- 
tenance of  the  building  and  the  provision  of 
vestments,  candles,  incensCp  and  the  Uke,  In 
America  during  the  nineteenth  century  the  name 
baa  been  not  infrequently  employed  in  Roman 
Catholic  ecclesiastical  terminology  for  the  trustees 
who  administer  the  temporal  concerns  of  a  parish, 

(JOMAKNES  FlCKEH.) 

^GIDIUSp  r-jid'(-TTs,  SAINT.  See  Gilba,  Saint, 
^GIDIUS  DE  COLUMKA  (Egidio  Colonna):  A 
pupil  of  Thomas  Aquinas  and  reputed  author  of 
the  bull  Unam  aanciam  ;  b.  at  Rome  1 245  (?)  :  d.  at 
Avignon  1I?16.  He  joined  the  .\ugU8tinian  eremite 
monks,  studied  at  Paris,  and  taught  there  for  many 
yeflrs^  being  called  Doctor  fumlatifisimus.  From 
1292  to  1295  be  was  general  of  his  order,  in  1296 
he  was  made  archbishop  of  Bo  urges,  but.  continued 
to  reside  in  Rome.  He  defended  the  election  of  Boni- 
face VI XL  in  his  Z)c  rtnvnlia^ume  pap^j  showing 
that  the  ahtKcation  of  CVlc?!tin(*  V.  was  not  against 
the  canon  law.  and  folio sved  the  court,  to  Avignon, 
His  numerous  writing  (mostly  unpuhhshed)  deal 
with  philosophy  (commentaries  on  Aristotle), 
exegesit*  {In  Canticum  Canticorum  ;  In  epiMtf^Uim 
ad  RomcrnQs),  and  dogmatics  {In  sententi€ts  Longo- 


bardi;  Quodltbeia).  A  portion  of  his  worit  on 
ecclesiastical  polity,  De  poUstatt  ^sdemadiea,  wu 
pubhahod  in  the  Jma-nal  de  tin^trueiwn  pubHqm 
(Paris,  1858).  K,  Bexrjlth, 

BtaLtoottAf«T:  0,  E.  du  Bodas^,  SUktria  univenitatit  Fmi- 
tianMiM,  m.  671^72.  Pbjt*.  1666;  W,  Gar©.  Stripdnm 
eetUnastiei0rum  liiigr^Tia,  ii.  330-34 1«  Oxford,  1743:  J'  A. 
Fabridus.  Bihliathsm  Latina,  L  19-20,  FlorvnoB,  liS8| 
F.  X*  KrpUJi,  .^oidim  von  «<m*.  ia  Or^iertwAiaekt  VMrtd- 
jahrutefaitt  fQr  kaitud^chA  Theol&a%*^  L  1-33,  VieuB, 
1S62;  P.  Ukjbj^Ip  GiUu  d*  Rtmu,  rrliffimAt,  Aitgu^im, 
iKeoio&iim,  m  Hiai&ws  liUervv^  di  la  Ftanm*  ^et.  431-500, 
Paris,  l&gS, 

JEGIDKFS  OF  VITEBBO :  General  and  p^oteetor 
of  the  order  of  Augustinian  eremite  mooka  to  which 
Luther  belonged;  d.  as  cardinal  &t  Rome  1532, 
Of  hia  many  theological  writings  (for  Hat  cf,  Fabri- 
cius,  Bibiioiheca  Lofina,  i., Florence,  IS68,  p. 23) but 
few  have  been  publishad.  Hia  addr^s  at  the  open- 
ing of  the  Lateran  council  of  1512  may  be  found  in 
Hardouin  (Conmlwmm  c&Uedio^  voL  ix,,  Paris,  1715, 
p*  1576),  and  a  raemoriaJ  on  the  condition  of  the 
Church,  which  he  presented  to  Pope  Adrian  VI., 
waa  published  by  C,  Hfifler  (in  the  AbhanStmgm 
of  the  Royal  Bavarian  Academy,  hist,  cL,  iv.,Mil- 
nich,  1846,  pp.  62-89),  K,  Benrath. 

BiBuoaaAniT:    T.  Kolde,  Die  dmU»^  AvffusUfwt^smfft^ 

ffoti^m,  Gothm,  1S7&. 

ALFRED,   ^LFRIC,     See   Auteed,    Alfric. 

Ml^EABt  i-ni'os,  OF  GAZA,  g^^n:  A  pupil  of  the 
Neoplatonist  Hieroclea  at  Alexandria,  and  teachcf 
of  rhetoric  at  Gsuia.  Before  534  he  wrote  a  dia- 
logue, Thmphra»iu9  (in  MPO,  Iscxxv.  865-10&4), 
in  which  he  opposes  Ihe  doctrine  of  the  preexistence 
of  the  soul,  but  asserts  ita  immortality  and  tiie 
resurrection  of  the  body;  the  perpetuity  of  the 
world  IS  rejected.  Twenty-five  of  his  letters  may 
be  found  in  R,  Herehcr,  EpiMdogTaphi  Grtreir  pp- 
24-32,  Paris,  1S73,  and  several  of  his  treatisea  aie 
in  H.  de  la  Bigne,  Bibtioikeca  veierum  patrum, 
viii,  (8  vols.,  Park,  160&-10)j  Magna  hiblioiheca»  v, 
3  and  xii.  (15  vols,,  Paris,  1618-22);  and  Maxima 
biUiotheca  vderum  polmnt,  Toii,  (28  voh.,  Lyons, 
1677-1707),  G,  Eb^gee, 

UiuLioan^PEiY:  G,  Wemedorf,  IHeput^tio  d*  Mnea  Gcmk^ 
NnumbuTf,  IglO;  K.  BeiU,  Dig  SchvU  vvn  Qati^  pp.^^ 
27,  Heidelb*re.  1802;  K,  Krumbacher.  Gtitekiihie  dw  bif 
mntinUchen  LiUrrafur.  p.  432.  Munich^  1^97;  G.  Sdulk* 
bauaer^  jEn^OM  von  Gofs  id*  Phih*oph^  Erl&n^n.  |SK. 

MnEAS  OF  PARIS:  Biihop  of  Paris  S58-S70; 
d,  Dec,  2Tr  S70,  He  ia  best  known  as  the  author 
of  one  of  the  controversial  treatises  aguinat  the 
Greeks  called  forth  by  the  encyclical  letters  of 
Photius.  Hia  comprehensive  Liber  advernua  Grmcos 
(in  D'Acheiy,  Sp^gum,  Paris,  i..  1723,  113-148^ 
MPL,  C3ud,  681-762;  cf.  MGH,  EpisL,  vi„  1002. 
p.  171 »  no,  22)  deals  with  the  pmcesdon  of  the 
Holy  Ghosti  the  marriage  of  the  clergy,  faating, 
the  conAvgnQtia  infaniium,  the  clerical  tonsure,  the 
Roman  primacy^  and  the  elevation  of  deacons  to 
the  @ce  of  Rome.  He  declare  that  the  aeeuaaUoni 
brought  by  the  Greeks  against  the  Latins  are 
"  superfluous  qoestions  having  more  relation  to 
secular  matters  thaji  to  spiritual.**  [The  work  is 
mainly  a  collection  of  quotations  or  "  sentences," 
from  Greek  and  Latin  Fathers,  the  former  tran»^ 
latedj  {A.  Kaxjck.) 


69 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


AdTOwson 
Aftf 


^3TEAS  SYLVIUS  FICCOLOMniL  Bee  Tim 
n.,  Pope. 

iEPIinJS,  ^pl'nm,  JOHANIfES  (Job^nn  Hoeck): 
The  first  Lutheran  superintBndent  of  Hamburg; 
h.  At  j^m&r  or  Ziegiesar  (29  m.  e.iv,e,  of  Magdeburg), 
in  tlie  niarch  of  Brandenburg,  1499;  d.  in  H&m- 
huTg  Ma  J  13^  1553.  He  was  a  diligent  student  as 
a  boy,  and  was  under  Bugenhagen's  instruction, 
probably  wbUe  the  latter  was  rectror  of  the  monofi^ 
teiy  of  Belbuck,  He  took  his  bachelor ^s  degree 
at  Wittenberg  in  1520;  here  he  became  the  friend 
of  Luther  and  Mekinchthon.  Then  he  had  a  echool 
in  Brandenburgr  but  waa  peniecuted  and  imprisoned 
for  his  reforming  activity,  and  had  to  leave  home. 
Fully  on  account  of  the  malice  of  bis  enemies, 
he  adopted  the  modified  fonn  of  tbe  Greek  word 
aipeinos  ('*  lofty  ")t  by  which  he  is  generally 
known,  and  which  he  claimed  was  a  translation  of 
his  teal  name  (Hoeck  =  AocA).  He  spent  some  time 
in  Pomerania.T  in  close  relations  with  the  leaders  of 
the  Reformation  there.  From  about  1524  to  1528 
he  was  in  Btralsund,  in  charge  of  a  school  (probably 
private).  The  local  autboritiea  asked  him  to  draw 
up  an  order  of  ecelefiiaatical  discipline  {Kirehen- 
ardnung)t  which  went, into  effect  Nov,  6,  1525.  In 
Oct.,  1529,  he  succeeded  Johann  Boldewan  as  pastor 
of  St.  Peter's  in  Hamburg.  He  carried  on  vigor- 
ously the  work  of  hia  teacher  and  friend ^  Bugen^ 
hagen*  and  was  chiefly  instrumental  in  introducing 
his  order  of  discipline  in  Hamburg.  His  contest 
with  the  cathedral  chapter,  which  still  ailhered  to 
the  old  faith,  gave  occasion  to  the  earliest  of  bis 
extant  writings,  Pinacidion  de  Hofnana  eccle&im 
impmitiTU  {153D).  On  May  IS,  1532  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  highest  office  in  the  Lutheran  Church 
of  Hamburg,  that  of  superintendent  according  to 
Bugenhagen's  order  of  discipline.  In  1534  he 
visited  England  at  the  request  of  Henry  VIII., 
to  advise  him  as  to  his  divorce  and  as  to  the  carrying 
forward  of  the  Reformation  there.  He  returned 
to  Hamburg  in  the  following  January,  and  sub- 
■equently  made  numerous  journeys  as  a  represent- 
ative of  the  city  in  important  affairs*  He  took 
part  in  all  the  church  movements  of  the  time,  and 
frequently  had  the  deciding  voice  in  disptited  mat- 
ters, Melanchthon  considered  hia  work  on  the 
interim  (1548)  the  best  that  had  been  written, 
tbou^  it  did  not  agree  with  his  own  views. 

In  ail  his  writings  .^pinus  displays  great  theo- 
logical learning  and  equal  gentleness  of  temper. 
He  g^ve  weekly  theological  lectures,  usually  in 
Latin,  which  were  attended  by  the  preachers 
and  other  learned  men,  and  spent  much  time  on 
the  Psalms,  taking  up  especially  the  questions 
which  at  the  moment  were  s^tating  men^s  minds. 
He  is  best  known  by  the  contro%^ersy  which  arose 
over  hia  teaching  as  to  the  descent  of  Christ  into 
Hades.  In  1542,  Ending  that  the  article  of  the  creed 
on  this  subject  was  frequently  explained  as  mean- 
ing no  more  than  the  going  down  into  the  grave, 
in  his  lecture  on  the  sixteenth  psalm,  he  put  for- 
ward the  vieW|  already  given  in  Luther^s  explana- 
tion of  the  Psalms,  that  Christ  had  really  gone  doww 
mtQ  hellt  to  deliver  men  fn>m  its  power.  Garcffus, 
his  suceeasoT  at  St,  Peter's,  call^  him  to  account 
for  this  teaching,  but  left  Hamburg  in  tbe  following 


year  and  did  not  retimi  until  1546.  Meantime 
^pinus's  commentary  on  Ps.  xrvi.  had  been  pub- 
lished by  his  asdstant  Johann  Freder,  so  that  his 
view  was  widely  known. 

The  controversy  became  a  public  and  a  bitter  one 
after  Garc^us's  return,  and  both  sides  sought  to 
gain  support  from  Wittenberg.  Melanchthon  could 
only  say  that  there  was  no  agreement  among  the 
doctors  on  this  pointy  and  counsel  peace,  jEpinus's 
opponents  in  Hamburg  w^ere  so  turbulent  that  their 
leaders  were  deprived  of  their  offices  and  banbhed 
from  the  city  in  1551,  The  principal  monument 
of  ^pinus's  activity  in  Hamburg  is  his  ordinances 
for  the  church  there,  which  he  drew  up  in  1539 
at  the  request  of  tbe  council.  It  was  a  necessary 
amplification  of  that  of  Bugenhagen,  and  seems 
to  have  remained  in  force  imtil  1603, 

(Carl  BehtheauO 

ii!AuJyd,II.i.,  Hamburg:4 1729;  A.  Grwve,  Mtmaria  J.  ^iSpini 
intiauruia^  ib.  t73B;  N,  Wildkeus,  Hambrtrgischer  Ehrwn^ 
tempel,  pp,  24S-2S0,  ib.  1770^  F.  H.  R.  Frank,  The&tooi* 
tier  K&nkordmnformeit  4voU.,  ErlaG£»a,  1858-65;  3cb*fir, 

AERIUSj  5.-4'ri'Us:  Presbyter  and  director  of 
the  asytiim  for  strangers,  maimed,  and  incapable, 
in  Sebaste  in  Pontus  in  the  fourth  century.  He 
was  one  of  tbe  progressive  men  of  the  time  who 
protested  against  the  legaHstio  and  hierarcliic 
tendencies  of  the  Chtu"ch.  Supporting  bis  con- 
tention by  the  Scriptures,  he  objected  to  the  in- 
equality of  presbyters  and  bishops,  denied  the  value 
of  prayers  for  the  deiwi,  and  opposed  strict  ordi- 
nances concerning  fasting,  wliich  he  wished  to 
leave  more  to  individual  judgment.  About  3^! 
he  resigned  his  position.  He  had  many  folio weTB, 
who  constituted  a  party  of  "  Aerians  '^;  they  were 
severely  peraecuted  and  soon  disappeared.  The 
only  source  IsEpiphanius  (Httr.f  Ixxv.;  cf.  Gieseler, 
Church  Histoni,  i.,  section  106,  nole  3),  who  treats 
him  in  a  very  partimn  spirit.       Phiupp  Meyer, 

BiHUtraSAPer;  J,  Olaa,  M<mngrajA  tm  tht  fferetv  of  AeriuM, 
Penh,  i745;  C.  W,  F.  Whlcb,  HUUmt  dtr  KtUgtmen,  iii. 
321  flqci.»  Leipsie*  17flfl. 

AETIUS,     See  Arianism,  1.,  3,  |6. 

AFFRE,  DEmS  AUGUSTE:  Archbishop  of 
Paris;  b.  at  St.  Rome  de  Tarn  (55  m.  n,w.  of  Mont- 
pellier),  Aveyron,  France,  Sept.  27,  1793;  d.  at 
Paris  June  27,  l!^8.  He  studlied  at  the  Seminary 
of  St.  SuSpice  and  taught  theology  there  after  having 
been  ordained  priest  ( 1818) ;  he  became  \i car-general 
of  tbe  diocese  of  Lu^n  1S21,  of  Amiens  1823,  of 
Paris  1834,  archbishop  of  Paris  1840,  As  arch- 
bishop he  was  Eealous  and  faithful,  and  lost  hh 
life  in  the  performance  of  duty.  During  the  revo- 
lution of  1848,  hoping  to  induce  the  insurgents  to 
lay  down  their  arras^  he  mounted  a  barricade  at 
the  Faubourg  St.  Antoine  and  attempted  to  address 
the  mob,  but  had  hardly  begun  to  speak  when  he 
was  struck  by  a  musket  ball  and  mortally  wounded. 
He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  La  France  chrM^ne 
(1x820),  wrote  much  for  it  and  other  periodicaU, 
and  published  several  treatises  of  value  on  edu- 
cational, historical,  and  religious  subjects. 
BiBLioomAPHT:  P.  M,  Ouicse.  Tie  dsD^A.Affri,  Paris,  I84i 

{abrid«i*d,  1S50);   E.  Castan.  Histowa  dt  la  tie  ti  d^  la  m^frt 

d9  Mgf.  D.  A.  Affre,  ib.  1855. 


Afra 
Africa 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


eo 


AFRAy  SAINT:  An  early  female  martyr,  con- 
cerning whom  all  that  can  be  confidently  asserted 
is  that  she  suffered  at  Augsburg.  This  fact  is 
attested  by  Venantius  Fortunatus  (Vita  Martinif 
iv.  642-643)  and  the  mention  of  her  name  in  the 
older  martyrologies,  and  there  is  no  reason  to 
question  it  since  the  importance  of  Augsburg  makes 
the  early  introduction  of  Christianity  there  prob- 
able. Her  Acta  (ed.  B.  Krusch,  MGH,  Script.,  Rer. 
Merav.f  iii.,  1896, 41-64)  consist  of  two  independent 
parts,  Conversio  and  Pasno,  of  which  the  latter  is 


the  older.  It  is  said  that  she  was  dedicated  by 
her  mother  to  the  senace  of  Venus  and  Uved  an 
inunoral  life  in  Augsburg  \mtil  she  was  converted 
by  a  bishop  and  deacon,  who,  in  time  of  perse- 
cution, took  refuge  in  her  house,  not  knowing 
her  character.  She  boldly  confessed  her  faith  in  a 
general  onslaught  on  the  Christians  and  died  by 
fire  Aug.  5. 

Bibliooraprt:  Rettberx.  KD,  i.  144-149;  Frwdricfa,  KD,  L 
18(^199.  427-430.  iL  663-«54:  L.  Duchesne.  8U.  Afn 
d'Aufftbouro,  in  BuUeUn  criHque,  ii.  (1887)  301-305. 


.  The  Continent  as  a  Whole. 

1.  CSeographical  Description. 

2.  The  Races  of  Africa. 

3.  The  Opening  of  Africa. 

The  Arabs  and  Portuguese  (|  1 ). 
The  General  £\ut>pean  Invasion  (|  2). 


AFRICA. 

The    Prohibition   of  the   Slave-Trade 

(13). 
Later  Explorations  and  the  Partition 
of  Africa  (I  4). 
4.  Religion  and  Missions. 
Native  Religions  (|  1). 


Protestant  Missions  (|  3). 
(Colonists  and  Missions  (|  4). 
The  "  Ethiopian  Movement  "  (|  5). 
II.  The  Political  Divisions  of  Africa. 
III.  African  Tdands 


L  The  Continent  as  a  Whole :  1.  Geographical 
Beaoription:  Africa  extends  southward  from  the 
Mediterranean  Sea  nearly  5,0(X)  miles.  The  equator 
crosses  it  nearly  in  the  middle  of  its  length;  but 
by  far  the  greater  part  of  its  mass  lies  north  of  the 
equator,  the  breadth  of  the  continent  from  Cape 
Verde  to  Cape  Guardafui  being  about  4,6(X)  miles. 
Its  area  is  about  11,5CX),(X)0  sq.  miles;  and  the 
adjacent  islands  add  to  this  239,0(X)  more.  Easily 
accessible  to  Europe  by  the  Mediterranean  Sea 
through  2,CKX)  miles  of  its  northern  coast,  and  touch- 
ing Asia  at  the  Isthmus  of  Suez,  this  continent  has 
ever  invited  investigation,  and  has  received  notable 
influences  from  both  of  its  active  neighbors.  The 
Sahara  Desert,  however,  severing  the  Mediterranean 
coast  regions  from  the  southern  and  equatorial 
regions  of  the  continent,  has  proved  for  centuries 
a  bar  to  extended  intercourse.  ''  Had  it  not  been 
for  the  River  Nile,"  says  Sir  H.  H.  Johnston,  "  the 
negro  and  the  Caucasian  might  have  existed  apart 
even  longer  without  coming  into  contact."  In 
fact,  the  great  rivers  of  Africa  are  quite  as  impor- 
tant as  aids  to  foreign  intercourse  in  these  days  as 
the  Desert  has  been  an  obstruction  to  it  in  the  past. 
The  greatest  of  the  African  rivers  are  the  Nile,  the 
Kongo,  the  Niger,  and  the  Zambesi.  (Closely  con- 
nected with  the  rivers,  again,  are  the  great  lakes  of 
central  Africa,  namely,  Victoria,  Tanganyika,  and 
Nyassa,  which  belong,  respectively,  to  the  Nile,  the 
Kongo,  and  the  Zambesi  systems.  A  further 
characteristic  of  the  continent,  noteworthy  for  all 
who  seek  entrance  to  its  interior  districts,  is  the 
insalubrity,  one  might  say  the  deadliness,  of  the 
climate  of  its  coasts  both  east  and  west  throughout 
its  tropical  zone.  The  low-lying  coast  regions, 
extending  in  some  cases  2CX)  miles  inland  are  sown 
with  the  graves  of  white  men,  germs  of  strange  and 
fatal  fevers  lying  in  wait  as  it  were  for  all  strangers 
who  ventiure  to  set  foot  imprepared  upon  that  black 
and  seething  soil.  The  greatest  moimtains  of 
Africa  are  aU  in  its  east  central  section.  Kilima- 
Njaro  in  German  East  Africa,  east  of  the  Victoria 
Nyanza,  is  19,6(X)  feet  high;  Mweru,  close  by,  is 
about  16,(XX)  feet;  and  Ruwenzori,  west  of  the 
Victoria  Nyanza  and  on  the  border  of  the  Kongo 
Independent  State,  is  over  20,(XX)  feet.  Among 
the  high  lands  of  the  interior  the  most  notable 


section  is  a  broad  causeway  of  elevated  plateaux 
which  stretches  from  Abyssinia  southward  almost 
to  (I^ape  C^olony,  and  which  offers  to  the  white  man 
an  almost  ideal  residence  at  a  height  of  from  5,(X)0 
to  6,0(X)  feet  through  a  long  range  that  is  hardly 
broken  save  by  the  Zambesi  River. 

2.  The  Baoes  of  Afirioa:  The  puzzle  of  the  races 
in  Africa  which  the  casual  visitor  classes  under  the 
comprehensive  term  negroes  is  insoluble  at  this 
day.  But  the  key  to  the  puzzle  may  probably  be 
found  in  the  repeated  mingling  of  Asiatic  and 
European  blood  in  varying  degrees  and  at  divers 
distinct  epochs  with  the  blood  of  the  African  of  the 
projecting  jaw  and  the  woolly  locks.  The  history 
of  Africa  is  practically  the  history  of  Egypt  and  then 
of  her  C]!arthaginian  rival  untU  well  toward  the 
Christian  era.  Only  then  did  the  Mediterranean 
coast  of  North  Africa  begin  to  have  a  tale  of  its 
own.  The  mention  of  this  is  significant;  it  sug- 
gests the  repeated  entrance  of  Asiatics  into  Africa 
through  the  whole  period  when  Egypt  was  a  world 
power,  and  of  various  sorts  of  Europeans  into  North 
Africa  during  a  thousand  years  before  the  Moham- 
medan era. 

The  races  now  inhabiting  Africa  are  a  perpetual 
subject  of  discussion  and  theory  because  of  the  dif- 
ficulty of  accoimting  for  the  resemblances  as  well 
as  the  differences  between  them.  Along  the  Mediter- 
ranean coast  of  North  Africa  the  Arab  race  rules; 
but  in  all  the  countries  of  this  coast  from  the  west 
frontier  of  Egypt  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean  the  Berber 
race  forms  the  larger  part  of  the  population,  and 
even  extends  into  the  Sahara.  A  little  further  south, 
negroes  of  a  low  and  degraded  type  are  foimd  on 
the  west  of  the  Nile;  and  they  appear  at  different 
points  throughout  the  continent  as  far  west  as  the 
Atlantic  coast.  In  Egypt  the  larger  part  of  the 
population  is  a  mixture  of  Arabs  with  the  ancient 
Egyptian  race,  commonly  classed  as  Hamites. 
This  name  distinguishes  this  people  from  the  Sem- 
itic races,  without  throwing  light  on  their  origin. 
Arabs  appear  also  at  intervals  along  the  coast  of 
East  Africa  as  far  south  as  Portuguese  East  Africa 
in  considerable  numbers.  In  the  northern  section 
of  this  coast,  along  with  the  Arabs  is  found  a  race 
of  negroes  commonly  called  Nubians,  the  result 
apparently  of  mixtures  of  Arab,  Egyptian,  and 


61 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Afra 
Afirioa 


negro  imoes.  Abysainia,  the  Somali  coast,  and  the 
Omlla  countiy  contain  a  large  block  of  people  of 
the  Hamite  race,  divided  into  groups,  however, 
by  language  as  well  as  by  reli^on.  Along  the 
Upper  Nile  as  far  as  the  borders  of  Uganda  and 
eastward  well  toward  the  coast  are  found  tribes  of 
another  tjrpe  of  negroes  generally  called  the  Nilotic 
group.  The  negroes  of  the  western  part  of  Africa 
north  of  the  equator  are  not  all  of  the  degraded  type 
that  appears  fdong  the  western  coast.  The  Fulahs 
are  of  an  entirely  different  race,  resembling  the 
Hamites,  excepting  in  language.  The  Mandingoes 
of  the  interior  of  Sierra  Leone,  Liberia,  and  the 
Ivoiy  Coast,  are  also  of  a  higher  type,  although 
their  languages  show  no  traces  of  northern  or 
Asiatic  influence. 

Throughout  Africa  north  of  the  equator  small 
detached  bodies  of  Arabs  are  found  at  different 
points;  and  in  general  the  religious  control  of  this 
whole  great  region  is  with  the  Mohammedans. 
For  this  reason  north  Africa  is  frequently  spoken 
of  as  "  Mohammedan  Africa."  It  should  be  borne 
in  mind,  nevertheless,  that  throughout  the  region, 
many  pagan  tribes  exist  under  Mohanunedan  rulers. 
South  of  the  equator,  generally  speaking,  the  inhabit- 
ants of  central  Africa,  and  indeed  to  the  borders 
of  Cape  Colony,  are  of  the  Bantu  stock,  often  warlike 
and  of  a  much  higher  type  of  intelligence  than  the 
negroes  of  the  western  coast.  In  the  southwestern 
part  of  the  continent  are  remnants  of  the  Hotten- 
tots and  Bushmen,  once  numerous  in  Cape  Colony, 
while  throughout  Cape  Colony  proper  the  natives 
are  known  as  ''  colored  people,"  and  represent  a 
residue  of  mixtures  of  races  during  centuries.  A 
considerable  number  of  Dutch  and  of  British  are 
found  in  South  Africa;  and  Portuguese,  as  well  as 
many  Portuguese  half-breeds,  are  numerous  in 
Angola  and  Portuguese  East  Africa.  European 
colonists  are  slowly  entering  the  country  on  all  sides 
and  from  all  nations,  but  more  than  half  of  the 
continent  can  never  be  a  fit  residence  for  Euro- 
peans and  must  remain  in  the  hands  of  the  negro 
races. 

This  mixture  of  races  stands  in  the  place  of  a 
historical  record  concerning  the  people  of  Africa. 
Neither  the  Africans  nor  any  others  can  read  the 
record.  It  is  the  misfortune  of  the  people  of  this 
continent  to  have  no  history  except  as  appendages 
to  the  outside  world;  and  the  whole  mass  of  allu- 
sions to  them  in  ancient  history  has  the  vague 
quality  of  tradition.  Even  the  Roman  records 
lack  precision,  and  remain  generalities  which  throw 
little  light  on  the  history  of  the  actual  people  of 
the  continent. 

8.  The  Opening  of  Afirioa:  The  Mohammedan  con- 
quest, beginning  about  640,  added  little  to  knowl- 
edge of  the  continent,  although  the 

1.  The      Arabs  in  time  gave    to  the  rest  of 
^pSrtn?*  the  world  information  about  the  fertile 

^aesef  negro  land  beyond  the  desert  in  the  un- 
liiidted  region  to  which  they  gave  the 
name  Sudan,  *'  the  Country  of  the  Blacks."  Eight 
hundred  years  later  the  Portuguese  imdertook  a  won- 
derful series  of  explorations  of  the  African  coasts, 
which  between  1446  and  1510  began  the  process  of 
stamping  the  continent  as  a  possession  of  Europe. 


Portugal  named  every  important  feature  of  the  Afri- 
can coast  as  though  she  owned  the  whole  continent, 
which  in  fact  she  did  as  far  ^  the  coasts  were  con- 
cerned. She  ruled  the  west  coast  and  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope  from  Lisbon,  and  the  east  coast,  as  a 
part  of  India,  from  Goa;  and  there  were  none  but 
the  Arabs  to  dispute  her  sway.  She  introduced 
missions  also  into  her  African  possessions.  But, 
after  the  fashion  of  the  times,  a  mission  had  no 
objections  to  raise  against  maltreatment  of  the 
people  to  whom  the  land  belonged. 

At  last  in  the  seventeenth  century  began  what 
may  be  called  the  third  period  of  the  opening  of 
Africa,  the  Arab  invasion  and  the  Por- 
2.  The  tuguese  occupation  having  been  the 
^LroDean  ^^  ^^^  second.  The  characteristic 
Invasion,  of  this  third  period  was  a  rush  by  every 
European  nation  that  could  handle 
ships  to  make  the  most  money  possible  out  of 
a  vast  territory  whose  inhabitants  had  not  the 
ability  to  object.  The  Dutch  took  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope;  and  the  British,  the  French,  and  the 
Spaniards  all  gained  foothold  in  different  parts  of 
the  western  coast,  and  imprinted  the  nature  of  their 
enterprises  upon  the  region  by  names  which  persist 
to  this  day;  such  as  the  "  Gold  Coast,"  the  "  Ivory 
Coast,"  the  "  Grain  [of  Paradise]  Coast  "  and  the 
"  Slave  Coast."  When  the  slave-trade  began,  in 
the  seventeenth  century,  the  Germans,  the  Swedes, 
and  the  Danes  also  made  haste  to  acquire  territory 
whence  they  could  despoil  the  continent.  North 
Africa,  however,  remained  in  the  fierce  grip  of  Is- 
lam. The  history  of  Africa  was  still  a  history  of 
outsiders  working  their  will  upon  the  country. 
At  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  nations 
of  the  lesser  European  powers  had  all  been  dis- 
possessed. Portugal  held  to  her  ancient  acqui- 
sitions about  the  mouths  of  the  Kongo  and  the 
Zambesi  and  began  to  try  to  discover  what  lay 
back  of  these;  Great  Britain  had  replaced  the  Dutch 
at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  thus  securing  an  exten- 
sive region  in  which  white  men  could  live  and 
thrive;  while  France  and  Spain  had  some  small 
settlements  on  the  northern  part  of  the  west  coast 
of  the  continent. 

The  slave-trade,  during  nearly  200  years  as  far 
as  Europe  is  concerned,  and  during  uncounted  cen- 
turies as  concerns  the  Asiatic  countries,  sums  up 
history  for  the  African  people.    They  know  little 
else  of  their  past;  but  they  know  that.    That  fear- 
ful trafiic  transported  Africa  westward,  until  from 
the  Ohio  River  in  the  United  States  away  south- 
ward to  the  valley  of  the  Amazon  in  Brazil  and 
throughout  the  West  Indies,  the  population  be- 
came strongly  and  often  predominantly  African. 
A  fourth  era  begins  for  Africa  with  the  prohi- 
bition of  the  slave-trade  by  Denmark,  Great  Britain, 
Holland,  France,  and  Sweden  (1792- 
8.  Prohi-    1819).     It  was  the  slave-trade  and  its 
of^he       ^^orrors  which  turned  Protestant  mis- 
Slave-      sionary  activity  toward  Africa  in  the 
Trade,      earliest  days  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury; and  it  was  the  discussion  which 
preceded  the  prohibition  of  slave-trading  which 
suggested  the  beginning  of  a  systematic  exploration 
of  Africa. 


Afirioa 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


62 


A  fifth  period  of  African  history  is  that  of  effect- 
ive   exploration    of    the    intenor   by    Europeans 

4    Later     ^®*^^®*°    '^^^    ^^     ^^^^'     ^    ^^^ 
Bzplora-    period    the    missionary    Livingstone 
tlons       preceded  Stanley.    But  Stanley,  fol- 
and  the     lowing  Burton  and  Speke  and  Grant 
^^^^    and  Cameron,  and  seeking  to  find  Liv- 
ingstone, turned  the  attention  of  the 
world  to  the  vast  commercial  value  of  Africa.  A  sixth 
period  is  the  period  of  partition,  beginning  when  Great 
Britain,  after  taking  possession  of  many  of  the  best 
territories  in  the  southern  part  of  the  continent, 
occupied  Egypt  in  1882.     In  the  eager  rush  of  the 
European  powers  which  followed,  the  great  conti- 
nent has  b€«n  parceled  out  as  a  gold-field  is  parceled 
out  by  prospectors  who  protect  by  men  with  guns 
the  stakes  they  have  hastily  driven  into  the  soil, 
and  who  only  then  sit  down  to  estimate  the  value 
of  what  they  have  secured  in  the  scramble.     So 
to  the  present  day  the  history  of  Africa  is  a  history 
of  what  outsiders  have  done  in  the  continent  rather 
than  of  what  the  people  of  the  country  have  done 
or  thought  or  planned. 

4.  Beli^on  and  Ilisaions:  A  rapid  survey  of  the 
modem  political  divisions  of  Africa  will  be  given 
under  the  name  of  each.  It  seems 
•aliiS^^*  well,  however,  to  make  here  a  few 
^*^^^®^**  general  remarks  upon  some  religious 
and  social  peculiarities  of  the  people  of  the 
continent  as  a  whole.  The  religion  of  Africa  in 
its  untouched  and  natural  condition  is  not  prop- 
erly idolatrous.  There  is  almost  always  some  sense 
of  a  supreme  being,  who  is  a  spirit,  and  from  whom 
all  power  has  originally  proceeded.  The  actual 
religious  observances  of  the  people,  however,  except 
where  they  have  been  affected  by  Mohammedanism 
or  by  Christianity,  are  forms  of  spirit-worship 
connected  with  the  use  of  fetishes  (see  Fetishism). 
liohammedanism  has  become  an  indigenous 
religion  in  Africa.  It  rules  absolutely  the  religious 
thought  of  nine-tenths  of  the  people 
it^*  ^^  ^^  *^®  northern  parts  of  the  continent, 
^^JJJij^ "  and  controls  in  a  less  degree  millions 
south  of  the  Sahara  from  the  Nile 
to  the  Niger.  As  a  civilizing  force  Mohammedan- 
ism has  value.  The  first  thing  the  awakened  negro 
does  under  Mohammedan  influence  is  to  obtain 
a  decent  robe  wherewith  to  cover  himself.  Islam 
wherever  it  goes  ends  cannibalism.  Its  scheme  of 
religious  motive  in  life  is  to  commend  religion  by 
making  it  *^  easy  ''  to  those  who  find  restraint  hard. 
It  teaches  a  certain  proportion  of  the  people  to 
recite  Arabic  litanies  of  praise  to  God,  and  to  read 
Arabic;  but  to  the  great  mass  of  the  negroes  its 
effect  includes  neither  knowledge  of  Arabic  nor 
information  on  the  dogmas  of  Islam.  It  encourages 
war  in  a  positive  and  very  real  sense;  its  slave- 
raids  know  no  amelioration  through  the  change 
from  tne  tenth  to  the  twentieth  century;  and  they 
are  barely  less  brutalizing  than  the  man-eating 
raids  which  they  have  displaced.  The  weakness 
of  Mohammedanism  as  a  civilizing  force  is  that  it 
can  not  raise  men  to  a  level  higher  than  the  old 
Arabian  civilization  which  it  is  proud  to  represent. 
And  it  is  a  fact  of  the  deepest  meaning,  from  the 
missionary  point  of  view,  that  negroes  who  have 


become  Mohammedans  are  equipped  with  an 
assurance  of  righteousness  and  knowledge  which 
makes  them  almost  impervious  to  Christian  in- 
struction. 

The  Protestant  missions,  on  the  other  hand, 
bring  to  their  converts  the  Christian  civilization 

of  the  twentieth  century  with  its 
^  ???^*"  blessings  and  enlightenment.  The 
Klaaions.   ^^^^   ^^^^  ^^^  commonest   man  will 

be  elevated  by  study  of  the  Bible, 
makes  the  literary  culture  of  African  languages 
a  first  principle  in  every  mission.  More  than 
100  of  the  tribal  dialects  have  been  reduced 
to  writing,  and  have  been  given  an  elementary 
Biblical  study  apparatus  which  improves  as  the 
capacity  of  the  people  develops.  In  the  process 
the  language  itself  becomes  in  some  degree  purified, 
and  its  words  enriched  by  more  profound  mean- 
ings, until  the  language  receives  power  to  express 
feelings.  In  South  Africa  himdreds  of  native 
Protestant  churches  lead  independent  ecclesiastical 
lives  under  native  pastors.  It  is  perhaps  too  soon 
to  claim  that  anything  is  proved  by  the  moderate 
successes  of  a  century  of  Protestant  missions;  but 
at  least  it  is  not  out  of  place  to  emphasize  the  wide 
difference  of  aim  between  the  two  great  branches 
of  the  Christian  Church  now  working  for  the  regen- 
eration of  the  tribes  of  Africa. 

African  missions  encounter  difficulty  from  the 
European  colonists.  Their  aim  is  quite  different 
from  that  of  the  colonists.  This  alone  would  make 
friction    and    mutual    opposition    probable.     But 

the  aim  of  the  colonist  is  sometimes 
4.  ^^l®"  aggressively  opposed  to  that  of  the  mis- 
Klaaions.    sionary.    That  aim  was  frankly  stated 

by  the  German  Koloniale  Zeilschrift 
early  in  1904  as  follows:  ''  We  have  acquired  this 
colony  not  for  the  evangelization  of  the  blacks, 
not  primarily  for  their  well-being,  but  for  us  whites. 
Whoever  hinders  our  object  must  be  put  out  of  the 
way.''  Such  assumption  of  the  right  of  might 
is  found  not  only  in  German  Southwest  Africa; 
but  in  the  Portuguese  colonies,  where  the  slave- 
trade  is  still  brutally  active;  in  some  of  the  French 
colonies,  where  the  cruelties  of  the  local  adminis- 
tration broke  De  Brazza's  heart;  and  in  the  Kongo 
Independent  State,  where  mutilations  and  other 
cruelties  mark  the  Belgian  rubber  trade  and  are 
glossed  over  by  the  assurance  that  the  cutting  off 
of  hands  is  an  old  native  custom.  The  same  spirit 
often  appears  in  British  colonies  in  Africa,  but 
there  it  is  repressed  by  the  government.  Where 
the  colonist  acts  on  the  "  might  is  right  "  principle 
the  missionary  works  a  stony  soil. 

The  colonist  has  had  occasion  from  the  very 
beginning  of  missions  in  Africa  to  complain  that 

one  effect  of  them  is  to  make  the  people 

,    C.  The      self-assertive.    This   is   not    a    fault, 

iKve-      provided  the  self-assertion  does  not 

ment."     P^^^  the  limits  of  mutual  right.     Diu*- 

ing  the  last  five  or  six  years  a  move- 
ment among  the  native  Christians  of  South  Africa 
has  attracted  much  attention.  It  is  what  is  known 
as  the  **  Ethiopian  movement."  Its  watchword 
is  **  Africa  for  the  Africans  ";  and  its  aim  is  to  place 
all  African  churches  under  strictly  African  leadei^ 


68 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Afirioa 


ship.  There  is  a  political  sound  in  some  of  the 
utterances  of  the  "  Ethiopian  "  leaders;  and  the 
local  governments  are  on  the  alert  to  check  any 
developments  along  that  line,  more  especially  since 
American  Africans  have  taken  a  hand  in  the  move- 
ment. There  appears  to  be  some  connection 
between  this  movement  and  the  revolt  of  the  tribes 
in  the  south  of  German  Southwest  Africa.  What- 
ever the  final  outcome,  it  appears  certain  that  as 
the  African  tribes  learn  to  think  for  themselves 
they  must  assert  their  manhood;  and,  however 
foolish  and  futile  some  of  the  manifestations  of  this 
growing  manhood  may  be,  the  fact  itself  is  a  token 
that  ought  to  be  welcomed.  Through  it  Africa 
may  yet  have  a  history  of  its  own. 

n.  The  Political  Divisions  of  Africa:  Abyssinia: 
The  only  Christian  country  of  Africa  which  resisted 
the  Mohammedan  irruption.  It  consists  for  the 
most  part  of  a  mountain  knot  in  which  rise  the 
Atbara  River  and  the  Blue  Nile,  and  lies  between 
the  E^gyptian  Sudan  and  the  Red  Sea.  Area  about 
150,000  sq.  miles;  population  about  3,500,000; 
religion,  a  debased  form  of  the  Coptic  Church  with 
over  3,000,000  adherents.  There  are  also  between 
60,000  and  100,000  Jews  (called  Falashas,  ''  ex- 
iles "),  and  about  50,000  Mohammedans,  besides 
300,000  pagans.  The  prevailing  language  is  the 
Amharic  with  dialects  in  different  sections.  The 
sacred  books  of  the  church  are  in  Ethiopic  or  Geez. 
The  Gallas  in  the  south  have  a  language  of  their 
own.  In  1490  Portuguese  explorers  introduced 
the  Roman  Catholic  religion  into  Abyssinia.  In 
1604  a  Jesuit  mission  was  established  which  finally 
won  the  adhesion  of  the  emperor.  Intrigues  led 
to  their  expulsion  after  about  thirty  years.  The 
Carmelites  and  Augustinians  also  engaged  in  the 
work,  but  with  no  lasting  results;  the  mission  was 
entirely  abandoned  in  1797.  All  attempts  to  reestab- 
lish Roman  Catholic  missions  were  thwarted  until  the 
eariy  part  of  the  nineteenth  century.  The  Lazarists 
succeeded  about  1830  in  gaining  a  foothold  in  vari- 
ous provinces.  They  were  again  expelled  from  the 
interior  provinces,  and  now  have  their  headquarters* 
in  the  Italian  territory  of  Eritrea  (see  below).  A 
strong  missionary  advance  into  Harrar  is  also  being 
made  from  Jibuti. 

The  earliest  effort  to  establish  a  Protestant 
mission  in  Abyssinia  was  that  of  Peter  Heyling, 
a  law  student  of  Lubeck.  He  went  there  in  1640, 
won  favor  with  the  Abyssinian  court  circles,  and 
began  to  translate  the  Bible  into  colloquial  Am- 
haric. He  was  captured  by  Turks  in  1652,  and, 
refusing  to  become  a  Mohammedan,  was  decapitated, 
leaving  no  trace  of  his  work .  In  1 752  Christian  Fred- 
erick William  Hocker,  a  Moravian  physician,  began  a 
persistent  effort  to  establish  a  mission  in  Abyssinia. 
But  the  mission  got  no  further  than  Egypt,  and  was 
recalled  after  the  death  of  Hocker  in  1782.  In 
1830  the  CJhurch  Missionary  Society  established  a 
mission  in  Abyssinia,  which  was  broken  up  in  1838. 
Later  the  London  Society  for  Promoting  Chris- 
tianity among  the  Jews  sent  missionaries  to  the 
Falashas.  Suspicions  of  political  designs  ham- 
pered the  missionaries;  and  in  1863  they  were  im- 
prisoned by  the  emperor.  A  British  military 
expedition  stormed  Magdala,  the  capital,  in  1868 


and  freed  the  captives;  but  the  mission  was  not 
again  undertaken.  In  1866  the  Swedish  National 
Missionary  Society  began  a  mission  in  the  border 
of  the  province  of  Tigr6,  near  Massowah.  For 
fifteen  years  the  mission  made  little  progress, 
suffering  through  the  hostility  of  the  people  and 
through  attacks  of  disease.  Then  the  earliest 
converts  were  baptized,  the  first  a  Galla  slave, 
and  next  a  Mohammedan.  In  1904  the  society 
had  ten  stations  in  Eritrea  (see  below)  and  had 
succeeded  in  sending,  with  the  consent  of  the 
authorities,  native  preachers  into  the  southern 
Galla  country  west  of  Gojam.  The  Bible  has  a 
limited  circulation  in  Abyssinia  in  several  versions. 
The  old  Ethiopic  Church  version  has  been  revised, 
and  printed  by  the  British  Bible  Society.  The 
whole  Bible  has  been  translated  into  Amharic 
(1824),  and  into  the  southern  Galla  dialect  (1898). 
The  New  Testament  has  been  rendered  (1830)  into 
the  Tigr^  dialect  of  the  Geez,  and  single  Gospels 
into  Falasha,  into  two  Galla  dialects,  and  into 
Bogos.  See  Abyssinia  and  the  Abyssinian 
Church. 

Alflrerla:  A  French  possession  in  northern  Africa 
extending  southward  from  the  Mediterranean  a 
somewhat  uncertain  distance  into  the  Desert  of 
Sahara.  Area  about  184,474  sq.  miles;  population 
about  4,739,000.  The  Algerian  Sahara  has  about 
198,000  sq.  miles  in  addition,  with  a  population 
estimated  at  62,000.  Although  Algeria  b  regarded 
as  a  part  of  France,  it  still  remains  a  Mohammedan 
country.  The  Mohammedan  population  is  rather 
vaguely  estimated  at  about  4,100,000,  considerable 
uncertainty  existing  as  to  the  number  of  inhabitants 
of  the  military  district  in  the  hinterland.  The 
Christian  population  of  Algeria  is  chiefly  Roman 
Catholic  (527,000).  There  are  also  about  25,000 
Greeks,  Armenians,  and  Copts,  and  about  30,000 
Protestants.  The  number  of  Jews  is  57,000.  The 
language  of  the  country  outside  of  the  European 
colonies  is  Arabic  with  several  dialects  of  the  Berber 
language  known  here  as  Kabyle  (i.e.  "  tribesman  ")• 
Algeria  forms  an  archdiocese  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  and  is  the  seat  of  the  Algerian  Missionary 
Society  organized  through  the  energetic  efforts  of 
Cardinal  Lavigerie  (q.v.),  for  missionary  enter- 
prises on  the  edge  of  the  Sahara  and  in  Senegambia 
and  other  African  districts  as  far  south  as  Lake 
Tanganyika.  Protestant  missionary  enterprises 
are  represented  in  Algeria  by  the  following:  two 
French  societies  working  among  the  Jews;  Miss 
Trotter's  educational  mission;  the  Plymouth 
Brethren,  who  have  ten  missionaries  in  different 
cities  in  Algeria,  but  publish  no  statistics;  a  small 
Swedish  mission;  and  the  North  Africa  mission, 
which  occupies  four  stations  and  carries  on  a  num- 
ber of  small  schools  for  Mohammedans.  None  of 
these  missions  has  a  very  large  following  among 
the  natives.  In  fact  missionaries  are  not  allowed 
by  the  French  authorities  to  engage  in  open  evan- 
gelization among  Mohammedans.  The  Arabic 
version  of  the  Bible  has  a  limited  circulation  in 
Algeria.  A  colloquial  version  of  some  of  the  Gos- 
pels has  been  prepared  for  the  use  of  the  common 
people  who  have  difficulty  in  understanding  the 
classical  Arabic.    Some  parts  of  the  Bible  have 


Africa 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


64 


been  translated  into  the  Kabyle  dialect;  and  this 
version,  too,  has  a  steady  though  small  circulation. 
A  painful  historical  interest  attaches  to  the  town 
of  Bugia  in  Algeria  as  the  scene  of  the  martyrdom 
in  1315  of  Raymond  Lully  (q.v.),  the  missionary 
to  the  Mohammedans. 

Anffola:  A  colony  of  Portugal  in  West  Africa, 
with  a  coast-line  extending  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Kongo  River  to  the  borders  of  German  Southwest 
Africa.  It  extends  into  the  interior  to  the  Kongo 
Independent  State.  Area  484,000  sq.  miles; 
population  about  4,000,000,  of  whom  1,000,000  are 
rated  as  Roman  Catholics.  The  Portuguese  carried 
Roman  Catholic  missions  to  Angola  in  the  last 
quarter  of  the  fifteenth  century,  and  a  century  later 
established  a  full  ecclesiastical  hierarchy  in  the  old 
kingdom  of  Kongo,  which  lay  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Kongo.  Large  numbers  of  the  people  of  the 
old  kingdom  were  converted  to  Christianity,  even 
the  king  of  the  Kongo  tribes  being  baptized  in  1490. 
The  residence  of  the  king  was  at  the  place  now 
known  as  San  Salvador,  in  the  northern  part  of 
Angola.  This  was  the  seat  of  the  first  Roman 
Catholic  bishops.  The  residence  of  the  bishop 
was  afterward  removed  to  St.  Paul  de  Loanda  on 
the  coast,  and  the  buildings  at  San  Salvador  fell 
into  ruin  as  well  as  the  human  edifice  of  the  Church 
in  that  region.  During  a  hundred  years  or  more 
the  Church  gave  its  blessing  to  the  slave-trade, 
even  the  missionaries  engaging  in  it  and  the  bishop 
encouraging  it.  This  confusion  of  missionary  and 
mercantile  enterprises  perhaps  accounts  for  the 
little  progress  made  by  early  Christianity  in  Angola. 
The  present  Roman  Catholic  missionary  force  is 
in  connection  with  the  Congregation  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  and  Sacred  Heart  of  Mary,  the  mission  being 
connected  with  the  ecclesiastical  province  of  Lisbon 
(Uljrsippo). 

Protestant  missions  in  Angola  were  commenced 
in  1879  by  the  Baptist  Missionary  Society  of  Eng- 
land, which  occupied  San  Salvador  and  the  northern 
part  of  the  Loanda  district  as  a  part  of  its  Kongo 
mission.  The  American  Board  opened  a  mission 
partly  supported  by  Canadian  Congregationalists, 
in  the  Benguela  district  in  1880.  In  1882  the 
Livingstone  Inland  Mission  (English)  established  a 
station,  in  connection  with  its  Kongo  mission,  in 
Portuguese  territory  at  Mukimvika  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Kongo.  This  mission  was  turned  over 
to  the  American  Baptist  Missionary  Union  two 
years  later.  In  1886  Bishop  William  Taylor  (q.v.) 
opened  seven  missionary  stations  in  the  district 
of  Loanda,  which  are  now  carried  on  by  the  Ameri- 
can Methodist  Episcopal  Church.  The  Plymouth 
Brethren  also  have  a  mission  in  Angola,  and  the 
Swiss  Phil-African  Mission  under  Heli  Chatelain 
has  a  single  station  in  Benguela,  called  Lincoln. 
All  of  these  missions  make  use  of  education,  indus- 
trial training,  and  medical  aid  to  the  su£Fering  as 
instruments  for  evangelizing  and  elevating  the 
people.  Together  these  various  Protestant  mis- 
sions report  (1904)  65  missionaries  (men  and 
women),  142  native  workers,  50  schools  of  all  classes, 
4,235  pupils,  with  about  4,000  reputed  Christians. 
These  Protestant  missions  have  the  commen- 
dation of  the  higher  and  the  secret  execration  of  the 


lower  Portuguese  officials;  they  are  also  hampered 
by  the  open  hostility  of  the  Portuguese  timers 
and  colonists;  but  they  are  encouraged  by  the 
growing  desire  of  the  natives  to  learn  to  read  and 
to  be  men.  The  native  tribes  of  the  interior  are 
numerous,  and  often  separated  by  barriers  of  lan- 
guage, although  chiefly  of  Bantu  stock.  Parts  of 
the  Bible  have  been  translated  into  the  Kimbundu, 
and  the  Umbundu  dialects,  and  printed  respectively 
at  the  presses  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  and  the 
American  Board  missions. 

Basutoland:  A  native  protectorate  in  South 
Africa,  governed  by  native  chiefs  under  a  British 
conmiissioner.  It  lies  north  of  Cape  Colony,  with 
the  Orange  River  Colony  and  Natal  forming  its 
other  boundaries.  Area  10,293  sq.  miles;  popu- 
lation (1904)  348,500,  of  whom  900  are  whites. 
No  white  colonists  are  admitted  to  this  territory. 
The  Basutos  belong  to  the  Bantu  race;  and  their 
language  is  closely  allied  to  the  Zulu-Kafir  language. 
About  300,000  of  the  people  are  pagans;  about 
40,000  are  Protestant  Christians;  and  about  5,000 
are  Roman  Catholics.  The  capital  of  the  territory 
it  Maseru,  where  the  British  commissioner  resides. 
The  Protestant  missions  in  Basutoland  are  main- 
tained by  the  Paris  Evangelical  Missionary  Society, 
which  entered  the  country  under  Rolland  and 
Semu^  in  1833,  and  by  the  Society  for  the  Propa- 
gation of  the  Gospel,  which  began  its  work  in  1875. 
These  two  societies  have  about  twenty-eight  prin- 
cipal stations  and  more  than  200  outstations  with 
schools,  seminaries,  printing  establishments,  etc. 
The  Roman  Catholic  missions  are  erected  into  a 
prefecture  apostolic.  They  have  6,000  converts. 
The  missions  are  carried  on  by  Oblates  of  Mary  the 
Inmiaculate.  Statistics  are  difficult  to  obtain, 
since  the  reports  do  not  separate  work  in  Basutoland 
from  that  of  the  Orange  River  Colony  and  Griqua- 
land.  The  Bible  has  been  translated  by  Casalis 
and  Mabille  of  the  Paris  mission  into  the  language 
of  the  Basutos,  generally  spoken  of  as  Suto  or 
Lessuto  (1837).  There  is  also  quite  a  Christian 
literatiure  in  the  same  language. 

Bechuanaland  Proteotorate:  A  British  protector- 
ate in  South  Africa,  lying  between  the  Molopo  River 
and  the  Zambesi,  with  German  Southwest  Africa 
on  the  west,  and  Transvaal  and  Rhodesia  on  the 
east.  Area  275,000  sq.  miles,  much  of  it  being 
desert;  population  (1904)  119,772,  besides  1,000 
whites.  It  is  governed  by  native  chiefs,  Khama, 
Sebele,  and  Bathoen,  each  ruling  his  own  tribe. 
The  British  conmiissioner,  who  supervises  all, 
lives  at  Mafeking. 

The  country  is  traversed  by  the  railway  leading 
from  Cape  Town  northward.  Among  the  regula- 
tions is  one  which  forbids  the  granting  of  licenses  to 
sell  liquor.  Somewhat  over  100,000  of  the  people 
are  pagans,  and  about  15,000  are  Christians.  The 
Bible  has  been  translated  into  the  language  of  the 
chief  tribes,  which  is  called  Chuan  or  Sechuan  (1831) 
and  single  Gospels  into  Bfatabele  and  Mashona. 
Roman  Catholic  missions  in  this  territory  are  under 
the  charge  of  the  Jesuits  connected  with  the  Zam- 
besi mission.  Statistics  are  very  difficult  to  ob- 
tain, but  the  Roman  Catholic  Chureh  seems  to  have 
about  3,000  adherents.    Protestant  missions  are 


65 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


AfMM 


cmnried  on  by  the  London  Missionary  Society,  which 
extended  its  woriL  to  this  territory  in  1862,  and  by 
the  Hennannsburg  Missionary  Society  of  Germany, 
which  entered  the  territory  in  1864.  It  is  difficult 
to  obtain  the  exact  statistics  of  either  of  these 
societies,  since  the  mission  reportb  of  both  cover 
land  beyond  the  borders  of  the  Bechuanaland 
Pmotectorate.  It  is  estimated,  however,  that  the 
number  of  their  adherents  is  not  far  from  12,000. 

Britlah  Bast  Africa  Proteotorate:  A  territory 
under  British  control  in  the  eastern  part  of  Africa,  in- 
cluding coast  lands  ten  miles  wide  nominally  belong- 
ing to  Zansibar.  The  protectorate  extends  inland  to 
the  borders  of  Uganda.  Area  about  200,000  sq.  miles. 
While  the  coast  regions  are  on  the  whole  not  health- 
ful, there  is  a  broad  belt  of  highland  300  miles  back 
from  the  coast  which  is  most  suitable  for  European 
habitation;  and  it  was  upon  this  belt  of  highland 
that  the  British  government  invited  the  Hebrew 
Zionists  to  establish  a  colony.  A  railway  has  been 
constructed  from  Mombasa  to  Kisumu  on  the 
Victoria  Nyanza.  The  population  is  estimated  at 
4,000,000,  of  whom  500  are  Europeans  and  about 
25,000  Hindus,  Chinese,  Goanese,  and  other  Asiatics. 
Many  Arabs  are  found  in  the  coast  districts,  es- 
pecially in  the  northern  part  of  the  territory;  and 
with  them  are  the  mixed  race  called  by  the  Arabs 
Suahili  ("  coast  people  ").  Inland  the  larger  part 
of  the  population  is  of  the  Bantu  race;  but  there 
are  some  powerful  tribes  like  the  Biasai  and  Nandi 
who  are  of  Nilotic  stock.  In  the  northern  part  of 
the  country  Gallas  and  Somalis  are  found.  The 
capital,  Mombasa,  has  had  a  checkered  history. 
It  was  founded  by  the  Arabs,  who  were  in  possession 
when  the  Portuguese  arrived  in  1498.  The  Portu- 
guese continued  in  power  with  various  vicissitudes 
until  their  colony  was  destroyed  200  years  later 
by  the  Arabs.  The  actual  British  acquisition  of 
this  territoiy  dates  from  1886  to  1890. 

Roman  Catholic  missions  were  established  on  this 
coast  by  the  Portuguese  in  the  fifteenth  century, 
the  stations  being  treated  as  an  outlying  district 
of  the  ecclesiastical  province  of  Goa  on  the  west 
coast  of  India.  The  missions  followed  the  fortunes 
of  the  Portuguese  occupation.  They  were  reestab- 
hshed  in  1860  at  Zanzibar.  Protestant  missions 
began  with  the  arrival  of  Johann  Ludwig  Krapf ,  of 
the  Church  Missionary  Society,  in  1844.  They  were 
followed  by  the  United  Methodist  Free  Church  in 
1861,  the  Leipsic  Missionary  Society  in  1886,  the 
Neukirchen  Missionary  Institute  in  1887,  the  Scan- 
dinavian Alliance  IkOssion  of  North  America  in 
1892,  and  the  African  Inland  Mission,  an  American 
enterprise,  in  1895.  The  Church  of  Scotland 
Foreign  Missions  Conmiittee  is  preparing  to  enter 
the  oountiy  also.  All  of  these  societies  together 
report  172  missionaries,  92  stations  and  outstations 
with  schools  and  hospitals,  and  about  11,000  ad- 
herents. The  languages  of  the  tribes  of  this  terri- 
tory differ  greatly  from  each  other;  and  several 
versions  of  the  Bible  will  have  to  be  prepared  for 
them.  A  beginning  has  been  made  in  translating 
the  Gospels  into  the  Suahili,  Nandi,  Biasai,  Somali, 
and  GaUa  languages. 

The  islands  of  Zamibar  and  Pemba,  lying  off 
the  coast  of  German  E^ast  Africa,  politically  bdong 
L— 6 


to  this  territory.  Area  of  the  two  islands  1,020 
sq.  miles;  population  200,000,  including  10,000 
East  Indians  and  about  200  Europeans.  Zanzi- 
bar has  played  an  important  part  in  the  history  of 
East  and  Central  Africa  since  the  beginning  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  when  the  region  was  occupied 
by  Arabs  of  Muscat.  It  became  a  great  center  of 
African  trade,  including  the  slave-trade.  The 
domains  of  the  Sultan  of  Zanzibar  extended  along 
the  whole  coast  from  Mozambique  nearly  to  the 
Straits  of  Bab-el-Mandeb.  Since  the  beginning  of 
the  nineteenth  century  the  influence  of  Great 
Britain  has  been  gradually  increasing,  and  so  leading 
up  to  the  present  protectorate.  Germany  obtained 
the  southern  part  of  the  possessions  of  Zanzibar  on 
the  mainland;  Italy  bought  in  1905  its  possession 
on  the  Somali  coast;  and  a  strip  ten  miles  wide  on 
the  coast  of  British  East  Africa  alone  remains  to 
the  sultan  of  all  his  domains  on  the  mainland,  he 
himself  being  under  the  tutelage  of  a  British  official. 
Zanzibar  is  the  seat  of  a  Roman  Catholic  bishop, 
with  missionis  conducted  by  the  Congregation  of 
the  Holy  Ghost,  in  both  islands  and  on  the  main- 
land. The  mission  has  about  3,500  adherents. 
There  are  ten  stations.  Schools  and  hospitals, 
conducted  by  Roman  Catholic  sisters,  have  been 
built  in  the  city  of  Zanzibar.  Protestant  missions 
are  represented  by  the  Universities  Mission  which, 
after  abandoning  the  Shir6  country  in  1861,  moved 
its  headquarters  to  the  city  of  Zanzibar.  Here  Bish- 
ops William  George  Tozer,  Edward  Steere,  and 
Charles  Alan  Smythies  prepared  the  way  for  ad- 
vance into  the  interior.  The  mission  has  a  very  fine 
cathedral  and  hospitals  and  schools  in  the  island  of 
Zanzibar,  besides  a  line  of  stations  on  the  mainland 
in  German  East  Africa,  which  extends  to  Lake 
Nyassa.  What  has  already  been  said  of  versions 
of  the  Bible  in  British  East  Africa  applies  to  Zan- 
zibar also.  The  city  of  Zanzibar  itself  is  a  Babel 
of  all  African  nations  and  tribes. 

Cape  Oolony:  A  British  colony  occupying  the 
southern  part  of  the  African  continent;  bounded 
on  the  north  by  German  Southwest  Africa,  Bechu- 
analand, the  Orange  River  Colony,  Basutoland, 
and  Natal.  The  colony  was  founded  by  the  Dutch 
in  1652,  was  taken  by  the  British  in  1796,  was 
again  given  up  to  Holland  in  1803,  was  reoccupied 
by  the  British  in  1806,  and,  finally,  was  ceded  to 
Great  Britain  in  1814.  Area  (1904),  including 
native  states  and  Walfisch  Bay  on  the  coast  of 
German  Southwest  Africa,  276,995  sq.  miles; 
population  (1904)  2,405,552,  of  whom  580,380  are 
white,  and  1,825,172  are  colored.  Of  the  colored 
population  about  250,000  are  a  mixture  of  various 
races;  15,000  are  Malays;  and  the  rest  are  Hotten- 
tots, Kafirs,  Fingoes,  Bechuanas,  etc.  About 
1,118,000  of  the  population  are  Protestants;  23,000 
are  Roman  Catholics;  20,000  are  Mohammedans; 
4,000  are  Jews;  while  1,226,000  are  pagans.  Ro- 
man Catholic  missions  were  represented  in  the 
colony  before  the  English  occupation,  by  two 
priests  residing  in  Cape  Town.  In  1806,  when  the 
British  captured  the  colony,  these  priests  were  ex- 
pelled. Sixteen  years  later  two  priests  were  again 
stationed  at  Cape  Town,  without  liberty,  however, 
to  go  into  the  surrounding  countiy.    The  existing 


▲frloa 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


66 


miBsioii  in  the  colony  did  not  commence  until  1837, 
when  Raymond  Griffith  arrived.  He  had  been  an 
Irish  Dominican  monk,  was  appointed  vicar  apos- 
tolic and  consecrated  bishop  by  the  Archbishop  of 
Dublin,  Aug.  24,  1837.  Roman  Catholic  missions 
now  occupy  about  100  stations  and  outstations 
in  the  colony.  There  are  two  vicariates  and  a 
prefecture  apostolic. 

Protestant  Christians  do  not  seem  to  have  worked 
among  the  native  population  during  the  Dutch 
period.  In  1737  the  Moravian  George  Schmidt 
was  sent  to  Cape  Town,  at  the  request  of  certain 
ministers  in  Holland,  to  try  to  benefit  the  Hotten- 
tots and  the  Bushmen.  His  success  only  served 
to  anger  the  colonists;  and  he  was  sent  back  to 
Europe  in  1742.  Fifty  years  later,  in  1792,  the 
Moravians  were  permitted  to  reopen  their  mission 
in  Cape  Colony  and  it  has  been  continued  and 
expanded  until  the  present  time,  now  extending 
to  the  east  and  west.  From  1822  to  1867  it  had 
charge  of  the  leper  settlement  at  Hemel  en  Aarde 
and  Robben  Islsmd.  About  20,000  native  Chris- 
tians are  connected  with  the  Moravian  mission. 
The  London  Missionary  Society  began  a  mission  in 
Cape  Colony  in  1799  with  Vanderkemp  as  its  first 
missionary,  and  with  such  men  as  Moffat,  Living- 
stone, Philip,  and  Mackenzie  as  his  successors  in  a 
long  and  brilliant  history  which  through  many 
pains  has  added  some  70,000  natives  to  the  Chris- 
tian body  within  the  colony.  The  society  has 
moved  its  missions  northward  into  Bechuanaland 
and  Rhodesia,  one  single  station  being  still  retained 
at  Hankey  in  Cape  Colony  as  an  educational  center. 
The  Wesleyan  Methodist  Missionary  Society  of 
England  commenced  a  mission  in  the  colony  in 
the  year  1814  with  Barnabas  Shaw  as  its  first 
missionary.  This  mission  afterward  spread  over 
the  whole  of  the  colony,  and  extended  into  Natal, 
Transvaal,  Bechuanaland,  and  Rhodesia.  The 
oare  of  the  native  congregations  within  the  colony 
now  rests  with  the  South  African  Methodist  Chureh, 
which  has  connected  with  it  native  Christians  to 
the  number  of  113,600.  The  Glasgow  Missionary 
Society  in  1821  sent  two  missionaries  into  Kaffraria 
which  has  since  been  annexed  to  Cape  Colony. 
The  Scottish  missions  have  been  greatly  extended 
and  are  now  conducted  under  the  United  Free 
Chureh  of  Scotland,  having  given  to  missionary 
history  such  names  as  Ross  and  James  Stewart, 
the  latter  called  by  the  British  High  Commissioner 
"  the  biggest  human  "  in  the  region.  They  extend 
through  Kaffraria  into  Natal  and  have  a  native 
following  of  some  30,000.  Their  most  prominent 
work  is  in  the  great  educational  establishments  of 
Lovedale  and  Blythwood,  which  have  tested  and 
proved  the  ability  of  the  Kafir-Zulu  race  to  become 
civilized  and  useful.  The  Society  for  the  Propa- 
gation of  the  Gospel  began  a  mission  in  Cape  Colony 
in  1821.  This  mission  is  now  practically  merged 
into  the  diocesan  work  of  the  Anglican  Church 
which  reports  some  20,000  baptized  native  Chris- 
tians. The  Pans  Missionary  Society  felt  its  way 
into  Basutoland  from  a  station  at  Tulbagh  (1830). 
The  Berlin  Missionary  Society  (1834)  with  38 
stations  and  10,000  adherents,  and  the  Rhenish 
(1829)  and  the  Hermannsburg  (1854)  missionary 


societies  of  Germany  also  have  extensive  and  suc- 
cessful missions  in  Cape  Colony.  The  African 
Methodist  Episcopal  Chiut;h,  the  National  Baptist 
Convention,  the  Seventh-day  Adventists,  all  from 
the  United  States,  the  Plymouth  Brethren,  and 
the  Salvation  Army  are  also  engaged  in  missionary 
work  at  various  points  in  this  great  colony. 

Among  the  achievements  of  missions  must  be 
reckoned  the  success  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  John  Philip  of 
the  London  Missionary  Society  in  securing  attention 
on  the  part  of  the  government  to  the  infringement 
of  ordixiary  rights  of  natives  in  the  midst  of  a  rush 
of  colonists  inclined  to  regard  the  natives  as  mere 
obstacles  to  be  removed.  Dr.  Philip  was  calum- 
niated and  persecuted;  but  the  authorities  finally 
understood  that  righteous  treatment  of  the  blacks 
is  a  necessity  to  the  prosperity  of  the  colony.  The 
appearance  in  recent  years  of  the ''  Ethiopian  move- 
ment "  (see  above,  I.,  4,  §  5)  has  aroused  much  sus- 
picion; nevertheless,  the  authorities  aim  to  secure 
justice  to  all,  and  more  and  more  rely  on  mis- 
sions to  raise  the  moral  standard  of  the  negro 
community.     See  Cape  Colony. 

Central  Africa  Protectorate  (British):  A  territory 
lying  west  and  south  of  Lake  Nyassa,  and  popu- 
larly called  Nyassaland.  Its  southern  portion  in- 
cludes the  Shir6  highlands  and  extends  southward 
along  the  Shir^  River  as  far  as  to  the  mouth  of  the 
Ruo.  Area  40,980  sq.  miles;  population  estimated 
at  990,000.  Religion  chiefly  fetish-worship.  About 
300,000  of  the  people  are  Mohammedans,  and  about 
18,000  are  Christians.  There  is,  however,  no 
regular  census,  and  these  figures  are  mere  estimates. 
Europeans  living  in  the  protectorate  number  about 
500;  and  there  are  about  200  East  Indians  con- 
nected with  the  military  establishment.  The  lan- 
guage of  the  Angoni  hillmen  is  a  dialect  of  Zulu ;  that 
of  the  lake  people  is  in  several  dialects  of  which  that 
known  as  Nyanja  ("  lake")»  is  becoming  prevalent; 
that  of  the  eastern  part  of  the  Shir6  district  is  Yao. 

Lake  Nyassa  was  discovered  by  Dr.  Livingstone 
in  1859.  The  country  then  was  a  select  hunting- 
ground  of  Arab  slave-raiders  from  Zanzibar  and  of 
the  Portuguese  from  the  Zambesi.  Until  1895, 
when  the  slave-raids  were  stopped  by  the  British 
authorities,  it  is  said  that  about  20,000  men,  women, 
and  children  each  year  were  seized  and  made  to 
carry  ivory  to  the  coast.  There  they  were  sold 
along  with  the  ivory  which  they  had  painfully 
borne  for  500  miles.  Into  such  an  environment 
missionaries  went  at  the  instance  of  Livingstone, 
risking,  and  with  disheartening  frequency  sacri- 
ficing, life  because  they  believed  that  the  people 
could  be  saved  by  teaching  them  the  principles  of 
manhood.  The  Arabs  and  the  Yao  savages  were 
against  them,  the  climate  sapped  their  strength, 
and  even  wild  beasts  attacked  them.  Yet  the 
missionaries  won  the  day,  with  their  Bible,  their 
practical  lessons  in  kindliness,  and  with  their 
schools,  their  industrial  training,  and  their  high 
moral  principles.  The  story  of  the  founding  of 
the  protectorate  is  a  story  of  heroism  and  of  the 
power  of  the  Bible  which  the  devoted  missionaries 
gave  to  a  people  whose  very  speech  was  illiterate. 

The  Universities  Mission,  established  at  Living- 
stone's request,  entered  the  Shir6  territoiy  under 


67 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Africa 


Bishop  Charles  Frederick  Mackenzie  in  1861.  The 
hostility  of  the  slave-raiders  and  the  rigors  of  the 
climate  broke  up  the  mission  for  a  time,  but  it  is  now 
thoroughly  established  at  likoma  Island  in  Lake 
Nyassa,  and  in  some  sixty  villages  on  the  east  shore 
of  the  lake  and  among  the  Yao  tribesmen  in  the 
eastern  part  of  the  Shir6  district.  The  Livingstonia 
Mission  of  the  Free  Church  of  Scotland,  entered 
the  countiy  in  1875  and  established  its  head- 
quarters first  at  Cape  Maclear  at  the  south  end  of 
the  lake,  moving  afterward  to  high  land  well  toward 
the  northern  end  of  the  lake,  where  the  living- 
stonia Institution  now  stands  in  a  most  salubrious 
spot  overlooking  the  western  shore.  This  mission 
has  about  240  stations  and  outstations.  The 
schools,  printing-house,  hospitals,  and  industrial 
training  establishments  of  this  mission  are  note- 
worthy for  completeness  and  beneficent  influence 
quite  as  much  as  for  their  conquest  of  the  chaos 
which  existed  when  the  missionaries  arrived  on  the 
field.  The  Church  of  Scotland  founded  a  mission 
in  the  Shir^  highlands  in  1876.  The  site  was 
chosen  because  the  missionaries  were  too  ill  and 
exhausted  to  go  farther  than  the  little  group  of 
native  huts  wbdch  seemed  a  haven  of  rest.  Close 
by  that  miserable  village  has  arisen  about  the 
mission  the  little  town  of  Blantyre,  whose  post- 
office  is  now  a  recognized  station  of  the  Universal 
Postal  Union.  This  mission  has  about  forty  stations 
and  outstations  and  a  fine  group  of  schools  and 
hospitals.  The  Zambesi  Industrial  Mission  has 
taken  up  a  large  tract  of  land  lying  to  the  north- 
west of  Blantyre  and  is  teaching  the  natives  to 
cultivate  coffee  and  other  valuable  crops.  It  has 
about  thirty  schools  in  connection  with  its  various 
settlements.  The  South  African  (Dutch)  Ministers* 
Union  of  Cape  Town  established  a  mission  in  1901 
in  the  Angoni  hill-country  west  of  Lake  Nyassa. 
It  has  seven  stations  and  is  winning  favor  among  the 
people.  All  of  these  missions  have  been  greatly 
aided  by  a  conunercial  enterprise  known  as  the 
African  Lakes  Corporation,  formed  in  1878  by 
Scottish  business  men  with  the  definite  purpose  of 
cooperating  with  the  missions  in  civilizing  the 
people  of  the  protectorate.  It  has  organized  a 
regular  steamboat  service  on  the  lake  and  the 
Shir6  River  to  the  coast  at  Chinde,  and  is  at  last 
on  a  paying  business  basis.  The  formal  establish- 
ment of  the  British  protectorate  over  the  lake 
district  took  place  in  1891.  It  is  one  of  the  marks 
of  progress  in  the  civilization  of  the  tribes  of  the 
region  that  in  1904  a  large  section  of  the  fierce 
Angoni  tribe  voluntarily  accepted  British  control 
and  British  regulations.  The  missions  named 
above  have  about  190  missionaries  (men  and  wom- 
en), 985  native  preachers  and  teachers,  25,000  chil- 
dren in  their  schools,  and  about  16,000  professing 
Christians  on  their  rolls.  Several  of  the  languages 
of  the  protectorate  have  been  reduced  to  writing 
and  the  Bible  is  in  process  of  publication  in  the 
Nyanja,  several  dialects  of  which,  the  Yao,  the 
Konde,  and  the  Tonga,  are  now  being  unified. 
The  Angoni  tribe,  in  the  western  part  of  the 
protectorate,  being  of  Zulu  race,  are  able  to  use  the 
Zulu  Bible,  of  which  a  considerable  number  of 
copies  are  brought  from  South  Africa  every  year. 


Nyassaland  is  carried  on  the  lists  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  as  a  pro  vicariate  confided  to  the 
care  of  the  Algerian  Missionary  Society.  But 
beyond  10  missionaries,  2  schools,  and  1,000  ad- 
herents little  can  be  learned  of  the  progress  of  the 
mission. 

Dahomey:  A  French  possession  in  West  Africa 
having  a  coast-line  of  seventy  miles  between  Togo- 
land  and  the  British  colony  of  Lagos,  and  extending 
northward  to  the  French  territory  of  Senegambia 
and  the  Niger.  The  French  gained  their  first 
footing  on  this  coast  in  1851.  Area  60,000  sq. 
miles;  population  estimated  at  about  1,000,000, 
commonly  of  unmixed  negro  stock.  Capital,  Por- 
to Novo  on  the  coast.  About  sixty  miles  of  rail- 
way have  been  built  and  400  miles  are  projected. 
It  is  worth  noting  that  of  the  whole  value  of  the 
annual  imports  into  Dahomey  one-fourth  represents 
the  liquor  traffic.  A  Roman  Catholic  mission  has 
existed  for  some  years  under  the  direction  of  the 
Lyons  Seminary  for  Missions  in  Africa.  There 
are  twenty-two  missionaries  and  fifteen  schools. 
The  number  of  the  Roman  Catholics  in  the  mission 
is  estimated  at  about  5,000.  The  only  Protestant 
mission  is  that  of  the  Wesleyan  Missionary  So- 
ciety with  a  central  station  at  Porto  Novo.  It  has 
two  missionaries  who  are  of  French  nationality 
and  it  occupies  ten  outstations  in  the  interior. 
The  number  of  professing  Protestant  Christians  is 
about  1,000. 

Effypt:  A  tributary  province  of  the  Turkish  em- 
pire lying  on  the  Mediterranean  Sea  east  of  Tripoli, 
and  touching  Arabia  on  the  east  at  the  Isthmus 
of  Suez.  Area  (excluding  the  Sudan)  about  400,000 
sq.  miles,  of  which  the  Nile  Valley  and  Delta, 
comprising  the  most  of  the  cultivated  and  inhab- 
ited land,  cover  only  about  13,000  sq.  miles.  The 
country  is  ruled  by  a  hereditary  prince  called  the 
IChedive,  under  British  tutelage  and  control. 
Population  (1897)  9,734,405.  Capital,  Cairo.  The 
Mohammedan  population  of  Egypt  numbers  about 
8,979,000.  Of  the  Christians  648,000  belong  to 
the  Oriental  Churches,  608,000  being  connected 
with  the  Coptic  or  Old  Egyptian  Church.  There 
are  also  56,000  Roman  Catholics  and  27,000  Protes- 
tants. About  25,000  of  the  population  are  Jews. 
The  Roman  Catholic  establishments  in  Egypt  date 
from  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
being  at  that  time  connected  with  the  orders  in 
charge  of  the  holy  places  at  Jerusalem.  The 
present  apostolic  vicariate  of  Egypt  was  established 
in  1839.  Roman  Catholic  missions  in  Egypt  are 
under  the  minor  Franciscan  friars  and  the  Lyons 
Seminary  for  Missions.  There  are  also  Lazarists, 
Jesuits,  and  Sisters  of  the  Order  of  the  Good  Shep- 
herd, Sisters  of  the  Order  of  the  Mother  of  God, 
Sisters  of  the  Order  of  San  Carlo  Borromeo,  and 
Sisters  of  Our  Lady  of  Sion.  There  are  about  ninety 
schools,  besides  orphanages,  hospitals,  and  other 
benevolent  establishments.  Protestant  missions 
are  carried  on  by  the  American  United  Presbyterian 
Mission  (1854),  the  Church  Missionary  Society 
(in  its  present  form  1882),  the  North  Africa  Mission, 
the  Egypt  General  Mission,  the  Church  of  Scotland 
Committee  on  Missions  to  the  Jews,  the  London 
Jews  Society,  the  American  Seventh-day  Adventist 


Africa 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


68 


Medical  MissionB,  the  (German)  Sudan  Pioneer 
Bliscdon,  and  the  (German)  Deaconesses  of  Kaisers- 
werth  (1857).  The  United  Presbyterian  Mission 
is  the  largest  of  these  missions,  occupying  stations 
throughout  the  Nile  Valley  and  in  the  Sudan.  All 
together  these  missions  report  166  stations  and 
outstations,  154  missionaries,  with  515  native 
workers,  171  schools,  with  over  14,000  pupils  and 
students,  ten  hospitals  and  dispensaries,  two  pub- 
lishing houses,  and  about  26,000  adherents.  Under 
British  control  religious  liberty  is  more  or  less 
assured.  As  a  consequence  Mohammedans  are 
also  included  in  small  numbers  among  the  mission 
converts.  The  Chimih  Missionary  Society's  mis- 
sion publishes  a  weekly  paper  in  Arabic  and  English 
expressly  for  Mohammedans.  The  Bible  in  Arabic, 
translated  and  printed  at  the  expense  of  the 
American  Bible  Society  in  Beirut,  is  circulated 
throughout  Egpyt,  Arabic  being  the  language  of 
the  people.    See  Egypt. 

Britrea:  An  Italian  possession  in  Africa  extending 
670  miles  along  the  coast  of  the  Red  Sea  and  inland 
to  Abyssinia  and  the  Egyptian  Sudan.  Area  about 
85,500  sq.  miles;  population  (estimated)  450,000, 
of  whom  about  3,000  are  Europeans.  The  capital 
is  Asmara.  The  native  population  of  Eritrea  is 
chiefly  nomadic.  In  religion  more  than  100,000 
may  be  reckoned  Mohanmiedans;  17,000,  Roman 
Catholic;  12,000,  of  the  Eastern  Churches;  1,000, 
Protestants;  and  500,  Jews.  The  remainder  of 
the  population  is  pagan,  belonging  to  different 
races.  Roman  CathoHo  missionaries  have  made 
this  region  a  basis  of  operations  in  Abyssinia  for 
nearly  three  centuries,  having  been  expelled  from 
Abyssinia  proper  a  number  of  times.  Their  cen- 
tral establishments  are  now  at  Massowah  (Massaua) 
and  Keran,  where  they  have  a  hospital,  schools, 
and  two  or  three  orphanages.  Protestant  missions 
in  Eritrea  also  directed  toward  the  Abyssinian 
population  are  carried  on  by  the  Swedish  National 
Society.  They  have  10  stations  on  the  borders  of 
Tigr6  and  in  the  province  formerly  known  as  Bogos 
with  about  15  schools,  a  hospital,  a  dispensary, 
and  a  small  but  growing  band  of  evangelical  Chriis- 
tians.  The  Swedish  missions  have  done  good 
service  in  securing  a  translation  of  the  Bible  into 
the  Galla  language  (1898),  and  through  trained 
native  workers  have  succeeded  in  establishing 
themselves  among  the  Galla  people  in  the  south 
of  Abyssinia. 

French  Oxiinea:  A  territory  forming  a  part  of  the 
newly  organized  administrative  region  known  as 
French  West  Africa.  It  lies  on  the  coast  between 
Portuguese  Guinea  and  the  British  colony  of  Sierra 
Leone,  extending  inland  some  400  miles  to  the 
district  of  Senegambia  and  the  Niger.  Area  about 
95,000  sq.  miles;  population  estimated  at  2,200,000. 
About  1,000,000  are  Mohammedans;  more  than 
1,000,000  are  pagans;  1,000  are  Roman  Catholics, 
and  500  are  Protestants.  The  capital  is  Konakiy; 
from  which  place  a  railway  is  now  under  construc- 
tion to  the  Niger  River.  French  colonization  in 
this  district  began  as  long  ago  as  1685,  but  its 
development  has  only  been  of  recent  date  (1843). 
The  government  is  undertaking  in  this,  as  in  fdl 
other  parts  of  French  West  Africa,  to  introduce 


a  uniform  system  of  education.  This,  if  carried 
out,  will  prove  of  inestimable  advantage  to  the  pop- 
ulation. The  Roman  Catholic  mission  in  French 
Guinea  is  carried  on  by  the  Lyons  Congrega- 
tions of  the  Holy  Ghost  and  of  the  Immacu- 
late Heart  of  Mary.  There  are  about  10  mis- 
sionaries with  12  schools.  A  Protestant  missionary 
enterprise,  following  one  commenced  in  1804  by 
the  Church  Missionary  Society,  is  carried  on  in 
the  Rio  Pongas  region  by  West  Indian  Christians 
aided  by  the  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the 
Gospel.  The  missionaries  are  colored  men  from 
the  West  Indies  specially  chosen  for  this  work, 
which  has  been  undertaken  with  the  thought  of 
making  amends  to  Africa  for  the  wrongs  inflicted 
upon  its  people  by  England  and  her  colonies.  The 
New  Testament  has  been  translated  into  the  Susu 
language  (1858). 

French  Konffo:  A  French  colonial  possession 
which  occupies  the  west  coast  of  Africa  between 
the  Spanish  possessions  of  the  Rio  Muni  on  the 
borders  of  the  Kongo  Independent  State  and  Kam- 
erun,  and  which  extends  inland  to  Lake  Chad. 
The  French  occupation  began  in  1841  in  a  small 
colony  on  the  Gabun  River.  Its  extension  to  the 
Kongo  River  followed  the  explorations  of  De 
Brazza,  between  1875  and  1880.  Area  about  450,- 
000  sq.  miles;  population  estimated  at  from  8,000,- 
000  upward.  Capital,  Libreville  on  the  Gabun. 
Adjoining  this  territory  in  the  Lake  Chad  region, 
Bagirmi,  comprising  some  20,000  sq.  miles,  and 
Wadai,  with  170,000  sq.  miles,  in  1903  submitted 
to  the  French  control.  These  two  t«mtories  are 
strongly  Mohammedan.  French  Kongo  proper 
has  about  3,500,000  Mohammedans  in  its  northern 
sections,  the  remainder  of  the  people  being  pagans 
of  the  usual  African  type.  In  race  the  people  of 
the  coast  are  not  of  the  Bantu  stock  found  in  the 
interior. 

Roman  Catholic  missions  are  carried  on  by  the 
Congregation  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Mary  and  the 
Algerian  missionary  order.  The  ecclesiastical  cen- 
ter is  Santa  Maria  on  the  Gabun,  where  is  the  vicari- 
ate, erected  in  1842  \mder  the  name,  at  first,  of 
"  the  apostolic  vicariate  of  both  Guineas."  In  the 
Roman  Catholic  mission  there  are  about  fifty  priests 
and  about  thirty  schools  with  about  5,000  adherents. 
Protestant  missions  were  established  in  1842  by 
missionaries  of  the  American  Board.  The  mission 
was  afterward  transferred  to  the  American  Presby- 
terian Board  (North),  and  later  for  political  reasons 
the  interior  stations  were  passed  over  to  the  French 
missionaries  of  the  Paris  Evangelical  Missionary 
Society.  Together  these  two  missions  have  23 
missionaries  and  about  1,200  adherents.  The 
languages  having  been  reduced  to  writing  by  mis- 
sionaries, the  Bible  has  been  translated  into  Mpon- 
gwe  (1850-74)  and  Benga  (1858-88),  and  various 
parts  have  been  translated  into  Dikele,  Fang  (also 
called  by  the  French  Pahouin),  Bulu,  and  Galwa. 

Oambla:  A  British  colony  and  protectorate  lying 
on  both  sides  of  the  Gambia  River,  extending  some 
250  miles  inland  from  its  mouth  and  closely  hemmed 
in  by  the  French  West  African  territory.  The 
colony  was  commenced  in  1662.  Area,  estimated 
(1903),  3,061    sq.    miles;   population,    estimated 


69 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Africa 


(1903),  163,781;  capital,  Bathuret  on  the  Island 
of  8aint  Biazy.  There  are  about  90,000  Moham- 
medans in  the  colony,  56,000  pagans,  4,000  Roman 
Catholics,  and  2,000  Protestant  Christians.  All 
of  these  figures,  however,  are  estimates,  excepting 
as  to  the  colony  proper.  The  Roman  Catholic 
mission  is  \mder  the  care  of  the  Lyons  Seminary 
for  Missions  in  Africa,  and  carries  on  two  or  three 
schools.  The  Protestant  mission  is  carried  on  by 
the  Wesl^an  Methodist  Missionary  Society  which 
entered  the  colony  in  1821.  It  has  7  outstations, 
4  schools,  and  about  2,000  adherents  in  the  colony. 
The  Society  of  Friends  established  a  mission  in 
this  colony  in  1822,  and  schools  were  carried  on  by 
Hannah  Kilham  until  her  death  in  1832,  when  the 
mission  was  given  up.  The  history  of  the  Protes- 
tant missions  here  includes  |a  very  considerable 
loss  of  life  among  the  missionaries,  due  to  the  un- 
healthfulness  of  the  country.  The  Arabic  Bible 
is  used  to  a  limited  extent,  and  parts  of  the  Bible 
have  been  translated  also  into  the  Wolof  and  Man- 
dingo  languages. 

Qerman  East  Afirloa:  A  German  colony  and 
sphere  of  influence  lying  on  the  east  coast  of  Africa, 
between  British  East  Africa  and  Portuguese  East 
Africa,  and  extending  inland  to  Lakes  Nyassa  and 
Tanganyika.  Area  about  384,000  sq.  miles; 
population  (estimated)  7,000,000,  including  1,437 
Europeans.  There  are  about  15,000  Arabs,  In- 
dians, Chinese,  and  other  Asiatics  in  this  territory. 
A  railway  has  been  built  from  Tanga  on  the  coast 
about  eighty  miles  inland  to  Korogwe;  it  is  to  be 
carried  ultimately  to  Lake  Tanganyika.  In  relig- 
ion the  people  of  the  country  are:  pagans,  about 
6,500,000;  Mohammedans,  for  the  most  part  near 
the  coast,  300,000;  Hindus,  Buddhists,  etc.,  12,000; 
Roman  Catholics,  20,000;  Protestants,  7,000. 
Roman  Catholic  missions  are  carried  on  by  the 
Congregation  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  the  Trappists, 
the  Benedictines,  and  the  Algerian  Missionary 
Society.  They  have  extensive  establishments  about 
the  northern  and  eastern  shores  of  Lake  Tanganyika, 
and  report  58  stations,  195  missionaries,  77  nuns, 
and  295  schools  with  17,823  scholars.  It  is  possible 
that  a  part  of  the  figures  here  given  refer  to  mis- 
sions lying  beyond  the  border  of  the  Kongo  Inde- 
pendent State.  Ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  centers 
at  Zanzibar.  The  Protestant  missions  are  carried 
on  by  the  Church  Missionary  Society,  the  Univei^ 
sities  Mission,  the  German  East  Africa  Mission, 
the  Leipsic  Missionary  Society,  the  Moravian 
Church,  and  the  Berlin  Missionary  Society.  The 
two  last-named  societies  are  active  at  the  north 
end  of  Lake  Nyassa;  and  the  Moravians  are  ex- 
tending stations  thence  northward.  The  Univer- 
sities Mission  has  stations  along  the  Rovuma  River 
and  on  the  eastern  shore  of  Lake  Nyassa.  The 
Beiiin  society  has  a  station  at  Dar-al-Salam  on 
the  Indian  Ocean;  and  the  other  German  societies 
have  their  stations  mostly  along  the  northern 
boundary  and  in  the  foothUls  of  Mounts  Kilima- 
Njaro  and  Mweru.  All  these  societies  together 
report  60  central  stations,  123  missionaries,  and 
230  schools  with  about  11,000  scholars.  The 
Leipsic  society  has  a  printing-press,  and  publishes 
a  newspaper  at  one  of  the  Kilima-Njaro  stations. 


The  Suahili  version  of  the  Bible  is  used  along  the 
coast  (completed  in  1892).  The  New  Testament 
has  been  translated  into  Yao  (1880)  and  Gogo 
(1887).  Some  of  the  Gospels  have  been  translated 
into  Bondei,  Chagga,  Kaguru,  Nyamwezi,  Sagalla, 
Shambale,  and  Sukuma,  and  the  translation  is 
progressing  in  several  of  these  as  the  people  acquire 
a  taste  for  reading. 

Qerxnan  Southwest  Africa:  A  German  colony  and 
protectorate  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa,  lying  south 
of  Angola  and  bounded  on  the  east  and  south  by 
Cape  Colony  and  the  Bechuanaland  protectorate. 
Area  322,450  sq.  miles;  population  about  200,000, 
composed  of  Namaquas  (Hottentots)  and  Damaras, 
with  Hereros  and  Ovambos  in  the  north,  who  are 
of  Bantu  stock.  The  European  population  num- 
bers 4,682.  Walfisch  Bay  on  this  coast  is  a  British 
possession  belonging  to  Cape  Colony.  The  seat  of 
administration  is  Windhoek.  The  chief  seaport  is 
Swakopmund,  whence  a  railway  of  236  miles 
leads  to  Windhoek.  The  Hereros  in  the  north 
and  the  Namaquas  in  the  south  have  been 
at  war  against  the  German  authorities  since  1904, 
and  the  colony  has  suffered  much  in  consequence. 
Roman  Catholic  missions  are  carried  on  by  the 
Oblates  of  HQnfeld,  and  the  Oblates  of  St.  Francis 
of  Sales  (Vienna).  The  latter  have  2  missionaries 
and  4  nims.  The  other  missions  have  been  dis- 
turbed by  the  war,  and  statistics  are  not  given. 
Protestant  missions  are  carried  on  by  the  Rhenish 
Missionary  Society  of  Germany,  and  the  Finland 
Missionary  Society.  Together  these  societies  had 
about  16,000  adherents  before  the  war;  but  recent 
statistics  are  lacking,  a  number  of  the  stations 
having  been  destroyed.  The  Bible  has  been  trans- 
lated into  Namaqua  (1881),  and  the  New  Testa- 
ment into  Herero  (1877).  Some  Gospels  have 
been  completed  in  Kuanyama  and  Ndonga 
(Ovambo). 

Gold  Coast  Oolony:  A  British  crown  colony  and 
territory  stretching  for  350  miles  along  the  Gulf 
of  Guinea,  in  West  Africa,  between  the  Ivory  Coast 
and  Togoland.  Area  119,260  sq.  miles;  population 
1,500,000.  About  32,000  of  the  people  are  Moham- 
medans; 35,000,  Protestants;  6,000,  Roman  Catho- 
lics; and  the  rest  are  pagans  of  the  animist  type 
with  deep  veneration  for  fetishes.  The  Roman 
Catholic  missions  are  connected  with  the  Lyons 
Seminary  for  African  Missions,  and  have  16  mis- 
sionaries with  13  schools.  Protestant  missions 
were  commenced  in  1752  by  the  Society  for  the 
Propagation  of  the  Gospel.  As  a  result  of  this  mis- 
sion an  African,  Philip  Quaque,  was  taken  to 
England,  educated,  ordained,  and  returning  to 
the  Gold  Coast,  preached  there  for  some  fifty  years. 
The  missions  now  existing  are  those  of  the  Basel 
Missionary  Society,  the  Wesleyan  Methodist  Mis- 
sionary Society  (England),  the  National  Baptist 
Convention  (U.  8.  A.),  and,  since  1905,  the  Society 
for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel.  These  missions 
together  report  875  places  of  regular  worship,  82  mis- 
sionaries (men  and  women),  1,088  native  workers, 
235  schools  with  11,557  scholars,  and  34,835  Chris- 
tian adherents.  The  missions  make  steady  prog- 
ress; but,  at  the  same  time,  they  point  out  that 
Mohammedanism  is  also  making  progress  among 


Africa 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


70 


the  pagans.  Kumassi,  the  former  capital  of  Ashan- 
tiland,  is  now  connected  with  the  coast  by  a  railway 
168  miles  long;  and  light  steamers  are  used  on  the 
Volt  a  River.  An  artificial  harbor  is  being  con- 
structed at  Sekondi,  the  coast  terminal  of  the  rail- 
way. The  Bible  has  been  translated  into  Akra 
(1844-65)  and  Otshi  (1870).  The  New  Testament 
has  been  translated  into  Fanti  (1884)  and  Ew6 
(1872).  Progress  has  been  made  toward  com- 
pleting the  Bible  in  both  of  these  dialects. 

Ivory  Ooadt:  A  French  territory  included  in  the 
great  administrative  region  known  as  French  West 
Africa.  It  has  its  coast-line  between  Liberia  and 
the  British  Gold  C^ast  Colony,  and  extends  inland 
to  the  territory  of  Senegambia  and  the  Niger.  The 
French  first  obtained  possessions  on  this  coast  in 
1843.  Area  2(X),(XX)  sq.  miles;  population  about 
3,(XX),(XX),  of  whom  300  are  Europeans.  In  religion 
about  200,000  are  Mohanunedans;  about  1,000, 
Roman  Catholics;  and  the  rest,  pagans.  The 
capital  is  Bingerville.  A  railway  is  being  con- 
structed inland  from  Bassam,  of  which  110  miles 
are  nearly  finished.  The  only  missions  in  the 
country  are  carried  on  by  the  Lyons  Seminary  for 
Missions  in  Africa  (Roman  Catholic).  There  are 
said  to  be  16  priests,  who  have  7  schools  and  some 
orphanages. 

Kamerun:  A  protectorate  and  colonial  possession 
of  Germany,  occupying  the  west  coast  of  Africa 
between  French  Kongo  and  Nigeria.  Inland  it 
extends  in  a  northeasterly  direction  to  Lake  Chad. 
Area  about  191,000  sq.  miles;  population  (esti- 
mated) 3,500,000,  of  whom  (in  1904)  710  were 
whites.  The  native  population  is  largely  of  the 
Bantu  race,  with  tribes  of  Sudan  negroes  inland. 
Capital,  Buea.  The  German  annexation  took 
place  in  1884.  Roman  Catholic  missions  have  been 
active  in  this  region  since  1889,  and  are  in  charge 
of  the  Pallotin  Missionary  Society  of  Limburg. 
They  report  7  stations,  34  missionaries,  20  nims, 
2,418  pupils  in  their  schools,  and  3,780  Roman 
Catholic  Christians.  Protestant  missions  were 
commenced  by  Alfred  Saker  of  the  Baptist  Mission- 
ary Society  (England)  in  1844,  he  having  been 
expelled  from  Fernando  Po  by  the  Spanish  govern- 
ment. With  the  German  colonization  of  Kamenm 
(1880-82)  difficulties  arose,  and  the  Baptist  mission 
was  turned  over  to  the  Basel  Missionary  Society,  T. 
J.  Comber  and  G .  Grenf  ell  of  the  Baptist  mission  going 
south  to  found  a  mission  on  the  Kongo.  A  con- 
siderable body  of  the  native  Baptists  declined  to 
accept  the  transfer,  and  the  German  Baptists  of 
Berlin  sent  missionaries  to  care  for  them.  The 
German  Baptist  mission  reports  14  missionaries, 
1,4(X)  pupils,  and  2,170  professed  Christians.  The 
Basel  Society's  mission,  established  in  1885,  has 
extended  inland,  and  reports  (1905)  64  missionaries, 
163  native  workers,  6,452  pupils,  and  6,422  pro- 
fessed Christians.  The  eagerness  of  the  natives 
to  learn  to  read  is  remarkable.  The  American 
Presbyterians  (North)  opened  a  mission  in  the 
southern  part  of  the  country  in  1885-93,  which 
has  30  missionaries,  27  stations  and  outstations, 
15  schools,  a  hospital,  and  about  3,(XX)  professing 
Christians.  The  entire  Bible  was  translated  into 
Dualla  by  the  Baptists  in  1868,  and  a  version  of 


the  New  Testament  in  the  same  language,  which 
others  than  Baptists  can  use,  was  issued  in  1902. 
The  Benga  Bible,  used  in  the  Rio  Muni  colony,  is 
circulated  to  some  extent  in  the  south  of  Kamerun, 
and  parts  of  the  Bible  have  been  translated  into 
Lsuba  and  Bala. 

Konffo  Independent  State:  A  region  occupying  in 
general  the  basin  of  the  Kongo  River  and  its  tribu- 
taries in  West  Central  Africa.  It  touches  the 
seacoast  by  a  narrow  neck  that  extends  along  the 
right  bank  of  the  river  to  its  mouth.  The  left 
bank  is  held  by  Portugal.  By  international  agree- 
ment in  1885  the  state  was  placed  under  the  sover- 
eignty of  King  Leopold  II.  of  Belgium.  H.  M. 
Stanley,  who  first  explored  the  region,  was  its 
first  administrator.  International  resolutions  de- 
clare the  navigation  of  the  Kongo  and  its  branches 
free  to  all,  and  proclaim  the  suppression  of  the 
slave-trade  and  the  protection  of  the  native  inhab- 
itants. The  region  has  highlands  well  adapted  to 
the  residence  of  Europeans,  and  its  natural  wealth, 
although  but  sUghtly  developed,  is  probably  very 
great.  The  state  appears  to  be  administered 
upon  the  ancient  colonial  theory  of  deriving  reve- 
nue from  it  at  all  hazards.  Great  tracts  of  its 
territory  have  been  passed  over  to  trading  com- 
panies, the  first  condition  of  whose  concessions  is  an 
obligation  to  pay  the  king  of  Belgium  from  40  to 
45  per  cent,  of  their  gains.  The  result  has  been 
abuses.  The  trading  companies  are  charged  with 
forcing  the  natives  to  work,  treating  them  in  fact 
as  slaves,  flogging  and  killing  or  mutilating  them 
when  they  fail  to  obey  orders.  Missionaries  made 
facts  of  this  nature  known,  and  King  Leopold 
appointed  a  commission  to  examine  the  situation, 
with  the  result  that  many  terrible  outrages  were 
found  to  be  habitually  committed  by  the  armed 
guards  organized  by  the  trading  companies.  The 
commission,  while  inclined  to  justify  severe  meas- 
\ires,  as  necessary  to  lead  the  natives  to  work, 
recommended  that  the  trading  companies  be  for- 
bidden to  use  armed  guards  or  to  require  forced 
labor  from  the  people  of  the  districts  which  they 
administer.  There  is  some  hope  of  an  amelioration 
of  conditions  in  consequence.  The  capital  is 
Boma,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Kongo  River. 

The  area  of  the  state  is  estimated  at  about  900,- 
000  sq.  miles;  population  estimated  at  from  15,- 
000,000  to  30,000,000.  The  white  people  number 
2,483.  For  the  most  part  the  people  of  the  Kongo 
are  of  the  Bantu  race.  Every  tribe  has  its  own 
dialect,  so  that  the  number  of  dialects  is  consid- 
erable. Roman  Catholic  missions  were  established 
in  the  Kongo  region  in  the  latter  part  of  the  fifteenth 
century.  It  should  be  remembered,  however,  that 
these  early  missions  were  almost  entirely  in  what 
is  now  still  Portuguese  territory.  Nothing  seems 
to  have  been  undertaken  at  that  time  in  the  interior 
of  what  is  now  Kongo  State.  At  the  present  time 
the  Roman  Catholic  missions  extend  along  the  river 
and  in  the  Ubangi  district.  They  have  founded 
a  number  of  stations  also  in  the  Tanganyika  region. 
Schools,  industrial  work,  and  agricultural  operar 
tions  are  carried  on  with  considerable  success. 
Some  of  the  natives  have  been  trained  by  the  mis- 
sionaries in  Europe  as  physicians,  and  render  good 


71 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Africa 


servioe  as  such.  Statistics  of  the  missions  are  not 
clearly  given,  but  seem  to  show  about  20,000  con- 
v«rt8.  Protestant  missions  in  this  region  quickly 
followed  the  explorations  of  H.  M.  Stanley.  The 
Livingstone  Inland  Mission  from  England  com- 
menced work  on  the  lower  Kongo  in  1878,  but 
their  stations  were  shortly  transferred  to  the 
American  Baptist  Missionary  Union.  The  Baptist 
Missionary  Society  of  England  established  a  mis- 
sion on  the  upper  river  in  1879  having  for  its  pio- 
neers Grenfell,  Comber,  and  Bentley ;  the  Plymouth 
Brethren,  led  by  F.  S.  .^not,  in  the  Garenganze  region 
in  1881;  the  Regions  Beyond  Missionary  Union, 
in  the  Balolo  district  of  the  upper  Kongo  in  1889; 
the  American  Presbyterians  (South),  led  by  S.  N. 
Lapsley,  on  the  Kassai  River  in  1891 ;  the  Swedish 
Blissionaiy  Society  on  the  right  bank  of  the  lower 
Kongo  in  1882.  These  missionary  societies  have 
about  200  missionaries  and  nearly  1,000  native 
woiicers,  with  schools,  hospitals,  industrial  estab- 
lishments, including  printing-houses,  and  about 
15,000  adherents.  Several  missionary  steamers 
ply  on  the  great  river.  Educational  work  is  rapidly 
expanding,  the  natives  showing  the  greatest  eager- 
ness to  learn  to  read.  The  Belgian  commission 
of  inquiry  in  its  report  (1905)  paid  a  high  tribute 
to  the  value  of  these  missions  in  singling  out  the 
field  of  the  Baptist  Missionary  Society  as  a  district 
where  the  natives  have  been  taught  to  work 
and  are  noticeably  industrious.  Several  of  the 
dialects  of  the  region  have  been  reduced  to  writing 
by  the  missionaries.  The  whole  Bible  has  been 
printed  in  Fioti  (completed  1904);  the  New  Testa- 
ment, in  Kongo  (1893);  and  parts  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, in  the  Teke,  Laba,  Bopoto,  Bolegin,  Bangi, 
Nsembe,  and  Balolo.  These  latter  translations 
are  more  or  less  tentative,  and  will  hardly  be  en- 
larged more  rapidly  than  the  increase  of  readers 
may  demand.  In  the  mean  time  the  Fioti  Bible 
can  be  understood  by  people  using  other  dialects 
in  ordinary  speech. 

Lsffos:  A  British  colony  and  protectorate  in 
Western  Africa  lying  on  the  coast  between  Dahomey 
and  Southern  Nigeria,  and  extending  inland  to  the 
French  territories  of  the  middle  Niger.  Area, 
including  Yorubaland  and  the  protectorate,  25,- 
450  sq.  miles;  population  (estimated)  1,500,000. 
The  great  mass  of  the  population  are  pagan  fetish- 
worshipers.  There  are  some  7,000  Mohammedans, 
15,000  Roman  Catholics,  and  32,000  Protestants. 
A  railway  has  been  built  from  Lagos  to  Ibadan  in 
the  Yoruba  country,  with  a  branch  to  Abeokuta. 
The  Yoruba  chiefs  are  allowed  to  govern  their 
land  under  British  supervision. 

Roman  Catholic  missions  are  \mder  the  Lyons 
Seminary  for  African  Missions.  They  report  27 
priests,  24  schools,  and  several  charitable  institu- 
tions. The  Protestant  missions  are  carried  on  by 
the  Church  Missionary  Society  and  a  native  pastor- 
ate in  cooperation  with  it;  by  the  Wesleyan  Metho- 
dist Missionary  Society;  by  the  Southern  Baptist 
Convention  (1856);  and  by  the  National  Baptist  Con- 
vention (U.  S.  A.).  The  whole  Protestant  mis- 
sionaiy  body  has  189  stations  and  outstations,  55 
missionaries  (men  and  women),  317  native  workers, 
110  schools  with  7,000  scholars,  and  3  hospitals 


and  dispensaries.  The  government  maintains 
Mohammedan  and  pagan  schools,  but  the  pupils 
availing  themselves  of  this  privilege  of  non-Chris- 
tian education  in  1902  were  only  192.  Abeokuta 
was  evangelized  in  the  first  instance  about  1842 
by  freed  slaves  who  had  been  taught  Christianity 
in  Sierra  Leone,  1,000  miles  to  the  westward,  and 
who  led  the  people  of  the  city  to  invite  the  Church 
Missionary  Society  to  send  missionaries  there. 
This  was  done  in  1846.  A  remarkable  man  con- 
nected with  this  mission  in  its  early  days  was 
Samuel  Crowther  (q.  v.) ,  rescued  as  a  boy  from  a  Por- 
tuguese slaver,  educated,  and  sent  as  a  preacher  to 
Abeokuta  where  he  found  his  relatives.  He  after- 
ward was  consecrated  bishop  of  the  Niger  in  Canter- 
bury Cathedral,  and  rendered  admirable  service 
to  the  mission  during  a  long  life.  The  assistant 
bishop  of  Yorubaland,  now,  is  a  full-blooded  African. 
In  1903  the  paramount  chief  of  Abeokuta  visited 
London  to  do  homage  to  the  king,  and  at  the  same 
time  called  at  the  offices  of  the  Church  Missionary 
Society  and  the  Bible  Society  to  express  thanks 
for  great  services  rendered  to  his  people.  The 
Bible  has  been  translated  into  Yoruban  (1850), 
and  the  New  Testament  into  Hausa  (1857).  One 
of  the  Gospels  has  been  tentatively  translated  into 
Igbira. 

Liberia:  An  independent  republic  in  Western 
Africa  which  has  grown  out  of  an  effort  to  colonize 
freed  slaves  from  America.  The  first  settlement 
was  made  in  1822.  The  republican  government 
was  organized  in  1847.  The  coast  of  the  republic 
extends  from  Sierra  Leone  to  the  Ivory  Coast 
Colony.  The  territory  extends  about  200  miles 
inland,  and  is  hemmed  in  on  the  east  by  French 
territory.  Only  a  region  extending  about  25  or 
30  miles  inland  from  the  coast,  however,  is  effect- 
ively administered  by  the  republic.  Area  about 
45,000  sq.  miles;  population  (estimated)  2,000,000, 
about  20,000  of  whom  are  of  American  origin. 
The  language  of  the  republic  is  English.  Several 
native  (Malects  are  found  among  the  tribes  of  the 
interior.  It  is  estimated  that  there  are  about 
850,000  Mohammedans  and  somewhat  over  1,000,- 
000  pagans  in  Liberia,  with  about  500  Roman 
Catholics  and  25,000  Protestant  Christians.  Ro- 
man Catholic  missions  are  dependent  upon  their 
headquarters  at  Free  Town  in  Sierra  Leone. 
The  missionaries  belong  to  the  Congregation  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  and  Sacred  Heart  of  Mary.  Since 
1903  there  has  been  a  separate  missionary  juria- 
diction  confided  to  the  Marist  Fathers.  Protes- 
tant missions  in  Liberia  were  conmienced  by  the 
American  Baptist  Convention  through  the  Rev. 
Lott  Carey,  who  went  to  Monrovia  in  1822.  After 
disease  had  carried  off  many  victims  among  the 
missionaries  the  mission  was  given  up.  The 
Presbyterian  Church  (North)  established  a  mission 
in  Liberia  in  1833,  which  was  also  given  up  on  ac- 
count of  the  ravages  of  disease  among  the  mis- 
sionaries. The  American  Methodist  Church  estab- 
lished a  mission  at  Monrovia  in  1833,  of  which  the 
Rev.  Melville  B.  Cox  was  the  pioneer.  This 
mission  is  still  carried  on  with  a  great  measure  ci 
success.  The  American  Protestant  EpiscoiMd 
Church  established  a  mission  at  Cape  PaUnas  in 


Africa 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


72 


1834,  with  the  Rev.  John  (afterward  Bishop)  Payne 
as  one  of  the  first  missionaries.  This  mission  is 
still  carried  on  with  considerable  success,  about 
twenty  of  the  mission  clergy  being  from  the  Grebo 
tribe  of  natives.  The  American  Board  established 
a  mission  at  Cape  Palmas  in  1834,  the  Rev.  J.  L. 
Wilson  being  one  of  the  earliest  missionaries.  On 
accotmt  of  the  unhealthfulness  of  the  region  the 
missionaries  and  a  number  of  their  adherents 
removed  in  1842  to  the  Gabun  district  in  what  ia 
now  the  French  Kongo  colony,  transferring  their 
buildings  and  other  immovables  in  Liberia  to  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Mission.  The  National  Bap- 
tist Convention  established  a  mission  in  Liberia  in 
1853,  and  the  Evangelical  Lutheran  General  Synod 
of  North  America  also  established  a  mission  in 
1860  which  is  doing  good  industrial  work.  These 
societies  together  report  92  missionaries  and  182 
native  workers  operating  at  168  stations,  with 
schools,  hospitals,  printing-presses,  and  industrial 
institutions.  Parts  of  the  New  Testament  have 
been  translated  into  Grebo  (1838).     See  Liberla.. 

Morocco:  An  independent  Mohammedan  empire 
in  Northwest  Africa  having  a  coast-line  on  the 
Mediterranean  and  on  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  The 
countiy  ia  gradually  falling  under  the  direction  of 
France.  Area  219,000  sq.  miles  (the  southern 
frontier,  however,  is  not  definitely  fixed);  popu- 
lation (estimated)  5,000,000,  being  composed  of 
Berbers,  Tuaregs,  and  Arabs.  In  name,  at  least, 
the  greater  part  of  the  population  is  reckoned  as 
Mohammedan.  There  are  about  150,000  Jews 
and  about  6,000  Christians  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
and  Eastern  churches,  with  a  few  Protestants. 
An  apostolic  prefecture  of  the  Roman  Catholics 
was  established  at  Tangier  in  1859,  and  under  it 
are  about  forty  priests  in  different  cities  of  Morocco. 
Protestant  missions  are  carried  on  by  the  North 
Africa  Mission  (1881),  the  Gospel  Mission  Union 
(U.  S.  A.,  1894),  and  the  Southern  Morocco  Mis- 
sion (1888);  besides  some  workers  among  the 
Jews  in  Tangier.  There  is  little  religious  lib- 
erty in  Morocco,  and  there  seems  to  be  but  little 
growth  of  the  Protestant  community. 

Natal :  A  British  colony  in  South  Africa  lying  on 
the  eastern  coast  between  Cape  Colony  and  Portu- 
guese East  Africa.  It  ia  bounded  inland  by  the 
Transvaal,  the  Orange  River  Colony,  and  Basuto- 
land.  Area  35,306  sq.  miles;  population  (1903) 
1,039,787.  Of  these,  877,388  are  Zulu-Kafirs; 
97,857,  Asiatics;  and  82,542,  Europeans.  About 
850,000  of  the  population  are  pagans,  30,000  are 
Hindus,  14,000  are  Mohammedans,  15,000  are 
Buddhists  or  Confucians,  22,000  are  Roman  Catho- 
lics, and  73,000  are  Protestants.  The  countiy 
takes  its  name  from  the  whim  of  Vasco  da  Gama, 
the  Portuguese  navigator,  who  happened  to  arrive 
at  the  coast  on  Christmas  day.  Roman  Catholic 
missions  are  under  the  care  of  the  Oblates  of  Mary 
the  Immaculate;  they  report  50  missionaries 
and  7  native  clergy,  with  55  schools  and  several 
orphanages  and  hospitals.  Their  ecclesiastical 
center  is  at  Pietermaritzburg,  the  seat  of  a  vicar 
apostolic.  The  local  Anglican,  Wesleyan,  and 
Dutch  Reformed  congregations  all  carry  on  mis- 
sionaiy  work;  and,  beddes  these,  the  following 


eleven  missionary  societies  are  at  work  in  Natal: 
the  American  Board  (1835),  whose  early  mission- 
aries were,  Daniel  Lindley,  Robert  Adams,  Aldin 
and  Lewis  Grout,  and  Josiah  Tyler;  the  United 
Free  Church  of  Scotland;  the  Society  for  the 
Propagation  of  the  Gospel,  both  of  which  en- 
tered Natal  as  an  extension  of  work  in  Kaffraria; 
the  Berlin  Missionary  Society;  the  Hennannsburg 
Missionary  Society;  the  Norwegian  Missionary  So- 
ciety; the  Swedish  Evangelical  Mission  Covenant; 
the  Free  Methodists  of  North  America;  the  South 
Africa  General  Mission;  the  National  Baptist 
Convention;  and  the  Plymouth  Brethren.  All 
these  societies  together  report  192  stations  and 
outstations,  106  missionaries  (men  and  women), 
612  native  workers,  161  schools  with  7,016  pupils, 
2  hospitals,  and  one  printing-house.  Many  of  the 
native  churches  formerly  connected  with  the  older 
missions  are  now  independent  and  selfnsiupporting, 
and  do  not  appear  on  the  mission  statistics  because 
reckoned  as  churches  of  the  countiy.  Many  of  the 
tribal  chiefs,  who  are  pagans  and  polygamists  of 
a  rank  order,  but  who  nevertheless  treat  mission- 
aries as  benefactors,  oppose  the  Christian  Church 
with  all  their  might  as  tending  to  make  their  "  sub- 
jects "  think  for  themselves  and  question  the 
commands  of  hereditary  despots.  The  British 
authorities  are  inclined  to  hamper  the  freedom  of 
the  missions  on  account  of  their  suspicion  of  "  Ethi- 
opianism."  At  present  a  native  preacher  may  not 
officiate  in  a  church  tmless  under  the  immediate 
supervision  of  a  responsible  white  clergyman. 

The  Bible  has  been  translated  into  Zulu  (1851- 
83).  This  is  one  of  the  most  important  of  the 
African  versions  published  by  the  American  Bible 
Society.  It  has  a  range  of  circulation  extending 
to  Lake  Nyassa  and  into  Bechuanaland. 

Nigeria:  A  British  territory  and  sphere  of  influ- 
ence in  West  Africa  lying  on  the  coast  between 
Lagos  and  Kamerun,  and  extending  inland  between 
the  German  and  the  French  possessions  as  far  as 
Lake  Chad.  It  is  divided  into  Northern  and 
Southern  Nigeria.  Lagos  with  its  protectorate 
is  naturally  a  part  of  the  region,  but  at  present  is 
separately  administered.  Area:  Northern  Nigeria, 
315,000  sq.  miles;  Southern  Nigeria,  49,700  sq. 
miles;  population  (estimated  for  the  whole  great 
region)  23,000,000.  It  is  estimated  that  the 
Mohammedan  part  of  the  population  numbers 
about  10,000,000,  and  the  pagan  part  about  13,- 
000,000.  This  is  mere  guesswork,  since  the  cotmtiy 
is  not  even  explored.  In  all  the  coast  regions  the 
pagans,  of  the  most  degraded  class  of  fetish-wor- 
shipers, predominate.  In  Northern  Nigeria  the 
Mohammedan  element  is  the  ruling  one  (tmder 
British  restraint),  but  there  are  large  sections 
occupied  by  pagan  tribes.  Christians  are  for  the 
most  part  in  Southern  Nigeria,  and  their  numbers 
are  given  as:  Roman  CathoUcs,  18,000;  Protes- 
tants, 6,000.  The  seat  of  government  in  Northern 
Nigeria  is  Zungeru  on  the  Kaduna  River;  that  of 
Southern  Nigeria  is  Old  Calabar.  Steamers  ply 
on  the  Niger  about  400  miles  from  its  mouth. 
A  railway  is  being  constructed  in  Northern  Nigeria 
from  Zungeru  toward  Kano,  a  great  trading  center 
south  of  Lake  Cbad. 


78 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Africa 


Roman  Catholic  missions  are  carried  on  by  the 
Congregation  of  the  Holy  Ghost  and  the  Sacred 
Heart  of  ICary.  Ten  nussionaries  are  reported 
with  6  schools.  Protestant  missions  are  those  of 
the  United  Free  Church  of  Scotland  in  the  Calabar 
region  in  Southern  Nigeria  (1846)  and  of  the  Church 
MJHsionaiy  Society  in  the  Niger  delta  (1857)  and 
in  Northern  Nigeria  (1902,  after  a  failure  in  1890), 
the  Qua  Ibo  Mission  on  the  Qua  River  (1887), 
and  the  African  Evangelistic  Mission  (1901)  and 
the  Sudan  United  Mission  (1903)  in  Northern 
Nigeria.  The  missions  in  Northern  Nigeria  are 
still  in  the  eariy  stage,  with  little  more  to  show 
than  the  names  of  Wilmot  Brooke,  J.  A.  Robinson, 
and  W.  R.  S.  Miller  who  sacrificed  life  for  that 
land.  In  Southern  Nigeria  there  are  82  mission- 
aries (men  and  women),  and  157  schools  with  2,482 
scholars.  The  Anglican  bishop  of  this  region  is 
assisted  by  a  bishop  who  is  a  full-blooded  negro. 
The  Bible  has  been  translated  into  Efik  (1862); 
and  tentative  translations  of  single  Gospels  have 
been  made  into  Akunakuna,  into  three  or  four 
dialects  of  Ibo,  into  Idso,  and  into  Umon.  These 
are  all  dialects  of  Southern  Nigeria.  Gospeb  have 
been  translated  into  the  Igbira  and  Nup^  lan- 
guages besides  the  Hausa  language,  all  in  Northern 
Nigeria. 

Oranffe  Biver  Colony:  A  British  possession  in 
South  Africa.  It  has  the  Transvaal  on  the  north. 
Natal  and  Basutoland  on  the  east,  and  CSape  Colony 
on  the  west  and  south.  During  fortynsiix  years  it 
was  the  Orange  Free  State  and  was  annexed  to  the 
British  crown  in  May,  1900,  in  consequence  of  its 
participation  in  the  Boer  attack  on  the  adjacent 
British  colonies.  Area  50,100  sq.  miles;  population 
(1904)  385,045,  of  whom  143,419  are  whites  and 
241,626  are  colored.  Capital,  Bloemfontein.  About 
220,000  of  the  inhabitants  are  pagans.  The  pre- 
dominating Christian  body  is  the  Dutch  Reformed 
Church.  The  whole  number  of  Protestants  is 
about  100,000;  of  Roman  Catholics,  5,000.  The 
country  is  an  excellent  agricultural  region.  Dia- 
monds and  other  precious  stones  are  fotmd  in  some 
sections;  and  the  population  tenda  to  increase  and 
to  become  more  and  more  varied  in  its  constituent 
elements.  Roman  Catholic  missions  are  in  charge 
of  -the  Oblates  of  Mary  the  Lnmaculate.  The 
statistics  of  their  work  in  the  colony  are  not  sep- 
arately given,  but  there  seem  to  be  14  missionary 
priests  and  2  native  priests,  with  13  schools.  Prot- 
estant missionary  activities  are  largely  in  the  hands 
of  the  local  churches.  The  Dutch  Reformed  Church 
has  here  shown,  much  more  than  elsewhere  used 
to  be  the  case,  a  purpose  to  work  for  the  evan- 
gelization of  the  native  pagans.  The  Wesleyan 
Church  and  the  Anglican  Church  both  have  mia- 
sions  locally  supported;  but  the  work  for  whites 
and  blacks  is  not  separately  reported.  Besides 
this  local  church  work,  in  beginning  which  the  Paris 
liCssionary  Society  had  a  part  (1831),  the  Berlin 
Missionary  Society  (1834)  is  at  work  in  the  colony 
with  33  stations  and  outstations,  18  missionaries, 
148  native  workers,  27  schools,  and  about  8,000 
professed  Christians  connected  with  its  stations. 
The  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel 
(1863)  has  4  stations  among  the  natives,  but  its 


statistics  are  not  separately  given.  The  Zulu 
Bible,  the  Chuana  version,  and  the  Lesuto  version 
used  in  Basutoland  supply  the  needs  of  the  people 
in  this  colony. 

Portoffuese  East  AjCrioa:  One  of  the  oldest  Portu- 
guese possessions  in  Africa,  situated  on  the  east 
coast  between  German  East  Africa  and  Natal. 
It  extends  inland  to  British  Central  Africa,  and  on 
both  banks  of  the  Zambesi  River  to  Rhodesia. 
It  is  composed  of  the  districts  of  Mozambique, 
Zambesia,  and  Lourengo  Marques.  Area  293,400 
sq.  miles;  population  (estimated)  3,120,000.  Much 
of  the  territory  is  in  the  hands  of  trading  companies, 
which  administer  the  laws  in  their  respective  dis- 
tricts. Delagoa  Bay  is  connected  by  railway 
with  Pretoria  in  the  Transvaal,  and  another  rail- 
way runs  from  Beira  in  Zambesia  to  Buluwayo  in 
Rhodesia.  The  Portuguese  began  their  colonies 
on  this  coast  in  1505,  and  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  has  had  strong  missions  in  the  region  ever 
since.  The  ecclesiastical  organization  was  effected 
in  1612.  At  present  missions  in  this  territory  are 
in  the  hands  of  the  Society  of  Jesus,  with  stations 
extending  along  the  Zambesi  River  into  the  interior. 
About  30  missionaries  are  reported.  Protestant 
missions  are  carried  on  by  the  American  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  at  Inhambane,  by  the  Wesleyan 
Methodists  of  England  in  the  Delagoa  Bay  district, 
by  the  Swiss  Romande  Mission  in  the  south,  and 
by  the  American  Board  among  the  Gaza  tribes 
and  at  Beira,  the  chief  seaport  of  the  district  of 
Zambesia.  The  Universities  Mission  has  one  station 
in  this  territory  adjoining  its  field  in  Nyassaland. 
These  societies  together  have  40  nussionaries  (men 
and  women),  103  native  workers,  and  about  7,000 
adherents,  with  hospitals  and  schools.  A  printing- 
press  at  Inhambane  is  beginning  to  form  a  litera- 
ture in  two  native  languages.  The  New  Testament 
has  been  translated  into  Tonga  (1890),  and  the 
Gospels  into  Sheetswa  (1891).  A  Gospel  has  been 
translated  into  Ronga  by  the  Swiss  Romande 
missionaries. 

Portnffaese  Guinea:  A  Portuguese  possession 
adjoining  French  Kongo  on  the  West  African  coast, 
and  surrotmded  by  French  territory  on  the  land 
side.  It  is  included  in  the  administration  of  the 
Cape  Verde  Islands.  Area,  including  the  islands, 
6,280  sq.  miles;  population,  including  the  islands, 
1,000,000.  The  population  is  generally  given  as 
including  260,000  Roman  Catholics;  and  there  are 
about  170,000  Mohammedans  and  over  500,000 
pagans  on  the  mainland.  Roman  CSatholic  missions 
were  established  on  the  mainland  in  1832,  and  are 
connected  with  the  ecclesiastical  province  of  Lisbon. 
They  comprise  eight  Roman  Catholic  parishes. 
No  Protestant  missions  have  been  established  in 
this  territory. 

Bhodesia:  An  immense  territory  in  South  Africa, 
lying  between  the  Transvaal  and  the  Kongo  Inde- 
pendent State,  and  having  as  its  eastern  botmdary 
Portuguese  East  Africa,  and  as  its  western  botmdary 
Angola  and  German  Southwest  Africa.  It  is  ad- 
ministered as  British  territory  by  the  British  South 
Africa  Company  under  a  British  resident  com- 
missioner. In  its  northeastern  portion,  where  it 
touches  Lake  Tanganyika,  police  duties  are  oared 


AMoa 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


74 


for  by  the  Nyassaland  protectorate.  It  is  divided 
into  Southern  Rhodesia  and  Northern  Rhodesia 
by  the  Zambesi  River.  Area  about  246,000  sq. 
miles;  population  about  900,000,  of  whom  12,000 
are  Europeans  and  about  1,100  are  Asiatics.  There 
are  about  5,000  Roman  Catholics  and  20,000 
Protestants  in  this  country.  The  Roman  Catholic 
missions  are  not  conterminous  with  the  boundaries 
of  this  territory,  and  it  is  impossible  to  give  their 
statistics.  The  missionaries  are  of  the  Algerian 
Society  with  a  certain  number  of  Jesuits  in  the 
Zambesi  region.  Protestant  missions  in  this  region 
were  commenced  by  Robert  Moffat  of  the  London 
Missionary  Society  in  1830.  Livingstone  explored 
the  whole  region  for  the  same  society  and  unsuc- 
'  cessfully  attempted  to  establish  stations  among 
the  Mashonas.  John  Mackenzie  was  a  worthy 
successor  of  such  pioneers.  At  present  the  Protes- 
tant missionary  societies  in  Rhodesia  are:  the 
London  Missionary  Society  in  Matabeleland  and 
at  the  southern  end  of  Lake  Tanganyika;  the  Wes- 
leyan  Methodist  Missionary  Society  in  Mashonaland 
and  Matabeleland;  and  the  Paris  Missionary 
Society  in  Barotseland  in  the  territory  north  of  the 
Zambesi,  which  F.  Coillard  entered  in  1885  as  an 
extension  of  the  Society's  work  in  Basutoland,  the 
Barotses  having  the  same  speech  as  the  Basutos. 
The  Methodist  Episcopal  AGssionary  Society  (U. 
S.  A.)  and  the  American  Board  have  missions  in 
the  eastern  part  of  Southern  Rhodesia,  near  the 
Portuguese  frontier.  These  societies  together  have 
112  stations  and  outstations,  70  missionaries  (men 
and  women),  6,000  pupils  in  their  schools,  and 
15,000  professed  Christians.  The  construction  of 
railways,  connecting  Rhodesia  with  Cape  Town  and 
the  Portuguese  seaports  and  opening  up  the  coun- 
try beyond  the  Zambesi,  is  bringing  many  colonists 
into  the  cotmtry;  and  their  advent  implies  that 
a  testing  time  of  the  reality  of  the  Christianity 
of  the  native  churches  is  at  hand.  The  people 
use  the  Bible  in  Zulu,  in  Sechuana,  and  in 
Lesuto.  Tentative  translations  of  Gospels  have 
been  made  in  the  Matabele  and  the  Mashona 
languages. 

Bio  De  Ore:  A  Spanish  possession  in  North  Africa 
stretching  southward  along  the  shore  to  the  Atlan- 
tic Ocean  from  the  Morocco  frontier  and  extending 
inland  to  the  French  possessions  of  the  Sahara. 
Area  about  70,000  sq.  miles;  population  (estimated) 
130,000,  almost  all  Mohammedans.  The  territory 
is  administered  by  the  governor  of  the  Canary 
Islands.  Roman  Catholic  missions  ecclesiastically 
connected  with  the  Canary  Islands  are  established 
at  the  points  occupied  by  Spanish  traders.  There 
are  no  Protestant  missions  in  the  cotmtry. 

Bio  Muni:  Spanish  possession  in  West  Africa 
adjoining  the  German  Kamerun  colony  and  sur- 
rounded on  the  east  and  south  by  the  territory  of 
the  French  Kongo.  Area  9,800  sq.  miles;  popu- 
lation (estimated)  140,000,  including  about  300 
whites.  Roman  Catholic  missions  have  existed 
here  since  1855  and  are  carried  on  by  the  Spanish 
Congregation  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Mary,  being 
ecclesiastically  connected  with  the  island  diocese 
of  Annobon  and  Fernando  Po.  A  Protestant  mis- 
sion has  been  carried  on  in  this  territory  by  the 


American  Presb3rteriaDS  (North)  who  established 
themselves  in  1855  on  the  island  of  Corisco,  and 
later  on  the  Benito  River.  They  have  4  stations 
and  outstations,  7  schools,  and  about  300  professed 
Christians.  The  Bible  has  been  translated  into 
the  Benga  language  (1858),  which  has  a  somewhat 
extensive  domain  in  the  coast  regions. 

Seneiral:  A  French  colony  in  West  Africa  between 
the  Gambia  and  the  Senegal  rivers.  It  consists 
of  a  narrow  strip  of  coast  land,  forming  the  colony 
proper,  together  with  certain  ports  on  the  Senegal 
River.  Area  438  sq.  miles;  population  (1904) 
107,826,  of  whom  2,804  are  Europeans.  The 
people  of  the  colony  proper  are  citizens,  having 
the  right  to  vote,  and  being  represented  by  a  deputy 
in  the  French  parliament.  The  capital  of  the  colony 
is  St.  Louis,  on  the  seacoast.  Roman  Catholic 
missions  have  long  existed  in  Senegal,  and  were 
placed  under  an  ecclesiastical  prefecture  in  1765. 
There  are  about  5,000  native  Roman  Catholics 
in  the  colony.  The  only  Protestant  mission  work- 
ing in  Senegal  is  that  of  the  Paris  Evangelical 
Missionary  Society,  which  has  a  station  at  St. 
Louis  (1863)  and  two  or  three  small  congregations 
in  the  vicinity.  Besides  the  Arabic  Bible,  which 
is  occasionally  called  for,  some  of  the  Gospels  have 
been  translated  into  the  Wolof  and  Mandingo 
languages  (1882). 

Seneflrambia  and  the  Kl^er:  An  immense  French 
protectorate  comprising  the  territories  formerly 
called  Western  Sudan,  with  the  larger  part  of  the 
Sahara,  having  the  colony  of  Senegal  on  the  west, 
the  colonies  of  the  Ivory  Coast,  the  Gold  Coast, 
Dahomey,  and  Togoland  on  the  south,  and  extend- 
ing on  the  north  to  the  Algerian  Sahara.  Area 
2,500,000  sq.  miles;  population  (estimated)  10,000,- 
000.  The  prevailing  religion  is  Mohammedanism. 
Many  pagan  tribes  exist  who  serve  Mohammedan 
rulers  and  furnish  slaves  for  the  markets  of  Tripoli 
and  the  Barbary  States.  The  capital  is  Kayes, 
on  the  Senegal  River.  This  great  territory,  with 
the  French  colonies  of  Senegal,  French  Guinea, 
Ivory  Coast,  and  Dahomey,  forms  a  single  region 
known  as  French  West  Africa,  of  which  the  govern- 
or-general resides  at  Dakar  on  the  coast  of  Senegal. 
Steamers  run  regularly  on  the  Senegal  River  some 
400  miles  to  Kayes;  and  a  railway  has  been  con- 
structed from  Kayes  650  miles  to  some  important 
points  on  the  upper  Niger.  A  feature  of  this  re- 
gion is  that  the  French  government  has  planned 
a  universal  system  of  education  which  it  is  en- 
deavoring to  apply  throughout  the  territories 
effectively  occupied.  Roman  Catholic  missions 
have  been  carried  on  for  a  number  of  years  at  several 
of  the  posts  on  the  Senegal  and  Niger  rivers;  the 
number  of  converts  is  reported  as  10,000.  No 
Protestant  missions  are  reported  in  this  great 
region. 

Sierra  Leone:  A  British  colony  and  protectorate 
in  West  Africa,  lying  on  the  coast  between  Liberia 
and  French  Guinea,  and  extending  inland  about  180 
miles,  limited  by  the  boundaries  of  the  French 
possessions  and  of  Liberia.  Area  about  34,000  sq. 
miles;  population  about  1,100,000.  Of  the  people 
about  1,000,000  are  pagans,  20,000  are  Mohammed- 
ans, 5,000  are  Roman  Catholics,  and  50,000  are 


75 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


AiMoa 


Protestants.  The  colony  proper  is  limited  to  the 
Sierra  Leone  peninsula.  It  was  the  place  whence 
in  1562  the  first  slaves  were  taken  to  the  West 
Indies  under  the  British  flag.  After  slaves  in 
E^ngland  had  been  set  free,  in  1772,  a  district  in 
Si^a  Leone  was  set  apart  to  be  colonized  by 
liberated  slaves.  Here,  from  1786  on,  freed  slaves 
were  landed  and  almost  abandoned  to  their  own 
resources  except  as  to  food — a  great  crowd  of 
debased  creatures  from  all  parts  of  Africa,  knowing 
no  common  language  and  having  no  principle  of 
life  except  such  evil  things  as  they  had  picked  up 
during  davery  among  Europeans.  The  situation 
of  these  freed  slaves  had  a  powerful  influence  in 
turning  English  missionary  zeal  to  West  Africa. 
The  Roman  Catholic  establishment  is  tmder  an 
apostolic  vicariate  erected  in  1858  at  Freetown. 
Tlie  missionaries  are  of  the  Congregation  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  and  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Mary.  The 
number  of  Roman  Catholics  is  2,800. 

The  Protestant  missionary  enterprise  was  com- 
menced in  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century 
by  missionaries  from  Scotland;  three  having  died 
soon  after  their  arrival,  the  mission  was  given  up. 
The  Church  Missionary  Society  sent  missionaries 
to  Sierra  Leone  in  1804;  but  they  were  instructed 
to  go  north  and  begin  their  mission  in  the  Susu 
ooimtry  on  the  Rio  Pongas  in  what  is  now  French 
Guinea.  They  were  all  Germans,  chosen  because 
of  the  difficulty  of  securing  ordination  of  English- 
men for  this  society.  The  mission  came  to  naught 
through  the  hostility  of  the  slave-dealers,  and  was 
finally  transferred  (1814-16)  to  Sierra  Leone. 
Here  a  solid  work  was  soon  organized  among  the 
freed  slaves,  and  has  grown  ever  since.  The  Prot- 
estant missionary  societies  now  working  in  that 
field  are:  the  Church  Missionary  Society,  the 
Wedeyan  Methodist  Missionary  Society,  the  Wes- 
leyan  Methodist  Connection  of  America,  the  United 
Brethren  (U.  S.  A.)  in  the  Mendi  region,  and  the 
Christian  and  Missionary  Alliance  (U.  S.  A.)  in  the 
eastern  part  of  the  protectorate.  The  Church 
Missionary  Society  field  is  almost  wholly  in  the 
protectorate,  the  congregations  in  Sierra  Leone 
being  self-supporting  and  independent.  Together 
the  mission  stations  and  outstations  number  about 
131.  There  are  42  missionaries  (men  and  women), 
117  schools,  and  about  45,000  professed  Christians 
connected  with  the  missions.  The  English  Bible 
is  used  in  the  colony.  The  New  Testament  has 
been  translated  into  Tenm6  (1866);  parts  of  the 
New  Testament  into  Mendi;  and  single  Gospels,  into 
Bullom  and  Kuranko.  The  Yoruba  mission  of  the 
Church  Missionary  Society  was  an  outgrowth  of 
the  society's  work  among  freed  slaves  at  Sierra 
Leone.    See  below.  III.,  Laoob. 

Somaliland  (Britiflh) :  A  British  protectorate  on 
the  east  coast  of  North  Africa,  lying  between  Abys- 
sinia and  the  sea  and  between  French  Somaliland 
and  Italian  Somaliland.  It  is  administered  by 
a  consul-general.  Area  about  60,000  sq.  miles; 
population  (estimated)  300,000;  religion,  Moham- 
medan. Most  of  the  people  of  this  district  are 
nomads  and  very  fanatical  in  their  intolerance 
of  Christians.  The  English  government  has  been 
at  a  considerable  expense  in  money  and  men  to 


pacify  the  tribes  of  the  interior,  who  have  attempted 
to  drive  the  English  from  the  country  on  religious 
grotmds.    No  missions  are  reported  in  this  district. 

Somaliland  (French) :  A  French  protectorate  on 
the  eastern  coast  of  North  Africa,  near  the  Straits 
of  Bab-el-Mandeb,  between  the  Italian  colony  of 
Eritrea  and  British  Somaliland,  extending  inland 
to  the  Abyssinian  border  and  including  the  colony 
of  Obock.  Capital,  Jibuti.  Area  about  46,000 
sq.  miles;  popidation  about  200,000,  mostly  Mo- 
hammedans, with  some  40,000  pagans,  and  in  the 
colony  of  Obock  about  8,000  Christians.  A  rail- 
way has  been  constructed  from  Jibuti  to  the  Harrar 
frontier  in  Abyssinia.  There  has  been  for  many 
years  a  Roman  Catholic  mission  conducted  by  the 
French  Capuchins  who  have  two  or  three  schools 
at  Obock  and  Jibuti,  and  are  reaching  out  toward 
Abyssinia. 

Somaliland  (Italian) :  An  Italian  possession  on 
the  eastern  coast  of  North  Africa,  lying  between 
the  Gulf  of  Aden  and  Abyssinia,  and  between 
British  Somaliland  and  the  mouth  of  the  Juba 
River,  the  frontier  of  British  East  Africa.  The 
sovereign  rights  of  the  Sultan  of  Zanzibar  over 
this  coast  region  were  bought  by  Italy  in  1905. 
Area  about  100,000  sq.  miles;  population  (esti- 
mated) 400,000,  chiefly  Mohammedans,  with  about 
50,(XX)  pagans.  There  are  no  records  of  missions 
established  in  this  wild  territory. 

Sudan:  This  term  is  here  limited  to  the  Egyptian 
Sudan,  the  Western  and  Central  Sudan  being  ab- 
sorbed in  the  main  into  French  spheres  of  influence 
to  which  other  names  have  been  given  (see 
Seneqambia  and  thb  Niger,  above).  The  Egyp- 
tian Sudan  is  a  territory  extending  south  from 
the  frontier  of  Egypt  to  Uganda  and  the  Kongo 
Independent  State,  and  west  from  the  Red  Sea  to 
the  unmarked  boundary  of  the  French  sphere  of 
influence.  It  is  nominally  a  possession  of  Egypt, 
but  in  fact  is  ruled  for  Egypt  by  the  British.  Eng- 
lish and  Egyptian  flags  are  used  together  through- 
out the  territory.  Area  about  950,000  sq.  miles; 
population  (estimated)  2,000,000.  The  population 
of  the  country  was  much  reduced  during  the  six- 
teen years'  rule  of  the  Mahdi  and  his  dervishes, 
who  as  ardent  Mohammedans  wished  to  show  the 
world  how  a  cotmtry  ought  to  be  governed.  Gen- 
eral Gordon  having  been  killed  by  the  Mahdi's 
party  in  1885,  one  of  the  first  acts  of  the  English 
on  recovering  the  land  in  1898  was  to  found  a 
great  **  Gordon  Memorial ''  College  at  Khartum, 
the  scene  of  his  murder,  and  now  the  seat  of  the 
new  administration.  The  majority  of  the  people 
are  Mohammedans,  with  an  uncertain  number  of 
pagan  tribes  in  the  southern  districts.  A  consider- 
able number  of  Greek,  Coptic,  and  Armenian 
traders  is  found  in  the  Khartum  district.  Roman 
Catholic  missions  exist  at  Khartum  and  Omdurman 
and  among  the  pagans  at  Fashoda;  a  mission  of  the 
American  United  Presbyterian  CJhurch  has  been 
founded  on  the  Sobat  River;  and  the  Church 
Missionary  Society  has  estabUshed  missionaries 
(1906)  at  or  near  Bor  in  the  vacant  pagan 
cotmtry  between  the  two  first-named  missions. 
All  of  these  missions  are  too  newly  established  to 
have  any  visible  fruit  except  attendance  at  schools. 


AfUoa 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


76 


The  Arabic  Bible  is  circulated  in  the  Moham- 
medan parts  of  the  Sudan.  Gospels  have  been 
translated  into  the  Dinka  language* 

Toffoland:  A  German  colony  in  West  Africa, 
occupying  the  coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Guinea  between 
the  Gold  Coast  Colony  and  Dahomey.  It  extends 
inland  to  the  French  territory  of  Senegambia  and 
the  Niger.  Area  about  32,000  sq.  miles;  population 
(estimated)  1,500,000,  chiefly  pagan;  capital, 
Lome.  The  German  government  carries  on  several 
schools  for  the  instruction  of  the  natives,  and  is 
training  them  for  administrative  posts.  Roman 
Catholic  missions  here  are  conducted  by  the  Steyl 
Society  for  Divine  Work.  The  missionaries  num- 
ber 28,  with  0  nims,  52  schools,  2,119  pupils,  and 
2,203  Roman  Catholic  Christians.  Protestant  mis- 
sionary work  is  carried  on  by  the  North  German 
Missionary  Society  (1847),  and  by  the  Wesleyan 
Methodist  Missionary  Society,  which  employs  Ger- 
man Methodists  for  this  field.  The  two  societies 
report  78  stations  and  outstations,  31  mission- 
aries (men  and  women),  69  schools  with  3,11 1  pupils, 
and  4,600  professed  Christians.  The  Ew6  New 
Testament  ia  used  here,  and  a  special  translation 
of  one  of  the  Gospels,  to  satisfy  local  variations, 
has  been  tentatively  prepared. 

Transvaal:  A  colony  of  Great  Britain  in  South 
Africa,  lying  north  of  the  Orange  River  Colony 
and  Natal,  and  west  of  Portuguese  East  Africa. 
Area  111,196  sq.  miles;  population  (1904)  1,268,- 
716,  of  whom  969,389  are  colored,  including  C^ese 
and  Hindus,  and  299,327  are  whites.  The  colony 
was  settled  in  1836-37  by  Dutch  who  emigrated 
from  Cape  Colony.  In  1899  dissensions  with  Great 
Britain  respecting  sovereignty  culminated  in  war, 
and  in  1900  Great  Britain  formally  annexed  the 
territory  to  her  South  African  domains,  the  Boers 
accepting  the  annexation  after  two  years.  The 
capital  is  Pretoria.  The  religious  statistics  show 
the  pagans  to  number  nearly  1,000,000;  Roman 
Catholics,  10,000;  Protestants,  256,000;  Jews, 
10,000;  Buddhists  and  Confucians,  15,000.  The 
Dutch  churches  form  the  largest  single  group  of 
Protestants.  Chinese  laborers  at  the  mines  are  a 
reeent  addition  to  the  population.  Numbers  of 
negroes  from  all  parts  of  Africa  are  also  drawn  to 
Johannesburg  for  work  in  the  mines,  about  75,000 
natives  and  other  colored  people  being  gathered 
there  by  opportunities  for  work.  The  Anglican, 
Wesleyan,  and  Dutch  Reformed  local  churches 
all  carry  on  missions  among  the  natives.  Other 
Protestant  missions  are  those  of  the  American 
Board  (1893),  the  Berlm  Missionary  Society  (1859) 
opened  by  A.  Merensky  and  Knothe,  the  Her- 
mannsburg  Missionaiy  Society  (1857),  and  the 
Swiss  Romande  Mission  led  by  H.  Berthoud 
(1875).  These  societies  together  report  (not 
including  the  enterprises  of  the  local  churches) 
112  missionaries  (men  and  women),  2,344  na- 
tive workers,  300  schools  with  14,674  pupils,  and 
84,000  professing  Christian  adherents.  E^orts 
to  improve  the  character  of  the  workers  in  the 
mining  compoimds  of  Johannesburg  are  meet- 
ing with  some  success.  The  Zulu  Bible  is  much 
used  in  the  Transvaal  as  well  as  the  Chuana 
and  Lesuto  versions.    The    New  Testament  has 


beoi  trandated  into  Tonga  and  Sepedi,  both  in 
1888. 

Tripoli:  A  possession  of  Turkey  on  the  north 
coast  of  Africa  west  of  'Egypt.  It  extends  south- 
ward to  the  Sahara  and  includes  the  oasis  of  the 
Feisan,  but  its  southern  limits  are  indefinite. 
This  territory  was  seised  by  Turicey  in  the  sixteenth 
centiuy.  Area  about  400,000  sq.  miles;  population 
about  1,000,000,  chiefly  Berbers.  There  are  about 
6,000  Europeans  (Maltese  and  Italians),  who  are 
mainly  Roman  Catholics;  and  there  are  also  about 
10,000  Jews.  There  is  an  extensive  caravan  trade 
with  the  Sudan  and  Timbuctoo;  and  the  slave- 
trade  is  quietly  fostered  by  this  means.  The  only 
Protestant  mission  in  Tripoli  is  that  of  the  North 
Africa  Mission,  which  has  1  station  with  4  mis- 
sionaries, a  hospital,  and  2  dispensaries.  Arabic 
and  Kabyle  are  the  languages  of  the  country. 

Tunis:  A  French  protectorate  on  the  northern 
coast  of  Africa  lying  between  Tripoli  and  Algeria. 
Area  about  51,000  sq.  miles;  population  (estimated) 
1,900,000,  mahily  Berbers  and  Arabs,  with  a  foreign 
population  (1901)  of  39,000  French,  67,500  Italians, 
and  12,000  Maltese.  The  Tunisian  ruler,  called 
the  Bey,  is  from  a  family  which  has  been  in  power 
since  1575,  and  governs  the  country  imder  the  con- 
trol of  a  French  resident.  The  Roman  Catholic 
Church  in  Tunis  is  under  direction  of  the  arch- 
bishop of  Carthage,  the  see  having  been  restored 
in  1^.  There  are  53  priests,  2  bishops,  and 
several  schools.  Tunis  was  the  scene  of  some  of 
Raymond  Lully's  efforts  to  convert  Mohammedans 
in  the  thirteenth  century.  Protestant  missions 
are  carried  on  in  Tunis  by  the  North  African  Mis- 
sion, the  Swedish  Young  Women's  Christian  Asso- 
ciation, and  the  London  Jews  Society.  Together 
these  societies  have  5  schools,  2  hospitals  or  dis- 
pensaries, and  about  250  persons  imder  instruction. 
Arabic  is  the  prevailing  language. 

Uganda:  A  British  protectorate  in  East  Central 
Africa,  lying  between  the  Egyptian  Sudan  on  th? 
north,  German  East  Africa  on  the  south,  British 
East  Africa  on  the  east,  and  the  Kongo  Independ- 
ent State  on  the  west.  Within  its  boundaries 
lie  part  of  the  Victoria  Nyanza  and  lakes  Al- 
bert and  Albert  Edward.  It  comprises  the  native 
kingdom  of  Uganda  and  several  smaller  districts 
ruled  by  native  kinglets  under  British  control. 
Area  89,400  sq.  miles;  population  about  4,000,000, 
of  whom  about  1,000,000  are  in  the  kingdom  of 
Uganda.  The  religious  divisions  of  the  population 
in  the  whole  protectorate  are:  pagans,  3,500,000; 
Mohammedans,  50,000;  Roman  Catholics,  146,000; 
and  Protestants,  250,000.  A  railway  connects 
Mombasa  on  the  coast  of  British  East  Africa  with 
Kisumu,  formerly  called  Port  Florence,  on  the 
Victoria  Nyanza.  The  seat  of  the  British  admin- 
istration is  Entebbe,  and  that  of  the  kingdom  of 
Uganda  is  Mengo.  Henry  M.  Stanley  visited 
Uganda  in  1875,  and  fotmd  the  king  Mutesa  a  recent 
convert  to  Islam  but  inclined  to  ask  questions  on 
the  religion  of  the  Christians.  He  gave  the  king 
some  instruction  and  had  the  Lord's  Prayer  trans- 
lated for  him  into  Suahili  written  in  Arabic  char- 
acters. At  this  time  Uganda  was  like  any  other 
African  kingdom  a  place  of  superstition,  degrada- 


77 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


AiMoa 


tion  of  women,  and  bloodthirsty  cruelty  and  op- 
preadon.  Stanley  was  really  the  first  of  Christian 
miamonaries  there;  for  the  dight  teachings  that  he 
gave  the  king  were  not  forgotten,  and  his  transla- 
tion of  the  Lord's  Prayer  was  copied  and  recopied. 
On  leaving  Uganda  Stanley  wrote  a  letter  to  the 
London  Telegraph  describing  Uganda  and  the 
willingness  of  King  Mutesa  to  receive  Christian 
instruction.  He  then  addressed  the  missionary 
societies  in  these  words:  "  Here,  gentlemen,  is 
your  opportunity.  The  people  on  the  shores  of 
the  Nyanza  call  upon  you."  This  challenge  was 
at  once  taken  up  by  the  Church  Missionary  Society; 
and  in  1876  its  first  missionaries  reached  Uganda. 
The  first  converts  were  baptized  in  1882,  and  perse- 
cution soon  set  in,  when  a  number  of  the  Christians 
were  burned  alive.  Alexander  Mackay,  a  layman 
and  a  member  of  the  mission,  was  a  man  of  indom- 
itable energy  and  wonderful  devotion;  and  upon 
him  rested  to  a  great  degree  the  responsibility  for 
the  defense  of  the  mission.  Several  of  the  mission- 
aries were  miurdered,  including  Bishop  James  Han- 
nington  (1885),  by  order  of  King  Mwanga,  Mutesa's 
successor.  Roman  Catholic  missionaries  appeared 
on  the  scene;  and  quarrels  and  strife  ensued  between 
the  two  denominations.  Mohammedans  also  inter- 
vened, trying  to  profit  by  the  dissensions  between 
the  Christians.  *The  British  protectorate  was 
declared  in  1894.  In  1897  the  Sudanese  troops  in 
British  employ  revolted  and  attempted  to  seize 
the  country  in  the  Mohammedan  interest.  The 
valor  of  the  Christians  weighed  largely  in  deciding 
this  fierce  little  war  against  the  mutineers.  In  it 
George  Laurence  Pilkington,  a  notable  lay  mission- 
ary lost  his  life.  With  the  defeat  of  the  mutineers 
and  the  assignment  of  the  Mohammedans  to  separate 
reservations  peace  was  finally  established,  and  the 
whole  protectorate  is  in  a  prosperous  condition. 

The  Church  Missionary  Society  has  now  in  the 
protectorate  90  missionaries  (men  and  women), 
2,600  native  workers,  170  schools  with  22,229 
scholars,  and  53,000  baptized  Christians.  It  had 
established  a  considerable  industrial  enterprise 
for  the  development  of  the  people;  but  in  1904 
this  department  of  its  work  was  turned  over  to  the 
Uganda  Company,  a  commercial  body  chartered 
in  England  to  develop  the  country.  The  Roman 
Catholic  missions  were  established  by  the  Algiers 
Society  for  African  Missions.  There  are  now  88 
stations  and  about  80,000  baptized  Roman  Catho- 
lic Christians.  At  Kaimod,  about  twenty-five 
miles  north  of  Port  Florence,  is  a  mission  of  the 
American  Society  of  Friends,  which  is  instruct- 
ing the  people  in  various  industries.  Altogether 
Uganda  is  after  thirty  years  of  missionary  labor  a 
remarkable  instance  of  the  change  in  a  people  which 
can  be  produced  by  the  attempt  to  follow  the  prin- 
ciples of  the  Bible.  The  overthrow  of  barbarism 
in  the  native  customs  was  effected  before  any 
outside  political  forces  entered  upon  the  scene. 
The  Bible  has  been  translated  into  Ugandan  (1888), 
and  Ciospels  have  been  rendered  into  Nyoro  and 
Topo. 

nL    African  Islands: 

Annobon.    See  Fernando  Po. 

Canary  Islands:  A  group  of  islands  lying  north- 


west of  Africa  and  belonging  to  Spain,  of  which 
they  form  a  province.  Area  2,807  sq.  miles;  popu- 
lation 358,564,  reckoned  as  entirely  Roman  Cath- 
olic, the  first  Roman  Catholic  see  having  been 
erected  here  in  1404. 

Oape  Verde  iBlande:  A  group  of  fourteen  islands 
lying  off  the  west  coast  of  Africa  and  belonging 
to  Portugal.  Area  1,480  sq.  miles;  population 
(1900)  147,424,  of  whom  about  two-thirds  are 
negroes  and  nearly  one-third  of  mixed  blood.  The 
religion  is  Roman  Catholic. 

Oomoro  IbIsb:  A  group  of  small  islands  about 
half  way  between  Madagascar  and  the  African 
coast.  Area  620  sq.  miles;  population  about  47,- 
000,  chiefly  Mohammedans.  The  islands  are 
ecclesiastically  under  the  jurisdiction  of  Mayotte, 
but  it  does  not  appear  that  any  mission  exists  upon 
them 

Oorisoo.    See  Fernando  Po. 

Fernando  Po,  Annobon,  Oorisco,  and  Elobey: 
Islands  in  the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  belonging  to  Spain. 
The  area  of  these  islands  taken  together  is  about 
780  sq.  miles;  population  22,000.  Roman  Catholic 
missions  are  carried  on  in  the  islands  by  the  Spanish 
Congregation  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Mary.  Nine- 
teen clergy  are  reported  in  Fernando  Po,  with  about 
4,000  Roman  Catholics.  There  is  a  Protestant 
mission  in  Fernando  Po,  established  by  the  Prim- 
itive Methodist  Missionary  Society  in  1870,  a  mis- 
sion established  by  the  Baptist  Missionary  Society 
of  England  having  been  driven  from  the  cotmtiy 
by  Spanish  intolerance  a  number  of  years  before. 
One  of  the  Gospels  was  translated  into  Adiya,  a 
dialect  of  Fernando  Po,  in  1846.  It  is  now  obso- 
lete. There  is  a  station  of  the  American  Presby- 
terian Church  on  the  island  of  Corisco  (see  above, 
tmder  Rio  Muni). 

Madaffaecar:  An  island  off  the  southeastern  coast 
of  Africa,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  Mozam- 
bique Channel  at  a  distance  of  240  miles,  measuring 
between  nearest  points.  It  is  980  miles  long,  and 
360  miles  in  its  greatest  breadth.  It  is  a  possession 
of  France,  whose  claim  dates  from  a  concession 
made  to  a  trading  company  by  the  king  of  France 
in  1642.  The  claim  was  not  recognized  by  the 
native  rulers.  After  a  struggle  lasting  intermit- 
tently from  1882  to  1896  the  formal  annexation  to 
France  took  place.  Area  224,000  sq.  miles;  popu- 
lation (1901)  3,000,000,  including  15,000  Europeans 
and  some  hundreds  of  Africans  and  Asiatics.  The 
people  are  of  Malay  stock  with  an  infusion  of 
African  blood.  The  principal  tribe,  which  ruled 
the  larger  part  of  the  island  tmtil  the  French  occu- 
pation, is  called  Hova.  Sakalava,  Betsileo,  and 
Sihanaka  are  the  names  of  other  important  tribes. 
The  history  of  Madagascar  during  many  years  is 
connected  with  the  story  of  its  evangelization 
through  the  London  Missionary  Society,  beginning 
in  1818.  The  mission  had  great  success  during 
fifteen  years.  The  language  was  reduced  to  writing; 
schools  were  established;  the  New  Testament  was 
translated  and  printed;  and  numbers  of  the  people 
professed  Christianity.  In  1835  the  rei^oing  queen 
drove  out  the  missionaries  and  proscribed  Chris- 
tianity. After  bloody  persecutions  it  was  made 
a  capital  crime  to  profess  the  religion  of  Christ. 


Africa 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOQ 


78 


ThiB  prose dptioD  ended  in  1861;  the  miflaionariea 
retxjTDed;  and  In  1808  the  then  queen  made  public 
profession  of  Christianity.  At  the  time  of  the 
French  occupation  there  were  about  45O|000  Protes- 
tants and  50,000  Roman  Catholies  in  the  island. 
Roman  Cathohc  misaions  were  commenced  in 
Madagascar  in  1844,  having  their  center  in  the  inland 
of  No^i-M  and  the  adjacent  isknda  until  1850, 
when  the  care  of  the  misfiiona  waa  entrusted  to  the 
Jesuits.  There  are  now  348  Roman  Cathohc  mission 
stations  in  the  island  with  nearly  lOG^OOO  adherents. 
At  the  time  of  the  French  occupation  the  Protes- 
tant missions  were  looked  upon  with  great  suspicion. 
In  anticipation  of  being  obUged  to  withdraw  from 
the  islands,  the  London  Missionary  Society  invited 
the  Fans  Evangelical  Missionary  Society  to  take 
over  some  of  its  stations. 

After  a  period  of  misunderstanding  and  friction 
with  the  Jesuit  missionaries,  religious  liberty  was 
made  effective,  and  difficulties  have  gradually  been 
removed.  The  Protestant  societies  now  laboring 
in  the  island  are:  the  London  Missionary  Society 
(1818),  the  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gos- 
pel (1843),  the  Friends  Foreign  Missionary  Asso- 
ciation (1867)*  the  Norwegian  Society  (1867), 
the  United  Norwegian  Lutheran  Church  in  America 
(1892),  the  (Free)  Lutheran  Board  of  Missions 
(tr,  S,  A.,  1895),  and  the  Paris  Evangelical  Misaion- 
aj^^  Society  (1896).  These  societies  together  report 
196  missionaries^  4,914  native  workers^  2,729  schools 
with  133,262  pupils,  and  about  200,000  baptized 
Christians.  The  effect  of  the  French  school  laws 
may  probably  affect  the  higher  missionary  schools; 
but  on  tiie  whole  conditions  are  rapidly  taking  a 
Batisfactory  form.  The  Bible  was  tmnslated  into 
Malagasy  in  1835  and  revised  in  1886, 

Madeira:  An  island  fonning  a  province  of  Portu- 
gal and  lying  west  of  North  Africa.  Area  505  sq. 
miles;  population  150,574.  The  island  was  colo- 
nized by  the  Portugu^e  in  1420,  and  has  been 
Roman  Catholic  for  two  centuries,  the  ancient  inhab* 
itants  being  entirely  extinct.  The  American  Metho- 
dist Episcopal  Church  has  a  mission  in   Madeira. 

Mauritius:  An  island  colony  of  Great  Britain, 
lying  in  the  Indian  Ocean  500  miles  east  of  Mada- 
gascar. Area  705  sq.  miles;  population  (1901) 
378,195.  The  reli^ous  classification  under  the 
census  of  1901  was  as  follows:  EUnduSp  206431; 
Mohammedans,  41/208;  Roman  Catholics,  113,224; 
Protestants,  6.644.  Besides  the  parish  priests 
there  are  6  Jesuit  missionaries  and  11  from  the 
Congregation  of  the  Holy  Ghost  and  the  Sacred 
Heart  of  Mary.  Protestant  missions  are  carried 
on  by  the  Church  Missionary  Society,  the  Society 
for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel,  and  the  Church 
of  England  Zenana  Missionary  Society,  A  largp 
section  of  the  population  is  of  African  or  mixed 
bloodp  and  the  number  of  Chinese  m  busutess  in 
the  island  is  increasing* 

Sayotte:  An  island  belonging  to  France,  sittiated 
between  Madagascar  and  the  African  coast.  It 
IB  under  the  governor  of  Reunion.  Area  140  sq. 
miles;  population  11,640,  which  is  diminishing. 
There  are  G  Roman  Catholic  priests  and  about 
3,CK)0  Roman  Cathohcs  in  the  island. 

EefuKiion;  An  island  bdongiiig  to  France,  situated 


about  420  miles  east  of  Madagascar.  Area  945  eq. 
mHea;  population  (1902)  173,395,  of  whom  13,492 
are  British  Indians,  4,496  are  natives  of  Madagascar, 
9,457  are  Africans,  and  1,378  are  Chinese.  The 
rest  of  the  inhabitants  are  reckoned  as  Roman 
Catholics.  The  island  is  the  seat  of  a  Roman 
Cathohc  bishop,  and  it  forms  a  part  of  the  eccle- 
siastical province  of  Bordeaux  in  France. 

Saint Thomaa  (Tliom6)  SkndPrliiGipe:  Two  islands 
in  the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  belonging  to  Portugal,  of 
which  they  are  reckoned  as  a  province.  Area 
360  sq.  miles;  population  (1900)  42,000,  of  whom 
41,000  are  negroes.  These  islands  are  a  source  of 
revenue  to  the  Portuguese  government,  producing 
quantities  of  coffee,  cocoa,  and  cinchona.  The 
products  are  cultivated  by  slave  labor  still  imported 
by  the  Portuguese  '*  under  contract "  through 
Angola  from  central  Africa.  About  4,000  of  these 
"  laborers  "  are  carried  to  the  islands  eveiy  y^^^i 
and  it  is  said  that  none  return.  A  Roman  Cathohc 
diocese  was  established  in  these  islands  in  1584^ 
and  a  large  part  of  the  population  is  reckoned  as 
Roman  Cathohc.  Thefe  are  no  Protestant  mis- 
sions in  this  colony. 

Zanaibar;  See  BBmeH  East  Africa  Protect- 
ORATB,  above.  Hentet  Otib   Dwigmt.* 

DjeuooaAi>irr:    I.  Cotlectioni!  of  titl*»:    J.  G«y,  B^io^rru- 

1ST6;     P.    Pttulitacbko.   Die  Afnka-Lilemtw  in  der  ZeU 

tSOO-trSO,  Vientia.    1882;     G.    Kayaer,  B^liofffaphie  de 

VAfriqve,  Bruasoh,  1889. 

Geography  and  Atlaaro:  P.  Pnytitsdike,  Die  ffeoffraphiachf 
Erfortckuno  dtsa  ^frikanutcheti  ConhnentM,  Vienna,  ISSO; 
idem«  Die  ffeograji^UK^  Erforfchung  der  Adal-Llind^  in  Oat- 
Afrika,  LeipsiiCH  1884;  A^  H.  Keane,  Afncit.  2  vols..  London, 
1S05  (a  eomiieQd);  A.  Positin^  L'Afriqvt  ^uakjriate,  Chma^ 
toloffie,  noBoloffie,  huffiim,  Paiis*  18»7  (the  oc*  book  on  the 
Rubiei;t);  R.  Gnmdem&nn,  Neutr  Mi*wion9-A(ia^,  Btutti^aLrt, 
1896  (GemiAn  mlsisiotis  onlyK  K.  Heilm»iin,  Mi»tiarutkart* 
der  Erde.  Giitersloh.  1897;  H.  P.  Be^ch,  Geography  and  Al- 
Uu  Qf  FrQtestant  AfiMsmnM,  New  York,  1003. 

Ethnology:  T,Wmti.  A  nthropoi&gv  det  NaturvfiUc^,  vol  U., 
LeifMUC,  1860;  R,  Hartroann.^w  ATiffri^irr,  Herlin.  1877  {uigues 
for  unity  of  .\ffican  peoplea);  idotn.  Dig  Volker  Afr^as,  L«ip- 
«c,  1879;  H,  Sp«rn»r.  DftiripHve  Soctohtnf*  pnjt  iv.,  AM- 
ftift  Raca,  London,  1882;  A.  Fwitheraiftn,  Sotial  Hitkrrv  of 
the  Racea  of  Mankind.^  Nigfitiana,  Lb.  ISSfi;  F.  Ratieh  Yi*t' 
kerkunde,  3  vob.,  LeipsLc,  1886-88.  Eng.  tranal,  /7«torif  of 
Mankind,  London,  IS&d-ST;  NaHtea  of  Souih  ^ifrica,  Lon- 
don, 1901. 

L*ne^i«B«:  R-  ^-  Cuit*  A  Sketch  of  thf  Modem  Lanauagea 
iff  Africa,  2  vols.,  ib.  1883  (by  *  maflUr);  C.  R.  Lepsiufl, 
Uti^iKhe  Gramtnatik  mit  etn*r  BirUeituna  fliwr  die  Vril^fcw- 
und  Sprachen  Afrikat,  Berlin*  1880. 

Eiplormtion:  D,  Liyingston^,  Travels  and  RtweareAet  in 
S&ath  Afrvca,  Londoti,  iS^Ti  J.  H.  Speke,  Jovmal  <*/  (ft*  DU- 
eovenf  of  th9  Source  of  the  Nils,  ib.  1863;  R,  F.  Burton,  Wan- 
dvrinov  in  Wetti  Africa.  2  voIb.,  ib.  1864;  H.  SL  Stanley, 
How  I  Found  Livingatone,  ib.  lS7i;  idem,  tn  Darkf^t  Africa, 
ib.  1874;  V»  L.  Cameron,  Acton  Africa,  ib.  1877;  a  E, 
BouriMt,  Heroa  of  African  Dvcmtrff,  3  toK,  ib.  1882;  K. 
Dora,  Vom  Kap  turn  NU,  Berlin,  ISflS;  J.  Bryoa.  Impret- 
tiont  of  S&uth  Africa,  with  three  mapt,  London.  1899;  C.  A. 
von  Gdtien,  Durcft  Afrika  von  Oti  luuA  Wat.  BerUa, 
1809;  A,  B.  Lloyd,  In  Dwarf  Land  and  Cannot  Country, 
London,  1S99;  L.  Lanier,  L'Afrique,  Piiie,  1890  (^eogmph- 
ie*),  hiitorical,  bibliographical);  P,  R.  du  Ch*illy,  In  Africnn, 
For€9t  and  Jungle,  New  York,  1Q<J3:  A,  H.  Kcane.  Sow<A 
Africa^  A  Cofnpendtum  i>f  Geography  and  TrttvH,  London » 
1004. 

Afdimn  partition  and  eoLonlEatlon:  J.  S.  Keltie,  ThePar- 
UHim  of  Africa.  2t  maps,  London,  1893  (excellent,  «\jccinct); 

*Part  of  the  information  coneeminff  Roman  CatboUe 
mJflBont  in  thii  artiole  has  bsBo  fumiBhea  by  ProL  Jobn  T. 


79 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Africa 


Hohib,  Dm  CotomMohon  Afrika;  Vienna,  1882;  H.  H.  John- 
t(on.  Uiatory  of  Ae  Colonuaium  cf  Africa  by  Alien  Races,  in 
CmmtMdge  Hiaioneal  Seriea,  Cambridge,  1894;  H.  M.  Stan- 
ley, Africa;  Ite  ParHHan  and  lU  Future,  New  York,  1898. 

Miaaiona:  D.  Maodonald,  Afrieana:  Heathen  Africa,  2 
▼ola.,  London,  1882;  R.  Lovett,  Uiatory  of  tf»e  London  Mie- 
•ionary  Society,  1796-1896,  2  volfl.,ib.  1899;  F.  P.  Noble, 
Redemption  of  Africa,  New  York.  1899;  E.  Stock,  Hietory 
ef  Ae  CAureA  Mieeionary  Society,  3  vole.,  London,  1899; 
Bcumenical  Mieeionary  Conference,  New  York,  1900,  Reports, 
New  York.  1900;  C.  F.  Pasooe.  Turn  Hundred  Years  of  the 
SPO,  London.  1901;  J.  Stewart.  Dawn  in  Ae  Dark  Conti- 
nent: or  Africa  and  its  Missions,  ib.  1903;  H.  O.  Dwight. 
H.  A.  Tupper,  E.  M.  Bliss,  Encyclopedia  of  Missions,  New 
York.  1904. 

Oatholio  Missions:  M.  de  Montroud,  Les  Missions  catho- 
Uques  dans  Us  parties  du  Monde,  Paris.  1869;  L.  Bethune. 
Les  Missions  catholiquee  d'Afrique,  ib.  1889;  O.  Werner, 
Orbis  terrarum  caiholicus,  Freiburg,  1890  (geographical  and 
statistical);   Miseionee  CathoUca,  Rome,  1901. 

Native  religion:  T.  Hahn,  TeunirOgoam,  the  Supreme 
Being  of  tins  Ghoi-Ghoi,  London,  1882;  A.  B.  Ellis,  Tshi^ 
speaking  Peoples  of  the  Gold  Coast,  ib.  1887;  W.  Schneider, 
Dm  Reiioion  der  afrikanischen  Naturv6lker,  MOnster,  1891; 
J.  Maodonald.  Reliifion  and  Myth,  London,  1893  (on  religion 
and  society);  M.  A.  Kingsley.  Travele  in  West  Africa,  ib. 
1897;  idem.  West  African  Studies,  ib.  1901;  R.  H.  Nassau. 
FetidUem  in  West  Africa,  New  York.  1904  (covers  native  re- 
ligion and  society). 

II.  Algeria:  R.  L.  Plasrfair,  Bibliography  of  Algeria,  Lon- 
don, 1888  (covers  1541-1887);  A.  Orteux  aud  E.  H.  Car- 
noy.  VAlt^brie  traditionndle,  3  vols.,  Algiers,  1884  (on  cus- 
toms and  superstitions);  Gastu.  Le  Peuple  Algirien,  Paris. 
1884;  R.  L.  Playfair,  The  Scourge  of  Christendom:  Annals 
of  Britieh  Relations  trith  Algeria,  London,  1884;  E.  C.  E. 
Villot,  Maure  et  institutions  dee  tndiginee  de  VAlgirie,  Al- 
giers, 1888:  F.  A.  Bridgman,  Winters  in  Algeria,  New  York, 
1890;  F.  Klein,  Les  Villages  d'Arabes  chrHiens,  Fontaine- 
bleau,  1890;  A.  E.  Pease,  Biskra  and  the  Oases  .  .  .  of  the 
Zikans,  London,  1893;  J.  Lionel,  Races  Berbires,  Paris.  1893; 
A.  Wilkin,  Among  the  Berbers  of  Algeria,  London,  1900. 

Angola:  J.  J.  Monteiro,  Angola  and  the  River  Congo,  2 
vols.,  London,  1895  (the  one  book);  F.  A.  Pinto,  Angola  e 
Congo,  Lisbon,  1888;  H.  Chatelain,  Folk-Tales  of  Angola, 
Boston,  1894. 

Basutoland:  J.  Widdicombe,  Fourteen  Years  in  Basuto- 
land,  London,  1892;  E.  (Tosalis,  My  Life  in  Basutoland,  ib. 
1889;  Mrs.  Barkly,  Among  Boers  and  Basutos,  ib.  1893;  E. 
Jaoottet,  Centes  popuUnres  dee  Bassoutos,  Paris,  1895;  M. 
Martin,  Basutoland:  Its  Legende  and  Customs,  London,  1903. 

Bechuanaland:  L.  K.  Bruce,  The  Story  of  an  African 
Chief,  Khama,  London.  1893;  E.  Lloyd,  Three  African  Chiefs, 
Khami,  SebeU,  and  Barthang,  ib.  1895;  J.  D.  Hepburn, 
Twenty  Years  in  Khama*s  Country  and  the  Batauna,  ib.  1895; 
W.  D.  Mackeniie,  John  Mackenzie,  SouOi  African  Mission' 
ary  and  Statesman,  ib.  1902. 

British  East  Africa  and  Zansibar:  J.  Thomson,  Through 
Masai  Land,  London,  1885;  Handbook  of  British  East  Africa 
including  Zanzibar,  ib.  1893  (English  official  publication); 
H.  S.  Newman.  Banani:  the  Transition  from  Slavery  to  Free- 
dom in  Zanzibar,  ib.  1899;  S.  T.  and  H.  Hinde,  Last  of  the 
Masai,  ib.  1901. 

Cape  Colony:  O.  McC.  Theall,  History  of  South  Africa,  4 
vols.,  London,  1888-89  (exhaustive);  E.  Holub,  Seven  Years 
in  South  Africa,  ib.  1881;  A.  Wilmot,  Story  of  the  Ezpansion 
of  South  Africa,  ib.  1895;  A.  T.  Wirgman,  History  of  the  Eng- 
lish Churdi  in  South  Africa,  ib.  1895;  South  African  Year 
Book  for  190S-3,  ib.  1902  (official);  J.  Stewart,  Dawn  in  the 
Dark  Continent,  ib.  1903;  H.  A.  Bryden,  History  of  South 
Africa,  1662-1908,  ib.  1904;  D.  Kidd,  The  Essential  Kafir, 
ib.  1904. 

Centra]  Africa  Protectorate:  H.  H.  Johnston,  British 
Central  Africa,  London,  1897;  J.  Buchanan,  The  Shiri  High- 
lande  as  Colony  and  Mission,  ib.  1885;  D.  J.  Rankin,  Zam- 
besi Basin  and  Nyasealand,  ib.  1893;  A.  E.  M.  Morshead, 
Hilary  of  Ae  Univereities  Mission  to  Central  Africa,  ib.  1897; 
W.  A.  Elmslie,  Among  the  Wild  Ngomi,  Chapters  ,  .  .  of 
Livingetonia  Mission,  ib.  1899;  J.  W.  Jack,  Daybreak  in 
Livingstonia,  New  York.  1901. 

Dahomey.  A.  Pawlowski,  Bibliographie  raisonnie  .  .  . 
concemant  le  Dahomey,  Pans.  1895;  Aspe-Fleurimont.  La 
Ouinie  fran^ise,  ib.  1890;  E.  F.  Forbes.  Dahomey  and  the 
Dahomeans,  2  vols..  London.  1851;  J.  A.  Skertchley.  D€i- 
homey  as  it  is,  ib.  1874;   A.  L.  d'Alb^ca,  La  France  au  Da- 


homey, Paris.  1896;  E.  FoA.  Le  Dahomey,  ib.  1895  (on  his- 
tory, geography,  customs,  etc.);  R.  S.  Powell,  The  Down- 
fall of  Prempeh,  London.  1896. 

Ei^rpt  (for  missions):  G.  Lansing,  Egypt's  Princes.  A 
Narrative  of  Missionary  Labor  in  the  Valley  of  the  NUe,  New 
York,  1865;  M.  L.  Whately.  Ragped  Life  in  Egypt,  London, 
1870;  idem.  Among  the  Huts  in  Egypt,  ib.  1870;  A.  Watson. 
The  American  Mission  in  Egypt,  Pittsburg.  1898;  M.  Fowler. 
Christian  Egypt,  London,  1900;   and  see  Egypt. 

Eritrea:  La  Colonia  EHtrea,  Turin.  1891;  E.  Q.  M.  Ala- 
manni,  UAveHire  deUa  colonia  Eritrea,  Asti,  1890;  M. 
Schveller,  Mittheilungen  fiber  meine  Reise  in  .  .  .  Eritrea, 
Berlin,  1895. 

French  Kongo:  A.  J.  Wauters  and  A.  Buyl,  Bibliographie 
du  Congo,  1880-96,  Paris,  1895  (3.800  titles);  P.  Eucher. 
Le  Congo,  essai  sur  l  histoire  religieuse,  ib.  1895;  A.  VouJgie, 
Le  Loango  et  la  valUe  du  Kouilou,  ib.  1897;   and  see  below 

KONOO. 

French  Guinea:  L.  O.  Binger.  Du  Niger  au  gotfe  de  GuinSe, 
2  vols..  Paris.  1891;  C.  MadroUe.  En  Guinie,  ib.  1894;  P. 
d'E^pagnat,  Jours  de  Guinie,  ib.  1898. 

German  Africa:  Deutsch-Ost-Afrika.  Wissensdtaftlicher 
Forschungsresultate  Hber  Land  und  Leute,  Berlin,  1893 
and  later  (exhaustive);  P.  Reichard,  DeutschrOstafrika, 
Land  und  Bewohner,  Leipsic,  1892;  H.  von  Schweinits, 
DeutschrOstrAfrika  in  Krieg  und  Frieden,  Berlin,  1894;  Ch. 
Rdmer,  Kamerun:  Land,  Leu/e  und  Mission,  Basel,  1895; 
E.  Zintgraff,  Nord-Kamerun,  1886-92,  Berlin.  1895;  F.  J. 
von  BOlow.  Deutsch-Sadwestafrika  .  .  .  Land  und  Leute, 
ib.  1897;  K.  Hdrhold.  Drei  Jahre  under  deutsche  Flagge  in 
Hinterland  von  Kamerun,  ib.  1897;  M.  Dier,  Unter  den  Schwar- 
ten,  Steyl.  1901  (missionary);  F.  Hutter,  Wanderungen  und 
Forschungen  in  Nord-Hinterland  von  Kamerun,  Brunswick, 
1902;   and  see  below.  Kamerun. 

Gold  0>ast:  A.  B.  Ellis.  History  of  the  Gold  Coast,  London, 
1893;  F.  A.  Ramseyer  and  J.  KOhne,  Four  Years  in  Ashan- 
tee.  New  York,  1877  (missionary);  C.  Buhl,  Die  Easier  Mis- 
sion an  der  GoldkQste,  Basel.  1882;  C.  C.  Reindorf.  History 
of  the  Gold  Coast  and  Ashanti  from  c  1600,  London.  1895; 
G.  Macdonald.  Gold  Coast,  Past  and  Present,  ib.  1898;  D. 
Kemp.  Nine  Years  at  the  Gold  Coast,  ib.  1898. 

Ivory  Coast:  Bonneau.  La  Cdte  d'lvoire,  Paris.  1899  (his- 
torical and  geographical);  M.  Mounier.  France  noire,  Cdte 
d'lvoire  et  Soudan,  ib.  1894. 

Kamerun:  In  G.  Wameck.  History  of  Protestant  Missions, 
transl.  from  seventh  Germ,  ed.,  London,  1901;  E.  B.  Under- 
bill, Alfred  Saker,  Missionary  to  Africa,  ib.  1884;  and  see 
above,  German  Africa. 

Kongo  Independent  State:  H.  M.  Stanley,  Congo  and  the 
Founding  of  the  Free  State,  2  vols.,  London,  1878;  W.  H. 
Bentley,  Life  on  the  Congo,  ib.  1890;  idem.  Pioneering  on  the 
Congo,  2  vols..  New  York,  1903;  Mrs.  H.  G.  Guinness,  The  New 
World  of  Central  Africa:  the  Congo,  London,  1890;  F.  S. 
Amot,  Garenganze:  or  Seven  Years'  Pioneer  Mission  Work  in 
Central  Afrika,  ib.  1889;  idem.  Bihe  and  Garenganze,  ib.  1893; 
S.  P.  Vemer,  Pioneering  in  Central  Africa,  New  York,  1903; 
E.  Morel.  King  Leopold's  Rule  in  Africa,  London.  1904. 

Lagos:  R.  F.  Burton.  Abeokuia  and  the  Cameroon  Mounr- 
tains,  2  vols..  London.  1863;  Miss  C.  Tucker.  Ahheokuia:  the 
Yoruba  Mission,  ib.  1858;  J.  A.  O.  Payne.  Table  of  Events 
in  Yoruba  History,  Lagos.  1893. 

Liberia:  J.  H.  T.  McPherson.  African  Colonization: 
History  of  Liberia  (Johns  Hopkins  University  Studies,  series 
9.  No.  10),  Baltimore,  1891;  G.  S.  Stockwell,  The  Republic 
of  Liberia,  New  York,  1868  (historical  and  geographical);  J. 
Buettikofer,  ReisOnlder  aus  Liberia,  Leyden,  1890;  F.  A. 
Durham,  The  Lone  Star  of  Liberia,  London,  1892;  E.  W. 
Blyden,  A  Chapter  in  the  History  of  Liberia,  Freetown, 
1892. 

Morocco:  R.  L.  Playfair  and  R.  Brown.  Bibliography  of 
Morocco  .  .  .  to  end  of  1891,  London.  1893;  R.  Kerr.  Pio- 
neering in  Morocco:  Seven  Years'  Medical  Mission  Work, 
ib.  1894;  E.  de  Amicis.  Morocco,  lU  People  and  Places,  New 
York.  1892:  W.  B.  Harris.  The  Land  of  an  African  Sultan, 
London.  1879;  Giographie  gfnirale  de  Maroc,  Paris.  1902; 
A.  J.  Dawson.  Things  Seen  in  Morocco,  London.  1904;  Mo- 
rocco painted  by  A.  S.  Forrest  and  described  by  S.  L.  Bensu- 
san,  ib.  1904. 

Natal:  R.  Russell.  Natal,  the  Land  and  Its  Story,  London, 
1900;  L.  Groat.  Zululand,  or.  Life  among  the  Zulu-Kafirs, 
Phihidelphia.  1864;  H.  Brooks.  The  Colony  of  Natal,  Lon- 
don. 1876 ;  T.  B.  Jenkinson.  Amazulu,  the  Zulus,  ib.  1882 
(on  people  and  coimtry);  J.  Bird,  Annals  of  Natal,  2  vols., 
Pietermaritsbuig,  1888-89;    J.  Tyler,  Forty  Years  among 


Africa 
Atfapetiui 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOO 


80 


tiW  Zulus,  Botton.  1S9I;  R  W.  tod  Wenudorff.  Ein  Jahr 
in  Rkod€*ia,  Bcrljp>  IBW;  J.  Eobiuadti,  A  MMt^M  tn  ^imlfc 
Africa,  London,  1900. 

Ni{;erift:  C.  H,  Robmflon*  itau^alandt  LondQn,  1867; 
idem.  Ni&eria,  1900  (both  suthoritative):  H.  Goldie.  Coia- 
bor  am^  ita  Mistion,  ib.  1890;  R.  H.  B&cod»  Btmn.  the  Cit^ 
0f  Blood,  ib.  IB97;  H.  Bmdlou.  in  the  iVvcr  Ccnini^^,  ib. 
1890;    W.  R.  MiJkr,  Mauwi  No^,  ib.  IfiOL 

Oraiige  River  CoIoDy:  S&utk  Afrkan  Repuidv*  OMcud 
DortiiMJii*,  Philidclpbia.  1900;  G.  McC.  Theal,  f  A*  aflrt-*» 
or  fmtffranl  FtxrTneri,  Loiidoti,  IBSB;  A.  H.  K«Aiie.  Afttoi. 
ia  E^  S^uiford'B  Compendium  of  Qt&gra^y^  2  voLn..  ib.  1S93; 
H.  C1<Bt«»  HiskfTV  of  the  6Veal  jEfocr  Tridt,  and  the  Oriffin  of 
C/kfl  South  Afruan  lUpublicM,  ib.  lSa«. 

PortugrueM  Africa:  W.  B.  War&eld»  F47rfu0vei«  Ni/aAea- 
lawi,  London*  1899:  E>  Monteim,  DelaooQ  Bay,  Ita  Natitte* 
and  Natural  U^Miory^  ib.  1891 ;  P.  GLIlmonit  Through  Gota 
Land,  ib.  1891;  J.  P.  M.  Weale,  TnOh  abo^a  ikn  Portuffwa* 
in  Africa,  ib.  I80L 

fthodefliA:  H'  HeEumim,  Ritk/ry  of  Rkodemo-t  London« 
1900;  E.  F.  iCniffht*  Rh&hna  uf  To^ay;  Condition  and 
Ftoi^woiM  of  MatabeJjfland  and  MaihoTiaUind,.  ib.  189S;  A.  G. 
henn^rd.  How  uw  Mude  Rhifdexia,  ib,  18Q6;  A,  Hoggie,  H%»- 
Con^  of  Rhodesia  and  the  MaiabeU,  ib,  1897;  8.  J.  i>u  ToU, 
Rhodrnfia  Past  and  Prtaent,  ib.  1S97;  H.  L.  Tui£ye«  In  New 
South  Africa  ;   .   .   .   Trantvaat  and  Rhodetia,  tb.  1900. 

tiierrs  Leon«;  J.  J,  Crooks,  Hitt&ry  cf  the  Col&nif  of  ^isra 
Leone*  London,  190S;  D.  K.  FUckineerv  Ethiopia,  or  Twtniy 
YtoTB  of  Mtficn  Work  in  Weston  Africa^  D»ytoD»  IS77; 
K.  G.  f  ngbjun,  Sierra  Leone  afiet  One  Hundned  Yeart,  Lon- 
don. 1B94;  T.  J.  AUdridfic,  Th«  Skerhro  ctivj  iU  Hiniertand^ 
ib.  1901 :  C.  Geonsu*  7"^  Rise  of  British  Wiist  Africa,  ib.  1904. 

Som&iiiand:  H.  L.  Swayne,  Seventeen  Trips  through  Boma- 
lHand,  London*  1903;  G.  V.  A.  F^L  Bomaliiand  .  .  .  Two 
E^rpediUone  into  the  Far  Irderior,  ib.  1903;  F.  S.  Breretou* 
in  the  Grip  of  the  Mtdiah,  ib.  1903. 

Sudan:  A.  8.  Wbit«,  Bxftansian  of  Egypt  undrr  Anfflo^ 
Sffvptian  Cond&mini&n,  New  York.  1900;  C.  T.  Wilson  and 
B.  W.  Felkin^  Ugonda  und  der  Hgyptische  Swian^  2  vola,* 
StUttjc&rt,  1883;  81&tki  Poshiip  Fire  and  Swofd  in  the  Sudan, 
LoDdon.  1896:  D.  C.  BouJcer*  Life  of  Qordon,  ib.  1897;  H. 
8.  Alford  and  W.  D.  Sword*  The  Egyptian  Sudan,  Its  t^ms 
and  Its  Recotfury,  ib.  I $98;  H.  U.  Austin,  AmonQ  Ewamps 
end  Giants  in  EqwUnHal  Africa,  ib^  1902. 

Trajisvfl*]:  E.  Fitrnier,  Transvaal  at  a  Mission  Field t 
Londoo,  1903;  W.  C.  Willou«hby.  Native  Life  on  the  Trans- 
vaal Border,  ib.  1900;  J.  H-  BoviU,  Natives  under  the  Trans- 
VQ^  Flay,  ib.  t9D0;  D,  M.  Wilaon,  Behind  the  Seen—  in  thM 
TVatufd^il,  ib.  1901. 

Tripoli  and  Tuniic  G.  E.  Tbompsoo,  Life  in  TripoH, 
London.  1893;  De  H.  Warteiss,  Tunis,  Land  and  P^pte,  ib. 
1S99;  M.  Foumel*  La  Tunisie  *-  le  christianisme  et  ritlam 
dmns  VAfriqus  tepteninonale,  Parit,  ISSd;  V.  Guerin*  La 
Frante  cathol^ue  en  Tunisie  .  .  .  H  en  Tripoliiaine,  ib. 
1S86;  A.  Perry,  OfJ^cial  Tour  alony  the  Eastern  Coast  of  ,  .  . 
Tunis,  Proirideooe.  IS91;  D.  Bniun^  The  Cave  Dwdlere  of 
JSauthxrn  Tunisia,  BdinbuTKh*  1898;  H.  Vivian.  Tunisia  and 
the  Modem  Bar^ry  Pirates,  Landoti.  1899;  J,  L.  Cathcart, 
Triooh  ;  First  War  with  the  United  States.  La  Port«,  1902. 

Uganda:  H.  H.  Jobnaton,  Uoanda  Proteciorale,  London* 
1904;  W.  J,  Anaoi^e,  Und^  the  Affipan  Sun:  A  Descrip- 
Hon  of  Native  Races  in  Uganda,  ib.  1899;  Mackay  of  [Uganda  ; 
Story  of  his  life  by  his  Sister,  ib.  1899;  R  P.  Aahe*  Two 
Kings  of  Ugandit ;  or  Life  by  ^e  Shoret  of  Victoria  Nyanxa, 
ib.  1890  (miMionsry);  8.  G.  Stock,  Uyanda  and  Victoria 
JVtfOfua  Mission,  ib.  1892;  F.  J.  Lti^i'd,  Rite  of  our  East 
African  Empire,  .  .  .  Nyaualand  and  Uganda,  2  vols.. 
Edinburgh.  1893;  idem,  Story  of  the  Uganda  Protectoraie, 
London,  1900;  C.  F,  Harford-Battermby,  Pilkinghn  of 
Uganda,  ib.  1899;  A.  E.  Cook,  A  Doctor  and  his  Dog  in 
Uganda^  ib.  1903  (on  medJcai  tniMionfl). 

III.  AFrjcftn  I  standi:  Madagraacart  J.  Sib  roe*  The  Great 
African  Itland,  London*  1879  (the  beflt  book);  idem,  Mada- 
0Mcar  before  the  Conquest,  ib.  1896;  W.  Ellii,  The  Martyr 
Church,  ib.  1869;  W,  E.  Couhiiw.  The  Madagascar  of  To-day, 
ib.  1895;  H.  Hacicn.  Beitray  tm- Oeschithte  der  InsidMada- 
gask^,  GQt^rslob,  1899;  J.  J.  K.  Fletcher,  Siyn  of  the  Cross 
in  Madagaeear,  London.  1901;  T.  T,  Mattbewa*  Thirty 
Yeart  in  Madagascar,  ib.  1904. 

Other  lalandai  A.  B.  EUk,  The  West  Afrimn  Islands, 
London,  1885;  C.  Keller.  Madagasear,  MauriHus.^  and  other 
Afrimn  I  stands,  vh.  1900;  N.  Pike.  Suhtropii^l  BambU*  in 
the  Land  of  the  Aphanapteryx,  ib.  1873  (on  Mauritius);  J* 
a  Btollifl.  SL  Hdena,  Ib.  1875  (sdetitiSG);  H.  W.  E^tHd^e, 


Six  Tsars  in  SsychsUts,  ib.  1S8£;  A.  8.  Brown,  Madam  and 
the  CatuBV  Isles,  ib.  1890. 

AFMCA,  TH£  CHUBCH  OF.  See  Abtssenia 
AjfD  THE  ABYsfiiifiAN  CHtTRCH;  CopTic  CncmcH; 
Eqtft;  MigsiOKd,  Rouah  Gathouc^  Pboti^stakt; 
NoKTH  AnticAM  Chubch. 

AFRICA17  METHODIST  EPISCOPAL  CHTTRCH. 
See  Methodistb, 

AFRICAIIUS^  JULIUS.    See  Jnuus  AFRiCANira. 

AGAPE,  ag'a-pt  or  -pd. 
PHmitivo  Form  of  Celebration  (I  1). 
Final  Form  of  tbo  Agape  { (  2). 
Disanocwtion  of  A^ape  and  Eucbarkt  <}  3)- 

The  Greek  word  agape  {**  love/'  pi.  agapaij  Lat. 
agapcE)  was  used  in  the  early  Cbtircht  both  Greek 
&nd  Latin,  to  demote  definile  mamlestatiotis  of 
brotherly  love  between  believers,  and  particularly 
certain  meals  taken  in  commoo  which  had  iDore 
or  less  of  a  religioua  character.  The  earUest  mention 
of  such  meale  i^  found  in  Jude  12  (possibly  in  11 
Pet.  ii.  13).  Distinct  history  begins  with  Ter- 
tullianT  in  the  paasag^  {Apologeticus,  xxxix.)  com- 
mencing: **  Our  supper  bears  a  name  wldch  tells 
e:3cactly  what  it  is;  it  b  called  by  the  word  which 
in  Greek  roeaoa  *  affection/  "  The  agape  serv^ 
for  the  refreahment  of  tbe  poorer  brethren,  as  welJ 
as  for  tbe  general  edi&cation.  It  was  opened  and 
closed  with  prayer,  and  after  its  conclusion  one  and 
another  gave  soag^  of  pralsci  either  from  tbe  Bible 
or  of  their  own  composition.  Th^e  meeting  were 
under  tbe  direction  of  the  clergy,  to  whom  (isith 
refefeoce  to  I  Tim,  v»  17)  a  double  portion  of  food 
and  drink  was  allotted.  They  were  held  at  the  time 
of  the  principal  me^l,  and  frequently  were  prolongied 
until  dark.  In  the  period  for  wldch 
I,  Frlml^  TertxilUan  bears  witness,  they  were 
tive  Form  not  connected  witb  the  aacrament 
of  Cele-  of  the  Eucharist;  he  says  expressly 
bration*  (De  corona,  iii .)  that  t be  Lord  instit uted 
the  sacrament  on  the  occasion  of  a 
meal,  while  the  Church  does  not  so  celebrate  it, 
but  rather  before  daybreak.  Even  apart  from  the 
secret  nocturnal  services  of  tbe  times  of  perBecution 
and  the  observance  of  the  paschal  vigil,  the  Eucha- 
rist was  regularly  celebrated  before  any  meal. 
Notably  waa  this  rule,  which  is  found  referred  to  in 
Cyprian  (EpiaL,  bdii,  16),  established  in  TertuUian'i 
time,  but — ^which  is  decisive  for  the  distinction 
between  Eucharist  and  agape^it  existed  in  many 
parts  of  the  Church  as  e&dy  as  that  of  Justin 
(Apologia,  L  65,  67).  The  principle*  that  the 
Eucharist  should  be  received  only  fasting,  which 
would  exclude  any  relation  witb  a  prec^ling  com- 
mon meal,  and  especially  with  the  agape,  taking 
place  toward  evening,  is  indirectly  evidenced  by 
TertulHan  {Ad  uxoremf  ii.  6);  Augustine  found  it 
so  imiveraally  recognised  that  he  wafl  inclined  to 
refer  it  to  one  of  the  ordinances  promised  by  Paul 
in  I  Cor.  xi.  34;  and  Chrysoetom  wa«  so  convinced 
of  the  antiquity  of  the  rule  that  he  eupposed  the 
custom  of  f ollownng  it  by  an  ordinary  meal  to  have 
prevailed  in  Corinth  in  Paul's  time.  In  any  case, 
in  the  third  and  fourth  centuries  the  development 
of  the  agape  wa£  more  and  more  away  from  any 
conneetion  with  publio  worship. 


81 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


AiMoa 
AffapetoB 


From  the  indications  of  the  Syriac  Didascalia 
and  the  Egyptian  liturgical  books,  as  well  as  the 
canons  of  the  Coiincils  of  Gangra  and  Laodicea  it 
may  be  inferred  that  the  giving  of  these  feasts  and 
the  inviting  to  them  of  widows  and  the  poor  was, 
in  the  East,  one  of  the  forms  usually  taken  by  the 
benevolence  of  the   wealthier  mem- 
2.  Final     bers  of  the  Church.    The  bishop  and 
Form  of    other  clergy  were  invited,  and,  if  they 
Uie  Agnpe.  appeared,  were  received  with  special 
honor  and  charged  with  the  direction 
of  the  assombly.    These  feasts  were  given  at  irreg- 
ular times  and  in  various  places,  sometimes  in  the 
chiuvh  itself.    This  was  forbidden  by  the  twenty- 
ei^th  canon  of  Laodicea,  at  the  same  time  that  the 
fifty-eighth  prohibited  their  celebration  in  private 
houses.    Secular  festivities  in  connection  with  the 
agapsB,  which  brought  upon  them  the  condenma- 
tion  of  the  ascetic  Eustathians  (against  whom  the 
Council  of  Gangra  defended  them),  caused  them  to 
be  regarded  more  and  more  among  the  orthodox 
also  as  incompatible  with  the  dignity  of  divine 
worship,  so  that  they  gradually  became  entirely  sep- 
arate from  it,  and  thus  tended  to  fall  into  disuse. 

How  popular  these  feasts  were  in  Africa,  in  the 
churehes,  in  the  chapels  of  the  martyrs,  and  at  the 
graves  of  other  Christians,  may  be  seen  from  the 
often  renewed  canon  of  Hippo  (393),  which  forbids 
clerics  to  eat  in  churehes  except  in  dispensing  hos- 
pitality to  travelers,  and  commands  them  as  far 
as*  possible  to  restrain  the  people  from  such  meals. 
The  same  thing  appears  in  Augustine's  descriptions 
as  well  as  in  the  great  pains  he  took  to  repress  grave 
abuses  and,  with  reference  to  the  practise  of  the 
Italian  and  almost  all  the  other  churehes,  to  sup- 
press the  agapsB  altogether. 

It  is  not  clear  what  caused  the  disassociation  of 
the  agape  from  the  Eucharist  in  the  first  half  of  the 
second  century.    It  is  a  misunderstanding  of  Hiny 's 
letter  to  Trajan  (Epist.,  xcvi.)  to  suppose  that  in 
consequence  of  the  prohibition  of  hetarix  ("  broth- 
erhoodsv")  the  Christians  then   abandoned   their 
evening  feasts  and  transferred  the  Eucharist  to  the 
morning;  but  it  is  very  probable  that  the  constant 
accusation  of  impious  customs  which  recalled  the 
stories  of  Thyestes  and  of  CEdipus  were  the  main 
reason  for  the  separation  of  the  Eucharist,  which 
was  an  essential  part  of  their  pubhc  worship,  from 
the  connection,  so  liable  to  be  mis- 
3.  Disasso- understood,    with    an   evening   meal 
ciation  of  participated  in  by  both  sexes  and  all 
Agiipe  and  ages.    The  fact  that  at  one  time  the 
Eucharist  two  were  connected  is  evidenced  not 
only  by  Fliny,  but  about  the  same  time 
by  the  Didache,  in  which,  whatever  one  may  think 
about  the  relation  of  the  eucharistic  prayers  to  the 
accompanying  liturgical  acts  (chaps,  ix.-x.),  the 
opening  passage  of  the  second  prayer  (Gk.  meta  de 
to  envpUsthinai)  shows  that  a  full  meal  belonged  to 
the  rite  there  referred  to.    Just  as  here  the  Greek 
word  eucharistUi,  which  from  Justin  down  is  em- 
ployed as  a  technical  term  for  the  sacrament,  at 
least  includes  a  common  meal,   which  is  found 
separated  from  the  sacrament  after  the  middle  of 
the  second  century,  so  Ignatius,  with  whom  eitchch 
ruiia  is  a  usual  designation  of  the  sacrament,  also 
L-« 


employs  agapi  and  agapan  to  denote  the  same 
observance.  It  is  accordingly  safe  to  conclude  that 
in  the  churehes,  from  Antioch  to  Rome,  with  which 
Ignatius  had  to  do,  the  so-called  agape  was  con- 
nected with  the  Eucharist,  as  Pliny  shows  at  the 
same  time  for  Bithynia  and  the  Didache  for  Alex- 
andria. The  same  may  be  inferred  of  the  two 
Scriptural  passages  cited  above;  and  one  is  led 
further  back  by  I  Cor.  xi.  17-34.  While  Paul 
distinguishes  as  sharply  as  possible  the  eating  of 
the  one  bread  and  the  drinking  of  the  blessed  chalice 
from  common  food  and  drink  (I  Cor.  x.  3, 16;  xi.  2^ 
29),  he  shows  at  the  same  time  that  in  Corinth 
the  two  were  connected  in  thought.  While  he 
rebukes  the  disorder  of  one  drinking  too  much 
and  another  going  hungry,  so  as  to  injure  the 
dignity  of  the  following  sacrament,  and  la3rs 
down  that  eating  for  the  mere  satisfaction  of 
hunger  ought  to  take  place  at  home  and  not  in  the 
assembly  of  the  brethren,  he  is  not  disposed  (as  I 
Cor.  xi.  33  shows)  to  abolish  altogether  the  connec- 
tion of  the  sacrament  with  an  actual  meal.  This 
connection,  then,  existing  into  the  first  decades  of 
the  second  century,  forms  the  basis  of  the  history 
for  both  Eucharist  and  agape  which  diverge  from 
that  time  on.  (T.  Zahn.) 

The  agape  or  love-feast  is  practised  at  present 
by  Mennonites,  Dimkards,  German  Baptists  of 
the  Anglo-American  type,  and  other  rehgious 
bodies.  For  an  able,  but  not  wholly  successful, 
attempt  to  prove  that  the  Lord's  Supper  in  the 
apostolic  time  was  identical  with  the  agape,  i.e., 
that  it  was  nothing  but  a  social  feast  for  the  mani- 
festation of  brotherly  love,  consult  Norman  Fox, 
Christ  in  the  DaUy  Meal  (New  York,  1898). 

A.  H.N. 
Biblioorapht:  See  Lord's  Suppxa. 

AGAPETUS,  ag"a-pi'tus;  The  name  of  two  popes. 

Agapetus  I.:  Pope  535-536.  He  was  the  son 
of  a  Roman  priest  named  Gordianus,  who  had 
been  killed  in  the  disturbances  under  Symmachus. 
Six  days  after  the  death  of  John  II.  he  was  chosen 
to  succeed  him,  probably  by  the  wish  of  Theodahad, 
king  of  the  Ostrogoths.  He  began  his  pontificate 
by  reconciling  the  contending  factions  among  the 
Roman  clergy  and  annulling  the  anathema  pro- 
nounced by  Boniface  II.  against  the  antipope  Dios- 
corus.  His  decision,  induced  by  the  decrees  of  the 
North  African  synod,  forbidding  the  entrance  of 
converted  Arians  to  the  priesthood,  and  his  defense 
of  this  measure  in  a  letter  to  the  emperor  Justinian 
show  him  to  have  been  a  zealous  upholder  of  ortho- 
doxy. In  536  he  was  sent  to  Constantinople  by 
Theodahad  to  try  to  establish  peace  with  the  em- 
peror, and  was  obliged  to  pledge  the  sacred  vessels 
of  the  Roman  Churoh  to  obtain  money  for  his 
journey.  He  did  not  succeed  in  the  ostensible 
purpose  of  his  mission,  but  accomplished  more  for 
the  orthodox  cause.  Anthimus,  patriarch  of  Con- 
stantinople, a  secret  adherent  of  Monophysitism, 
had,  by  the  aid  of  the  empress  Theodora,  the 
patroness  of  the  Monophysites,  been  allowed,  in 
defiance  of  the  canons,  to  exchange  the  see  of 
Trapezus  (Trebizond)  for  the  patriarchal  throne. 
Agapetus  refused  all  communion  with  him,  and 
persisted  so  strenuously  in  his  attitude,  in  spite  of 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


82 


ibreaU  from  the  court,  that  be  finaUy  convinced 
Justinian  that  Anthimus  had  deceived  him,  and 
bad  him  deposed,  and  replaced  by  Mennojs.  Aga* 
petUB  bimseif  coiisecrated  Mean^  by  wUb  of  the 
emperor,  and  apparently  with  the  aasent  of  tbe 
principal  orthodox  Eastern  biflbopo,  after  be  bad 
presented  a  confession  of  faitb  which  the  pope 
considered  satisfactory.  Tbe  emperor,  feanog  lest 
he  himseU  should  be  accused  of  sympathy  with  the 
former  Monophyeite  patriarch,  placed  a  confession 
of  faith  ID  the  pope's  hands,  which  Agapetus  ap^ 
proved  ia  a  letter  plainly  showing  how  important 
he  felt  his  triumph  to  be.  Almost  immediately 
afterward  he  fell  ill  and  died  in  Constantinople 
Apr.  22,  536,  his  body  being  brought  to  Rome  asd 
buried  in  8t,  Peter *i,  (A,  Haxjck,) 

BisLioam^rttri  BpiMaim.  ia  MGH,  EpitLAu.  (ISei)  64-57. 

in  MPL,    brvt,  ftnd   in  JaM4,  R^oetta,  i.  110-115:    hiber 

Fonttfk^i*,  ed.  Duchemc.  L  2S7-289,  Paris,  1386;   A3B. 

T\.  163-180;    Bo«»r,  Popea,  i.  337-^44;    Hefde,  C^mcili^ 

9ng€»€hichu,  En^.  trmaal.,  iv,  181-194. 

Agapetus    IL:    Pope  946-955.     He  was  a  Eo^ 

man  by  birtb^  and^  like  his  predecessor  Marinua 
II.  owed  his  elevation  to  the  papal  throne  (May 
10,  946)  to  Alberic,  the  secular  master  of  Rome. 
Though  hampered  at  home  by  Alberic's  power,  he 
asserted  the  clsimii  of  his  se«  successfully  abroad. 
He  intervened  in  the  prolonged  contest  over  tho 
archbishopric  of  Reims,  from  which  Heribert  of 
Yermandots  bad  expelled  the  legitimate  incum* 
bent,  Artold,  to  give  it  to  bis  own  son  Hugh.  The 
contest  between  the  friends  of  tbe  two  prelates 
attained  the  dimensions  of  a  civil  war,  Artold  beiog 
supported  by  Louis  IV.  of  France.  Agapetus 
abo  took  Artold 'a  aide  at  first;  but  he  was  deceived 
by  the  representations  of  a  cleric  from  Eeims  into 
reversing  his  decisioD.  After  Artold  bad  Hutjceeded 
in  enlightening  bim,  the  affair  was  referred  to  a 
eynod  held  at  Ingelheim  in  94S,  whose  final  verdict 
in  favor  of  Artold  was  eon  finned  by  Agapetus  in  a 
Roman  synod  (949),  [When  Berengar  IL,  Mar- 
quis of  Ivrea,  attempted  to  unite  all  Italy  under 
his  Boepteri  tbe  pope  and  other  Italian  princes 
appeal^  to  Otbo  I.,  who  went  as  far  as  Pa  via, 
expecting  to  be  crowned  emperor;  but  Agapetus, 
influenced  by  Alberic^  turned  away  from  himj 
In  954  Alberic  took  an  oath  from  the  Roman  nobles 
that  at  the  next  vacancy  they  would  elect  as  pope 
bis  son  and  beir,  Octavian;  and  when  Agapetus 
died  in  December,  955,  Octavian  did  in  fact  succeed 
him  as  John  XII.  (A,  Hauck.) 

BiDLioonAFHT:  fjMjfdJjv  e£  FtivUegia,  in  MPL^  t^nxj^iu* 
in  Bouqwl,  /fwueil,  ix.  223^234,  nnd  ia  Jaffif*  RegtsttA, 
i.  450-463;  Bower,  Pojjm.  ii.  314-315:  R.  Kfipk*  »ad  E. 
DQmmler,  Kaiaer  OUo  der  Qf&am^  Leipsic,  1376. 

AGAPIOS  HONACHOS,  a-gfl'pi-oa  mo-nfllcos 
(*' Agapios  the  Monk'^;  Athanasio  Lando):  Aa- 
cetic  writer  of  the  Greek  Church;  b.  at  Candia^ 
Oete,  toward  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  centuiy; 
d.  between  1657  and  1664.  After  a  wandering  life 
he  took  up  his  abode  in  tbe  monastery  on  Mt. 
Athos^  but  he  found  it  bard  to  submit  to  the  strict 
discipline  there.  He  is  one  of  the  most  popular 
religious  writers  of  the  Greeks.  By  his  excellent 
translations  from  the  Latin,  ancient  Greeks  and 
Italian  into  the  vernacular  he  made  many  devotional 
works  of  tbe  natiom  accessible  to  his  people.    He 


meant  to  be  orthodox,  but  was  infiuenced  by  Ro- 
man Catholicism,  and  in  bis  works  he  unsuspectingly 
quotes  Peter  Damian  and  Albertus  Magnus  besides 
Ambrose,  Augustine,  and  others.  In  penance  he 
distinguishes  between  the  contrilio,  ^tUkfadio,  and 
conJeMMio ;  and  in  the  Lord's  Supper  he  accepts 
the  doctrine  of  traosuhgtantiation  without  using 
that  term.  The  question  of  his  orthodoxy  was 
seriously  debated  in  the  aeventeentb  century  by 
the  fathers  of  Port  Royal  and  repreaentatives  of 
the  Reformed  Church  (cf.  J,  Aymon,  Monument 
aidherdiqit&t  de  la  Eeligion  des  Gr^St  The  Hague, 
1708.  pp.  475,  599). 

The  most  inaportant  of  the  works  of  Agapios  is 
the  "Salvation  of  Sinners"  (1641),  a  devotionat 
book  for  the  people.  His  "  Sunday  Cycle  "  (1675), 
a  collection  of  iermons,  was  also  much  prised. 
His  writings  went  through  many  editions,  especially 
those  containing  biographies  of  the  saints;  as  the 
''Paradise'*  (1641).  the  "  New  Paradise"  (c.  1664), 
the  "SelecUon"  (1644),  and  the  "Summertide" 
(1666).  The  first  thr^e  contain  translations  from 
Symeon  Metaphrastes.  Philifp  Meyer. 

BiBUCK^aAPifT:  rtfcitfi',  *0  'A^wt,  CotifltAutieiDple.  lSd5l  H, 
Letgrmnd^  BibliograpKie  HiiUimQuet  3  vols.,  Fl&rijt^  1805- 
1903. 

AGATHA,  ag'o-tha,  SAINT:  Virgin  and  martyr 
in  tbe  Roman  Cathofic  calendar.  The  accounts  of 
her  given  in  the  Latin  and  Greek  Acta  (ASBf  Feb., 
i,  59^^56)  are  eo  largely  made  up  of  legendary 
and  poetical  matter  that  it  is  impossible  to  extract 
eoUd  historical  facts  from  them.  Tbe  fact  of  her 
martyrdom  is,  however,  attested  by  her  incl union 
in  the  Carthagiman  calendar  of  the  fifth  or  sixth 
century  and  in  the  so-called  Mariyrologium  Heroi- 
nymianum  \  and  she  is  mentioned  also  by  Dama- 
sus,  bishop  of  Rome  from  366  to  3S4  {Carmm,  30). 
There  seems  no  reason  to  doubt  that  she  suffered 
at  Catania  on  Feb,  5;  but  the  year  of  her  death  can 
not  be  determined.  She  is  venerated  particidarly 
in  southern  Italy  and  in  Sicily,  where,  in  many 
places,  she  is  invoked  as  a  protectress  against 
eruptions  of  Mount  Etna.  The  cities  of  Palermo 
and  Catania  still  contend  for  the  honor  of  being 
her  birthplace,  (A,  Hauoc.) 

AGATHISTS.  See  Chbistiak  Doctrine:,  Sooettof 

AGATHO,  ag'o-tbo:  Pope  67S-6SK  He  was  a 
Sicihan  monk,  and  in  June  or  July,  678,  succeeded 
Bonus  after  a  vacancy  in  tbe  papacy  of  two  and 
one-half  months.  He  is  especially  celebrated  for 
the  decisive  part  which  he  took  in  the  Monothelite 
controversy  (see  Monotkelites).  He  succeeded 
also  in  inducing  Theodore  of  Ravenna  to  acknowl- 
edge the  dependence  of  his  church  on  that  of  Rome, 
At  a  synod  held  in  Rome  at  Easter,  679,  he  decreed 
tbe  restoration  of  Wilfrid,  archbishop  of  York 
(q.v.),  who  bad  been  deposed  by  Theodore  of  Tar- 
sus, archbishop  of  Canterbury.  The  financial 
resources  of  tbe  Roman  see  app^r  to  have  been 
very  limited  during  his  pontificate;  for  be  not  only 
attempted  to  administer  in  person  the  office  of 
arcarms  or  treasurer  of  the  Roman  Church,  but 
he  persuaded  the  emperor  to  renounce  tbe  payment 
which  had  been  demanded  for  the  confirmation  of 
a  pope,  though  the  imperial  approbation  was  still 
required.    Agatho  died  Jan.  10^  6S1;  the  Roman 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


AtfapetoB 
AffelU 


Cbureh  honors  hia  memoiy  on  that  day;  the  Greek 
on  Feb.  20,  (A,  Hauck.) 

BiaucKiHAFBT :  LUtFOif  in  MPL*  Ixxxrii.;  Ltber  ponHfi.- 
esaiu«  ed.  Ducli^u.  t,  350-358.  P&rur  1886:  Bowisr*  PapM. 

tniDsl.,   T.    139-144:    R.  C.  Maon.  Live*  of  tfu  Pope*  in 
th*  Early  MiddU  Apef.  L  ii.  24-28. 

AGDE,  0gd,  SYNOD  OF:  A  synod  which  met 
Sept,  llj  306,  at  Agde  (Lat.  Agaiha),  a  town  on 
the  Mediterranean  eoaat  of  Fmnc©  (90  ni.  w.  of 
Marseille,  of  which  it  was  originally  a  colony). 
The  town  is  unimportant^  tbotigh  it  claimed  to  pos- 
less  the  relics  of  St.  Andrew.  The  synod  met  with 
the  permission  of  Alaric  II,,  king  of  the  West 
Goths,  and  thirty' five  bishops  from  the  Hotith  of 
Fnmce  attended,  CiEsarius  of  Aries  presiding. 
It  passed  forty-seven  CMions  relatiDg  to  quest  ions 
of  discipline,  the  guardianship  of  church  property, 
the  devout  life,  and^ — a  matter  of  no  eUght  impor- 
tance for  the  south  of  France — the  position  of  the 
Jews.  An  attempt  was  made  to  enforce  clerical 
celibacy;  and  an  almost  suspicious  attitude  was 
a^nimed  in  regard  to  female  monasticbm  (cuns 
were  not  to  take  the  veil  before  the  age  of  40;  no 
new  convents  were  to  be  founded  without  the  per- 
tmadon  of  the  bishop;  and  the  solitary  life  was 
disapproved).  Provision  was  made  for  the  main- 
tenance of  sevetul  traditional  customs,  such  as  the 
strict  fast  in  Lent,  the  traditio  syinboii  on  the 
Saturday  before  Easter,  the  communion  of  the 
laity  at  Christmas,  Easter,  and  Pentecost;  an 
effort  was  made  to  secure  liturgical  uniformity. 
In  re^nl  to  the  Jewish  question,  it  is  observable 
that  here,  as  elsewherei  there  was  no  distinction  in 
social  life  between  Jews  and  Christians,  but  that  the 
Chureb  disapproved  of  intercourse  with  the  Jews, 
and  looked  with  some  distrust  on  converts  from 
Judaism.  The  canons  of  the  synod  are  based  upon 
older  and  not  exclusively  Gallic  foundations: 
Bpaniah  and  African  conciUar  decisions  are  used, 
as  well  as  the  letter  of  Pope  Innocent  1.  to  Exeu* 
perius  of  Toulouse.  In  like  manner  the  canons 
of  the  First  Prankish  Synod  at  OrMans  (511 )  and 
the  Burgundian  Synod  at  Epao  (517)  depend 
upon  those  of  Agde.  The  latter  were  early  in- 
cluded in  the  collections  of  church  law,  and  Gratian 
incorporated  a  large  part  of  them  in  his  IMctetum. 

(A.  HAtTCK,) 

BiBLioa&AFHT:  MjuijiJ.  CtmcUia,  yiii,  316;  Hefele,  C&'wUim- 
g^tdiidde,  iL  64»-660.  Eti£,  transit,  iv.  76-S0;  C,  F.  As- 
Hold,  CdiariuJ  von  AtetaU^  Ldpajc,  1894^ 

AGB,  CAMOICICAL:    The  age  required  by  the 

canons  of  the  Church  for  ordination  or  for  the 
performance  of  any  particular  act.  The  reqinro* 
ment  of  a  definite  ajge  for  entering  the  priestly 
order  is  first  found  in  the  eleventh  eanon  of  the 
Synod  of  Neoeiesarea  (314  or  325):  ^*  No  one  is 
to  be  ordained  priest  t)efore  he  is  thirty  years  old 
*  .  *  for  Jesus  Christ  when  thirty  years  old  was 
baptised  and  entered  upon  his  miuistty."  The 
first  canon  of  tlxe  second  series  of  canons  of  the 
Synod  of  Hippo  in  393  required  the  completion  of 
the  twenty-fifth  year  for  the  reception  of  deacon's 
orders.  These  decisions  were  frequently  repeated, 
lis  by  the  Synods  of  Agde  (506^  canon  xvi.),  of  Aries 
(324»  canon  L\  the  Third  Synod  of  Orleans  (533, 


canon  vi,),  and  the  Fourth  of  Toledo  (633,  canon 
juc.),  and  the  later  repetitions  were  included  in  the 
canonical  collections  of  the  early  Middle  Ag^, 
but  in  detail  they  were  frequently  changed.  Urban 
IL  at  the  Council  of  MelE  (10S9,  canon  iv,)  laid 
down  the  law  that  no  one  should  be  ordained  sub- 
deacon  before  his  fourteenth  year,  or  deacon  before 
his  twenty-fourth.  For  the  priesthood,  though  the 
thirtieth  year  stiU  remained  the  nunimum  in  the 
written  law,  the  practise  grew  of  ordaining  at 
twenty-five.  The  Synod  of  Ravenna  (1314,  canon 
ii.)  fixed  the  sixteenth  year  for  subdeacons,  the 
twentieth  for  deacons,  and  the  twenty-fourth  for 
priests.  Finally  the  Council  of  Trent  (1563,  session 
xxii).)  settled  the  minimum  at  twenty-two » twenty- 
tlnee,  and  twenty-four  years,  respectively,  for 
these  offices.  It  is  sufficient  to  have  begun  the 
year  specified  in  the  Council.  For  tonsure  and 
minor  orders  the  Council  simply  requires  the  recep- 
tion of  the  sacrament  of  confirmation  and  a  certain 
degree  of  learning.  In  the  Protestant  Churchea 
the  attainment  by  the  candidate  of  his  majority 
is  usually  considered  sufficient,  though  here  and 
there  the  twenty-fourth  year  is  still  required. 

In  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  the  canonical 
age  is  reckoned  from  the  day  of  birth.  Canonically 
the  age  of  dbcretion  is  put  at  seven  j^ears,  and  then 
the  sacraments  of  penance  and  extreme  unction 
may  be  received  because  the  child ,  being  supposed 
to  be  capable  of  conscious  choice,  can  commit 
a  mortal  sin;  also  the  child  is  then  subject  to  the 
regulations  of  the  Church  respecting  abstinence 
and  attendance  on  mass,  and  may  also,  as  f ar  aa 
law  is  concerned,  contract  a  marriage  engagement, 
A  marriage  may  not  be  contracted  before  puberty 
(except  in  case  of  extraordinary  development  of 
mind  and  body),  i.e.,  before  fourteen  for  boys 
and  twelve  for  girls;  nor  may  (X}nfirmation  and  the 
Lord's  Supper  be  received  till  the  child  has  been 
properly  instructed.  From  twenty-one  to  sixty 
is  the  period  when  fasting  at  certain  seasons  is 
obligatory.  The  lowest  canonical  age  for  a  bishop 
is  thirty  years  completed.  The  minimum  ago 
at  which  simple  vows  may  be  taken  is  sixteen 
years  completed.  Clerics  may  not  prof^s  solemn 
vows  before  they  have  entered  on  their  twentieth 
year. 

kathoiUchen  und  evang^iiscktn  KirchtnrechiM.  pp.  151,  330^ 
Uipai€.  1 1*03;  W,  K,  Addis  and  T.  Arnold,  VaikQlic  IWc- 
tiofuiru.  Loudon,  1903. 

AGELLI,  a-jel1j,  AUTOIHO  (Lat.  AgeUim): 
Roman  Cathohc  scholar;  b.  at  Sorrento,  s.  of 
the  Bay  of  Naples,  1532;  d.  at  Acemo,  14  m. 
e.n.e.  of  Sorrento,  1608,  He  joined  the  order  of 
the  Theatins,  became  bishop  of  Acemo  in  1593, 
but  after  a  few  years  returned  to  his  monastery. 
He  was  famed  for  his  knowledge  of  the  lan- 
guages of  the  Bible,  under  Gregory  XIII.  and 
Sixtus  V,  was  member  of  the  commission  for  the 
publication  of  the  Septusgint  (15S7),  and  as- 
sisted ako  in  the  pubUcation  of  the  Vulgate 
(1590). 

Agelli  wrote  commentaries  on  the  Book  of  Lam- 
entations (Rome,  1698)  I  the  Psalms  and  Canticles 
(1606);  Proverbs  (Verona,  1649);  and  Habakkuk 
(Antwerp,  1697). 


Agimda 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


84 


AGEITDA,  a-jen'da. 
The  Tenn;  its  Equivalents  Before  the  Reformation  (|  1). 
Lutheran  Changes  in  Roman  Catholic  Agenda  (|  2). 
Decline  of  Lutheran  Agenda  in  Eighteenth  Century  (|  3). 
The  Agenda  in  the  Reformed  Church  (|  4). 
Revival  of  Agenda  by  Frederick  William  III.  (|  5). 
The  Agenda  in  the  Modem  Lutheran  Church  (|  6). 
American  Liturgies  (|  7). 

The  name  Agenda  ("  Things  to  be  Done  ";  Germ. 
Agende  or  Kirchenagende)  is  given,  particidarly  in 
the  Lutheran  Church,  to  the  official  books  dealing 
with  the  forms  and  ceremonies  of  divine  service. 
It  occurs  twice  in  the  ninth  canon  of  the  Second 
Synod  of  Carthage  (390;  Bruns,  Canones,  i.,  Ber- 
lin, 1839,  p.  121),  and  in  a  letter  of  Innocent  I. 
(d.  417;  Af  PL,  XX.  552).  The  name  was  frequently 
employed  in  a  more  specific  sense,  as  agenda  mis- 
sarunif  for  the  celebration  of  the  mass;  agenda  diet, 
for  the  office  of  the  day;  agenda  moriuorum,  for  the 
service  for  the  dead;  agenda  mattUina,  and  agenda 
vespertinaf  for  morning  and  evening  prayers.  As 
the  designation  of  a  book  of  liturgical  formulas  it  is 
stated  by  Ducange  to  have  been  used  by  Johannes 
de  Janua,  but  in  the  only  pubhshed  work  of  Johan- 
nes (c.  1287)  the  name  does  not  occur.  There  is  no 
doubt,  however,  that  with  the  development  of  the 
ritual  of  the  Church  the  classification  of  liturgical 
formulas  for  the  use  of  the  parochial  clergy  became 
conmion.  Such  books  of  procedure 
X.  The  were  known  by  various  names;  e.g.. 
Term;      manuale,  dbaequiale,  benedictionalef  rir 

its  Equiv-   tuale^  and  agenda.    The  last  title  was 

alents  Be-    given  especially  to  the  church  books  of 
fore  the  Ref-  particular  dioceses  wherein  the  gen- 

ormation.  eral  ritual  of  the  Church  was  supple- 
mented by  ceremonial  features  of 
local  origin,  as  the  agenda  for  Magdeburg  of  1497, 
or  the  Liber  agendarum  secundum  rUum  ecdesujB  et 
diocesia  SleawicensU  of  1512.  The  use  of  the  term 
in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  however,  practi- 
cally ceases  with  the  Reformation,  though  a  few 
instances  occur  in  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth 
centuries.  In  the  Evangelical  Churches,  on  the 
contrary,  with  the  title  Kirchenbuch,  it  speedily 
came  to  be  the  accepted  designation  for  authorita- 
tive books  of  ritual.  In  the  early  days  of  the  Ref- 
ormation the  agenda  not  infrequently  constituted 
part  of  the  Kirchenordnung  or  general  church  con- 
stitutions of  a  state  (see  Church  Order);  but  in 
the  course  of  time  the  separation  of  the  formulas  of 
worship  from  the  legal  and  administrative  codes  of 
the  Church  was  effected. 

The  earliest  attempts  at  a  reformation  of  the 
Roman  ritual  were  naturally  concerned  with  the 
mass.  The  innovations  consisted  of  the  omission 
of  certain  parts  of  the  Roman  ceremonial  and  the 
substitution  of  Oerman  for  Latin,  instances  of  the 
use  of  the  vernacular  in  the  celebration  of  the  mass 
occurring  as  early  as  1 521-22.  In  1 523 
2.  Lutheran  Luther  published  his  Latin  mass,  revised 
Changes  in  in  accordance  with  evangelical  doc- 
Roman     trine;  and  three  years  later  he  gave  to 

Catholic     the  world  his  Devische  Mease  und  Ord- 

Agenda,     nung  dea  GoUesdienstSf  the  use  of  which, 

however,  was  not   made   obligatory. 

In  the  same  year  appeared  his  "  Book  of  Baptism,'' 

in  1529  probably  hLs  "  Book  of  Marriage,"  and  dur- 


ing the  years  1535-37  the  formula  for  the  ordination 
of  ministers.  In  the  Kirchenordnungen  of  the  time 
orders  of  worship  occur,  as  in  Thomas  Milnzer's 
Deutzsch  kirchen  ampt,  of  1523,  and  the  Landesord- 
nung  of  the  duchy  of  Prussia  in  1 525.  From  this  time 
to  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  Protestant 
states  of  Oermany  were  busied  with  the  task  of  re- 
modeling their  ecclesiastical  systems  and  formularies 
of  worship,  the  work  being  carried  on  by  the  great 
theologians  of  the  age.  The  church  constitutions  and 
agenda  of  this  period  may  be  divided  into  three 
classes:  (1)  those  following  closely  the  Lutheran 
model;  (2)  those  in  which  the  ideas  of  the  Swiss  Ref- 
ormation were  predominant;  and  (3)  those  which  re- 
tained appreciable  elements  of  the  Roman  ritual.  Of 
the  first  type  the  earliest  examples  are  the  constitu- 
tions drawn  up  by  Bugenhagen  for  Brunswick, 
1528;  Hamburg,  1529;  Labeck,  1531;  Pomerania, 
1535;  Denmark,  1537;  Sleswick-Holstein,  1542; 
and  Hildesheim,  1544.  Justus  Jonas  formulated 
the  church  laws  of  Wittenberg  (in  part),  1533; 
of  the  duchy  of  Saxony  (where  the  name  "  agenda  '' 
is  first  adopted),  1539;  and  of  Halle,  1541.  Han- 
over received  its  laws  from  Urbanus  Rhegius  in 
1536;  Brandenburg-Nuremberg,  from  Osiander  and 
Brenz  in  1533;  and  Mecklenburg,  from  Riebling, 
Aurifaber,  and  Melanchthon  in  1540  and  1552. 
Among  the  states  which  adopted  constitutions  of 
the  Reformed  type  were  Hesse  and  Nassau,  between 
1527  and  1576;  more  closely,  Wtlrttemberg,  1536; 
the  Palatinate,  1554;  and  Baden,  1556.  In  the  so- 
called  "  Cologne  Reformation,"  drawn  up  largely  by 
Butaser  and  Melanchthon  and  introduced  by  Arch- 
bishop Hermann  in  1543,  the  agenda  of  Saxony, 
Brandenburg-Nuremberg,  and  Cassel  served  as 
models.  The  Roman  ritual  was  retained  to  some 
extent  in  the  church  ordinances  of  the  electorate 
of  Brandenburg,  1540;  Pfalzneuburg,  1543;  and 
Austria,  1571.  Of  this  type,  too,  were  the  ordi- 
nances drawn  up  by  Melanchthon,  Bugenhagen, 
Major,  and  others,  for  the  electorate  of  Saxony  in 
1549;  but  these  never  went  into  effect,  giving  place 
in  1580  to  a  constitution  Lutheran  in  character. 

The  Thirty  Years'  war  exercised  a  disastrous 
influence  on  the  entire  ecclesiastical  system  of 
Germany,  and  particularly  on  church  discipline. 
The  work  of  restoration,  however,  was  begun 
almost  inmiediately  after  the  cessation  of  hostil- 
ities, but  so  great  was  the  moral  degradation  in 
which  the  mass  of  the  people  was  plunged,  so  low 
was  the  standard  of  education  and  general  intelli- 
gence, that  in  the  formulation  of  new  ecclesiastical 
laws  the  governments,  of  necessity,  assumed  a  far 
larger  share  of  authority  over  the  affairs  of  the 
Church  than  they  had  possessed  before  the  war. 
This  increased  power  of  the  government  was  appar- 
ent not  only  in  a  closer  supervision  over  the  eccle- 
siastical administration,  but  also  in  the  enforcement 
of  a  stricter  adherence  to  the  formulated  modes 
of  worship.  Of  the  agenda  promulgated  after 
the  war,  the  most  important  were  those  of  Mecklen- 
burg, 1650;  Saxony  and  Westphalia,  1651;  Bnms- 
wick-LUneburg,  1657;  Hesse,  1657;  and  Halle,  1660. 

The  eighteenth  century  witnessed  a  marked 
decline  in  the  importance  of  the  official  hturgies 
in  the  religious  life  of  the  nation — a  loss  of  influ- 


M 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Agimda 


enoe  so  great  as  to  make  the  books  of  the  Church 
I»actically  obsolesoent.  This  was  due  to  the  rise 
of  the  pietistic  movement  which,  in  its  opposition 
to  formula  and  rigidity  in  doctrine,  was  no  less 
destructive  of  the  old  ritual  than  was  the  ration- 
alistic movement  of  the  latter  half  of  the  century. 
Both  pietism  and  rationalism  were  wanting  in 
respect  for  the  element  of  historical  evolution  in 
religbn  and  worship;  and  the  former,  in  laying 
stress  on  the  value  of  individual  prayer  and  devotion 
without  attempting  any  change  in  the  forms  of 
divine  service,  led  to  their  general  abandonment 
for  the  spiritual  edification  that  was  to  be  obtained 
in  the  societies  organized  for  conunon  improve- 
ment, the  so-called  collegia  pietaHs,  Rationalism  in 
lftn<«Tig  its  own  interpretation  to  the  ritual,  deprived 
it  of  much  of  its  practical  bearing,  and  necessitated, 
in  consequence,  a  radical  reconstruction  of  the 
prayers  and  hymns  of  the  Church.  But  a  no 
less  important  cause  of  change  in 
3.  Decline  of  liturgicid    forms   is  to   be   found   in 

Lutheran    the  growth  of  social  distinctions  and 

Agenda     in  the  rise  of  a  courtly  etiquette  which 

in  Uie      sought,   with  success,   to  impose  its 

Eighteenth  standards  of  manners  and  speech  on 

Century,  the  ceremonies  and  language  of  the 
Church.  The  etiquette  of  the  salon 
entered  the  Church,  and  the  formula  "  Take  thou 
and  eat,"  at  the  Lord's  Supper,  was  altered  to 
"  Take  ye  and  eat  "  when  the  communicants  were 
of  the  nobility.  The  consistory  of  Hanover  in 
1800  granted  permission  to  its  ministers  to  intro- 
duce during  public  worship  such  changes  in  lan- 
guage, costume,  and  gesture  as  would  appeal  to 
the  tastes  of  their  "  refined  audiences."  As  a 
result  the  old  official  agenda  passed  generally  out 
of  use  and  were  replaced  by  books  of  worship  rep- 
resenting the  views  of  individual  ministers. 

In  the  Evangelical  Churches  outside  of  Germany 
books  of  ritual  were  drawn  up  during  the  early 
years  of  the  Reformation.  In  1525  Zwingli  pub- 
lished the  order  of  the  mass  as  celebrated  at  Zurich 
and  a  formula  of  baptism  based  on  the  **  Book  of 
Baptism,"  issued  by  Leo  Judse  in  1523.  A  complete 
agenda,  including  the  two  Zwinglian  codes,  appeared 
at  Zurich  in  1525  (according  to  Hamack  and  others, 
but  more  probably  in  1529),  under  the  title  Ordnung 
der  ChritienUchen  Kilchenn  zH  Zurich,  and  was 
often  revised  during  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth 
centuries.  Bern  received  its  first  formulary  in 
1528;  Schaffhausen,  in  1592,  and  St.  Gall  in  1738. 
NeuchAtel,  in  1533,  was  the  first 
4.  The     French-speaking  conununity  to  adopt 

Agenda    a  definite  ritual;    its  authorship  has 
in  Uie     been  attributed  to  Farel.    At  Geneva, 

Reformed  Calvin  published  in  1542,  La  Forme 

Charch.  dee  pr&res  eccUeiastiqueSf  based  on 
the  practises  he  had  fotmd  among  the 
French  of  Strasburg  during  his  sojourn  in  that 
city  from  1538  to  1541.  The  Strasburg  ritual  was 
followed  also  by  the  French  in  London,  and  by 
many  chiuvhes  in  France  itself.  Deserving  of 
■pedal  mention  are  the  constitutions  drawn  up  in 
1550  by  Johannes  a  Lasco  for  the  fugitives  from 
the  Netherlands  resident  in  England.  They  form 
the  first  comprehensive  formulation  of  the  ritual 


of  Calvinistic  Protestantism,  and  are  still  in  force 
in  the  Netherland  Church. 

In  Germany  the  return  to  a  uniform,  authorita- 
tive mode  of  worship  was  begun  by  Frederick 
William  III.  of  Prussia  in  the  early  years  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  After  1613  the  royal  family 
of  Prussia  were  adherents  of  the  Reformed  creed, 
but  the  king's  personal  beliefs  were  entirely  Luther- 
an. After  the  campaign  of  Jena  (1806)  he  entrusted 
the  task  of  drafting  a  ritual  to  Eylert,  whose  work, 
however,  failed  to  receive  the  king's  approval 
because  the  author  had  fallen  into  the  then  common 
error  of  the  writers  of  liturgies,  namely,  of  paying 
little  regard  to  the  historical  develop- 
5.  Revival  ment  of  the  evangelical  forms  of  wor- 
of  ship.      Frederick    William   protested 

Agenda  by  vehemently  against  these  newly  fabri- 
Frederick  cated  rituals,  and  asserted  the  neces- 
William  IIL  sity  of  "  going  back  to  Father  Lu- 
ther." With  this  purpose  he  devoted 
many  years  to  the  personal  study  of  ritualistic 
history  and  attained  an  expert  knowledge  of  the 
subject,  particularly  of  its  phases  in  the  sixteenth 
century.  The  refusal  of  the  great  mass  of  the  clergy 
to  lend  themselves  to  his  efforts  in  favor  of  unity, 
he  met  with  the  determination  to  make  use  of  the 
power  vested  in  him  by  law  to  bring  about  the 
desired  end.  In  1822  he  published  the  agenda 
for  the  court  and  cathedral  church  of  Berlin; 
and  two  years  later  this  fonnulary,  increased 
and  revised  with  the  aid  of  Borowsky  and  Bunsen, 
was  submitted  to  the  various  consistories.  Before 
the  end  of  1825,  out  of  7,782  churches  within  the 
Prussian  dominions,  5,243  had  adopted  the  proposed 
regulations.  In  spite  of  a  bitter  polemic,  in  which 
Schleiermacher  led  the  assault  on  the  king's  inno- 
vations, the  new  regulations  were  introduced  in  all 
the  provinces  before  1838. 

The  king's  agenda,  however,  did  not  cease  to  be 
the  subject  of  much  criticism.    In  1856  it  was 
improved;  and  in  1879  the  General  Synod  deter- 
mined upon  a  thorough  revision.    The  work  was 
entrusted  to  a  committee  of  twenty-three,  among 
whom  were    the    theologians    Goltz, 
6.  The      Kleinert,    Hering,    Meuss,      Renner, 
Agenda  in  RObesamen,    Kdgel,    and   Schmalen- 
the  Modem  bach;  and  in  1894  their  draft  of  a  new 
Lutheran    ritual  was  adopted  with  slight  changes 
Church,     by  the  General  Synod.    The  lead  of 
Prussia    was  followed   by  the  other 
members  of  the  Gennan  Empire,  and  most  of  the 
states  have  now  revised  their  agenda  or  have  the 
work  in  progress.   Bohemia  and  Moravia  (both  Lu- 
therans and  Calvinists),  Denmark,  Norway,  Poland, 
Russia,  Sweden,  and  Transylvania  have  also  late 
revisions.   In  France,  after  much  agitation,  a  book 
of  ritual,  IMurgie  dee  ^glisee  reformiee  de  France 
reviaiee  par  leSynode  g^rUral,  was  adopted  in  1897. 
(Georg  Rietbchel.) 
The  Clliurch  of  England  adopted  the  Book  of 
Common  Prayer  under  Edward  VI.,  which,  with 
slight  revisions,  has  been  made  universally  obliga- 
tory by  acts  of  uniformity.    It  is  used  with  modi- 
fications   by    the    Protestant    Episcopal    Church 
of  the  United  States  (see  Common  Praybr,  Book 
of).    H.  M.  Muhlenberg  prepared  a  liturgy  which 


Agenda 
A^noBtioiam 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


86 


was  adopted  by  the  Lutberao  Synod  that  he  bad 
ofganiaed  (174BJ  and  approved  by  tbc  German 
Lutheran  authonties  at  Halle^  whose  mt£sioDary 
he  WEi.  It  was  baaed  upon  those 
7.  Ameri-  in  use  in  Liineburg  (1643  OQW&rd)p 
can  Calenberg  (1569  onward),  Bran  den- 
Liturgies,  burg' Magdeburg  (1739  onward),  and 
Saxony  (1712  onward) .  The  litu rgy  of 
the  Savoy  Lutheran  Church  of  London  was  the  only 
one.  apparently,  actually  in  band^  the  other* 
escerting  their  influence  through  Miihieuberg'fl 
memory  (for  text  cf.  H.  E.  Jacobs,  A  History  of 
the  Lutheran  Church  in  the  United  States ,  New  York, 
1893,  pp  2G&-275;  cf,  also  Schmucker,  in  the 
Lttiheran  Church  Bemew,  i.,  pp.  16-27,  161-172). 
Forma  for  baptiam  and  the  marriage  ceremony 
were  taken  from  the  Prayer-Book  of  the  Church 
of  England.  In  1795  Kimze  published  A  Hymn 
and  Fraym'  Book  for  the  iMe  of  such  Lutheran 
Churches  as  use  the  English  LangiMige^  which  haa 
by  aucceaaive  revisions  developed  into  the  pr^ent 
English  Church  Book.  In  1806  the  New  York 
ramifltcrium  adopted  a  liturgy  modified  by  Episeo* 
pal  influence,  and  in  ISlS  the  Philadelphia  minla- 
terium  adopted  a  liturgy  in  wlilch  extemporaneous 
prayer  waa  allowed  as  well  as  freedom  in  selecting 
the  Scriptures  to  be  read.  In  1885  after  much 
controverey  and  conference  the  General  Synod 
adopted  a  '*  Common  Service/'  which  has  been 
widely  accepted  by  the  CburcheSi  but  is  not  re- 
^rded  bs  obligatory. 

The  Dutch  Reformed  Church  in  the  United  Statea 
adopted  (1771)  along  with  the  Belgic  Confession , 
the  Heidelberg  Catechism,  and  the  Canona  of  the 
Synod  of  Dort^  the  liturgical  forms  that  were  at 
that  time  in  use  in  the  Netherlands,  The  Nicene 
and  Athanaaian  creeds  are  appended  to  the  Uturgy, 
which  has  undergone  little  change.  The  German 
Reformed  Church  in  the  United  Statea  seems  to 
have  used  the  Palatinate  liturgy,  with  local  modi- 
ficationa.  In  1841  the  Eastern  Synod  pubtiahed 
&  liturgy  prepared  by  Lewis  Mayer,  which,  how- 
ever, failed  of  genera!  approval,  A  ''  Provisional 
Liturgy/'  prepared  by  Philip  Schaff  and  others 
(1857),  likewiae  proved  unacceptable.  The  '*  Order 
of  Worship  "  was  allowed  by  the  General  Synod 
(1866)  as  wai  also  the  "  Western  Liturgy  "  (1869). 
The  *'  Directory  of  Worship  "  was  adopted  in  1887 
(cf,  E,  T.  Corwin,  History  of  the  RelomiM  Church, 
Dutch ^  and  J.  H.  Dubbe,  History  of  the  Reformed 
Church,  German  J  New  York,  1895).  A  book  of 
liturgical  forms,  prepared  by  Henry  Van  Dyke 
and  others  appointed  by  the  General  Assembly, 
for  use  in  Preabyterian  Churches,  but  in  no  way 
obhgatory,  waa  published  in  1906.  It  aroused 
considerable  opposition.  A.  H,  N, 

BmuoditAPHr:  J.  A.  Sohmid,  J>t««rtolw  d*  Ag0f*dt4  tive 
ordinationihua  ec^UtrntHeis,  He^lmst&dt.  I71S:  J,  L.  Funk, 
Die  Kirphtnardnuno  der  mfGn^Sfiivtch-inihfhKh^n  J^trcAa 
DtuUchiand4t  in  ihrem  ertttn  Ja^htindtrt  1824;  idem, 
Bintoriache  Beleuirhtitng  dfr  Aff^nden,  Neustadt*  1827:  A. 
E-  Aicbter,  Die  erangeii$chen.  Kirchfnardnvngen  d^  AsfAa- 
■tftnff D  JakrhunderU,  2  voLa.,  W«im&r.  ia4ti:  H.  A.  Dmnie], 
Code^  tiiunoFicuM  efxtewitm  univervm  in  eptimrmn  redactus, 
4  vob. ,  Leipfiio.  1847-53:  J.  H.  A.  Ebrard,  ReforTnirtei  Kirch- 
tnbuch, Zurich  AMI  i  A.  Nordmeier,FroteafeinajjrA*-4j?rnda. 
Gtm.  1879;  K*  A.  Diehiw!,  Aarf%de  fSrdU  wsang^lUdU  Kir^ 
d^.  Berlin,  tSSO;  E.  SehUwm.  Die ^linif^itehen  Kvnlanord^ 
nunifvn  d€*  Mschizehnien  JahrhunderU^  vol,  i.,  LfdpaiCt  1903. 


AGE-TO-COME    ADVEin:iSTS.     See     Advent- 

ISTB,  6, 

AGIER,  a"zhy6',  PIERRE  JEAN;  French  law- 
yer; b.  in  Paris  Dec.  28,  1748,  of  a  Janaenist 
family;  d.  there  Sept,  22,  1823.  He  held  high 
poaitiona  in  the  French  courts  during  the  Revo- 
lution and  under  Napoleon  and  the  Bourbona, 
but  was  early  led  into  comprehensive  theo- 
logical etudiea.  He  learned  Hebrew  at  the  age  of 
forty.  Hia  principal  w^ork  is  Les  FrophHes  nau- 
veUement  traduits  de  Vh^hreu  a^c  dcs  ej:plicalums 
d  dc^  nates  critiqueB  (S  vols.,  Paris,  1 820-23) .  Among 
his  other  worka  are;  Le  JurisconsuUe  nalionfd  (3 
vols,,  1788);  Fues  sur  la  reformation  dcs  lois  civiles 
i  1 793) ;  TTaiiisur  k  mariage  (2  vols.,  1 800) ;  Psaumes 
nouvdicment  traduits  (3  vols.,  1809);  Vves  aur  le 
second  avinement  de  Jfsus-Christ  (1818);  Fraphi^iies 
concemanl  J^^us-ChriBi  et  V^glise  (1819);  and  Com- 
mentairc  aur  V Apocalypse  (2  vols.,  1323). 

AGILBERT,  H'^ahil-bar':  Second  bishop  of  the 
West  Saxons  (Dorchester)  and  afterward  of  Paris - 
b.  in  Gaul,  probably  in  Paris;  d-  at  Jouarre  (Z5  m. 
e.  of  Paria)  Oct.  1 1 ,  680;  he  studied  in  Ireland,  and 
went  to  Wessex  about  650,  where  King  Cenivealh 
appointed  him  bishop  to  succeed  Birinus  (he  had 
received  consecration  before  leaving  Gaul).  Ab 
he  eould  not  speak  English,  C3enwe4ilh  chose  another 
bishop,  Wine,  whom  he  located  (probably  in  663) 
in  his  royal  city,  Winch  eater,  where  he  had  founded 
a  church  eoon  after  his  conversion  in  646.  Agilbert 
then  returned  to  Gaul,  passing  through  Northum- 
bria  and  attending  the  Synod  of  Whitby  (q.v.)  on 
the  way.  He  became  bishop  of  Paris  not  before 
666.  He  assisted  at  the  consecration  of  W^ilfrid 
as  biflhop  of  York  (664  or  665),  and  entertained 
Theodore  of  Tarsus  while  on  his  way  to  Canterbury. 
After  a  time  Onw^ealh  invited  him  to  return  to 
Wesaex;  but  he  declined,  and  sent  hia  nephew 
Hlothhere,  or  Leutherius,  who  was  consecrated 
in  670  by  the  archbiahop  of  Canterbury. 
BuiLiO0RAi>^ir:  Bcde,  HisL  ecd.,  iii.  7, 25-28;  iv.  1*12;  v.  10. 

AGLIARDI,  fl"gU"Qr'dS,  ASTTOlHOi  Cardinal; 
b.  at  Cologno  al  Serio  (8  m.  a.s.e.  of  Ber- 
gamo), Lombardy,  Italy,  Sept.  4,  1832.  After 
a  pastorate  of  twelve  yeara  in  his  native  city,  he 
waa  called  to  Rome  and  appxiinted  administrator  of 
East  Indian  affaira  in  the  College  of  the  Propaganda, 
as  well  aa  profeaaor  of  moral  theology  in  the  Colle- 
gium Urbanum .  In  the  f o  rmer  capaci  ty  he  w  aa  sent 
to  India  aa  apostolic  delegate  in  1884,  after  being 
conaecrated  titular  bishop  of  C®sarea  in  Paleatine. 
Ill  health  forced  him  to  return  to  Italy,  but  he  was 
eoon  in  India  once  more,  and  made  a  tour  of  the 
country  which  lasted  five  months.  In  ISS7,  after 
finally  leaving  India,  he  was  for  a  time  aecretary 
for  extraordmary  eccleatastical  affairs,  and  was 
then  Bucceaaively  papal  nuncio  at  Munich  and 
Vienna.  In  1896  he  was  sent  to  Ruaaia  aa  am- 
bassador extraordinary  to  attend  the  coronation 
of  the  CKar,  and  in  the  same  year  received  the 
cardinal's  hat,  while  in  1899  he  was  made  suburban 
bishop  of  Albano.  In  1902  he  was  placed  in  charge 
of  the  estates  of  the  College  of  the  Propaganda, 
and  since  1903  has  been  vice-chancellor  of  the  Holy 
Roman  Church, 


87 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Agenda 
Aflrnostioisiii 


AOHBLLUSy  ag^'ndluB  (called  also  Andrew): 
The  historian  of  the  Chiutsh  of  Ravenna;  b.  in  that 
dty  eariy  in  the  ninth  century  [some  authorities 
say  in  806,  of  a  rich  and  noble  family];  the  year  of 
his  death  is  unknown.  He  entered  the  clerical 
state  veiy  eariy,  and  became  abbot  of  the  monas- 
teries of  St.  Maiy  ad  Blachemas  and  St.  Bartholo- 
mew, both  in  Rftvenna.  He  was  ordained  priest 
by  Archbishop  Petronacius  (817--835).  His  repu- 
tation for  learning  induced  his  brother  clergy  to 
ask  him  to  write  the  history  of  the  local  church, 
and  he  began  his  Ubtr  pontificalia  Ecdesia  Raven- 
nati$  before  838,  and  finished  it  after  846.  It 
follows  the  model  of  the  Roman  Liber  parUificalia, 
giving  a  series  of  biographies  of  the  bishops  of 
Ravenna,  beginning  with  Apollinaris,  said  to  have 
been  a  disciple  of  St.  Peter  and  to  have  died  as  a 
martyr  July  23,  75  (or  78),  in  whose  memory  the 
Basilica  in  Classe  at  Ravenna  was  dedicated  in  the 
year  549.  The  last  bishop  mentioned  is  Oeorge, 
whoee  death  falls  apparently  in  846.  The  charac- 
teristics of  the  work  are  its  strong  tendency  to  the 
expression  of  local  patriotism,  and  the  interest 
which  it  shows  in  buildings,  monuments,  and  other 
woriES  of  art.  It  is  one  of  the  earliest  historical 
woriES  to  make  an  extensive  use  of  architectural 
monuments  as  sources.  Agnellus  had  little  com- 
mand of  written  docmnents;  he  availed  himself  of 
oral  tradition  wherever  possible,  and  supplied  its 
deficiencies  by  a  well-meaning  imagination. 

(A.  Hauck.) 
Bibuoosapht:  His  history,  edited  by  O.  Holder-Egger,  is 
in  MQH,  Script,  rer.  Lang.,  1878,  pp.  265-391,  also  in  the 
eontinuation  to  1296  by  an  unknown  writer  and  to  1410 
by  Pteul  Soordilli,  in  MPL,  cvi.  429-840;  A.  Ebert,  Attoe- 
mnne  GeBchiehtt  dv  LiUenUur  de*  MUUkUlera,  ii.  374-377, 
Leipeic,  1880. 

AGNES,  SAinr :  A  saint  commemorated  in 
the  Roman  Church  on  Jan.  21  and  28  (the  Ge- 
lasian  Liturgy  giving  the  former;  the  Gregorian, 
the  latter  date),  and  in  the  Greek  Church  on  Jan. 
14  and  21  and  July  5.  Since  the  oldest  documents 
(the  Calendarium  Romanum,  the  Calendarium  Afri- 
eanum,  and  the  Crothic  and  Oriental  Misaale)  agree 
in  fixing  Jan.  21  as  the  day  of  her  death,  Holland 
has  rightly  assigned  to  that  day  the  acts  of  her 
martyrdom.  The  year  of  her  death,  according  to 
Rtdnart,  was  about  304.  The  cause  and  manner 
of  her  martyrdom  are  given  in  a  very  legendary 
manner  by  an  undoubtedly  spurious  Passion  in 
the  older  editions  of  the  works  of  St.  Ambrose, 
which  states  that,  having  made  a  vow  of  perpetual 
virginity  while  still  a  child,  she  successfully  resisted 
the  wooing  of  a  noble  youth,  the  son  of  Symphro- 
nius,  the  city  prefect,  and  embellishes  the  narrative 
with  many  wonders.  Her  hair  suddenly  grew  so 
long  and  thick  as  to  serve  for  a  cloak;  a  light  from 
heaven  struck  her  importunate  lover  lifeless  to 
the  ground;  when  she  was  bound  to  the  stake  the 
flames  were  extinguished  in  answer  to  her  prayer. 
After  she  had  been  beheaded  at  the  command  of 
the  prefect,  and  had  been  buried  by  her  parents 
in  their  field  on  the  Via  Nomentana,  outside  of 
Rome,  she  appeared  to  her  people  in  glorified  form 
with  a  little  lamb  at  her  side,  and  continued  to 
perform  miracles,  such  as  the  healing  of  the  princess 
Ccmstantia,  for  which,  it  is  said,  she  was  honored 


under  Constantine  the  Great  by  the  erection  of  a 
bacdlica  at  her  tomb  (Sanf  Agnese  fuori  le  Mura). 
Evidence  of  the  high  antiquity  of  her  worship  is 
given  by  Ambrose  in  several  of  his  genuine 
writings,  by  Jerome  (^put.,  cxxx.,  ad  Demetriadem), 
by  Augustine,  by  the  Christian  poets  Damasus 
and  Prudentius,  and  by  others. 

In  medieval  art  St.  Agnes  is  usually  represented 
with  a  lamb,  which  indicates  her  character  as 
representative  of  youthful  chastity  and  innocence, 
but  may  have  been  derived  from  her  name,  which 
is  to  be  connected  with  the  Greek  hoffni,  "  chaste  " 
(cf.  Augustine,  SermaneSt  cclxxiii.  6).  Two  lambs 
are  blessed  every  year  on  Jan.  21  in  the  Agnes 
basilica,  mentioned  above  (one  of  the  principal 
churches  of  Rome,  after  which  one  of  the  cardinal 
priests  is  called),  and  their  wool  is  used  to  make 
the  archiepiscopal  pallia  which  are  consecrated  by 
the  pope  (see  Pallium).  O.  ZficKLERt. 

Biblioorapht:  For  life  and  legends:  Ambrose,  Vita  glori- 
oaa  vtrginia  AgneHt,  in  folio  115  of  his  works.  Milan,  1474; 
ASB,  Jan.,  ii.  350-383;  T.  Ruinart,  Acta  Martyrwn,  Am- 
sterdam, 1713,  Ratisbon.  1859;  A.  Butler,  Lives  of  the 
Sainta,  under  Jan.  21,  London,  1847;  L.  Santini,  Lsben 
der  heiligen  Agne»,  Ratisbon,  1884;  P.  Franchi  de'  Gava- 
lieri,  Sania  Agnete  nMa  tradinone  e  nella  leogenda^  Rome, 
1899.  For  representations  in  Christian  art:  H.  Detsel, 
Chrittliche  Ikonographie,  voL  ii.,  Freiburg,  1896.  For  the 
Catacombs  of  St.  Agnes:  J.  S.  Northoote  and  W.  C.  Brown- 
low,  Roma  Sotterranea,  London,  1879-80;  M.  Amellini,  II 
Cimtterio  di  8.  Agn^e,  Rome.  1880;  W.  H.  Withrow, 
CatacomU  of  Rome,  London,  1888;  V.  Schultse,  ArchOoUn 
gie  der  altchrietlichen  Kunet,  Munich,  1895.  For  the  mys- 
tery play  of  St.  Agnes:  Saneta  Agnee,  ProvenMalieehea  geiet- 
lichee  Sehauepiel,  Berlin,  1869. 

AGKOET^,  ag"no-i't!  or  -«'td  (Gk.  agnoitat, 
"  ignorant  **):  1.  Name  of  a  sect  of  the  fourth 
century,  a  branch  of  the  Eunomians  (q.v.),  who 
followed  the  lead  of  Theophronius  of  Cappadocia. 
They  were  so  named  because  they  limited  the  divine 
omniscience  to  the  present,  maintaining  that  God 
knew  the  past  merely  by  memory,  and  the  future 
by  divination  (Socrates,  Hist,  ecd,,  v.  24). 

8.  The  name  was  borne  also  by  the  sect  of  the 
sixth  century,  founded  by  Themistius,  a  deacon  of 
Alexandria,  and  sometimes  called  Themistians. 
They  consisted  chiefly  of  the  Severian  faction  of  the 
Monophysites,  and  maintained  that,  as  the  body 
of  Christ  was  subject  to  natural  conditions,  so  also 
his  human  soul  must  be  thought  of  as  not  omni- 
scient. In  support  of  their  view  they  quoted  Mark 
xiii.  32  and  John  xi.  34.  The  heresy  was  revived 
by  the  Adoptionists  in  the  eighth  century. 

AGNOSTICISM:  A  philologically  objectionable 
and  philosophically  uimecessary  but  very  con- 
venient term,  invented  toward  the  end  of  the 
nineteenth  century  (1869)  as  a  designation  of  the 
skeptical  habit  of  mind  then  quite  prevalent.  It 
is  defined  in  the  Oxford  Dictionary  as  the  doctrine 
which  holds  that  "  the  existence  of  anything  be- 
yond and  behind  natural  phenomena  is  unknown, 
and  (so  far  as  can  be  judged)  unknowable,  and 
especially  that  a  First  Cause  and  an  unseen  worid 
are  subjects  of  which  we  know  nothing."  It  is 
thus  equivalent  to  the  common  philosophical  term, 
skepticism,  althou^  expressing  the  phase  of  thought 
designated  by  both  alike  from  the  point  of  view 
of  its  outcome  rather  than  of  its  method.  Some 
have  held,  it  is  true,  that  the  true  agnostic  is  not 


Agn  osttoinn 
Aironizants 


THE  NEW  8CHAFF-HER20G 


88 


he  who  doubts  whether  human  powers  can  attain 
to  the  knowledge  of  what  really  is,  or  specifically 
to  the  knowledge  of  God  and  spiritual  things,  but 
he  who  denies  this.  But  there  is  a  dogmatic  skep- 
ticism, and  there  is  no  reason  why  there  may 
not  be  a  more  or  less  hesitant  agnosticism.  The 
essential  element  in  both  is  that  the  doubt  or 
denial  rests  on  distrust  of  the  power  of  the  human 
mind  to  ascertain  truth.  It  is  common,  to  be  sxire, 
to  speak  of  several  types  of  agnosticism,  differing 
the  one  from  the  other  according  as  the  basis  of  the 
doubt  or  denial  of  the  attainability  of  truth  is 
ontological,  generally  psychological,  definitely  epis- 
temological,  or  logical.  But  useful  as  this  dis- 
crimination may  be  as  a  rough  classification  of 
modes  of  presenting  the  same  fundamental  doc- 
trine, it  is  misleading  if  it  suggests  that  the  real 
basis  of  doubt  or  denial  is  not  in  every  case  episte- 
mological.  When  it  is  said,  for  example,  that  God 
and  spiritual  things  are  in  their  very  nature  unknow- 
able, that  of  course  means  that  they  are  imknow- 
able  to  such  powers  as  man  possesses;  nothing  that 
exists  can  be  intrinsically  unknowable,  and  if  un- 
knowable to  men  must  be  so  only  because  of  ;limi- 
tations  in  their  faculties  of  knowledge.  And  when 
one  is  told  that  the  sole  trouble  is  that  the  balance 
of  evidence  is  hopelessly  in  equilibrium,  and  the 
mind  is  therefore  left  in  suspense,  that  of  course 
means  only  that  such  minds  as  men  have  are  too 
coarse  scales  for  weighing  such  delicate  matters. 

Agnosticism  is  in  short  a  theory  of  the  nature  and 
limits  of  human  intelligence.  It  is  that  particular 
theory  which  questions  or  denies  the  capacity  of 
human  intelligence  to  attain  assured  knowledge, 
whether  with  respect  to  all  spheres  of  truth,  or,  in 
its  religious  application,  with  respect  to  the  par- 
ticular sphere  of  religious  truth.  As  mankind  has 
universally  felt  itself  in  possession  of  a  body  of 
assured  knowledge,  and  not  least  in  the  sphere  of 
religious  truth, — nay  as  mankind  instinctively 
reaches  out  to  and  grasps  what  it  unavoidably 
looks  upon  as  assured  knowledge,  and  not  least  in 
the  sphere  of  religious  truth, — agnosticism  becomes, 
in  effect,  that  tendency  of  opinion  which  pronounces 
what  men  in  general  consider  knowledge  more  or 
less  misleading,  and  therefore  more  or  less  noxious. 
Sometimes,  no  doubt,  in  what  we  may,  perhaps, 
call  the  half-agnostic,  these  illusions  are  looked 
upon  as  rough  approximations  to  truth,  and  are 
given  a  place  of  importance  in  the  direction  of 
human  life,  under  some  such  designation  as  "  regu- 
lative truths  "  (Mansel),  or  "  value  judgments  " 
(Ritschl),  or  "  symbolical  conceptions  "  (Sabatier). 
The  consistent  agnostic,  however,  must  conceive 
them  as  a  body  of  mere  self-deceptions,  from  which 
he  exhorts  men  to  cleanse  their  souls  as  from  cant 
(Huxley). 

In  effect,  therefore,  agnosticism  impoverishes, 
and,  in  its  application  to  religious  truth,  secularizes 
and  to  this  degree  degrades  life.  Felicitating  itself 
on  a  peculiarly  deep  reverence  for  truth  on  the 
groimd  that  it  will  admit  into  that  category  only 
what  can  make  good  its  right  to  be  so  considered 
under  the  most  stringent  tests,  it  deprives  itself 
of  the  enjoyment  of  this  truth  by  leaving  the  cate- 
gory either  entirely  or  in  great  part  empty.    Re- 


fusing to  assert  there  is  no  truth,  it  yet  misses  what 
Bacon  declares  ''  the  sovereign  good  of  human 
nature,"  viz.,  "  the  inquiry  of  truth,  which  is  the 
love-making  or  wooing  of  it, — the  knowledge  of 
truth,  which  is  the  presence  of  it, — and  the  belief 
of  truth  which  is  the  enjoying  of  it.''  On  the 
ground  that  certain  knowledge  of  God  and  spiritual 
things  is  unattainable,  it  bids  man  think  and  feel 
and  act  as  if  there  were  no  God  and  no  spiritual 
life  and  no  future  existence.  It  thus  degenerates 
into  a  practical  atheism.  Refusing  to  declare  there 
is  no  God,  it  yet  misses  all  there  may  be  of  value  and 
profit  in  the  recognition  of  God. 

Benjamin  B.  Warfield. 
Bxblioorapht:  Modem  agnosticism  takes  its  start  in  the 
philosophy  of  Kant  and  runs  its  course  through  Hamil- 
ton and  Mansel  to  culminate  in  the  teaching  of  Herbert 
Spencer;  its  most  authoritative  exposition  is  given  in 
their  writings  and  in  those  of  their  followers.  Good  select 
bibliographies  of  the  subject  may  be  found  in  A.  B.  Bruce, 
ApologeHc9,  p.  146,  London,  1892,  in  F.  R.  Beattie,  Apolo- 
0Uic9,  or  the  RaHonal  Vindieation  of  CkrUtianUy,  i.  521, 
631,  Richmond,  1003,  and  in  R.  Flint,  AonoaticUm,  Lon- 
don, 1003,  foot-notes,  especially  that  on  p.  643,  where  the 
titles  of  works  on  the  cognoscibility  of  God  are  collected. 
Consult,  besides  the  above,  from  the  Christian  dogmatic 
standpoint,  J.  Ward,  NeUuraliam  and  AffnoBiiciam,  ib. 
1003;  C.  Hodge,  SyatemaHc  Theology,  I.  i..  ch.  iv..  New 
York,  1871;  B.  P.  Bowne,  The  Philoeophy  of  H.  Spencer, 
ib.  1874  (a  criticism  of  Spencer's  agnosticism);  J.  Owen, 
Bveninga  with  the  SkepHce,  2  vols.,  London,  1881;  J.  Mo- 
Coah,  The  Agnoeticiem  of  Hume  and  Huxley,  New  York, 
1884;  J.  Martineau,  Study  of  Religion,  I.  i.,  ch.  i.-iv.,  Lon- 
don, 1880;  H.  Wace,  Chrietianity  and  Agnoeticiam,  Edin- 
burgh, 1805;  J.  Iverach,  la  Ood  Knowable  t  London,  1887. 
The  agnostics'  position  is  set  forth  in  H.  Spencer,  Firai 
Prineiplea,  ib.  1004  (called  *'  the  Bible  of  Agnosticism  "); 
J.  Fiske,  Ouainea  of  Coamic  PhUoaophy,  Boston,  1874;  K. 
Pearson,  The  Ethic  of  Freethought,  London.  1887;  R.  Bit- 
hell,  Agnoatie  Problema,  ib.  1887;  idem.  The  Creed  of  a 
Modem  Agnoatie,  ib.  1888;  idem.  Handbook  of  Scientific 
Agnoaticiam,  ib.  1802;  Chrietianity  and  Agnoatieiam,  a 
Controveray  oonaiaHng  of  Papera  by  H.  Wace,  T.  H.  Hux- 
ley, Bithop  Magee,  and  Mra.  Ward,  Vew  York,  1880  (this 
discussion  aroused  wide  interest);  L.  Stephen,  An  Agnoa^ 
t%e*a  Apology,  London,  1803;  T.  Huxley,  Collected  Eaaaya, 
vol.  ▼.,  0  vols.,  ib.  1804  (contains  his  side  of  the  con- 
troversy with  Dr.  Wace);  W.  Scott  Palmer,  An  Agnoatic*a 
Progreaa,  London,  1006. 

AGHUS  DEI,  ag'nxm  d^i  ("Lamb  of  God"): 
1.  An  ancient  liturgical  formula  in  the  celebra- 
tion of  the  Eucharist,  found  in  some  manuscripts  of 
the  Sacramentary  of  Gregory  the  Great  after  the 
Lord's  Prayer  and  the  Libera,  The  full  text,  based 
on  John  i.  29,  is  "  Agnus  Dei,  qui  toUis  peccata  mun- 
di,  miserere  nobis."  It  is  found  also  in  the  ancient 
Eastern  hymn  which  was  annexed  to  the  Gloria 
in  Excdaia  (see  LrrunoicAL  Formulas,  II.,  3) 
and  was  early  introduced  into  the  Western  Church 
in  Latin  translation,  where  the  form  is  "  Domine 
Fili  unigenite,  Jesu  Christe,  Domine  Deus,  Agnus 
Dd,  Filius  Patris,  qui  tollis  peccata  mundi,  miserere 
nobis;  qui  tollis  peccata  mundi,  suscipe  depreca- 
tionem  nostram."  When  the  Second  Trullan 
Council  (692)  undertook  to  forbid  the  representa- 
tion and  invocation  of  Christ  under  the  figure  of 
the  lamb.  Pope  Sergius  I.,  to  express  the  opposition 
of  the  Roman  Church,  decreed  that  the  Agnia 
should  be  sung  by  priest  and  people  at  the  Com- 
munion. After  767,  under  Adrian  I.,  it  was  sung 
by  the  choir  only.  The  ritual  of  the  mass,  based 
in  this  particular  on  a  custom  which  can  be 
traced  to  the  beginning  of  the  eleventh  century, 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


AirnostioUm 
Atfonisants 


preacribeii  that  the  priest,  before  taking  the  eacra- 
mentf  Bh&lt  recite  the  Agnus  Dei  three  timee,  bow- 
ing find  beatmg  his  breast  to  express  contrition  for 
an,  the  third  time  with  the  addition  of  "dona 
nobis  pacem/*  The  consecration  precedes,  the 
Ix>nl's  Prayer  is  sung  with  the  Libera  nos;  a  piece 
of  the  consecrated  and  broken  bread  is  then 
t^irowD  into  the  cyp,  and  the  Agnus  foUowa.  At 
the  Church  festivals  it  is  accompanied  with  telling 
effect  by  soft  s^d  tender  music.  In  the  moss  for 
the  dead  the  words  "  give  them  rest  "  are  substi- 
tuted for  "  have  mercy  upon  ua/*  the  third  time 
with  the  addition  of "  eternal." 

The  Agnus  was  aecepted  la  the  Evangelical 
Lutheran  Church  at  the  beginning*  either  in  the 
translation  of  Nicolaus  Decius,  "  O  Lanun  Gottes 
unschuidig/'  or  in  the  more  exact  form,  '*  Christe^ 
du  Lamm  Gottes,  der  du  tra^."  In  the  days  of 
rationalism  it  was  often  omitted,  or  the  phrase 
"  Son  of  God  "  was  substituted  for  "  Lamb  of  God/' 
the  latter  being  thought  to  imply  an  unchristian, 
LevitJcal  sacrificial  conception.  It  was  afterward 
restored,  and  is  now  used  in  numerous  musical 
setting.  In  the  Church  of  England  the  Agnus 
was  incorporated  in  the  Litany,  but  only  to  be 
repeated  twice;  and  the  last  form  (ending  with 
"  grant  us  thy  peace  '')  was  placed  first.  In  the 
firet  prayer-book  of  Edward  L  it  was  included  in 
the  communion  office^  but  was  omitted  in  ttiat  of 
IB52  and  all  subsequent  revisions.  Nevertheless, 
it  is  almosrt  invariably  sung  by  congregationB  of 
Hi^-church  affiliations,  M.  HEROLn. 

BtAuoaiLLPSir:   H.  A*  Daniel,  Ci>dex  Htwrou^u*^  vob.  L.   ii., 

Ldpeic,  IS47-48;  L.  8*h6berl«dn.  ScAato  dew  titarm^hm 

Chor-und  Gtmeindegetanot,  pp.  368  flqq.»  Clatlingeii.  ISSO; 

O.  Riet^chel.    Uhrbuch  rf*r  Liturgik,  p.  386*  Berlin,  1900. 

Uusical  Bettin^f*  by  Vittorin,  PoleBtrina*  F,  Burmeister 

iimiX  F«  Decker  (1604).  M.  pTOtoriiia  (d.  1021)^  Mojart. 

Ukd  othei^:    consuit  li*  von  Liliencron,  CfKtrardnun^,  GQ- 

t«r«tob.  1900. 

2,  Name  given  to  a  wax  medallion,  bearing  the 
figure  of  a  lamb^  made  from  the  remains  of  the 
paschal  taper,  and  consecrated  by  the  pope  in  the 
special  ceremonies  on  the  Sunday  after  EaBter  in 
the  first  year  of  each  pontificate  and  every  seven 
years  thereafter.  These  inedallions  are  presented 
to  distinguished  individuals  or  to  churches,  are 
often  enclosed  in  cases  of  costly  workmanship, 
and  are  carefully  preserved,  almost  like  relics. 

AGDBARD,  ag'o-bard:  Archbishop  of  Lyons 
816-S40  [b.,  probably  in  Spain,  779;  d.  in  Sain- 
tonge  (an  old  province  of  western  France)  June  6, 
840],  Nothing  certain  is  known  o£  his  youth.  He 
w«nt  to  Lyons  in  7912;  and  probably  owed  his  educa- 
tion to  Leidrad,  archbishop  of  Lyons,  one  of  the 
most  diligent  of  Charlemagne's  helpers  in  his  civil- 
izing work.  Later  he  became  Leidrad's  assistant, 
and  then  his  successor.  When  the  order  of  sue- 
ceesion  eatablished  by  Louis  le  D^boimaiTe  in  817, 
largely  through  eccleaiaetical  influence,  was  set 
aside  at  the  instigation  of  the  empress  Judith  (829), 
Agobaid  was  one  of  its  most  zealous  defenders. 
He  seems  to  have  taken  no  part  in  the  risiDg  of  830; 
but  in  833  he  appears  among  the  professed'  op- 
ponents of  Louis*  He  approved  the  deposition  of 
the  emperor,  and  was  one  of  the  bishops  who  f  orce<l 
him  to  his  humiliating  penance  at  Soisaona.    Con-^ 


sequentlj'^  in  835,  when  Louis  had  recovered  his 
pow*er,  Agobard  was  deprived  of  his  office.  He 
refined  it  later,  being  reconciled  with  Louis. 

Agobard  takes  a  foremost  place  in  the  annals  of 
Carolingian  culture.  In  strictly  theological  trea- 
tises such  as  the  Liber  adversus  dogma  FeliciSf 
against  Adoptionism,  and  another,  against  image^ 
worship,  he  is  as  much  a  mere  compiler  as  any  of  hia 
contemporaries.  When,  however,  in  a  polemic 
against  Fredegis,  abbot  of  St,  Martin  at  Tours,  he 
deals  with  the  question  of  inspiration,  he  speaks 
out  boldly  against  the  doctrine  of  verbal  inspiration, 
while  still  declaring  hinaself  to  be  governed  by  the  tra- 
dition of  orthodox  teachers.  In  his  political  wri- 
tings he  was  less  governed  by  traditional  views.  He 
was  not  afraid  to  touch  one  of  the  most  difficult 
questions  of  the  time,  that  of  the  restitution  of 
Church  property,  at  the  diet  held  at  Attigny  in  822; 
and  he  renew^  the  demand  in  the  tractate  De 
dispensaiione  ecclesiarym  rerum.  His  Comparalio 
utrinsque  Tegiminis  ecclcsiastiei  et  polilici  (833)  is 
one  of  the  first  writings  in  which  the  claim  is  out- 
spokenly made  that  the  emperor  must  do  the  bid^ 
ding  of  the  pope.  He  wrote  a  book  against  the 
popular  supenstition  that  storms  could  be  cau^d 
by  magic,  basing  his  argument  on  religious  grounds, 
yet  making  appeal  to  sound  reason.  In  advance 
of  his  age,  again,  he  denied  absolutely  the  Justice 
of  the  ordeal  by  battle,  and  wrote  two  tractates 
against  it.  He  was  also  to  some  extent  a  liturgical 
scholar;  and  in  tbe  preface  to  his  revised  antiph- 
onary  laid  down  the  principle  that  the  w^ordsof  Holy 
Scripture  should  alone  be  used,  (A.  Hauck.) 

BiDuooRAi'KTi  A.  Cavo.  SeriptsTum  eccfa*i(Wficomm  hai&ria 
fiteroria,  voL  ii,,  London.  1688  fcsonmina  liet  of  tlio  works 
of  Agobard);  Opera^  ed,  E*  Jialuic,  2  vo\».,  PwiB,  1&60, 
UDd  thenei!  in  At  PL,  dv.t  jlIjmj  in  MGH,  Le&rt.  I  tl83S) 
3(i9.  MQH.  EpitL,  y,  (18»0)  150-239,  wid  in  Af OH,  ScrCpt, 
T^.  I  (i8S7).  274-279. 

For  hi*  life  and  times:  Mcuestrier,  Ilittoiri  civile  d*  la 
piHe  d€  Luon9,  3  parti.  Lyoiw,  1096;  K.  B.  Hundtshagon, 
Commcniaiio  de  Aqabafdi  tita  H  KriptU,  GieMao,  I83U 
P.  ChevjwUard,  L'EgliM  el  IVIal  en  Frujwe  au  neuviiiw 
«M*,  Saini  Agobard,  Lyon*,  ISflO:  T.  FOmter,  Drei  Erw- 
bischiife  t'of  1000  Jahm,  Guterabh,  1874;  B,  SLmaoa, 
Jahrtt&eher  dsM  frflnkiachen  Beich*  aiUer  Ludwio  demFrom- 
men.  i,  397  iqq..  Leipaic,  1 874;  H.  Reut*r,  Oetchichte  d^r 
re^Wtia*™  Aufkl&Fung  im  MiUeluiiir,  L  24-41.  Berlin,  1875; 
DCB,  L  03^64:  A,  Ebert.  Qeschi€)ae  der  Littemtur  dtm  Mil- 
ietaUcrt,  ii,  205S-222,  LeipBic,  18S0;  J.  F.  Marckfl,  Die  poti^ 
Hach-Mtchliehe  Wirhmmkeii  des  .  .  .  Affobard,  VictBeD. 
ISSS;  Hau€k,  KD,  u,  453  aqq.;  WattoDbaoh,  DGQ,  L  232. 
BerUD,  1904;  F.  Wie«and,  Agobard  vcn  Ljfon$  und  di$ 
Judenfrage,  Leipalc,  l&OL 

AGOKIZAWTS    (Agony  Fathers;  Fathers  of   the 

Good  Deathj  Cajnillians,  Cifrici  regidarcs  minis- 
irantes  infirmis}'.  A  fraternity  founded  at  Rome 
in  1584  to  care  for  the  dck  mid  minister  to  the 
dying.  The  founder  was  a  pious  priest  Camillua 
de  LeUiB  (b,  at  Buchianico,  in  the  Neapolitan 
province  AbruiSKO,  May  25,  1550;  d,  at  Rome 
July  14,  1614),  who,  after  a  wild  life  as  a  eoldiex, 
entered  the  hospital  of  St*  Jamee  at  Rome  in 
1574,  suffering  from  an  incurable  wound.  Bccom* 
ing  converted,  he  devoted  the  remainder  of  his  life 
to  heroic  service  in  the  hospitals  of  Rome,  Naples, 
and  elsewhere.  He  was  canonissed  by  Benedict 
XI V:  in  1746,  and  hia  statue  now  stands,  among 
those  of  great  founders  of  orders,  in  St.  Peter'i 
between  tbe  statues  of  St,  Peter  of  Alcantara  and  St. 


2SieoC 


THE  NEW  8CHAFF-HERZ0G 


90 


ittxiUN  V.  in  I5m;  five  jre^vs  lat«r,  »ft«r  ihm 
lDcoib<^rv  ii&d  diiticMiuubed  thexaaclvfs  during  the 
piigue  ^  15^,  It  wtm  crested  b^-  Greforj  XIV,  as 
ora^  witb  Augustioiaa  njle.  It  grew  r&pidlj  in 
nwnbffT*  ^nd  w^alib  durmg  tbe  fouQdar'e  lifetime^ 
And  in  t6(lS  w&m  divided  hf  Paul  V.  into  &i'e  pr^iv- 
inoei,  Eofne,  Milan,  ESolog^u,  X^^pl^,  jmd  Sicily. 
Afterwaxd  tbe  order  spfead  beyond  li^jf  e^pedftUj 
ill  Spun  and  Portu^p  uid  later  in  Fnuaoe  and 
Ameriea.  Dumig  tbe  nineteentb  cenuiiy  it  met 
with  iippoeitioa  in  certain  oonntriei  (ineiiadiDg 
Italy^  wbere  it  had  tfainf^our  houaes);  bot  it  itm 
favored  by  Leo  XIIL,  wfao  m»^  St.  CftimIIi]«  and 
Bt.  John  of  GcnI  (see  CHAjaTT^  BftorarBS  of) 
patronB  of  &U  EotEiao  Cktbotic  Lospitab,  and  is- 
icfted  their  names  in  the  Etan j  of  Ibe  dying. 

O,    ZdCKLEBf. 

d*'  cAicTKi  ntyofain  vniuiin  ct^e^  w/^^^,  Moodim^  IQ§9; 
Ttrtm,  Kw  die  SI  ComOf  ^  i^^iit,  Turm,  ism&,  W.  B4i&q- 

poli^nrvt,  a.  201-271. 

AGRAFHAf  ag'rtj^a  T  Uawrittea  ">;  Name 
gtren  to  Bcnealkd  aayin^  of  Jcxub  not  recoided 
in  the  GospeLi,  but  teported  by  oral  tradition.  The 
term  w&b  6rst  ueed  by  J.  G^  K6fiief  in  his  Ik  aer- 
fyicnii&if«  C^tricfi  s-^pofm^  (Lapdc,  1776)^  in  which 
be  gives  sixteen  raeh  agrapba.  Sinee  thai  time 
several  ooUections  of  agnpba  have  been  made; 
and  the  matenal  eeesiied  to  have  reached  a  ehmas 
hi  the  work  publiabed  by  Alfred  Reseh,  Apttpka: 
ftuaertmwnUche  Evangditn*Fragmeni£  in  nc^Sigikft* 
Uer  Voihtdndigkeil  ntMmmtngeOeiU  ufuf  fii«£le»- 
knii»€h  MnUrwudU  {Tb\v.  4,  18S9;  cf.  J.H.  Ropeo^ 
Die  Sjjrurhs  Jetu  .  .  ,  erne  knliteke  Bear^eiiwig 
dea  von  A.  Ee«cA  gmammdien  Materiah,  xiv.  2  ol 
the  eame  eenes,  1896).  In  1887  Drs.  B.  P.  Grenfell 
and  A.  3.  Htmt  diaoovered  a  papyrus  page  contain* 
iDg  eight  "  sayings  of  Jesus  "  which  are  kDown  aa 
"the  Chqrrhynchus  Logia,"  In  Feb,,  1903,  tbey 
came  upon  another  papyrus  fragment  of  a  some- 
what dmil&r  character,  containing  five  adtlitionsl 
"  sayings  of  Jesus/'  Ropes  divides  the  material 
found  in  Resch  into  five  clasee:  (1)  sayings  which 
tradition  has  not  considered  agrapha;  (2)  passages 
erroneously  quoted  as  saying  of  the  Lord;  (3) 
worthless  agrapha ;  (4 }  eventually  vaJuabk  agrapba; . 
(5)  valuable  agrapha*  Such  a  dassification  is 
arbitrary  and  impossible;  and  even  as  to  the  num- 
ber of  agrapha  scholars  differ. 

Among  the  more  noteworthy  of  the  agrapha  are: 

L  The  Mmt*ttt!«<,  **  It  IB  mono  blesBHl  topve  thfcn  to  n* 
osiva/'  quoted  by  Pftul  (AclA  x^  35)  mm  the  "  wonb  of  the 
Lord  Jnus/'  No  nuch  fA>-tn«  is  mentioned  in  the  eftbonical 
GoHpflfl.  In  the  Teachina  &f  tiU  Apoatla  (l  5)  ia  found 
••  happy  i*  he  that  giveih  »ccordinjff  to  the  commiitidtmatt  ", 
and  is  the  Apothticai  CorntituHontt  {iv.  3):  "  «mw  even  the 
Lord  6MyB,  *  the  sivtr  wo*  h&ppier  than  the  receiver/  "  la 
Ctemeat  of  Home  {Kpitt^.  i.  2),  the  Rua«  «a>'i&g  ieeizu  to  be 
referred  ta  Ui^der  the  form  "  more  wiitixis  to  ^vm  thaa  to 
reeeiv«," 

2.  '*  Oa  the  Mme  d*y,  h&viiiA  i^en  ourS  working^  on  tbe 
Sahbnlh,  he  s&id  to  him*  '  O  mui,  if  indeed  thou  knotveet 
whet  thdu  doflflt,  thou  art  blf?ftsed:  but  if  thou  Iciioveat  Dot, 
ibou  art  aceur«<id  tMid  a  traQigressor  of  the  lawK**'  Tbia 
Tvry  temarksble  aayias  ooouhb  after  Lulcs  vi  4  in  Go<L  D 
and  in  Ood.  Onw.  B.  Rob.  Stephaoi. 

$,  "  But  r«  m»k  to  inereaee  from  tittle,  aad  from  irtater 
la  Isw.     When  y*  go  and  are  bid<l«n  to  diaoer,  ut  oot  down 


la  the  bicimt  leatfl,  lest  one  ^rv^der  than  thou  jutiye,  and 
tb«  iwr  of  tbe  feafft  come  and  aay  to  thee,  *  Take  a  lower 
amt/  axid  thou  be  ashamed,  fiut  if  tbou  m%  down  m  th? 
"Wiwr  plsoA,  iLjad  cme  meaner  than  thou  arrive ,  the  iiver 
of  the  imta  will  ny  Co  thee.  '  Go  up  hieher  ';  and  this  Ahall 
be  profitable  (o  thee*"  This  flaying  im  found  after  Matt. 
J^  2S  m  Cod.  D,  and  III  »roe  other  codicca  {d.  the  New 
TeeUaaetite  of  Grieabaefa  and  Ti«cbeDdorf  ad.  loe. ). 

4.  ^  imtm  mid  to  hh  diadplea  '  Ask  gre»t  things,  and  the 
■BaQ  iluil  be  added  unto  you;  and  ask  heavenly  things 
and  the  earthly  abaLl  be  added  unto  you ' "  (Clement  of  Aiex- 
ajadria,  Str^mata,  L  21;  Oricatt,  Dw  Oral.  l^belL.  iL;  ef,  Am- 
btam,  £ptM.»  xxzri  3). 

£v  **  Biabilyf  thentfore,  the  Scripture  m  Its  demw  to  make 
OB  eacfa  dialeetiaanVt  cshort«  u$:  '  Be  ye  eklLful  money- 
riwuarffa^'  rejwrting  aiuiie  thin^^  but  retaining  whut  i«  Rood  '* 
CQeeMeEt  of  Al^aodiia*  3bvm.,  L  28).  This  i&  the  mo«t 
faeqweaily  qooted  of  all  tradltionai  iayiQ^.     B^sdi  sirei 


iL  "Let  DB noBtall  iniquity, and  bold  it  b  batied/' (luoted 
a*  tha  vofi^  ef  Christ  by  Bamabaft  {Epitt.,  n*%  In  EpvaLt 
'*  Thiry  trbo  wiah  to  eee  me  and  lay  hold  of  my 
\  neetTe  me  by  aJHIction  and  Bufferiuff." 
7.  ^  Oar  Lord  Jenu  C3uiat  iaid,  '  In  whataoever  I  tnay 
find  you.  in  thii  will  I  also  jud^  you.'  "  Thi»  aaying,  found 
in  Jwntm  Martyr  { Trypho*  xlvii.,  ANF,  L,  p.  210).  iA  u^dbf^d 
by  Ckment  of  AJeitaradrim  {QuU  div€a,  xl.)  to  God;  by  Jo- 
h*^*^**  Oi2£ki^rus  <Seala  paradm.  vii.  L59;  ViSo,  B*  Antann, 
i  15;  Viia  pQirum^  p.  41)  to  the  piiophet  Esekiel  (ef.  Esek, 
^nL  Sp  8;  znlL  We;  xxir.  14;  xxxiiL  20.  with  Fabricins, 
Cod.  Apov.^  L  333),  llieae  i»esage»  in  Exekiel,  however. 
d^  Dot  iDfltify  the  qijot^tionr  and  eome  fipocryp^  gospel 
b  pd-obftbly  the  authority  for  this  MLyine;. 

&  A£0ong  the  aayines  found  in  1903  wad  the  following:: 
[th«  *  Let  not  him  wbo  seelur  .  .  .  ee&se  until  he 
be  fincia  he  ahall  be  astooj^bed;  ajito niched 
tbe  kingdom;  and  harinK  reached  the  king. 
Anotfier.  with  conjectural  refitoration 
of  siMioa  partialis,  ii:  "  Jc4U9  eaitht  *[Yo  a»k.  who  axe 
iboae]  that  dzmw  m  [to  tbe  kiogdom*  if]  tbe  kinedom  Ia  m 
bCftTVkT  .  -  .  The  ttrwU  of  tbe  air,  and  all  beiuata  that  lue 
■nder  the  e«rth  or  tipoti  tbe  earth,  and  the  B&heji  of  the  nea 
{tluMB  are  they  which  draw)  you.  and  the  kingdom  of  heaven 
is  withiii  ytTu;  and  whoever  «hall  know  himaelf  flhnll  find 
it.  ptnffv  tbet«lor«]  to  know  youreelv^,  aud  y«  ehaJl  be 
aw«  that  jne  an  tbe  sooa  of  the  [almightyl  Father:  [and] 
yv  dun  know  that  ye  are  in  [the  dty  of  Godhand  ye  are  [tlie 
^VFl'*  B.  Pick. 

CaUectioDs  of  acmpba  An;  found  in  J.  FT. 
Oxford.  1608:  J.  A,  Fjibriciufl.  Coda 
Son  Tetiamenti,  Hamburg,  1703;  R.  HolT- 
Dat  Littn  Jen  nach  den  Apocruphtn.  Leipj^ic, 
1861;  B.  F.  Westoott,  introduction  to  the  ^udy  of  the 
Go9p€iM,  London.  ISGO;  BchafT,  ChrUiian  Churrh,  L  162- 
167:  A-  Eeeeh,  A^ipha,  in  TV,  v.  4.  IS&l;  J.  H. 
Hopefv  in  TV,  st.  2,  1896;  E.  Nestle*  tNovi  Tetta- 
menA  Orwd  SMppiinmmiwm»  pp.  89-42,  LeipMC.  1S90; 
6.  Pick.  Tk4  Agmpka :  or,  VnrtcordM  Sajfinga  of 
Jrtut  Ckriii,  in  TAe  Opm  Ccvrt^  «.  (1897)  525-541;  idem, 
TA*  Erira^anpniart  Uf*  of  Chrul,  pp.  260-.312,  New 
Yorkt  1903  (inHudin^  a  list  of  artiolee  on  tbe  Oscyrhyn- 
chil3  Lo«ia  publiKhed  in  189T>:  C.  Taylor,  Tft*  OrvrAynrATi* 
Loffia  end  Ae  Apoerypktd  Gatprlt.  London.  1899;  E.  Pr^u- 
«cbea.  Antiltgomfna,  pp.  43-47.  GiesKn.  1901^  7'Ae  Ntw 
Sa^nfft  d/  Jen**,  and  Frcupneni  of  a  LoH  Gowpet  were  pnb- 
tirfied  by  B.  P,  Grenfell  and  A.  S.  Hunt.  Oxford  snd  x\ew 
York.  1904,  reviewed  in  Bihtual  WorU.  xxiv.  {1904)  Sfil, 
in  Saturday  Bein*ir.  xeviii.  IIWM)  133,  and  CAu^tA  Quur- 
tcnfjf.  Iviij.  U9(>4>  422,  For  eayingn  of  Jpsus  in  Moham- 
medan wrttetB  «ofuFUli  D.  8.  MariioliDUth,  in  TAe  Exppinr^ 
taey  Timn,  r.  (1803)  £9.  107.  177;  W  Lock,  in  Ths  Ex- 
pofOerr,  4th  series.  iiL  (1894)  97-99;  and  for  myings  of 
Jesu3  in  the  Talmud  consult  Pickr  ut  sup. 

AGREDA,  MARIA  DE,     See  M^-tRi-Jt  de  Aoreda. 

AGRICOLA:  PelagiaD  writer;  under  the  date 
429  in  his  Ckrontc^n,  Prtjsper  of  Aquitaine  men- 
tions  a  British  theologian  of  thia  name,  tbe  son  of 
Severianus,  a  Pelagian  bishop,  saying  that  he  cor* 
rupted  the  ehtinches  of  Bntain  by  hie  teaching,  until 
Pope  C^lestine  sent  German  ue,  Biehop  of  Auxerre 
(q,v.},  to  undo  the  tniechief  and  bnng  baek  the 


91 


REUGIOrS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Britou  to  iht  COibofie  futh  (ef.  Bede.  HuL  «ecL« 
L  17).  Ch^Mii  hm  primed  fif«  mwignwl  letten 
and  a  tnct  on  ricboB  vinch  are  <Ahm»m|5  aD  bj 
.tbe  Mine  Pelagian  antbor,  and  has  ttown  it  to  be 
probable  tlttt  tbk  k  A^noola.  From  tbem  h  k 
learned  tlttt  tbe  antbor  on  bk  wmj  to  tbe  East  to 
leam  tbe  true  aeoetie  life,  beaid  tbe  Pelagki 
tearbing  from  a  Raman  lad;-  in  Skily,  and 
a  aealous  pwacbei  of  it.  Tbe  Tabie  of  tbeae  wri- 
tingB  bee  in  tbe  gliintip  vbicb  tbej  gjrre  of  tbe 
etbical  ride  of  P^iagknkm  (A.  Hauck.) 


AlSRIOOLA,  JOHAni:  An  aBBodate  of  Lotber. 
and  tbe  origiiiator  of  tbe  antinomian  eontxorcny 
of  tbe  Gcnnan  Rcfonnatko;  b.  at  FMeben  Apr. 
20,  1494  (aeeording  to  hk  own  account;  otbers 
give  1492  or  1496);  d.  at  Bcriin  Sept.  22,  1566. 
Hk  real  name  was  Sdmeider,  first  Ijitiniifd  into 
"  Sartor,"  thai,  from  a  oomiptkn  of  ^  Schneider 
(Snider)  "  to  "  Schnitter/'  into  "  Agrioola."  He 
entered  the  University  of  Lopsic  in  the  winter  of 
1509-10,  with  the  intention  of  studying  medicine, 
but  Luther  attracted  him  to  theology.  After 
taking  hk  bachelor's  degree,  be  went,  in  the  winter 
of  1515-16,  to  Wittenberg,  where  he  came  wholly 
under  Luther's  influence.  He  witnessed  the  famous 
promulgation  of  tbe  theses;  and  at  the  Lapsk 
diqmtation  (1519)  he  acted  as  Luther's  secre- 
tary. He  soon  became  friendly  with  Mdanchthon 
also,  and  an  influential  member  of  the  little 
group  of  Wittenberg  theologkns.  A  modest  in- 
come was  provided  for  him  by  the  position  of 
teacher  of  grammar  and  tbe  Latin  classics  in  the 
Fedagogium;  and  before  long  he  lectured  on 
dialectics  and  rhetoric,  and  later  on  tbe  New 
Testament. 

On  the  outbreak  of  the  Peasants'  War  (1525), 
Agrioola  accompanied  Luther  to  the  Harti  Moun- 
tains, and  gained  from  Oount  Albert  of 
Schoolman-  Mansf dd  ^  nomination  as  head  of  the 
ter  in      Latin  school  to  be  opened  at  Elisleben. 

Ekleben.  Thk  work,  after  a  visit  to  Frankfort, 
as  Luther's  deputy,  to  help  settle  the 
ecclesiastical  affairs  of  that  place,  he  took  up  in 
Aug.,  1525;  and  two  catechetical  books  grew  out  of 
it,^  the  second  of  which  (1528)  already  exhibits  the 
opporition  between  the  Law  and  the  Gospd  which 
was  to  develop  into  hk  antinomian  convictions. 
A  commentary  on  the  Epistle  to  Titus  (1530)  and 
a  translation  of  Terence's  Andria,  with  notes  (1544), 
are  doubtless  other  results  of  hk  school  work.  At 
Ekleben  also  he  began  hk  three  collections  of  Ger- 
man proverbs,  with  explanations,  which  have  ever 
since  been  popular.  Certain  critical  remarks  about 
Ulrich  of  WQrttemberg  in  the  first  of  these  collec- 
tions involved  Agricola  in  difficulties  both  with 
Ulrich  and  with  hk  protector,  Philip  of  Hesse, 
whkh  were  ended  only  by  two  successive  apologies, 
prevented  Luther  from  taking  him  to  the  Biarburg 
conference,  and  influenced  hk  bearing  in  the  Schmal- 
kald  strug^.  He  had  opportunities  of  preaching 
at  St.  Nicholas's  church  in  Eisleben,  and  acquired 
the  reputation  of  being  one  of  the  strongest  pulpit 


of  tbe  Witteriberg  <«k.  m  Ibal  be 
to  attend  tbe  DiM  of  S^xgrar  in  1S36 
and  1529  and  preach  before  tbe  eoori.  At  tbk 
period  also  be  made  himself  oaef ul  as  a  trans- 
faom    tbe   Latin,  rendering   among    other 

icbtbon'a  eonunentaiy  on  aereral  I^aul> 
ine  epistles. 

Hk  relations  witb  Mebnebtbon  wvve  aeriovnty 
distmbed  in  1526.    Soon  after  hk  departure  from 

Wittenberg  a  new  tbeologKal  piofcii- 
Contra-  aorahip  was  founded  tbere,  on  wbkb« 
vuika.     witb    Melancbtbon^a    encouragements 

be  set  hk  heart.  When  it  was 
confened  on  tbe  latter,  Agricola^  vanity  recemd 
a  wound  whidi  put  an  end  to  tbe  cordiality  of  tbeir 
friendship;  and  it  k  eacy  to  understand  wby  be 
began  the  antinomian  controversy  in  1537  witb  an 
attack,  not  on  Luther,  but  on  Meluicbtbon.  Lutber* 
however,  whose  r4ationn  witb  Agricola  w«re  still 
friend^,  succeeded  in  effecting  an  apparent  agree- 
ment. Agricola  now  fdl  out  witb  Albert  of  Mana- 
fdd.  Differences  arose  over  tbe  measures  to 
be  taken  for  defense  against  tbe  emperor  and  witb 
regard  to  tbe  treatment  of  matrimonial  questions; 
aiftd  in  1536  Agricola  was  treating  witb  Lutber  to 
secure  a  recall  to  Wittenberg.  The  Sector  prom- 
ised him  a  speedy  appointment  to  a  uxdrerBty 
position,  and  meantime  invited  him  to  come  to 
Wittenberg  to  give  hk  counsd  on  tbe  question  of 
the  SrhmiJkald  articles.  Agricola  removed  tbitber 
at  Christmas,  1536.  Albnt,  aimoyed  at  the  manner 
of  hk  departure  from  ELdeben,  accused  him  to  tbe 
Wittenberg  group  as  tbe  founder  of  a  new  sect 
antagonistk  to  Luther,  and  to  tbe  Sector  as  a 
turbulent  fellow  of  tbe  MOnier  type.  Lutber  stood 
by  him,  however,  and  even  gave  him  and  hk  family 
shdter  in  hk  own  house;  ami  when  Lutber  went  to 
Schmalkald  in  1537,  .Agricola  took  hk  place  both 
at  the  university  and  in  the  pulpit.  Expresriona 
used  in  some  of  hk  sermons,  and  tbe  rumor  that 
he  was  privatdy  circulating  antinomian  theses 
containing  attacks  on  Luther  and  Melancbtbon, 
made  him  an  object  of  suspicion.  Hk  antinomian 
disputes  with  Luther  bimsdf  began;  and  after  each 
i^paroit  settlement  they  broke  out  with  fresh 
violence  (for  detaik  of  the  controversies  see  Aim- 
NOMiANiBii,  Antinomian  OoNTROVKRsm,  II.).  He 
found  employment  in  the  newly  founded  Witten- 
berg consistory  until  Feb.,  1539,  when  he  formally 
accused  Luther  before  the  elector,  who  practically 
put  him  under  arrest.  Before  the  mattw  was 
settled  he  escaped  to  Berlin  (Aug.,  1540).  At  Me- 
lanchthon's  suggestion  and  through  Bugenhagen's 
mediation,  he  was  allowed  to  retract  hk  accusation 
and  to  return  to  Saxony.  Oordial  rdations  be- 
tween the  two  men  could,  however,  no  longer 
exist:  Luther  never  trusted  Agricola  again;  and 
the  latter,  on  hk  side,  hdd  that  he  remained  true  to 
the  original  cause,  from  which  Luther  had  fallen 
away. 

Joachim  II.  of  Brandenburg  gave  Agrioola  a 
position  as  court  preacher,  and  took  him  to  the 
Oonferenceof  Regensburg  (1541),  the  interim  drawn 
up  at  which  he  considered  a  useful  basis  of  unity. 
He  followed  hk  prince  in  the  inglorious  campaign 
against  the  Turics  in  1542,  and  gained  more  and 


ikffrloola 
Affrloultore 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


98 


more  influence  over  him,  in  spite  of  the  efforts  of 
Joachim's  mother.  He  became  general  superin- 
tendent and  visitor  of  Brandenburg, 
Later  Life,  administering  confirmation  and  ordi- 
nation, though  he  himself  had  never 
received  any  kind  of  ordination.  When  the 
Schmalkald  League  took  up  arms  against  the  em- 
peror, Agricola  attacked  them  in  his  sermons  as 
disturbers  of  the  peace,  and  gave  thanks  for  the 
emperor's  victory  at  Miihlberg,  utterly  failing  to  see 
the  danger  to  the  evangelical  cause.  It  flattered 
his  vanity  when  he  was  chosen  as  the  Protestant 
theologian  on  the  commission  appointed  at  the 
Diet  of  Augsburg  (1547-48)  to  draw  up  an  interim; 
and  he  had  the  thankless  task  of  endeavoring  to 
persuade  his  fellow  Protestants  to  accept  it.  The 
more  strongly  and  increasingly  they  rejected  it, 
the  more  animosity  was  concentrated  on  Agricola, 
who  attempted  to  vindicate  his  Lutheran  standing 
by  the  part  which  he  took  in  the  controversy  with 
Osiander  (q.v.);  and  the  conmion  cause  brought 
him  once  more  closer  to  Melanchthon.  It  fell  to 
him  to  give  judgment  between  Stancaro  and  An- 
dreas Musculus  (q.v.);  and  he  pronounced  in  favor 
of  the  latter.  The  controversy  on  the  necessity 
of  good  works  raged  for  years  in  Brandenburg, 
and  Agricola  stoutly  opposed  the  Philippists. 
For  a  while  they  seemed  to  prevail  with  Joachim, 
but  the  court  swung  round  again  to  Agricola's  side; 
and  in  1563  he  was  able  to  hold  a  thanksgiving 
service  in  Berlin  for  the  final  victory  over  his  op- 
ponents— a  victory  for  strict  Lutheranism  won 
mainly  by  the  man  whom  Luther  had  despised. 
He  died  three  years  later,  during  an  epidemic  of 
the  plague.  He  was  undoubtedly  a  gifted  man, 
though  his  rightful  development  was  hindered  by 
his  vanity,  which  brought  about  the  breach  with 
Luther,  and  by  the  temptations  of  court  life,  which, 
as  he  himself  recognized  when  too  late,  he  had  not 
sufficient  strength  of  mind  to  resist. 

(G.  Kawbrau.) 
Biblioorapht:  Q.  Kawerau,  Johann  Agricola  von  EiaUbent 
Berlin.  1881. 

AGRICOLA,  STEPHAN  (originally  Castenpauer): 
A  follower  of  Luther;  b.  in  Abensberg  (18  m.  s.w. 
of  Regensburg),  Bavaria;  d.  at  Eisleben  Easter, 
1547.  He  studied  at  Vienna,  joined  the  Augustinians, 
gained  fame  as  a  preacher  and  teacher,  and  was 
promoted  doctor  of  theology  in  1519.  Imitating 
St.  Augustine,  he  preached  on  entire  books  of  the 
Bible  in  Vienna  in  1515,  as  lector  in  the  Augus- 
tinian  monastery  at  Regensburg  in  1519-20,  and  in 
other  places.  His  sermons  brought  him  under 
suspicion.  He  was  accused  of  preaching  heretical, 
inflammatory,  and  offensive  dogmas;  of  having 
recommended  Luther's  writings  on  the  Babylonian 
captivity  and  on  the  abolition  of  the  mass;  of 
having  spoken  offensively  of  the  Roman  see,  bishops, 
and  clergy;  and  of  having  demanded  the  abolition 
of  all  ceremonies.  He  was  imprisoned  in  1522; 
thirty-three  charges  were  made  against  him;  and 
his  answer,  denying  dependence  upon  Luther  and 
making  appeal  to  Augustine  and  the  Scriptures, 
was  of  no  avail.  He  prepared  for  death,  and  wrote 
Ein  kdstlicher  gutter  notxvendiger  Sermon  vom  Sterben 
(1523),  which  his  friend  Wolfgang  Russ  published. 


He  escaped,  however,  found  a  home  with  the  Car- 
melite Johann  Frosch  of  Augsburg  in  1523,  and 
preached  there  from  time  to  time.  Not  long  after 
1523  he  published  under  the  name  of  "  Agricola 
Boius  "  Ein  Bedencken  wie  der  wahrhafftig  Gottes- 
dienst  von  GoU  selbs  gthoten  und  aiLssgesetzt,  mocht 
mU  heaserung  gemeyner  Christenheyt  widerumb  auf- 
gericht  werden,  a  Idnd  of  reformation-programme. 
Protected  by  the  city  council,  he  labored  with 
Rhegius  and  Frosch  for  the  Reformation  in  Augs- 
burg, and  became  pronounced  in  his  adherence  to 
Luther's  views  as  against  Zwingli.  By  translating 
into  German  Bugenhagen's  polemical  treatise 
against  Zwingli's  Contra  novum  errorem  de  sacra- 
mentis  (1525),  he  won  over  the  Augsburg  congrega- 
tion to  the  Lutheran  side.  At  the  invitation  of  the 
landgrave  Philip,  he  took  part  in  the  Marburg 
Colloquy  and  signed  the  articles  agreed  upon.  In 
1531  he  left  Augsburg  as  he  was  opposed  to  Butzcr's 
Zwinglian  tendency  and  went  to  Nuremberg,  where 
he  stayed  with  Wenceslaus  Link.  In  1537  he 
attended  the  Schmalkald  Diet  and  signed  Luther's 
articles.  When  the  Reformation  was  introduced 
into  the  Upper  Palatinate,  he  accepted  a  call  to 
Sulzbach  where  he  preached  the  first  evangelical 
sermon  June  3,  1542.  He  afterward  went  to  Eis- 
leben. (T.  KOLDE.) 

Biblioorapht:  C.  Spangenberg,  Wider  die  bdae  Sieben  in 
TeufeU  KarndffeUjriel,  Eisleben,  1562;  H.  W.  Rotermund. 
OeBchichte  deB  auf  dem  Reich8U^;e  tu  Augtburg  im  Jahre 
1690  .  .  .  Olauben^}ekenrUni»9eBt  Hanover,  1820;  Dat- 
terer,  De»  KardinaU  und  Ertbitckoft  von  Salzburg  Mal- 
th&u9  Lang  Verhalten  nw  Reformation,  Eriangen,  1892. 

AGRICULTURE,  HEBREW :    Palestine  is  praised 

in  the  Old  Testament  as  a  "  land   flowing   with 

milk  and  honey  ";  and,  indeed,  with 

Field  and  little  labor  it  yielded  what  the  in- 
Garden      habitants  needed.    Of  cereals,  wheat 

Products,  was  and  is  the  most  important  product ; 
the  Ammonite  country  appears  to 
have  been  specially  noted  for  it  (II  Chron.  xxvii. 
5).  The  best  wheat  to-day  is  that  of  the  Hauran 
and  Belka,  and  of  the  hi^  table-land  between 
Tabor  and  the  Lake  of  Tiberias.  Much  wheat  was 
raised  by  the  Hebrews  in  the  time  of  Solomon,  and 
then  and  later  it  was  one  of  the  chief  articles  of 
export  (I  Kings  v.  11;  Ezek.  xxvii.  17).  Barley 
was  equally  common  and  in  the  earlier  time  was  the 
chief  material  for  bread  (Judges  vii.  13;  II  Kings 
iv.  42).  With  progress  in  culture  and  the  settled 
life  its  use  was  limited  to  the  poorer  classes  (John 
vi.  9,  13;  Josephus,  War,  V.  x.  2).  To-day  it  is 
used  for  fodder  only;  it  was  also  so  used  in  the 
ancient  time  (I  Kings  iv.  28),  and  its  value  appears 
to  have  been  about  one-half  that  of  wheat  (II  Kings 
vii.  1).  There  is  no  evidence  in  the  Old  Testament 
that  beer  was  made  from  it.  A  third  and  less 
important  cereal  (Heb.  kussemeth;  LXX,  olyra, 
Ex.  ix.  32;  Isa.  xxviii.  25;  Ezek.  iv.  9;  erroneously 
rendered  "  rye "  in  A.  V.)  was  probably  spelt. 
Rye  and  oats  are  not  mentioned.  The  chief  legume- 
bearing  plants  were  beans  (II  Sam.  xvii.  28;  Ezek. 
iv.  9)  and  lentils  (Gen.  xxv.  34;  II  Sam.  xvii.  28, 
xxiii.  11;  Ezek.  iv.  9).  Both  were  ground  into 
meal,  and  were  used  for  bread  in  time  of  scarcity 
(Ezek.  iv.  9).  Leeks,  onions,  and  garlic  were  used 
as  seasoning  and  to  give  relish  to  bread.    Cucum- 


98 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Affrloola 
Asrloultiixe 


ben  and  melons  are  abo  mentioned  as  delicacies 
of  which  the  Israelites  were  deprived  in  the  wilder- 
ness (Num.  xi.  5).  Both  are  particularly  refreshing 
in  hot  countries,  and  the  poor  live  for  months  on 
bread  and  cucumbers  or  melons  alone.  Of  condi- 
ments and  spices  the  Old  Testament  mentions  two 
varieties  of  cumin  (Heb.  kammon,  I^&fofy,  Isa. 
zxviii.  25;  the  former  used  also  as  medicine)  and 
the  coriander  (Ex.  xvi.  31 ;  Num.  xi.  7,  often  men- 
tioned in  the  Talmud).  The  New  Testament  adds: 
dill  (Eng.  versions,  **  anise,"  Matt,  xxiii.  23),  mint 
Qb.;  Luke  xi.  42),  rue  (Luke  xi.  42),  and  mustard 
(Matt.  xiii.  31,  xvii.  20;, Mark  iv.  31;  Luke  xiii. 
19,  xvii.  6).  The  mustaxd-seed  was  proverbial  as 
the  smallest  of  seeds.  The  mustard  plant  grows 
quickly  and  reaches  a  height  of  ten  feet.  To  these 
food-producing  plants  must  be  added  flax  (Josh.  ii. 
6;  Isa.  xix.  9;  Hos.  ii.  5,  9,  and  elsewhere)  and 
cotton.  The  former  of  these  is  not  much  cultivated 
to-day;  but  it  was  of  great  importance  to  the 
ancient  Israelites,  as,  together  with  wool,  it  sup- 
plied the  material  for  their  clothing.  In  the  Greco- 
Roman  period  it  was  one  of  the  chief  articles  of 
trade.  The  importance  of  the  flax-cultivation 
can  be  inferred  from  the  statement  of  the  Talmud, 
that  it  was  permissible  to  put  a  flax-bed  imder 
water  on  semi-holy  days  in  order  to  destroy  injuri- 
ous insects  (Mo*ed  J^atan  i.  6).  linen-manufacture 
was  carried  on  especially  in  Galilee.  How  early 
the  cotton-plant  was  introduced  into  Palestine  is 
not  known.  The  Hebrew  terms  sheah  and  bit^ 
do  not  necessarily  mean  linen,  but  include  cotton 
doth,  or  a  mixed  material  like  the  Greek  byssoa. 
The  foreign  word  karpaa  (Gk.  karpaaos)  is  used  for 
cotton  in  Esther  i.  6  and  in  the  Talmud.  In  Greco- 
Roman  times  cotton  was  grown  and  exported  (of. 
Pausanias,  V.  v.  2).  For  wine  and  oil  see  the 
separate  articles. 

Palestine  is  praised  in  Deut.  viii.  7,  xi.  10-11,  as 

a  "  land  of  brooks  of  water,  of  fountains  and  depths 

that  spring  out  of  valleys  and  hiUs," 

Climatic  which  has  no  need  of  artificial  irriga- 
Conditions.  tion  because  it  "  drinketh  water  of 
the  rain  of  heaven."  Compared  with 
the  neighboring  countries,  it  can  not,  indeed,  be 
called  poorly  watered.  In  normal  years  the  natural 
precipitation  suffices  for  a  great  part  of  the  fields. 
Land  thus  natiually  watered  is  called  in  the  Mish- 
nah  "  house  of  the  Baal  "  or  "  field  of  the  house 
of  the  Baal,"  and  the  name  is  kept  to  this  day 
(cf.  Smith,  Rd.  of  Sem.,  p.  97).  But  the  ancient 
Israelites  knew  that  watercourses  and  underground 
water  were  indispensable  (cf.  Ps.  i.;  Deut.  viii.  7; 
Isa.  xxxii.  20;  Ezek.  xvii.  8),  and  that  the  rain 
alone  was  not  always  sufficient;  they  therefore 
appreciated  the  pools  made  by  the  Canaanites  and 
added  to  them  (see  Water  Supply  in  Palestine). 
For  these  favors  of  nature  the  Israelite  ever  felt 
his  immediate  dependence  upon  Yahveh  (cf .  Deut. 
xi.  14;  Jer.  iii.  3,  v.  24;  Joel  ii.  23;  Zech.  x.  1). 
Yahveli's  blessing  shows  itself  in  his  sending  the 
first  rain  and  the  latter  rain  in  due  season;  in 
the  rain  his  mercy  is  seen,  in  the  drought  his 
anger.  Thus  he  proves  himself  indeed  the  Baal  of 
the  land,  who  waters  and  fertilizes  it  (cf .  Smith, 
Lo.). 


The    Israelites    learned    agriculture    from    the 
Canaanites.    How  rapidly  they  made   the   tran- 
sition from  the  nomadic  stage  can  not 
Cultiva-     be  determined;  it  seems  to  have  been 
tion.        practically  complete  at  the  beginning 
of  the  regal  period  (cf.  I  Sam.  xi.  5; 
II  Sam.  xiv.  30,  which  indicate  that  hi^  and  low 
were  then  engaged  in  the  cultivation  of  the  soil), 
although  certain  tribes  of  the  south  and  the  East- 
Jordan  country  retained  more  or  less  of  the  nomadic 
character  till  the  Exile.    That  the  religious  obser- 
vances, preeminently  the  great  festivals,  rest  upon 
an  agricultural  basis  is  significant.     Irrigation  was 
not  the  only  artificial  improvement  that  was  neces- 
sary.   The  land  had  to  be  cleared  of  thorns  and 
weeds,  and  stones  had  to  be  removed  (cf.  Isa.  v.  2; 
Matt.  xiii.  3-7),  although  the  fellahs  to-day  often  al- 
low the  stones  to  remain  because  they  help  to  retain 
moisture.    Extensive  terracing  was  indispensable 
to  retain  the  thin  soil  on  the  steep  hillsides.     Manur- 
ing and  burning  were  practised  (Isa.  v.  24,  xxv.  10, 
xlvii.  14;  Joel  ii.  5;  Ob.  18),  but  probably  neither 
extensively  nor  annually.    Dried   dung  is  more 
valuable  to-day  as  fuel,  and  it  was  so  used  in  the 
ancient  time  (Ezek.  iv.  15).    The  usual  method  of 
renewing  the  strength  of  the  soil  was  fallowing 
(Ex.  xxiii.  11,  and  elsewhere).    The  winter  crops 
(wheat,  barley,  lentils,  etc.)  were  sown  as  soon  as  the 
early  rain  had  softened  the  groimd — from  the  end 
of  October  to  the  beginning  of  December.    The 
sowing  of  the  summer  crops  (millet,  vetches,  etc.) 
followed,  and  lasted  (in  the  case  of  cucumbers)  till 
after  the  winter  harvest.    Well-watered  fields  bear 
two  crops.    The  surface  of  the  soil  was  scratched 
by  a  very    primitive  plow,   drawn  by  oxen  or 
cows  (Judges  xiv.  18;  I  Kings  xix.  19;  Job  i.  14; 
Amos  vi.  12),  sometimes  in  light  soils  by  an  ass 
(Deut.  xxii.  10;  Isa.  xxx.  24).    The  furrow  to-day 
is  from  three  to  four  inches  deep.    The  driver's 
goad  (Judges  iii.  31)  served  also  to  break  the  clods. 
According  to  the  usual  assumption,  the  field  which 
a  yoke  of  oxen  (Heb.  s^emedh)  could  plow  in  a  day 
was  the  unit  of  land-measurement,  as  the  present 
unit,  the  fedddn  (22-23  acres),  represents  a  season's 
plowing.     It  is  more  probable,  however,  that  they 
measured  land  by  the  amount  of  seed  sown,  as  is 
done  in  the  Talmud,  and  that  zemedh  is  properly  a 
measure  of  capacity  and  then  designates  a  piece 
of  ground  of  such  size  that  it  required  a  zemedh 
of  seed.    The  surface  was  evened  with  an  imple- 
ment   resembling  a    stone-boat  or  with    a   roller 
(Job  xxxix.    10;  Isa.   xxviii.  24-25;  Hos.  x.   11). 
The    seed    was  sown    by    hand;     wheat,  barley, 
and   spelt   were   often    carefully   laid  in  the  fur- 
row.  In  the   time  of    the    Mishnah,  as   at  pres- 
ent, it  was  plowed  in.     At  present,  seed  is  sown 
rather   thinly.     An    estimate    of    the   amount  of 
land  under  cultivation  in  ancient  times   is   im- 
possible.     Large  tracts    in    Palestine  can   never 
have  been  used  for  anything  but   pasturage;  the 
"  deserts  "  were  extensive,  as  their  frequent  men- 
tion  shows;   and   there   was   more    wooded  land 
than  now  (Josh.  xvii.  15,  18;   II  Kings   ii.  24). 
These  facts  make  it  probable  that  the  extent  of 
cultivated  land  did  not  materially  exceed  that  of 
to-day. 


4^ffTioiiltiiro 
ABab 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


94 


In  the  Jordan  valley  the  barley *harve8t  begins 

from  the  end  of  March  to  the  first  half  of  April; 

in  the  hill-country,  on  the  coast,  and 

Harvest  in  the  highlandi,  from  a  week  to  a 
month  later.  The  cutting  of  the 
barley  opens,  that  of  the  wheat  ctosea^  the  h&rvest 
season.  Altogether  it  lasts  about  seven  weeka 
and  from  of  old  k  has  been  a  time  of  joy  and  fea- 
tivity  (Pa,  iv.  7j  lea.  ix.  3).  The  Feast  of  the  Firat- 
Fruits,  on  which,  according  to  the  Priest  Code^  a 
barley-sheaf  was  offered  (Lev,  xxiii.  9-14),  ushered 
111  this  festive  time;  the  Feast  of  Weeks,  seven 
weeks  after  the  opening  of  the  harvests  when  an 
offering  of  two  wave-loaves  of  the  new  wheat  (Lev. 
TOtm.  17-21)  was  made,  closed  it.  The  grain  was 
cut  with  a  sickle  (Deut.  xvi,  9,  xxiii,  25;  Job  xxiv. 
24;  Jer.  I  16;  Joel  iii.  13).  With  the  left  band 
the  t^eaper  grasped  a  bundle  of  ears  (laa.  ^rvil.  5; 
Ps,  exxix,  7)j  and  with  the  right  he  cut  them  fairly 
dose  to  the  bead.  The  binder  followed,  gathering 
the  cut  p»in  into  his  aims  (Ps,  cxxix,  7)  and  making 
it  into  sheaves  (Gen.  xxxvii.  7;  Lev,  xxiii.  10; 
Deut.  xxiv,  19;  Ruth  ii.  7;  P».  cxxvi.  fi),  which 
were  then  collected  in  stacks  (Judges  xv.  5;  Ruth 
Sii.  7;  Job  V.  26).  The  harvesters  refreshed  them- 
selves during  their  toil  by  eating  parched  com  and 
bread  dipped  in  a  mixture  of  vinegar  and  water 
(Ruth  ii.  14).  According  to  old  custom  and  the 
law,  forgotten  sheaves  and  the  privilege  of  gleaning 
after  the  reapers  belonged  to  the  poor  (Lev.  xix.  9^ 
Mii,  22;  Deut,  xxiv.  19;  Ruth  ii.  2);  the  Priest 
Code  provided  also  that  the  comers  of  the  field 
were  not  to  be  wholly  reaped  (Lev.  3tbc.  9,  xxiii.  22). 
In  like  manner  it  was  permissible  to  pluck  ears  from 
another's  field  to  eat  (Deut,  xxiii,  25;  Matt.  xii.  1). 

The  reaping  was  inunediately  followed  by  the 
thrashing.  Small  quantities  of  grainy  and  dillj 
cinnin,  and  the  like,  were  beaten  out  with  a  flail 
(Judges  vi.  11;  Ruth  ii.  17;  Isa.  xxviii.  27);  but 
in  most  cases  wheat,  barley,  and  spelt  were  taken 
to  the  thrashing-floor,  which,  if  posaiblc,  was  placed 
on  high  ground  so  that  the  wind  might  cArry  off  the 
chaff.  The  kemels  were  trodden  out  by  cattle 
or  were  separated  by  means  of  a  rude  thrashing- 
Bled  or  wagon  (II  Sam.  xxiv.  22;  Isa.  xxviii,  27-28; 
Amos  i.  3).  Both  custom  and  the  law  forbade  the 
muxxling  of  an  ox  in  treading  out  the  grain  (Deut. 
XXV.  4);  and  to-day  it  is  commonly  estimated  that 
an  ox  vriU  consume  from  three  to  four  pecks  of  the 
grain  daily  during  the  thrashing*  Ume.  Winnowing 
was  accomplished,  with  the  help  of  the  wind,  by 
means  of  a  shovel  or  a  wooden  fork  having  two  or 
more  tines  (Isa.  xxx.  24;  Jer.  xv.  7).  The  chaff  is 
now  used  as  fodder;  according  to  Matt.  iii.  12,  it 
seems  in  ancient  time  to  have  been  burned.  The 
grain  was  sifted  (Amos  ix.  9)  and  shoveled  into 
heaps.  It  was  usually  stored  in  cistem-like  pits 
in  the  open  field,  carefully  covered  (Jer.  xli,  8). 
Heal  bams  are  not  mentioned  till  late  times  (Deut, 
xxviii.  8;  II  Chron.  xxxii.  28;  Jer.  L  26;  Joel  I  17), 
In  general,  Palestine  may  be  called  a  fertile  land, 
but  its  productivity  has  been  greatly  overestimated. 
To-day  the  mountain-lands  of  Judea  yield  on  an 
average  from  two-  to  threefold;  the  valleys  of 
Hebron,  with  fertilisation,  from  four-  to  fivefold; 
the  very  fertile  Plain  of  Sharon,  carefully  culti- 


vated by  German  colonists,  eightfold  for  wheat 
and  fifteenfold  for  barley.  There  is  no  reason  to 
believe  that  the  average  return  was  greater  in 
ancient  times. 

Some  of  the  laws  have  already  been  mentioned. 
Of  greater  importance  in  their  effect  upon  agricul- 
ture were  the  laws  aiming  to  prevent 
Laws.  the  alienation  of  landed  property. 
The  ancestral  field  was  sacred  (cf.  I 
Kings  XXI.  3).  This  provision  explains  the  law  of 
Lev.  XXV.  25,  according  to  which,  if  an  impover- 
ished Israelite  had  to  sell  his  field,  his  kinsman  bad 
the  first  right  of  purchase  (cf.  Jer.  xxxii.  6-12). 
The  law  alio  gave  the  original  owner  a  perpetual 
right  of  redemption,  and  restored  the  field  to  liitn 
in  the  year  of  jubilee  without  compemaation  to  the 
purcha^r;  a  city  house  could  be  redeemed  only 
within  A  year,  and  did  not  return  in  the  year  of 
jubilee  (Lev.  xxv.  27-34).  The  underlying  thought 
here  is  that  the  land  is  not  the  private  property  of 
the  Israelites,  but  belongs  to  God,  and  the  Israel- 
ites  have  only  the  right  of  use.  It  may  be  ques- 
tioned how  far  such  laws  were  carried  out;  they 
are  closely  connected  with  the  yeiir  of  jubilee  (see 
below).  The  same  desire  to  preserve  family  pos- 
seaaionji  shows  itself  in  the  law  of  inheritance.  In 
ancient  time  daughters  did  not  inherit;  if  there 
were  no  sons,  property  passed  to  the  nearest  rela- 
tive of  the  father,  with  the  obligation  to  marry  the 
widow  (cf.  the  Book  of  Ruth).  The  Priest  Code 
allows  daughters  to  inherit  when  there  are  no  sons, 
but  they  must  marry  i^ithin  the  family  or,  at  least, 
within  the  tribe  of  the  father  (Num.  xxxvi.).  Still 
more  important  in  its  effect  upon  agriculture  was 
the  development  of  the  Sabbath  idea.  It  was  an 
old  custom  and  a  law  of  the  Book  of  the  CJovenant 
that  every  field  should  lie  fallow  one  year  in  seven 
(Ex.  xxiii.  10-11).  The  custom  fell  into  disuse  and 
Deuteronomy  knows  nothing  of  it.  But  the  Priest 
Code  revived  it,  imposed  it  upon  the  entire  land  at 
the  same  year  (cf,  Josephus,  Ant.^  XII.  ix.  5),  and 
added  the  theoretic  and  impracticable  year  of  jubilee 
(see  Sabbatical  Year  anv  Year  of  Jubilee). 
Lastly,  laws  arising  from  ideas  of  ceremonial  im* 
purity  must  be  mentioned,  such  as  the  prohibition 
of  sowing  unclean  seed  (Lev.  xi.  37-38),  of  plowing 
with  an  ox  and  an  ass  together,  and  of  sowing 
different  kinds  of  seed  in  one  field  (Lev.  xix*  19; 
Deut,  xxii,  9-10).  Of  the  age  of  theec  customs 
nothing  is  known.  The  Mishnah  developed  and 
added  to  these  laws  with  great  detail. 

I,  Beptzinoer. 

BivLioamAFnr:  J.  L.  8**i«chflti»  Bot  ?no«AurrA«  Rrch£.  B*r- 
lio.,  18^:  E.  Hobiiuoti,  Phy^uxd  Gfoffraphy  of  the  Holy 
Laful,  Boeton.  1865;  J,  G.  Wett^ttin.  in  F.  BeUtEach. 
Commtniat  tu  Jt^i&,  pp.  38»-6f9,  705-711,  2d  ed.,  Letp- 
BQ*  1S60  {im^ts  of  wiaQowim;;  neither  in  Loat  fd.  nor  in 
Eilg.  tmnHi.):  IdeEQ^  Die  §yriache  DreadUafel,  in  Z^HKhrift 
/Or  EUitud&ffii,  V.  (1873)  270-^02:  F.  Hamilton,  La  Bo- 
tarwjt^  d€  la  BibU,  Nice.  1871;  H.  B,  TriJitmm,  Nahirai 
HUtoty  of  the  Bihl*^  Ijondon,  1S73:  idem.  Tht  Fauna  arvt 
Fkfra  of  Pakttint,  in  Survey  of  W^Mtern  FnUHim,  lb.  1SS4 
(Mth&rit&Uve);  J.  8mJib.  fiiWa  PtantM.  ^mr  HiMar]/  ami 
ld*niifuaiion,  ib.  JS7S;  C.  J.  Ton  Klin«grfiff,  PalAttina 
tfifd  atint  Vtffeiotion,  in  OwJlerfvurAticA*  botaniKhe  Z«t 
Khnft.  ixi..  Vipnnm,  IggO;  W,  M,  Thomson.  Th^  iMnd 
and  th^  Book,  2  vol*..  New  Yofk,  1880-^82;  I.  L6w.  Ara- 
mJiUche  P/latiimnaimn,  Leipsic,  1881;  E.  BotHaipr^  Fim^a 
mi*fUaliM,  Oenevm,  1884;  J.  H.  Bfcifour.  Th*  Planti  of  th^ 
3ibU»  Londoa.  1SS5;    Q.  Andertind.  Ackerbau  und  Tier- 


95 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Asiioiiltiixe 


radU  tn  Syrifff^  intbmon^n  in  PalAtHna,  in  ZDPV,  ix. 
(1886)  1-73;  B.  SchumMher.  Der  anh%sek$  Pfluo,  ib.  ir. 
(1881)  70-84.  ix.  (1886)  1-73.  xiL  (1880)  157-166;  A.  E. 
Km^t,  Gliam'fitft  from  BibU  Land*  .  .  .  OecupaHon*  of 
Arir  InkMiantM,  London,  1801;  V.  Behn,KuUwrpflanMen 
tmrf  HauaHw,  Berlin.  1804;  H.  Vogelaftin,  Die  Land- 
wirimAaft  m  PoUkatina  sur  Zmt  der  Miaehna,  ib.  1804;  H. 
C  Trumbull.  Siudiee  in  Oriental  Social  Life,  Philadelphia. 
1804;  X>B.  i  48-61;  BB,  I  76-80;  JB,  i.  262-270;  £. 
Day.  Social  Life  of  the  Hebretae,  New  York.  1001 
(a  useful  book,  baaed  laisely  on  a  study  of  the  book  of 
JudffM).  Consult  also  the  works  on  antiquities  and 
areheology  by  De  Wotte-R&biger.  Leipsio.  1864;  H. 
Ewald.  Gdttincen.  1866,  En«.  transl..  London.  1876;  C.  F. 
Keil.  Frankfort.  1875;  Schegg-WirthmOller.  Freiburg. 
1887;  I.  Bensinger.  ib.  1804;  W.  Nowack.  ib.  1804;  and 
PBFt  Quarterly  Reporter  particularly  the  earlier  numbers. 

A6RIPPA  L  AND  IL,  kings  of  Judea.  See 
Hkbod  and  bib  Familt. 

AGRIPPA  CASTOR:  Christian  author  who  lived 
in  the  time  of  Hadrian,  and  was  perhaps  an  Egyp- 
tian. Eusebius  (HiaL  eecL,  iv.  7)  speaks  of  him 
very  highly.  He  wrote  a  refutation  of  the  Gnostic 
Barilides,  which,  according  to  Eusebius,  showed 
independent  knowledge  of  the  latter's  teaching. 

G.  KrCoer. 
BnuooaArar:   MPO,  Ti;    M.  J.  Routh,  Reliquia  eaera, 

i:  85-00.  Oxford.  1846. 

AGRIPPA  VON  NETTESHEIM,  nef'tes^hoim', 
HEniRICH  CORlfELIUS:  Scholar  and  adven- 
turer; b.  at  Cologne,  of  noble  family,  Sept.  14, 1486; 
d.  at  Grenoble  1535.  He  studied  at  Cologne  and 
Paris,  and  took  part  in  some  obscure  enterprise  in 
Spain  (1507-^);  lectured  at  the  University  of  D61e, 
in  Franche-Comt^,  on  Reuchlin's  De  verbo  mirifico 
(1509),  and  aroused  the  opposition  of  certain  monks; 
was  sent  to  England  on  a  political  mission  by  the 
emperor  (1510);  returned  to  Cologne  and  lectured 
on  qucBstiones  quodlibetales ;  served  in  the  imperial 
army  in  Italy  from  1511  to  1518,  and  during  the 
same  period  went  to  the  Council  of  Pisa  as  a  theo- 
logian (1511),  and  lectured  on  medicine,  jurispru- 
dence, and  Hermes  Trismegistus  in  Pavia  and  Turin. 
He  was  appointed  syndic  at  Metz  in  1518,  but  had 
to  flee  from  the  Inquisition  two  years  later.  He 
entered  the  service  of  the  Duke  of  Savoy,  practised 
medicine  at  Freiburg  (1523);  became  physician  to 
the  queen  mother  of  France,  but  was  expelled  and 
fled  to  the  Netherlands  (1529);  was  appointed  his- 
toriographer to  Charles  V.  and  lived  for  some  years 
under  the  protection  of  Archbishop  Hermann  of 
Cologne,  but  finally  retm-ned  to  France,  where  he 
died.  C>f  his  two  most  celebrated  works,  the  De 
ocadta  philoeophia  (written  1509-10;  first  printed, 
book  i.,  Antwerp,  1531;  books  i.-iii.,  Cologne, 
1533)  is  a  compilation  from  the  Neoplatonists  and 
the  Cabala  and  gives  a  plan  of  the  world  with  an 
exposition  of  the  '*  hidden  powers "  which  the 
learning  of  the  time  thought  it  necessary  to  assume 
for  the  explanation  of  things;  the  other,  De  incertUu- 
dine  et  vanitate  scierUiarum  et  artium  (written  1526; 
printed  1527),  is  a  compilation  from  the  Humanists 
and  Reformers,  and  gives  a  skeptical  criticism  not 
only  of  all  sciences,  but  of  life  itself.  A  collected 
edition  of  Agrippa's  works  was  published  at  Lyons 
in  1600. 
BzauoomAPHT:  H.  Morley,  The  Life  of  Henru    Corneliue 

Agrippa  von  Netteeheim,  2  vols.,  London.  1856. 

AGUIRRE,a-g!r're,  JOSEPH  SAElfZ,sanz,  DE: 
Spanish  cardinal;  b.  at  Logrofio  (60  m.  e.  of  Bur- 


gos), Spain,  Mar.  24, 1630;  d.  in  Rome  Aug.  16,  1699. 
At  an  early  age  he  entered  the  Benedictine  order, 
and  became  abbot  of  St.  Vincent  at  Salamanca, 
and  in  1666  professor  of  theology  in  the  university 
there;  he  was  also  a  consultor  of  the  Spanish  Inqui- 
sition, and  ultimately  superior-general  of  the 
Spanish  congregation  of  his  order.  In  1686  Inno- 
cent XI.  made  him  cardinal  as  a  reward  for  uphold- 
ing the  papal  authority  against  Gallicanism  in  his 
Defeneio  cathedra  S,  Petri  adversus  dedarationem 
deri  GaUicani  annt  16S2  (Salamanca,  1683).  The 
most  important  of  his  numerous  theological  and 
philosophic  writings  are  his  CoUectio  maxima 
conciliorum  omnium  Hiepanice  et  novi  orbie  (4  vols., 
Rome,  1693;  new  ed.by  C!atalani,  6  vols.,  1753)  and 
his  unfinished  Theologia  S,  Aneelmi  (3  vols.,  1679- 
85;  2d  ed.,   1688-90).  (A.  Hauck.) 

Biblioorapht:  H.  Hurter.  NomenekUor  lUeraritu  recentiorie 
theologia  eatholica,  ii.  521-552.  Innsbruck,  1893. 

AGUR.    See  Proverbs. 

AHABy  d'hab:  Seventh  king  of  Israel;  son  and 
successor  of  Omri.  His  dates  are  variously  given — 
918-^97  B.C.,  according  to  the  older  chronology; 
87S-857,  Kampl^ausen;  875-853,  Duncker;  874- 
854,  Honmiel;  d.  about  851,  Wellhausen.  His 
history  in  I  Kings  xvi.  28-xxii.  40,  is  based  upon 
two  main  sources,  from  which  long  extracts  are 
given;  the  one,  which  furnished  the  account  of  the 
wars  with  the  Arameans  (ch.  xx.  and  xxii.),  may 
be  described  as  a  popular  history  of  the  kings  of  the 
northern  realm  and  their  wars;  the  other,  from 
which  the  Elijah  narratives  are  taken,  evidently 
originated  in  prophetic  circles.  Both  were  Of  the 
ninth  century  and  of  Ephraimitic  origin.  The 
Monolith  Inscription  of  Shalmanescr  II.  of  As- 
83rria  (see  Assyria,  VI.,  §  8)  states  that  in  the  army 
defeated  by  Shalmaneser  at  Karkar  (854  B.C.)  were 
10,000  men  and  2,000  chariots  furnished  by  Akhab- 
bu  Sir'laaif  by  whom  in  all  probability  Ahab  of 
Israel  is  meant  (for  another  view,  cf.  Kittel,  233- 
234;  Kamphausen,  43,  note).  The  Moabite  Stone 
(q.v.)  also  states  that  the  subjection  of  Moab  to 
Israel,  established  by  Omri,  lasted  for  "  half  of  his 
son's  days."  Ahab's  reign  was  a  time  of  pros- 
perity. The  long  war  with  Judah  was  ended,  and 
Ahab's  daughter  Athaliah  was  married  to  Jehoram, 
Jehoshaphat's  son.  A  marriage  alliance  was  also 
made  with  the  Phenicians,  Ahab  taking  to  wife 
Jezebel,  daughter  of  Ethbaal  of  Tyre.  The  Moab- 
ites  remained  subject  to  Israel  and  paid  a  con- 
siderable tribute  (II  Kings  iii.  4).  Jericho  was 
rebuilt,  and  other  cities  were  fortified  or  built. 
Ahab  erected  a  palace  at  Jezreel  (probably  the 
"  ivory  house  "  of  I  Kings  xxii.  39).  In  later  years 
he  had  to  fight  with  the  Arameans  of  Damascus, 
who  laid  siege  to  Samaria,  but  were  defeated  and 
driven  off.  In  the  following  year  both  armies  met 
at  Aphek  in  the  plain  of  Jezreel,  and  Ben-hadad, 
the  Syrian  king,  was  captured  and  magnanimously 
treated  by  Ahab;  with  the  promise  to  give  up  the 
conquests  of  his  father  and  to  allow  Ahab's  mei^ 
chants  to  have  bazaars  in  Damascus,  he  was  set  free. 
After  three  years  Ahab  undertook  a  new  war 
against  Damascus  to  capture  Ramoth-gilead,  which 
probably  was  to  have  been  delivered  to  Israel  after 
the  covenant  at  Aphek.    This  time  he  had  the  help 


Ahab 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


96 


of  Jeboabaphat  of  Judah,  whose  soti  may  have 
married  Ahab ■  a  daughter  at  this  time.  The  battle 
waa  loat  and  Ahab  was  mortally  wouDded. 

Ahab's  reign  is  of  great  importance  in  the  relig- 
ioug  development  of  Lsrael,  and  is  marked  by  a 
bitter  contest  between  the  throne  and  the  proph- 
ets. That  Ahab  had  no  intention  of  apostatizing 
from  Yahweh,  the  god  of  his  people,  is  shown  by 
the  namee  he  gave  his  children;  but  to  rule  nght-^ 
eously,  according  to  the  conception  of  the  pix)pheta, 
did  not  suit  his  policy.  He  tolerated  the  calf- 
worship  instituted  by  Jeroboam  (I  Kings  xii*  26-- 
33)^  and,  influenced  by  hia  Phenician  wife,  intro- 
duced into  Samaria  the  worship  of  the  Syrian  Baal 
(Melkarth),  for  whom  he  built  in  his  capital  a  great 
temple  with  all  the  neceasary  paraphernalia.  No 
doubt  certain  circles  in  Israel  were  shocked  by  this 
heathen  worship;  but  the  great  majority  saw  in  it 
no  incon^atency  with  the  Mosaic  religion.  It  fell 
to  Elijah  to  rebuke  the  people  for  **  halting  between 
two  opinions  **;  but  his  voice,  like  that  of  other 
prophets  who  protested,  had  little  effect.  Jezebel 
tried  to  silence  them  by  bloody  persecutions;  and 
Mijah  complained  that  he  was  the  only  prophet 
of  Yahweh  left.  It  must  not  be  imaged,  however, 
that  ail  so-called  prophets  of  Yahveh  had  been 
killed;  for  Ahab^  who  still  regarded  himself  as  a 
worshiper  of  Yahweh,  would  hardly  have  per- 
mitted such  an  act.  Those  who  did  not  oppose  the 
worship  of  Baal  were  doubtless  left  alone;  but  in 
the  eyes  of  Elijah  they  were  not  much  better  than 
the  prophets  of  Baal.  After  the  event  on  Mount 
Carmel  (I  Kings  xviii.)  Jezebel  saw  the  futility  of 
trying  to  suppress  the  opposition  to  the  worehip 
of  Baal,  and  the  prophets  who  had  kept  in 
hiding  could  come  and  go  freely.  Ahab  and 
his  wife  were  also  denounced  by  Elijah  for  the 
crime  committed  against  Naboth  and  his  family, 
which  led  to  signs  of  contrition  on  the  king's 
part  and  to  a  postponement  to  his  son's  days 
of  the  threatened  retribution  (I  Kings  xxi.;  ef. 
1 1  Kings  ix .  2 1  -26 ) .  Ahab 's  charac  ter  and  achieve- 
ments are  differently  estimated.  He  was  un- 
doubtedly an  abb  naan^  and  desired  to  promote 
the  welfare  of  his  people;  he  was  a  brave  warrior, 
and  died  manfully.  But  in  the  estimation  of  many 
these  virtues  are  outweighed  by  his  weakne&a 
toward  Jezebel,  his  short-sighted  optimism  after 
the  victoiy  at  Aphek,  and  his  lack  of  deep  religious 
conviction  and  eameetnefla,  (W,  Loxz.) 

Bibuoobapht:  On  tho  eh^noldgy:  A.  Kamphatieen,  CArcN 
nologie  der  hebrHischen  Ki^nige,  Bonn.  18S3:  Chron^l- 
ffffU  Qf  the  Kiriff9  of  ImtwbI  and  Judah  comparerf  wUh  th€ 
M&numcnfM^  in  Church  Quarterly  Revietfft  J&n.,  lEM;  E. 
Mahler,  B^ifcke  Chr^nalogie  und  Zeitrtchnunff  der  Heb- 
ra«r,  Vieiixm,  J887;  Z?B.  i,  397^03:  EB,  I  773-Bm  and 
BActiDTia  OQ  chronoloey  in  the  folio win^  niLmed  works. 
On  the  hiftt^jry;  H,  Ewald*  GmchkhU  dcM  FoWr**  Ivraet,  7 
TOl«.,  G5CCingen,  1S&4-G8  (Eng.  tnuial.,  S  Valp.,  London, 
1807^83):  M.  DuDckcr,  Ge*chichiedc*  AlterthumM,  ii.,  Lnip- 
1.0,  1878;  B.  etude,  Getehichte  des  VotMe9  Iwm^,  2  Vol*., 
Berlin  t  1884^0;  E.  Ren&n,  Hitimn  du  peupU  Itrti0l,  5 
TOK.  Pftrifl,  1887-114.  Eo«.  tranal.,  London,  laSS-fll: 
K.  Kittel,  Ot^ehichia  drr  HtbrOer,  2  VoLh,,  Oothft,  1S8S- 
92.  Eng.  Irannl.,  2  vob.*  London,  lS0i>-96t  H.  GrH«tx,{?e- 
tchichhderJud^n,  U  voK,  Leipmc*  1S8S-1900,  Eng,  tr^nsL, 
OvoIb.*  London, ISOi;  G.R&vtiiamtijKinoBof  laratlandJu- 
dah,  London,  ISSS;  Bmith,  OrJC;  idem,  Propheta;  H.W  inch- 
Ur,Ge9chichiiiltraptM,2YQ\^,  Leipsio,  1895-1  ©00;  C,  F.  Kent. 
HUton/  of  the  Hrhrew  PeopU,  2  voh..  Now  York.  lSGfl-97; 


idem,  StuderitM*  Old  T€4(ament.  ii.,ib,  1904;  J.  Wellhaunen, 
Itroflititche  Hnd  jOditche  Geseh^ie,  Herlin,  1807;  idem^ 
ProUffom^na  rwr  GeMehichte  ItraeU,  Berlin,  1899  (in 
En£.,  Prolefgomgna  to  the  Hittorv  of  laratl,  vith  a  reprint 
of  the  wticle  '  Itrael  '  from  tA*  "Eri^dopmdia  Briiannicu/' 
Edinbursb,  1S&6);  C.  H.  CbrniJl,  Ge*^hichte  dtt  Volktt 
Israel,  L«ip»ic,  1898,  Eng.  trannl.,  Chicago,  1898;  DB^ 
ii.  606-518;  EB,  ii  2217-S9i  H.  R  Smith,  OM  Tetiament 
HiMtorjft  New  York,  1Q03,  Further  m&teriaL  is  to  be 
found  in  th«  common tarieo  on  the  Booka  of  Kings  and 
Cbrpniclea^  On  indication?  from  the  monuments:  Schra- 
der.  KB,  fi  vobs.,  Berlin,  1S8&-1901:  idmm,  KAT,  3d  cd.. 
by  U.  Zimmem  luid  H.  Winckler,  2  vota.,  BerLm,  1903, 
Epg.  tnuiaU  of  lat  ed.,  London,  1886-88;  U.  Winckler, 
Altorienialuch^  FornihuT^en,  i.-vi^,  Leipnic*  1893-97  (new 
Beriefl.  3  vole.,  189S-1901;  3d  eeries,  2  yob,,  lOOl-a^);  A. 
H.  SayoQ,  '  HMjker  Critic%Mm  *  and  the  M&numenie^  London, 
1894;  J.  F.  Mc€iu^y,  Hiatory,  Prophecy  and  ihe  Mon^ 
menu,  2  vols.,  New  York.  1 894-1901;  W.  St.  C.  Boscmwen, 
The  BiUe  and  the  Monuments,  London*  1896;  S.  R,  Driver, 
in  D.  Q.  Hogartb,  Autht^ly  and  Archtnology,  London, 
1899. 

AHASUERUS,  a-haz'yu-i'njB:  A  name  given  in 
the  Old  Testament  to  two  kings*  1-  Tbe  father  of 
Darius  the  Mede  (Dan.  ix,  1),  Since  Dariua  ia 
mentioned  before  Cym^^  he  can  be  no  otlicr  than 
Afityages,  and  Ahfusuerus  would  then  be  Cyaxarea, 
Phonetically  the  name  is  just  aa  little  connected 
83  Cyaxares  with  the  name  which  that  king  has  in 
the  Persian  cuncifonn  inscriptions,  and  which  must 
probably  be  read  Huvakhshtra.  It  is  also  often 
found  that  the  Median  and  Persian  kings  are  differ- 
ently named  in  the  sources,  a  difference  wliich  is 
to  be  explained  by  the  fact  that  after  their  accession 
to  the  throne  they  took  new  names.  In  Tob.  xiv. 
15  *'  Asueros  *'  ia  Astyages,  since  he  is  mentioned 
as  the  conqueror  of  Nineveh  beside  Nebuchad- 
neisar. 

S-p  A  king  mentioned  in  the  book  of  Esther,  the 
Khahayaraha  of  the  Persian  Lnsc rip t ions  and  the 
Xerxes  of  the  Greeks,  who  ruled  from  4S5  to  465 
B.C.,  and  was  the  son  of  Darius  Hystaspes.  This 
is  indicated  by  the  identity  of  the  name  and  the 
agr^ment  in  cliaracter  as  tl^t  is  given  by  Herodo- 
tus, With  tliis  agrees  also  the  mention  of  Shushan 
(Susa)  as  his  residence,  and  the  statement  in  Esther 
i.  that  the  kingdom  extended  from  India  to 
Ethiopia — a  statement  wliich  is  confirmed  by  the 
enumcratioD  of  the  pwivinces  of  the  Persian  empire 
in  the  epitaph  of  Darius  at  NELkshi  Rustem,  which, 
however,  would  not  suit  the  time  before  Darius. 
With  Xerxes,  not  with  Cambyaes,  the  Ahasuerus 
of  E»ra  iv.  6  is  no  doubt  identical,  t<J  whom  the 
Samaritans  presented  a  bill  of  indictment  against 
the  eddies  who  returned  to  Jerusalem. 

(B.  Lindner.) 

BtSLJCMiBAFBT:  T.  Benfey,  Die  pernechen  Keilin*ehr%ften, 
Leipalc,  1&47;  F.  Bpie««I,  EmnUche  Atterthumnkunde, 
3  voU.,  ib,  lS7l-7Si  Sclmwier,  KAT;  A.  H.  Says®, 
Miff  her  Criiiciem  and  the  Monument,  i>p.  543  iKiq., 
London »  1894;  W.  St.  C.  Boacawen,  The  BiMe  and 
the  MonumenU,  ib.  1895, 

AHAtTS,  a''haua',  HEDIillCH  VOH  (Hen. 
drikvan  Ahuis):  Founder  of  the  Bretlu^n  of 
the  Common  Life  in  Germany;  b,  in  the  princi- 
pality of  Ahaus,  near  MQnster,  1370;  d,  in  Mon- 
ster 1439.  He  was  descended  from  a  noble  family 
whose  ancestors  dated  back  to  the  ninth  century, 
and  who  took  their  name  from  their  temtoriea  on 
the  River  Aa.  In  1395  he  took  reUgious  orders  andp 
influenced  byMsa^mt,  formerly  abbess  of  Vreden  in 


97 


RELIGIOUS    ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Ahab 


Gelderland,  then  a  member  of  the  Sisterhood  of  the 
Common  life  at  Deventer,  affiliated  himself  with 
the  foUowera  of  the  new  teaching  in  that  town. 
Heremained  at  Deventer  probably  till  the  year  1400, 
living  in  close  association  with  the  companions  and 
suocessors  of  Groote,  the  founder  of  the  fraternity, 
such  as  florentius  Radewyns,  Brinckerink,  Ger- 
hard Zerfoolt,  and  Thomas  a  Kempis.  Having 
mastered  the  principles  and  the  organization  of  the 
Brethren,  and  imbued  with  their  zeal,  he  returned 
to  Westphalia  and  in  the  year  of  his  arrival  founded 
a  brotherhood  at  MQnster.  The  death  of  his  father 
left  him  with  ample  means  with  which  he  erected 
a  house  for  the  acconmiodation  of  the  Brethren. 
Later  he  ceded  to  them  his  magnificent  residence 
and  estate  at  Springbrunnen,  which  became  the 
seat  of  the  general  chapter  of  the  fraternity.  Liv- 
ing without  vows  or  written  regulations,  and  given 
up  to  the  practise  of  the  humble  Christian  virtues, 
the  Brethren,  nevertheless,  met  with  opposition 
from  many  of  the  clergy  and  laity.  The  former 
looked  askance  at  their  close  IntermingHng  of  the 
ascetic  and  spiritual  with  the  secular  life,  and 
resented  the  influence  which  they  speedily  began 
to  exert  in  the  field  of  education,  while  the  citizens 
of  MUnster  regarded  the  activity  of  the  fraternity 
in  the  production  of  beautiful  books,  which  con- 
stituted the  chief  source  of  their  livelihood,  as  un- 
welcome competition.  The  Dominicans  were  the 
most  zealous  of  their  opponents  and  at  the  instance 
of  one  of  that  order,  Matthseus  Grabow,  complaint 
against  the  Brethren  was  lodged  with  the  Council 
of  Constance.  Owing  to  the  intercession  of  Gerson 
and  Pierre  d'Ailly,  however,  they  obtained  a  com- 
plete vindication  (1418),  and  the  persecution  served 
only  to  hasten  the  rapid  spread  of  their  influence. 
Ahaus  was  one  of  the  representatives  sent  to  Con- 
stance to  defend  the  cause  of  the  brotherhood. 

In  1416  Ahaus  established  at  Cologne  the  second 
great  house  of  the  fraternity;  and  in  1428  a  union 
was  effected  between  the  chapters  of  Cologne  and 
MQnster  whereby  the  two  houses  were  constituted 
practically  one  body.  In  1441  this  imion  was 
joined  by  the  chapter  of  Wesel  in  Cleves,  which 
had  been  founded  by  Ahaus  in  1435.  To  the  end 
of  his  life  Ahaus  busied  himself  with  the  erection 
of  new  chapters  and  the  active  supervision  of  the 
established  houses;  and,  in  addition  to  the  three 
great  chapters  mentioned,  many  smaller  foundations 
were  established  in  the  dioceses  of  MQnster  and 
OsnabrQck.  Communities  of  Sisters  of  the  Common 
Life  also  were  established  at  Emmerich,  Herford, 
Hildesheim,  and  other  places,  aside  from  the  mother 
house  at  MQnster,  with  the  foundation  of  which 
Ahaus  was  not  connected.  The  labors  of  Ahaus 
exercised  a  beneficent  influence  upon  the  condition 
of  the  Church  in  Germany.  The  standard  of  learn- 
ing among  the  clergy  was  raised,  and  monasticism 
was  purified  of  many  of  its  evils,  while  its  ideals  of 
a  spiritual  life  received  wide  extension  through  the 
founding  of  secular  communities.  The  Brethren 
were  also  influential  in  the  establishment  of  schools, 
in  the  diffusion  of  literature  both  in  manuscript  and 
in  printed  form,  and  in  the  extension  of  the  use  of 
the  vernacular  for  religious  purposes. 

L.  SCHULZE. 

L— 7 


Biblioorapht:    L.  Sohulse,  Heinrich  von  Ahautt  in  ZKW, 
iii..  1882. 

AHAZy  d^az:  Eleventh  king  of  Judah,  son 
and  successor  of  Jotham.  He  ruled,  according  to 
the  older  computation,  742-727  b.c;  according  to 
Kdhler,  739-724;  according  to  Kamphausen,  734- 
715;  according  to  Honmiel,  734-728.  The  most 
important  political  event  of  his  reign  was  the  sub- 
jugation of  Judah  to  Assyria  as  a  result  of  the 
Arameo-  (Syro-)  Ephndmitic  war.  Pekah,  king 
of  Israel,  and  Rezin  of  Damascus  had  conspired 
against  Judah  before  the  death  of  Jotham  (II  Kings 
XV.  37),  but  war  was  not  actively  carried  on  until 
after  the  accession  of  Ahaz.  The  latter  could  not 
maintain  himself  in  the  field  and  retired  to  the 
fortified  Jerusalem.  According  to  the  Chronicler, 
he  was  defeated  in  pitched  battle  at  some  stage  of 
the  war.  Rezin  captured  Elath  on  the  Red  Sea, 
which  had  been  in  possession  of  Judah  since  the 
days  of  Amaziah  and  Uzziah  (Azariah,  II  Kings 
xiv.  7,  22),  and  restored  it  to  the  Edomites  (xvi. 
6,  where  the  reading  should  be  "  Ekiomites  "  in- 
stead of  "  Syrians  ")»  perhaps  in  return  for  help  in 
the  war  (cf.  II  Chron.  xxviii.  17).  Judea  was  laid 
waste  and  partly  depopulated  (cf.  Isa.  i.  5-9). 
Ahaz  in  his  need  applied  for  help  to  Tiglath-pileser 
II.  of  Assyria,  who  forced  the  enemies  of  the  Judean 
king  to  retire;  but,  as  the  price  of  this  deliver- 
ance, Judah  became  an  Assyrian  vassal  state,  the 
king's  treasure  and  the  treasure  of  the  Temple  being 
carried  to  Nineveh,  and  a  yearly  tribute  imposed. 
Few  kings  of  Judah  are  represented  as  having  so 
little  inclination  to  the  true  Yahveh-religion  as 
Ahaz.  He  sacrificed  "  on  the  hills,  and  under 
every  green  tree,"  and  set  up  molten  images  of  the 
Baalim.  In  a  time  of  great  distress  he  even  offered 
his  son  to  Molech  in  the  Valley  of  Hinnom;  and 
it  may  be  inferred  from  II.  Kings  xxiii.  11-12  that, 
under  Assyrian  influence,  he  built  altars  for  the 
worship  of  the  heavenly  bodies  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  Temple.  The  religious  and  moral  deterioration 
of  the  people  under  Ahaz  is  the  frequent  theme  of 
Isaiah's  prophecy.  (W.  Lorz.) 

It  is  now  generally  held  that  the  reign  of  Ahaz 
extended  from  735  to  719  B.C.  The  dates  are 
important  not  merely  as  fixing  the  time  of  the 
accession  of  Hezekisii  with  his  change  of  policy 
toward  Assyria,  but  also  their  correlation  with 
other  events.  Thus  Ahaz  is  seen  to  have  smvived 
the  fall  of  Samaria  (722  B.C.)  and  the  Assyrian 
expedition  against  Ashdod  (720  B.C.)  with  its 
consequences  to  Judah  (cf.  Isa.  xx.).  J.  F.  M. 
Biblioorapht:    Gonsult  the  works  mentioned  under  Ahab. 

and  C.  P.  Caspari,  Ueberden  SyriBck-ephraimititehen  Kritg 

unter  Jotham  und  Ahcu,  Chrifltiania,  1849. 

AHAZIAH,  6"ha-zai'a:  1.  Eighth  king  of  Israel, 
son  and  successor  of  Ahab.  He  reigned  about  two 
years  (85&-855  B.C.,  according  to  Kamphausen; 
for  other  views,  see  the  dates  given  for  the  close  of 
his  father's  reign  in  the  article  Ahab).  Little  is 
known  of  his  reign.  Doubtless  he  ended  the  war 
with  Ben-hadad  (see  Ahab)  by  treaty.  After 
Ahab's  death,  the  Moabites  rebelled  successfully; 
but  Ahaziah  seems  to  have  undertaken  no  war 
against  them.  He  had  the  misfortune  to  fall  from 
a   window  and  received  serious  injury;  being  a 


AhiJali 
Amy 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


08 


worshipper  of  Baat^  he  sent  to  Ekron  to  seek  coun- 
sel from  Baa1-£ebub;  and  his  medaen^rs  were  met 
on  the  way  by  Elijah,  who  foretold  a  fatal  issue  of 
bis  aickneas  as  a  punishinent  for  sending  to  Baal. 
Hb  hiatory  is  found  in  I  Kings  xxii.  i9— 11  Kings  h 

(W.    LOTK.) 

The  death  of  Ahab  and  accession  of  Aha^iah  of 
Israel  fell  in  853  b,c.  (see  Ahab),  as  m  now  generally 
agreed.  Jehu  acceded  in  S42  b.c.^  for  in  that  year 
tie  paid  homage  to  ShaLmaneser  IL  according  to 
the  statement  of  the  latter  on  his  Black  ObeliiJc. 
But  Joram,  who  comes  between  Atiaxiah  and  Jehu, 
reigned  'Hwelve  years"  (11  Kings  ui.  1).  This 
term  seems  to  fill  up  the  whole  time  between  853 
and  842j  iudusive*  Accordingly  the  sickness  of 
Ahasiab  and  activ^c  regency  of  Joram  began  just 
after  the  accession  of  the  former,  whose  very  brief 
reign  could  have  had    no    significance  whatever, 

J.  F,  M. 

2*  Sixth  kingof  Judab,  son  of  Jehoram,  He  reigned 
one  year  (SS4  B.C.,  according  to  the  older  computa- 
tion; 843,  according  to  Karophausen;  S42,  accord- 
ing to  Hommcl).  He  married  a  daughter  of  Ahab, 
and  it  is  therefore  not  BurpHsing  that  be  was  a 
Baal- worshiper*  His  relation  with  the  house  of 
Omn  caused  Ms  early  death.  He  joined  his  brother- 
in-law,  Joram  of  Israel,  in  a  campaign  against 
Hasael  of  Damascus,  and  the  two  allies  attacked 
Ramoth-gilead.  Joram  w^as  wounded  and  returned 
to  Jezreel,  whither  Ahaeiah  went  to  visit  him,  and 
there  be  fell  into  the  hands  of  Jehu,  who  killed  him 
as  a  member  of  the  house  of  Omri.  The  accounts 
of  his  death  in  Kings  and  Chronicles  can  not  be 
reconciled.  His  history  m  found  in  H  Kings  viii. 
25-i3c.  29;  II  Chron.  xxii.  1-9.  (W.  Lorz.) 

BrsLiooftAFHr:  CotLBuIt  tbe  works  mendotijed  under  Asa  a, 

AHIJAH,  a^bd'ja:  A  prophet,  living  at  Sbilohi 
mentioned  in  I  Kings  xi.  29-39,  xii.  15,  xiv.  1-18; 
II  Chron,  ix,  29,  x.  15.  All  these  passages  in  the 
Book  of  Kings  are  Deuteronomic,  or  at  least  have 
been  worked  over  by  a  Deuteronomic  editor.  In 
the  latter  part  of  Solomon's  reign  Ahijah  seems  to 
have  enjoyed  great  authority  as  Yahweh's  prophet. 
Next  to  Bamue)  and  EUsha  he  is  the  most  striking 
example  of  the  fact  that  the  prophets  of  Israel, 
besides  promoting  the  religious  life,  meddled  with 
political  affairs.  He  gave  voice  to  the  deep  dissatis- 
faction which  all  true  Yabweh-worshipers  felt  in 
the  latter  part  of  Solomon's  reign,  and  foretold  to 
Jeroboam  that*he  would  become  king  over  ten  tribes. 
Years  later,  when  Ahijah  was  an  old  man,  dim  of 
eyesight,  Jeroboam  sent  his  wife  to  the  prophet  in 
disguise  to  obtain  help,  if  possible,  in  the  severe 
sickness  of  his  son.  Again  the  prophet  declared 
the  misfortune  to  be  the  consequence  of  unfaith- 
fulness to  Yahweh;  he  foretold  the  death  of  the 
prince  and  the  extinction  of  the  house  of  Jeroboam, 
The  Chronicler,  according  to  his  custom,  made 
Ahijah  also  a  historian  of  bis  time. 

(R.  KmTLO 

AHIHELECH,  a-himVlee:    High  priest  at  the 

tabernacle  in  Nob,  He  ^ve  the  showbread  and 
Goliath's  sword  to  David,  not  knowing  that  the 
latter  was  fleeing  from  Said,  and  for  this  reason  he, 
together  with  t  he  entire  priestly  family  of  eighty^five 


persons  (LXX,  thirty- five)  and  the  whole  city  of 
Nob}  was  slain  by  Doeg  the  Edomite  at  Saul's  com- 
mand (I  Sam,  x.xi.-X3di.).  Only  his  son  Abiathar 
escaped  and  went  to  David,  Ahimelech  is  called 
the  son  of  Ahitub  (I  Sam.  xxii.  9,  20),  and  VtOS 
therefore  great-grandson  of  Eli  and  a  descendant  of 
Ithamar.  "  Ahiah  "  (I  Sam.  xiv.  3)  is  probably 
another  name  for  Ahimelech;  if  not,  Ahiah  must 
have  been  an  older  brother  of  the  latter  who  offi- 
ciated before  him,  or  possibly  the  father  of  Ahime- 
lech, who,  in  tlus  case,  should  be  called  the  grand- 
son of  Ahitub,  Abiathar  served  David  as  priest 
during  the  latter 's  exile  (I  Sam.  xxH.  20-23,  xxiii. 
6-12,  XXX.  7-S)  and  through  out  lus  reign,  although 
Zadok  of  another  priestly  line  is  always  mentioned 
first  (II  Sam.  xv.  24,  xvii.  15,  xix,  11,  xx.  25). 
He  was  deposed  by  Solomon  for  ba%4ng  favored 
the  succession  of  Adonljah  (I  Kings  li.  26-27,  35). 

C.  VON  Obelli. 

AHITHOFHEL,  c-hith'o-fel:  A  counselor  of 
David,  He  is  called  '*  the  Gilonite/'  i.e.^  from 
Giloh,  a  city  in  the  south  of  Judah  (II  Sam.  xv.  12). 
David  esteemed  him  higlily  for  his  great  wisdom 
(11  Sam,  xvi.  23).  When  Absalom  revolted,  .\hith- 
ophel  faithlessly  betrayed  David  in  the  expectation 
that  the  rebellion  would  be  successful  (II  Sam. 
XV.  12,  31,  jcvi,  21,  xvii,  1  sqq.).  He  soon  per- 
ceived, however,  that  his  authority  was  not  para- 
mount -mih  the  young  prince^  and  when  the 
latter  rejected  his  advice  to  attack  David  at  once, 
he  went  home  and  hanged  himself  (II  Sam,  xvii. 
23).  Some  thmk  that  Ps.  xU.  9,  Iv,  12  sqq,  have 
reference  to  David's  sad  experience  with  Ahithophel, 
Eliam,  a  sod  of  Ahithophel,  was  one  of  David's 
heroes  (II  Sam.  xxxiii.  34);  it  is  hardly  possible 
that  he  was  the  Eliam  mentioned  as  the  father  of 
Batb-sheba  (II  Sam.  xi,  3).  C.  von  Orelli. 

AHLFELD,     Ol'feld,      JOHAim      FRIEDRICH; 

Lutheran;  b,  at  Mehringen  (in  the  Harz,  near  Bem- 
burg,  2S  m.  n.n.w.  of  Halle) ^  Anhalt,  Nov.  I,  1810; 
d-  at  Leipsic  Mar.  4»  1884.  His  father  was  a  carpen- 
ter, and  be  owed  some  of  his  later  power  to  the 
fact  that  he  was  brought  up  with  an  intimate  knowl- 
edge of  the  nature  and  needs  of  the  maaa  of  the 
people.  From  1830  to  1833  he  studied  at  Halle, 
For  a  year  he  was  a  private  tutor,  and  then  he 
taught  in  the  gymnasium  at  Zerbst.  His  preaching 
at  this  time  was  influenced  by  rationalism.  At 
the  beginning  of  1837  be  was  appointed  rector  of 
the  boys'  school  at  WftrUts;  and  here  he  came  under 
theinfiiuenceof  Schubring,  a  man  of  simple  faith*  and 
his  views  changed.  In  1838  he  became  pastor  of 
Alsleben,  on  the  Saale,  a  village  of  sailors  where 
he  worked  hard  and  exercised  a  powerful  influence^ 
finding  time,  however,  for  literary  work,  and  vigor- 
ously defending  the  old-fashioned  faith  against 
rationaliam.  He  was  called  to  Halle  in  1847 
through  Tholuck'a  endeavors,  and  did  his  duty 
nobly  in  the  troublous  times  of  the  Revolution  and 
of  the  cholera  epidemic  of  1849.  He  took  posi- 
tions of  more  and  more  prominence,  and  in  1S50 
was  chosen  pastor  of  St,  Nicholases  Church  in  Lei p- 
sic.     In  1881  he  retired  from  active  work. 

As  a  preacher  Ahlfeld  gained  and  maintained  a 
remarkable  popularity.     Abstract  speculation  was 


99 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Ahilali 
Amy 


not  hk  strong  point.  He  wms  at  borne  m  the  eoii- 
Crete,  and  knew  bow  to  narrate  witb  great  effect 
■tones  from  Holy  Scripture,  from  tbe  history  of  the 
Church,  iLnd  from  Bs  own  or  others'  experience. 
Besides  preachisg^  he  taught  in  the  Leipsic  Theo- 
logical SefBioaiy,  and  for  many  years  did  good 
service  on  the  commission  appointed  to  revise 
Lutber'«  veraion  of  the  Old  Testament,  He  left 
&  lasting  memorial  of  his  labors  in  more  than  one 
charitable  foundation  witb  whose  origin  he  had 
much  to  do.  Of  the  numerous  collections  of  his 
dificourses  may  be  mentioned:  Predigien  uW 
di^  evangetuchen  Perikopen  (Halkj  1S48;  12th  ed,, 
1892);  Das  Leben  %m  LichUi  d&i  Wortes  GoUes  (1851; 
7th  ed.,  18SG);  Predigtcn  Hber  die  epislolischen 
Fmkapm  (1867;  5tb  ed.,  lS99)j  Ctrnfimmionsre- 
dmi  (2  series,  Leipsic,  1 830).  (A.  Hauck.) 

BlsuciOBAPiiT :    Fritdrich  A  hif^»  vmland  PoMtar  tu  St  Niko- 
hi  tn  Leiptiff-  ein  Lehentbiid.  U&lle.  1S85. 

AICBSPALT,    cdk'spolt     (AICHSPALTER,    AS- 

PELT):  A  common  designation  (from  his  birth- 
place, Aspelt,  near  Luxembourg)  for  Pester,  arch- 
biabop  of  Mainz  (1305-20);  b.  between  1240 
and  1250;  d.  at  Main£  June  4,  1320.  He  is  an 
important  figure  in  tbe  politics  and  history  of  his 
time^  but  of  less  intercut  for  reUgion  or  theology. 
Of  bumble  origin^  he  was  ambitious  and  adroit, 
and  sought  bis  advancement  with  skill  and  success. 
A  knowledge  of  medicine  helped  him  to  win  the 
favor  of  piincee  and  popes.  He  was  chancellor  to 
Wcneeslaus  II  „  king  of  Bohemia  (1296-1305),  and 
during  this  time  quarreled  with  Albert  of  Austria 
tjid  tbencefortb  was  an  opponent  of  the  house  of 
Hapeburg.  He  promoted  the  election  of  Henry 
of  Luxembourg  an  emperor  in  1308,  and  under  blm 
was  all-powerful  m  German  affaira.  He  was  made 
biihop  of  Basel  in  1296,  archbifihop  of  Mainz  in 
1306,  vid  proved  himself  efficient  and  praiseworthy 
in  his  diooese. 
BuLKieafti^irr:  J.  HeidemAnn,  Feitr  von  A*pcli  oit  Kircf^n- 

MDAH,  oi'don,  8AIKT:  First  bishop  of  Llndie- 
fame;  d.  at  Bamborough  (on  the  coast  of  Northum- 
berland, 16  m,  B.e,  of  Berwick)  Aug.  31 ,  651 .  When 
Oswald,  king  of  Northumbria  (634-642),  isTshed  to 
introduea  Christianity  into  bis  dominions  (^e 
OswaLD,  Saint;  Celtic  Church  ik  Britain  and 
Ireland)^  be  appUed  to  Segbine,  abbot  of  lona, 
for  missionaries,  and  a  certain  Gorman  was  sent, 
who  sooa  returned,  declaring  it  was  impossible 
to  Christianize  so  rude  a  people.  Aidan,  then  a 
monk  of  lona,  suggested  that  Corman  had  failed 
to  adapt  bis  teaching  to  their  needs  and  had  ex- 
pected too  much,  forgetting  the  Apofitle^s  injunc- 
tion of  "  mOk  for  babes /^  Whereupon  Aidan  was 
at  once  ordained  and  sent  to  Oswald  in  Gorman's 
place  (6S5).  He  established  himself  on  the  island 
of  Lindisfame,  near  Bamborough »  brought  fellow 
workers  from  Ireland,  and  founded  a  school  of  twelve 
English  boys  to  provide  future  priests.  Conaiat- 
entlj  exemplifying  in  bis  daily  life  the  doctrines 
be  tau^t,  he  gained  great  influence  with  Oswald 
and,  after  Ms  death,  with  Qswin,  king  of  Deb^, 
whOo  the  people  were  won  by  bis  mfldneea,  humility, 
and  benevolence.  He  could  not  preach  in  the 
Baxon  language  at  first  and  Oswald  acted  as  inter- 


preter.    Hift  work  in  Northumbria  was  continued 

by    Finan    (q.v.).     All   information   about    Aidan 

comea  from  Bede  (Hist.  tccL,  iii.  3,  5-17,  26),  who 

praises  him  and  tells  marvelous  stories  about  him, 

Biblioohapbt:  J.  H,  A.  Ebmrd,  Dim  votehoUiti^h*  Mittion*- 

kirche.  GQtertloh,  1S73:    A,  C.  Fryer,  Aidan,  lA«  Apcuile 

of  the  North,  London,  1884;    J.  B.  Li^htfoot,  LmadgrB  in 

Uu  Ntrrihern  Church,  ib.  1S90;    W*  Bright.  Earltf  English 

Church  Hitt&ry,  153-168,  iSfi-lSa*  Oxford,  1S97. 

AIKENj  CHARLES  AUGUSTUS:  American 
Preabyterian;  b*  at  Manchester,  Vt,,  Oct,  30,  1827; 
d,  at  Princeton,  N.  J.^  Jan.  14,  1892.  He  was  grad- 
uated from  Dartmouth  Ck^Uege  ia  1S46  and  from 
Audover  Theological  Seminary  m  1853;  entered 
the  Congregational  roinistryj  and  became  pastor 
at  Yarmouth,  Me,,  1&54;  became  professor  of  Latin 
in  Dartmouth  1S59;  in  Princeton  1866,  president 
of  Union  College  1869,  professor  of  ethics  and 
apologetics  in  Princeton  Theological  Seminary  1871; 
was  transferred  to  the  chair  of  Oriental  and  Old 
Testament  literature  1882,  He  was  a  member  of 
the  Old  Testament  revision  company,  and  trans- 
lated Zftckler's  commentary  on  Proverbs  in  the 
Lange  series  (New  York,  1S69). 

AttLY.  PIERRE  D\  py&r  d*a"ly!'  (Lat.  Pdms 
de  AUUi€&):  Chancellor  of  the  University  of  Paris, 
later  bishop  of  Cambrai  and  cardinal,  one  of  the 
dlstinguiBhed  churchmen  who  sought  to  restore 
unity  to  tbe  divided  Church  during  the  great  papal 
schism  (1378-1429;  see  Schism)  by  meanjs  of  a 
general  council;  b-,  probably  at  Ailly-le-haut- 
clocber  (20  m.  n.w.  of  Amiens),  in  the  present 
department  of  Somme,  1350;  d.  at  Avignon  Aug. 
9,  1420,  He  was  brought  up  in  Coropifegne  in  the 
midst  of  the  desolation  caused  by  the  war  witb 
England  and  an  insurrection  of  the  peasants  (the 
Jacquerie);  to  this  was  no  doubt  in  part  dye  the 
strong  national  feeling  and  the  prejudice  agaiast 
England  which  he  showed  later.  He  entered  the 
University  of  Paris  as  a  student  of  theology  in  the 
College  of  Navarre  in  1372^  and  began  to  lecture 
on  Peter  Lombard  in  1375,  His  lectures  (printed 
as  QuiEstionm  s«pcr  libros  aenterUiarumf  Straeburg, 
1490),  gained  for  him  the  reputation  of  a  clear 
thinker,  and  helped  to  make  the  nominalism  of 
Occam  predominant  in  the  university*  He  alio 
distinguished  himself  as  a  preacher. 

On  Apr.  11,  1380,  Ailly  was  made  doctor  of  the- 
ology and  professor.  His  treatise  on  this  occasion, 
and  other  essays  written  about  the  same  time  (pub- 
lished as  appendix  to  the  Quastionea;  also  in 
GfTsonii  opera,  ed.  Du  Pin,  i,  603  sqq.,  Antwerp, 
1708),  show  his  pjosition  concerning  the  doctrine 
of  the  Church,  winch  was  brought  to  the  front  by 
the  schism.  The  Christian  Church,  he  said,  ia 
founded  on  the  Living  Christ,  not  on  the  erring  Peter, 
on  the  Bible,  not  on  the  canon  law.  The  existing 
evils  can  be  cured  by  a  general  council.  Against 
those  who  opposed  tliis  idea  of  a  council  be  wrote 
in  1381  a  satirical  epistle  **  from  the  devil  to  his 
prelate  "  (text  in  Tschackert,  Appendix,  pp.  IB 
sqq.).  In  1384  he  became  director  of  the  College 
of  Navarre,  where  he  bad  among  his  pupils  Jean 
GersoQ,  who  became  bis  faithful  friend.  In  1389 
Ailly  was  made  chancellor  of  the  univermity  and 
almoner  of  Charles  VI,  of  France,  a  position  which 


323779B 


iSil 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


100 


hmughi  him  in  close  relation  with  the  court  at 
Paris-  When  the  Avignone&e  pope,  Clement  VIL, 
died  (1394)r  Ailly^a  influence  secured  the  recog* 
nition  by  France  of  hlfl  successor*  the  Spaniard 
Peter  de  Luna  (Benedict  XtlL).  As  a  re  ward 
Benedict  tuade  AUly  bichop  of  Puy  (1395),  and 
twd  years  later  bishop  of  Cambrai.  In  139§ 
Cbarl^  VI.  of  France  and  Wenceslaus  of  Germany 
sent  him  upon  unsuccessful  missions  to  both  Boni- 
face  IX P  and  Ben^lict,  to  try  to  induce  them  to 
resign  their  ofBce.  Benedict  waa  then  kept  a  prift- 
oner  in  Avignon  by  French  troops  till  be  escaped  to 
gpain  (14(^).  In  139B  and  again  in  140S  France 
withdrew  its  obedienee  from  Benedict,  without, 
however,  declaring  for  hia  rival.  The  attempt  to 
nationalize  the  French  Church  failed  becau^  the 
civil  authorities  of  the  time  conducted  Church 
affairs  woi^  tlian  the  pope.  In  1408  Ailly  finally 
abandoned  the  cause  of  Benedict.  The  addition 
of  a  new  element  of  discord  by  the  choice  of  a  third 
pope  at  the  Council  of  Pisa  (q^v.)  in  Jime,  1409, 
waa  not  in  accord  with  Ailly '»  wishes;  but  in  the 
main  he  stood  by  the  council  (cf.  hia  Apologia 
emwUii  Ptiani,  in  Tschackert,  pp.  31  sqq.),  though 
be  continued  to  write  in  favor  of  reform  by  another 
council,  John  XXII L  (the  Roman  pope)  sought 
to  conciliate  him  by  an  ap[X)intment  (June  7,  1411) 
ai  cardinal,  with  the  title  Cardinaiis  Sancti  Chryao- 
gtmi,  though  he  himself  preferred  to  be  called  "  the 
Cardinal  of  Cambnii.^'  He  attended  the  eouncU 
called  in  Rome  by  John  in  1412|  where  he  interested 
himself  in  a  reform  of  the  calendar^  In  1413  he 
traveled  through  Germany  and  the  Netherlanda  as 
papal  legate,  and  at  the  same  time  was  active  as  a 
writer- 

Ailly 's  most  important  services  in  church  history, 
however,  were  rendered  at  the  Council  of  Constance 
(niet  Nov.  6,  1414;  see  Constance,  Council  of). 
Here  he  nuuntained  the  supenority  of  a  general 
council  over  the  pope,  but  at  the  same  time  defended 
the  privileges  of  the  college  of  cardinals  against  the 
council.  It  was  due  to  Getson  and  Ailly  that  after 
the  flight  of  John  XXIII.  from  Constance  (Mar.  20, 
1415),  the  council  was  not  adjourned.  He  had  the 
eourage  to  pre«ide  over  the  first  popeless  session 
(Mar*  26,  1415),  and  to  carry  out  the  order  of  busi- 
nesa  of  that  important  gathering.  The  council 
had  to  decide  three  points:  (1)  The  axu$a  unumu 
(abolition  of  the  schisra);  (2)  the  causa  reforma- 
iwnu  (reformation  of  the  Church  in  capile  ei  in 
membnjt);  and  (3)  causa  fidm  (the  case  of  John 
Hubs).  Ailly  was  very  active  in  the  last  two, 
Aa  president  of  the  commission  on  faith,  he  ex- 
amined Hu&s  (June  7  and  8,  1415;  Documenta 
J.  Hub.,  etl.  F.  Palacky,  Prague,  1869,  pp,  273  sqqj, 
and  was  present  at  his  condemnation  (July  6), 
He  expressed  his  ideas  on  reform,  as  deputy  of  the 
college  of  cardinals,  in  the  commission  on  reform 
and  in  a  writing  of  Nov,,  1416.  De  rtformalxone 
ecchtim  (in  H,  von  der  Hardt,  Magnum  iscumeni- 
€um  ComlaniienBe  eoncUiumf  i.,  part  viii*,  Frankfort, 
1700).  His  %iewH  on  the  power  of  the  Church  he 
had  already  published  (October)  in  his  De  j)ot€siale 
ted^<B.  When,  in  November,  the  council  pro- 
ceeded to  the  choice  of  a  new  pope,  Ailly  was  a 
candidate;  but  the  opposition  of  the  English  pre- 


vented his  election.  He  hved  on  good  terms  with 
his  8uccee«ful  competitor^  Otto  di  Colonna,  and  as 
hia  legate  at  Avignon  continued  influential  in  the 
French  Church  tiU  his  death.  Ailly  was  always  faith- 
ful to  the  interests  of  his  country,  although  he  wad 
more  churchman  than  Frenchman.  He  influenced 
the  young  Luther  by  bis  doubts  jxinceming  tlie 
doctrine  of  transubetantiation  (cf.  Luther's  De 
capiitntaie  Babtftanie^t  Erlangen  cd.^  var.  arg.,  v. 
29).  In  1410  he  wrote  a  geographical  work  Imago 
mundi  (  n.p.^  n.d.)^  which  has  interest  as  hav^ 
ing  been  one  of  the  iourocs  from  which  Cblumbus 
drew  his  belief  in  the  possibility  of  a  western  pas- 
sage to  India  (cf,  Tschackert,  334  sqq.). 

Paui.  Tschackeht. 

Bisuoqiupst:   P.  TKhukert,  Peter  v<m  AUU,  Goiba,  1877 

Cgivisi  hibliocrapby  of  AiUy'a  works,  pp.  348-366);  L.  Sa- 

lezntu^,  Feitu*  dw  AU%Q€a,LAUie,  1386  (aLm  givn  bibLiocr&<^ 

pby  of  hia  workLSt  pp.  2  «qq.);    C,  Erlcr*  Dietrich  ron  Nie- 

keim,  Leip<ide,  1887;    H,  Fiake.  FoTMchungen  und  Qudlem 

wur  Gmckichte  de»  Korutamtr  K&ruil$,  pp.  ID3-132.  Pidu^ 

bom*  1889  (fives  tbe  diary  ot  AilJy's  cQlbag^e,  C»fdUiAl 

FLUutre,  pp.  163  iqqj;    B.  B«m,  Zat-  GtaekichU  da  Koft' 

cfanser  KontiUtt  tdI.  i.*  IfaT^UT:;^  1891. 

AILRED,  ^I'red  (^LRED,  ETHELRED ) :     Abbot 

of  the  Cistercian  abbey  of  Rievaulx  in  England 

(20  m.  n*  of  York);  b»  at  Hexham  (20  m.  w.  of 

Newc4iMle-U5K>n-Tyne),    probably    in    1109;  d.    at 

Rievaubc  Jan.  12^  1166.     He  spent  hh  youth  at  the 

court  of  Bcotlandp  entered  the  abbey  of  Rievaubc 

in  ll3lf  became  abbot  of  Revesby,  Lincolnshire 

and  returned  to  Rievaubc  bm  abbot  in  1146.     H 

wrote  historical  and  theological  works,  the  former 

of  which  include  lives  of  St,  Edward  the  Confessor 

and  St.  Ninian,  while  among  the  latter  are;     Ser- 

mone$;  SpeciUum  chatitaiia ;  De  spiritualiamicUia; 

De  duodecimo  anno  ChrissH;    Rtguia  sive  instituiia 

iriduaarum;  and   De    nalura   ammcr.     All   of   bis 

printed  works,  with  life  by  an  anonymous  author, 

are  in  MPL^  cxcv, 

Bt»LtoaHAFBT:  Thoi.  Wright »  Bioffniphia  Briiannica  01^ 
raria,  ii.  1S7'1^>  London,  1846:  J.  U,  Newm&n.  LitmM  of 
tha  En&liik  SainiM,  2  vols.,  ib.  184£-4e;  A..  R  Forbets^  in 
Idvn  of  St.  iSfinian,  St  Kwnii&xm,  St.  C&liimha^  latniduo 
tioQ.  ib.  Id75:  Etheind,  m  DNB,  xviii.  83^35  (coaUiiu 
lint  of  his  writings). 

AIMOm,  fi"mwan':    The  name  of  two  Frmch 

monks,  both  known  as  historians. 

1.  Almoin  of  St,  Germain:  Teacher  in  the 
monastery  school  of  Saint-Germain-des-Pr§s  near 
Paris.  He  seems  to  ha%'e  begun  hb  literary  career 
about  865,  and  to  have  died  at  the  end  of  the  ninth 
centyry  or  in  the  beginning  of  the  tenth,  Hta 
works,  all  of  a  hagiographical  nature,  are  in  MPL, 
cxxvi.  100&-56. 

2.  Aimoin  of  Fleury:  A  disciple  of  Abbo  of 
Fleury  (q.v.),  at  whose  suggestions  and  therefore 
not  later  than  ICKM,  he  wrote  a  Hiiioriu  Fran- 
corum,  from  their  origin  to  the  time  of  Clovis  IL 
(d.  657).  His  life  of  Abbo  has  greater  historical 
value-  and  hia  account  of  the  translation  of  the 
relics  of  St.  Benedict  to  Floury  contains  numerous 
data  for  French  history  of  the  tenth  century,  Hia 
works  are  in  A/PL,  cxxxix.  375-414,  61 7^-870; 
and  there  are  ertracta  in  MGH,  Script,,  ix,  (1851) 
374-376.  (A,  HAtrcK,) 
Bibuoorapst:    (1)  A.  Ebert,  QeKhicMie  dwr  LUieratvr  dta 

MitUhlt^t.  u.  353-35fi:  W.  WatteobBch.  DOQ\  I  (ISHHj 
330.     {2)  W;  WattoubAisli,  ut  lup..  pp.  121.  466-470. 


101 


REUGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


iiiii 


AINOER,  ALFRED:  Church  of  England;  b. 
at  London  Feb.  9,  1837;  d.  there  Feb.  8,  1904. 
He  was  educated  at  King's  College,  London,  and 
Trinity  Hall,  Cambridge  (BA.,  I860),  and  was 
ordered  deacon  in  1860  and  priested  in  the  follow- 
ing year.  He  was  successively  curate  of  Alrewas, 
Staffordshire,  in  1860-64,  assistant  master  of  Shef- 
fidd  College  School  in  1864-66,  and  reader  at  the 
Temple  Church,  London,  in  1866-93.  From  1894 
until  his  death  he  was  Master  of  the  Temple.  He 
was  likewise  made  canon  of  Bristol  in  1887,  and 
was  dected  honorary  fellow  of  Trinity  Hall  in  1898, 
being  also  sdect  preacher  at  Oxford  in  1891  and 
1898,  as  wdl  as  honorary  chaplain  to  the  queen 
in  1895-96  and  chaplain  in  ordinary  to  the  king 
after  the  latter  year.  In  addition  to  a  number  of. 
monographs  on  English  authors,  and  besides  con- 
tributions to  the  Dictionary  of  National  Biography, 
he  wrote  Sermons  preached  in  the  Temple  Church 
(London,  1870).  He  is  best  known  for  his  biog- 
raphy of  Charles  Lamb  (London,  1882)  and  his 
editions  of  Lamb's  works  (1883  sqq.).  His  genial 
humor  and  whimsical  temperament  peculiarly  fitted 
him  to  be  the  editor  of  Lamb,  and,  with  his  un- 
common personality  and  exquisite  literary  taste, 
made  him  one  of  the  most  popular  clergymen  of 
London.  He  attracted  to  the  Temple  Church  per- 
haps the  most  distinguished  congregation  in  the 
city. 
BnuooaAFHT:  E.  Siehel,  Life  and  Lttten  of  Alfred  Ainger, 

New  York,  1906. 

AinSWORTH,  HENRT:  En^h  separatist;  b., 
probably  at  Swanton,  near  Norwich,  1571;  d.  at 
Amsterdam  1622  or  1623.  Driven  from  England, 
about  1593  he  went  to  Amsterdam,  and  in  two  or 
three  years  became  **  teacher  "  of  the  congregation 
of  which  Francis  Johnson  (q.v.)  was  mimster.  He 
and  Johnson  could  not  agree  and  the  congregation 
divided  in  1610.  In  1612  Johnson  went  to  f^mden, 
and  thenceforth  Ainsworth  had  the  field  to  himself. 
It  has  been  inferred  that  he  lacked  a  university 
training  from  a  statement  of  Roger  Williams,  that 
"  he  scarce  set  foot  within  a  college  waUs  "  {Bloody 
Taut,  1644,  p.  174;  cf.  Dexter,  270,  note  68); 
but  the  register  of  Caius  (}ollege,  Cambridge,  shows 
that  he  was  admitted  there  Dec.  15,  1587,  and  was 
in  residence  there  as  a  scholar  for  four  years.  He 
was  unquestionably  a  learned  man,  wrote  excellent 
Latin,  and  had  a  knowledge  of  Hebrew  (perfected 
by  association  with  Amsterdam  Jews),  equaled  by 
that  of  few  other  Clhristians  of  his  time.  He  was 
earnest  and  sincere  in  his  faith,  conciliatory  in 
qiirit,  and  moderate  in  controversy.  He  had  the 
chief  part  in  drafting  the  Congregational  Confession 
of  1596  (entitled  A  True  Confeseion  of  the  Faith, 
and  Humble  Acknowledgment  of  the  Allegiance 
which  we,  her  Majeety*8  subjects,  falsely  called 
Browniais,  do  hold  towards  God,  and  yield  to  her 
Majesty  and  aU  other  that  are  over  us  in  the  Lord; 
cf.  Wdker,  pp.  41-74,  where  the  full  text  is  given). 
He  wrote  many  controversial  works  (for  full  list  con- 
sult DNB,  i.  192-193)  and  a  series  of  Annotations 
upon  the  books  of  the  Pentateuch,  the  Psalms,  and 
the  Song  of  Songs  (1612  sqq.;  collected  ed.,  London, 
1626-27;  reprinted,  2  vols.,  Glasgow,  1843),  which 
have  stiU  some  value. 


Bibuoorapht:  H.  M.  Dexter.  ConoreffaHonaUsm  of  ih$  LaU 
Throe  Hundred  Yeare,  New  York,  1880;  W.  W*lker,  Creede 
and  Platforma  of  ConoreQaHonaUem,  p.  43,  note  1,  New 
York.  1893. 

AITKEN,  WILLIAM  HAT  MACDOWALL  HUN- 
TER: Church  of  England;  b.  at  Liverpool  Sept. 
21,  1841.  He  was  educated  at  Wadham  College, 
Oxford  (B.A.,  1865,  M.A.,  1867).  He  was  presented 
to  the  curacy  of  St.  Jude's,  Mildmay  Park,  London, 
in  1865,  and  was  ordained  priest  in  the  following 
year.  From  1871  to  1875  he  was  incumbent  of 
Christ  Church,  Liverpool,  but  resigned  to  become 
a  mission  preacher.  The  next  year  he  founded, 
in  memory  of  his  father.  Rev.  Robert  Aitken,  the 
Aitken  Memorial  Mission  Fund,  of  which  he  was 
chosen  general  superintendent,  and  which  later 
developed  into  the  Church  Parochial  Missionary 
Society.  He  twice  visited  the  United  States  on 
mission  tours,  first  in  1886,  when  the  noonday 
services  for  business  men  at  Trinity  Church,  New 
York,  were  begun,  and  again  in  1895-96.  Since 
1900  he  has  been  canon  residentiary  of  Norwich 
Cathedral.  Two  years  later  he  was  a  member  of 
the  Fulham  Conference  on  auricular  confession. 
He  has  been  a  member  of  the  Victoria  Institute 
since  1876.  In  theology  he  is  a  liberal  EvangeMcal, 
but  has  never  been  closely  identified  with  any 
party.  He  adheres  strongly  to  the  doctrines  ef 
grace,  although  he  repudiates  Calvinism.  While  not 
an  opponent  of  higher  criticism  in  itself,  he  exer- 
cises a  prudent  conservatism  in  accepting  its  con- 
clusions. In  his  eschatology  he  is  an  advocate  of 
the  theory  of  conditional  inunortality.  His  wri- 
tings include:  Mission  Sermons  (3  vols.,  London, 
1875-76);  Newness  of  Life  (1877);  What  is  your 
Lifer  (1879);  The  School  of  Grace  (1879);  God*s 
Everlasting  Yea  (1881);  The  Glory  of  the  Gospel 
(1882);  The  Highway  of  Holiness  (1883);  Around 
the  Cross  (1884);  The  Revealer  Revealed  (1885); 
The  Love  of  the  Father  (1887);  Eastertide  (1889); 
Temptation  and  Toil  (1895);  The  Romance  of 
Christian  Work  and  Experience  (1898);  The  Doc- 
trine of  Baptism  (1900);  The  Divine  Ordinance  of 
Prayer  (1902);  and  Life,  Light,  and  Love:  Studies 
on  the  First  Epistle  of  St.  John  (1905). 

AIX-LA-CHAPELLE.    See  Aachen. 

AKED,  CHARLES  FREDERIC:  English  Bap- 
tist; b.  at  Nottingham  Aug.  27,  1864.  He 
was  educated  at  Midland  Baptist  College  and 
University  College,  Nottingham,  after  having 
passed  the  early  part  of  his  life  as  an  auc- 
tioneer. He  was  then  pastor  at  Syston,  Leicester- 
shire, in  1886-88,  and  at  St.  Helens  and  Earistown, 
Lancashire,  in  1888-90,  and  from  1890  to  1906 
was  minister  of  Pembroke  Chapel,  Liverpool.  In 
the  latter  year  he  was  elected  pastor  of  the  Fifth 
Avenue  Baptist  Church,  New  York  City.  From 
1893  to  1906  he  made  yearly  visits  to  the  United 
States  as  a  lecturer  and  preacher,  and  was  also  vice- 
president  of  the  United  Kingdom  Alliance  and  one 
of  the  founders  of  the  Passive  Resistance  League. 
In  addition  to  numerous  sermons  and  pamphlets, 
he  has  written  Changing  Creeds  and  Social  Struggles 
(London,  1893)  and  Courage  of  the  Coward,  and 
other  Sermons  in  Liverpool  (1905). 


AkilMt 

AllMT 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


102 


AKIBA,  a-kll>a:  Jewish  rabbi,  said  to  have 
lived  in  Jeruaalem  in  the  time  of  the  Second  Temple, 
and  to  have  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  the  law 
when  somewhat  advanced  in  years.  After  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem  he  retired  to  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Jaffa  and  also  undertook  extensive 
travels.  He  was  executed  during  the  Jewish  insur- 
rection under  Hadrian  (c.  133);  but  there  \b  no 
proof  that  he  was  active  in  the  revolt,  or  took  any 
part  in  it  except  to  recognize  Bar-Kokba  as  the 
Messiah  (in  accordance  with  Num.  xxiv.  17). 
Jewish  tradition  assigns  as  the  cause  of  his  death, 
that  he  taught  the  law  when  it  was  forbidden  to 
do  so. 

Many  sayings  are  transmitted  in  Akiba's  name. 
He  defended  the  sacred  character  of  the  Song  of 
Songs,  which  he  interpreted  allegorically  (cf.  F. 
Buhl,  Kananand  Text,  Leipsic,  1891,  pp.  28-29;  E. 
KOnig,  Einleitung  in  diuAUe  Testament ,  Bonn,  1893, 
p.  450).  He  paid  special  attention  to  the  develop- 
ment of  the  traditional  law;  a  Mishnah  is  known 
under  his  name;  and  to  his  school  no  doubt  belong 
the  fundamental  elements  of  the  present  Mishnah. 
His  exegetical  method  found  meaning  even  in  the  par- 
ticles and  letters  of  the  law  (cf .  M.  Mielziner,  Introduc- 
turn  to  the  Talmud,  Cincinnati,  1894,  pp.  125-126, 
182-185;  H.  L.  Strack,  Einleitung  in  den  Thalmud, 
Leipsic,  1894,  pp.  100-104).  The  Greek  translation 
of  the  Old  Testament  by  Aquila  (said  to  have  been 
Akiba's  pupil)  seems  to  have  been  influenced  by 
such  an  exegesis  (Buhl,  Kanon  und  Text,  pp.  152- 
155).  The  midrashic  works  Siphra  on  Leviticus, 
and  Siphre  on  Deuteronomy,  contain  much  material 
from  Akiba's  school.  (G.  Dalman.) 

BnuooRAPHT:    H.  Qr&ti,  O^thtchU  d^r  Juden,  voL  iv.. 

Leipmc.  1893;   H.  Ewald.  Oeaehichie  de»  Volkf  I  mud,  vii. 

367,  QOttingen.  1868;  Akiba  hen  Joteph,  in  JE,  i.  304  aqq. 

AKKAD.    See  Babylonia,  IV.,  §11. 
AKOMIIfATOS.    See  Nicetas. 

ALACOQUE,  MARGUERITE  liARIE.  SeeSACBED 
Heart  op  Jesus,  Devotion  to. 

ALAlfUS,  Q-la'nus:  Name  of  at  least  three 
writers  of  the  twelfth  centiuy. 

1.  Alanus  of  Auzerre:  Cistercian,  abbot  of 
Larivour  from  1152  or  1153  to  about  1167,  bishop 
of  Auxerre,  and  then  for  about  twenty  years  monk 
at  dairvaux.  He  wrote  a  life  of  St.  Bernard  (in 
Af PL,  clxxxv.). 

2.  Alanus:  Abbot  of  Tewkesbiuy.  He  wrote 
a  life  of  Thomas  Becket  (ed.  J.  A.  Giles,  in  PEA, 
1845;  MPL,  cxc),  letters  (MPL,  cxc),  and  ser- 
mons. 

8.  Alanus  ab  Insulis  (Alain  of  Lille;  often 
called  M agister  Alanus  and  M agister  universalis): 
A  native  of  Lille  who  taught  in  Paris.  He  was  a 
man  of  wide  and  varied  learning,  and,  combining 
philosophical  studies  and  interests  with  strong 
adherence  to  the  Church,  forms  an  important  con- 
necting link  between  the  earlier  and  the  later  scholas- 
ticism. His  writings  include:  (1)  Regulas  calestis 
juris  (called  also  Regula  de  sacra  ikeologia  or  maximcB 
theologict).  Like  other  sciences  which  have  their 
principles,  the  superccelestis  scientia  is  not  lacking  in 
maxims.  These  are  here  laid  down  in  a  series  of 
brief  sentences,  partly  put  in  paradoxical  form 


with  minute  elucidations.  The  work  has  a  strong 
leaning  toward  Platonism,  and  contains  some  very 
peculiar  thoughts.  (2)  Summa  quadripartila  adver- 
sus  huius  temporis  hceretieos,  which  indicates  by 
its  title  the  ecclesiastical  position  of  the  author. 
The  first  book  is  directed  against  the  Cathari, 
opposes  their  dualism  and  docetism,  and  defends 
the  sacraments  of  the  Church.  The  second  book 
denies  (chap,  i.)  the  right  (claimed  by  the  Walden- 
sians)  to  preach  without  ecclesiastical  commission; 
insists  upon  the  duty  of  obeying  implicitly  the 
ecclesiastical  superiors,  and  of  making  confession  to 
the  priest  (chaps,  ii.-x.);  justifies  indulgences  and 
prayers  for  the  dead  (chaps,  xi.-xiii.);  and  denies  that 
swearing  in  general  is  prohibited  and  that  the  killing 
of  a  person  is  under  all  circumstances  sinful  (chap, 
xviii.).  (3)  De  arte  prcedicandi,  a  homiletic  work 
which  starts  with  the  definition  that  **  preaching 
is  plain  and  public  instruction  in  morals  and  faith, 
aiming  to  give  men  information,  and  emanating 
from  the  way  of  reason  and  fountain  of  authority.'' 
It  tells  how  to  preach  on  certain  subjects,  as  on 
mortal  sins  and  the  virtues,  and  how  to  address 
different  classes.  (4)  Less  certainly  genuine  are  the 
five  books  De  arte  catholica  fidei,  whose  style  is 
somewhat  different.  The  work  makes  the  peculiar 
effort  to  demonstrate  the  ecclesiastical  doctrine  not 
only  in  a  generally  rational  but  by  a  strictly  logical 
argumentation  in  modum  artis.  The  fundamen- 
tal thought  is  striking;  but  the  execution  is  some- 
times weak,  and  the  definitions  are  so  made  that  the 
inferences  become  what  the  author  wishes  to  prove. 
(d)De  planctu  natura,  in  which  Alanus  gives,  partly 
in  prose,  partly  in  rhyme,  a  picture  of  the  darker  side 
of  the  moral  conditions  of  the  time.  (6)  Anticlau- 
dianus,  a  more  comprehensive  work,  deriving  its  title 
from  the  fact  that  the  author  wished  to  show  the 
effects  of  virtues  as  Claudian  showed  those  of  vices. 
It  is  a  kind  of  philosophico-theological  encyclo- 
pedia in  tolerably  correct  hexameters  which  are 
not  devoid  of  poetic  feeling.         S.  M.  Detjtbch. 

Bibuoorapht:  (1)  L.  Janauschek,  Originea  Ciatercienses, 
Vienna,  1877;  (3)  Opera,  in  MPL,  ccx.;  the  oldest  notices 
are  in  Otto  of  St.  Blaeien,  Chronicon,  under  the  year  1194, 
MOU,  Script,  XX.  (1868)  326,  Alberic  of  Trois-Fontaines, 
ib.  xxiii.  (1874)  881,  Henry  of  Ghent,  De  9crxptoribua 
ecdeeiaeticU,  ch.  xxi.;  cf.  Oudin.  Commentariita  de  tcrip- 
toribue  eceUeia,  ii.  1387  sqq.,  Leipsic,  1772;  Hiatoire  lit- 
Uraife  de  la  France,  xvi.  306  sqq.;  C.  B&umker,  Band- 
echriftlichea  mu  den  Werken  dee  AUmtu,  1894  (reprinted 
from  the  Philoeophieehee  Jahrhuch  of  the  Gdrres-CSesell- 
schaft.vi.  and  vii.,  Fulda,  1893-94);  M.  Baumgartner, 
Die  PhUoeophie  dee  Alanue  ah  Ineulie,  MQnster,  1896;  J. 
E.  Erdmann,  OrundrieederOeechicKle  der  PhUoeophie,  f  170, 
2  vols.,  Berlin,  1895-96. 

ALARIC.     See  Goths,  §3. 

A  LASCO,  JOHAHIIES.    See  Lasco. 

ALB:  A  vestment  worn  by  Roman  Catholic 
priests  in  celebrating  mass,  and  prescribed  also  for 
the  Church  of  England  by  the  first  prayer-book  of 
Edward  VI.  ("  a  white  albe  plain,  with  a  vestment 
or  cope  ")•  See  Vbbtmentb  and  Insignia,  Eccle- 
siastical. The  name  was  applied  also  to  the  white 
garments  worn  by  the  newly  baptized  in  the  early 
Church;  and  from  this,  since  Easter  was  the  ubuqX 
time  for  baptism,  came  the  name  for  the  Sunday 
after  Easter,  Dominica  in  aOns  (sc.  depositis). 


108 


REUGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


AkilMt 
Albar 


AIBAlt^  SAINT,  OF  MAUTZ:  Alleged  martyr 
of  the  fourth  or  fifth  centufy,  whose  existence  is 
lomewbat  doubtful.  The  oldest  form  of  the  story 
(Ratmnus  M&ums,  MatiyTologium,  June  21;  MPL, 
cx,  1152)  is  that  he  was  sent  by  Ambrose  from  Milan 
in  the  rdgu  of  Theodosius  L  (379-395)  to  preach 
the  gpspel  in  Gaul^  and  was  beheaded  at  Mainz  on 
the  way.  Nmnerous  details  were  added  later. 
On  the  supposed  site  of  his  burial,  to  the  south  of 
the  city,  a  church  was  erected  in  his  honor,  which 
is  menticned  as  early  as  758.  In  it  in  7&4  Charle- 
magne buried  his  third  wife,  Fastrade,  The  edifice 
was  subsequently  rebuilt  (796-S05);  and  probably 
At  this  time  it  was  made  a  Benedictine  house.  In 
1419  it  was  changed  to  a  knightly  fouBdation,  to 
which  Emperor  Maximilian  L  in  1515  gave  the 
priirDege  of  coining  golden  florins  (called  '*  Albanus- 
fulden  "),  with  the  effigy  of  the  saint  arrayed  in 
eucharistic  vestments  and  carrying  his  hmA  in  his 
hand — a  not  uncommon  method  of  representing 
martyra  who  had  been  beheaded ,  to  indicate  the 
manner  of  their  death.  The  foundation  waa  de- 
it  royed  when  Margrave  Albert  of  Brandenburg 
ravaged  Mamz   in    1552.  (A.  Hauck.) 

Blftl^rCH^ItAPHT:    Goawio  (ninnn  of  Main*).  Ex  poMtkmf  S. 

AUmm  martyrit  Mogunhni,  in  JifGH,  Siript,  wv,  2  {1888), 

9IB4-990;    J,  O.  Reuter,  AibanSffuiden.  Maini,  1790;  R«tt- 

ber^,  KDr  i  211;   Friedrieh,  KD.  i.  314. 

ALBAH,  SAINT,  OF  VERULAM;  A  martyr  of 
the  Britons,  often  mistakenly  called  "  the  pro  to- 
martyr  of  the  English/*  Bede  (Higt.  eccl.,  L  7), 
doubtless  foUowing  some  unkno^Ti  acts  of  Bt. 
Alban,  says  that  while  still  a  pagan  he  gave  shelter 
to  a  fugitive  clerk  during  the  Diocletian  pereecution; 
impressed  by  his  gticat^s  personality,  he  embraced 
Christianity,  and  when  the  clerk  was  discovered, 
wrapped  himself  in  the  fugitive's  cloak  and  gave 
himself  up  to  the  authorities  in  his  stead;  he  was 
scourged  and  condenmed  to  deaths  performed 
miracles  on  the  way  to  execution,  and  suffered  on 
June  22;  the  place  of  his  martyrdom  was  near 
Verulamiuro  (St.  Albans,  Hertfordshire),  and  after 
the  establishment  of  Christianity  a  magnificent 
church  waa  erected  there  to  his  memory.  Later 
accounts  elaborate  the  narrative,  and  confuse  the 
aaint  with  others  named  Albanufl  or  Albinus,  It 
is  said  that  the  martyr  served  seven  years  in  the 
army  of  Diocletian,  and  the  name  of  the  clerk  is 
given  as  Amphibalus  (firet  by  Geoffrey  of  Mon- 
mouth), probably  from  his  cloak  (Lat.  amphibalus). 
It  seems  certain  that  a  tradition  of  the  martyrdom 
of  some  Albanus  exists  at  Verulamium  as  early 
as  the  visit  of  German  us  in  429  (Conatantius's 
life  of  Germanua,  i.  25),  and  there  is  no  reason  to 
deny  its  truth.  But  that  the  martyrdom  took  place 
in  the  Diocletian  persecution  bj  first  intimated  by 
Gildas  (ed.  Mommsen,  MGH,  Chronica  minora, 
iii.  31}  and  is  probably  a  guess.  For  Aaron  and 
Jidius  of  Carleon-on-Usk,  whose  names  are  joined 
by  Gildas  with  that  of  Alban,  no  local  tradition 
can  be  shown  earlier  than  the  ninth  century* 

BiBtiCKiitAPHT:  Haddnj]  »nd  Stubbe.  Council*.  L  £-7;  Wat- 
l«libiich,  DGQr  ii.  407;  W.  Briaht.  Chapter^  &f  EaTty  En&^ 
UtkChuTth  Miitorp,  pp.  6-0,  O^cford,  lg97. 

ALBAHEITSEStarba-nen'sta  ^-s^si  A  faction 
<if  the  Cathari.  They  derived  then-  name  from  Al- 
bania,  and  maintained,  in  opposition  to  the  Bogo- 


miles  of  Thracia  and  the  Concorexenses  of  Bulgaria 
and  Italy f  an  absolute  dualism^  by  which  good 
and  evil  were  referred  to  two  eternally  opposite 
and    equally    potent    principles ,     8ee  New  Mani- 

CH ELANS,  II. 

ALBATL  See  Flagellation.  Flagellants,  II*, 
S5. 

ALBER,  Ol'ber,  ERASMUS:  Theologian  and  poet 
of  the  German  Reformation;  b.  in  the  Wetterau 
(a  district  to  the  n.e.  of  Frankfort)  about  1500; 
d.  at  Neubrandenburg  (75  m,  n.  of  Berlin)  May  5, 
1553.  He  studied  at  Mains  and  Wittenberg,  and 
was  much  infiuenced  by  Luther,  Melanchthon,  and 
Carlstadt*  After  teacliing  in  several  places,  in  1527 
he  became  pastor  at  Sprendlingen  (15  m.  s.w.  of 
Mainz )^  in  the  Dreieich,  where  for  eleven  years  he 
worked  diligently  for  the  extension  of  Reformation 
doctrines  and  made  Iiimself  known  as  a  writer. 
He  was  an  extravagant  admirer  of  Luther,  and 
possessed  a  very  sharp  tongue,  which  he  used  as 
unsparingly  against  Reformers  who  did  not  agree 
with  him  as  against  Roman  Catholics.  Erratic 
tendencies  grew  upon  him  mth  years,  and,  after 
leaving  Bprendlingen,  he  moved  about  much  and 
w^aa  at  times  in  want.  Shortly  before  his  death  he 
was  made  pastor  and  superintendent  at  Neubran- 
denburg.  His  writings,  though  often  rude  and  coarse, 
were  forceful  and  popular.  They  include:  a  rhymed 
version  of  jEsop'«  Fabh^t  made  at  Sprendlingen 
(ed.  W.  Braune*  Halle,  1892);  DerBarfiisser  Monche 
Eulenspiegel  und  Alcoran  (with  preface  by  Luther, 
Wittenberg,  1542;  Eng.  transL,  1550),  a  satire 
directed  against  the  Minoritas^  based  upon  a  work 
of  Bartolomeo  Albizzi  (q.v.);  and  Wider  dk 
verfiuefU^  Lehre  der  CarhtadieT,  WiedctUiuler,  BtMen- 
geisier,  SakrameTUlmtcrer^  Ehi^^ehand^,  Music- 
veriichler,  BiMerBiurmer,  Feyerfeinde^  und  Ver- 
wil^ier  alier  guten  Odnuni;,  published  three  years 
after  his  death.  Of  more  permanent  value  are  his 
hymns  {ed.  C.  W,  Stromberger,  Halle,  1857),  of 
which  Nun  freut  ench  Golk^  Kinder  all  is  used  in 
German  hymn-books  and  in  English  translation  (O 
Children  of  y^ur  God,  rejoice).  (T.  KoLnE.) 

BiBLioaRAPBT:    F.  SchnoiT  von  Ctkrobtteld,  Em*mu9  Atber^ 

Dresden,    18^6;     Jutrnti,      Hymrwhffy,     pp,    34-3&;     H. 

Bqq..  ii,  512  sqn**  et  pnsaim,  L£it»ic«  IftOS. 

ALBERp  MATTHjEUS:  The  "Luther  of  Swa- 
bia";  b.  at  ReutUngen  (20  m.  s.  of  Stuttgart)  Deo. 
4,  1495;  d.  at  Blaubeuren  (30  m*  s.e*  of  Stuttgart) 
Dec.  2,  1570.  He  was  the  son  of  a  well-to-do  gold- 
smith, took  his  master's  degree  at  Tiibingen  in  1518, 
and  was  immediately  called  as  pa.stor  to  his  native 
city.  On  Melanchthon 's  recommendation  he  re- 
ceived a  ^holarship,  enabling  him  to  contmue  his 
studios  for  three  years  longer.  Dissatiafied  with 
the  scholastic  theology  at  Tiibingen,  he  went  to 
Freiburg  in  1521,  but  soon  returned  to  Reutlingen, 
where  he  boldly  preached  Luther's  doctrine  and 
established  the  new  teaching.  At  Easter,  1524, 
he  abolished  the  Latin  mass  and  auricular  con- 
fession. The  same  year  he  married,  and  when 
brought  to  account  at  Eeslingen  secured  an  acquittal 
by  skilful  management,  although  the  bishop  con- 
tinued to  trouble  him  because  of  his  marriage  till 
1532.    The  Reformation  made  steady  progress  in 


AkilMt 

AllMT 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


AKIBA,    41-ldl>ei:    Jewish   rabbi,  aaid   to   have 

lived  in  Jeru^alam  in  the  time  of  the  Second  Temple^ 
and  to  have  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  the  law 
when  somewhat  advanced  in  years.  After  the 
de«tniction  of  Jerusalem  he  retired  to  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Jaffa  and  also  undertook  extensive 
travels.  He  was  executed  during  the  Jewish  insur- 
rection under  Hadrian  (c.  133);  but  there  is  no 
proof  that  he  was  active  in  the  revolt^  or  took  any 
part  in  it  except  to  recognijse  Bar-Kokba  as  the 
Messiah  (in  accordance  with  Num.  xxiv*  17). 
Jewish  traditiou  aasigris  aa  the  cause  of  his  death, 
that  he  taught  the  law  when  it  was  forbidden  to 
do  fio. 

Many  sayings  are  transmitted  in  Akiba'a  name. 
He  defended  the  sacred  character  of  the  Song  of 
Songs,  which  he  interpreted  aUegorically  (cf.  F. 
Buhl,  Kaiwnand  Text,  Leipsic,  1891,  pp.  28-29;  E. 
K&nig,  Einleilung  in  dmAUe  Te^taTneni,  Bonn,  1893, 
p.  4&0).  He  paid  special  attention  to  the  develop- 
ment of  the  traditional  law;  a  Mishnah  is  known 
under  his  name;  and  to  his  school  no  doubt  belong 
the  fundamental  elements  of  the  present  Mishnah. 
Hia  exegetical  method  foimd  meaning  even  in  the  par- 
ticles and  letters  of  the  law  (cf.  M.  Mielziner,  Introdm-- 
iixm  to  the  Toimw/,  Cincinnati,  1894,  pp.  126-126, 
182-185;  H.  L,  Strack,  Einleiiung  in  den  Tfmlmnd, 
Leipaie,  1S94,  pp,  100-104),  The  Greek  translation 
of  the  Old  Testament  by  Aquila  (said  to  have  boen 
Akiba's  pupil)  seems  to  have  been  influenced  by 
such  an  exegesis  (Buhl,  Kanon  und  Text,  pp.  162- 
155),  The  midrashic  works  Siphra  on  liviticus, 
and  Siphre  on  Deuteronomy,  contain  much  material 
from  Akiba'a  school,  (G.  Dalmak,) 

BnuoomjLPnT:  H.  Gr&ts,  Gmichiehtg  def  Juden,  vol.  iv., 
Leipjijcp  ISO:*;  H.  Ewald,  Getchichir  d^  Volkra  Itrwl,  vil, 
3fi7,  GMtmeeii«  IBSS;    Akiba  btn  Jotrph,  in  JE,  L  304  oqQ. 

A££AD.     See  Babylonia,  IV„  |  1L 
AKOMmATOS.     See  Nicetas. 

ALACOQUE,  MARGITERITB  MAIUE,  SeeSAcmED 
Heart  of  Juaus,  Devotion  to. 

ALAHVS,  a*1a'nu8:  Name  of  at  lea^t  three 
writers  of  the  twelfth  century. 

1.  AlanuB  of  Auxerre:  Cistercian  ^  abbot  of 
Larivour  from  1152  or  1153  to  about  1167,  bishop 
of  Auxerre,  and  then  for  about  twenty  years  monk 
at  Oainraux.  He  wrote  a  life  of  St.  Bernard  (in 
MPL,  clxxxv.). 

9,  Alanua:  Abbot  of  Tewkesbury.  He  wrote 
a  life  of  Thomas  Becket  (ed.  J,  A,  Giles,  in  PEA, 
1845;  MPL,  cxc:),  letters  {MPL,  cxc.),  and  ser- 
mons. 

3,  AUmus  ab  Insulis  (Alain  of  Lille;  often 
callod  Magiater  Aianm  and  Master  wnii'ersaKf): 
A  native  of  Lille  who  taught  in  Paris,  He  was  a 
man  of  wide  and  varied  learning,  and,  combining 
philosophical  studies  and  interests  with  strong 
adherence  to  the  Church,  forms  an  important  con- 
necting Unk  between  the  earlier  and  the  later  seholin*- 
ticism.     His  writings  include:  (1)  Betjulm  tertt$h9 

jun9  (called  also  Regulm  de  iacra  th^l^y^-    -  ^ . 

lA«ofogi«).     Like  other  sdencea  whiff     »-    - 
principle,  the  rupercalesti^  scienfv 
ma^ms.    These  are  here  laid  d^ 
brief  eentenoea,  partly 


f  ^P^  '^  :w: 


with  minute  elucidations.    The  wc 

leaning  toward  Platooismj  eiod  con    .  ^ , 

peculiar  thoughts.     (2)  Summa  que.    '  ^^^ 

*us  huius   tempora   hmrelicos,  whi      ■  '"' '^ 

its  title  the  ecclefliaatieal  positior 

The    first   book   is  directed   agair  <^  ^?^.iluti*i? 

opposes    their  dualism  and  docet 

the  sacraments  of  the  Chureh,    '  ^r-rDUSIUS  ' 

denies  (chap,  i.)  the  right  (claimed:    ^  ^^  y-#-a:y«. 

sians)  to  preach  without  ecclesisa^  /?.■■>•»  rd  \ 

insists  upon  the  duty  of  obeyir 


ecclesiastical  superiors,  and  of  mal 


-STwrrjT 


the  priest  (chaps,  ii,-x.);  i^^^^^  ^'^  ^  **'.  T"  ' 
prayers  for  the  dead  (chaps,  xi.-siii  "  -'"•J '}  *.-•  !^ 
swearing  in  general  is  prohibited  ar  ^'^'^"-^^  i:.  ■ 
of  a  person  is  under  all  circumsta  ***  ^f  ^  ^^li* 
jTviii.).  (3)  De  arte  pradicandit  ^  •  J* '■'•nrt*  «:r«« 
which  starts  is-ith  the  definition  "^^-^-y '*•>  nv 
is  plain  and  public  instruction  in  "^iK  t*>  Lt-iw-' 
aiming  to  give  men  informatiot  *K»rn-.j^..  ^.. 
from  the  way  of  reason  and  fount  ••:  i  'rt  ^^^^  .  „" 
It  telb  how  to  preach  on  certai  ^im*.  m^-».  l\.  '^ 
mortal  aina  and  the  virtues,  an  \^  ^  i^x-...'  i  " 
different  classes.     (4 )  Less  certaii  ^stH-»,  *    -* 

five  books  De  arte  cathdica  fid  '■^^^•y^..'^     ^     ' 
somewhat  different.    The  work  i  ht  ^^^  '"      '  " 
effort  to  demonstrate  the  ecelesifi  %^^    "   "      *    *" 
only  in  a  generally  rational  bat  I  j^.._  -     '  ^     •  -  •- 
argumentation   in   modum  artis  ^'   -""•-r 
tal  thought  is  strildjig;  but  the      ' 


times  weak,  and  the  definitions  a 
inferences  become  what  the  autfc     '-"*-"     _ 
(5)  De  planctu  natures ,  in  which  *  ^^*-  ••-   ■ 
in  prose,  partly  in  rhyme,  a  plctu    ^^     •. 
of  the  moral  conditions  of  the  i  ^  *c;ir    . 
diimuB,  a  more  comprehensive  wt  '  ^  ^r^ 
from  the  fact  that  the  author    '^^^  Irt*  ^ 
effects  of  virtues  as  Claudian  sh  ^    ■:<-;-^ 
It  is  a  kind    of   philoaophioo' '  ^^v    . '^'* 
pedia    in    tolerably  correct  be]  f*  ^  l\ 
not  devoid  of  poetic  feeling.      '  ^'*:i  ^  "' 

BlDLIOGRAPffT!      (I)    L,    JflJIfttWltielE^'  ^    *  . 

VieRDa*  1877;   13)  Ofwm,  m  MPU^'  f>      '         * 

»«  in  Otto  of  SL  Blaawn,  CAtmiw^  ''     *  ^. 

MQH,  Script.,  xx.  (IgflS)  330,  AIU  "^^^    ^ 

ib.  lotUi.   (1874)   Sgl.   Henry  <>f  :<-- 

Md^aioMHtia,  oh,  30d,;  of.  Oudiiit  *  ^^ 

feml^w  wU^nm,  ii.  1387  iqq„  Ui  ^  ' 

iSrairm  dm  H   FfionM»  xri.  396  Kic,  ^      •- 

froiQ  the  PhilsKfpkitfhea  Jahrt^      ^ 
adiftft.vi,  »nd  viL.  Fulda,  1S93       _  -         ^^ 
Die  Philitto^phie  des  AiAnua  at  /*  ■-■  "^ 

3  volt*  Berlin,  ISO&HM. 

ALABia     BeeGoTRSp  |  S.     * 
A  UlSCO,  JOHAimiS;    Be 

ALB:    A   veeiia^t 

prie^tii  in  i 
th«  Ctercb  olj 


fc. 


r-  z:»"Ti*.reiL» 


JLXbn 
Albert 


I.    li 


'^  -"     ^.i 


*^       •^«>n':i—  rr^  %     .  .  -    • 

^   ,    .m         '"•  ^"  '-'"•'    -    *-   ■       *      -        . 
T^    ^i*?-:-       »w  'nj»>   :!!.•"   -  k'      -.■•-■■ 

ti^.'.'^T     ?!--  »— .'.'  J-    ■ 

*■    ":^'*  -       "•"•ur      -     f,-  :•;.'■' 

-         '  -1  ■»    r:-T.-..    H....    >■-       ."' 

li    S- '  *        p»-,*V-'        >.iA-^-2":»  ri.*.'.: -:#  -» •         /  '  ■  ■ 

'Ttrzij^'.       v.*v  /:.'*>-  v'i.vri  C'/n  •. '  .     :    .:'*:■ 
^f"!-:   •':        ^'^r  hi-   .i*';ith       of   t;..t.    j-.  r:-  ..•.- 
>    i#-i.-       •%-niri-    Mtl    I'.   W.   St.'!'..^' !.:■  '     U 

Zidf^r.'      'f*-rnian  hymn-hunk--  :i!.  I  i-i  '  !■-'.•• 

-^-"'T       ChMirm  nf  y-iu*"  fi- ■«.•'.  '»;    ■• 
^■^  '^       f^iBLi'x.R^i-iM     I     >.'.!>  IT  ^■  •■  '  ' 

HanP*.  .!»w/r,.i«  /{■■>''•'''   •     •    ■     '^ 

nrjq  .  II.  "i  rj -i-i  .• '»•■»-■'"  '•'»■'• 
ALBER,   MATTH/r:US:      l» 
bia"':  b.  at   H.-uiIiul-'  n     -'"  " 


I* 


1     K-  ■ 


i-i 


.1  -I  ■■••.■11'     ' 
--      -  ...    ^|. :";"•' 

4.  14lir>:  .i.  at  Hl:i-il"'i' •  "'      '^   j,  ,...!■■  •"■''' 

;-*w^  1  i><»o. -J.  i:»7<».    lb- %vM^  ii"-  •■"  ■'■  '  ■"      .....I -I- 

^^^\        Rmilh,  tDuk  hi-  U':i   »•  t      ■>' 

~T^  land  was  imiii'-'li..t.l>   ''H"'    ' 


I 


■  I   '    I- 


^\  a  >r!,..l  .T   '.:i 
j^  <i.es   f..r    t-  T- 

Mirj  ill   1  ■.•'.     ' 
ibt.i:-r-i    ''■     ' 

Ofl.         I  '  ' 

Hkilf  -         •      •■ 


I' 


I.  >■.."■ 

,.  ...■•"■■''  .. 
I.'-'  ■'■ . 


..  I-' 


I    I   .' 


••:...^; 


jv.  1.  1519'.  to 
nim_  if  he  cared 

as  hifl  personal 

it  easy  to  be 
h  of  his  elector. 

.  Albert  replied 
e  did  not  inter- 
lonymous  anti- 
limself  unfriend- 
at  when  papal 
:he  Golden  Rose 
tten  and  Luther. 

former  from  his 

iCS. 

Albert  pretended 
.y,  like  Carlstadt. 
r,    however,    ad- 
Vartburg  (Dec.  1, 
.bUdy  bis  "false 
ie  did  not  cease. 
,e    world.    -Mbert 
1  because  no  other 
.-as  also  unable  to 
Reformation  into 
jras   not   on   good 
a,  and  during  the 
compact  with  the  . 
t  he  had  in  mind  to 
sin  in  Prussia  (see 
ularize  his  bishopric 
T  (in  a  letter  of  June 
cake.    On  the  same 
were    defeated    at 
te  danger  being  over. 
Luther's  most  deter- 
3f   Brandenburg  and 
al  protection  and  for 
utheran  sect.     For  a 
the  evangelical  move- 
requesting  his  subjects 
ig  of  the  Church.    He 
changes  in  opposition 
nout effect:  hw territory 
ifluence  in  the  kingdom 
alliance  of  HaUe  with 
other  Catholic  princes  m 
e  movement.     HLs  oppo- 
in(l534^     Even  in  Halle, 
,t  lunder  the  victor^'  of  the 
the  caU  of  Justus  Jonas  in 
3  Albert  anticipated  coming 
his  valuable   collections  of 
iM  and  .V^haffenburg;  and 
.  forever.     In  l.>41  He  urged 
isbure  to  proceed  againM  the 
ms.  if  "he  really  meant  to  be 
i7 were  better  if  he  had  stayed 
^iLiS    become,    possibly    un.  .t 
he  m,>*t  violent  of  the  pnnr.lv 
Reformation.     He  met -i^-^^ 
.tments.    however,    and    ^t^dJy 
olarei.     He  i.>.k  a  deep  interest 
of  T-nt.  ar.l  apr--.inte<i  tu.s  legat^ 

were  hari.--^i  by  quarrels  with  h^ 
ae^portuiuties  of  Vus  creditors,  and 


▲Ibar 
All)ert 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


104 


Reutlingen;  and  in  1531  a  church  order  with  pres- 
byterial  government  was  introduced.  During  the 
Peasant's  War  Reutlingen  was  unmolested.  The 
fugitive  Anabaptists  from  Esslingen  were  won  over 
by  instruction  and  mildness.  Zwingli  endeavored 
to  bring  over  Alber  to  his  view  of  the  Lord's  Supper, 
but  the  latter  adhered  to  Luther,  preserving  his 
independence,  however,  and  remaining  on  friendly 
terms  with  Zwingli's  friends,  Blarer,  Butzer,  Capito, 
and  others.  In  1534  Duke  Ulrich  of  Wtlrttemberg 
called  Alber  as  preacher  to  Stuttgart  with  a  view 
of  introducing  the  Reformation  there.  In  1536 
Alber  went  to  Wittenberg,  where  he  preached 
(May  28)  and  assisted  in  finishing  the  Concordia. 
In  1537  at  the  Colloquy  of  Urach  he  advised  cau- 
tious procedure  with  regard  to  the  removal  of  the 
images.  As  he  opposed  the  introduction  of  the 
interim  in  1548,  he  was  obliged  to  give  up  his  office 
and  leave  the  city.  For  a  time  he  lived  at  Pful- 
lingen,  protected  by  Duke  Ulrich  who  in  Aug.,  1549 
called  him  as  first  preacher  of  the  collegiate  Church 
of  Stuttgart  and  general  superintendent.  He  took 
an  active  part  in  the  preparation  of  the  Wtlrttem- 
berg  Confession  and  the  church  order  of  1553,  and 
he  attended  both  the  latter  part  of  the  Second  Col- 
loquy at  Worms  (1557)  and  the  Synod  of  Stutt- 
gart. Toward  the  end  of  1562  he  was  made  abbot 
of  the  reformed  monastery  at  Blaubeuren. 

G.  BOSSERT. 
Biblioorapht:  J.  Fiiion,  Cronika  van  RetUlingen^  ed.  A. 
Bacmeister.  Stuttgart,  1862;  F.  G.  Gayler.  DenkwOrdio- 
keiten  der  Reichsstadt  Reutlingen,  Reutlingen,  1840;  J. 
Hartnutnn.  MaUh&tM  AVber,  Tubingen.  1803;  G.  Bosaert, 
Der  ReuUinffer  Sieg,  ISSU,  Barmen,  1804;  idem.  Interim 
in  WUrtiemberg,  Halle,  1805;  R.  Schmid,  ReformaOona- 
geuchichU  WUrttemberge,  Heilbronn,  1004. 

ALBERT  OF  AIX:  A  historian  of  the  twelfth 
century,  designated  in  the  manuscript  of  his  His- 
toria  expeditionis  HierosolymHana  as  canonicus 
Aquenaia,  but  whether  he  was  a  canon  of  Aix  in 
Provence  or  of  Aix-la-Ohapelle  (Aachen)  is  uncer- 
tain. It  is  likely,  however,  since  he  dates  events 
by  the  years  of  Henry  IV.,  that  he  was  a  Lorrainer 
rather  than  a  Provencal.  He  may  be  the  custos 
Adalbertus  who  is  mentioned  for  the  last  time  in 
1192,  and,  in  this  case,  he  must  have  written  his 
history  in  early  youth.  His  work  tells  nothing  of 
his  personality,  except  that  he  had  an  ardent  desire, 
which  was  never  fulfilled,  to  visit  the  Holy  Land. 
As  a  sort  of  compensation,  he  determined  to  write 
the  events  of  the  years  1095-1121  from  the  narra- 
tives of  actual  crusaders.  His  credibility  was 
generally  accepted  until  the  middle  of  the  nine- 
teenth century,  but  since  then  it  has  been  seriously 
questioned.  It  is  probable  that  the  work  is  based 
upon  mere  hearsay.  The  Historia  is  in  MPL, 
clxvi.,  and  in  Recueil  dea  hiatoriena  dea  Croiaadea,  hiat, 
occid.,  iv.  (Paris,  1879)  265-713.  (A.  Hauck.) 
Biblioorapht:  H.  von  Sybel,  Oeachiehte  dee  ereten  Kretu- 
ituga,  pp.  62-107,  Leipsic,  1881;  B.  Kugler,  Albert  von 
Aachen,  Stuttgart,  1886;  F.  Vercrusrsae,  Beeai  criOgue  eur 
la  ehronique  d'Albert  d*Aix,  Li^ge,  1880;  Wattenbach. 
DGQ,  ii.  178-180. 

ALBERT,  antipope,  1 102.    See  Paschal  II.,  pope. 

ALBERT  V.  OF  BAVARIA  AND  THE  COUirTER- 
REFORMATION  IN  BAVARIA:  Albert  V.,  duke 
of  Bavaria  (b.  Feb.  29,  1628;  d.  Oct.  24,  1579), 


was  the  son  of  Duke  William  IV.,  whom  he  suc- 
ceeded in  1550.  The  rulers  of  Bavaria  had  remained 
faithful  to  the  Roman  C!atholic  Church  during  the 
progress  of  the  Reformation;  but  in  spite  of  their 
endeavors  the  new  ideas  gained  many  adherents 
among  both  the  nobility  and  the  citizen  class. 
Albert  was  educated  at  Ingolstadt  under  good 
Catholic  teachers.  In  1547  he  married  a  daughter 
of  Emperor  Ferdinand  I.,  the  union  ending  the 
political  rivalry  between  Austria  and  Bavaria. 
Albert  was  now  free  to  devote  himself  to  the  task 
of  establishing  Catholic  conformity  in  his  domin- 
ions. Incapable  by  nature  of  passionate  adher- 
ence to  any  religious  principle,  and  given  rather  to 
a  life  of  idleness  and  pleasure,  he  pursued  the  work 
of  repression  because  he  was  convinced  that  the 
cause  of  Catholicism  was  inseparably  connected 
with  the  fortunes  of  the  house  of  Wittelsbach. 
He  took  little  direct  share  in  the  affairs  of  govern- 
ment and  easily  lent  himself  to  the  plans  of  his 
advisers,  among  whom  during  the  early  part  of  his 
reign  were  two  sincere  Catholics,  Georg  Stock- 
hammer  and  Wiguleus  Hundt.  The  latter  took  an 
important  part  in  the  events  leading  up  to  the  treaty 
of  Passau  (1552)  and  the  peace  of  Augsburg  (1555). 
The  real  beginning  of  the  Counterreformation  in 
Bavaria  may  be  dated  from  1557,  when  the  Jesuits 
first  established  themselves  in  the  duchy.  In  sum- 
moning them  to  Bavaria  Albert  and  his  advisers 
were  actuated  by  the  desire  to  use  their  services 
as  educators  in  raising  the  mass  of  the  clergy  from 
their  condition  of  moral  and  intellectual  stagnation. 
The  Jesuits  speedily  made  themselves  masters  of 
the  University  of  Ingolstadt  and  through  the 
chancellor,  Simon  Thadd&us  Eck,  exercised  a  pre- 
dominant influence  at  court.  Eck  was  ably 
seconded  by  his  associates,  who  obtained  control 
of  the  education  of  the  youth  and  of  the  clergy, 
and  by  their  preaching  and  writings  checked  the 
spread  of  the  reformed  ideas  among  the  masses  of 
the  people.  Till  1563  concession  still  had  a  part  in 
the  programme  of  the  leaders,  who  hoped  that  the 
bestowal  of  communion  in  both  kinds  upon  the 
laity  and  the  abolition  of  celibacy  in  the  priesthood 
would  bring  back  many  to  the  fold.  Political 
events,  however,  led  to  an  abandonment  of  the 
conciliatory  policy.  In  1563  Joachim,  Count  of 
Ortenburg,  introduced  the  Augsburg  Confession 
in  his  dominions,  which  he  held  as  a  direct  fief  of 
the  empire.  Albert  discerned  in  this  act  a  serious 
menace  to  the  integrity  of  Bavaria,  and  took  pos- 
session of  the  principality.  Thenceforth  the 
reformed  religion,  as  closely  connected  with  political 
insubordination,  was  made  the  object  of  a  ruthless 
persecution.  The  opposition  of  the  nobility  was 
speedily  overcome,  and  conformity  to  the  teachings 
of  the  Church  was  enforced  under  pain  of  exile. 
By  means  of  frequent  visitations  among  the  clergy 
and  the  people,  the  reorganization  of  the  school 
system,  the  establishment  of  a  strict  censorship, 
and  the  imposition  upon  all  public  officials  and 
university  professors  of  an  oath  of  conformity 
with  the  decisions  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  heresy 
was  completely  stamped  out  in  Bavaria  before 
1580.  The  progress  of  the  Counterreformation  in 
the  empire  was   materially    helped    by    Bavaria. 


105 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


▲lb«r 
Albert 


Albert  made  hiB  territory  a  refuge  for  Catholic  sub- 
jects of  Ploteetant  rulers  and  was  urgent  in  coun- 
ading  Elmperor  Maximilian  II.  against  concessions 
to  the  Protestants.  At  his  death  Bavaria  was  the 
strongjiold  of  the  Catholic  reaction  in  Germany, 
and  next  to  Spain,  the  most  formidable  opponent 
of  the  Reformed  faith  in  Europe. 

Wai/tbr  Goetz. 
BiBUOOKAnnr:  J.  G.  J.  Aratin,  Bayemt  autwitrtioe  VerhAl- 
nism,  Paaaau,  1830;  S.  Sugenheim,  Baiema  Kirehertr- 
umd  Voik*-ZuMnde,  Gieflsen.  1842;  M.  Loaaen.  K6lniaeh4 
Krieg,  Gotha,  1882;  C.  Rappreoht.  AUfrechi  V.  von  Baiem 
umd  aeine  SUknde,  Munich,  1883;  M.  Ritter,  DeuUehe  Oe- 
mAmsMs  im  ZtUalier  der  OeffenreformoHont  i.  238  sqq.,  300 
■qq.,  Stuttgart,  1880;  A.  KnOpfler,  Dis  Kelehbetoegung  in 
Baiftm  unier  Uenog  Albrechi  V.,  Munich,  1801;  8.  Riei- 
ler,  Zur  WUrdiguno  Henoo*  Albnchta  V.  von  Bayem,  ib. 
1801;  W.  Goeti,  Dis  bayerUche  Politik  im  eraten  Jakneknt 
der  Ragierung  AlbreefUa  V.,  ib.  1806;  idem,  Beitr&ge  tur 
Gtaeh.  Henog  AlbreehtB  V.,  ib.  1808;  C.  SchellhAss.  DieSud- 
detiUche  Nuntiatur  de*  Orafen  Bartholotndu9  von  Portia^ 
Berlin.  1806;  8.  Rieiler.  OeaehichU  Baiema,  vol.  v..  Gotha. 
1003;  K.  Hartmann,  Der  Prox€—  gegen  die  proteetanHachen 
LandetOnde  in  Bayem  unter  .  .  .  AWrecht  V.,  Munich, 
1004;  W.  Goeti.  Die  angebliche  Adelaverechto&rung  gegen 
ABtreeht  V.,  in  Forechungen  zur  Oeachiehte  Baiema,  xiii., 
1006. 

ALBERT  OF  BRANDENBURG:  Elector  of 
Mainz  and  archbishop  of  Magdeburg;  b.  June  28, 
1490;  d.  at  Mainz  Sept.  24,  1545.  He  was  the  sec- 
ond son  of  Johann  Cicero,  elector  of  Brandenburg, 
and  brother  of  the  future  elector,  Joachim  I. 
Tlirough  family  influence  he  became  canon  of  Mainz, 
at  the  age  of  eighteen.  In  1513  he  was  made  arch- 
bishop of  Magdeburg  and  administrator  of  Halber- 
stadt,  and  in  1514,  having  received  holy  orders,  arch- 
bishop and  elector  of  Mainz.  Having  promised  to 
pay  personally  the  sum  of  at  least  20,000  gold  gulden 
for  the  pallium,  he  was  forced  to  borrow  from 
the  Fuggers  in  Augsburg.  To  recoup  himself,  he 
obtained  (Aug.  15, 1515)  from  Pope  Leo  X.  the  priv- 
ilege of  preaching  indulgences — ostensibly  decreed 
for  the  building  of  St.  Peter's  in  Rome — in  his 
province  for  eight  years,  making  a  cash  payment 
of  10,000  gulden  and  promising  for  the  future  one- 
half  of  the  annual  revenues.  He  admitted  that  the 
transaction  was  a  money-making  affair,  and  when 
the  preaching  began  commissioners  representing  the 
Fuggers  accompanied  the  preachers  to  collect  their 
share. 

Albert  was  a  child  of  the  Renaissance,  interested 
in  art,  with  a  decided  fondness  for  costly  buildings, 
and  deserves  praise  as  a  patron  of  the  new  litera- 
ture. He  admired  Erasmus,  protected  Reuchlin, 
and  drew  Hutten  to  his  court.  Nevertheless,  on 
May  17,  1517,  he  issued  an  edict  against  the  press 
and  appointed  the  reactionary  Jodocus  Trutvetter 
inquisitor  for  his  entire  province.  When  the  way 
indulgences  were  preached  raised  a  storm,  his  action 
was  characteristic.  On  Oct.  31,  1517,  Luther  sent 
to  him  a  respectful  letter  on  the  subject,  and  his 
ninety-five  theses.  Albert  put  the  matter  aside 
and  left  the  letter  unanswered;  he  had  no  con- 
ception of  Luther's  motives  and  views,  and  desired 
not  to  be  troubled.  Later,  when  he  tried  to  inter- 
fere, he  found  that  his  influence  was  gone.  At 
the  Diet  of  Augsburg  in  1518  he  was  made  cardinal. 
After  the  death  of  the  Emperor  Maximilian  (1519) 
he  worked  effectively  for  the  election  of  Charles  V. 
As  regards  Luther  he  continued  to   follow   the 


advice  of  Erasmus  (in  a  letter  of  Nov.  1,  1519),  to 
have  as  little  as  possible  to  do  with  him,  if  he  cared 
for  his  own  tranquillity.  So  long  as  his  personal 
interests  did  not  suffer,  he  found  it  easy  to  be 
tolerant.  When  Luther,  at  the  wish  of  his  elector, 
wrote  a  second  letter  (Feb.  4,  1520),  Albert  replied 
quite  in  the  spirit  of  Erasmus.  He  did  not  inter- 
fere when  Hutten  issued  his  anonymous  anti- 
Roman  pamphlets,  and  he  showed  himself  unfriend- 
ly to  the  mendicant  friars.  But  when  papal 
legates  brought  him  (Oct.,  1520)  the  Golden  Rose 
and  definite  orders  concerning  Hutten  and  Luther, 
he  was  ready  at  once  to  expel  the  former  from  his 
court  and  to  bum  the  latter's  books. 

After  the  Diet  of  Worms  (1521)  Albert  pretended 
to  favor  certain  reforms,  and  many,  like  (Darlstadt, 
put  confidence  in  him.  Luther,  however,  ad- 
dressed to  him  a  letter  from  the  Wartburg  (Dec.  1, 
1521),  threatening  to  attack  publicly  his  "false 
god,''  the  indulgences,  if  the  sale  did  not  cease, 
and  to  expose  him  before  the  world.  Albert 
yielded  as  a  matter  of  policy,  and  because  no  other 
course  was  open  to  him.  He  was  also  unable  to 
prevent  the  introduction  of  the  Reformation  into 
Erfurt  and  Magdeburg.  He  was  not  on  good 
terms  with  his  chapter  in  Mainz,  and  during  the 
Peasants'  War  the  city  made  a  compact  with  the 
peasants.  It  was  suspected  that  he  had  in  mind  to 
follow  the  example  of  his  cousin  in  Prussia  (see 
Albert  of  Prussia)  and  to  secularize  his  bishopric 
— a  course  which  Luther  openly  (in  a  letter  of  June 
2,  1525)  called  upon  him  to  take.  On  the  same 
day,  however,  the  peasants  were  defeated  at 
Konigshofen,  and  the  immediate  danger  being  over, 
Albert  made  an  alliance  with  Luther's  most  deter- 
mined opponents,  Joachim  of  Brandenburg  and 
George  of  Saxony,  for  mutual  protection  and  for 
the  extermination  of  the  Lutheran  sect.  For  a 
time  he  continued  to  oppose  the  evangelical  move- 
ment in  a  half-hearted  way,  requesting  his  subjects 
to  abide  by  the  old  teaching  of  the  Church.  He 
introduced  some  outward  changes  in  opposition 
to  the  Reformation,  but  without  effect;  his  territory 
became  smaller;  and  his  influence  in  the  kingdom 
grew  less.  The  so-called  alliance  of  Halle  with 
his  brother  Joachim  and  other  Catholic  princes  in 
1533  could  not  retard  the  movement.  His  oppo- 
sition in  Dessau  was  in  vain  (1534).  Even  in  Halle, 
his  own  city,  he  could  not  hinder  the  victory  of  the 
Reformation  proved  by  the  call  of  Justus  Jonas  in 
1541.  As  early  as  1536  Albert  anticipated  coming 
events,  by  removing  his  valuable  collections  of 
objects  of  art  to  Mainz  and  Aschaffenburg;  and 
in  1540  he  left  Halle  forever.  In  1541  he  urged 
the  emperor  at  Regensburg  to  proceed  against  the 
Protestants  with  arms,  if  he  really  meant  to  be 
emperor;  otherwise  it  were  better  if  he  had  stayed 
in  Spain.  Albert  had  become,  possibly  under 
Jesuit  influence,  the  most  violent  of  the  princely 
opponents  of  the  Reformation.  He  met  with  con- 
tinual disappointments,  however,  and  steadily 
became  more  isolated.  He  took  a  deep  interest 
in  the  Council  of  Trent,  and  appointed  his  legates 
in  Apr.,  1545,  but  did  not  live  to  see  its  opening. 
His  last  years  were  harassed  by  quarrels  with  his 
chapter  and  the  importunities  of  his  creditors,  and 


▲Itart 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


106 


lie  died,  after  long  sufferings,  alone,  forsaken,  and 

almoei   in   want.    The    fine   buildings   which   he 

erected  at  Maim  and  Halle  and  his  monument  by 

F»ter  Viacher,  in  the  abbey  church  at  Aschaffen- 

burg  were  the  only  memorials  of  his  life  which  he 

left  to  posterity.  (T.  Koldb.) 

Bibuoorapht:    J.  H.  Hennes,  Atbreekt  von  BrantUnburg, 

Mains,  1858;   J.  May,  Der  KurfHrtt,  Kardinal  und  Enbi- 

•cAof  AOtneht  II.  von  Mainz  und  Brandenburg^  2  voIb., 

Mimioh,  1866-75;   A.  Woltera,  Der  AbgoU  mu  UaUe,  Bonn, 

1877;   H.  Oredy.  Kardinal  und  Erzbi$ehof  Albrecht  II,  von 

Brandenburg  in  eeinem  VerhAltnieee  gu  den  Olaubeneneuer- 

unffen.  Mains,  1801;  G.  F.  Hertsberg.  Oeeehichte  der  Stadt 

Halle,  vol.  ii.,  HaUe.  1891;   P.  Redlich.  Cardinal  Albreehi 

von  Brandenburg  und  das  neue  Stift  eu  UaUe,  Mains,  1900. 

ALBERT  THE  GREAT.    See  Albertus  Magnus. 

ALBERT  OF  PRUSSIA. 

Early  Life  and  Conversion  to  Protestantism  (f  1). 
Intercourse  with  Luther  and  Melanchthon  and  Aid  to 

the  Reformation  (12). 
Progress  of  the  Reformation  (13). 
Reorganisat.on  of  Ecclesiastical  Affairs  (f  4). 
His  Visitation  and  its  Oonsequences  (f  5). 
Ordinances  of  1540  and  1544  (f  6). 
Later  Efforts  in  Behalf  of  the  Reformation  (f  7). 

Albert,  margrave  of  Brandenburg-Ansbach,  last 

grand  master  of  the  Teutonic  order,  first  duke  of 

Prussia,  founder  of   the  Prussian  na- 

z.  Early     tional  Church,  was  bom  at  Ansbach 

Life  and  (25  m.  s.w.  of  Nuremberg)  Biay  17, 
Conversion  1490;  d.  at  Tapiau  (23  m.  e.  of  Kdn- 
to  Protes-    igsberg)  Mar.  20,  1568.     He  was  the 

tantism.  third  son  of  the  Margrave  Frederick 
the  Elder  of  Brandenburg-Ansbach, 
received  a  knightly  education  at  various  courts,  and 
was  made  a  canon  of  the  Cologne  Cathedral.  In 
1508,  with  his  brother  Casimir,  he  took  part  in 
the  Emperor  Maximilian's  campaign  against 
Venice.  He  was  elected  grand  master  of  the  Teu- 
tonic order  Dec.  15,  1510,  was  invested  with  the 
dignity  of  his  office  in  1511,  and  made  his  solemn 
entry  into  KOnigsberg  in  1512.  His  efforts  to  make 
his  order  independent  of  Poland  (to  which  it  had 
owed  fealty  since  the  peace  of  Thorn,  1466)  in- 
volved him  in  a  war  with  the  Polish  king,  which 
devastated  the  territory  of  the  order  until  a  truce 
for  four  years  was  made  in  1521.  Albert  then 
visited  Germany  and  tried  in  vain  to  obtain  the 
help  of  the  German  princes  against  Poland. 
While  attending  the  Diet  of  Nuremberg  in  1522-23 
he  heard  the  sermons  of  Andreas  Osiander  (whom 
he  afterward  called  his  "  father  in  Christ  ")f  and 
associated  with  others  of  the  reformed  faith  in  that 
city.  By  such  influence,  as  well  as  by  the  writings  of 
Luther  from  the  year  1520,  he  was  won  to  the  new 
teaching  and  openly  avowed  his  convictions. 

In  June,  1523,  he  addressed  a  confidential 
letter  to  Luther,  requesting  his  advice  concerning 
the  reformation  of  the  Teutonic  order  and  the 
means  of  bringing  about  a  renewal  of  Christian 
life  in  its  territory.  In  reply  Luther  advised  him 
to  convert  the  spiritual  territory  of  the  order  into 
a  worldly  principality.  In  Sept.,  1523,  he  visited 
the  Reformer  at  Wittenberg,  when  Luther  again 
advised  him,  with  the  concurrence  of  Melanchthon, 
to  put  aside  the  foolish  and  wrong  law  of  the 
order,  to  enter  himself  into  the  estate  of  matri- 
mony, and  to  convert  the  state  of  the  order  into 
a  worldly  one.    This  interview  was  the  beginning 


of  an  intimate  connection  between  Albert  and  the 

two  Reformers  of  Wittenberg,  and  was  inmiedi- 

ately  followed  by  Luther's  Ermahntmg  an  die  Herren 

Deut8ehen  Orderu    fals^    Kettschheii 

2,  Inter-  zu  meiden  und  gu  rechten  ehelichen 
course  with  KetischheU  zu  greifen.  With  the  advice 
Luther  and  and  help  of  Luther,  Albert  provided 

Melanch-   pure  Gospel  preaching  for  his  capital 
thon  and   by  calling  thither  such  men  as  Johann 
Aid  to  the   Briessmann     and    Paulus     Speratus 
Reforma-    (qq.v.).    Johannes    Amandus,    called 
tion.       about  the  same  time  as  Briessmann, 
while  a  popular  and  gifted  preacher, 
proved  a  fanatic  and  agitator,  and  was  obliged  to 
leave  the  city  and  country  in  1524.    His  pla^  was 
taken  by  Johannes  Poliander  (q.v.).    Authorized 
by  Albert,  Bishop  George  of  Polentz  (q.v.),  who 
favored  the  Reformation,  sent  learned    men    to 
preach  through  the  country;   and  evangelical  wri- 
tings, supplied  by  Albert's  friend,  Georg  Vogler, 
chancellor  of  his  brother  at  Ansbach,  were  care- 
fully disseminated.    At  Christmas,  1523  George  of 
Polentz  openly  embraced  the  new   faith;  and  the 
next  year,  with  the  consent  of  his  sovereign,  he 
advised  the  ministers  not  only  to  preach  the  pure 
Gospel,  but  also  to  use  the  German  language  at 
the   administration   of   baptism   and   the    Lord's 
Supper.    At  the  same  time  he  recommended  the 
reading  of  Luther's  writings,  and  declared  excom- 
munication to  be  abrogated. 

The  cause  made  steady  progress  in  KOnigsberg. 

Briessmann   delivered   free  lectures  to  the  laity 

and  ministers,  aiming    to  promote  a 

3.  Prog-    knowledge    of    the    gospel;    Speratus 
ress  of      preached  to  large  crowds;  and  a  newly 

the  Refer-  established  printing-office  published 
mation.  various  evangelical  writings,  especially 
the  sermons  and  pamphlets  of  Briess- 
mann and  Speratus.  Abuses  and  unevangelical 
elements  in  divine  service  and  in  the  inner  con- 
stitution of  the  churches,  images  and  altars  serv- 
ing the  worship  of  saints,  the  multitude  of  masses 
and  the  sacrifice  of  the  mass,  were  abolished.  A 
conmion  treasury  was  established  for  the  aid  of 
the  poor.  The  refonnatory  movement  acquired 
new  impetus  from  the  conversion  of  a  second  Prus- 
sian prelate,  Erhard  of  Queiss,  bishop  of  Pome- 
sania,  who,  under  the  title  Themata  issued  a 
Reformation-programme  in  his  diocese  for  the 
renewal  of  the  spiritual  life  on  the  basis  of  the  pure 
Gospel.  The  most  important  of  all,  however,  was 
the  carrying  out  of  Luther's  advice  with  regiuxl  to 
the  transformation  of  the  territory  of  the  order 
into  a  hereditary  secular  duchy  under  the  suzerainty 
of  Poland,  after  the  period  of  the  truce  had  expired 
and  peace  had  been  made  with  Poland.  On  Apr. 
10,  1525,  the  formal  investiture  of  Albert  as  duke 
of  Prussia  took  place  at  Oacow,  after  he  had  sworn 
the  oath  of  allegiance  to  King  Sigismund.  Toward 
the  end  of  the  following  month  he  made  his  solemn 
entry  into  KOnigsberg  and  received  the  homage 
of  the  Prussian  prelates,  the  knights  of  the  order, 
and  the  states.  On  July  1,  1526,  he  was  married 
in  the  castle  of  KOnigsberg  to  the  Danish  princess 
Dorothea,  Uke  himself  a  faithful  adherent  of  the 
Gospel. 


107 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Albert 


A  reorganixation  of  ecclesiastical  affairs  on  the 

badi  of  the  existing  episcopal  constitution  now 

took  place.    The  two  bishops,  George 

4.  Raor-  of  Polentz  and  Erhaid  of  Queiss,  who 
fuization  were  separated  from  Rome  by  their 

of  Ecde-    evangelical    faith    and    reformatory 

riitftical  activity,  married.  As  the  first  evan- 
AffaiTB.  gelical  bishops  they  confined  them- 
selves to  purely  ecclesiastical  functions 
^-ordination,  visitation,  inspection,  and  the  cele- 
bration of  marriage.  The  duke,  as  evangelical 
sovereign,  felt  himself  obliged  in  publicly  professing 
the  Reformation  and  reserving  the  right  to  call  a 
diet  for  regulating  the  affairs  of  the  Church,  to 
issue  a  mandate  (July  6,  1525)  requesting  the 
ministers  to  preach  the  Gospel  in  all  purity  and 
Christian  fidelity,  and  to  testify  against  the  pre- 
vailing superstition,  as  well  as  against  the  wide- 
spread godless  and  immoral  drunkenness,  lewdness, 
cursing,  and  frivolous  swearing.  The  first  diet  to 
regulate  the  affairs  of  the  Church  was  held  in  Dec., 
1525,  at  KOnigsberg.  The  result  was  the  Landes- 
ardnung,  which  regulated  the  appointment  and 
support  of  ministers,  the  filling  of  vacancies,  the 
observance  of  the  feast-days,  the  appropriation  of 
moneys  received  for  the  churches,  for  pious 
foundations,  and  for  the  poor.  The  Landesord- 
nung  contained  also  regulations  for  divine  service, 
drawn  up  by  the  bishops  and  published  by  Albert 
(Mar.,  1526)  under  the  title  Artikel  der  Ceremonien 
und  andere  Ordnung, 

For  the  better  regulation  of  existing  evils,  Albert, 
in  agreement  with  the  bishops,  appointed  a  com- 
mission of  clerical  and  lay  members, 
5.  His  Vial-  to  visit  the  different  parishes,  to  inves- 
tation       tigate  the  life  and  work  of  the  minis- 

and  Its  ters,  and,  where  necessary,  to  give 
Conse-      them    instruction    and    information. 

quences.  The  result  of  this  visitation,  the  first 
in  Prussia,  was  such  that  in  a 
mandate  dated  Apr.  24,  1528,  Albert  recom- 
mended the  two  bishops  to  continue  such  visita- 
tions in  their  dioceses  and  to  impress  upon 
the  ministers  their  task  with  reference  to 
doctrine  and  life.  That  such  supervision  might 
be  permanent  he  ordered  the  appointment  of  super- 
intendents. For  the  benefit  of  the  many  non- 
Germans,  the  ministers  were  supplied  with  trans- 
lators of  the  preached  word.  Albert  reconunended 
Luther's  Poatilla  as  pattern  for  the  preaching  of 
the  Gospel  and  caused  a  large  number  of  copies  to 
be  distributed  among  the  ministers.  He  also  or- 
dered quarterly  conferences  under  the  presidency 
of  the  superintendents,  and  in  July,  1529,  he  author- 
ized the  bishops  to  arrange  synodical  meetings,  at 
which  questions  pertaining  to  faith,  doctrine,  mar- 
riage, and  other  matters  of  importance  to  the 
pastoral  office  were  considered.  He  induced  Spera- 
tus  (who  had  succeeded  Queiss  as  bishop  of  Pome- 
sania)  to  prepare  an  outline  of  doctrines,  which 
was  published  under  the  title  Chriatliche  statuta 
tynodalia,  and  distributed  among  the  ministers 
as  the  sovereign's  own  confession,  as  is  indicated 
by  the  preface,  dated  Jan.  6, 1530.  This  precursor 
of  the  Augsburg  Confession  the  bishops  assigned  to 
the  ministers  in  1530  as  their  canon  of  doctrine. 


It  was  of  special  importance  during  a  crisiB 
brought  on  by  the  duke.  Influenced  by  his  friend 
Friedrich  von  Heideck,  he  favored  the  teachings 
of  the  enthusiast  Kaspar  Schwenckfeld  (q.v.), 
whom  he  met  at  Liegnitz,  and  gave  appoint- 
ments to  his  adherents.  The  new  ordinances 
of  the  bishops  were  at  first  not  heeded.  A  col- 
loquy held  at  Rastenburg  in  Dec.,  1531,  under 
the  presidency  of  Speratus  brought  about  no  satis- 
factory results.  Luther's  representations,  at  first 
unsuccessful,  finally  evoked  the  duke's  prohibition 
of  the  secret  or  public  preaching  or  teaching  of  the 
enthusiasts;  at  the  same  time  he  stated  that  he 
allowed  his  subjects  liberty  in  matters  of  faith, 
since  he  would  not  force  a  belief  upon  the  people. 
His  eyes  were  finally  opened  by  the  Anabaptist 
disorders  at  Milnster  (see  MI^nster,  Anabaptists 
in)  and  he  saw  the  political  danger  of  such  fanat- 
icism. In  Aug.,  1535,  he  issued  a  mandate  to  Spera- 
tus enjoining  him  to  preserve  the  purity  and  unity 
of  doctrine.  He  renewed  his  assurance  to  his 
brother.  Margrave  George,  **  that  he  and  his  country 
wished  to  be  looked  upon  as  constant  members  in 
the  line  of  professors  of  the  Augsburg  Confession," 
and  to  this  assurance  he  remained  faithful  to  the 
end. 

In  1540  Albert  issued  an  ordinance  treating  of 
the  many  evils  in  the  life  of  the  people  and  their 
cure,  and  another  concerning  the 
6.  Ordinan-  election  and  support  of  the  ministers, 
ces  of  1540  their  widows  and  orphans,  as  a  supple- 
and  1544.  ment  to  the  Landeaordnung  of  1525. 
Assisted  by  the  two  bishops,  he  made 
a  tour  of  inspection  in  the  winter  of  1542-43  to 
obtain  a  true  insight  into  the  religious  and  moral 
condition  of  the  country.  Toward  the  end  of  this 
tour,  he  issued  (Feb.,  1543)  a  mandate  in  the 
German  and  Polish  languages,  exhorting  the  people 
to  make  diligent  use  of  the  means  of  grace  and 
admonishing  those  of  the  nobility  who  despised 
the  word  and  the  sacrament.  Each  house  had  to 
appoint  in  turn  an  officer  to  keep  watch,  from  an 
elevated  place,  over  the  church  attendance.  Be- 
sides the  Sunday  pericopes  the  minister  was  to 
8p>end  a  half-hour  in  explaining  the  catechism.  Dur- 
ing the  week  devotional  meetings  were  to  be  held 
in  the  houses,  at  which  the  people  were  to  be  ex- 
amined as  to  their  knowledge  of  the  word  of  God. 
To  maintain  the  episcopal  constitution  Albert, 
in  a  memorandum  of  1542,  assured  the  continuance 
of  the  two  ancient  bishoprics  with  the  provision 
that  godly  and  learned  men  should  always  be  chosen 
for  them.  To  promote  Church  life  he  issued  an 
Ordnung  vom  dusaerlichen  GoUesdienat  und  Artikel 
der  Ceremonien  (1544),  supplementing  the  Artikel 
of  1525.  To  improve  the  service  in  the  churches 
he  required  the  schools  to  train  the  children  in 
singing,  and  had  a  hymn-book  prepared  by  Kugel- 
mann,  the  court  band-master. 

Albert  continued  to  correspond  with  Luther  and 
Melanchthon,  and  many  notes  from  his  hand, 
remarks  on  the  Psalms  and  the  Pauline  epistles, 
show  how  deeply  he  endeavored  to  penetrate 
into  the  Scriptures.  To  promote  Christian  culture 
he  established  a  library  in  his  castle,  the  basis  of 
the  public  library  founded  by  him  in  1540.    For 


THE  NEW  8CHAFF-HERZOG 


106 


tlie  beoefit  oi  a  higher  evangeticail  edacadon  he 
fetabliihfH  Latin  high-«chools,  and  founded  at 
Kftnignberg  a  school  which  in  1544, 
7.  Later  Ef-  with  the  aasistance  of  Luther  and 
forti  in  Helanchthon,  he  converted  into  a  uni- 
Bdialf  of  vernty.  As  first  rector  he  called  Georg 
die  Refor-  Sabinuis,  son-in-law  of  Melanchthon, 
mation.  but  his  character  rather  hampered 
the  development  of  the  institution.  A 
atin  greater  impediment  was  the  appointment,  in 
1549,  of  the  former  Nuremberg  reformer  Andreas 
Osiander  as  first  theological  professor,  his  doctrine 
of  justification  calling  forth  controversieB  (see  Osi- 
AifDER,  Andreas).  After  Osiander's  death  (1552), 
his  son4n-law  Johann  Funck  (q.v.)  gained  such  in- 
fluence over  the  duke  that  he  appointed  none  but 
followers  of  Osiander,  whose  opponents,  headed 
by  J.  Mdrlin,  were  obliged  to  leave  the  country, 
llie  political  and  ecclesiastical  confusion  finally 
became  so  great  that  a  Polish  commission  ^as 
forced  to  interfere,  and  in  1566  Funck  and  two  of 
his  party  were  executed  as  "  disturbers  of  the  peace, 
traitors,  and  promoters  of  the  Osiandrian  heresy." 
The  former  advisers  of  the  duke  were  then  rein- 
stated. 

These  painful  experiences  caused  Albert  to  long 
for  rest  and  the  restoration  of  peace  in  Church  and 
country.  He  recalled  Mdrlin  and  Martin  diemnitz, 
and,  in  consequence  of  a  resolution  of  the  synod, 
which  met  in  1567,  to  abide  by  the  corpus  dodrina 
of  the  Lutheran  Church,  he  caused  them  to  prepare 
the  Corpua  dodrina  Pruthenicum  (or  Wiederholung 
der  Summa  und  Inhalt  der  rechUn  allgemeinen  christ' 
lichen  Kirchenlehre^epetUio  corporis  dodrina  chris- 
tiana)  in  which  the  Osiandrian  errors  were  also 
refuted.  This  symbol,  which  was  approved  by 
the  estates,  Albert  published  with  a  preface,  dated 
July  9,  1567,  in  which  it  was  stated  that  "  no  one 
shall  be  admitted  to  any  office  in  Church  or  school 
who  does  not  approve  of  and  accept  it." 

After  the  settlement  of  the  doctrinal  questions,  a 
revision  of  the  former  church-order  was  undertaken, 
the  outcome  of  which  was  the  Kirchenordntmg  und 
Ceremonien,  published  in  1568.  The  vacant  epis- 
copal sees  of  Pomesania  and  Samland  were  filled 
by  the  appointment  of  G.  Venediger  (Venetus)  and 
J.  MOrlin,  respectively,  after  arrangements  had  been 
made  with  the  estates  as  to  the  election,  juris- 
diction, and  salary  of  the  bishops,  whereby  the  old 
episcopal  constitution  of  the  Prussian  Church  was 
established  and  assured.  Thus,  notwithstanding 
the  trials  of  his  last  years,  Albert  saw  the  full 
development  of  the  Evangelical  Church  in  the 
duchy  of  Prussia,  and  quiet  and  peace  restored 
before  his  death.  He  left  a  beautiful  testimony 
of  his  evangelical  faith  in  his  testament  for  Albert 
Frederick,  his  son  by  his  second  wife,  Anna  of 
Brunswick,  whom  he  had  married  in  1550.  His 
last  words  were:  "  Into  thy  hands  I  commit  my 
spirit,  thou  hast  redeemed  me,  O  Lord  God  of 
Truth."  David  ERDMANNt. 

Bibligorapht:  Sources:  M.  Luther,  Briefe,  ed.  by  W.  M. 
L.  de  Wette  and  J.  K.  Seidemann.  6  vols.,  Berlin.  1826- 
73;  P.  MeUmohthon.  Briefe  an  Albrecht  Herzog  von  Pretia- 
Mn,  ed.  by  K.  Faber,  Berlin,  1817:  J.  Voigt.  Brief tpeehael 
der  berUhmUtten  Otlehrter  det  Zeitaltert  der  Reformation 
mil  Herzog  Albrecht  von  Preueeen,  Kdnigsberg,  1841;    T. 


Auufmia  hiHiriiii,  GoCha.  1»8:    P.  TsdMckcrt. 

I\wmm$m,  moliL  LhIL  (voIh  idaL-^iw.  of  FubUkmOamfgrn  aus 
Sm  k.  fnumi9ckm  HtmwiB  Arckimm,  Berim,  1800).  Gen- 
cral  Literature:  D.  H.  Arnold,  Hitient  der  Kimiodmver 
Umeenim,  voL  L.  Kflnigrfwtg.  1746:  idem.  Kungefaeate 
KirtkemgteHkirktr  warn  Frwmmem,  ib.  17B0;  F.  S-Boek^Leben 
umd  Tkatem  Alhreehia  dee  AeUtm,  ib.  1750:  L.  too  Bacsko. 
Geeekitkie  Premeeeme,  voL  iw.,  ib.  1796:  A.  R.  Gebser  and 
C.  A.  Hasen,  Der  Dem  »  Kinigeberg,  ib.  1835;  L.  too 
Raake.  Demieeke  GeeAiekie  im  ZeUaUer  der  Reformation, 
ToL  u.,  Berlin,  1843.  Ei«.  traiML.  new  ed..  Robert  A. 
JohiMoa.  Umdon,  1006  (very  CDod);  W.  MdUer.  Andrtaa 
OeUmder,  Elberield.  1870:  ADB,  voL  i.;  K.  A.  Haae.  Her- 
eog  AWredU  vom  Frtumem  umd  eeime  Hefpredioer,  ib.  1879 
(aa  elaborate  monocraph);  K.  Lobmeier,  Henog  Aibreekt 
vcm  Pvtmweim,  Daadc  1800:  H.  Pmts,  Hereog  Albreeht 
worn  /N-waetiw.  in  Fremeeieeke  JakrkOeher,  fanri  2,  Berlin, 
1800:  E.  Joachim.  Die  Pohtik  dee  letiien  Hoekmeiatere  in 
Premmem,  Aibreekt  vom  Bramdenhurg,  3  Tola..  Leipeie.  1892- 
04;  P.  Terhafkert.  Heraog  Alhreekt  vom  Prtumem  ate  refor- 
matarieeke  Pere^nhekkeit,  HaDa,  1804. 

ALBERT  OF  RIGA:  Founder  of  the  German 
power  among  the  Esthonians  and  Letts;  d.  at 
Riga  Jan.  17,  1229.  He  was  a  nephew  of  Hartwig, 
archbishop  of  Bremen,  and  is  first  mentioned  as 
canon  in  that  dty.  In  1199  he  was  ordained  bishop 
of  UezkQll,  in  the  territory  of  the  livonians,  as  the 
suooesBor  of  Bishop  Berthold  (see  Berthold  op 
LnroiriA)  who  had  perished  the  previous  year  in 
an  uprising  of  the  pagan  inhabitants.  Though  or- 
ganised missionary  work  had  been  carried  on  among 
the  Letts  and  the  Livonians  since  1184,  they  had 
shown  themsdves  hostile  to  the  new  creed,  and  it 
fell  to  Albert  to  maintain  his  episoopal  title  and  to 
spread  the  Gospel  by  the  sword.  Aided  by  a  papal 
buU  he  succeeded  in  raising  a  large  force  of  crusa- 
ders, and  in  the  year  1200  appeared  on  the  shores 
of  the  Dwina,  where  he  met  with  little  resistance 
from  the  Livonians.  In  1201  he  founded  the  town 
of  Riga,  and  for  the  protection  of  his  dominions  and 
the  extension  of  his  conquests  organised  the  Order 
of  the  Brothers  of  the  Sword  (q.v.),  whose  grand 
master  was  made  subordinate  to  his  authority.  The 
dThristianising  of  the  country  was  promoted  by  the 
introduction  of  Cistercian  and  Premonstrant  monks, 
and  by  1206  almost  the  entire  Livonian  population 
had  been  baptised.  In  1207  Albert  received  Livo- 
nia as  a  fief  from  the  German  king,  together  with 
the  title  of  "  Prince  of  the  Empire."  Three  years 
later  he  was  confirmed  by  Innocent  III.  as  bishop 
of  the  territories  of  the  Livonians  and  the  Letts, 
and,  without  receiving  the  dignity  of  archbishop, 
was  granted  the  right  to  nominate  and  ordain 
bishops  for  such  territorial  conquests  as  might  be 
made  from  the  heathen  peoples  to  the  northeast. 
He  now  met  with  formidable  rivalry  from  the 
Brothers  of  the  Sword,  whose  grand  master  desired 
to  make  himself  independent  of  the  bishop.  The 
Danes,  also,  by  the  acquisition  of  LQbeck  in  1215, 
became  a  powerful  factor  in  the  politics  of  the 
eastern  Baltic.  Though  forced  for  a  time  to  make 
concessions  to  both,  Albert  by  courage  and  a  wise 
use  of  circumstances,  succeeded  in  retaining  his 
power  unimpaired.  From  1211  to  1224  vigorous 
campaigns  were  carried  on  against  the  heathen 
Esthonians  to  the  northeast,  who,  although  aided  by 
the  Russian  rulers  of  Novgorod  and  Pskov,  were 
compelled  to  submit  to  the  German  power.  The 
Danish  influence  speedily  disappeared,   and  the 


100 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Albert 
Albertns 


Brothers  of  thci  Sword  were  forced  in  time  to  take 
Ibeir  laiids  in  £sthoni&  bs  a  fief  from  Albert  and 
from  his  brother  Hermatm,  whom  he  bod  made 
biahop  of  southern  Estbonia,  ^ith  hia  seat  at  Dor- 
pat.  In  1227  the  island  of  Oeselp  the  last  strong- 
hold of  the  heathen  resistance  and  the  refuge  of 
pirates  who  held  the  eastern  Baltic  in  terror^  was 
overrun  by  a  crusading  army^  and  the  conversion 
of  the  country  was  completed.  Albert  is  a  striking 
type  of  the  militant  f cclesLaBtic  of  the  ^fiddle  Ages. 
In  spite  of  his  great  services  in  the  ipread  of  Chrt^- 
tianity  in  the  Baltic  lands^  it  is  aa  the  warrior, 
prince^  and  diplcmat,  rather  than  as  bishop,  that 
he  fitanda  out  meet  prominently.     (F.  Leziub.) 

Bm4O0m4^I^T:  Hcizirieui  de  Lettiap  Chronieon  Lit^nia, 
I12fi-I227.  in  MOII.  Sa%pt..  xxiii.  {1S74)  231-332:  K. 
VOD  Scfaldier,  Liviand  vnd  die  AnfAnffe  deuUchen  Ij^xn* 
im  Nordtn,  BerUa.  1850;  F.  Winter,  Dit  PrdmanM^^itn- 
arf  dem  twolften  Jahrhundertt^  ib.  1865:  idem.  Die  CiuieT- 
eienHr  dft  n&rdi^tUichen  DeulK-hland*.  GoUm,  1868:  H. 
HausRi^AJLnt  D9M  Rinot^  der  I^euttchm  und  DOmm  UM  den 
BrtUx  Eiiianda.  L«jpate,  ISTO;  G.  Dehio.  GttchuhU  det 
Er^dttumt  H^nnturff-Brtmfn,  ii.  160  Kjq,*  Berlin^  1877; 
T,  Sehienuuiiit  Ruvland,  Polen  und  Livland,  in  At^jtmein^ 
OMC*iiAXp.  ii.  1  iKiq.,  ib.  1^7. 

ALBERTI,  Ol-b&r'-tt,  VALENTDf:  Lutheran;  b. 
at  Lfihn  (60  m.  w.s.w.  of  Breslau),  Silesia,  Dec.  15, 
1635;  d.  in  Leipaic  Sept.  19,  1697.  He  studied 
in  the  latter  city  and  spent  most  of  his  life  there, 
being  professor  extraordinary  of  theology  from 
1672.  As  a  pepresentative  of  the  orthodoxy  of 
his  time  he  wrote  against  Pufendorf  and  Scheff- 
liiig  {qq.v.)i  but  is  noteworthy  chiefly  for  his  part 
in  the  Pietistic  controversy.  In  Feb.,  1687,  he 
furnished  a  meeting-plaee  in  his  house  for  the  eol^ 
kgia  fhadbihlieti,  which  brought  on  the  controversy 
in  Leipaic  (see  PiETiaM).  Nevertheless,  in  1G96 
be  published  an  Ausffihrlicher  G§gmaniteort  auf 
SpenerM  sogenannie  gnkndlich$  Vertheidigung  seiner 
tmd  der  Pieti^len  Unschuld. 

ALBERTINl,  al'l>er-tl'ni,  JOHANW  BAPHST 
VO!f:  Moravian  bishop;  b,  at  Neuwied  (on  the 
Rhine;  8  m,  n.n.w.  of  Cbblenis)  Feb.  17,  1769;  d.  at 
Berthelsdorf,  near  Heimhut,  Dec.  6,  1831-  He 
waa  educated  at  Neuwied,  at  Niesky  (1782-85), 
and  at  the  theological  seminary  of  Barby  (1785-88). 
From  1788  to  1810  he  taught  in  the  school  at  Niesky; 
from  ISIO  to  1821  he  was  preacher  and  bishop  in 
Niesky,  Gnadenberg,  and  Gnadenfrei  (Silesia);  in 
1821  he  became  a  member,  and  in  1824  president, 
of  the  Elders'  Conference  in  the  department  for 
Chiirch  and  school .  He  published :  Predigten  { 1 805  ) ; 
GeisUicke  Lieder  (1821);  and  Redm  (1832).  Some 
of  his  spiritual  songs  are  of  rare  beauty.  He  was 
a  fellow  student  and  friend  of  Schleiermacher. 

ALBERTUS  MAGKUS  ("Albert  the  Great"): 
Founder  of  the  most  flourislung  period  of  scliohwi* 
ticism;  b,  at  Lauingen  (26  m,  n.w.  of  Augsburg), 
Bavaria,  1193;  d.  at  Cologfne  Nov.  15,  1280.  He 
etudied  at  Padua,  entered  the  order  of  St.  Dominic 
there  in  1223,  and  served  as  lector  in  the  various 
convent  schools  of  the  order  in  Germany,  especially 
in  Cologne.  In  1245  he  went  to  Paris  to  become 
maater  of  theology.  In  1248  he  returned  to  Cologne 
Bs  primariuM  led?r  and  regent  of  the  school  in  that 
city.  In  1254  a  general  chapter  of  the  Dominican 
order  at  Worms  chose  him  general  for  Germany, 


in  which  capacity  he  traversed  the  country  on  foot 
from  end  to  end,  viaiting  the  monasteriea  and  en^ 
forcing  discipline.  In  1260  Alexander  IV,  made 
him  bishop  of  Regensburg;  but  this  office  was  so 
Itttle  in  harmony  with  his  character  and  babita 
as  a  teacher  and  writer  that,  aft^r  the  lapse  of  two 
years,  he  was  allowed  to  resign.  He  retired  to  hii 
monastery  in  Cologne,  where  he  spent  the  rest  of 
his  life^  making  many  brief  visits,  however,  to  other 
places;  as  when  he  went  to  Paris  after  he  had 
reached  the  agtJ  of  80  to  vindicate  the  orthodoxy 
of  liis  late  pupil,  Thomas  Aquinas. 

As  an  author  Albert  evinced  a  many-eidedneaa 
which  procured  for  him  the  title  of  doctor  uni^ 
V€rsali8f  while  his  knowledge  of  natural  science 
and  its  practical  applications  made  him  a  sor- 
cerer in  popular  estimation.  His  works  fill 
twenty-one  folio  volumes  aa  published  by  P. 
Jammy  (Lyons,  1651;  reedited  by  A.  Borgnet, 
38  vols,,  Paris.  lSOO-1900).  They  embrace  logic, 
phyaicSt  metaphysics  and  psychology,  ethics,  and 
theology;  By  the  use  of  translations  from  the 
Arabic  and  Greco- Latin  versions,  he  expounded 
the  complete  philosophical  system  of  Aristotle, 
excepting  the  "  Politics,"  modifying  his  interpre- 
tation in  the  interests  of  the  Church.  Thus  the 
influence  of  Aristotle  came  to  supersede  Platonism 
and  Neoptatonism  in  the  later  scholasticism.  At 
a  trme  when  dialectic  was  in  sore  need  of  a  new 
method,  the  introduction  of  the  Aristotelian  logic 
provided  a  subtle  and  searching  instrument  for 
investigation  and  discussion.  For  Albert us^  logic 
was  not  properly  a  science,  but  an  organon  for  reach- 
ing the  unknown  by  meajis  of  the  known.  Follow- 
ing Avicenna  whom  he  regards  as  the  leading 
commentator  of  Aristotle,  he  affirms  that  universals 
exist  in  three  modes:  (1)  Before  the  individuals, 
as  ideas  or  types  in  the  divine  mind  (Plato).  (2)  In 
the  individuals,  as  that  which  is  common  to  them 
(Aristotle).  (3)  After  the  individuals,  as  an  ab- 
straction of  thought  (conceptualists  and  nominal- 
ists). Thus  he  seeks  to  harmoniee  the  rival  teach* 
ings  concerning  universals.  In  expounding  the 
physical  theories  of  Aristotle,  he  showed  that  he 
partook  of  the  rising  scientific  spirit  of  the  age, 
especially  in  his  criticism  of  alchemy  and  in  De 
vegetabilibus  et  planiis,  which  abounds  in  brilliant 
observations. 

The  chief  theological  works  of  Albertus  were  a 
commentary  (3  vols.)  on  the  "  Sentences "  of 
Peter  Lombard ^  and  a  Summum  ihwlogi(F  in  a 
more  didactic  strain.  Already  the  "  doctrine  of 
the  twofold  truth  "  had  been  accepted  by  his  con- 
temporaries— wiiat  is  truth  in  philosophy  may 
not  be  truth  in  theology,  and  vwe  versa.  Christian 
thinkers  were,  however,  profoundly  perplexed  by 
the  sharp  opposition  between  ideas  drawn  from 
Greek  scientific  and  philosophical  sources  and 
those  derived  from  religious  tradition,  Albertus 
sought  to  soften  this  antinomy  by  establishing  the 
distinction  between  natural  and  revealed  religion, 
which  became  henceforth  a  postulate  of  medieval 
and  later  theology.  Since  the  soul  can  know  only 
that  which  is  grounded  in  it«  own  nature,  it  rises 
to  the  mystery  of  the  Trinity,  the  Incarnation,  and 
other     specifically    Cliristian     doctrines     through 


Albertns 
Alouin 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


110 


mipemiitural  illumiiiation  alone.  Hence  the  well- 
known  dictum:  '^  Revelation  ia  above  but  not 
contrary  to  reason."  On  the  one  hand,  the  attempt 
to  "  rational ii5C  ^'  the  contents  of  revelation  must 
be  abandoned;  on  the  other  hand,  philosophy 
must  be  modified  in  the  interests  of  f&ith.  The 
merit  which  belongs  to  faith  consists  in  its  accepting 
truth  which  comes  only  through  revelation.  In 
his  entire  discussion  concerning  the  being  and 
attnbutes  of  God,  concerning  the  world  as  created 
in  time  in  opposition  to  the  eternity  of  matter  as 
maintained  by  Aristotle,  cod oemingangelSi  miracles, 
the  soul,  sin  and  free-will, grace,  and  finally,  original 
and  actual  sin,  the  Aristotelian  logic  is  applied  in 
the  most  rigid  manner,  and  when  this  fails  Albert  us 
retires  behind  the  distinction  thrown  up  between 
philosophy  and  theology.  With  all  his  learning 
and  subtlety  of  argument,  he  made  it  evident 
that  with  his  presuppositions  and  by  his  method 
a  final  adjudication  of  the  claims  of  fcason  and 
faith,  that  is^  a  unity  of  intelligence,  is  impossible. 
Apart  from  his  vast  erudition,  his  significance  lay 
first,  in  his  profound  inffuence  upon  scholastic 
and  the  subsequent  Protestant  theology  through 
his  subfititution  of  the  Aristotelian  logic  and  meta- 
physics for  Platonic  and  Neop  I  atonic  ideas,  and 
secondly,  In  the  fact,  that  to  a  degree  never  before 
attempted,  he  set  in  clear  light  and  organiied  in 
the  thought  of  the  Church  the  ancient  opposition 
between  Jewish  supcrnaturalism  and  Greek  ration- 
alism. By  the  false  antithesis  thus  raised  between 
reason  and  revelation,  he  prepared  the  way  for  the 
long  conflict  of  theology  and  science,  of  reason 
and  dogma,  of  naturalism  and  supematuralism, 
of  individual  judgment  and  collective  authority, 
which  is  still  unsettled.  C.  A.  Bbckwith. 

BiaLtoamAr»T:  J.  SifihBrCi  Ati^rttu  Magnus^  §€in  L^ten  und 
mint  W-UtenMehafi,  Ratiabon,  I8S7.  En^.  ImidbI.,  Londob, 
1876;  E.  GaiuliRus,  AUm-tm  Maanut,  Venice,  imd;  F. 
A.  Poucli€t.  Ifiatoire  deM  «««nc:«j  mttuteltt*  tiu  mopen^rj^e, 
ou  A£6er*  U  Grand  ei  ton  ipoque,  Pitrifl,  1853:  M.  Joel, 
Vtr)%aUniMM  Albert  d^d  GrD*mm  xu  Moaea  MQimonidea,  Brea- 
]&u*  1803;  O.  d'Asftftilly,  Albert  le  Grajui.  PariB,  1870; 
Wt  PregPT,  tjeaehuJite  der  dau^rh^n  Myttik  im  MitielalUr, 
Leipiio,  1874;  Aibertut  M^ignvia  in  GitchicKie  and  S^igt, 
Co1oea»«  1880;  G.  von  HertUag*  Athmrtux  MoonuM*  ib. 
1 880;  R.  dc  Lieuhty .  A  Ibert  U  Grand  at  S.  Thonuu  d*Aquin^ 
Parii.  1880:  J.  Bach,  De*  Ali?ertu*  Stagnu*  Verhmnitt  m 
d^f  Erkenntnittiehre  der  Grieehen^  Late  ner,  Araher  and 
Jwhnt  Vienna,  1 88 1;  A,  Scbneiden  Die Ftyth0loffie AUm-ta 
dea  6n>M#n,  MUnater,  1903.  For  hi«  phjIoBophy:  A.  SeackU 
OtMehichie  dei-  Mch&ltutiKhen  Phiiomphie^  3  vota.,  Hajni, 
1864-66;  J.  E.  EfdmAnnn  GrundriM  der  Oeackichte  dtr  Phi* 
Uitopkie J.,  4th  ed.,  1895.  Eng.  tmnjiL,  voL  i.,  London,  1803. 

ALBIGEITSES.     See  New  Manicheans,  II. 

ALBIZZI,  al-bit'si  or  fll-bit'rf,  AHTOlflO;    Itd- 

iftn  priest;  b,  in  Florence  Nov.  25,  1547 ;  d.  at 
Kempten  (50  m.  s.s.w.  of  Augsburg),  Bavajia, 
July  17,  1626*  He  becanie  secretary  to  Cardinal 
Andrew,  archduke  of  Austria  (1576),  but  after  the 
death  of  the  latter  (1591)  embraced  Protestantism, 
left  Italy,  and  resided  thenceforth  in  Augsburg 
and  Kempten  He  wrote;  Prindpium  Christiano' 
rum  slemmatu  (Augsburg.  1608);  Sermoneit  in 
Maithmum  (1609)j  De  principii^  Teligtoniji  Chris' 
tiana  (1612);  and  Bxercitaticnes  iheologicm  (Kemp- 
ten, 1616). 

ALBIZZI,   BARTOLOMEO    CUt,   Botthokm^us 
Albijci'iiM  PiaanuM):    FranciBcau  monk;  b.  at  Riva- 


no,  Tuscany;  d,  at  Pisa  Dec.  10,  1401.  He  be- 
came a  celebrated  preacher,  and  taught  theology 
in  several  monasteries,  chiefly  at  Pisa,  He  wrote 
a  famous  book.  Liber  ctmformiiatum  vilcB  Ssncii 
Frand^ci  cum  vita  Jesu  ChHsti,  which  was  ap- 
proved by  the  general  chapter  of  his  order  in  1399 
and  was  first  printed  at  Venice  toward  the  cloee  of 
the  fifteenth  century.  It  is  of  great  value  for  the 
history  of  the  Franciscans,  but  is  marred  by  exag- 
gerations and  lack  of  judgment  and  ^>od  t^'^te 
(e.g*,  he  states  that  Francis  was  foretold  in  the  Old 
Testamont  by  prototypes  and  prophecies,  that  he 
performed  miracles  and  prophesied,  and  that  he 
was  crucified  and  is  exalted  above  the  angels). 
In  subsequent  editions  many  passages  were  modi- 
fied or  omitted.  Erasmus  Alber  (q.v.)  made  it 
the  basis  of  his  Barfusser  Monehe  Enkrmpi^gel  nnd 
Alcoran  (published  at  Wittenberg,  with  an  intro^ 
duction  by  Luther,  1542).  Albizzi  published  also 
sermons  and  a  life  of  the  Virgin  Alary  (Venice, 
1596). 

ALBOj  JOSEPH:  The  last  noteworthy  Jewish 
religious  philosopher  of  the  Middle  Ages;  b.  at 
Monreiil  (125  m.  e.n.e.  of  Madrid),  Spain,  about 
13^0;  d,  about  1444,  He  was  one  of  the  principal 
Jewish  rcpreaentatives  at  the  disputation  held  in 
1413  and  1414  at  Tortosa,  under  the  auspices  of 
Benedict  XIII.,  between  selected  champions  of  the 
Jewish  and  Christian  religions,  ynth  the  view  of 
convincing  the  Jews,  from  the  testimony  of  their 
own  literature,  of  the  truth  of  Christianity.  About 
1425,  at  Soria  in  Old  Castile,  he  wrote  his  principal 
work  of  religious  philosophy,  Sepher  ha-  'ikkaritn 
("  Book  of  the  Roots,"  i.e.,  ''  Fundamental  Prin- 
ciples ").  He  finds  three  ideas  fundamental  in 
any  religion,  via.,  God,  Revelation,  and  Retribu- 
tion. [In  the  idea  of  God  he  finds  four  secondary 
principles,  unity,  incorpo reality,  eternity,  and  per- 
fection; in  the  second  of  his  fundamentals  he  fUids 
three  secondary  principles,  prophecy,  Moses  as  the 
unique  prophet,  and  the  binding  force  of  the  Mosaic 
Law*;  and  from  his  third  fundamental  he  derives 
secondarily  the  belief  in  the  resurrection  of  the 
body.]  He  discusses  also  the  distinguishing  marks 
of  the  historic  religions,  attempting  to  prove  that 
Judaism  b  difTerentiated  from  Christianity  by  it^ 
greater  cr^bilily  and  consonance  w^th  reason. 
Belief  in  a  Messiah  he  considers  an  essential  part 
not  of  Judaism,  but  of  Christianity.  There  is  a 
German  translation  of  his  work  by  W.  and  L. 
Schlcfiinger  (Frankfort,  1844).         (G.  Dalman.) 

BiBLiOQRAPHr:  M.  Eifller,  Vorleeungen  ^ixr  die  jMiKhe 
Phiiamphie  da  Mittelaitert,  Lii.  180-234.  Vienrui.  1S76; 
H.  Gttti,  Qm$chKhi€  der  Jvden,  3d  ed.,  viiL  168-17S,  Ber- 
lin, ISOO,  £n«.  irvu].,  Londan,  1S&1-08;  A.  T&nser, 
Die  Betwione-Phih^ophie  JoaepK  AWo'm,  Fruikfort,  ISOfl; 
JE,  i.  324-327. 

ALBRECHT,  al'breat.     See  Albert. 

ALBRECHT,    OTTO    WILHELM    FERDHfAND: 

German  Lutheran;  b.  at  AngerroUnde  (42  m,  n.e. 
of  Berlin)  Dec.  2,  1855,  He  was  educated  at  the 
gymnasium  in  Potidam,  at  the  University  of  Halle 
(1 873-77 )i  and  at  the  Wittenberg  seminary  for 
preachers.  He  was  assistant  pastor  at  Wittenberg 
in  l&SCHSt,  and  pastor  at  St^ten  in  1S^1-S4,  at 
Dachwig  in  1884-92,  and  at   Naumburg   (Saale) 


Ill 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Albertus 
AlouizL 


from  1802  to  the  present  time.  He  was  elected  a 
eorraponding  member  of  the  K&nigliche  Akademie 
gemnnnUUiger  Wissenschaften  in  1895.  His  theo- 
logical position  is  that  of  a  modem  Lutheran.  His 
wiitingB  include  Geschichte  der  Magdeburger  Bv- 
helgetdkehafi  (1892);  Die  evangelische  Gemeinde 
MiUenbergtmdihrerster  Prediger  (Halle,  1S96);  Pre- 
digien  (Gotha,  1899);  Geschichte  der  Marien-Mag- 
daUnenkirche  tu  Naumburg  a.  S,  (1902);  and  Das 
Enchiridion  Luthere  vom  Jahre  1536  herausgegeben 
und  untersucht  (1905).  He  has  also  been  a  col- 
laborator on  the  Weimar  edition  of  the  works  of 
Luther,  to  which  he  has  contributed  the  fifteenth 
and  twenty-eighth  volumes,  containing  the  refor- 
mer's writings  of  1524  and  his  sermons  on  John  in 
1528-29  (Weimar,  1898-1903).  He  is  likewise  a 
collaborator  on  the  Brunswick  edition  of  Luther, 
and  is  the  author  of  numerous  briefer  monographs 
and  contributions. 

ALBRIGHT,  dl'brait,  JACOB:  Founder  of  "the 
Evangelical  Association  of  North  America;  "  b. 
near  Pottstown,  Penn.,  Biay  1,  1759;  d.  at  Mtlhl- 
baeh,  Lebanon  County,  Penn.,  May  18,  1808.  His 
parents  were  Pennsylvania  Germans  of  the  Lu- 
theran Church,  in  which  denomination  he  was 
himself  trained.  His  education  was  defective,  and 
his  early  surroundings  were  unintellectual.  After 
marriage  he  moved  to  Lancaster  County  and  carried 
on  a  successful  tile  and  brick  business.  Grief  over 
the  death  of  several  children  in  one  year  (1790)  and 
the  counsels  of  Anton  Hautz,  a  German  Reformed 
minister,  led  to  his  conversion,  and  he  became  a 
Methodist  lay  preacher.  At  length  his  concern 
for  his  German  Lutheran  brethren  led  him  to  give 
up  business  and  devote  himself  entirely  to  mis- 
sionary efforts.  As  the  Methodist  Church  did  not 
desire  to  enter  upon  the  German  field  he  founded 
a  new  denomination.  Its  members  are  often  called 
the  "  Albright  Brethren.''    See  Evanoeucal  Abbo- 

CIATION. 

ALCAHTARA,  Ol-cdn'torra,  ORDER  OF:  A 
spiritual  order  of  knights,  with  Cistercian  rule, 
founded  for  the  defense  of  the  frontier  of  Castile 
against  the  Moors  under  Alfonso  VIII.,  the  Noble 
(1158-1214).  Its  name  at  first  was  Order  of  San 
Julian  del  Pereiro  ("  o^  tbe  pear-tree  "),  from  a 
CastiHan  frontier  citadel,  the  defense  of  which  was 
entrusted  to  two  brothers,  Suarez  and  Gomez 
Barrientoa,  who  with  Bishop  Ordonius  (Ordosio) 
of  Salamanca  (1160-66)  founded  the  order.  When 
Alcantara  in  Estremadura  was  taken  by  King 
Alfonso  IX.  of  Leon  in  1213,  the  seat  of  the  order 
was  transferred  to  that  place.  Alfonso  committed 
the  defense  of  this  important  fortress  at  first  to  the 
kni^Uy  order  of  Calatrava  (q.v.),  but  five  years 
later  he  transferred  the  service  to  the  Order  of  San 
Julian,  which  now  (1218)  took  the  name  of  the 
Order  of  Alcantara,  being  still  subject,  however, 
to  the  grand  master  of  the  Calatrava  order.  Taking 
advantage  of  a  contested  election, it  separated  from 
the  Calatrava  order,  and  elected  its  first  independ- 
ent grand  master  in  the  person  of  Diego  Sanchez. 
Duibig  the  aubaequent  strugi^es  with  the  Moors, 
in  which  the  Alcantara  knights  distinguished  them- 
■ehrea  by  their  bravery,  they  had  on  their  flag  the 


united  arms  of  Leon  and  Castile,  with  a  cross  of 
the  order  and  the  ancient  emblem  of  the  pear-tree. 
The  number  of  their  commanderies  in  their  days  of 
prosperity  was  about  fifty.  When  Juan  de  Zufiiga, 
the  thirty-eighth  grand  master  (1479-95)  resigned 
his  office  to  become  archbishop  of  Seville,  the  grand- 
mastership  passed  to  the  king  of  Castile  (Ferdinand 
the  Catholic).  With  its  independent  existence  the 
order  lost  more  and  more  its  spiritual  character. 
In  consequence  of  the  disturbances  in  the  Spanish 
monarchy,  it  was  abolished  in  1873,  but  was  re- 
established in  1874  as  a  purely  military  order  of 
merit  by  Alfonso  XII.  O.  ZdCKLERf. 

Bibuoqrapht:  Rades  de  Andrada,  Cronica  tU  Uu  trea  Or- 
dinet  y  CabtUleriat  de  Santjaoo,  Calatrava  y  Alcantara, 
Toledo,  1572;  DifinicioneB  de  la  orden  y  eavalUria  de  Al- 
cantara, Madrid,  1603;  Helyot,  Ordree  monaetiquee,  vi.  68- 
05;  P.  B.  Gams,  Kirchenofchichte  von  Spanitn,  iiL  65-56. 
lUitiBbon,  1876. 

ALdMUS.    See  High  Priest. 

ALCUIN,  al'cwin  (English  name,  Ealhwine;  Lat. 
Flaccus  Alhinus):  The  most  prominent  adviser 
of  Charlemagne  in  his  efforts  to  promote  learning ; 
b.  in  Northumbria  (perhaps  in  York)  735  (730?);  ^ 
d.  at  Tours  May  19,  804.  He  was  of  good  birth  and 
a  relative  of  Willibrod.  He  was  educated  in  the 
famous  cathedral  school  of  Archbishop  Egbert  of 
York  (q.v.),  under  a  master,  Ethelbert  (Albert), 
who  seems  to  have  been  a  man  of  many-sided  learn- 
ing and  who  is  often  praised  by  Alcuin.  With  him, 
or  commissioned  by  him,  Alcuin  made  several 
visits  to  Rome,  and  on  such  journeys  became  ac- 
quainted with  Prankish  monasteries  and  with  men 
like  Lul  of  Mainz  and  Fulrad  of  St.  Denis.  He 
succeeded  Ethelbert  as  head  of  the  school  when  the 
latter  was  made  archbishop  (766),  and,  after  Ethel- 
bert's  retirement  and  the  elevation  of  Eanbald  to 
the  archiepiscopal  throne  (778),  was  also  custos  of 
the  valuable  cathedral  library  at  York.  He  went 
to  Rome  to  obtain  the  pallium  for  Eanbald,  and 
at  Parma  (781)  met  Charlemagne  to  whom  he  was 
already  known.  Shortly  after  his  return  to  Eng- 
land he  accepted  a  call  from  the  Prankish  king, 
who  was  then  gathering  scholars  at  his  court,  and, 
with  the  exception  of  a  visit  to  his  native  land  on 
political  business  in  790-793,  spent  the  rest  of  his 
life  on  the  Continent.  Charlemagne  gave  him  the 
income  of  several  abbeys,  and  till  790  he  acted  as 
head  of  a  court  school,  where  not  only  the  sons  of 
the  Prankish  nobles,  but  Charlemagne  and  his 
family  as  well,  profited  by  his  instruction.  |/ 

A  true  scholar  and  teacher,  Alcuin  seldom  med- 
dled in  worldly  affairs,  and  his  letters  (more  than 
300  in  number)  give  little  historical  information, 
though  they  are  rich  in  personal  details.  He  took  an 
active  part  in  the  Adoptionist  controversy,  wrote  two 
treatises  against  Pelix  of  Urgel,  and  opposed  his 
colleague,  Elipandus.  At  the  Synod  of  Prankfort 
in  794  he  assisted  in  the  condemnation  of  Pelix, 
and  later,  at  the  Synod  of  Aachen  in  799  (800?), 
induced  him  to  recant  (see  Adoptionism).  Prom 
793  he  was  the  constant  and  efficient  helper  of 
Charlemagne  in  founding  schools,  promoting  the 
education  of  the  clergy,  and  like  undertakings. 
He  was  also  in  close  association  with  contempo- 
raries like  Amo  of  Salzburg,  Angilbert,  abbot  of 


Alouin 
▲leffambe 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


112 


Centula,  and  Adalhard  of  Corbie.  In  796  his  pa- 
tron gave  him  the  abbey  of  St.  Martin,  near  Tours, 
and  several  other  monasteries.  Under  his  guid- 
ance the  school  of  Tours  became  a  nursery  of 
ecclesiastical  and  liberal  education  for  the  whole 
kingdom.  His  distinguished  pupils  there  included 
Sigulf,  who  supplied  the  information  for  his  biog- 
raphy, Rabanus  Maurus,  and  perhaps  the  litur- 
gist,  Amalarius  of  Metz.  When  old  and  feeble  and 
almost  blind,  he  left  the  management  to  his  scholars, 
but  he  continued  to  be  the  counselor  of  his  royal 
friend  till  his  death. 

Alcuin  was  mild  in  spirit,  adverse  to  discord, 
orthodox  in  faith,  equally  interested  in  promoting 
the  authority  of  Rome  and  the  royal  priesthood  of 
Charlemagne.  His  great  service  was  his  part  in 
the  so-caUed  Carolingian  renaissance,  his  wise  and 
efficient  efforts  to  elevate  and  educate  the  clergy 
and  the  monks,  to  improve  preaching,  to  regulate 
the  Christian  life  of  the  people  and  advance  the 
faith  among  the  heathen,  always  by  instruction 
rather  than  by  force.  His  theology,  while  not 
original,  rests  on  an  intimate  acquaintance  with 
the  Fathers,  especially  Jerome  and  Augustine. 
To  ecclesiastical  learning  he  added  classical,  but 
in  such  manner  that  it  was  always  the  servant  of  the 
former.  He  was  able  to  give  his  master  informa- 
tion concerning  astronomy  and  natural  science 
but,  as  he  considered  grammar  and  philosophy 
auxiliary  to  religion,  so  he  regarded  these  branches 
of  knowledge  primarily  as  a  means  of  knowing 
God. 

His  theological  writings  include  a  work  on  the 
Trinity  which  contains  the  germs  of  the  later 
scholastic  theology.  His  authorship  of  a  LtbeUus 
de  proceasu  SpirUus  Sancti  and  of  some  other  works 
which  have  been  attributed  to  him  is  doubtful. 
He  wrote  commentaries  on  Genesis,  the  Psalms, 
the  Song  of  Songs,  John,  and  other  books  of  the 
Bible,  based  upon  the  Church  Fathers  and  following 
the  current  moral  and  allegorical  exposition.  At 
Charlemagne's  request  he  revived  the  text  of  the 
Vulgate  according  to  the  best  available  sources. 
His  skill  as  a  teacher  is  evident  in  text-books  on 
grammar  and  orthography,  as  well  as  in  treatises 
on  rhetoric  and  dialectics  which  resemble  Cicero. 
His  Latin  poems,  including  epigrams,  friendly 
letters,  hymns,  riddles,  poems  for  special  occasions, 
and  the  like,  show  more  skill  in  versification  than 
poetic  gifts.  The  most  important,  the  De  ponii- 
ficibua  et  Sanctis  ecdesicB  EhoracensiSy  gives  valuable 
information  concerning  the  state  of  culture  in  his 
native  land  and  his  own  education  [and  contains 
(U.  1530-61)  a  catalogue  of  the  cathedral  library 
at  York,  which  is  the  earliest  existing  catalogue 
of  an  English  library].  With  the  exception  of  the 
hymns,  all  his  poems  are  partly  in  heroic  and  partly 
in  elegiac  verse.  He  prepared  lives  of  Willibrod. 
Vedastus,  and  Richarius,  which  are  mainly  recasts 
and  amplifications  of  older  works.  Of  a  liturgical 
and  devotional  character  are  a  Liber  sacratnentalis 
and  the  De  psalmorum  uau.  Intended  more  par- 
ticulariy  for  the  laity  are  the  De  virttUibus  et  vUiis 
and  a  psychologico-philosophical  treatise  on  ethics, 
De  anima  raJtUme  ad  Etdaliam  virginem  (i.e.,  Gim- 
trade,  the  sister  of  Adalhard).  H.  Hahn. 


Bibuoorapht:  Sources:  Alcuin,  Opera,  ed.  by  Frobemus 
Forater,  2  vols.,  lUttisbon,  1777.  contains  anonymous  life 
written  before  829  a.d.  on  data  furnished  by  Sigulf;  re- 
printed in  MPLt  o.-ci.;  Monumenta  Alcuiniana,  ed.  by 
W.  Wattenbach  and  E.  Dtimmler,  in  BRO,  vi..  Berlin, 
1873  (contains  life  of  Alcuin,  his  life  of  Willibrod.  and  his 
De  ponHfieibua);  Alcuin,  EpUtolcB,  in  MQH,  Epiat.,  iv. 
1-^481  (BjneL  Caroli  <Bvi,  ii.),  1805.  and  in  BRO,  1873.  vi. 
144-^7;  idem,  Carmina,  in  MGH,  Poetat  latini  cevi  Caroli, 
i.  (1881)  160-350;  idem,  De  pontificibua,  in  Hiaioriana  of 
the  Chwrch  of  York  and  iU  Archbiahopt,  ed.  by  J.  Raine, 
i.  349-308  (cf.  pp.  Ixi.-lxv.  of  Rolla  Seriea,  No.  71.  Lon- 
don, 1870);  Martinus  Turonensis,  Vita  Alcuini  Abbatia, 
in  MOU,  SeripL,  xv.  1  (1887).  182-107.  General:  Rivet,  in 
Hiaioira  litUraire  de  la  France,  iv.  205-347;  F.  Lo- 
rents,  AUuina  Leben,  Halle,  1820,  Eng.  transl.,  Lou- 
don, 1837;  J.  C.  F.  B&hr,  Oeaehichte  der  rdmiachen  Litera- 
tur  tm  karolinoiachen  Zeitalter,  pp.  78-84,  102-106.  302- 
354,  (Karlsruhe,  1840;  J.  B.  Lafor§t.  Alcuin,  reataurateur 
dea  aciencea  en  Occident  aoua  Charlemagne,  Louvain,  1851; 
F.  Monnier,  Alcuin  et  aon  influence  litUraire,  religieuae  et 
politique  chea  lea  Franka,  2d  ed.,  Paris,  1864;  A.  Dupuy, 
Alcuin  et  I'ieole  de  SairUrMarHn  de  Toura,  Tours.  1876; 
idem,  Alcuin  et  la  aouveraineU  ponHficale  au  huitihne  aikcle, 
ib.  1872;  F.  Hamelin, Eaaai aur lavieetUa ouvragea d'A Icuin, 
Renne8,1874;  ilDB.i. 343-348;  T.8icke\,  Alcuinatudien,  I 
02,  Vienna,  1875;  J.  B.  Mullinger,  The  Schoola  of  Charlea 
the  Great,  eh.  i.-ii..  New  York,  1004;  DCB,  i.  73-76;  A. 
Ebert,  AUgemeine  Oeaehichte  der  LiUeratur  dea  MitUlallera, 
ii.  12-36.  Leipsic,  1880;  K.  Werner,  Alcuin  und  aein  Jahr- 
hundert,  2d  ed.,  Vienna,  1881;  S.  Abel  and  B.  Sim$>on, 
JttkrbUcher  dea  frdnkiachen  Reicha  unter  Karl  dem  Groaaen, 
2  vols.,  Leipsic.  1883;  A.  Largeault.  Inacriptiona  mftriquea 
eompoaSea  par  Alcuin,  Poitiers.  1885;  DNB,  i.  230- 
240;  L.  Traube,  Karolingiache  Dichtunoen,  Berlin.  1888; 
Hauck,  KD,  ii.  110-145;  W.  S.  Teuffel.  Oerchichte  der 
riHniachen  Literatur,  p.  1000,  No.  8.  p.  1305,  No.  3.  Leip- 
■ic,  1800;  Wattenbach,  DGQ,  1803,  pp.  148, 152. 150-163; 
A.  West,  Alcuin  and  the  Riae  of  the  Chriatian  Schoola,  New 
York,  1803;  C.  J.  B.  Gaskoin,  Alcuin,  hia  Life  and  Work, 
Cambridge,  1004. 

ALDEBERT.    See  Adalbert. 

ALDENBURG,  BISHOPRIC  OF.  See  LCbeck, 
Bishopric  of. 

ALDHELM  (EALDHELM),  dld'helm,  SAINT: 
Abbot  of  Malmesbury  and  first  bishop  of  Sher- 
borne; b.  probably  at  Brokenborough  (2  m.  n.w 
of  Malmesbury),  Wiltshire,  between  639  and  645; 
d.  at  Doulting  (7  m.  s.e.  of  Wells),  Somersetahire, 
May  25,  709.  He  was  of  royal  family  on  both  his 
father's  and  mother's  side,  studied  with  Maildulf 
(Maelduib),  an  Irish  hermit,  at  Malmesbury  (Mail- 
dulf sburg),  and  remained  there  as  monk  for  fourteen 
years.  In  670  and  again  in  672  he  attended  the 
school  of  Canterbury  and  laid  the  foundations  of 
his  many-sided  knowledge  under  the  instruction 
of  Archbishop  Theodore  and  his  associate  Hadrian. 
In  675  he  succeeded  Maildulf  as  abbot  at  Malmes- 
bury, and  as  such  increased  the  possessions  of  the 
monastery,  spread  abroad  the  faith,  and  founded 
many  stone  churches,  after  the  fashion  of  Canter- 
bury, in  place  of  the  small  wooden  ones.  In  705 
the  bishopric  of  the  West  Saxons  was  divided, 
Aldhelm  being  made  bishop  of  the  western  part 
with  his  seat  at  Sherborne  (in  northwestern  Dorset- 
shire, 18  m.  n.  of  Dorchester).  He  retained  his 
abbacy.  He  was  buried  at  Malmesbury,  but  his 
remains  were  often  translated.  He  was  canonized 
in  1080. 

Aldhelm  was  one  of  the  most  learned  men  of  his 
time,  and  he  occupies  a  distinguished  place  among 
early  British  scholars.  He  represented  both  the 
Iro-^cottish  and  the  Roman  ecclesiastical  culture, 
and  had  an  acquaintance  with  classical  authors 


118 


RELIGIOUS    ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Alonin 
Aleffambe 


like  Homer  and  Aristotle,  as  well  as  with  neo- 
Christian  writers  such  as  Prudentius  and  Sedulius. 
His  works  abound  in  Greek  and  Latin  words,  and 
his  style  is  bombastic.  Besides  philology,  poetry, 
music,  astronomical  calculations,  and  the  like  oc- 
cupied him,  and  he  is  said  to  have  written  popular 
hymns.  He  made  Malmesbiuy  a  rival  of  Canter- 
bury as  a  seat  of  learning,  and  princes,  abbesses, 
monks,  and  nims  from  far  and  near  were  among 
his  admirers.  He  is  said  to  have  visited  Rome 
during  the  pontificate  of  Sergius  (687-701)  and 
to  have  returned  with  relics,  books,  and  a  grant  of 
privileges  for  his  monastery.  He  supported  Wil- 
frid of  York  (q.v.)  against  his  enemies,  and  was 
prominent  in  urging  the  Britons  to  conform  to  the 
Roman  tonsure  and  Easter. 

Besides  briefer  letters,  preserved  (often  only  in 
fragments)  by  Lul  of  Mainz,  Aldhelm's  works  in- 
clude treatises  in  epistolary  form  and  poems,  viz.: 
(1)  an  Epiatola  ad  Acirdum  (King  Aldfrid)  con- 
cerning the  number  seven,  riddles,  versification, 
and  the  like;  (2)  an  Epiatola  ad  Geruntium  (a  Welsh 
prince,  Geraint)  concerning  the  Easter  question; 
(3  and  4)  a  prose  work  and  a  poem  in  praise  of 
virginity,  addressed  to  the  abbess  and  nuns  of 
Barking,  closing  with  a  description  of  eight  vices, 
which  contains  thrusts  at  Anglo-Saxon  conditions. 
To  his  treatise  on  riddles  he  added  100  specimens 
dealing  with  nature  and  art,  which  are  full  of  a 
feeling  for  nature,  being  herein  a  prototype  of  such 
of  his  countrymen  as  Tatwin  and  Boniface.  In 
his  letter  to  Geraint  he  holds  as  worthless  good 
works  without  connection  with  the  Roman  Church. 
His  poetry  is  flowery,  involved,  and  alliterative. 
His  chief  merit  was  the  extension  of  the  faith  in 
the  south  of  England,  the  education  of  his  native 
land,  and  his  literary  influence  on  the  Continent. 

H.  Hahn. 
Bibuoorapht:  Aldfielmi  Opera,  in  PEA,  No.  583,  Oxford, 
1844,  reprinted  in  AfPL,  Ixxxix.;  Epistolce,  in  P.  Jaff<^, 
BRO,  iii.  24-28.  Berlin,  1866,  and  in  MGH,  EpiaL,  iii.  (1892) 
231-247;  William  of  Malmesbury.  De  geatia  porUifieum 
Anolorum,  ed.  N.  £.  S.  A.  Hamilton,  in  RoUa  Seriea,  No. 
52,  pp.  332-443,  London,  1870.  and  in  MPL,  clxxix.; 
idem.  De  OeeUa  Regum  Anolorum,  1887-80,  in  Rolls  Seriee, 
No.  90;  Fariciufl,  Vita  AldKelmi,  in  J.  \.  Giles.  Vita  quo- 
rundaim  AnoloSaxonum,  London,  1854.  and  in  MPL, 
Ixxxix.  (Faricius  was  an  Italian,  physician  to  Henry  I. 
of  England,  a  monk  of  Malmesbury.  and  abbot  of  Abing- 
ford):  Bede.  Uiat.  eccL,  v.  18;  J.  M.  Kemble.  Codex  dip- 
lomakeua  eevi  Saxonici,  London,  1839;  T.  Wright,  Bio- 
graj^ia  Britannica  litteraria,  i.  209-222,  ii.  47,  ib. 
1851;  EiUogium  hiatoriarum,  1858.  in  Rolls  Series,  No.  9; 
Angto-Saxon  Chronicle,  1861.  ib.  No.  23;  Regiatrum  Mal- 
mMburienw.  1879.  ib.  No.  72;  DNB,  i.  78-79.  245-247; 
H.  Hahn,  Boniface  und  Ltd,  ihre  angela&chaiachen  Korrea- 
pondenten,  Leipeic,  1883;  M.  Manitius.  Zu  Aldhelm  und 
Bwda,  Vienna,  1886  (on  Aldhelm's  literary  work);  L. 
Traube,  Karolinffiache  Dichtungen,  Berlin,  1888;  W.  S. 
Teuffel,  OesehiOUe  der  rOmiaehen  Literatur,  1304,  f  5(X),  No. 
2,  Leipaie,  1890;  L.  Boenhoff.  Aldhelm  von  Malmeahuru^ 
Draaden.  1894;  W.  Bright.  Early  Engliah  Church  Hiatory, 
pp.  294-297.  444-446,  462-469,  471-474,  Oxford.  1897; 
W.  B.  Wildman,  Life  of  St.  Ealdhelm,  Sherborne,  1905. 

AL£ANDR0,6IR0LAM0,  a'a^On'dro  ji-r6'la-m6 
(Lat.  Hieronymus  Aleander) :  Italian  humanist  and 
cardinal;  b.  at  Motta  (30  m.  n.e.  of  Venice)  Feb. 
13,  1480;  d.  in  Rome  Jan.  31,  1542.  He  studied 
in  his  native  town  and  in  Venice,  settled  in  the 
latter  city  as  a  teacher  in  1499,  and  became  a  con- 
tributor to  the  press  of  Aldus  Manutius.  In  1508 
L— 8 


he  went  to  Paris  and  there  attained  great  reputa- 
tion as  a  classical  scholar,  being  chosen  in  1513 
rector  of  the  university.  In  the  following  year  he 
went  to  Li^ge  where  the  influence  of  Bishop  Erard 
made  him  chancellor  of  the  see  of  Chartres.  As 
Erard 's  representative  he  went  to  Rome  in  1516  and 
won  the  favor  of  Cardinal  Giulio  de'  Medici,  whose 
private  secretary  he  became.  Later,  Leo  X.  ap- 
pointed him  librarian  to  the  Vatican.  In  1520  he 
went  as  nuncio  to  the  court  of  Emperor  Charles  V., 
charged  with  the  task  of  combating  the  heretical 
teachings  of  Luther.  He  procured  Luther's  con- 
demnation at  the  Diet  of  Worms  in  1521,  and  is 
supposed  to  have  been  the  author  of  the  edict  issued 
against  the  great  reformer.  He  was  made  arch- 
bishop of  Brindisi  in  1524  and  was  sent  as  nuncio 
to  the  court  of  Francis  I.  of  France,  with  whom  he 
was  taken  prisoner  at  Pavia. 

Till  1531  Aleandro  lived  without  employment, 
in  Venice  for  the  greater  part  of  the  time,  a  refugee 
from  Rome  on  account  of  his  debts.  In  1531  he 
was  sent  as  papal  representative  to  Charles  V., 
whom  he  accompanied  to  the  Netherlands  and 
Italy,  zealous  in  inciting  the  emperor  to  action 
against  the  Protestants.  After  residing  as  nuncio 
in  Venice  from  1533  to  1535  he  was  summoned  to 
Rome  by  Pope  Paul  III.,  who,  in  preparation  for 
a  general  council,  wished  to  avail  himself  of  Alean- 
dro's  historical  learning.  His  services  gained  him 
a  cardinal's  hat  in  1538,  in  which  year  he  went  as 
legate  to  Venice  where  the  projected  council  was 
to  be  held.  Thence  he  was  sent  to  the  court  of 
the  German  king  Ferdinand  where  he  at  first  ex- 
erted himself  in  favor  of  a  conciliatory  policy  to- 
ward the  Protestants,  and,  when  his  efforts  failed, 
demanded  their  ruthless  destruction.  Of  his  wri- 
tings the  reports  covering  his  various  diplomatic 
missions  are  of  extreme  value  for  the  history  of  the 
Reformation.  His  letters  also  are  of  importance, 
among  his  correspondents  being  Aldus  Manutius, 
Erasmus,  Ulrich  von  Hutten,  Bembo,  Contarini, 
and  Cardinal  Pole.  His  diaries  are  remarkable  for 
their  frank  revelation  of  a  life  of  indulgence  in  com- 
plete contrast  with  his  priestly  character. 

(T.  Bribger.) 
Biblioorapht:  Hia  papers,  declarationn,  and  letters  are 
scattered  in  A.  Mai,  Spicilegium  Romanum,  ii.  231-240, 
Rome.  1830;  H.  Lsmmer.  Monumenta  Vaticana,  pp.  77 
sqq.,  223-241.  Freiburg.  1861;  J.  J.  I.  von  DCllinger. 
Beiir&ge  zur  polittacKen,  kirchlichen  und  CuUurgeachichte, 
iii.  243-284,  Vienna.  1882;  P.  Balan.  Monumenta  Re- 
formationia  Lutherance,  1  sqq..  335  sqq.;  P.  de  Nolhac, 
Studi  e  Documenti  di  Storia  e  Diritto,  ix.  208-217, 
Rome.  1888;  B.  Moruolin,  II  ConcUio  di  Vieema,  Venice, 
1889;  W.  Friedensburs,  Legation  Aleandera,  1638-89,  in 
Nuntiaturberichte  aua  Deutachland,  vols.  iiL-iv.,  Gotha,  1893; 
H.  Omont,  Journal  autolnographique  du  ,  ,  ,  J.  AUandre, 
pp.  35-98.  113  sqq.,  Paris.  1895.  The  foregoing  are  im- 
portant for  the  history  of  the  Reformation.  For  his  life: 
W.  Friedensburg,  ut  sup.,  iii.  28-41.  44,  and  Preface,  pp. 
Y.-vii.;  C.  Perocoo.  Biografio  del  oardinaU  O.  AUandri, 
Venice.  1839.  In  general:  K.  Jansen,  Aleander  am  Reicha- 
tage  zu  Worma,  Kiel.  1883;  G.  M.  Bfaiiuchelli,  Gli  ScrO- 
tori  d' Italia,  I.  i.  408-424.  Brescia,  1753;  T.  Brieger. 
Aleander  und  Luther  16S1,  part  1,  Gotha,  1884. 
ALEGAMBE,  a"16-g(lmb',  PHILIPPE  D*  :  Je- 
suit theologian  and  literary  historian;  b.  in  Brus- 
sels Jan.  22,  1592;  d.  in  Rome  Sept.  6,  1652. 
He  entered  the  Jesuit  order  at  Palermo  in  1613, 
taught  theology  at  Graz,  and  accompanied  the  son 


▲lozander 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


114 


of  Prince  von  Eggenberg,  the  favorite  of  Ferdinand 
II.,  on  his  travels.  Then  he  returned  to  Graz  for 
a  time,  but  in  1638  was  called  to  Rome  as  secretary 
for  German  affairs  to  the  general  of  his  order.  Here 
he  remained  until  his  death,  acting  in  later  years 
as  spiritual  director  of  the  Roman  house.  Of  his 
writings  the  most  noteworthy  is  the  Btbliotheca 
BcrvpUrrum  aodetatis  Jesu  (Antwerp,  1643),  based 
upon  an  earlier  catalogue  of  Jesuit  writers  by  Peter 
lUbadeneira  (1608,  1613),  but  much  surpassing  it 
in  learning  and  thoroughness.  Though  betraying  the 
Jesuit  spirit,  it  shows,  on  the  other  hand,  signs  of 
an  attempt  at  impartiality,  proving,  for  example, 
that  various  books  against  the  royal  power,  the 
episcopate,  and  the  Sorbonne,  the  authorship  of 
which  the  French  Jesuits  had  tried  to  deny,  were 
really  written  by  them.  A  new  and  enlarged 
edition  by  an  English  Jesuit,  Nathaniel  Southwell, 
appeared  at  Rome  in  1676.  The  work  is  now  super- 
seded by  the  Btblioihbque  des  ^crivains  de  la  Com- 
pagnie  de  Jisus  of  Augustin  and  Aloys  de  Backer 
(7  vols.,  Li^ge,  1863-61;  new  ed.  by  C.  Sommer- 
vogel,  9  vols.,  Brussels,  1890-1900). 

(A.  Hauck.) 
ALEMANIfly  a'16-man'nt:  An  important  (Ger- 
manic tribe,  first  mentioned  by  Dio  Gassius  as 
fighting  a  battle  with  Caracalla  near  Mainz  in  213. 
According  to  Asinius  Quadratus,  they  belonged  to 
the  confederacy  of  the  Suevi.  They  came  from  the 
northeast,  where  the  Semnones  held  the  territory 
between  the  Oder  and  the  Elbe.  They  had  varying 
success  in  their  struggle  against  the  Romans,  but 
about  260-268  they  occupied  the  Tithe  Lands, 
north  of  the  Danube,  and  advanced  south  as  far  as 
Ravenna  and  east  into  what  is  now 
Early  Austria.  They  fought  with  Maximian 
History,  in  290,  and  obtained  permanent  pos- 
session of  the  territory  extending  to  the 
Alb  and  the  Neckar  about  300.  By  405  or  406  they 
had  conquered  the  southern  plains  of  Upper  Swabia 
and  the  neighboring  lands  of  northern  and  eastern 
Switzerland,  as  far  as  the  Vosges.  In  the  fifth 
century  the  region  from  the  Iller  to  the  Vosges  and 
from  the  lower  Main  to  the  St.  Gothard  bore  the 
name  of  Alemannia.  They  were  a  fierce  and  stub- 
bom  race,  hostile  to  Roman  civilization,  and  pos- 
sessing a  religion  closely  connected  with  the  powers 
of  nature.  In  the  Tithe  Lands  they  must  have 
met  with  at  least  weak  Christian  congregations, 
which  fell  with  the  Roman  power. 

The  numerous  captives  who  were  led  away  from 
Christian  Gaul  had  little  influence  after  they  were  de- 
prived of  Christian  nurture.  The  Alemanni,  however, 
learned  Christian  views.    Their  prince, 
Conversion  Gibuld,  was  an  Arian,  probably  con- 
to  Chris-    verted  by  Goths.   The  Augsburg  bish- 
tianity.      opric  was  maintained;  but  the  Ale- 
manni in  general  continued  heathen  till 
they  were  overcome  at  Strasburg  in  496  by  CJlovis, 
king  of  the  Franks.  He  took  their  northern  territory 
and  established  royal  residences  there.    A  part  of 
the  people  went  into  the  country  of  the  Ostrogoth 
Theodoric,  probably  the  present  German  Switzer- 
land, where  the  bishoprics  of  Windisch  and  Augst 
(Basel)  existed  and  the  Roman  population  was 
Christian.    In  536  Vitiges  ceded  this  territory  to 


the  Prankish  king  Theodebert.  Effective  mission- 
ary work  was  carried  on  by  the  newly  converted 
Franks  from  St.  Biartin's  Church  at  Toiuv  as  a  cen- 
ter; and  churches  dedicated  to  Saints  Martin, 
Remigius,  Brictius,  Medard,  Lupus,  Antholianus, 
Clement,  Felix,  and  Adauctus  indicate  the  Prankish 
influence.  In  the  courts  the  Prankish  priest  ruled 
beside  the  royal  administrator.  As  early  as  .575 
the  Greek  Agathias  hoped  for  a  speedy  victory  of 
Christianity  among  the  Alemanni,  because  the 
"  more  intelligent  "  of  them  had  been  won  by  the 
Franks.  Duke  Uncilen  (588-605)  was  probably, 
and  his  successor  Cunzo  was  certainly,  a  Christian. 
The  oldest  law  of  the  Alemanni,  the  so-called  pactus 
of  c.  590-600  recognizes  the  Church  as  the  protector 
of  slaves.  The  episcopal  see  of  Windisch  was  trans- 
ferred to  0)nstance,  nearer  Ueberlingen,  the  ducal 
seat;  and  the  Augsburg  bishopric  was  separated 
from  Aquileia,  that  of  Strasburg  coming  again  into 
prominence. 

But  heathenism  was  still  powerful.  Many  of  the 
new  converts  still  sacrificed  to  the  gods.  The  Prank- 
ish Church  was  not  influential  enough  to  permeate 
the  popular  life  of  the  Alemanni.  But 
Irish       efficient  help  came  from    the  Celtic 

Mission-  missionaries  of  Ireland.  In  610  Co- 
aries.  lumban  (q.v.),  on  the  suggestion  of 
King  Theodebert,  ascended  the  Rhine 
with  monks  from  Luxeuil  and  settled  at  Bregenz, 
but  had  to  leave  after  two  years.  His  pupil  Gallus, 
however,  the  founder  of  the  monastery  of  St.  Gall 
(q.v.),  remained,  and  in  connection  with  the  native 
priests  labored  for  the  cause  of  Christ.  Prom 
Poitiers  came  the  Celt  Pridolin  (q.v.),  founder  of  the 
monastery  of  S&ckingen.  Trudpert  built  a  cell  in 
the  Breisgau.  As  the  Merovingians  sank  lower 
and  lower  the  desire  of  the  Alemanni  for  independ- 
ence grew,  and  they  found  need  of  the  support  of 
the  Church  in  their  struggle  for  liberty.  Unwilling 
to  see  themselves  surpassed  in  devotion  by  the 
despised  Franks,  they  made  rich  donations  to  St. 
Gall.  The  Lex  Alemannorum,  drawn  up  probably 
at  a  great  assembly  under  Duke  Lantfried  in  719, 
gave  the  Church  and  its  bishops  a  position  of  dig- 
nity and  power,  though  the  life  of  the  people  was  still 
far  from  being  thoroughly  influenced  by  its  moral 
teaching.  The  effort  for  independence  was  crushed 
by  the  strong  arm  of  the  mayor  of  the  palace. 
To  balance  St.  Gall,  which  had  favored  it,  Charles 
Martel,  with  the  help  of  Pirmin  (q.v.),  founded  the 
monastery  of  Reichenau  in  724.  Pirmin  was  ex- 
pelled in  727,  and  his  pupil  and  successor  Heddo 
a  few  years  later.  The  entire  people  were  then  bap- 
tized, but  they  had  no  clear  knowledge  of  the 
Christian  faith  and  were  still  influenced  by  heathen 
customs.  The  organizing  work  of  Boniface  was 
at  first  opposed  in  Alemannia,  but  by  798  the  peo- 
ple had  begun  to  make  pilgrimages  to  Rome. 
Several  small  monasteries  were  established,  and, 
besides  St.  Gall  and  Reichenau,  the  royal  monas- 
teries of  Weissenburg,  Lorsch,  and  Pulda  received 
rich  gifts.  The  distinguished  Alemanni  who  filled 
bishoprics  under  the  Carolingians,  and  Hildegard, 
the  queen  of  Charlemagne,  with  her  brother,  Ceroid, 
evidence  the  ultimate  triumph  of  (Christianity. 

G.  BOSSERT. 


115 


RELIGIOUS    ENCYCLOPEDIA 


kder 


BiBUOQBAnnr:  a  F.  Stilin.  WUrtUmbergiach*  Geaehiehlt, 
iroL  L.  StuUiEart.  1841;  Rettberg,  KD;  Friedrioh, 
KD;  H.  Ton  Sehubert,  ZKt  Unttnogrfuno  der  Ala- 
•MiMMn,  Straaburf ,  1884;  O.  Bo«ert,  Die  Anflknoe  df 
Ckruigmiuma  in  WUrtUmberg,  Stuttcart.  1888;  A.  Bixw 
linfsr,  AecMtrAMfiisdkM  Alamannien;  Ortruen,  SpraeKe, 
Biomart,  Stuttcart.  1800;  E.  Egli.  Kirehenoeeehicht^  der 
SdkMMf  6m  on/  Karl  den  Oroeeen,  ZOrioh.  1893;  WUruem- 
bergiaeke  KtrdungeeehidUe  of  the  Calwer  Verlacsyerein, 
1803;  Hauek.  KD,  i.  2;  F.  L.  Bauxnann.  Foreehungtn  eur 
Schwahieektn  Oeet^iclUe,  600-686,  Kempten.  1809. 

ALESIUS,  a-lt'shi-uB,  AL£XAin)ER  (Latinized 
fonn  of  Alets;  known  also  as  Alane):  Protestant 
refonner;  b.  in  Edinburgh  Apr.  23,  1500;  d.  in 
Leipsie  liar.  17,  15d5.  He  studied  at  St.  Andrews 
and  became  canon  there.  In  1527  he  tried  to  in- 
duce Patrick  Hamilton  (q.v.)  to  recant,  attended 
him  at  the  stake  the  next  year,  and  was  himself 
converted  to  the  reformed  doctrines.  To  escape 
from  the  harsh  treatment  of  the  provost  of  St. 
Andrews  he  fled  to  Germany  (1532).  Ck>mmended 
to  Henry  VIII.  and  Cranmer  by  Melanchthon,  he 
went  to  England  in  1535.  For  a  short  time  he 
lectured  on  divinity  at  Cambridge,  studied  and 
practised  medicine  in  London,  and  was  much  es- 
teemed by  the  reforming  party  there  till  1540, 
when  he  went  back  to  Germany  and  became  pro- 
fessor at  Frankfort-on-the-Oder,  removing  three 
years  later  to  Leipsie.  He  was  closely  associated 
with  theCrerman  reformers,  especially  Melanchthon, 
and  was  honored  and  trusted  by  them,  although 
a  desire  to  conciliate  and  a  belief  that  concord  was 
possible  where  di£Ferences  were  irreconcilable  made 
him  sometimes  appear  vacillating  and  paradoxical. 
He  wrote  several  exegetical  works  on  different  books 
of  the  Bible,  and  a  large  nimiber  of  dogmatic  and 
polemical  treatises,  such  as  De  acripturia  legendia 
in  lingua  matema  (Leipsie,  1533);  De  autoriiaie 
veihi  Dei  (Strasburg,  1542),  against  Bishop  Stokes- 
ley  of  London  concerning  the  number  of  the  sacra- 
ments; De  justificatione  contra  Osiandtum  (Witten- 
berg, 1552);  Contra  Michadem  Servetum  ejusque 
blasphemiaa  diaptUationes  trea  (Leipsie,  1554). 
Bxbuoorapht:  J.  Thomasius,  Oratio  de  Alexandro  Aleeio, 
in  hia  OraHonee,  Leipsie.  1683;  T.  Beia.  Iconee,  Geneva, 
1580;  C.  Wordsworth,  EceleeiaeHcal  Biooraphy,  vol.  ii., 
London,  1853;  T.  McCrie,  Life  of  John  Knox,  Note  1, 
London,  1874;   DNB,  i.  264-269. 

ALEXAITDER:    The  name  of  eight  popes. 

Alexander  I.:  Bishop  of  Rome  in  the  early  years 
of  the  second  century,  successor  of  Evaristus  and 
predecessor  of  Xystus  I.  The  statement  of  the 
LSber  pontificalia  (ed.  Duchesne,  i.  xci.-xcii.,  54) 
and  the  Acta  Alexandn  (ASB,  May,  i.  371-375) 
that  he  died  a  martyr,  with  two  companions, 
EventiuB  and  Theodulus,  and  was  buried  on  the 
Via  Nomentana,  is  improbable.  The  excavations 
made  on  the  spot  designated  by  the  Liber  pontifi- 
ealia  have  indeed  led  to  the  discovery  of  a  fragment 
of  an  inscription  concerning  a  martyr  Alexander, 
but  he  is  not  caUed  a  bishop.  The  year  of  Alex- 
ander's consecration  is  variously  given:  Eusebius 
names  103  in  his  Ckronicon,  and  108  in  his  Hiatoria 
etduiaatica;  the  Catalogua  Liberianua,  109.  The 
yeu  of  his  death  is  given  as  114,  116,  and  118. 
Three  letters  falsely  ascribed  to  falm  are  in  the 
Pdeudo-Iaidore  (ed.  Hinschins,  Leipsie,  1863,  pp. 
94-106).  (A.  Hauck.) 


Bibuoorapht:  lAber  pontifiealie,  ed.  Duchesne,  i.  xd. 
sqq.,  64.  Paris,  1886;  Bower,  Popee,  i.  10;  R.  A.  Lipdus, 
Die  Chronologie  der  rUmiechen  Biech^fe,  pp.  167  sqq.,  Kiel. 
1869;  B.  Jungmann,  DieeerlaHonee  eeleeUe  in  HiaL  eeeL, 
i.  134  sqq.,  Regensburg.  1880;  J.  Langen,  OeechidUe  der 
rOmieehen  Kirche,  Bonn,  1881;     Jaff6,  Regeeta,  i.  6. 

Alexander  H.  (Anselm  Badagius,  sometimes  caUed 
Anselm  of  Lucca):  Pope  Sept.  30,  1061-Apr.  21, 
1073.  He  was  bom  of  a  noble  family  at  Baggio, 
near  Milan.  When  the  Patarene  movement  for 
reform  began  in  1056  (see  Patarenes),  he  seems 
to  have  joined  it.  The  archbishop  Guido  removed 
him  by  sending  him  on  an  embassy  to  the  imperial 
court.  Here  he  won  the  confidence  of  Henry  III., 
which  gained  for  him  the  bishopric  of  Lucca  (1057). 
He  was  sent  to  Milan  in  1057  and  1059.  as  legate  in 
connection  with  the  questions  raised  by  the  Pataria. 
On  the  death  of  Nicholas  II.  (1061),  he  was  elected 
pope  through  Hildebrand's  influence.  This  was 
in  direct  contravention  of  the  imperial  rights, 
confirmed  by  Nicholas  II.  himself  in  1059.  The 
empress  Agnes,  as  regent,  convoked  an  assembly 
of  both  spiritual  and  temporal  notables  at  Basel, 
and  Cadalus  of  Parma  was  chosen  pope  by  the 
German  and  Lombard  bishops.  He  assumed  the 
title  of  Honorius  II.,  and  had  already  defeated  the 
adherents  of  his  rival  in  a  bloody  battle  under  the 
walls  of  Rome,  when  Godfrey  of  Lorraine  appeared 
and  summoned  both  claimants  to  lay  the  election 
before  the  young  king  Henry  IV.  At  a  synod  of 
German  and  Italian  bishops  held  at  Augsburg  in 
Oct.,  1062,  Hanno  of  Cologne,  now  regent,  arranged 
that  his  nephew  Burchard  of  Halberstadt  should 
be  sent  to  Rome  to  examine  the  case  and  make 
a  preliminary  decision.  Burchard  decided  in  favor 
of  Alexander,  who  returned  to  Rome  in  the  begin- 
ning of  1063,  and  held  a  synod  at  Easter,  in  which 
he  excommunicated  Honorius.  The  final  decision 
of  the  contest  was  to  be  made  at  a  synod  of  German 
and  Italian  bishops  called  for  Pentecost,  1064, 
at  Mantua.  This  was  in  favor  of  Alexander.  See 
Honorius  II.,  antipope. 

Honorius  did  not  abandon  his  pretensions  until 
his  death  in  1072,  though  his  power  was  confined  to 
his  diocese  of  Parma.  Even  during  the  contest 
Alexander  had  exercised  considerable  authority 
over  the  Western  Church,  and  after  the  decision  at 
Mantua  he  extended  his  claims  in  Germany,  and 
put  Archbishop  Hanno  of  Cologne  to  penance  for 
having  visited  Cadalus  on  a  secular  errand.  Henry 
IV.  himself  was  made  to  feel  the  papal  power. 
When  he  desired  to  efifect  a  divorce  from  his  wife 
Bertha,  Peter  Damian  threatened  him  with  the 
severest  ecclesiastical  penalties  at  a  diet  held  in 
Frankfort  Oct.,  1069.  Alexander  also  came  into 
conflict  with  Henry  over  several  ecclesiastiacal  ap- 
pointments, of  which  the  most  important  was  the 
archbishopric  of  Milan,  and  when  the  king  persisted 
in  having  his  candidate  Godfrey  consecrated,  though 
the  pope  had  adjudged  the  latter  guilty  of  simony, 
the  royal  counselors  were  excommunicated  as  having 
endeavored  to  separate  their  master  from  the  unity 
of  the  Church.  This  was  but  the  beginning  of  the 
long  struggle  which  was  left  to  the  next  pope, 
Gregory  VII. 

Alexander  dealt  in  a  similarly  determined  man- 
ner with  other  nations.    He  supported  the  Nor- 


Alexander 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


116 


mans,  both  in  the  north  and  south  of  Europe,  in 
their  career  of  conquest,  and  aided  William  the 
Conqueror  to  consolidate  his  newly  gained  power 
in  England  by  directing  his  legate  to  appoint 
Normans  to  the  episcopal  sees  of  that  country; 
the  archbishopric  of  Canterbury  was  given  to  Lan- 
franc,  abbot  of  Bee,  under  whom  Alexander  himself 
had  received  his  early  training.  His  wide  claims 
of  imiversal  jurisdiction  were  in  sharp  contrast 
with  his  weakness  within  Rome  itself,  where  the 
turbulent  factions  maintained  an  unceasing  struggle 
against  him  as  long  as  he  lived.  His  letters  and 
diplomas  are  in  Af  PL,  cxlvi.  1279-1430. 

(A.  Hauck.) 
Bibuoorapht:  Liber  pontificalia,  ed.  Duchesne,  ii.  281, 
Paris,  1892;  Jaff^,  Regetta,  i.  66^692,  ii.  750;  Oeata 
AUxandri  II.,  in  Bouquet,  Recueil,  xiv.  52&-6dl;  W.  Giese- 
breoht.  Die  Kirchenepaltuno  nach  dem  Tode  Nikolaua  II., 
appended  to  his  Annialee  AUaKeneea,  Berlin,  1841;  Bower, 
Popet,  ii.  370-377;  M.  Wattericb,  Romanorutn  pontifi- 
eum  .  .  .  vilae,  i.  235-236,  Leipsic,  1862;  C.  Will,  Bemo9 
Paneouricua  auf  Heinrich  IV.  mit  .  .  .  RUckaieht  auf  den 
Kirchenatreit  Alexandera  II.  und  Honoriua  II.,  Marburg, 
1863;  R.  Baxmann,  Die  Polxtik  der  P&pate  von  Oreffor  I. 
Ha  auf  Oregor  VII.,  2  vols.,  Elberfeld,  1868-69;  Hefele, 
Conciliengeachichte,  iv.  851-893;  B.  Jungmann,  Dia- 
aertoHonea  aelecta  in  Hiat  eccl.,  iv.  242  sqq.,  Ratisbon, 
1880;  J.  Langen,  Oeachichte  der  rGmiachen  Kirche,  pp.  532 
sqq.,  Bonn,  1892;  Milman,  Latin  ChriaHaniiy,  iii.  321- 
353;  W.  Martens.  Die  Beaetsuno  dea  PUpaUichen  Stuhlea 
unUr  den  Kaiaem  Heinrich  III.  und  Heinrich  IV.,  Frei- 
burg, 1886;  C.  Fetzer,  Vorunterauchunoen  au  einer  Oe- 
achichU  Alexandera  II.,  Strasburg,  1887;  Hauck.  KD, 
iii.  (1906)  704-763. 

Alexander  HL  (Roland  Bandinelli):  Pope  1159- 
81.  He  was  bom  at  Sienna  and  lectured  in  canon 
law  at  Bologna,  leaving  a  memorial  of  this  part 
of  his  career  in  the  Summa  Magistri  Rolandi,  a 
commentary  on  the  Decretum  of  Gratian.  Eugeni- 
us  III.  brought  him  to  Rome  about  1150,  and  made 
him  a  cardinal.  In  1153  he  became  papal  chancel- 
lor, and  during  the  reign  of  Adrian  IV.  was  the 
moving  spirit  of  the  antiimperial  party  among  the 
cardinals,  who  advocated  a  close  alliance  wi^h 
William  of  Sicily.  His  determined  opposition  to 
Frederick  Barbarossa  led  to  a  deep  personal  enmity 
on  the  emperor's  part,  which  was  not  appeased 
when  Roland  appeared  at  the  Diet  of  Besan^on  in 
1157  as  papal  legate,  and  boldly  proclaimed  that 
the  emperor  held  his  lordship  from  the  pope. 
Adrian  IV.  died  Sept.  1,  1159.  Six  days  later  all 
the  cardinals  but  three  (some  say  nine)  voted  for 
Roland  as  his  successor,  and  he  was  consecrated 
Sept.  20.  The  minority  chose  the  imperialist 
cardinal  Octavian,  who  assimied  the  title  of  Victor 
IV.  Frederick,  naturally  disposed  toward  his  own 
partizan,  called  a  council  at  Pavia  which,  as  was 
to  be  expected,  declared  Octavian  the  lawful  pope 
(Feb.  11,  1160),  and  two  days  later  proclaimed 
Alexander  an  enemy  of  the  empire  and  a  schismatic. 
Alexander  answered  from  Anagni  on  Mar.  24  by 
excommunicating  the  emperor  and  absolving  his 
subjects  from  their  allegiance;  the  antipope  had 
been  excommimicated  a  week  after  Alexander's 
consecration. 

Alexander  had  not  the  power  to  carry  his  hos- 
tility further.  It  is  true  that  in  Oct.,  1160,  at  a 
council  at  Toulouse,  the  kings  of  England  and 
France  and  the  bishops  of  both  countries  declared 
for  him;  and  Spain,  Ireland,  and  Norway  followed 


their  lead.     But  he  was  imable  to  maintain  a  foot- 
hold in  Italy.     By  the  end  of  1161  he  was  forced 
to  leave  Rome,  and  in  the  following  March  fled 
across  the  Alps  to  take  refuge  in  France.     The 
conflict  might  have  come  to  an  end  with  the  death 
of  Victor  IV.  at  Lucca  in  Apr.,  1164,  had  not  Reg- 
inald,  archbishop  of  Cologne,  the  imperial  repre- 
sentative in  Italy,   without  either  the  emperor's 
sanction  or  a  regard  for  canonical  forms,  set  up 
another  antipope,  Guido,  bishop  of  Crema,  under 
the  title  of  Paschal  III.     In  the  diet  held  at  Wurz- 
burg  at  Pentecost,  1165,  Reginald  (possessed  by 
the  conception  of  a  German  national  Church  inde- 
pendent   of    every  one  but  the  emperor)   talked 
Frederick  and  the  magnates  into  the  irrevocable 
step  of  taking  an  oath  never  to  recognize  Alexander 
III.  or  any  pope  chosen  from  his  party,  and  to 
support  Paschal  III.  with  all  their  power.     But  on 
the  whole  Alexander's  cause  was  gaining.     In  the 
autumn  of  1165  he  left  France,  and  by  Nov.  23  he 
was  able  to  reenter  Rome.     A  year  later,  Frederick 
crossed  the  Alps  to  unseat  him,  and  by  the  following 
summer  was  able  to  take  possession  of  St.  Peter's 
and   install   Paschal   there.     Alexan<ier   fled  once 
more,  but    Frederick's   triumph   was    short-lived. 
The  plague  robbed  him  of  several  thousand  soldiers 
and  drove  him  from  Rome;  in  December  the  prin- 
cipal Lombard  cities  formed  a  league  against  the 
oppressive  dominion  of  the  empire,  and  found  a 
protector  in  Alexander,  in  whose  honor  they  named 
the  new  city  of  Alessandria;  finally  the  antipope 
died  (Sept.  20,  1168).    The  Roman  partizans  of 
Frederick,  without  waiting  for  instructions,  set  up 
a  new  pope  in  the  person  of  John,  cardinal-bishop 
of  Albano,  under  the  name  of  Calixtus  III.     But 
Frederick  was  weary  of  the  strife,  and  hardly  five 
months  had  passed  before  he  was  negotiating  with 
Alexander.     Nothing  resulted,  however,   and   the 
emperor  took  up  arms  once  more  against  the  pope 
and  the  Lombard  League;  but  the   battle  of   Le- 
gnano  (May  29,  1176)  was  so  decisively  against  him 
that  he  was  obliged  to  yield  on  any  terms.     He 
began  fresh  negotiations  with  Alexander  at  Anagni 
in  October;  and  at  Venice  the  disputed  matters 
were  discussed  also  with  the  cities,  as  well  as  with 
William   II.   of  Sicily  and  the  Eastern  emperor, 
both  of  whom  had  joined  Frederick's  opponents. 
Peace  was  made  Aug.  1, 1177,  the  emperor  acknowl- 
edging Alexander's  title  and  abandoning  Calixtus, 
who  was  to  receive  an  abbey  in  compensation. 
Both  sides  agreed  to  restore  whatever  possessions 
they  had  taken  from  each  other. 

A  still  greater  triimiph  was  won  by  Alexander 
over  Henry  II.  of  England.  From  1163  onward 
the  English  king  was  involved  in  a  more  and  more 
acute  contest  with  Rome,  growing  out  of  his  difli- 
culties  with  Thomas  Becket.  He  demanded  the 
deposition  of  the  archbishop,  and,  on  the  pope's 
refusal,  opened  negotiations  with  Frederick,  and 
was  represented  at  the  Diet  of  Wiirzburg,  with  a 
view  to  supporting  Reginald  of  Cologne's  far-reach- 
ing plans.  But  threats  of  excommunication  and 
interdict  brought  him  back  to  an  apparently  peace- 
ful attitude.  The  murder  of  Becket  (Dec.  29,  1170) 
brought  things  to  a  crisis.  The  king  was  forced 
to  do  humiliating  penance  at  Becket 's  tomb  and 


117 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Alexander 


to  submit  wholly  to  the  papal  demands.  The  cul- 
minating point  of  Alexander's  success  was  marked 
by  the  Third  Lateran  Council  (Mar.,  1179).  Be- 
sidee  approving  the  crusade  against  the  Cathari 
of  southern  France,  which  had  been  inaugurated 
by  Raymond  of  Toulouse  with  the  support  of  Louis 
VII.,  the  pope's  friend  and  protector,  the  300 
bishops  of  this  brilliant  assembly  passed  an  impor- 
tant canon  regulating  papal  elections,  which  con- 
fined the  electoral  power  to  the  cardinals,  excluding 
the  lower  clergy  and  the  laity  and  making  no  men- 
tion of  imperial  confirmation,  and  required  a  two- 
thirds  vote  to  elect. 

In  spite  of  his  apparently  complete  triumph  over 
his  enemies,  Alexander  never  really  conquered  the 
Roman  people.  Soon  after  the  close  of  the  coimcil 
they  drove  him  once  more  into  exile;  and  a  month 
after  Calixtus  III.  had  formally  renounced  his 
pretensions,  a  new  antipope  was  set  up,  who  took 
the  name  of  Innocent  III.  Alexander  succeeded 
in  vanquishing  this  rival,  but  never  returned  to 
Rome,  and  died  at  Civita  Castellana  Aug.  30,  1181, 
his  corpse  being  followed  to  its  sepulcher  in  the 
Lateran  by  cries  of  implacable  hostility  from  the 
populace.  His  letters  are  in  MPL,  cc;  his  Summa 
was  edited  by  F.  Thaner  (Innsbruck,  1874),  and 
his  SententicB  by  A.  M.  Gietl  (Freiburg,  1891). 

(A.  Hauck.) 

Bebuoobapht:  Liber  porUifiealU^  ed.  Duchesne,  ii.  397-44A, 
Plaru,  1892;  Oeata  AUxandn  III.,  in  Bouquet.  Recueilt 
XV.  744-977;  Jaff^,  Reoetta,  ii.  145  sqq.,  701;  M.  Wat- 
tench,  Ronuutorum  pontifieum  .  .  .  vilas,  ii.  377-451, 
Leipdc,  1862;  K.  L.  Ring,  Friedrich  I.  itn  Kampf  gegen 
AUxander  111.,  Stuttgart,  1838;  Bower.  Popet,  ii.  502; 
H.  Reuter,  0e9chidUe  AUxandert  III.  und  der  Kirche  aeiner 
ZeU,  3  vols.,  2d  ed.,  Leipsic.  1800-64;  P.  Scheffer-Boi- 
ehorat,  Kaiaer  Friedrichn  /.  letzter  Streit  mit  der  Kurie, 
Berlin.  1866;  J.  Langen,  Geachichte  der  r6m%»chen  Kirche, 
pp.  439  sqq..  Bonn,  1893;  Milman,  Latin  ChriMtianxty, 
IT.  288-438;  G.  Wolfram,  Fnedrich  I.  und  das  Worm- 
ter  Concordat,  Marburg,  1883;  Hefele,  Conciliengeechichte, 
T.  671-722;  J.  R.  Green,  Hietory  of  the  Englieh  People, 
▼oL  i.,  London,  1888-92;  A.  M.  Gietl,  DteSeniemen  Ro- 
landa,  naehmaU  Papetea  Alexander  III.,  Freiburg,  1891; 
BMnck,KD,iv.  227-302. 

Alexander  IV.  (Rinaldo  de  Conti):  Pope  1254- 
61.  He  was  made  a  cardinal-deacon  in  1227  by 
his  uncle,  Gregory  IX.,  and  in  1231  cardinal-bishop 
of  Ostia.  As  a  cardinal,  he  does  not  seem  to  have 
been  strongly  anti-imperialistic,  and  Frederick  II.  is 
found  in  1233  and  1242  writing  in  a  tone  of  friendship 
to  him.  On  the  death  of  Innocent  IV.  (Dec.  13, 1254), 
Alexander  was  elected  to  succeed  him,  and  at  once 
began  to  follow  the  policy  of  his  predecessors. 
Conrad  IV.,  on  his  death-bed,  had  commended  to 
the  guardianship  of  the  Church  his  two-year-old 
son  Conradinv  heir  to  the  duchy  of  Swabia  and  the 
kingdoms  of  Jerusalem  and  Sicily.  Alexander 
accepted  the  charge  with  the  most  benevolent  prom- 
ises, but  less  than  two  weeks  later  he  demanded 
that  the  Swabian  nobles  should  desert  Conradin 
for  Alfonso  of  Castile.  On  Mar.  25,  1255,  he  ex- 
communicated Bianfred,  Conradin's  uncle,  who 
had  undertaken  to  defend  the  kingdom  of  Sicily 
in  the  child's  name,  and  on  Apr.  9  he  concluded  an 
allianoe  with  Henry  III.  of  England,  on  whose  son 
Edmund  he  bestowed  Sicily  and  Apulia,  to  be  held 
as  papal  fiefs.  When  some  of  the  German  princes 
talked  in  1254  of  setting  up  Ottocar  of  Bohemia 


as  a  claimant  of  the  throne  in  opposition  to  William 
of  Holland,  the  papal  prot^g^,  he  forbade  them  to 
take  any  steps  for  the  election  of  a  king  in  William's 
lifetime;  and  when  William  died,  he  forbade  the 
archbishops  of  Cologne,  Treves,  and  Mainz  to  place 
Conradin  on  the  throne  of  his  father.  In  the  con- 
test for  the  crown  which  now  arose  between  Alfonso 
X.  of  Castile  and  Richard  of  Cornwall,  brother  of 
Henry  III.  of  England,  the  pope,  whose  suppK>rt 
was  asked  by  both,  took  the  side  of  the  latter, 
promising  him  (Apr.  30,  1259)  not  merely  the  sup- 
port of  his  legates  in  Germany,  but  holding  out 
hopes  of  the  imperial  crown.  In  this  he  was  influ- 
enced by  the  English  king's  money,  which  was 
necessary  to  him  in  his  contest  against  Manfred. 
In  Aug.,  1258,  on  a  rumor  of  the  death  of  Conradin, 
Manfred  himself  assumed  the  crown  of  Sicily,  and 
was  recognized  in  northern  and  central  Italy  as 
the  head  of  the  Ghibelline  party.  After  the  deci- 
sive victory  of  Montaperto  had  put  Florence,  the 
Guelph  bulwark,  in  Manfred's  power,  Alexander 
excommunicated  every  one  who  should  help  him  in 
any  way,  and  laid  all  his  dominions  imder  an  in- 
terdict (Nov.  18,  1260).  This  was  all  he  could  do, 
since  an  appeal  to  the  kings  of  England  and 
Norway  to  undertake  a  crusade  against  Manfred, 
and  a  demand  for  a  tenth  of  the  income  of  the 
French  clergy  for  the  same  purpose  had  both  proved 
unsuccessful. 

Alexander  had  better  luck  against  the  notorious 
Ezzelino  da  Romano,  son-in-law  of  Frederick  II. 
and  leader  of  the  Ghibellines  in  northern  Italy. 
An  army  raised  by  the  pope  for  a  crusade  against 
this  monster  had  accomplished  little,  but  finally 
in  1259  he  succumbed  to  a  combination  of  princes 
and  cities.  In  Rome,  however,  the  party  of  Man- 
fred was  gaining  strength,  and  in  1261  he  was 
elected  to  the  highest  office  in  the  gift  of  the  people, 
that  of  senator.  How  terribly  Italy  suffered  from 
the  demoralization  which  followed  this  relentless 
warfare  is  evident  from  the  spread  of  the  Flagel- 
lants (See  Flagellation,  Flagellants),  whose 
fanatical  processions  took  place  even  in  Rome 
(1260).  A  coimcil  was  called  to  meet  at  Viterbo 
for  the  purpose  of  setting  on  foot  a  crusade  against 
the  Tatars,  but  before  it  convened  Alexander  died 
in  that  city  (May  25,  1261).  (A.  Hauck.) 

Biblioorapht:  Bouret  de  la  Roncifere.  Lea  Regiatrea  d* Alex- 
andre IV.,  parts  1-4,  Paris,  1896  sqq.;  MGH,  EpiaL  aceeuli 
xiit.,  lii.  (1894)  314-473,  729-730,  and  Leg.,  iv..  1896;  W. 
H.  Blisn,  Calendar  of  Entriea  in  the  Papal  Regiaters  relating 
to  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  Papal  Lettera,  i.  309-376,  Lon- 
don,  1893;  A.  Potthast,  Regeata,\i.  1286 sqq.,  Berlin,  1875; 
G.  J.  de  Chemer ,  Hiatoire  de  la  lutte  dea  papea  et  dea  empereura 
de  la  maiaon  de  Soiuibe,  Paris,  1858;  O.  Posse.  AnaUeta 
vaticana,  1  sqq.,  120  sqq.,  Innsbruck,  1878;  G.  Digard. 
La  SH^  dea  regiatrea  pontificaux  du  treitihne  aiicle.  Pans. 
1886;  E.  Engelmann,  Der  Anaprueh  der  PUpate  auf  Conr- 
firmation  und  Approbation,  1077-1S70,  pp.  63  sqq.,  Bres- 
lau,  1886;  Bower.  Popea,  u.  667-571. 

Alexander  V.  (Peter  Philargi):  Pope  1409-10. 
He  was  an  orphan  boy  from  Crete,  brought  up  by 
the  Minorites,  which  order  he  afterward  entered. 
After  traveling  in  Italy,  England,  and  France,  he 
acquired  a  name  as  a  teacher  of  rhetoric  in  the 
University  of  Paris.  Later  he  held  a  dignified 
position  at  the  court  of  Gian  Galeazzo  Visconti 
in  Milan,  of  which  see  he  became  archbishop  in 


^Alexander 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


118 


1402.  Innocent  VII.  made  b:m  a  cardinal.  In 
1408  he  was  one  of  those  who  deserted  Gregory 
XII.  with  a  view  to  compelling  an  end  of  the  schism, 
and  in  the  same  year  he  had  invited  the  pope  to  the 
Council  of  Pisa  as  a  representative  of  the  cardinals. 
After  both  Gregory  XII.  and  Benedict  XIII.  had  been 
deposed,  he  was  mianimoiisly  elected  pope  by  the 
influence  of  cardinal  Balthasar  Cossa  (July  26, 
1409).  like  all  the  other  cardinals  present,  he 
had  signed  an  agreement  that,  if  he  should  be  elected 
pope,  he  would  continue  the  coimcil  until  the 
Church  had  received  a  thorough  reformation  in 
head  and  members;  but,  once  crowned  as  pope,  he 
dismissed  the  members  to  their  dioceses,  there  to 
take  counsel  on  the  points  which  needed  reform. 

The  schism  was  not  ended  by  his  election;  Bene- 
dict XIII.  was  still  recognized  by  Spain,  Portugal, 
and  Scotland;  Gregory  XII.,  by  Naples,  Hungary, 
the  king  of  the  Romans,  and  some  other  German 
princes.  The  greater  part  of  Germany,  with  Eng- 
land and  France,  declared  for  the  choice  of  the 
council,  as  well  as  the  reforming  leaders  Gerson  and 
Pierre  d'Ailly.  Alexander  was  more  concerned  with 
the  recovery  of  the  States  of  the  Chiuxih  than  with 
reform.  Rome  and  Umbria  were  in  the  possession 
of  Ladislaus  of  Naples,  the  protector  of  Gregory 
XII.  Alexander  excommunicated  him,  declared 
his  crown  forfeit,  and  transferred  it  to  Louis  II.  of 
Anjou,  who,  with  Cardinal  Cossa,  conmianded  the 
force  sent  against  Rome.  Though  this  expedition 
was  unsuccessful,  Alexander's  adherents  succeeded 
in  the  last  few  days  of  1409  in  getting  the  upper 
hand  in  the  city.  Alexander,  however,  did  not 
return,  but  remained  in  Bologna,  a  pliant  instru- 
ment in  the  hands  of  his  Franciscan  brethren  and 
Balthasar  Cossa.  The  friars  induced  him  to 
issue  a  bull  (Oct.  12,  1409),  which  confirmed  all  the 
extensive  privileges  of  the  mendicant  orders  in  the 
confessional  and  practically  crippled  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  parish  priests.  When  he  indicated  his 
intention  of  extending  this  ruling  to  France,  the 
University  of  Paris,  with  Gerson  at  its  head, 
threatened  to  retaliate  by  excluding  the  friars  from 
the  platform  and  pulpit.  Alexander  died  before 
this  ultimatum  reached  Rome  (May  3,  1410).  By 
modem  Roman  Catholic  historiacs,  as  the  creation 
of  the  illegitimate  council  of  Pisa,  he  is  not  con- 
sidered strictly  a  lawful  pope,  though  included  in 
their  lists.  (A.  Hauck.) 

Biblxoorapht:  Vita,  in  L.  A.  Muratori,  Rer.  Ital.  teripL, 
in.  2.  p.  842,  Milan;  Bower,  Pope;  iii.  167-171;  Hefele, 
Coneilienoe9chichte,  vi.  1033;  Creigbton.  Papacy,  i.  257- 
265  (the  beat);  Pastor,  Pope;  i.  190-191  (from  the  Roman 
Catholic  side). 

Alexander  VI.  (Rodrigo  Lanzol):  Pope  1492- 
1503.  He  was  bom  at  Xativa,  near  Valencia,  in  1430 
or  1431  and  was  adopted  by  his  uncle,  Calixtus  III., 
into  the  Borgia  family  and  endowed  with  rich 
ecclesiastical  benefices.  In  1455  be  became  apos- 
tolic notary;  in  1456,  a  cardinal-deacon;  and  in 
1457,  vice-chancellor  of  the  Roman  curia.  He 
held  also  the  bishoprics  of  Valencia,  Porto,  and 
Cartagena.  These  positions  brought  in  vast  wealth, 
which  he  spent  in  ostentatious  luxury  and  riotous 
living.  A  glimpse  of  his  life  at  this  period  is  afforded 
by  a  letter  of  Pius  II.  (June  11,  1460),  reproaching 
him  for  his  participation  in  an  indescribable  orgy 


at  Sienna,  and  rebuking  him  for  having  no  thought 
but  pleasure.  At  least  seven — possibly  nine — 
children  were  bom  to  him  as  cardinal,  four  of  whom, 
Giovanni,  Cesare,  Gioffr^,  and  Lucrezia,  the  off- 
spring of  his  favorite  mistress  Vanozza  Catanei, 
were  the  objects  of  his  special  love.  On  the  death 
of  Innocent  VIII.  he  reached  the  height  of  his 
ambition  by  his  election  to  the  papacy  (Aug.  11, 
1492),  won,  it  was  generally  believed,  by  simony 
and  other  corrupt  practises. 

Alexander  was  unquestionably  a  man  of  great 
gifts,  able,  eloquent,  versatile,  strong  in  mind  as  in 
body;  but  all  these  gifts  were  defiled  by  the  im- 
morality of  his  life,  which  was  in  no  respect  different 
as  pope  from  what  it  had  been  as  cardinal.  So 
much  may  be  safely  said,  even  if  certain  specific 
accusations  made  by  his  contemporaries,  such  as 
that  of  incest  with  his  daughter  Lucrezia,  are 
shown  to  be  calumnies.  The  remonstrances  of 
secular  powers  like  Spain  and  Portugal  against  the 
immorality  of  the  papal  court  were  as  vain  as  the 
denunciations  of  Savonarola.  The  former  were 
put  off  with  promises;  the  latter's  mouth  was 
stopped  by  excommunication  (May  12, 1497),  when 
he  was  endeavoring  to  arouse  all  Italy  against  the 
papacy. 

Alexander's  main  aim,  outside  of  the  gratification 
of  his  passions,  was  the  elevation  of  his  children  to 
power  and  wealth.  While  still  a  cardinal,  he  had 
obtained  the  Spanish  duchy  of  Gandia  for  his  eldest 
son,  Pedro  Luis,  who  was  succeeded,  on  his  early 
death,  by  Giovanni.  Alexander  invested  the  latter 
with  the  duchy  of  Benevento,  together  with  Ter- 
racina  and  Preticorvo;  but  a  few  days  later  (June 
14,  1497)  he  was  mysteriously  murdered.  For 
a  moment  the  pope  was  shocked  into  penitence, 
and  talked  of  a  reform  of  his  court  and  even  of 
abdication,  but  no  lasting  change  resulted.  The 
making  of  a  brilliant  match  for  Lucrezia  was  long 
an  important  factor  in  his  policy.  The  first  con- 
nection attempted  was  with  the  Sforza  family. 
Lodovico  il  Moro,  governor  of  Milan  for  his  nephew 
Giangaleazzo,  desired  the  sovereignty  for  himself, 
but  was  hindered  by  the  grandfather  of  Giangaleaz- 
«o's  wife,  Ferdinand  of  Naples.  To  get  the  better 
of  him,  Lodovico  planned  a  league  into  which  the 
Pope  should  be  drawn  by  a  marriage  between 
Lucrezia  and  Giovanni  Sforza  of  Pesaro.  The 
league  was  founded  April  25,  1493,  and  included, 
besides  Lodovico  and  Alexander,  Venice,  Sienna, 
Ferrara,  and  Mantua.  Ferdinand,  however,  suc- 
ceeded in  detaching  the  pope  from  this  alliance, 
probably  through  the  influence  of  Spain,  and 
married  the  natural  daughter  of  his  son  Alfonso  to 
Gioffr^,  Alexander's  fourth  son.  The  alliance  with 
Naples,  however,  brought  the  pope  into  difficulties. 
Lodovico,  deserted,  summoned  Charles  VIII.  of 
France  to  take  the  crown  of  Naples  for  himself  and 
try  a  simoniacal  pope  at  the  bar  of  a  general  coun- 
cil. Charles  descended  into  Italy  in  autumn,  1494, 
and  on  the  last  day  of  the  year,  Alexander  being 
unable  to  oppose  fadm,  made  a  magnificent  public 
entry  into  Riome.  The  pope  agreed  to  allow  his 
army  free  passage  toward  Naples,  and  to  reinstate 
the  cardinals  of  the  opposition  faction.  In  return 
Charles  paid  him  all  the  outward  signs  of  homage. 


110 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Alezandez 


and  continued  his  journey  toward  Naples,  where 
he  was  able  to  be  crowned  on  May  12,  Alfonso  II. 
having  fled.  Alexander,  however,  joined  the  league 
founded  at  Venice  (March  31)  to  drive  him  out  of 
Italy  and  to  support  the  house  of  Aragon  in  recon- 
quering Ni^)le8.  In  return  Alexander  asked  the  hand 
of  Carlotta,  Princess  of  Naples,  for  his  son  Cesare, 
whcmi  he  had  made  archbishop  of  Valencia  imme- 
diately after  his  own  elevation  and  cardinal  a  year 
later.  It  was  necessary  to  divorce  Lucrezia  from 
her  husband  Giovanni  Sforza  and  marry  her  to  a 
natural  son  of  Alfonso  II.,  the  Duke  of  Bisceglia, 
which  was  accomplished  in  1498.  Cesare 's  marriage 
fell  through,  however;  and,  after  resigning  as  car- 
dinal, he  married  Charlotte  d'Albret,  sister  of  the 
King  of  Navarre,  being  made  Duke  of  Valentinois 
by  Louis  XII.,  who  received  in  return  permission 
to  divorce  his  wife. 

Cesare  went  on  with  designs  for  an  extensive 
temporal  lordship  by  fair  means  and  foul.  The 
ruling  families  of  the  Romagna  having  been  ex- 
pelled or  assassinated,  Alexander  gave  him  the 
title  of  Duke  of  Romagna  in  1501.  The  hatred  of 
father  and  son  for  the  house  of  Aragon  went  further. 
Lucresia's  second  husband  was  murdered  by  Ce- 
sare's  orders  in  1500;  and  a  year  later  Alexander 
joined  the  league  of  Louis  XII.  and  Ferdinand  of 
Spain  for  the  division  of  the  kingdom  of  Naples 
between  them.  The  years  1502  and  1503  mark 
the  height  of  this  dominion  founded  on  blood. 
Alexander  was  already  thinking  of  asking  the 
emperor  for  Pisa,  Sienna,  and  Lucca  for  his  son  and 
making  him  king  of  Romagna  and  the  Marches, 
when  death  cut  short  his  plans,  through  an  attack 
of  malarial  fever  (Aug.  18,  1503). 

Of  what  his  contemporaries  thought  Alexander 
capable  may  be  seen  from  the  story,  long  believed, 
that  he  was  the  victim  of  poison  prepared  by  his 
orders  for  one  of  the  cardinals  whose  estates  he 
coveted.  In  recent  years  Alexander  has  been 
regarded  by  some  as  an  imselfish  pioneer  of  the 
unification  of  Italy,  and  attempts  have  even  been 
made  to  represent  him  as  a  true  follower  of  Christ; 
but  his  unworthiness  is  generally  admitted,  even 
by  Roman  Catholic  writers.  (A.  Hauck.) 

BnuooBAPHT:  Creighton.  Papacy,  iv.  183-«ncl,  v.  1-67 
(yery  fuU,  valuable  appendices  of  documents);  Pastor, 
Popm,  V.  375-523,  vi.  1-180  (the  Romanist  side;  with  ap- 
pendices of  documents);  A.  Gordon,  The  Livet  of  Pope 
Alexander  VI.  and  .  .  .  CcBear  Borgia,  2  vols.,  London, 
1729  (has  appendix  of  documents);  Bower,  Popee,  iii. 
260-277;  J.  Fave,  6tudee  critiquee  aur  I'hiatoire  d' Ale- 
xandre VI.,  St.  Brienc,  1850;  M.  J.  H.  Ollivier,  U  Pape 
Alexandre  VI.,  Paris,  1870;  F.  Gregorovius,  Lucretia 
Borgia,  2  vols.,  Stuttgart,  1876.  Eng.  transl..  London, 
1004;  Kaiser,  Der  vielverleumdete  Alexander  VI.,  Ratis- 
bon,  1877;  V.  Nemec.  Papet  Alexander  VI.,  Klagenfurt, 
1879;  J.  Burehard.  LHarium  eive  rerum  urbanarum  com- 
meniarii,  3  vols.,  Paris.  1883-86  (consult  Index);  Hefele, 
CondUenoetehichte,  viii.  300;  C.  G.  Robertson.  Caear 
Borgia,  London,  1801;  Ranke,  Popee,  i.  36-36;  F.  O>rvo, 
Chranielee  of  the  Houee  of  Borgia,  New  York.  1001.  On 
Lueresia  Borgia  consult  F.  Gregorovius,  Lucretia  Borgia, 
ib.  1008. 

Alexander  VIL  (Fabio  Chigi):  Pope  1655-67. 
He  was  nuncio  in  Cologne  from  1639  to  1651,  and 
took  part  in  the  negotiations  which  led  up  to  the 
peace  of  Westphalia,  but  declared  that  he  would 
enter  into  no  communications  with  heretics,  and 


protested  against  the  validity  of  the  treaties  of 
Miinster  and  OsnabrQck.  Innocent  X.  took  a 
similar  view,  and  on  his  return  from  Germany  he 
made  Chigi  cardinal  and  finally  secretary  of 
state.  It  was  due  to  the  influence  of  Chigi  that 
Innocent  condemned  the  famous  five  propositions 
alleged  to  have  been  extracted  from  the  Augiutinus 
of  Jansen.  Innocent  died  Jan.  7, 1655,  and  a  strong 
party  in  the  conclave  favored  Chigi  as  one  who 
would  be  likely  to  be  free  from  the  reproach  of 
nepotism;  but,  though  Spain  supported  him,  the  op- 
position of  France  (Mazarin  had  been  for  years  his 
personal  enemy)  delayed  the  election  until  Apr.  7. 

Alexander  VII.  had  the  satisfaction  of  seeing  the 
daughter  of  Gustavus  Adolphus,  Christina  of  Swe- 
den, enter  the  Church,  though  her  prolonged  resi- 
dence in  Rome  became  a  burden  to  him  later. 
He  was  a  consistent  supporter  of  the  Jesuits, 
whom  he  succeeded  in  restoring  to  Venice,  from 
which  city  they  had  been  excluded  since  the 
conflict  with  Paul  V.  He  took  their  side  wholly 
in  the  struggle  with  the  Jansenists  (see  Jansen, 
CoRNEUus,  Jansenism).  He  became  embroiled 
with  Ijouis  XIV.,  first  through  the  refusal  of  the 
French  ambassador  in  Rome,  the  Duke  of  O^qui, 
to  pay  certain  conventional  civilities  to  the  rel- 
atives of  the  pope,  and  then  through  an  attack 
on  the  ambassador's  servants  and  palace  made  by 
the  Corsican  guards  of  the  pope.  Louis  was  already 
displeased  with  Alexander  for  his  consistent  sup- 
port of  Cardinal  de  Retz  against  Mazarin,  and  for  tds 
retention,  in  spite  of  Louis's  intercession  in  their 
behalf,  of  certain  possessions  to  which  the  Famese 
and  Este  families  laid  claim.  In  such  a  mood  he 
took  up  the  Corsican  affair  hotly,  and  wrote  to 
Alexander  of  a  breach  of  the  law  of  nations,  a  crime 
whose  parallel  could  hardly  be  found  among  bar- 
barians. The  papal  nuncio  was  obliged  to  leave 
Paris,  and  French  troops  occupied  Avignon  and  the 
Comtat  Venaissin  and  threatened  to  invade  the 
Italian  states  of  the  Church.  Alexander,  unable 
to  find  any  allies,  saw  himself  compelled  to  accede 
to  the  most  humiliating  demands  of  France  in  the 
treaty  of  Pisa  (1664).  He  was  obliged  not  only, 
by  a  special  mission  of  two  cardinals  to  Paris,  to 
beg  the  king's  pardon,  but  also  that  of  the  Duke 
de  Cr^ui,  and  to  erect  a  pyramid  in  a  public  place 
in  Rome,  with  an  inscription  declaring  the  Cord- 
cans  incapable  of  serving  the  Holy  See. 

Since  Alexander,  like  his  predecessor,  was  closely 
allied  with  Spain,  he  was  obliged  to  carry  Innocent's 
policy  still  further  when  a  struggle  with  Portugal 
arose.  Innocent  had  refused  to  recognize  Portugal 
as  an  independent  monarchy  when  in  1640  it  broke 
away  from  Spain  under  the  house  of  Braganza; 
and  had  declined  to  confirm  the  bishops  nominated 
by  King  John  IV.  Alexander  took  the  same  course 
in  regard  to  the  bishops;  the  king  accordingly 
allowed  the  bishoprics  to  remain  vacant,  and  divided 
their  estates  and  revenues  among  his  courtiers, 
even  thinking  at  one  time  of  the  extreme  measure 
of  an  absolute  breach  with  Rome  and  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  national  Church,  whose  bishops  should 
need  confirmation  from  no  one  but  the  metropol- 
itan. The  conflict  was  finally  settled  by  Clement 
IX.  in  1669. 


Alexander 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


120 


Much  as  he  had  had  to  do  with  affairs  of  state 
before  his  elevation  to  the  papacy,  Alexander  found 
them  wearisome,  and  left  their  administration 
as  much  as  possible  to  the  congregation  of  cardinals 
entrusted  with  their  consideration.  He  was  a 
cultured  friend  of  literature  and  philosophy,  and 
took  much  pleasure  in  his  intercourse  with  learned 
men,  among  whom  Pallavicini,  the  historian  of  the 
Council  of  Trent,  was  conspicuous.  He  tried  his 
own  hand  at  literature;  a  collection  of  his  verses, 
under  the  title  PhUometi  labores  juveniles  appeared 
in  Paris  in  1656.     He  died  May  22,  1667. 

(A.  Hauck.) 
Bibuoorapht:  Ranke,  Popes,  ii.  33  eqq.;  J.  Bargrave. 
Pope  Alexander  VIII.  and  the  College  of  Cardinale,  in  Pitb- 
licaHona  of  the  Camden  Society,  xcii.,  London,  1867;  R. 
Cbautelauze,  Le  Cardinal  de  Rett  et  eee  tnieaione  diploma- 
Hquee  in  Rome,  PariB,  1879;  A.  G^xier,  Lea  Demi^ree  Ann^e 
du  Cardinal  de  ReU,  Paris,  1879;  A.  Reumont,  Fabio 
Chigi  in  DeuUchland,  Aachen,  1885;  G^rin,  L'Ambaseade 
de  Crequy  h  Rome  et  le  traiti  de  Piae^  166S-166Uf  in  Revue 
dee  Queetione  hietoriquea,  zxviii.  (1893)  570;  Bower,  Popea, 
ill.  331-332. 

Alexander  Vm.  (Pietro  Ottoboni):  Pope  1689- 
01.  He  came  of  a  Venetian  family,  was  made 
cardinal  by  Innocent  X.,  and,  later,  Bishop  of 
Brescia  and  datarius  apoatolicus.  When  Innocent 
XI.  died  (Aug.  11,  1689),  much  depended  on  the 
choice  of  his  successor,  both  for  Louis  XIV.  and 
for  the  League  of  Augsburg,  formed  to  oppose  him. 
His  ambassador,  the  Duke  de  Chaulnes,  succeeded 
on  Oct.  6  in  accomplishing  the  election  of  Cardinal 
Ottoboni.  Louis,  whom  the  coalition  had  placed 
in  a  critical  situation,  believed  that  he  would  find 
the  new  pope  more  complaisant  in  some  disputed 
points  than  his  predecessor  had  been.  He  attempt- 
ed to  conciliate  the  curia  by  restoring  Avignon, 
and  abandoned  the  right  of  extraterritorial  im- 
munity which  he  had  so  stubbornly  claimed  for  the 
palace  of  his  ambassador  in  Rome.  Alexander 
showed  a  friendly  spirit,  and  made  the  Bishop  of 
Beauvais  a  cardinal.  The  coalition  urged  the  pope 
neither  directly  nor  indirectly  to  approve  the  four 
articles  of  the  ''  Gallican  liberties  "  of  1682,  on  which 
the  strife  had  turned  between  the  king  and  the 
clergy  of  his  party,  on  one  side,  and  Rome,  on  the 
other.  Alexander  might  have  been  willing  to  con- 
firm the  bishops  whom  Louis  had  nominated  in 
return  for  their  part  in  bringing  about  this  declara- 
tion, if  they  would  avail  themselves  of  the  pretext 
that  they  defended  the  articles  only  in  their  private 
capacity.  Louis  rejected  this  accommodation, 
and  the  pope  condenmed  the  declaration  and  dis- 
pensed the  clergy  from  the  oath  they  had  taken  to 
uphold  it. 

Alexander  made  his  name  memorable  in  Rome 
by  many  benefits  to  the  city,  and  showed  his  love 
for  learning  by  the  purchase  for  the  Vatican  library 
of  the  rich  collection  of  Christina  of  Sweden.  He 
is  reproached,  however,  for  yielding  completely 
to  the  inroads  of  nepotism,  which  his  predecessors 
had  driven  out.    He  died  Feb.  1,  1691. 

(A.  Hauck.) 

Bibuoorapht:  G^rin.  Pape  Alexandre  VIU.  et  Louia  XIV, 
d'apria  doeumenia  inidita.  Paris,  1878;  Petnioelli  della 
Qattina.  Hiakrira  diplomatique  dea  eondavea,  in.  213,  Fkkris, 
1806;  A.  Reumont,  QeachidUe  der  Stadt  Rom,  iii.  2,  639, 
Berlin,  1870;  Bower,  Popea,  iii.  334-335;  Ranke,  Popea,  ii. 
424.  iii.  461. 


ALEXANDER:  Patriarch  of  Alexandria  313- 
328.    See  Arianism,  I.,  1. 

ALEXANDER  BALAS.    See  SELEUciDiE. 

ALEXANDER  OF  HALES  (Halemis  or  Alensis, 
Halesiua  or  Alesius;  called  Doctor  Irrefragabilis 
and  Theologorum  Monarcha):  Scholastic  theolo- 
gian; b.  at  Hales,  Gloucestershire,  England;  d.  in 
Paris  Aug.  21,  1245.  He  was  educated  in  the 
monastery  at  Hales,  studied  and  lectured  at  Paris, 
and  acquired  great  fame  as  a  teacher  in  theology, 
and  entered  the  order  of  St.  Francis  in  1222.  His 
Summa  univerace  theologice  (first  printed  at  Ven- 
ice, 1475)  was  undertaken  at  the  request  of  Innocent 
IV.,  and  received  his  approbation.  It  was  finished 
by  Alexander's  scholars  after  his  death.  It  is  an 
independent  work  giving  a  triple  series  of  author- 
ities— those  who  say  yes,  those  who  say  no,  and 
then  the  reconciliation  or  judgment.  The  author- 
ities are  chosen  not  only  from  the  Bible  and  the 
Fathers,  but  also  among  Greek,  Latin,  and  Arabic 
poets  and  philosophers,  and  later  theologians. 
It  treats  in  its  first  part  the  doctrines  of  God  and  his 
attributes;  in  its  second,  those  of  creation  and  sin; 
in  its  third,  those  of  redemption  and  atonement; 
and,  in  its  fourth  and  last,  those  of  the  sacraments. 
Among  the  doctrines  which  were  specially  developed 
and,  so  to  speak,  fixed  by  Alexander  of  Hales, 
are  those  of  the  thesaurus  supererogationis  perfe^- 
torunif  of  the  character  indelibilis  of  baptism,  con- 
firmation, ordination,  etc. 

Bibuoorapht:  J.  B.  Haiir^u,  De  la  philoaophie  acolaatique, 
vol.  i.,  Paris.  1850;  A.  StOckl,  Oeachichteder  Philoaophie,  vol. 
ii..  Mains.  1865;  A.  Meander,  Christian  Church; '\\.A20-b\9\ 
J.  E.  Erdmann,  Oeachichte  der  Philoaophie,  i.  133,  431, 
Berlin.  1877,  Eng.  transl.,  3  vols.,  London,  1893;  Moeller, 
ChriaHan  Church,  ii.  328,  414,  428. 

ALEXANDER  OF  HIERAPOLIS,  hai"e-rap'5-li8: 
Bishop  of  Hierapolis  and  metropolitan  of  the  prov- 
ince Euphratensis.  He  was  prominent  at  the  third 
ecumenical  council  (Ephesus,  431)  as  a  fierce 
opponent  of  Cyril  and  leader  of  the  left  wing  of  the 
Antiochians.  He  persisted  in  his  opposition  even 
after  the  more  moderate  had  acknowledged  the 
orthodoxy  of  Cyril,  and,  in  consequence,  was  finally 
deposed  and  banished  to  Famothis  in  Egypt. 
Suidas  ascribes  to  him  a  treatise:  "What  Did 
Christ  Bring  New  into  the  World  ?" 

G.  KRt)GER. 

Bibuoorapht:  Mansi,  Concilia,  iv.  1330-31,  v.  851-065 
(letters  from  him  or  to  him  or  oonoeming  him);  Hefele 
Concilienoeachiehle,  ii.,  Eng.  tnuul..  vol.  iii.  passim;  DCB, 
i.  83-85. 

AL£XAin)ER  JANNJEUS.     See  Hasmoneans. 

ALEXAITOER  OF  LYCOPOLIS,  lai-kop'6-lis  or 
lic"ep'5-li8:  Alleged  author  of  a  work  against  the 
doctrines  of  the  Manicheans,  written  in  Greek, 
probably  about  300.  He  was  therefore  contem- 
porary with  the  first  apostles  of  Manicheism  in 
Egypt.  Photius  {Contra  Manichceos,  i.  11)  calls 
him  bishop  of  Lycopolis  (in  the  Thebaid),  but  the 
work  (which  is  an  important  source  for  the  Mani- 
chean  system)  does  not  even  justify  the  inference 
that  the  writer  was  a  Christian,  and  nothing  is 
known  of  his  life.  The  work  was  published  by  F. 
Combefis  in  \nB  Auctariumnovissimum,  ii.  (Paris, 
1672)  3-21,  and  is  reprinted  in  MPG,  xviii.  409-448. 


191 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Alexander 


It  has  been  edited,  with  a  good  introduction,  by 
A.  Brinkmann  (Leipdc,  1895);  Eng.  transL  in  ANF^ 
vi.  239-253.  G.  KrCger. 

ALEXANDER  NEVSKI,  SAINT:  A  saint  of  the 
Eastern  Church;  b.  at  Vladimir  (110  m.  e.  by  n.  of 
Moscow)  1218;  d.  at  Goroditch  (360  m.  s.e.  of  Mos- 
cow) Nov.  14,  1263.  He  was  the  second  son  of 
Grand  Duke  Jaroslav  II.  of  Novgorod.  In  1240  he 
defeated  the  Swedes  on  the  Neva,  whence  his  title, 
"  Nevski."  Two  years  later  he  repelled  the  Livo- 
nians,  who  had  the  support  of  Rome.  The  popes 
of  the  time  were  making  great  efforts  to  bring  about 
a  union  with  the  Eastern  Chiu*ch,  and,  to  further 
their  plans,  they  tried  to  induce  Alexander  and 
Prince  Daniel  of  Galitch  to  undertake  a  crusade 
against  the  Tatars.  Innocent  IV.  addressed  letters 
to  Alexander  (Jan.  23  and  Sept.  15,  1248),  urging 
him  strenuously  to  submit  to  the  Roman  see,  to 
which  the  duke  and  his  advisers  replied:  "  We  know 
what  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  say,  and  we 
are  also  acquainted  with  the  teaching  of  the  Church 
of  Constantine  and  from  the  first  to  the  seventh 
council;  but  your  teaching  we  do  not  accept." 
Nevertheless,  Innocent  and  his  successor,  Alexander 
IV.,  pursued  their  plans  and  appointed  a  legate 
for  Russia,  hoping  that  Roman  bishoprics  might 
in  the  course  of  time  be  established  there.  Grand 
Duke  Alexander  defended  his  Church  as  ably  as  he 
did  his  coimtry.  He  won  the  favor  of  the  Tatar 
khans,  and  in  1261  a  bishopric  was  established  at 
Sarai  on  the  lower  Volga,  the  residence  of  the  Khan 
of  the  Golden  Horde.  Alexander  died  on  one  of  his 
many  journeys  thither.  He  was  canonized  by  the 
Church  and  the  day  of  his  burial  (Nov.  23)  was 
consecrated  to  him.  His  remains  were  trans- 
ferred on  Aug.  30,  1724,  to  the  Alexander  Nevski 
monastery  in  St.  Petersburg,  which  had  been  found- 
ed by  Peter  the  Great  in  1711  on  the  supposed 
scene  of  Alexander's  victory  over  the  Swedes  in 
1240.  Richard  Hausmann. 

ALEXANDER  SEVERUS  (Marcus  Aurelius  Alex- 
ander Severus):  Roman  emperor  222-235;  b.  at 
Arce  in  Phenida,  most  probably  205;  murdered 
by  the  army,  probably  near  Mainz,  at  the  beginning 
of  a  campaign  against  the  Germans  in  Gaul,  Mar., 
235.  He  was  a  noble  character,  conscientious, 
almost  scrupulous,  meek,  and  well  inclined  toward 
all  gods  and  men.  The  religious  policy  wliich  he 
inherited  was  one  of  electicism  and  syncretism. 
Alexander  and  his  two  immediate  predecessors — 
Caracalla,  211-217,  son  and  successor  of  Septimius 
Severus  (q.v.),  and  Elagabalus,  218-222,  reputed 
son  and  successor  of  Caracalla — may  be  called  the 
Syrian  emperors.  They  were  much  influenced  by 
Julia  Donma,  wife  of  Septimius  and  daughter  of 
a  priest  of  the  sun  at  Emesa;  Julia  Mffisa,  her  sister; 
and  the  two  daughters  of  the  latter,  Sosemias, 
mother  of  Elagabalus,  and  Julia  Mamsa,  mother 
of  Alexander.  About  these  women  gathered  a 
circle  of  philosophers  and  scholars  who  took  a  deep 
interest  in  religious  questions.  There  was  nat- 
urally here  no  inclination  to  the  Roman  religion 
and  the  claims  of  Christianity  were,  in  part  at  least, 
recognized.  There  was  a  disposition  to  attempt 
to  revive  heathenism  by  importing  the  good  in  the 


new  religion.  Elagabalus  (q.v.)  had  sought  to  unite 
the  religions  of  the  empire,  but  in  fantastic  manner, 
aiming  to  make  all  gods  subordinate  to  the  sun-god 
of  Emesa,  whose  priest  he  was.  Alexander  con- 
tinued his  syncretism  in  nobler  fashion.  He  was 
susceptible  to  all  good  and  had  respect  for  all  re- 
ligions. The  image  of  Christ  stood  in  his  lararium 
with  those  of  Orpheus,  Abraham,  and  Apollonius 
of  Tyana,  and  he  is  said  to  have  wished  to  erect 
in  Rome  a  temple  to  Jesus.  The  Christian  ethics 
also  attracted  him,  he  often  quoted  the  precept 
"  what  ye  will  not  that  others  do  to  you,  that  do 
not  ye  to  them  "  and  had  it  inscribed  on  public 
buildings.  Mamsea  was  even  more  favorable  to 
Christianity;  Eusebius  {Hist,  eccl.,  vi.  21 )  calls  her 
**  a  most  pious  woman,  if  there  ever  was  one,  and 
of  religious  life,"  but  the  assertion  that  she  was  a 
Christian  (first  made  by  Orosius,  vii.  18)  is  un- 
founded. 

That  the  Chiuxh  had  peace  under  Alexander, 
as  under  his  predecessors,  was  the  natural  conse- 
quence of  his  training  and  his  character.  Lam- 
pridius  says  expressly  that  Alexander  "  suffered 
the  Christians  to  exist,"  and  Firmilian,  bishop  of 
Csesarea  in  Cappadocia,  in  a  letter  to  Cyprian 
(^pi«^,lxxv.  [Ixxiv.]),  written  about  256,  speaks  of 
"  the  long  peace."  To  be  sure,  individuals  may 
have  been  brought  to  trial  here  and  there,  but  the 
later  accoimts  which  make  Alexander  a  cruel 
persecutor  under  whom  thousands  of  Christians 
suffered  death  are  false,  and  the  reputed  martyr- 
doms under  him,  as  of  the  Roman  bishops  Callistus 
and  Urbanus  and  of  St.  Cecilia,  are  unhistoric. 

(A.  Hauck.) 

Bibliography:  Original  Bouroes  are:  Dion  Caasius.  HiaL 
Rom.,  Ixxiv.,  Ixxvi.,  Ixxx.;  .£lius  Lampridius,  Alexander 
SevenUt  best  in  M.  Niaard,  SuiUme,  pp.  453-482,  Paris. 
1883;  Eusebius.  Hiet.  eccl.,  v.  26,  vi.  1;  NPNF,  2d  series, 
i.  245,  249.  Consult:  G.  Ublbom,  Der  Kampf  dee  Chria- 
tentume,  pp.  284  sqq.,  Stuttgart,  1875;  B.  Aub^,  Lee  Ckr6- 
tiene  done  I'empire  romain,  pp.  53  sqq.,  Paris,  1881;  J. 
Reville,  La  Religion  h.  Rome  aoiu  lee  S&vhree,  ib.  1885;  P. 
Allard,  Hietoire  dee  perelcutione  .  .  .  du  Hi.  eitcle,  pp. 
79  sqq.,  171  sqq.,  ib.  1886;  W.  Smith,  Dictionary  of  Greek 
and  Roman  Biography,  iii.  802-804,  London,  1890;  Nean- 
der,  Chrietian  Church,  i.  125-127  et  passim;  Schaff,  Chrie- 
tian  Church,  u.  58-59;  Moeller,  Chrietian  Church,  i.  191, 
195. 

ALEXANDER,  ARCHIBALD:  Presbyterian  cler- 
gyman, and  first  professor  in  the  Princeton  Theo- 
logical Seminary;  b.  about  7  m.  e.  of  Lexington, 
in  Augusta  (later  Rockbridge)  County,  Virginia, 
Apr.  17,  1772;  d.  at  Princeton  Oct.  22,  1851.  He 
received  as  good  schooling  as  the  place  and  time 
afforded,  including  attendance  from  the  age  of 
ten  at  the  Liberty  Hall  Academy  of  the  Rev. 
William  Graham,  near  Lexington.  He  was  con- 
verted in  the  great  revival  of  1789,  studied  theol- 
ogy with  Mr.  Graham,  was  licensed  in  1791  and 
ordained  in  1794,  and  became  president  of  Hamp- 
den Sydney  College  1796,  and  pastor  of  the  Third 
Presbyterian  Church  (Pine  Street),  Philadelphia,  1806. 
In  1812  he  was  entrusted  by  the  General  Assembly 
with  the  organization  of  the  Princeton  Theological 
Seminary.  For  the  first  year  he  taught  all  depart- 
ments, but  as  other  professors  were  added  he  con- 
fined himself  to  pastoral  and  polemic  theology. 
His   chief  books   were:   A    Brief    Outline    of    the 


Alexander 
Alexandria 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


122 


Evidences  of  the  Christian  Religion  (Princeton,  1825) ; 
The  Canon  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  Ascer- 
tained (1826);  A  Pocket  Dictionary  of  the  Bible 
(Philadelphia,  1829);  Biographical  Sketches  of  the 
Founder  and  Principal  Alumni  of  the  Log  College 
(Princeton,  1845);  and  Outlines  of  Moral  Science 
(New  York,  1852). 

Bibuoobapht:   J.  W.  Alexander,  Life  of  Archibald  Alexan- 
der, New  York,  1854. 

ALEXANDER,  CHARLES  McCALLON:  Re- 
vivalist; b.  at  Meadow,  Tenn.,  Oct.  24,  1867.  He 
was  educated  at  Maryville  College,  Maryville, 
Tenn.,  but  left  in  1887  without  taking  a  degree, 
and,  after  being  musical  director  for  a  time  in  the 
same  institution,  prepared  himself  for  evangelistic 
work  at  the  Moody  Bible  Institute,  Chicago,  having 
already  been  singing  associate  of  the  Quaker 
evangelist  John  Kittrell  for  three  months.  Dur- 
ing a  part  of  the  period  of  study  in  the  Moody 
Bible  Institute  he  was  choirmaster  of  the  Moody 
Sunday-school,  and  in  1893  was  associated  with 
Dwight  L.  Moody  in  the  revival  services  connected 
with  the  World's  Fair  at  Chicago.    From  1894  to 

1901  he  was  singing  associate  of  the  revivalist 
Milan  B.  Williams,  working  in  Iowa  for  the  first 
five  years  and  in  other  parts  of  the  United  States 
during  the  remainder  of  the  time.  At  the  con- 
clusion of  this  period  Mr.  Williams  went  for  a  short 
visit  to  Palestine,  and  in  the  interval  Alexander 
was  asked  by  Rev.  Dr.  R.  A.  Torrey  to  accompany 
him  to  Australia.  They  began  their  work  in  1902, 
and  for  six  months  traveled  throughout  Australia, 
Tasmania,  and  New  Zealand,  after  which  they 
conducted  a  revival  for  six  weeks  in  Madura, 
Madras,  Calcutta,  Bombay,  and  Benares.  They 
then  went  to  England,  where  they  remained  from 

1902  to  1904,  and  in  1905-06  conducted  successful 
revival  services  in  Canada  and  the  United  States. 
In  regard  to  the  Bible  Mr.  Alexander  takes  the  most 
conservative  position,  for  he  declares  that  he 
"  believes  in  the  absolute  reliability  of  every  state- 
ment "  in  it.  He  has  issued  Revival  Songs  (Mel- 
bourne, 1901);  Revival  Hymns  (London,  1903);  and 
Revival  Hymns  (another  collection;  Chicago,  1906). 
Bibuographt:  G.  T.  B.  Davis,  Torrey  and  Alexander,  Chi- 

oaco,  1905. 

ALEXAin)ER,  GEORGE:  Presbyterian;  b.  at 
West  Charlton,  N.  Y.,  Oct.  12,  1843.  He  received 
his  education  at  Union  College  and  Princeton 
Theological  Seminary  (1870).  He  was  pastor 
of  the  East  Avenue  Presbyterian  Church,  Schenec- 
tady, N.  Y.,  from  1870  to  1884,  and  in  the  following 
year  was  called  to  the  University  Place  Church, 
New  York  City,  where  he  has  since  remained. 
While  at  Schenectady,  he  was  likewise  professor 
of  rhetoric  and  logic  at  Union  College  in  1877-83. 
He  is  president  of  the  Presbyterian  Board  of  For- 
eign Missions  and  of  the  board  of  trustees  of  Sflo 
Paulo  College,  Brazil,  as  well  as  of  the  New  York 
College  of  Dentistry.  He  is  also  vice-president 
of  the  Council  of  New  York  University,  a  trustee 
of  Union  College,  and  a  director  of  Princeton 
Theological  Seminary. 

AL£XAin>ER,  GROSS:  Methodist  Episcopa- 
lian; b.  at  Soottsville,  Ky.,  June  1,  1852.    He  was 


educated  at  the  University  of  Louisville  (B.A., 
1871)  and  Drew  Theological  Seminary  (B.D.,  1877), 
after  having  been  a  tutor  at  the  University  of 
Louisville  in  1871-73  and  professor  of  classics  at 
Warren  College,  Ky.,  in  1873-75.  He  held  suc- 
cessive pastorates  in  New  York  State  (1875-77) 
and  Kentucky  (1877-^),  and  from  1885  to  1902 
was  professor  of  New  Testament  exegesis  in  Van- 
derbUt  University.  Since  the  latter  year  he  has 
been  presiding  elder  of  Louisville.  He  was  also 
a  secretary  of  the  general  conferences  held  at 
Memphis  (1894),  Baltimore  (1898),  and  Dallas 
(1902),  and  has  written,  in  addition  to  numerous 
briefer  contributions.  Life  of  S.  P.  Holcombe  (Louis- 
ville, 1888);  History  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church,  South  (New  York,  1894);  The  Beginnings 
of  Methodism  in  the  Souih  (Nashville,  1897);  and 
The  Son  of  Man  :  Studies  in  His  Life  and  Teaching 
(1899),  besides  editing  Homilies  of  Chrysostom  on 
Galatians  and  Ephesians  (New  York,  1890).  In  1906 
he  became  editor  of  The  Methodist  Quarterly  Review. 

ALEXANDER,  JAMES  WADDELL:  Presbyte- 
rian; b.  near  Gordonsville,  Louisa  Coimty,  Virginia, 
Mar.  13,  1804,  eldest  son  of  Archibald  Alexander 
(q.  v.);  d.  at  Red  Sweet  Springs,  Virginia,  July  31, 
1859.  He  was  graduated  at  Princeton  in  1820, 
studied  theology  there  and  served  as  tutor,  was 
licensed  in  1824,  and  was  pastor  in  Virginia  till 
1828,  when  he  became  pastor  at  Trenton,  N.  J. 
He  was  editor  of  The  Presbyterian^  Philadelphia 
(1832),  professor  of  rhetoric  and  belles-lettres  at 
Princeton  (1833),  pastor  of  Duane  Street  Presby- 
terian Church,  New  York  (1844),  professor  of  ec- 
clesiastical history  at  Princeton  Seminary  (1849), 
recalled  to  his  old  church  in  New  York,  now  reor- 
ganized as  the  Fifth  Avenue  Church  (1851). 
Perhaps  the  best  known  of  his  writings  were 
the  Plain  Words  to  a  Young  Communicant  (New 
York,  1854)  and  Thoughts  on  Preaching  (1864). 
Some  of  his  translations  of  German  hymns  (such 
as  Gerhardt's  0  Sacred  Head  now  Wounded)^  first 
published  in  Schaff 's  Deutsche  Kirchenfreund,  have 
passed  into  many  hymn-books. 
Biblxoorapht:    Forty  Yeare*  Familiar  Lettere  of  James  W. 

Alexander,  ed.   Rev.   John  Hall  of  Trenton,  2  vols..  New 

York,  1860. 

ALEXANDER,  JOSEPH  ADDISON:  American 
Presbyterian;  b.  at  Philadelphia  Apr.  24, 1809,  third 
son  of  Archibald  Alexander  (q.  v.);  d.  at  Princeton, 
N.  J.,  Jan.  28,  1860.  He  was  graduated  at  Prince- 
ton in  1826;  became  adjunct  professor  of  ancient 
languages  and  literature  there  in  1830;  studied 
and  traveled  in  Europe  in  1833  and  1834;  on 
his  return  to  America,  became  adjimct  professor 
of  Oriental  and  Biblical  literature  in  Princeton 
Seminary.  He  was  transferred  to  the  chair  of 
chiuxih  history  in  1851  and  to  that  of  New  Testa- 
ment literature  in  1859.  He  was  a  remarkable 
linguist,  assisted  in  preparing  the  first  American 
edition  of  Donnegan's  Greek  lexicon  (Boston, 
1840),  and  did  much  to  introduce  German  theolog- 
ical learning  into  America.  He  wrote  commentaries 
on  Isaiah  (2  vols.,  New  York,  1846-47;  ed.  John 
Eadie,  Glasgow,  1875)  and  the  Psalms  (3  vols., 
ib.  1850);  with  Prof.  Charles  Hodge  he  planned  a 
series  of  popular  commentaries  on  the  books  of  the 


188 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Alexander 
Alexandria 


New  TeBtament,  of  which  he  himself  contributed 
thoee  on  the  Acts  (2  voIb.,  1857),  Mark  (1858),  and 
Matthew.  The  last-cited  was  published  posthu- 
mously (1861),  as  well  as  two  volumes  of  sermons 
(1860)  and  Notes  on  New  Testament  Literature 
(2  vols.,  1861). 

Bibuoobapht:   H.  C.  Alexander,  Life  of  J.  A.  Alexander,  2 
▼ok..  New  York.  1860. 

ALEXANDER,  WILLiAM:  1.  Anglican  archbish- 
op of  Armagh  and  primate  of  all  Ireland;  b.  at  Lon- 
donderry, Ireland,  Apr.  13, 1824.  He  was  educated 
at  Tunbridge  School  and  Exeter  and  Brasenose 
Colleges,  Oxford  (B.A.,  1854).  After  his  gradua- 
tion he  was  successively  curate  of  Derry  Cathedral 
and  rector  of  Termonamongan,  Upper  Fahan,  and 
C^amus-Juxta-Moume  (all  in  the  diocese  of  Derry), 
while  in  1863  he  was  appointed  dean  of  Emly. 
Four  years  later  he  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Derry 
and  Raphoe,  and  in  1896  was  elevated  to  the  arch- 
bishopric of  Armagh  and  the  primacy  of  all  Ireland. 
He  was  select  preacher  to  the  University  of  Oxford 
in  1870-71  and  Bampton  Lecturer  in  1876.  He  has 
written  Leading  Ideas  of  the  Gospels  (Oxford  ser- 
mons, London,  1872);  The  Witness  of  the  Psalms 
to  Christ  and  Christianity  (1877);  commentaries 
on  Colossians,  Thessalonians,  Philemon,  and  the 
Johannine  Epistles,  in  The  Speaker* s  Commen- 
tary (1881);  The  Great  Question  and  Other  Ser- 
mons  (1885);  St.  AugusHne*s  Holiday  and  Other 
Poems  (1886);  Discourses  on  the  Epistles  of  St. 
John  (1889);  Verbum  Crude  (1892);  Primary  Con- 
vietions  (1893);  and  The  Divinity  of  Our  Lord  (1886). 

8.  American  Presbyterian;  b.  near  Shirleysburg, 
Pfc.,  Dec.  18,  1831;  d.  at  San  Anselmo,  Cal., 
Jime  29,  1906.  He  was  educated  at  Lafayette 
College  and  Jefferson  College  (B.A.,  1858),  and 
at  Princeton  Theological  Seminary  (1861).  He  was 
ordained  to  the  Presbyterian  ministry  in  1862  and 
was  pastor  at  Lycoming  Church,  Williamsport,  Pa., 
in  1862-63.  From  1863  to  1865  he  was  president 
of  Carroll  College  and  stated  supply  at  Waukesha, 
Wis.,  and  then  held  successive  pastorates  at 
Beloit,  Wis.  (1865-69)  and  San  Jos6,  Cal.  (1869- 
71).  From  1871  to  1874  he  was  president  of 
the  City  College,  San  Francisco,  in  addition  to 
holding  the  professorship  of  New  Testament  Greek 
and  exegesLs  in  the  San  Francisco  Theological 
Seminary,  of  which  he  was  one  of  the  foimders  in 
1871.  From  1876  until  his  death  he  was  pro- 
fessor of  church  history  in  the  latter  institution. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  committee  to  revise  the 
Westminster  Confession  of  Faith  in  1 890-93  and  was 
one  of  the  editors  of  the  Presbyterian  and  Reformed 
Review  (now  the  Princeton  Theological  Review). 
In  addition  to  a  number  of  contributions  of  minor 
importance,  he  prepared  the  commentaries  on  the 
International  Sunday-school  lessons  in  1881-83. 

ALEXAITDER,  WILLIAM  LINDSAY:  Scotch 
Congregationalist;  b.  at  Leith  Aug.  24,  1808;  d. 
near  Musselburgh  (5  m.  e.  of  Edinburgh)  Dec.  20, 
1884.  He  studied  at  Edinburgh  and  at  St.  An- 
drews (1822-27);  began  the  study  of  theology  at 
the  Glasgow  Theological  Academy;  and  was  clas- 
sical tutor  at  the  Blackburn  (Lancashire)  Theo- 
logical Academy,  1827-31.  He  was  minister  in 
liveipool,    1832-34;  was    called    to    the    North 


College  Street  Congregational  Church,  Edinburgh, 
1834,  and  remained  with  the  same  congregation 
until  1877.  In  1854  he  became  professor  of  theol- 
ogy in  the  Congregational  Theological  College  at 
Edinburgh,  and  was  its  principal  1877-81;  he 
was  made  examiner  in  mental  philosophy  of  St. 
Andrews  in  1861,  and  was  a  member  of  the  Old 
Testament  Revision  Company  from  its  formation 
in  1870.  He  was  a  frequent  contributor  to  the 
periodicals  and  edited  The  Scottish  Congregational 
Magazine  1835-40  and  1847-51;  he  wrote  for  the 
eighth  edition  of  the  EncyclopcBdia  Britannica; 
translated  Hftvemick's  Introduction  to  the  Old  Tes- 
tament (Edinburgh,  1852)  and  the  first  division  of 
Domer's  History  of  the  Development  of  the  Doctrine 
of  the  Person  of  Christ  (1864);  prepared  Deuteronomy 
for  the  Pulpit  Commentary  (London,  1880);  and 
brought  out  the  third  edition  of  Kitto's  Biblical 
Cyclopcedia  (3  vols.,  Edinburgh,  1862-66).  His  other 
works  include:  The  Connection  and  Harmony  of  the 
Old  and  New  Testaments  (Congregational  Lecture, 
7th  series,  London,  1841,  revised  ed..  1853);  Anglo- 
Catholicism  not  Apostolical  (Edinburgh,  1843); 
The  Ancient  British  Church  (London,  1852,  new 
ed.,  revised  by  S.  G.  Green,  1&S9);  Christ  and 
Christianity  (Edinburgh,  1854);  Memoirs  of  the  Life 
and  Writings  of  Ralph  Wardlaw  (1856);  Christian 
Thought  and  Work  (1862);  St.  Paul  at  Athens  (1865); 
Zechariahf  his  Visions  and  Warnings  (London,  1885) ; 
A  System  of  Biblical  Theology  (published  posthu- 
mously, 2  vols.,  Edinburgh,  1888,  ed.  James  Ross). 
Biblioorapht:     J.    Ross,   W.   L.   Alexander,  .  .  .  hie  Life 

and  Worke,  with  lUuetraHone  of  hie  Teachings,  London, 

1887. 

ALEXANDRIA,  PATRIARCHATE  OF:  One  of 
the  most  important  episcopal  sees  of  the  early  .^ 
Church,  traditionally  believed  to  have  been  foimded  r 
by  the  evangelist  Mark.  It  originally  had  metro- 
politan jurisdiction  over  the  whole  of  Egypt,  and 
gradually  became  recognized  as  holding  an  even 
wider  or  patriarchal  authority,  next  to  that  of 
Rome,  until  Constantinople  took  second  place  in 
the  fourth  century.  For  its  early  history  in  this 
connection,  see  Patriarch.  The  rise  of  heresies 
and  divisions  in  the  Church,  so  zealously  combated 
by  famous  incimibents  of  this  see.  such  as  Athana- 
sius  and  Cyril,  led  to  schisms.  The  Monophysites 
contested  the  see  with  the  orthodox  or  occupied  it 
through  a  large  part  of  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries, 
and  from  the  seventh  century  the  Melchites  and 
Copts  continued  the  same  conflict.  The  Coptic 
patriarchs  maintained  close  relations  with  the 
Jacobite  patriarchs  of  Antioch,  and  enjoyed  the 
larger  share  of  the  favor  of  the  Mohammedan  rulers. 
In  the  fourteenth  century,  however,  they  as  well 
as  their  Melchite  rivals  were  subjected  to  severe 
persecutions.  When  the  city  was  conquered  by 
the  crusaders  in  1365,  the  Melchite  patriarch  was 
living  in  Constantinople  under  the  protection  of 
the  patriarch  of  that  see,  whose  influence  continu- 
ally increased  in  Alexandria,  until  the  Alexandrian 
patriarchs  came  to  be  regularly  chosen  either  from 
the  clergy  of  Constantinople  or  from  Alexandrian 
clergy  resident  there. 

The  seat  of  the  patriarchate  was  for  a  long  while 
in  Old  Cairo,  but  in  modem  times  the  incnmbent 


Alexandria 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


124 


has  usually  resided  in  Constantinople.  Since  1672 
he  has  had  only  four  metropolitans  under  him; 
namely,  those  of  Ethiopia  (purely  titular),  Cairo 
(the  former  Memphis),  Damietta  (transferred  from 
Pelusium),  and  Rosetta.  The  Coptic  see  was 
transferred  to  Old  Cairo  still  earlier,  under  Chris- 
todoulos  (1045-76),  and  claims  jurisdiction  over 
thirteen  bishoprics.    See  Coptic  Church;  Egypt. 

ALEXANDRIA,  SCHOOL  OF. 

Origin  ((  1). 

Its  Development  from  Hellenism  and  Judaism  ((2). 

Christian  Modifications  (S3). 

Significance  and  Achievements  ((4). 

Organisation  (S  6). 

Later  Developments  ( (  6). 

Representatives  of  the  Later  School  ((7). 

The  term  "  School  of  Alexandria "  is  used 
in  two  different  senses:  (1)  The  catechetical 
school  was  an  institution  which  grew  up  not 
later  than  the  last  half  of  the  second  century, 
and  lasted  to  the  end  of  the  fourth,  with  a  regular 
succession  of  teachers  like  the  schools  of  philosophy. 
(2)  By  the  same  name  is  also  imderstood  a  group 
of  theologians  of  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries, 
the  most  important  of  whom  was  Cyril  of  Alex- 
andria. They  were  in  general  opposition  to  the 
echool  of  Antioch  (q.v.),  and  were  the  progenitors 
of  Monophysitism  and  of  the  anti-Nestorian  inter- 
pretation of  the  decrees  of  Chalcedon,  thus  origina- 
ting in  the  order  of  intellectual  development  the 
decisions  of  the  third  and  fifth  councils.  It  will 
be  convenient  to  treat  both  meanings  of  the  term 
together. 

Nothing  certain  is  known  of  the  origin  of  Chris- 
tianity in  Alexandria,  but  it  is  noteworthy  that 
tradition    refers    the    first    preaching 

X.  Origin,  of  the  Gospel  there  and  the  founda- 
tion of  a  group  of  ascetic  philosophers 
to  one  and  the  same  period,  and  practically 
to  the  same  man,  Mark  the  Evangelist — which 
indicates  that  the  school  dates  from  the  ear- 
liest days  of  Alexandrian  Christianity.  At  the 
end  of  the  second  century,  it  emerges  into  light 
as  an  established  institution  under  the  teacher 
PantsBUUS,  thus  confirming  the  observation,  gen- 
erally true,  that  Christianity  adapted  itself  every- 
where to  local  characteristics.  The  oldest  Gnostic 
schools  are  met  with  in  Egypt,  and  the  oldest 
school  foimd  in  direct  relation  to  the  Church  (Jus- 
tin, Tatian,  and  others  had  what  might  be  called 
private  schoob)  is  that  of  Alexandria.  If  one  may 
judge  from  the  later  period,  in  which  the  relations 
between  the  school  and  the  Church,  between  the 
bishop  and  the  teacher,  were  frequently  strained, 
the  school  grew  only  gradually  into  close  connection 
with  the  Church;  but  the  Alexandrian  Church 
itself  shows,  at  the  transition  from  the  second  to 
the  third  century,  a  freer,  less  rigidly  orthodox 
habit  of  thought,  which  gave  place  to  the  settled 
Catholic  forms  only  in  the  episcopate  of  Demetrius, 
under  Caracalla  and  Elagabalus. 

The  catechetical  school  had  forerunners  in  the  Hel- 
lenistic "  Museiun  "  on  one  side,  and  in  the  Jewish 
schools  dbatte  midrashot)  on  the  other.  The  de- 
velopment of  Helleno-Judaic  learning,  as  seen  in 
Philo,  is  a  direct  step  to  the  Christian,  which  took 
up  its  inheritance.    The  speculations  of  the  Egyp- 


tian Gnostics,  the  schools  of  Basilides  and  Valen- 
tinus,  and  those  of  the  Church  theologians  proceed 
from  the  same  source.     Its  theology  is  the  science 
of  interpreting  the  written  documents; 
2.  Its  De-  it  is  extracted  from  the  divine  oracles 
velopment   by  means  of  the   exegetic-pneumatic 
fromHel-   method.    But   access   to  the   highest 
lenism  and  secrets    is  possible    only  by  passing 
Judaism,    through  various  anterooms,  designated 
on  one  side  by  the  different  disciplines  of 
Greek  philosophy,  and  on  the  other  by  special  divine 
revelations.     This  progressive  enlightenment  cor- 
responds to  the  constitution  of  nature  and  the  human 
organism,  with  their  long  course  of  progressive  de- 
velopment.    The  path  thus  marked  out  leads,  how- 
ever, naturally  to  apologetics,  just  as  the  preparatory 
study,  in  metaphysics  and  ethics,  in  knowledge  and 
in  divine  love,  leads  to  the  lajring  of  a  foundation  for 
the  theological  gnosis.     All  this  has  appeared  al- 
ready in  Philo;  and  so  has  the  essentially  Platonic 
attitude  toward  the  whole  world  of  thought,  the 
energetic  effort  to  surpass  Plato's  idea  by  a  hyper- 
noeton  (thus  offering  religion  access   in  the  form  of 
the  transcendental  to  a  lofty  region  peculiarly  its 
own),  and  the  alchemistic  process  with  the  Bible  by 
which  it  is  made  to  yield  not  only  the  highest 
gnosis   but   also,    when   interpreted   literally   and 
morally,  the  theology  of  the  preparatory  stages. 

The  Christian  school  made  no  radical  change  in  this 
way  of  looking  at  things;  but  it  modified  the  earlier 
views  by  giving  the  revelation  of  God 
3.  Christian  in  Christ  precedence  over  the  Old  Tes- 
Modifica-  tament  law,  which  it  placed  practically 
tions.  on  a  level  with  Greek  philosophy, 
and  by  accepting  the  Pauline-Johan- 
nean  conception  of  the  appearance  of  the  Godhead 
(the  Logos)  on  earth.  The  mystery  of  God  coming 
down  to  his  creature,  or  of  the  deification  of  the 
created  spirit,  now  became  the  central  thought  of 
theology,  and  served  to  strengthen  the  long-existing 
conception  of  the  essential  affinity  of  the  created 
spirit  with  its  creator.  The  fundamental  question 
whether  the  retium  of  souls  to  God  is  only  an  ap- 
parent retium  (since  really  all  the  time  they  are  in 
him),  or  a  strictly  necessary  natural  process,  or  the 
historical  consequence  of  a  historical  event  (the 
Incarnation),  was  never  satisfactorily  answered 
by  the  teachers  of  the  catechetical  school.  The 
Alexandrian  orthodox  teachers  are  distinguished 
from  the  heretical  by  their  serious  attempt  to  save 
the  freedom  of  the  creature,  and  thus  to  place  a 
boundary  between  God  and  man  and  to  leave  some 
scope  for  history;  but  the  attitude  of  the  Christian 
Gnostic,  which  Origen  praises  as  the  highest,  leaves 
room  neither  for  the  historic  Christ  nor  for  the  Lo- 
gos, in  fact  for  no  mediator  at  all,  but  conceives 
everything  as  existing  in  calm  immanence  and 
blessedness — while  this  very  teacher,  as  soon  as  he 
placed  himself  on  one  of  the  niunerous  steps  which 
lie  between  man  as  a  natural  being  and  man  as  a 
blessed  spirit,  became  the  theologian  of  redemption, 
atonement,  and  mediation. 

The  catechetical  school  of  Alexandria  has  a  great 
significance  as  well  for  the  internal  history  of  the 
Church  as  for  its  relation  to  the  world  outside.  It 
furnished  the  Church  with  a  dogmatic  theology;  it 


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Alexandria 


tau^t  it  scientific  ezegens,  in  the  sense  then  under- 
stood, and  gave    it  a  scientific  consciousness;  it 
overthrew   the  heretical   school;  it  laid  down  the 
main  problems  of  future  theology;  and 

4.  Signifi-  it  transformed  the  primitive  spirit  of 
cance  and  enthusiastic  asceticism  into  one  of  con- 
Achieve-    templative  asceticism.     In   regard  to 

ments.      the  outer  world,  it  forced  the  Hellenic 

mind  to  take  account  of  the  message 

of  Christianity,  it  led  the  conflict  with  the  last  phase 

of  Greek  phUosophy,  Neoplatonism,  and  defeated 

its  enemies  with  their  own  weapons. 

The  school  had  a  settled  organization  under  a 

single  head.    A  knowledge  of  the  course  of  study  is 

obtained  from  the  great  tripartite  work 

5.  Qrgani-  of  Clement  (the  "  Exhortation  to  the 
zatioo.      Heathen/' the  "  Instructor/' and  the 

"  Miscellanies  ")  and  from  accounts  of 
Origen's  teaching.  The  main  subjects  of  the  older 
philosophy  were  taught,  but  the  principal  thing,  to 
which  the  whole  course  led  up, was  the  study  of  Scrip- 
ture. The  school  seems  to  have  had  no  fixed  domi- 
cile, at  least  in  Origen's  day,  but  to  have  met  in  the 
teacher's  house.  There  were  no  fixed  payments;  rich 
friends  and  voluntary  offerings  from  such  as  could  af- 
ford them  provided  for  its  needs.  The  list  of  heads  is 
as  follows :  Pantsnus,  Clement,  Origen,  Heracles, 
Dionysius  (the  latter  two  afterward  bishops), 
Pierius  (Achillas),  Theognostus,  Serapion,  Peter 
(afterward  bishop),  Macarius  (?)...  Didymus, 
Rhodon.  The  last-named,  the  teacher  of  Philip- 
pus  Sidetes,  migrated  to  Side  in  Pamphylia  about 
405,  and  the  school,  shaken  already  by  the  Arian 
controversy  and  by  the  unsuccessful  struggle  of 
Theophilus  with  the  barbarous  monastic  orthodoxy, 
became  extinct. 

The  theology  of  the  Cappadocians,  especially  Greg- 
ory of  Nyssa,  is  a  product  of  the  influence  of  the  Alex- 
andrian school,  and  in  so  far  as  this  theology,  with 

its  echoes  of  Origenistic  teaching,  has 

6.  Later    never  wholly  died  out,  the  work  of 

Develop-    the  school  has  remained  effective.     It 

ments.      lived  on  also  in  the  learning  of  Jerome, 

Rufinus,  and  Ambrose,  and  was  valu- 
able to  the  Western  Church.  Athanasius  has  nothing 
directly  to  do  with  the  catechetical  school,  but  his 
teaching  on  the  incarnation  of  the  Logos  and  his 
conception  of  the  relations  of  God  and  man  were  in 
touch  with  one  side  of  Origenistic  speculation. 
By  carrying  through  the  Honuxmsios  he  brought 
about  at  the  same  time  a  view  of  the  person  of 
Christ  according  to  which  the  divine  nature  has  so 
absorbed  the  human,  has  so  made  the  latter  its  own, 
that  a  practically  complete  imity  of  nature  exists. 
He  did  not  work  this  consequence  out  thoroughly; 
there  are  many  uncertainties  both  in  him  and  in 
the  Cappadocians,  his  and  Origen's  disciples;  but 
his  teaching  and  his  theological  attitude  led  up  to 
what  was  later  called  Monophysitism,  in  its  strictest 
and  most  logical  form.  This  attitude  did  not 
change  when  the  Church  felt  obliged  to  repudiate 
the  attempt  of  Apollinaris  of  Laodicea  to  represent 
Christ  as  a  being  in  whom  the  Godhead  took  the 
place  of  the  reasonable  human  soul.  On  the  con- 
trary, it  was  felt  that  the  theoretical  assertion  of 
the  eoxaplete  and  perfect  human  nature  of  Christ 


in  opposition  to  Apollinaris  was  a  sufficient  pro- 
tection against  any  dangers  incurred  in  free  specu- 
lation on  the  "  one  nature  of  the  Word  made  flesh." 
These  speculations  were  based  on  the  conception 
of  the  possibility  of  a  real  fusion  of  the  divine  and 
human  natures.  This  conception  might  be  regarded 
in  a  twofold  aspect,  either  from  the  standpoint  of 
historic  realism  (the  divine  plan  of  salvation  has 
historically  brought  together  the  two  separate 
natures),  or  from  that  of  philosophic  idealism  (the 
divine  plan  of  salvation  declares  and  makes  plain 
what  lies  already  in  the  nature  of  things,  in  so  far 
as  the  intellectual  creature  is  in  the  last  resort 
substantially  one  with  the  Godhead).  The  con- 
nection of  this  with  the  later  teaching  of  the 
school  is  evident;  this  connection,  rooted  as  it  is  in 
Platonism,  comes  out  in  the  pneumatic  exegesis, 
although  Origen's  expositions,  which  seemed  to 
offend  against  the  rule  of  faith  and  Biblical  realism, 
were  rejected. 

The  theologians  who  represented  this  line  of 
thought,  and  who  from  the  beginning  of  the  fifth 
century  are  foimd  in  conflict  with  the 
7.  Repre-  school  of  Antioch,  are  called  the  Alex- 
sentatives  andrian  school.  After  Macarius,  the 
of  the  most  important  of  them  is  Cyril,  who  is 
Later  known  by  his  numerous  commentaries 
School  and  polemical  treatises,  as  well  as 
by  the  victorious  boldness  of  the 
position  which  he  took  in  these  controversies. 
While  there  may  be  two  opinions  about  his 
character,  there  can  be  no  doubt  of  the  soterio- 
logical  tendency  of  his  theology.  He  succeeded 
in  following  up  the  partial  victory  which  he  won 
at  the  CJouncil  of  Ephesus  (431 )  and  converting  it 
into  a  complete  one.  His  successor,  Dioscurus, 
accomplished  the  entire  defeat  of  the  theology  of 
Antioch,  and  at  Ephesus  in  449  the  "  one  nature 
of  the  Word  made  flesh  "  was  proclaimed  to  the 
East.  At  Chalcedon  in  451  came  the  reaction, 
but  it  was  brought  about  not  so  much  by  any 
opposition  in  the  Eastern  mind  to  the  formula  as 
by  the  despotic  bearing  of  its  champion.  That 
which  was  adopted  at  Chalcedon  roimdly  contra- 
dicted, indeed,  the  Alexandrian  theology,  but  in- 
asmuch as  Cyril's  orthodoxy  was  expressly  recog- 
nized there,  the  new  Byzantine-Roman  Church, 
in  spite  of  its  teaching  on  the  two  nat\u*es,  found 
a  place  for  the  Alexandrian  school.  In  the  sixth 
century  Leontius  and  Justinian  showed  (Second 
Council  of  Constantinople,  553)  that  its  influence 
was  not  dead — that,  on  the  contrary,  the  expo- 
sition of  the  decrees  of  Chalcedon  must  be  deter- 
mined in  accordance  with  it.  No  fundamental 
difference  appeared  in  the  attitude  of  the  sixth 
council  (Constantinople,  680-681);  and  after  the 
Adoptionist  controversy  the  Western  theology  also 
became  consciously  Alexandrian.  It  has  never 
been  able  to  do  more  than  theoretically  to  assert 
the  real  humanity  of  Clirist,  or  to  reduce  it  to  very 
narrow  limits;  it  is,  after  all,  essentially  Apolli- 
narian  and  docetic.  Consequently  in  all  its  phases 
it  has  left  room  for  mystical  speculations  on  the 
relation  of  the  Godhead  and  humanity,  in  which 
the  human  factor  tends  to  disappear  and  history 
to  be  forgotten.  (A.  Harnack.) 


Alexandria 
Alfred 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


126 


Biblioobapbt:  J.  F.  BaltuB.  Diferue  deM  tainU  pkret  aeeti- 
Mf  de  PlaUmitme,  Paris,  1711;  H.  E.  F.  Guericke,  De 
tehoHa  (gum  Alexandria  floruit  cateehetica,  Halle,  1824;  C. 
F.  W.  Haaaelbach,  De  •chola  qua  floruit  catedutiea,  Stet- 
tin, 1824;  E.  R.  Redepensing,  Origenst,  i.,  Bonn,  1841 ; 
J.  Simon,  Histoire  critique  de  I'icole  d'Alexandrie,  Paris, 
1845;  E.  Vacberot,  Ilietoire  critique  de  Vicole  d'Alexan- 
drie, 2  vols.,  Paris,  1846;  C.  Kingsley,  Alexandria  and 
her  Schools,  Cambridge,  1854;  C.  Bigg,  Chrietian  Plato- 
niate  of  Alexandria,  Oxford,  1886;  A.  Hamack,  Lehrbuch 
der  Dogmenoechichte,  L,  ii..  Freiberg.  1804,  Eng.  transl., 
7  vols.,  London,  1805-1000. 

ALEXAlfDRIA,  SYNODS  OF.  For  the  synods 
held  in  Alexandria  in  320  or  321  and  362,  see  Arian- 
IBM  I.,  1,  §2;  I.,  3,  §6;  for  the  synod  in  400,  see 
Orioenistic  Gontrovsrsies;  for  the  s3mod  in  430, 
see  Nestorius. 

ALEXIANS:  An  order,  aiming  to  care  for  the 
sick  and  bury  the  dead,  which  originated  in  the 
Netherlands  at  the  time  of  the  black  death  about 
the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century.  The  mem- 
bers were  at  first  called  CeUiia  (Dutch,  GeUebroe- 
ders,  "  Cell-brothers  ")  and  Lollards,  or  Nollards, 
on  account  of  their  monotonous  intoning  at  burials. 
When  and  where  they  chose  St.  Alexius — accord- 
ing to  the  legend,  a  son  of  rich  parents  who  gave 
all  his  possessions  to  the  poor,  lived  for  many  years 
unrecognized  as  a  beggar  in  his  father's  house,  and 
died  July  17,  417 — as  patron  is  not  known.  The 
place  may  have  been  Antwerp,  or  Cologne,  or  else- 
where in  Lower  Germany.  A  certain  Tobias  is 
said  to  have  had  a  part  in  their  foundation,  and  the 
name  Fratrea  voluntarie  paupereSf  which  is  some- 
times applied  to  them,  may  have  been  their  oldest 
and  chosen  designation.  From  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury they  were  found  in  great  numbers  in  Belgium 
and  western  Germany.  In  1459  Pius  II.  permitted 
them  to  take  the  solemn  vows.  To  avoid  being 
taken  for  Beghards,  and  to  escape  persecution, 
they  adopted  the  monastic  rule  of  St.  Augustine 
(with  black  cassock),  and  Sixtus  IV.  confirmed 
the  arrangement  in  1472.  Later  they  appeared  in 
the  four  provinces  of  the  Upper  Rhine,  Middle 
Rhine,  Flanders,  and  Brabant,  without  central 
government  or  priests  at  the  head  of  the  different 
monasteries.  Jan  Busch  (q.v.),  the  monastic  refor- 
mer of  the  fifteenth  century,  took  note  of  their 
illiterate  and  deficient  lay  character.  A  reform 
of  the  order,  which  was  verging  on  decay,  was  under- 
taken in  1854  by  the  monastery  of  Mariaberg  in 
Aachen,  and  was  confirmed  by  Pius  IX.  in  1870. 
About  fifteen  houses,  for  both  sexes,  scattered  over 
western  Germany,  are  affiliated  with  Aachen,  and 
there  are  others  in  Belgium.  O.  Z6ckler  f. 

Bibuooraphy:    Helyot,  Ordree  monaetiquee,  iii.  401-406;  G. 

Uhlhom,  Die  chriatlitJu  Liebeetdtiokeit  im  Mittelalter,  pp. 

300   sqq.,    Stuttgart,  1884;  W.  Moll.   Vorreformatorieche 

KirchenoeechichtederNiederiande,  ii.  250  sqq.,  Leipsic.  1805; 

Heimbucher,  Orden  und  Kongregationen  i.  470-481. 

ALEXIUS  L,  a-lex'i-us,  COMNENUS:  Emperor 
of  Constantinople  1081-1118,  founder  of  the  Com- 
nenus  dynasty.  He  was  the  nephew  of  Isaac 
Comnenus,  who  as  emperor  (1057-59)  had  tried 
through  the  army  to  save  the  state  from  the  selfish 
tyranny  of  the  official  class,  but  had  been  put  to 
death,  with  the  result  that  for  two  decades  military 
weakness,  administrative  demoralization,  and  the 
lo68  of  provinces  to  Turks  and  Normans  had  brought 
the  empire  into   an   almost   hopeless   condition. 


During  this  period  Alexius  won  considerable  re- 
nown by  defeating  a  Norman  mercenary  captain 
named  Ursel,  who  attempted  to  found  a  kingdom 
in  Asia  Minor,  and  two  pretenders  to  the  imperial 
throne.  He  was  adopted  by  the  empress  Maria, 
but  found  himself  so  zealously  watched  in  Constan- 
tinople that  his  only  safety  was  to  seize  the  crown 
for  himself,  which  he  accomplished  by  a  masterly 
conspiracy.  New  dangers,  however,  threatened 
him.  Asia  Minor  was  largely  in  Mohammedan 
hands;  the  sovereignty  of  the  empire  in  the  Balkan 
peninsula  was  scarcely  more  than  nominal;  and 
Robert  Guiscard  menaced  the  Adriatic  provinces, 
having  already  taken  the  south  Italian  ones. 
Alexius  sununoncd  his  forces,  and  ratified  the 
burdensome  treaty  with  Venice  which  his  pred- 
ecessor had  made,  but  he  was  defeated,  and  the 
Normans  occupied  Durazzo,  the  western  gate  of 
the  empire.  He  tried  to  create  a  diversion  by 
inciting  the  German  king,  Henry  IV.,  to  an  attack 
on  southern  Italy,  which  afforded  only  temporary 
relief,  and  nothing  but  Robert's  death  in  1085 
saved  him  from  this  determined  foe. 

Steady  pressure  from  the  half-barbarous  hordes 
of  the  Balkans  made  a  new  danger,  and  at  one 
time  it  seemed  likely  that  the  Turkish  pirates  of 
Asia  Minor  and  the  Sultan  of  Iconium  would  join 
them  in  an  attempt  to  effect  the  complete  over- 
throw of  the  empire.  By  the  aid  of  the  Cumans, 
however,  they  were  defeated  with  horrible  slaughter 
(1091).  The  lack  of  military  force  inspired  Alexius 
with  the  idea  of  gaining  assistance  from  the  West. 
The  first  crusade  (1095-99),  partly  due  to  his  appeals 
for  the  expulsion  of  the  Turks,  assumed  far  different 
proportions  from  those  which  he  had  expected; 
but  he  might  have  welcomed  it,  had  it  not  been 
that  the  participation  of  Bohemund,  Robert  Guis- 
card's  son,  gave  it  the  appearance  of  a  mere  episode 
in  the  old  Norman  inroads.  At  first  all  went 
peaceably,  but  mutual  distrust  soon  showed  itself. 
At  the  siege  of  Nicsea  (1097),  Alexius  did  not  wait 
to  see  if  the  crusaders  would  fulfil  their  agreement 
to  restore  to  him  the  territory  which  had  but 
recently  belonged  to  the  empire,  but  gained  the 
city  by  a  secret  agreement  with  the  Turkish  gar- 
rison. When  Antioch  fell  (1098),  it  was  not  re- 
stored to  the  emperor.  This  marked  the  crisis  of 
the  imdertaking.  The  Turks  threatened  to  recap- 
ture Antioch,  and  Alexius  was  entreated  to  send 
the  help  he  had  promised.  He  saw  that  by  giving 
it  he  would  make  the  Turks  his  irreconcilable  foes, 
without  finding  submissive  vassals  in  the  crusaders, 
and  he  drew  back,  seizing  the  opportunity  to  recover 
possession  of  the  coasts  of  Asia  Minor,  with  the  large 
maritime  cities  and  the  islands,  and  then  using 
this  recovered  territory  as  a  base  of  operations 
against  the  new  Norman  principality  in  Syria. 
Bohemund  found  himself  obliged  in  1104  to  seek 
help  from  the  pope  and  the  kings  of  England  and 
France.  He  spread  the  belief  that  Alexius  was  the 
enemy  of  Christianity  and  a  master  of  all  deceits 
and  wiles.  A  new  crusade,  led  by  Bohemimd, 
sought  to  pass  through  the  Eastern  empire,  but 
its  purpose  was  perfectly  imderstood  in  Constan- 
tinople. Preparations  were  made  in  time,  and 
in  the  winter  of  1107-08  Alexius  won  the  greatest 


187 


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Alexandria 
Alfred 


triumph  of  hiB  reign.  Bohemund  was  forced  to 
•ubmit  to  the  humiliating  conditions  of  the  treaty 
ol  Deabolis,  and  to  hold  Antioch  as  a  fief  of  the 
empire,  without  the  right  to  transmit  it.  The  last 
ten  years  of  Alexius's  reign  were  years  of  struggle 
for  the  maintenance  of  his  recovered  dominion  in 
Asia  Blinor,  and  for  the  consolidation  of  his  power 
at  home.  To  gain  the  help  of  the  ecclesiastics,  as 
well  as  to  atone  for  the  sins  of  his  youth,  he  regu- 
lated the  life  of  his  court  with  great  strictness,  and 
did  his  utmost  to  repress  the  sects  (Paulicians, 
Armenians,  Monophysites,  and  Bogomiles)  which 
had  flourished  in  the  anarchy  of  the  time  imme- 
diately preceding  his  own. 

It  is  difficult  to  arrive  at  an  unprejudiced  view 
of  Alesdus's  character,  so  much  have  the  one-sided 
views  of  the  Western  historians  prevailed.  His 
success  in  making  the  weakened  empire  once  more 
a  power  must  be  admired.  He  was  a  man  of  infi- 
nite resource,  of  tremendous  energy,  of  an  inde- 
fatigable readiness  to  avail  himself  of  circumstances, 
not  wanting  in  physical  courage,  but  even  greater 
in  moral  steadfastness.  (C.  Neumann.) 

BiBUOORAPHT :  Sourees :  Nioephorus  Bryennius,  Com- 
wufUarii,  in  CSHB,  viil.,  1836;  Anna  Comnena,  AUxiad, 
ibid.  iiL,  1878,  and  ed.  by  Reifferecheid,  2  voIb.,  Leipsic. 
1884;  also  tTheophylact.  CSHB,  Iv..  1834.  cf.  Knim- 
bacher.  Oe^ehiehte,  pp.  133  sqq.,  463-464.  ConBuIt  0. 
Finlay.  Hist  of  the  Bytantine  and  Oreek  EmpireM,  2  vols. , 
London,  1854;  A.  F.  GfrOrer,  Bytantiniache  Oetch.,  3  vols., 
Gras,  1872-77;  B.  Kugler,  Oe»chieht»  der  KretuxUge,  Berlin, 
1880;  H.  E.  Toser,  The  Church  and  the  Eaetem  Empire, 
London,  1888;  C.  W.  C.  OmtM,. Byzantine  Empire,  New 
York,  1802  (popular  but  useful);  Gibbon,  Decline  and  Fall, 
V.  232,  vi.  70.  1808;  F.  Harrison,  Byzantine  Hiet.  in  the 
Early  Middle  Affee,  London,  1000;  F.  Chalandon,  Eeaai 
ma-  .  .  .  Alexia  I.  Comnenue,  Paris.  1000. 

ALFORD,  HEURY:  Dean  of  Canterbury;  b.  in 
London  Oct.7, 1810;  d.  at  Canterbury  Jan.  12, 1871. 
He  studied  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge  (B.A., 
1832),  and  was  ordained  deacon  in  1833,  priest  in 
1834,  and  elected  a  fellow  of  Trinity  the  same  year; 
he  became  vicar  of  Wymeswold,  Leicestershire, 
1836,  minister  of  Quebec  Chapel,  Marylebone, 
London,  in  1853,  and  dean  of  Canterbury  in  1857. 
He  was  a  many-sided  man,  a  good  musician,  a 
wood-carver  and  painter  of  some  skill,  a  good 
preacher,  and  for  many  years  a  successful  teacher 
of  private  pupils.  His  publications  include  ser- 
mons, lectures,  essays  and  reviews,  poems,  hynms, 
a  translation  of  the  Odyssey  in  blank  verse  (London, 
1861),  an  edition  of  the  works  of  John  Donne  (6 
vols.,  1839),  The  Queen's  English  (1864),  and  even 
a  novel,  NetherUm  on  Sea  (1869),  written  in  col- 
laboration with  his  niece  (Elizabeth  M.  Alford). 
He  was  Hulsean  lectiu^r  for  1841-42  and  published 
his  lectures  under  the  title,  The  Consistency  of  the 
Divine  Conduct  in  Revealing  the  Doctrines  of  Redemp- 
tion (2  vols.).  He  was  the  first  editor  of  the  Con- 
temporary Review  (1866-70).  The  great  work  of 
his  life,  however,  was  his  Greek  Testament  (4  vols., 
London,  1849-61 ;  thoroughly  revised  in  subsequent 
editions),  which  introduced  German  New  Testa- 
ment scholarship  to  English  readers,  and  involved 
a  vast  amount  of  patient  labor.  An  outcome  of 
ibis  work  was  The  New  Testament  for  English 
Readers  (4  vols.,  1868)  and  a  revised  English 
version  (1860).  He  was  one  of  the-  original  mem- 
of  the  New  Testament  Revision  Committee. 


Near  the  close  of  his  life  he  projected  a  commentary 
on  the  Old  Testament,  and  prepared  the  Book  of 
Genesis  and  part  of  Exodus,  which  were  published 
posthumously  (1872). 

Bibuooraphy:  H.  Alford,  hie  Life,  Joumala,  and  Lettere, 
by  hie  toidow,  London,  1873;  DNB,  i.  282-284. 

ALFRED  (JELFRED)  THE  GREAT:  King  of 
the  West  Saxons  871-901;  b.  at  Wantage  (60  m. 
w.  of  London),  Berkshire,  849;  d.  at  Winchester, 
Hants,  Oct.  28,  901.  He  was  the  youngest  son  of 
Ethelwulf  and  Osburga,  and  succeeded  his  brother 
Ethelred  on  the  throne.  His  reign,  with  its  recur- 
ring conflicts  with  the  Danes,  contained  many 
vicissitudes;  nevertheless,  he  succeeded  in  estab- 
lishing his  power,  enlarged  the  borders  of  his  realm, 
and  advanced  the  spiritual  and  intellectual  welfare 
of  his  people.  He  remodeled  the  political  and 
ecclesiastical  organization  of  his  kingdom,  rebuilt 
the  churches,  monasteries,  and  schools  burnt  by 
the  Danes,  and  founded  new  ones.  He  invited 
learned  men  to  his  coimtry  and  provided  for  them 
there,  and  through  the  intimate  connection  which 
he  maintained  with  Rome  he  was  able  to  procure 
books  and  form  libraries.  Of  still  greater  import 
were  his  personal  exertions  to  arouse  among  his 
countrymen  a  desire  for  knowledge  and  culture. 
He  translated  Boethius's  De  consolatione  philosophies 
and  the  history  of  Orosius.  Both  works  are  treated 
with  great  freedom,  much  change  was  necessary 
to  adapt  them  to  the  needs  of  the  rude  Saxons, 
and  Alfred  himself  did  not  always  fully  understand 
his  text.  There  are  many  omissions  and  additions. 
The  work  of  Orosius  (an  attempt  to  write  a  history 
of  the  world  from  a  Christian  standpoint)  is  sup- 
plemented by  a  geographical  and  ethnological 
review  of  Scandinavia  and  the  Baltic  countries 
from  the  reports  of  Othhere  and  Wulfstan.  Of 
greater  importance  from  a  religious  point  of  view 
is  Alfred's  translation  of  the  lAber  pastoralis  cures 
of  Pope  Gregory  I.  (590-604),  a  book  well  adapted  to 
influence  the  spirit  of  the  Saxon  clergy.  A  para- 
phrase of  Bede's  Historia  ecdesiastica  gentis  An- 
glorum  has  been  erroneously  ascribed  to  Alfred; 
it  may,  however,  have  been  prepared  under  his 
direction.  Translations  or  paraphrases  of  the  Die^- 
logus  of  Gregory  I.  and  of  the  "  Soliloquies  "  of  St. 
Augustine  have  also  been  ascribed  to  him.  His 
millennary  was  celebrated  at  Winchester  in  1901, 
and  commemorative  exercises  were  held  in  America 
also. 

Biblioorapht:  The  Whole  Worke  of  Kino  Alfred,  with  pre- 
liminary essay,  were  published  in  a  "  Jubilee  Edition," 
3  vols.,  Oxford,  1852-63.  Separate  editions  are:  Of  the 
Orosius,  text  and  Latin  original,  ed.  H.  Sweet,  London, 
1883;  of  the  Boethius,  text  and  modem  English,  ed. 
W.  J.  Sedgefi  Id.  Oxford,  1899-1900;  of  the  Gregory, 
text  and  translation,  ed.  H.  Sweet,  London,  1871-72;  of 
the  Bede,  text  and  translation,  ed.  T.  Miller,  ib.  1890- 
98,  and  J.  Schipper,  3  parts,  Leipsic,  1897-98;  of  the 
"Soliloquies  "  of  St.  Augustine,  ed.  H.  L.  Hargrove  {Yate 
Studiee  in  Englieh,  No.  13).  New  York,  1902.  For  Alfred's 
laws,  consult  Ancient  Laws  and  Inatitutee  of  England,  ed. 
B.  Thorpe.  London,  1840.  The  chief  sources  for  Alfred's 
life  are:  The  De  r^me  geetie  jElfredi  of  the  Welsh 
bishop  Asser,  ed.  W.  H.  Stevenson,  Oxford,  1904;  the 
Anglo-Scucon  Chronicle,  ed.  B.  Thorpe  (Rolle  Seriee,  No. 
23),  1861,  and  C.  Plummer,  Oxford.  1892;  translationa  of 
both  Asser  and  the  Chronicle  by  J.  A.  Giles  in  Bohn's 
Antiquarian  Library,  \v.;  of  Asser  by  A.  S.  Ckx>k,  Boston, 
1906.     Of  the  many  modem  lives  of  Alfred  the  following 


AUHo 
AUelne 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


128 


may  be  mentioned — in  German:  R.  Pauli,  Berlin,  1851, 
Eng.  tranflL,  London,  1853,  and  J.  B.  Weiss,  Freiburg, 
1852;  in  English:  T.  Hughes,  London,  1878;  E.  Cony- 
beare,  ib.  1900;  W.  Besant,  Tfu  Story  of  Kino  Alfred,  ib. 
1001;  C.  Plummer,  Cambridge,  1002;  and  the  volume  of 
essays  by  different  writers,  ed.  A.  Bowker,  London,  1809. 
Consult  also  Lappenberg,  Oetchichte  von  England,  vol.  i., 
Hamburg,  1834.  Eng.  transl.  by  B.  Thorpe,  ii.,  London, 
1845;  W.  Stubbs,  Conatitutumal  History  of  England,  vol. 
i.,  Oxford,  1880;  E.  A.  Freeman,  History  of  the  Norman 
Conquest,  vol  i.,  ib.  1880;  A.  Bowker,  The  King  Alfred 
MHUnary,  London,  1002. 

ALFRIC,  al'fric  (JELFRIC)  (Alfricus  Grammatv- 
CU8):  Anglo-Saxon  abbot.  He  was  a  scholar 
and  friend  of  Athelwold  of  Abingdon,  afterward 
bishop  of  Winchester  (c.  963),  and  was  abbot  of 
Ceme  in  Dorsetshire  and  of  Ensham  (c.  1006). 
He  has  been  identified,  probably  with  insufficient 
reason,  with  Alfric,  archbishop  of  Canterbury 
(996-1006),  and  with  Alfric,  archbishop  of  York 
(1023-51).  He  did  much  for  the  education  of 
clergy  and  people,  and  his  name  is  second  only  to 
that  of  King  Alfred  as  a  writer  of  Anglo-Saxon 
prose.  He  was  a  strong  opponent  of  the  doctrine 
of  transubstantiation.  His  writings  include  a 
grammar  with  glossary,  a  collection  of  homilies, 
and  a  translation  of  the  first  seven  books  of  the 
Old  Testament.  The  Alfric  Society  was  founded 
in  London  in  1842  to  publish  his  works  as  well  as 
others.  For  this  society  B.  Thorpe  edited  two 
books  of  the  homilies  (2  vols.,  London,  1844-46); 
the  third  book  has  been  edited  by  W.  Skeat  {/Elfric's 
Lives  of  Saints f  London,  1881).  The  grammar 
may  be  found  in  the  SamnUung  englischer  Denk- 
mOler,  Berlin,  1880;  the  Heptaleuchus,  m  C.  W.  M. 
Grein,  Bibliothek  der  angeUOchsiachen  Proaa,  i. 
(Cassel,  1872). 
BiBUooRArar:  DNB,  L  164-186;  Caroline  L.  White,  Mlfric 

{Yale  Studies  in  English,  No.  ii.).  Boston.  1808. 

ALGER,  al"zh6',  OF  LIEGE  (ALGER  OF  CLUNY, 
Algenis  ScholasticuSf  and  Algenu  M agister):  Theo- 
logical writer  of  the  twelfth  century;  d.  at  Climy 
1131  or  1132.  He  enjoyed  the  instruction  of  the 
best  teachers  in  the  cathedral  school  of  Li^ge, 
which  was  then  the  great  school  of  northwestern  Ger- 
many, and  a  nursery  of  high-church  notions.  Alger, 
afterward  scholasticus  at  the  cathedral,  does  not 
seem  to  have  been  a  champion  of  this  tendency. 
After  the  death  of  Bishop  Frederick,  in  1121,  he 
retired  to  the  monastery  of  Cluny,  where  he  lived 
on  very  friendly  terms  with  Abbot  Peter.  He  is 
described  as  a  man  of  great  intellect,  a  wise  coun- 
selor, faithful  in  every  respect,  of  wide  learning, 
yet  modest  and  unassuming.  The  most  noteworthy 
of  his  writings  are:  (I)  Ds  sacramerUis  corporis 
et  sanguinis  domini  libri  tit.,  which  occupies  a 
prominent  place  among  the  rejoinders  to  Beren- 
gar's  doctrine  of  the  Eucharist.  The  first  book 
treats  of  the  doctrine  of  the  substantial  presence  of 
Christ  in  the  Eucharist,  aiming  to  prove  it  from 
Scripture  and  tradition;  it  then  treats  of  the  recep- 
tion of  the  sacrament,  especially  of  worthy  partic- 
ipation. The  second  book  treats  of  different  con- 
troversies respecting  the  matter,  form,  and  efficacy 
of  the  sacraments.  The  third  opposes  especially 
those  who  make  the  legality  and  efficacy  of  the 
sacrament  dependent  on  the  worthiness  of  the  dis- 
penser.   The  difficult  questions  are  treated  clearly 


and  acutely.  In  the  main  Alger  follows  Guitmund 
of  Aversa,  but  not  without  expansion  of  his  doc- 
trine in  some  points.  He  was  the  first  to  assert 
the  two  propositions  that  the  human  nature  of 
Christ  because  of  its  exaltation  above  all  creatures 
has  the  faculty  of  remaining  where  it  pleases  and 
existing  at  the  same  sime  imdivided  in  every  other 
place  and  that  the  sensual  qualities  of  the  elements 
exist  after  the  transubstantiation  as  accidentia 
per  «e,  i.e.,  without  subject.  (2)  In  the  TractaJtus 
de  misericordia  et  justitia,  important  for  the  history 
of  canon  law  and  Church  discipline,  Alger  attempts 
to  explain  and  harmonize  the  apparent  contra- 
dictions between  the  different  laws  of  the  Church. 
Each  proposition  is  given  in  a  brief  thesis  or  title, 
followed  by  numerous  quotations  from  Scripting, 
the  Fathers,  councils,  and  genuine  and  spurious 
papal  decretals  as  proofs;  the  authorities  which 
seem  to  oppose  each  other,  are  put  in  juxtaposition; 
and  a  reconciliation  is  attempted.  Many  patristic 
passages  as  well  as  many  of  the  explanatory  chapter- 
headings  are  copied  from  this  work  in  the  Decretum 
Gratiani,  Alger,  however,  was  not  the  only  pred- 
ecessor and  pattern  of  Gratian,  as  the  whole  de- 
velopment of  ecclesiastical  and  canonical  science 
was  in  that  direction.  S.  M.  Deutsch. 

Biblioorapht:  Alger's  works  are  in  MPL,  clxxx.  Con- 
sult the  Histoire  litUraire  de  la  France,  xi.  158  sqq.;  A. 
L.  Richter,  Beiir&ge  tur  Kenniniss  der  QueUen  des  kano- 
nisehen  Rechis,  pp.  7-17,  LeipHic,  1834;  H.  HQffer.  Beitr&ge 
tur  Oeschiehie  der  Quellen  des  Kirchenrechts,  pp.  1-66,  MQn- 
ster,  1862;  Wattenbach.  DOQ,  u.  (1894)  145,  513. 

ALGER,  al'jer,  WILLIAM  ROUWSEVILLE:  Uni- 
tarian; b.  at  Freetown,  Mass.,  Dec.  30,  1822;  d.  in 
Boston  Feb.  7, 1905.  He  was  a  graduate  of  Harvard 
Divinity  School,  1847,  and  held  various  pastorates 
(Roxbury,  Mass.,  1848-55;  Boston,  as  successor 
of  Theodore  Parker,  1855-73),  but  after  1882  lived 
in  Boston  without  charge.  His  best-known  books 
are  The  Poetry  of  the  Orienl  (Boston,  1856,  5th  ed., 
1883);  The  Genius  of  Solitude  (1865, 10th  ed.,  1884); 
Friendships  of  Women  (1867,  10th  ed.,  1884),  and 
particularly  A  Critical  History  of  the  Doctrine  of  a 
Future  Life  (Philadelphia,  1863,  12th  ed.,  Boston, 
1885),  to  which  Ezra  Abbot  furnished  his  famous 
bibliography  of  books  on  eschatology  (see  Abbot, 
Ezra). 

ALGERIA.     See  Africa,  II. 

ALLARD,  Ol'IOr',  PAUL:  Layman,  French  Chris- 
tian areheologist;  b.  at  Rouen  Sept.  15,  1841.  He 
was  educated  at  the  College  Libre  de  Bois-Guillaume 
(near  Rouen)  and  at  the  Faculty  de  Droit  of 
Paris.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  and  for  many 
years  has  been  a  judge  in  the  civil  court  of  his  native 
city.  He  is  a  member  of  the  Rouen  Academy,  as 
well  as  of  the  Acadimie  de  Religion  Catholique  and 
the  Acadimie  Pontificale  d'Archiologie,  both  of 
Rome.  He  is  likewise  a  corresponding  member 
of  the  SocUU  des  Antiquaires  de  France ,  and  the 
editor  of  the  Revue  des  traditions  historiques  of 
Paris.  His  chief  works  are:  Les  Esdaves  chrUiens 
depute  les  premiers  temps  de  V^glise  jusqu'h  la  fin 
de  la  domination  romaine  en  Occident  (Paris,  1876; 
crowned  by  the  French  Academy);  LArt  pa^en 
sous  les  empereurs  chrHiens  (1879);  Esclaves,  serfs 
et  mainmortables  (1884);  Histoire  des  persecutions 


189 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Altrio 
AUelne 


(4  vols.,  1882-00);  Le  Chriatianiame  et  Vempire 
romam  de  Niton  d.  ThMose  (1897);  Saint  Banle 
(1808);  jStudea  d'kisiaire  et  d'archiologie  (1808); 
JvHan  I'Apoatat  (3  voIb.,  1000-03;  crowned  by  the 
FVeneh  Academy);  Le8  Chritieru  et  Vincendie  de 
Rome  90U8  N&nm  (1003);  Lee  Pereicutiane  et  la 
critique  modeme  (1003);  and  Dix  lefone  eur  le 
martyre  (1006).  He  has  also  made  a  translation, 
with  additions  and  notes,  of  the  Roma  Sotterranea 
of  Northcote  and  Brownlow  under  the  title  Rome 
•outenrame  (Paris,  1873). 

ALLATIUS,  al-ld'shiuB  or  -shus,  LEO  (LEONE 
ALACCI):  Rconan  Catholic  scholar;  b.  on  the  island 
of  Chios  1586;  d.  in  Rome  Jan.  19,  1669.  He  was 
brought  to  Calabria  at  the  age  of  nine,  and  in  1600 
went  to  Rome,  where  he  became  one  of  the  most 
distinguished  pupils  of  the  Greek  College  founded  in 
1577  by  Gregory  XIII.  He  studied  philosophy  and 
theology,  and  later  also  medicine  at  the  Sapienza, 
and  became  a  teacher  in  the  Greek  College  and  a 
acriptor  in  the  Vatican  library.  When  Maximilian 
of  Bavaria  presented  the  Heidelberg  library  to  the 
pope  (1622),  Allatius  was  chosen  to  superintend 
its  removal  to  Rome,  and  he  spent  nearly  a  year 
in  the  work.  The  death  of  Gregory  XV.  just  before 
his  return  deprived  him  of  a  fitting  reward;  and 
he  was  even  suspected  of  having  appropriated  or 
given  away  part  of  this  charge.  He  was  supported 
by  the  liberality  of  some  of  the  cardinals,  especially 
fVancesoo  Barfoerini,  who  made  him  his  private 
librarian  (1638).  Alexander  VII.  appointed  him 
keeper  of  the  Vatican  library  in  1661,  and  he 
lived  the  retired  life  of  a  scholar  imtil  his  death. 
Allatius's  contemporaries  regarded  him  as  a  prodigy 
of  learning  and  diligence,  though  apparently  some- 
what narrow  and  pedantic,  and  without  much  critical 
judgment.  His  literary  productions  were  of  the 
most  varied  kind.  The  interests  which  lay  nearest 
to  his  heart  were  the  demonstration  that  the  Greek 
and  Roman  C^iurches  had  always  been  in  substan- 
tial agreement,  and  the  bringing  of  his  fellow 
countrymen  to  acknowledge  the  supremacy  of 
Rome.  His  principal  writings,  the  De  ecdeeice 
oeciderUalie  et  orientalie  perpetua  coneensione  (C!o- 
logne,  1648),  and  the  smaller  De  tUriusque  ecdeeicB 
in  doffmate  de  purgatorio  consensume  (Rome,  1655), 
bear  upon  this  subject;  his  Confutatio  fabtUae 
de  papieea  (1630)  aims  to  vindicate  the  papacy. 
He  was  vigorously  opposed  by  Protestant  schol- 
ars, such  as  Hottinger,  Veiel,  and  Spanheim, 
and  some  Roman  Catholics  (as  R.  Simon)  ad- 
mitted that  his  treatment  of  history  was  one- 
sided. He  found  an  ardent  helper  in  the  German 
convert  B.  Neuhaus  (Nihusius),  the  pupil  and 
then  the  opponent  of  Calixtus.  Allatius  pub- 
lished many  other  works  of  a  similar  tendency, 
e.g.,  on  the  procession  of  the  Holy  Ghost  (1658), 
the  Athanasian  Creed  (1659),  the  Synod  of  Photius 
(1662),  and  the  Council  of  Florence  (1674).  He 
also  edited,  annotated,  or  translated  a  number  of 
Qredc  authors,  both  ecclesiastical  and  secular,  and 
contributed  to  the  Paris  Corpus  Byzantinorum, 
He  left  behind  him  plans  and  preliminary  studies 
for  still  more  extensive  undertakings,  such  as  a 
complete  library  of  all  the  Greek  authors.  His 
literaiy  remains,  and  an  extensive  correspondence, 
I.-9 


comprising  more  than  1,0(X)  letters  in  Greek  and 
Latin,  came  in  1803  into  the  possession  of  the 
library  of  the  Oratorians  in  Rome.      (A.  Hauck.) 
Bibuoorapht:  S.  Qradius,  VUa  Leonit  AUaHi,  first  publiahed 
in  Mai,  Nova  patrum  hMiotheea,  vi..  part  2,  pp.  v.-xxviii., 
Rome.  1863;   Fabridus-Harles.  BibliothMa  Oraea,  zi.  436 
sqq.;   J.  M.  8chr6ckh,  Ktrehgno^^chicMe  Beit  der  Reforma- 
tion, ix.  21.  Leipsic.  1810;  A.  Theiner.  Die  Sehenkuno  der 
HeidsOtero^r  BibliotKek  .  .  .  mit  Origiiiaiechriften,  Munich, 
1844;  H.  Laemmer,  De  L.  AUatii  codieibut,  Fniburs.  1864; 
H.  Hurter,  NomeneUUor  titerariue,  ii.  110  sqq.,  Innabruok, 
1893. 

ALLEGORICAL  INTERPRBTATION.  See  Exb- 
OE8I8  OR  Hermeneutics,  III.,  {{  2-5. 

ALLEGRI,  dl-ld'gri,  GREGORIO:  ItaUan  com- 
poser; b.  in  Rome,  of  the  family  of  the  Correggios, 
most  probably  about  1585;  d.  there  Feb.  18,  1052. 
He  studied  music  under  Nanini  (1600-07),  and  after 
1629  belonged  to  the  choir  of  the  Sistine  Chapel. 
He  was  one  of  the  first  to  compose  for  stringed 
instruments.  His  most  celebrated  work  is  a  Mise- 
rere for  two  choirs,  one  of  five  and  the  other  of  four 
voices,  which,  as  given  at  Rome  dming  Holy  Week, 
acquired  a  great  reputation.  For  a  long  time 
extraordinary  efforts  were  made  to  prevent  the  pub- 
lication of  the  music;  but  Mozart  at  the  age  of 
fourteen  was  able  to  write  it  down  from  memory, 
and  Dr.  Charles  Bumey  (author  of  the  History  of 
Music)  procured  a  copy  from  another  souree  and 
published  it  in  La  musica  che  si  canta  annualmente 
nelle  fumioni  deUa  setHmana  santaf  neUa  cappeUa 
pontificia  (London,  1771).  The  effect  of  the  Mise- 
rere as  given  in  Rome  seems  to  be  due  to  the  asso- 
ciations and  execution  rather  than  to  any  inherent 
quality  in  the  music,  as  presentations  of  it  else- 
where have  proved  distinctly  disappointing. 

Biblioorapht:  F.  MendelMohn-Bartholdy,  Lettere  from 
Italy  and  Switxerland,  tranel.  by  Lady  Wallace,  pp.  133- 
134,  168-191.  Philadelphia.  1863. 

ALLEINE,  al'en,  JOSEPH:  English  non-con- 
formist; b.  at  Devizes  (86  m.  w.  of  London),  Wilt- 
shire, 1634;  d.  at  Taimton,  Somersetshire,  Nov.  17, 
1668.  He  was  graduated  at  Oxford  in  1653  and 
became  chaplain  to  his  college  (Corpus  Christi); 
in  1655  he  became  assistant  minister  at  Taunton, 
whence  he  was  ejected  for  non-conformity  in  1662; 
he  continued  to  preach  and  was  twice  imprisoned 
in  consequence,  and  his  later  years  were  troubled 
by  constant  danger  of  arrest.  He  was  a  learned 
man,  associated  as  an  equal  with  the  fellows  of  the 
Royal  Society,  and  engaged  in  scientific  study  and 
experimentation.  He  is  now  remembered,  however, 
as  the  author  o(  An  Alarm  to  Unconverted  Sinners 
(London,  1672;  republished  in  1675  under  the  title 
A  Sure  Guide  to  Heaven).  He  published  several 
other  works,  including  an  Expltmation  of  the  As- 
sembly's Shorter  Catechism  (1656). 
Bibliography:     C.    Stanford.   Companione  and   Timee  of 

Joeeph  Alleine,  London.  1861;  DNB,  i.  299-300. 

ALLEINE,  RICHARD:  English  non-conformist; 
b.  at  Ditcheat  (18  m.  s.  by  w.  of  Bath)  1611;  d.  at 
Frome  Selwood  (11  m.  s.  by  e.  of  Bath)  Dec.  22, 
1681.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford  and  was  rector 
of  Batcombe  (15  m.  s.  by  w.  of  Bath)  from  1641 
till  ejected  for  non-conformity  in  1662,  when  he 
removed  to  Frome  Selwood,  only  a  few  miles 
away,  and  there  preached.    His  fame  rests  on  his 


Allexnand 
AlliAnoe 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


130 


Vindicia  pietatis,  or  a  vindicaHon  of  godliness^  in  four 
parts,  each  with  a  different  title  (London,  1663-68). 

ALLEMAITD,  Ol^mOn'  (ALEliAN),  LOUIS  D': 
Archbishop  of  Aries  and  cardinal;  b.  of  noble  family 
at  the  castle  of  Arbent  (in  the  old  district  of  Bugey, 
55  m.  n.e.  of  Lyons),  department  of  Ain,  1380  or 
1381;  d.  at  Salon  (28  m.  w.n.w.  of  Marseilles), 
department  of  Bouches  du  Rhdne,  Sept.  16,  1450. 
While  quite  young  he  was  made  canon  of  Lyons; 
he  became  magister  and  decretorum  doctor  and  as 
such  took  part  in  the  Coimcil  of  Constance;  in  1418 
he  became  bishop  of  Magelone,  in  1423  archbishop 
of  Aries,  and  in  1426  cardinal  with  the  title  of  St. 
Cecilia.  During  the  council  at  Baisel,  he  became 
the  center  of  the  opposition  against  pope  Eugenius 
IV.,  and  when  in  1438  the  rupture  occurred  be- 
tween the  council  and  the  pope,  Allemand  was  the 
only  cardinal  who  remained  at  Basel  and  directed 
the  transactions.  Eugenius  declared  that  Allemand 
and  all  who  had  taken  part  in  the  council  had 
forfeited  their  dignities,  but  Allemand  continued 
to  work  in  favor  of  the  council  and  in  the  interest 
of  the  election  of  Felix  V.  When,  however,  this 
antipope  resigned  (1449),  and  the  Fathers  of  Basel 
submitted  to  Pope  Nicholas  V.,  Allemand  also  was 
restored.  He  died  in  the  odor  of  sanctity,  and  was 
buried  at  Aries.  Clement  VII.  beatified  him  in 
1527.  Paul  Tschackert. 

Bibuoorapht:  ASB,  Sept.,  v.  436  sqq.;  0.  J.  Eggn,  Pur- 
jmra  doda,  libri  iii.  and  iv.,  p.  60  sqq..  Munich.  1714; 
D.  M.  Manni,  Delia  vita  e  del  culto  del  beato  Lodovico  Ale- 
manni,  Florence.  1771;  KL,  i.  473. 

ALLEN,  ALEXANDER  VIETS  GRISWOLD: 
Protestant  Episcopalian;  b.  at  Otis,  Mass.,  May  4, 
1841.  He  was  educated  at  Kenyon  College,  Gam- 
bier,  O.  (B.A.,  1862),  and  Andover  Theological 
Seminary  (1865),  and  was  ordained  priest  in  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  1865.  He  was  the 
foimdcr  and  first  rector  of  St.  John's  Church, 
Lawrence,  Mass.,  in  1865-67,  and  in  the  latter  year 
was  appointed  professor  of  church  history  in  the 
Episcopal  Theological  School,  Cambridge,  Mass., 
where  he  still  remains.  Since  1886  he  has  been  a 
member  of  the  Massachusetts  Historical  Society. 
His  principal  writings  are:  Continuity  of  Christian 
Thought  (Boston,  1884);  Life  of  Jonathan  Edwards 
(1889);  Religious  Progress  (1893;  lecture  delivered 
at  Yale  University);  Christian  Institutions  (New 
York,  1897);  and  Life  and  Letters  of  Phillips  Brooks 
(1900). 

ALLEN,  HENRY:  Founder  of  the  Allenites; 
b.  at  Newport,  R.  I.,  June  14,  1748;  d.  at  North- 
hampton, N.  H.,  Feb.  2,  1784.  Without  proper 
training  he  became  a  preacher,  and  while  settled 
at  Falmouth,  Nova  Scotia,  about  1778,  began  to 
promulgate  peculiar  views  in  sermons  and  tracts, 
lie  held  that  all  souls  are  emanations  or  parts  of 
the  one  Great  Spirit;  that  all  were  present  in  the 
Garden  of  Eden  and  took  actual  part  in  the  fall; 
that  the  human  body  and  the  entire  material  world 
were  only  created  after  the  fall  and  as  a  consequence 
of  it;  that  in  time  all  souls  will  be  embodied,  and 
when  the  original  number  have  thus  passed  through 
a  state  of  probation,  all  will  receive  eternal  reward 
or  punishment  in  their  original  unembodied  state. 
He  denied  the  resurrection  of  the  body,  and  treated 


baptism,  the  Lord's  Supper,  and  ordination  as 
matters  of  indifference.  He  traveled  throughout 
Nova  Scotia  and  made  many  zealous  converts. 
The  number  of  these,  however,  dwindled  away 
after  his  death. 

Biblioorapht:  Hannah  Adams.  Vi^w  of  Religions,  pp.  478- 
470,  London.  1805. 

ALLEN,  JOHN:  1.  Archbishop  of  Dublin;  b. 
1476;  murdered  at  Artaine,  near  Dublin,  July  27, 
1534,  during  the  rebellion  of  Lord  Thomas  Fitz- 
gerald. He  studied  at  both  Oxford  and  Cambridge; 
was  sent  to  Rome  on  ecclesiastical  business  by  Arch- 
bishop Warham,  and  spent  several  years  there; 
held  various  benefices  in  England,  and  became  an 
adherent  of  Cardinal  Wolsey  and  his  agent  in 
the  spoliation  of  religious  houses;  was  nominated 
archbishop  of  Dublin  Aug.,  1528  (consecrated  Mar., 
1529),  and  a  month  later  was  niade  chancellor  of 
Ireland.  He  was  involved  in  Wolsey's  fall,  im- 
poverished by  it,  and  lost  the  chancellorship. 
He  was  a  learned  canonist,  and  wrote  an  Epistola 
de  paUii  signifUatumCf  when  he  received  the  pal- 
lium, and  a  treatise  De  consuetudinibus  ac  statutis 
in  tutoriis  causis  observandis.  He  compiled  two 
registers,  the  Liber  niger  and  the  Repertorium  viride, 
which  give  valuable  information  regarding  his  dio- 
cese and  the  state  of  the  churches. 
Bxbuoorapht:    G.  T.  Stokes.  Calendar  of  the"  Liber  niger 

Alani"  in  the  Journal  of  the  Royal  Society  o/  AniiquarieM 

of  Ireland,  aer.  5.  iii.  (1893)  303-320. 

2.  Dissenting  layman;  b.  at  Truro,  Corn- 
wall, 1771;  d.  June  17,  1839,  at  Hackney,  where 
for  thirty  years  he  kept  a  private  school.  His 
chief  work  was  Modem  Judaism:  or  a  Brief 
Account  of  the  Opinions,  Traditions,  Rites,  and 
Ceremonies  of  the  Jews  in  Modem  Times  (London, 
1816);  he  published  also  (1813)  what  was  long  the 
standard  English  translation  of  Calvin's  Institutes 
of  the  Christian  Religion. 

ALLEN,  JOSEPH  HENRY :  American  Unitarian ; 
b.  at  Northborough,  Mass.,  Aug.  21,  1820;  d.  at 
Cambridge,  Mass.,  Mar.  20,  1898.  He  was  gradu- 
ated at  Harvard  in  1840,  and  at  the  Cambridge 
Divinity  School  in  1843,  and  became  pastor  at 
Jamaica  Plain  (Roxbury),  Mass.  (1843),  Washing- 
ton, D.  C.  (1847),  and  Bangor,  Me.  (1850).  In 
1857  he  returned  to  Jamaica  Plain,  and  thenceforth 
devoted  himself  to  teaching  and  literary  work, 
often  supplying  the  pulpits  of  neighboring  to\\^s, 
and  with  brief  pastorates  at  Ann  Arbor,  Mich. 
(1877-78),  Ithaca,  N.  Y.  (188^-84),  and  San  Diego, 
Cal.  After  1867  he  lived  in  Cambridge  and  was 
lecturer  on  ecclesiastical  history  in  Harvard  Uni- 
versity, 1878-82.  He  was  editor  of  The  Christian 
Examiner  (1857-69)  and  of  The  Unitarian  Review 
(1887-91);  with  his  brother,  W.  F.  Allen,  and  J.  B. 
Greenough  he  prepared  the  Allen  and  Greenough 
series  of  Latin  text-books.  He  translated  and 
edited  an  English  edition  of  certain  of  the  works 
of  Renan  {History  of  the  People  of  Israel,  5  vols., 
Boston,  1888-95;  The  Future  of  Science,  1891; 
The  Life  of  Jesus,  1895;  Antichrist,  1897;  The 
Apostles,  1898);  and  published,  among  other  works, 
Ten  Discourses  on  Orthodoxy  (Boston,  1849);  He- 
brew Men  and  Times  from  the  Patriarchs  to  the 
Messiah  (1861);  Our  Liberal  Movement  in  Theology, 


181 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Allemana 


ehiefy  as  shown  in  recoUe4'ii€>ns  of  Ihe  Hislory  of 
Unitariani&m  in  New  England  (1882);  Chrislian 
Hiiioruin  its  Thr^  Great  Periods  {^  vols.,  1882-^); 
FosiHtm  Bdigion  (1892);  Historical  SkeUh  of  the 
Umtarian  Movement  mnce  the  Reformalion  (Amer- 
ictm  Church  History  Sei^ies,  New  York,  1894); 
Se^ud  to  '  Our  Liberal  Mi^vemeid  '  (Boston,  1897). 

ALLES ,  WILLIAM :  1 .  "  The  cardinal  of  Eng- 
land; *'  b.  at  Rossall  (36  m.  n,  of  Liverpool),  Lan- 
ea^hiie,  1532;  d.  at  Rome  Oct.  16.  1594,  He 
entered  Oriel  College,  Oxford,  in  1547  (B.A.  and 
fellow,  1550;  M.A.,  1554),  and  after  the  accession 
of  Mbtj  decided  to  devote  Mmself  to  the  Church. 
He  became  principal  of  St.  Mary's  Hallj  Oxford, 
and  proctor  of  the  univorsity  in  1556.  canon  of  York 
in  155S.  His  zeal  for  the  Roman  Teljgion  soon 
attraeled  the  notice  of  the  authoriti^  under  Eliza- 
beth, and  in  1561  he  left  Oxfortl  for  tlie  University 
of  Louvain.  In  1562  he  came  home,  much  broken 
in  health,  and  spent  the  next  three  ye^aira  in  England, 
constantly  encouraging  the  Catholics  and  making 
converts.  He  left  hia  native  land  for  good  in  1565, 
was  ordained  priest  at  Mechlin,  and  lectured  on 
theology  in  the  Benedictine  college  there.  He  con- 
ceived the  idea  of  a  college  for  English  studenta  on 
the  Continent,  and  in  1568  opened  the  first  and  most 
famous  of  such  institutions,  that  at  Douai  (q.v.). 
He  continued  to  admiiufiter  and  tierve  the  college  till 
1588|  although  in  1585  he  had  removed  to  Rome. 
Pope  Stxtus  V,  raised  him  to  the  cardinalate  in 
1587.  Philip  II.  nominated  him  archbishop  of 
Mechlin,  15$9,  but  he  was  not  preconized  by  the 
pope.  Gregory  XIV.  made  him  prefect  of  the 
Vatican  library. 

The  great  aim  of  Allen's  life  was  to  restore 
England  to  the  Church  of  Rome.  This  aim  he 
pursued  persbtently.  Until  his  fiftieth  year  he 
contented  himaelf  with  persuasive  measures  alone 
("  Bcholastical  attempts,"  in  his  own  words),  and 
met  with  no  inconsiderable  success.  Had  it  iiot 
been  for  the  mission ers  who  -were  continually  going 
into  the  country  from  his  schools,  probably  the 
Roman  Catholic  reUgion  would  have  perished  as 
cooipletely  in  England  as  it  did  in  Scandinavian 
countriea. 

About  1582  Allen  began  t^  meditate  force  and  to 
interfere  in  poUtics.  He  was  closely  Bjssoctated  with 
Robert  Parsons  (q.v.),  was  cognisant  of  the  plots 
to  depose  Elizabeth,  and  became  the  head  of  the 
*^  Spanish  party "  in  England.  It  was  at  the 
tequest  of  Philip  II.  that  he  was  appointed  cardinal; 
and  the  intention  was  to  make  hira  papal  legate, 
archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and  lord  chancellor, 
and  to  entrust  to  him  the  organization  of  the  ecele- 
sia-^tical  affairs  of  the  country,  if  the  proposed  in- 
vasion of  England  should  succeed.  Just  before 
the  Armada  sailed  he  indorsed,  if  he  did  not  write. 
An  AdTrnmiHon  to  the  NMtity  and  People  of  Eng- 
land and  Inland  emtceming  the  -present  warSf  made 
for  the  exefmtian  of  his  Holinens'n  senten^,  by  the 
King  Caiholie  of  Spain  (printed  at  Antwerp),  and 
an  abridgment  of  the  same,  eaiJed  A  Deciarolion 
of  ths  Sentence  of  Deposiiion  of  Elienbeth,  the  Usurper 
and  Pretensed  Queen  of  England,  which  was  dis- 
seminated in  the  form  of  a  broadside.  Both  pub- 
lications were  violent  and  scurrilouSx  sm  wgU  as 


treasonable  from  the  English  point  of  view,  and 
roused  great  indignation  in  England,  even  among 
the  Catholics,  who,  unlike  Allen,  very  generally 
remained  true  to  their  country  and  sovereign. 
Allen ^H  conduct,  however,  it  should  be  borne  in 
mind,  was  consistent  with  his  belief  in  papal  su- 
premacy and  with  his  views  concerning  excom* 
murucation  and  the  right  of  the  spiritual  authorities 
to  punish.  He  is  described  as  handsome  and 
dignified  ia  person,  courteous  in  manner,  and  en- 
dowed with  many  attractive  qualities.  Stories 
concerning  his  wealth  and  the  princely  style  in 
which  he  lived  in  Rome  are  not.  true. 

BtfiLTOGaAfHr :  The  more  importajit  of  hi<i  majiy  wn-^ 
tinga  are:  Certain  Brixf  Bttuotu  Cofuxrmna  Catholic  Faith, 
Douai,  1504;  A  Dtfena  and  DwdaraJtion  of  the  Catholic 
Chu-reh'a  Dacfrmd  Tauching  PurgaUtry  and  Pfayrrt  /<jr  the 
^oult  Departed.  Antwerp.  1565;  A  Treatute  Maite  in  Db- 
ftnem  af  the  Lawful  Power  and  Au-tharitsf  of  Prittthi^  ta 
H^mU  Sins,  LouvBin,  15^7;  De  •acramenHa  in  j^fncrt,  de 
aacrament^  eucharietia,  de  tacrifldo  mivtr,  Antwerp,  1576; 
and  A  Brief  Hittarv  of  the  Marti/rdom  of  Tweii^e  Rererend 
PrieMtM,  1582,  He  helped  make  the  Engli-ih  Bible  tmna- 
lation  know^PL  as  tbe  Uouai  BibJ^,  and  was  &ue  of  tke  com* 
mjffisifin  of  cardiniJii  and  BfboJar»  who  corrected  (be  edition 
(piee  Bible  VEJtsioNft,  B.  IV.,  1  5,  A,  IL,  2.  9  5X  At  the 
time  of  hi  a  death  he  was  engaged  upon  ao  edition  of 
Aiwu»tinc>  works. 

Ob  hin  Life  4K>[ii4uli:  Firtt  and  Seamd  DiarieM  of 
th€  Enatiah  Cfflleof.  Daaajf,  Loodon,  1878:  LeMerw 
arid  Afemoriaia  uf  WHfiam  Cardinai  Atlerit  1882  (oonBtt- 
tutiuj;  wifh  the  fnn^Rojiijc  vols.  i.  and  ii»  oF  Rec&rde  of  the 
BfHflinh  Cathc^litM^  edited  by  fat  hern  of  the  Coagreg&tioii 
of  the  London  Oratory).  The  HUtBrital  InirodueHane  to 
these  worltBt  by  T*  F*  Knojt.  give  much  v&tuable  informa- 
tioEi,  and  hJH  life  (  ti  Latin)  by  Nicholas  Fitxherbcrt.  pub- 
lished <»riginaJly  in  De  antvjuitate  el  conHnuationm  eoiho- 
licte  nliffioni*  *n  Anglia,  Rome,  1608.  ia  reprinted  in  tlift 
laot-nanwd,  pp.  3-20:  J.  OiUow*  Dietionary  o/  Engli^ 
Cathotia.  L  14-24,  London,  1886;  DNB,  i.  314^22,  giveii 
eiccUent  Ijflt  of  iotu'ces. 

2*  American  Gongrcgationaliat ;  b.  at  Pitta- 
field,  Mass,,  Jan,  2,  17S4;  d.  at  Northhampton, 
Mass,,  July  16,  1868.  He  was  graduated  at  Har- 
vard in  1802;  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1804 
and  soon  after  became  asaistant  librarian  at  Har- 
vard* Ho  succeeded  hm  father  as  pastor  at  Pitt«- 
field  in  1810.  In  1817  he  was  chosen  president  of 
the  reorganized  Dartmouth  CoUege,  but  two  yeara 
later  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  Statefl 
declared  the  reorganization  invalid.  He  was 
president  of  Bowdoin  College,  1320-39.  He  wrote 
much  and  was  an  industrious  contributor  to  dic- 
tionaries and  encyclopedic  works.  His  American 
Biographical  and  HiatoHad  Di£tumary  (Cambridge, 
1809,  contoiiting  700  names;  2d  ed.,  Boston,  IS32, 
1,800  names;  3d  ed.,  1857,  7,000  names)  was  the 
first  work  of  the  kind  published  in  America. 

ALLEY,  Wn^LIAM;  Bishop  of  Exeter;  b.  about 
1510  at  Chipping  Wycombe,  Bucks,  England; 
d.  at  Exeter  Apr.  15,  1570.  He  was  educated  at 
Eton,  Cambridge,  and  Oxford,  espoused  the  cause 
of  the  Reformation,  but  kept  in  retirement  during 
the  reign  of  Mary.  Elizabeth  made  him  divinity 
reader  in  St,  Paul's,  and  in  15430  Bishop  of  Exeter. 
He  revised  the  Book  of  Deuteronomy  for  the 
Bishops*  Bible,  and  published  an  exposition  of 
I  Peter,  with  notes  which  show  wide  readiog  (2 
vols.,  London,  1565), 

ALLIAHCE,  EVANGELICAL,  See  EvanoeucjU. 
Aluance. 


▲UUnoe  . 
AU  Soul*' 


Dar 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOQ 


132 


ALLIANCE  OF  THE  REFORMED  CHURCHES: 

A  voluntary  organization  formed  in  London  in 
1875,  on  the  model  of  the  Evangelical  Alliance, 
but  confined  to  Churches  of  presbyterial  polity 
and  more  churchly  in  the  character  of  its  repre- 
sentation. The  official  name  is  "  Alliance  of  the 
Reformed  Churches  Holding  the  Presbyterian 
System"  and  popularly  the  Alliance  is  known 
as  the  "  Presbyterian  Alliance."  The 
Origin,  calling  of  the  Coimcil  of  Trent  sug- 
gested to  Cranmer  a  synod  of  Protes- 
tants to  make  a  union  creed,  and  in  the  spring  of 
1552  he  wrote  to  Melanchthon,  Bullinger,  and 
Calvin  on  the  subject  and  received  favorable 
responses  but  nothing  came  of  it.  Beza  in  1561 
made  a  similar  proposition,  with  as  little  results. 
So  also  in  1578  in  the  Scottish  Second  Book  of 
Discipline  and  in  1709  in  the  collection  of  Scottish 
church  laws,  place  is  given  to  the  idea.  But  it 
was  not  till  1870,  when  President  James  McCosh 
of  Princeton  College,  first,  and  Rev.  Prof.  William 
Garden  Blaikie,  of  Edinburgh,  second,  proposed 
that  the  different  Presbyterian  and  Reformed 
Churches  should  get  together  in  a  conference,  that 
tangible  results  followed.  In  1873  the  General 
Assembly  of  the  Presbtyerian  Church  in  Ireland 
and  that  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  of  the  United 
States  simultaneously  appointed  committees  to 
correspond  with  other  Churches  on  the  subject. 
This  led  to  the  holding  of  a  meeting  in  New  York, 
Oct.  6,  1873,  during  the  sessions  of  the  Sixth  Gen- 
eral Conference  of  the  Evangelical  Alliance,  at 
which  a  committee  was  appointed  to  bring  the 
matter  before  the  Presbyterian  Churches  through- 
out the  world  and  to  obtain  their  concurrence 
and  cooperation.  This  committee  issued  an  address 
in  which  they  distinctly  stated  that  what  was  pro- 
posed was  not  that  the  Churches  ''  should  merge 
their  separate  existence  in  one  large  organization; 
but  that,  retaining  their  self-government,  they 
should  meet  with  the  other  members  of  the  Pres- 
byterian family  to  consult  for  the  good  of  the 
Church  at  large,  and  for  the  glory  of  God."  The 
proposal  met  with  such  general  approval  that  in 
July,  1875,  a  conference  was  held  at  the  English 
Presbyterian  College  in  London.  At  this  meeting, 
which  lasted  four  days,  and  where  nearly  one 
himdred  delegates,  representing  many  Churches,  at- 
tended, a  constitution  for  the  proposed  Alliance  was 
prepared,  from  which  the  following  are  extracts: — 

**  1.  This  Alliance  atutll  be  known  as  The  Alliance  or  the 
Reformed  Churches  throuohout  the  world  boldxno  the 
Presbyterian  stbtem. 

**  2.  Any  Church  organised  on  Presbyterian  principles, 
which  holdn  the  supreme  authority  of  the  Scriptures  of  the  Old 
and  New  Testaments  in  matters  of  faith  and  morals,  and  whose 
creed  is  in  harmony  with  the  consensus  of  the  Reformed 
Churches,  shall  be  eligible  for  admission  into  the  Alliance/' 

It  was  also  proposed  that  there  shoud  be  a 
triennial  council  of  delegates,  ministers  and  elders, 
in  equal  numbers,  to  be  appointed  by  the  different 
Churches  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  their 
congregations;  and  that  this  council,  while  at 
liberty  to  consider  all  matters  of  oonunon  interest, 
should  "  not  interfere  with  the  existing  creed  or 
constitution  of  any  Church  in  the  Alliance,  or 
with  its  internal  order  or  external  relations." 

The  Alliance  whieh  was  thus  proposed  was  one, 


not  of  individual  church  members,  but  of  Reformed 
and  Presbyterian  Churches  as  such.  Its  consti- 
tution met  with  great  favor.  It  furnished  an 
opportunity  for  the  different  church  organizations 
to  come  into  close  fraternal  relations  with  each 
other  while  retaining  their  separate  existence  and 
independence.  Since  its  formation,  the  Alliance 
has  held  a  General  Council  in  each  of 
Aims  and  the  following  cities,  Edinburgh  (1877), 
Achieve-  Philadelplya  (1881),  Belfast  (1884), 
ments.  London  (1888).  Toronto  (1892),  Glas- 
gow (1896),  Washington  (1899),  and 
Liverpool  (1904),  at  all  of  which  questions  of 
doctrine,  polity.  Home  and  Foreign  Missions,  and 
other  forms  of  Christian  activity  have  been  fully 
discussed,  thQ  papers  read  with  the  subsequent 
discussions  being  published  in  a  volume  of  pro- 
ceedings. The  Alliance  is  the  rallying-point  of 
the  Reformed  and  Presbyterian  Churches  of  the 
world,  all  of  these  with  one  or  two  exceptions 
having  joined  its  fellowship.  Its  membership 
thus  embraces  not  only  the  English-speaking 
Churches  of  Great  Britain  and  America  and  the 
historic  Churches  of  the  European  Continent,  but  also 
the  Churches  in  the  colonial  and  other  territories  of 
Great  Britain,  with  the  newly  formed  Churches 
which  are  the  fruit  of  missionary  labor  among  non- 
Christian  peoples.  Through  the  Alliance  the  special 
conditions  of  each  Church  have  become  better 
known  to  sister  Churches  than  they  had  been  pre- 
viously, and  hence,  not  only  by  sympathy  and 
oounse',  but  also  by  large  financial  aid,  the  Alliance 
has  sought  to  assist  the  weaker  communities. 

The  General  Councils  of  the  Alliance  are  neither 
mass-meetings  nor  conferences  open  to  al ,  but 
consist  exclusively  of  delegates  appointed  by  the 
several  Churches;  yet  neither  are  they  synods  or 
church  courts,  for  they  have  no  legislative  authority 
of  any  kind  and  can  only  submit  to  all  the  Churches 
or  to  such  as  may  be  specially  interested,  any  con- 
clusions which  they  have  reached.  For  adminis- 
trative purposes,  the  Alliance  has  divided  its 
Executive  Commission  or  Business  Committee 
into  an  Eastern  Section  located  in  Great  Britain, 
and  a  Western  Section  located  in  the  United  States, 
but  working  in  harmony  with  each  other  by  con- 
stant intercorrespondence.  As  representing  about 
thirty  millions  of  souls,  holding  a  conunon  system 
of  doctrine  and  adhering  to  a  conunon  polity  and 
whose  voluntary  contributions  for  church  purposes 
were  reported  at  the  Liverpool  Council  in  1904 
as  amounting  in  the  previous  year  to  consider- 
ably more  than  thirty-eight  millions  of  dollars,  the 
Alliance  forms  to-day  one  of  the  most  closely 
united  and  influential  organizations  of  Christendom. 

G.  D.  Mathews. 
Biblioorapht:  The  Proeeedingt  and  Minutea  of  each  of  the 
General  Councils  have  been   published — of  the  first  by  J. 
Thomson,  of  the  second  by  J.  B.  Dales  and  R.  M.  Patterson, 
and  of  the  third  and  succeeding  by  G.  D.  Mathews.     Con- 
sult also  the  Quarterly  Reguier  of  the  Alliance,  1886  to  date. 
ALLIES,  THOMAS  WILLIAM:   English  Roman 
Catholic;  b.  at  Midsomer  Norton  (14  m.  n.e.  of 
Glastonbury),  Somersetshire,  Feb.  12,  1813;  d.  at 
St.  John's  Wood,  London,  June  17,  1903.     He  was 
first  class  in  classics  at  Oxford,  1832.     He  took  or- 
ders in  the  Anglican  Church  in  1838,  serving  for  two 


188 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Allianoe 

All  Souls'  Z>a7 


jmixs  B8  chaplain  to  the  biihop  of  London  and  for 
ten  yeara  as  rector  of  Launton.  In  1850  he  was  re- 
ceived into  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  by  hia 
ffiend,  Cardinal,  then  Father,  Newman.  He  wrot-e 
extenBivel^  on  theological  subjectSj  bh  principal 
works  being,  St  Pet^^  his  Name  and  Office  (LondoOi 
1852);  Th£  Formation  of  Christendom  (8  vob.p  1861- 
96);  Per  crumm  ad  luc^m  (2  voIb,,  1879);  A  Life's 
Decision  (1880);  Church  and  StaU  (1882),  a  con- 
tinuation of  The  Formaiwn  of  Christendom;  and 
The  Thrmw  of  the  Fishemmn  (1887). 

ALUOLI,  Ol'li^li,  JOSEF  FRAITZ:  Roman 
Catholic;  b.  at  Sukbach,  Austriar  Aug.  10/1793;  d. 
at  Augsburg  May  22,  1 873*  He  studied  theology^  at 
Laodahut  and  Regenaburg,  and  Oriental  Ifmguage^ 
at  Vienna,  Rome,  and  Paris,  In  1823  he  became 
professor  of  Oriental  languages  and  Biblical  exe- 
gesis and  archeology  at  Landshut,  and  went  to 
Mimich  when  the  univeraity  was  removed  thither 
in  1826.  In  1835,  being  compelled  to  give  up 
leaching  through  throat  trouble,  he  became  a 
member  of  the  cathedral  chapter  at  Munich  and^ 
in  183S,  provost  of  the  cathedral  at  Augsburg. 
He  wad  active  in  charitable  work  and  promoted 
the  Franciscan  Female  Institute  of  the  Star  of 
Mary.  Tlie  most  noteworthy  of  his  numerous 
publications  was  Die  heUige  SchTift  des  Alien  und 
Neuen  Testaments  aus  der  Vulgata  mit  Bezitg  auf 
den  Grundtext  neu  iiberBeizt  und  mit  kurzen  Anmer- 
kungen  erlauteri  (6  vols.,  Nuremberg,  1830-34), 
a  third  edition  of  an  earlier  work  by  H.  Braun 
(ib.  1786).  It  far  surpassed  its  predecessors,  re- 
ceived papal  sanction,  and  has  been  often  reissued. 

ALLIX,  a"]ix%  PIERRE:  Controversialiat  of 
the  French  Reformed  Church;  b.  at  AJengon  (llSra. 
w.s.w.  of  Paris),  Omc  dept.,  1641;  d.  in  London 
Mar.  3,  1717,  He  was  educated  in  the  theological 
•eminary  at  Sedan^  ami  held  pastoral  charge  at 
Saint- AgobUe  in  Champagne  and  at  Charenton. 
On  the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  (16S5) 
he  went  to  England,  and  James  11.  allowed  him  to 
establii^h  a  church  in  London  for  the  numerous 
French  exiles  using  the  liturgy  of  the  Church  of 
England,  In  1690  he  was  appointed  canon  of 
Salisbury.  The  fame  of  his  learning  was  so  great 
that  both  Oxford  and  Cambridge  confeired  the 
degree  of  doctor  upon  him^  and  the  English  clergj'- 
requested  him  to  write  a  complete  history  of  the 
councils.  This  great  work  was  to  embrace  seven 
folio  volumes,  but  it  never  appeared.  His  pub- 
lished writings^  in  French,  English,  and  Latin,  are 
mostly  of  a  polemical  or  apologetic  nature,  and 
display  a  thorough  knowledge  of  Christian  antiquity 
and  of  the  primitive  and  medieval  ecclesiaatical 
writers.  In  his  two  books,  Some  Remarks  upon  the 
EcdesiasHcai  History  of  the  Ancient  Churches  of 
Piedmont  (London,  1690),  and  Remarks  upon  the 
Ecclesiastical  History  of  the  Ancient  Churches  of  the 
AQnffefVses  (1692),  he  upheld  a^inst  Bossuet  the 
view  that  the  Albigenses  were  not  dualists,  but 
identical  with  the  Waldenscs,  and  he  contributed 
much  to  the  upholding  of  this  erroneous  view. 

(A.  Hauck.) 
BtaLMKiaArnT:  E.  and  6.  Hoaf;,  Ia  Frana  prote^ianie,  i.  61- 

fle,  P»rifl,  1S79;  DNB.  i.  334-^335;    D.  C.  A.  Agnew.  Prot^ 

9»tant  EiHtM  jtam  Fmnct,  ii.  328-334,  Edinbtirgh,  1SS6, 


ALLON,  HETTRY:  En^b  Congregationabst;  b. 
at  Wdton  (10  m.  w,  of  Hull),  Yorkshire,  Oct.  13, 
1818;  d,  in  London  Apr.  16,  1892,  He  studied  at 
Chesbtint  College,  Hertfordshire,  and  from  Jan., 
1844,  tin  his  death  was  minister  of  Union  Chapel, 
Islington,  London  (for  the  first  eight  years  as 
associate  of  the  Rev.  Thomas  Lewis).  During  his 
ministry  the  congregation  increased  to  a  member- 
ship of  nearly  2,000,  and  a  new  church  building  on 
Compton  Terrace,  Islington,  was  opened  in  Dec,, 
1877.  He  was  chairman  of  the  (congregational 
Union  in  1864  and  also  in  the  Jubilee  Year  (1881). 
He  was  interested  in  the  musical  service  of  pubUc 
worship  and  compiled  hymn,  anthem,  and  chant 
books,  as  well  aB  a  volume  of  hymns  for  children, 
which  were  largely  used  in  the  Congregational 
churches  of  England,  He  wrote  much  for  the 
periodical  press,  edited  the  Briiuik  Quarterly  RerieWf 
1865-87,  and  published  The  Life  of  Rev.  James 
Sherman  (London,  1863). 

BiBLtoosAPEiY:  W.  H.  Hannood*  Henry  Athn^  The  Story  of 
hi9  Mini^tnii  with  Selected  Serfjvona  and  AddrmtMet,  fxin- 
dan,  1S94  (by  his  suercsflor  &t  Islington). 

ALL  SAINTS'  DAY  (Lat.  Fesium  omnium 
sanctorum):  The  first  day  of  November.  The 
Greek  Church  as  early  as  the  time  of  Chrysostom 
consecrated  the  Sunday  after  Whitsunday  to  the 
memory  of  all  martyrs.  The  underlying  idea  of 
thii  festival  is  the  same  as  that  of  All  Saints'  Day, 
although  no  connection  between  the  two  can  be 
shown.  The  origin  of  All  Saints'  Day  is  obscure. 
It  is  said  that  Boniface  IV.  (fi08--615)  made  the 
Pantheon  at  Rome  a  church  of  Mary  and  all  martyrs 
and  that  the  commemoration  of  this  dedication  was 
transferred  from  May  13  to  Nov.  1  (Durand,  Ra- 
tionale t  vii.,  chap.  34).  More  probable  is  the  view 
that  the  festival  is  connected  with  the  omtory 
which  Gregory  III.  (731-741)  erected  in  St.  Peter^e, 
"  in  which  he  laid  the  bones  of  the  holy  spoetles 
and  of  all  the  holy  martyrs  and  confessors,  just 
men  made  perfect  in  all  the  world  "  (Mwr  pontifl- 
adis.  Vita  Greg.  IIL,  ed.  Duchesne,  i,  417),  Traces 
of  the  festival  are  found  in  the  Frankieh  kingdom 
at  the  time  of  the  Carolingians,  it  was  commended 
by  Alcuin  (Epist.,  Ixxv.),  and  in  the  ninth  century 
it  became  general.  Luther  did  not  approve  of  the 
festival,  and  Lutheran  and  Reformed  churches  do 
not  observe  it.  The  Church  of  England,  however, 
and  its  branches  retain  it,  W.  Caspabi, 

ALL  SOULS*  DAY  (Lat.  Commemoratio  omnium 
fidelium  defunclorum) :  The  second  day  of  Novem- 
ber, The  ancient  Church  diaiinguishes  between 
the  dead  who  have  died  for  the  Church  (martyrs) 
and  those  who,  while  they  have  not  suffered  death 
for  the  Church,  yet  have  died  aa  believers.  All 
Souls'  Day  is  dedicated  to  the  memory  of  the  latter. 
It  is  founded  on  the  doctrine  of  the  value  of  prayers 
and  the  Eucharist  for  the  dead.  Odilo  of  Cluny 
(d.  1049)  instituted  the  feitival  for  the  Cluniaea 
(ASMt  sae,  in,,  i.  585);  and  in  course  of  time  it 
was  extended  to  all  who  had  died  in  the  faith* 
The  Missale  Romanum  prescribes  a  special  requiem- 
mass  for  the  day.  Luther  demanded  that  the 
festival  be  given  up,  and  it  soon  disappeared  among 
Protestants.  It  is  not  observed  in  the  Church 
of   England.     The  German  rationalists  favored  a 


Alombradoa 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


134 


commemoration  of  the  dead  (cf .  G.  C.  Horst,  Myate- 
riosophie,  ii.,  Frankfort,  1817,  432).  The  litany  of 
the  Moravians  for  Easter  morning  is  a  Protestant 
pendant  to  All  Souls'  Day,  and  the  rapid  rise  and 
popularity  of  the  festival  show  that  it  satisfies  a 
feeling  of  the  Christian  mind  which  the  Church 
would  do  well  to  recognize.  W.  Caspari. 

ALMAIN,  Ol^mto',  JACQUES:  GaUican  theo- 
logian; b.  at  Sens  c.  1450;  d.  in  Paris  1515.  He 
was  professor  of  theology  in  the  College  of  Navarre 
in  Paris,  and  at  the  request  of  Louis  XII.  prepared 
a  reply  to  Cardinal  Cajetan's  work  on  the  superi- 
ority of  the  pope  to  a  general  council  (Tractatua 
de  auctorUate  ecclencB  et  concilwrum  generalium 
adveraiLs  Thomam  de  Vio^  Paris,  1512;  see  Cajbtan, 
Cardinal).  A  similar  work  was  his  Exposiiio 
circa  decisionea  magistri  Guiielmi  Occam  super 
poteatate  Romani  pontificia  (1517).  He  wrote  aiso 
Moralia  (1510)  and  Dictata  super  aenterUias  mor 
giatn  HeLcot  (1512). 

ALMEIDA,  Ol-m^'i-da,  MAIfOEL:  Jesuit  mis- 
sionary; b.  at  Vizeu  (50  m.  e.8.e.  of  Oporto), 
Portugal,  1580;  d.  at  Goa  1646.  He  entered  the 
Order  of  the  Jesuits  1595;  was  sent  to  the  East 
Indies  1602;  lived  in  Abyssinia  1624-34;  returned 
to  Goa  and  became  provincial  of  the  order  in  the 
Indies.  He  left  material  for  a  general  history  of 
Abyssinia  and  of  the  Jesuits  there,  which  was 
edited  and  published,  in  Portuguese,  with  additions, 
by  Balthazar  Tellez  (Coimbra,  1660).  Almeida's 
letter  from  Abyssinia  to  the  general  of  his  order 
for  1626-27  was  published  in  Italian  and  French 
(Rome  and  Paris,  1629). 

ALMONER  (Fr.  aumvnier;  Lat.  eleemoaynariua): 
An  office  at  the  French  court  from  the  thirteenth 
century  onward,  originally  filled  by  one  of  the  court 
chaplains  who  was  entrusted  with  the  distribution 
of  the  royal  alms.  Later  there  were  several  of 
these  almoners,  so  that  from  the  fifteenth  century 
a  grand  almoner  was  named.  The  first  to  bear 
this  title  was  Jean  de  Rely,  later  bishop  of  Angers 
and  confessor  of  Charles  VII.  The  grand  almoner 
was  one  of  the  highest  ecclesiastical  dignitaries  in 
France,  and  was  charged  with  the  supervision  of 
charitable  works  in  general,  and  of  the  court  clergy. 
Nominations  to  benefices  in  the  king's  gift,  including 
bishoprics  and  abbeys,  were  made  through  him. 
The  office  was  abolished  with  the  monarchy,  though 
it  was  revived  under  both  Napoleons. 

Attached  to  the  British  court  is  the  Royal 
Almonry,  which  dispenses  alms  for  the  sovereign, 
with  these  officers:  hereditary  grand  almoner  (the 
marquis  of  Exeter),  lord  high  almoner  (the  lord 
bishop  of  Ely),  subalmoner  (subdean  of  chapels 
royal),  the  groom  of  the  almonry,  and  the  secretary 
to  the  lord  high  almoner.  In  the  papal  court  the 
almoner  of  the  pope  is  president  of  the  elimoaineria 
apoatolica,  a  body  composed  of  two  clerics  and  four 
laymen.  There  is  a  similar  office  at  the  Spanish 
court. 

ALMS:  A  gift  to  which  the  recipient  has  no 
claim  and  for  which  he  renders  no  return,  made 
purely  from  pity  and  a  desire  to  reh'eve  need. 
Such  a  gift  has  religious  value  in  Buddhism  and  in 
Islam.    But  it  was  in  Judaism  that  almsgiving 


was  first  highly  regarded  from  a  religio-ethical 
point  of  view.  The  Old  Testament  has  a  higher 
conception,  based  upon  the  ideas  that  the  land 
belongs  not  to  individuals  but  to  God,  whence  all 
have  equal  right  to  its  fruits,  and  that  the  regulating 
principle  of  conduct  toward  others  among  God's 
chosen  people  must  be  "  thou  shalt  love  thy  neigh- 
bor as  thyself  "  (Lev.  xix.  18,  34).  Benevolence 
follows  as  an  ordinary  duty.  In  postcanonical 
times  almsgiving  almost  imperceptibly  assumed 
the  character  of  a  voluntary  act  of  merit  and  even 
of  expiation  for  sin  and  assurance  of  salvation 
(Tobit  iv.  7-11,  xii.  8-9;  Ecclus.  iii.  30,  xxix.  12- 
13).  Such  overvaluation  of  external  acts  is  re- 
buked in  Matt.  vi.  The  New  Testament  revelation 
is  a  gospel  of  the  voluntary  love  of  God,  in  which 
good  works  can  have  no  efficacy  toward  justifica- 
tion and  salvation.  They  are,  on  the  contrary, 
the  inevitable  result  and  proof  of  the  renewed  life 
(Matt.  vii.  15-23;  Luke  x.  33-37).  It  is  from  this 
point  of  view  that  the  idea  of  a  divine  reward  finds 
application  to  the  observance  of  charity  in  the 
New  Testament  (Matt.  vi.  4,  xix.  21;  Luke  xiv. 
14;  Acts  X.  4;  II  Cor.  ix.  7;  Gal.  vi.  9). 

The  Judaic  conception  of  almsgiving  as  an  act 
of  merit  and  satisfaction  came  into  the  early  Church 
through  the  Jewish  Christians.  A  classic  expression 
of  Jewish-Christian  thought  is  II  Clement  xvi. 
4:  "Almsgiving,  therefore,  is  a  good  thing,  even 
as  repentance  for  sin.  Fasting  is  better  than  prayer, 
but  almsgiving  than  both.  And  love  covcreth  a 
multitude  of  sins;  but  prayer  out  of  a  good  con- 
science delivereth  from  death.  Blessed  is  every 
man  that  is  found  full  of  these.  For  almsgiving 
lifteth  off  the  burden  of  sin."  The  idea  is  com- 
pletely dominant  in  Cyprian  (De  opere  et  eleemo- 
aynia),  and  was,  indeed,  imavoidable,  if  the  Old 
Testament  Apocrypha  were  accepted  as  on  a  par 
with  the  canon.  Save  that  propitiatory  value  was 
afterward  assigned  to  the  sacrament  of  penance, 
the  position  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  lias 
remained  essentially  that  of  Cyprian.  Augustine 
conceded  influence  in  the  alleviation  of  purgatorial 
suffering  to  almsgiving,  and  the  "  Sentences  "  of 
Peter  Lombard,  the  dogmatic  manual  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  emphasize  the  idea  out  of  all  true  pro- 
portion. 

Poverty  was  so  highly  prized  by  the  early  Church 
that  the  pseudo-Clementine  Homilies  (XV.  vii.  9) 
declare  the  possession  of  property  as  defilement 
with  the  things  of  this  world,  a  sin.  In  the  fourth 
century  poverty,  through  monasticism,  became  a 
factor  in  the  Christian  ideal  life.  And  in  the 
thirteenth  century  begging,  through  Francis  of 
Assisi,  received  a  religious  idealization,  which  was 
in  the  highest  degree  pernicious  to  social  good 
order.  The  mendicant  monk  is  nothing  more  nor 
less  than  a  grossly  inunoral  character.  The  Refor- 
mation rejected  all  these  errors,  required  some 
form  of  labor  from  the  Christian  as  the  basis  of  his 
membership  in  society,  and  sought  to  substitute 
organized  care  of  the  poor  for  the  prevalent  hap- 
hazard methods  of  giving  and  receiving  alms. 
Protestant  dogmatics  grants  to  alms  no  share  what- 
ever in  the  doctrine  of  salvation.  Far  above  any 
individual  instance  of  almsgiving  is  the  spirit  of 


185 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


▲lombrados 


benevolence,  which  seeks  no  merit  in  the  gift  and 
aims  at  permanent  benefit,  not  the  satisfying  of  a 
temporary  need.  Modem  hvimanitarian  endeavor 
and  recent  legislation,  which  seek  to  prevent  those 
incapable  of  work  from  becoming  recipients  of  alms, 
are  but  an  extension  of  the  principles  enunciated 
by  the  Reformation.  Churches  should  accept  the 
rational  principle  which  avoids  indiscriminate 
and  unintelligent  almsgiving,  tending  to  pauperiza- 
tion and  the  encouragement  of  idleness.  But  it 
is  true  that  organization  can  never  fully  take  the 
place  of  personal  benevolence  or  render  it  im- 
necessary.  (L.  Lemme.) 

Bibuoorapht:  On  the  historical  aide.  S.  Chastel,  Charity 
0/  tke  PrimMve  ChurchM,  Philadelphia,  1857;  G.  Uhl- 
horn,  ChriBUid^e  LtebeMthdHghtit,  3  vols..  Stuttgart.  1805. 
Elns.  transl.,  ChritHan  Charity  in  the  A  ncient  Churchy  New 
York.  1883.  On  the  practical  side.  P.  Church.]  The  Phi- 
liMophy  of  Benevolence,  New  York,  1836;  SyetemcUic  Benef- 
ievnee,  eotnprieing  **  The  Oreat  Reform  "  by  A.  Stevens, 
••  The  Oreat  Question  "  by  L.  Wright,  '*  Property  coneecrated  " 
hyB,  SL  J.  Fry,  New  York,  1856;  M.  W.  Moggridge.Af^^Aod 
in  Almegiving,  London,  1882.  Consult  also  the  books  on 
Christian  Bthica  and  on  Socialism. 

AL06I,  al'o-ji  (Gk.  alogoi):  A  name  coined  by 
Epiphanius  {Haer.,  li.)  to  designate  certain  people 
whom  he  treats  as  a  distinct  sect.  The  account 
which  he  gives  agrees  with  that  of  Philaster  (Haer., 
hi.),  because  both  depend  on  the  Syntagma  of 
Hippolytus.  Epiphanius  can  not  have  known  of 
them  by  either  oral  tradition  or  personal  contact; 
he  speaks  of  them  as  a  phenomenon  of  the  past, 
of  the  time  when  Montanism  vexed  the  Church  of 
Asia  Minor,  and  is  imable  to  give  any  answer  to 
the  meet  obvious  questions  in  regard  to  them. 
Before  his  time  they  have  no  more  definite  name 
than  "  the  heretics  who  reject  the  writings  of 
John."  Epiphanius  was  uncertain  whether  they 
rejected  the  epistles  of  John,  and  Hippolytus  had 
referred  only  to  their  criticism  of  the  Gospel  and 
the  Apocalypse.  The  former  justifies  the  name 
"  Alogi "  by  the  assertion  that  the  sect  did  not 
accept  the  Logos  proclaimed  by  John;  but  the 
grounds  which  he  quotes  from  them  for  their  re- 
jection of  the  Johannine  writings,  equally  with  the 
indications  of  Hippolytus  and  Philaster,  fail  to 
support  this  view  of  their  critical  attitude;  indeed, 
in  another  place  Epiphanius  contradicts  himself. 
His  consequent  association  of  the  Theodotians 
with  the  Alogi  is  thus  only  one  of  his  groundless 
fancies. 

Epiphanius  quotes  a  number  of  their  assertions, 
e.g.,  that  the  books  in  question  were  written  not 
by  John,  but  by  Cerinthus,  and  are  unworthy  to 
be  received  in  the  Church;  that  they  do  not  agree 
with  the  works  of  the  other  apostles;  and  that  the 
Apocalypse  is  absurd  in  numerous  particulars. 
The  determining  motive  of  their  criticism  can  not 
be  made  out  from  his  fragmentary  indications. 
If  the  name  "  Alogi "  and  the  notion  that  this 
motive  was  a  rejection  of  the  Christology  of  the 
fourth  Gospel  are  demonstrably  groimdless  in- 
ventions of  Epiphanius,  which  moreover  fail  to 
explain  the  contemptuous  tone  of  the  sect  toward 
the  Apocalypse,  it  is  all  the  more  noteworthy  that 
he  not  only  places  them  in  chronological  and  geo- 
graphical relation  to  the  Montanists  of  Asia  Minor, 
but  attributes  to  them  also  a  denial  of  the  existence 


of  the  charismata  in  the  Church.    If  he  has  here, 
as  a  comparison  with  Irenaus  (III.  xi.  9)  shows, 
repeated  confusedly  the  thoughts  of  Hippolytus, 
it  follows  that  the  latter  found  in  the  passage  of 
Irenffius  referred  to  an  argument  against  the  Alogi, 
although  Irenseus's  context  only  requires  him  to  d^ 
with  their  rejection  of  the  fourth  Gospel  and  not  of 
the  Apocalypse.    Thus  it  may  be  taken  as  the  opin- 
ion of  Irenffius  and  Hippolytus  that  these  other- 
wise orthodox  people,  in  their  opposition  to  the 
Montanists,  sought  to  withdraw  from  the  latter 
the  supports  which  they  found  for  their  doctrine 
of  the  Paraclete  in  the  Gospel  of  John  and  for  their 
millenarianism  in  the  Apocalypse.     The  rejection 
of  the  Johannine  books  by  the  Alogi  is  evidence 
that   these   books  were  generally   received;  their 
ascription  to  Cerinthus,  a  contemporary  of  John, 
of  the  belief  that  they  were  written  in  John's  life- 
time.   This  ascription  need  not  involve  any  special 
reference  to  the  actual  teaching  of  Cerinthus,  which, 
according  to  the  more  trustworthy  authority  of 
Irenffius,    Hippolytus,    and   the   pseudo-Tertullian 
(Haer.,  x.),  bore  no  resemblance  to  that  of  the  apos- 
tle. (T.  Zahn.) 
Bibuoobapht:  The  sources  are  indicated  in  the  text.     Con- 
sult:   Hamack,  Litteratur,  II.  i.  376  sqq..  670-671.  689- 
691.  692.695;   T.  Zahn,  Geachichte  dee  neuteetamentlichen 
Kanone,  i.  220-262.  ii.  47.50.236.967-991.  1021.  Leipsic, 
1890-91;    idem.  ForschuTigen,   v.  35-43.  1892;    Neander, 
Christian  Church,  i.  526.583.  682;  MoeWer,  Christian  Church, 
i.  158.   223.233;   DB,   ii.    701,  iii.   537,   iv.   240;  G.   P. 
Fisher.  Some  Remarks  on  the  Alogi,  in  Papers  of  the  Ameri- 
can Society  of  Church  History,  vol.  [ii.,  pt.  1,  pp.  1-9,  New 
York.  1890. 

ALOMBRADOS,  a'lom-bra'dez  (modem  speU- 
ing,  ALUMBRADOS;  Lat.  lUuminati;  ''Enlight- 
ened '0*  Spanish  mystics  who  first  attracted  the 
attention  of  the  Inquisition  in  1524  (Wadding, 
Annales  minarum,  imder  the  year  1524),  when  a 
certain  Isabella  de  Cruce  of  Toledo  is  mentioned 
as  a  representative  of  their  quietistic-ascetic  teach- 
ings and  their  enthusiastic  striving  for  divine  in- 
spirations and  revelations.  About  1546  Magda- 
lena  de  Cruce  of  Aguilar,  near  Cordova,  a  member 
of  the  Poor  Clares,  is  said  to  have  been  accused  of 
spreading  immond  antinomian  teachings  and  to 
have  been  forced  to  abjure  her  heresies;  and  there 
are  like  reports  of  a  Carmelite  nun,  Catherina  de 
Jesus  of  Cordova,  about  1575,  and  of  a  Portuguese 
Dominican  nun,  Maria  de  Visitatione,  in  1586. 
The  founder  of  the  Society  of  Jesus,  in  his  student 
days,  was  accused  of  belonging  to  the  Illuminati 
at  Alcala  in  1526,  and  at  Salamanca  in  1527,  and 
the  second  time  was  imprisoned  for  forty-two  days 
(cf.  Grothein,  p.  225;  see  Jesuits).  A  connection 
between  the  Spanish  Illuminati  of  the  sixteenth 
century  and  the  German  reformatory  movement 
has  often  been  conjectured,  especially  by  Roman 
Catholics,  but  without  good  reason;  nor  can  in- 
fluence from  Anabaptists  like  Milnzer  or  Schwenck- 
feld  be  seriously  considered. 

An  ordinance  of  the  Spanish  Inquisition  dated 
Jan.  28,  1558,  mentions  the  following  heretical 
teachings  as  characteristic  of  the  Illuminati:  **  Only 
inward  prayer  is  well-pleasing  to  God  and  meri- 
torious, not  external  prayer  with  the  lips.  The 
confessors  who  impose  outward  acts  of  repentance 
are  not  to  be  obeyed;  the  true  servants  of  God 


Alombradoa 
Alsace-Lorraine 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


186 


axe  superior  to  such  discipline  and  have  no  need 
of  meritorious  works  in  the  common  sense;  the 
contortions,  convulsions,  and  faintings,  which  ac- 
company their  inner  devotion,  are  to  them  suf- 
ficient tokens  of  the  divine  grace.  In  the  state  of 
perfection  the  secret  of  the  Holy  Trinity  is  beheld 
while  here  below,  and  all  that  should  be  done  or 
left  undone  is  communicated  directly  by  the  Holy 
Spirit.  When  perfection  is  attained  it  is  no  longer 
necessary  to  look  to  images  of  the  saints,  or  to  hear 
sermons  or  religious  conversations  of  the  common 
kind"  (J.  A.  Llorente,  Oeachichte  der  apanischen 
Inquisition,  Germ,  ed.,  ii.,  Stuttgart,  1824,  pp.  3-4). 
A  still  fuller  record  of  Illuminatic  errors  is  given  by 
Malvasia  (CcUalogua  omnium  hceresium  et  concUir 
orum,  Rome,  1661,  xvi.  century,  pp.  269-274),  who 
enumerates  fifty  heretical  propositions,  including 
besides  those  already  mentioned  the  following: 
"  In  the  state  of  perfection  the  soul  can  neither  go 
forward  nor  backward,  for  its  own  faculties  have 
all  been  abolished  by  grace.  The  perfect  has  no 
more  need  of  the  intercession  of  the  saints,  even 
devotion  to  the  humanity  of  Jesus  is  superflu- 
ous for  him;  he  has  no  more  need  of  the  sacra- 
ments or  to  do  good  works.  A  perfect  man  can 
not  sin;  even  an  act  which,  outwardly  regarded, 
must  be  looked  upon  as  vicious,  can  not  contam- 
inate the  soul  which  lives  in  mystical  imion  with 
God." 

The  ecclesiastical  annalist  Spondanus  records 
in  the  year  1623  an  inquisitorial  process  against 
Illuminatic  mystics  in  the  dioceses  of  Seville  and 
Granada,  in  which  the  grand  inquisitor  Andreas 
Pacheco  mentions  no  less  than  seventy-six  heretical 
propositions,  many  of  them  antinomian.  Like 
things  are  told  of  the  French  sect  of  lUuminis 
(called  also  GuMneU  from  their  leader  the  Abb4 
Gu^rin)  who  were  prosecuted  in  1634  in  Flanders 
and  Picardy.  Another  sect  of  lUuminia  which 
appeared  about  1722  in  southern  France  has  more 
resemblance  to  the  freemasons,  and  seems  to  have 
been  a  precursor  of  the  Order  of  Illimiinati  in  south 
Germany,  especially  in  Bavaria  (see  Illuminati). 

O.  Z5CKLERt. 

Bibuoorapht:  H.  Heppe,  Ot9chiehte  der  quietutUchen  My- 
Hk  in  der  katholiachen  Kircke,  41  sqq.,  Berlin,  1875;  M. 
Menendes  y  Pelayo,  HUtoria  de  lot  heterodoxot  BepaAolee, 
u.  521.  iu.  403.  Madrid.  1880;  H.  C.  Lea.  Chapter*  from 
the  ReligiouB  Hietory  of  Spain  Connected  with  the  Inquiei- 
Hon,  passim,  Philadelphia,  1800;  E.  Gothein,  Ignatiue 
von  Loyola  und  die  Oegenreformation,  pp.  61-62,  224  sqq., 
HaUe,  1805. 

ALOYSIUS,  al"ei"shius',  SAINT,  OF  60NZAGA 
(LUIGI  GONZAGA):  Jesuit;  b.  in  the  castle  of 
Castiglione  (22  m.  n.w.  of  Mantua),  the  ancestral 
seat  of  the  Gonzaga  family.  Mar.  9,  1568;  d.  in 
Rome  Jime  21,  1591.  His  father  was  Marquis  of 
Castiglione  and  a  prince  of  the  Holy  Roman  Em- 
pire, but  the  boy  turned  away  from  the  pleasures 
of  courts  and  devoted  himself  early  to  a  life  of 
asceticism  and  piety.  In  1585  he  renounced  his 
claim  to  the  succession  in  order  to  join  the  Society 
of  Jesus,  and  took  the  vows  in  1587.  His  death 
was  due  to  his  self-sacrificing  labors  in  the  care  of 
the  sick  during  the  prevalence  of  the  plague  in 
Rome.  He  was  beatified  by  Gregory  XV.  in  1621, 
and  canonized  by  Benedict  XIII.  in  1726.    Devo- 


tion to  him  is  wide-spread  in  the  modem  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  in  which  he  is  regarded  as  a  model 
of  the  virtue  of  purity,  and  an  especial  patron  of 
young  men,  particularly  those  who  enter  the  eccle- 
siastical state. 

Bibuoorapht:  V.  Cepari,  De  vita  beaH  Aloyeii  Qontaact, 
ColoKne,  1608,  Eng.  traiiBl.  by  F.  Goldie,  London.  1891;' 
C.  Papenoordi,  Der  heilige  Aloyaittet  Paderborn,  1889. 

ALPHA  AND  OMEGA  (A,  Q): .  The  first  and 
last  letters  of  the  Greek  alphabet.  They  are  used 
in  a  symbolic  sense  in  three  places  in  the  Book  of 
Revelation.  In  i.  8  God  describes  himself  as 
"  Alpha  and  Omega,  the  beginning  and  the  ending, 
which  is,  and  which  was,  and  which  is  to  come, 
the  Almighty."  The  expression  is  similarly  used 
in  xxi.  6  (cf.  Isa.  xliv.  6,  xlviii.  12).  In  xxii.  13 
the  name  **  Alpha  and  Omega,  the  beginning  and 
the  end,  the  first  and  the  last ''  is  the  designation 
adopted  for  himself  by  Christ,  who  is  also  called 
"  the  first  and  the  last  **  in  ii.  8.  If,  as  is  apparent 
from  the  context,  these  passages  express  the  same 
symbolic  meaning,  that  of  eternity  as  unlimited 
duration,  it  is  plain  that  the  use  of  this  name  is 
intended  to  guarantee  the  fulfilment  of  the  prophe- 
cies mentioned  in  the  passages.  Commentators 
have  referred,  in  explanation  of  the  expression, 
to  the  use  of  the  first  and  last  letters  of  the  Hebrew 
alphabet  (K  D)  in  rabbinical  literature,  though  the 
parallelism  is  not  acknowledged  by  all  scholars. 
A  long  line  of  early  and  medieval  writers  discuss 
the  passages  cited  from  Revelation.  Thus  Clem- 
ent of  Alexandria  has  one  or  more  of  them  in  mind 
when  he  says  {StromcUa,  iv.  25):  "  For  he  [the  Son] 
is  the  circle  of  all  powers  rolled  and  united  into  one 
unity.  Wherefore  the  Word  (Gk.  Logos)  is  called 
the  Alpha  and  the  Omega,  of  whom  alone  the  end 
becomes  the  beginning,  and  ends  again  at  the 
original  beginning  without  any  break.''  As  in  this 
passage,  so  in  Stromata,  vi.  16,  he  explains  the 
prophecies  with  reference  to  Christ  alone.  Ter- 
tuUian  (De  monogamia,  v.)  makes  a  similar  use  of 
the  name.  Ambrose  (In  septem  viaioneSf  i.  8)  says 
that  Christ  calls  himself  the  beginning  because  he 
is  the  creator  of  the  human  race  and  the  author  of 
salvation,  and  the  end  because  he  is  the  end  of  the 
law,  of  death,  and  so  on.  Prudentius,  in  his  hymn 
Corde  natus  ex  parentis^  paraphrases  the  words  of 
Revelation.  The  Gnostics  extracted  from  the 
letters  their  characteristic  mystical  play  on  num- 
bers; the  fact  that  A  and  Q  stood  for  801,  and  the 
sum  of  the  letters  in  the  Greek  word  for  dove 
(perietera)  amounted  to  the  same,  was  used  by  the 
Gnostic  Marcus  to  support  the  assertion  that  Christ 
called  himself  Alpha  and  Omega  with  reference 
to  the  coming  of  the  Spirit  at  his  baptism  in  the 
form  of  a  dove  (Irenseus,  I.  xiv.  6,  xv.  1).  Later, 
Primasius  played  on  the  numbers  in  the  same  way 
to  prove  the  essential  identity  of  the  Holy  Ghost 
with  the  Father  and  the  Son  (on  Rev.  xxii.  13). 
An  evidence  of  the  place  which  these  letters  held 
in  Gnostic  speculation  is  afforded  by  a  piece  of 
parchment  and  one  of  papyrus  preserved  in  the 
Egyptian  Museum  at  Berlin,  both  originally  used 
as  amulets.  On  the  former  the  letters  are  found 
together  with  Coptic  magical  formulas  and  a  cross 
of  St.   Andrew;  the  latter  also  contains   Coptic 


187 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Alombradoa 
▲Isaoe-Lorraine 


fonnulas,  divided  by  a  cross  which  tenninatea  ftt 
each  extremity  in  A  or  O, 

The  letters  occur  much  Icsa  frequently  in  the 
lit«rary  sources  of  Christian  antiquity  and  of  the 
Middle  Ages  than  in  monumentat  inseriptionii. 
With  the  various  forms  of  the  monogram  of  Christ 
and  of  the  cross,  they  belonged  to  the  most  popular 
symbols  of  early  Christian  art,  which  was  never 
tired  of  reproducing  them  on  all  kiuds  of  monu- 
ments, public  and  private,  and  in  every  sort  of 
material.  The  fact  that  with  but  very  few  excep- 
tions, A  and  0  are  found,  as  far  aa  is  known,  on 
Ibeae  monuments  in  connection  with  figures  or 
aymbcls  of  Christ — never  of  God  in  the  abstract  or 
of  God  the  Father^leads  to  the  interesting  conclu- 
sion that  the  popular  exegiesis  of  the  above-named 
passages  of  the  Apocalypse  referred  their  meaning 
to  Christ  alone,  and  thus  affords  a  proof  that  the 
makers  of  these  monuments  were  indirectly  ex- 
pressing their  belief  in  his  divinity.  The  possibil- 
ity, however,  can  not  be  denied  that  in  certain 
cases  motives  of  a  superstitious  nature  may  have 
led  to  the  employment  of  these  symbob;  but  it  is 
much  less  easy  to  reason  with  certainty  from  the 
monumental  remains  than  from  the  literature  of 
the  time.  Modem  Christian  art,  less  given  to  sym- 
bolism, is  relatively  poor  in  examples  of  the  use  of 
these  letters,  though  they  have  reappeared  more 
often  in  the  nineteenth  century,  as  a  general  rule  in 
connectiDn  mih  the  monogram  of  Christ.  Full  and 
detailed  descriptions  of  their  eariy  use^  with  the 
datefi  of  their  appearance  in  different  countries, 
tad  classiiication  of  their  employment  alone,  with 
human  or  animal  figures,  or  (wliich  is  much  more 
frequent)  with  other  symbols,  may  be  found  in 
abundance  in  the  archeological  works  of  Dc  Rossi, 
Garrucci,  Hflbner,  I^  Blant,  Kraus,  and  others, 
and  in  the  Corjma  inscriptionum  Latinarum. 

(NiKOLAUS  MtiLLER*) 
Builickiilap&t:  A  viut  amount  baa  h«flti  writ  tea  an  the 
Bubject;  tbe  best  single  artide  is  in  Dictionnaire  d^archi- 
otoffim  chrMienne  et  dr  liturffit^  Saag,  i^t  csols.  1^25,  P&ri)!, 
1003,  and  contiuna  diagTams  and  very  full  and  da&axtfi 
irfereuccB  to  the  literature. 

ALPfi^US^  al-fi'Ds:  Father  of  the  second 
Janaee  in  all  four  of  the  Hats  of  the  apostles.  He 
is  intereating  in  so  far  as  he  may  with  probability 
be  identified  with  the  ClopaB  (A.  V.  Cleophaa)  of 
John  xix.  25.  Of  the  two  Marys  who  stood  by  the 
cross  with  the  mother  of  JesTjs,  one  is  called  in  this 
passage  the  wife  of  Clopas;  in  Matt,  xxvii.  56 
and  in  Mark  xv.  40,  the  mother  of  James,  or  James 
the  Leas,  presumably  the  second  apostle  of  this 
name.  The  question  how  the  use  of  two  different 
names j  Alpha*us  and  Clopas,  is  to  be  explained 
may  be  answered  in  two  ways.  Either  KAwn-df 
(=Kle^af^  a  contraction  of  KAcfStrurpof,  aa  'Avtiira^ 
of  'AiTiVaTpof)  was  the  Greek  name  which  Alph^us 
bore  in  addition  to  his  Aramaic  one;  or  there  are 
here  two  alternative  Grecized  forms,  both  repre- 
senting ^B?n,  Against  the  former  view  is  the 
fact  that  the  contraction  «^  for  K/-ro  in  Greek 
names  is  never  found  elsewhere;  and  in  favor  of 
the  latter  h  the  fact  that  the  initial  n^  commonly 
rendered  by  the  smooth  breathing  Or  by  S,  is 
aometimea  also  repre^nted  by  K.     In    any  case 


the  diversity  of  names  need  not  prevent  the  identity 
of  person.  This  identity  would  make  Alpha  us 
the  imcle*  and  James,  the  son  of  Alphieiia,  the  cousin, 
of  Jesus — a  result  of  some  importance  for  the  ques^ 
tion  aa  to  James   (q.v,),  (K.  Schmiot.) 

The  most  probable  solution  of  this  much  ve?ced 
problem  seems  to  lie  in  a  ground  form  ^E?j?,  the 
two  modes  of  pronouncing  the  first  letter  of  which 
(as  in  Arabic)  would  give  rise  to  the  variant  names 
AlphffiUJs  and  Clopas  or  Qeophas. 

G.  W.  G. 

BEBLioasAFEfT:  J.  B.  Lightfoot,  Galatiamt.  p.  207»  LondoEi» 
18S0;  T.  Kelnii  JumuM  of  Natara,  lU.  ^6,  London.  1878; 
J.  B.  Mayor,  Epiatie  of  SL  James,  pp.  xvi^-JtviLt  London* 
1S97;  DB.  L  74-75^    EB,  i.  1^3-123. 

ALSACE-LORRAINE  (Germ.  Ekass-Lothringm): 
An  immediate  "  imperial  territory "  (ReichslaTid), 
forming  the  extreme  southwest  of  the  German  em- 
pire, bounded  on  the  north  by  the  grand  duchy  of 
Luxemburg,  Rhenij^h  lYussia,  and  the  Rhine  Palati- 
nate (Rhenish  Bavaria),  on  the  east  by  Baden^  on  the 
south  by  Switzerland f  and  on  the  west  by  Fiance, 
Its  area  is  5,303  square  miles,  with  a  population 
(1905)  of  1,814,630,  including  1,375.300  (75.S  per 
cent.)  Roman  Catholics,  406,100  (22.^  per  cent.) 
Protestants,  and  33, 1 30  (1.88  per  cent. )  Jews.  The 
preponderance  of  Roman  Catholics  points  back  to 
the  pH>titical  conditions  of  the  sixteenth  century^ 
when  the  territoiy  for  the  most  part  belonged  to 
the  house  of  Austria,  the  duke  of  Lorraine,  and 
the  bishops  of  Straeburg.  The  Reformation  found 
entrance  only  in  the  free  city  of  Strasburg  and  in 
certain  other  cities  and  minor  dependencies;  and 
much  of  the  progress  there  made  waa  lost  under 
the  dragOxinadea  and  through  the  work  of  the 
Jesuits  in  the  time  of  Louifl  XIV. 

Ecclesia^itical  matters  were  little  changed  by  the 
transfer  of  Alsace-Lorraine  from  France  to  Ger- 
many after  the  war  of  1870-71,  Tbe 
Th«        Church  of  the  Augsburg  Confession  is 

Lutheran    still  constituted  according  to  the  law 

Church,  of  the  first  French  repubUe  as  amended 
in  1852  after  the  coup  d*^tal  of  Louis 
Napoleon.  A  presbyterial  council,  chosen  by  the 
congregation,  under  the  presidency  of  the  pastor, 
has  general  oversight  of  the  spiritual  and  temporal 
concerns  of  each  congregation.  It«  acts  and  deci* 
siona  must  be  confirmed  by  the  next  higher  ecclesi- 
astical board,  the  consistory — -in  some  cases  repre- 
senting a  Hingle  congregation,  in  others  a  union  of 
several — which  is  chosen  by  a  liiglUy  comphcated 
system .  I  ts  f imctions  are  in  general  the  same  as  those 
of  the  presbytery— to  maintain  discipline,  to  care 
for  the  order  of  divine  service,  and  to  manage  Church 
property.  There  are  also  inspection  diatricts,  each 
having  one  clerical  and  two  lay  inspectors.  At  the 
head  of  the  Church  is  a  directory,  a  standing  board, 
and  an  upper  consistory,  which  meets  yearly*  The 
directory  consist s  of  two  laymen  and  one  of  the 
clerical  inspectors  appointed  by  the  government, 
and  two  lay  members  chosen  by  the  upper  consis- 
tory. It  has  power  to  review  all  acts  of  presbyteriea 
and  consistories,  manages  all  Church  property, 
forms  the  intermediate  body  between  Church 
and  government,  and  appoints  all  ministers  after 
consultation     with     presbyterial     councils     and 


▲Isaoe-Lorraine 
Altar 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


188 


coniietrories.  It  haa  a  voice  in  appointing  the  teach' 
era  of  the  Protefltsnt  gynmaflium,  has  the  right  of 
BOiomating  the  inspectors,  licensee  and  ordains 
preachers,  and  executes  the  decrees  of  the  upper 
consistory.  The  latter  meets  annually  in  regular 
session.  The  business  to  be  brought  before  it 
must  have  the  approval  of  the  government  and  its 
decisions  require  government  confirmation.  Its 
sessions  are  limited  to  six  days  and  a  representative 
of  the  government  must  be  present,  BfOmsters' 
salaries  mnge  between  1,420  and  2,840  marks 
according  to  position  and  length  of  service.  The 
moat  important  foundations  are  under  the  admin- 
istration of  the  Chapter  of  St.  Thomas  in  Strajsburg; 
they  are  partly  ecclesiastical,  partly  educational, 
the  latter  dicing  the  more  important. 

The  Reformed  Church  of   Alsace-Lorraine  has 
eubstantiatly  the  same  constitution  as  the  Church 

of  the  Augsburg  Confession.     It^  con- 
Reformed   gregations  are  led    and  governed  by 
and  Other  i^imilar  presbyterial  councils  and  con- 
Bodies,     sistories,  but  the  tatter  are  not  united 

into  an  external  administrative  unity. 
It  has  a  numerical  strength  about  one- fifth  that  of 
the  Lutheran  Church,  Of  other  Protestant  bodies 
the  Mennonites,  with  a  membership  of  about  2,500, 
are  the  strongest.  The  government  expenditures 
for  salaries  and  other  Church  purposes  are  more 
than  700,000  marks  yearly. 

The  Roman  Catholic  Church  of  Alsace-Lorraine 
comprises  the  two  bishoprics  of  Strasburg  (Alsace) 

and  MetE  (Lorraine)^  formerly  belong- 

The        ing  to  the  province  of  Beaan^on,  but 

Roman      since  1874  independent  of  all  archi- 

Calholic     episcopal  or  metropolitan  jurisdiction. 

Church.     The  bishopB  are  named  by  the  reigning 

prince,  and  receive  canonica!  institu- 
tion from  Rome,  They  select  aU  booka  to  be  used 
in  church  services,  and  present  priests  for  appoint- 
ment to  the  prince,  but  nsjne  directly  the  lower 
clergy  as  well  as  the  directors  and  profesaors  of  the 
diocesan  seminaries,  in  which  the  clergy  receive 
their  training.  They  alwj  direct  these  seminaries 
and  order  the  inst motion  in  them.  Each  bishop 
has  two  vicars-general  and  a  chapter,  which  be- 
comes influential  only  in  the  case  of  a  vacancy 
in  the  bishopric.  The  salaries  of  priests  range  from 
1,500  to  2,000  marks;  vicara  receive  &40  marks. 
Church  buildings  and  rectories  by  law  belong  to  the 
civil  authorities  so  that  the  latter  are  charged  i*ith 
their  maintenance,  if  the  ordinary  revenues  (man- 
aged by  a  committee  of  the  congregation)  do  not 
suffice.  Such  buildings  may  not  be  diverted  from 
their  original  purpose.  Many  of  the  churches  are 
used  by  both  Protestants  and  Roman  Catholics, 
The  cemeteries  also  are  common  property,  and  any 
resident  may  be  buried  in  them  without  confes- 
sional distinction.  The  taking  of  monastic  vows 
for  life  is  forbidden,  and  the  law  recognizes  no  re- 
ligious order;  nevertheless,  more  tlian  twenty  are 
lepresented,  the  greater  number  being  for  females. 
The  expenditures  of  the  State  for  the  Roman  Catho- 
lic Church  amount  to  more  than  2,000,000  marks 
yearly. 

The  Jewa  are  divided  into  thnee  conaiitoriet, 
each  with  a  chief  rabbi,  at  Btrasburg,  Cohnar,  and 


Metz,   respectively.     Rabbis  receive  salaries    from 
the  State,  varying  from  1,50Q  to  1,900  marks. 

WiLHELM  GOETZ, 

ALSTED,  Ol'tted,  JOHAlTIf  HEINRICH:  Re- 
formed theologian:  b.  at  Ballersbach,  near  Her- 
bom  (43  m,  n.  of  Wiesbaden),  Nassau,  1588;  d,  at 
Weissenburg  (Karlsburg,  240  m.  e.s,e»  of  Buda- 
pest), SiebenbClrgen,  Hungary,  Nov.  8,  1638.  He 
studied  at  Herbom  and  became  professor  there  in 
the  pliiioaophical  faculty  in  1610,  and  in  the  theo- 
logical faculty  in  1619.  In  1629  he  went  to  the 
newly  founded  University  of  Weissenburg.  He 
represented  the  Church  of  Nassau  at  the  Synod  of 
Dort  (1618-19).  He  was  one  of  the  famous  teachers 
of  bis  time,  and  compiled  a  series  of  compends  of 
pretty  nearly  every  branch  of  knowledge,  which 
are  interesting  us  showing  the  scholarly  and  literary 
methods  and  achievements  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  Tlie  most  remarkable  were  Cursvs  phi- 
hsaphici  encifcloptsdia  (Herbom,  1620)  and  Enqf- 
dopcedia  »€ptem  tomis  diAlincta  (ib.  1630).  The 
first  of  these  comprises  two  volumes;  one  a  quarto 
of  3,072  pages,  containing^  i.,  qualttor  prmcognila 
phihsophioi:  archehgta,  hexUogia,  Ucknologia, 
didactica;  it,,  und^m  sd^niia  philosophiccE  th^Q^ 
TeticiB ;  fnetaphysica^  pneumatica,  physical  oHih- 
tneticaf  gemnetriaf  c4}»mographia,  uranoscopia,  geo- 
graphia,  opiiea,  mURkUt  arthite^^ttmica ;  iii.,  quinque 
pruderUicB  phUmophict^  praetu'm :  ethical  aeanomita, 
polUi£4i,  scholaMicaj  histori^^a;  vol,  ii»  gives  the 
Bepiem  aries  tiberales.  The  second  work,  in  two 
folios,  includes  as  its  first,  third,  and  fourth  divi- 
sions the  three  given  above,  and  adds:  ii.,  phUologi^f 
i.e.,  lexica,  grammatica,  Thetorica,  logicaf  oro^orto, 
poetica;  v.,  ire*  facidtoU^  principes:  theologiaf 
jurUprudeniia,  medicinal  vi.,  arte*  Tnechanicm; 
vu.,  a  miscellaneous  section,  prircipua:  farragines 
discijdinarum :  mnemanica^  hiMUjrica,  chronohgiaj 
arehit^onicat  criiica,  magia,  a!ehymia,  m4xgneio- 
graphia^  etc»,  including  even  tabacohgia^  or  the 
dodHna  de  naturae  usu  ei  abusu  (abaci*  Theology 
is  divided  into  seven  branches:  nattiral\ji,  caieche- 
tim,  didadica,  polemical  casnunt,  propkeiica  (hom- 
iletics),  and  mortdis.  He  also  wrote  a  Diairibt  de 
millc  annis  (Frankfort,  1627),  in  which  he  ftites  the 
beginning  of  the  millennium  at  the  year  16^. 
(E.  F.  Karl  MUller.) 

Bt6LlocinAJ>Rr-  F.  W.  E.  Rotb,  in  Monaithtfte  der  Comeniuf- 
G*»^ltehafi,  IB&B.  pp.  20  xm.;  H.  F.  Crie^m,  /.  A,  €^ 
mtmuM  alt  Thmhg,  pp,  3<^  sqq..  Lcipsie*  1881. 

ALTAR- 


I.  In  FrinutiTe  EeUgion. 

RAJMid  Structure  (|l  >. 
AJtfu-  aod  DivinUy  On* 

Altar  And  Divinity  Dif- 
ferentiated (f  3). 

II.  In  the  Old  TeslAfflent. 

Frfr-DcuteroDoiiiic    and 
Deuteronomie  (I  U. 


m.  To  About  the  year  1000. 
Form  And  Structure  ( 1 1 ). 
AcoessorieB   And    Ofda- 

mentAtion  (f  2>. 
Kumberand  VaHe'li»of 
AltATftlla). 
b.  Fmtrv  the  year  1 000  to 

1300. 
o.  Fropi  1300  to  the  Ref- 
orm a  don. 


Poftt'DeuteronomicffS).  2.  SUi«e  the  RefonnatJon. 
IIL  In  the  ChrlntlAo  Church,  Lutheraa  and  Ref  ormed 

1,  Before    the    Kefonna*  Churcbeii  (I  I)- 

tion.  Chnrdi  of  Eo^od  (i  2) . 

L  In  Primitive  Religion:  The  word  "altar," 
derived  ultimately  from  the  Latin  atere^  ''  to 
nourish/'  through  alius,  derived  meaning  **  high/^ 


189 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Alsace-Lorraine 
Altar 


is  usually  taken  to  mean  a  raised  structure;  but 

etymology  and  history  are  against  this.    "  Altar  " 

is  the  rendering  in  the  Old  Testament  of  mi^beaJlk 

(Aram,  madhbah),  "  place  of  sacrifice,"  and  in  the 

New  Testament  of  thtiaiastirion,  having  the  same 

meaning.    The  Greek  word  bOmoa  indeed  means  a 

raised  structure;  but  the  possession  of  two  words 

by  the  Greek  suggests  development 

I.  Altar  not  and   differentiation.    The    Latin    ara 

Necessarily  means  the  seat  or  resting-place,  not 

a   Raised    "  of  the  victim  "  (so  Andrews,  Latin 

Structure.  Lextc/m,  s.v.),  but  of  the  deity;  and 
on  that  account  the  word  was  avoided 
by  the  Fathers.  The  word  **  altar  "  has  its  ultimate 
root  in  the  actual  purport  of  the  early  sacrifice 
(q.v.),  viz.,  a  meal  of  worshipers  and  worshiped.  So 
far  from  the  place  of  sacrifice  being  invariably  a 
raised  structiu^,  it  was  sometimes  a  trench  (e.g., 
in  the  celebrated  sacrifice  of  Ulysses  described  in 
Odyssey,  xi.),  while  in  the  famous  tombs  at  Mycenae 
there  were  depressions  connected  by  small  shafts 
with  the  graves,  and  generally  explained  as  the 
places  of  deposit  of  offerings  to  the  dead.  At  the 
present  day  the  African  places  his  offering  of  oil 
to  the  tree  spirit  not  on  an  altar,  but  on  the  groimd. 

To  understand  the  development  of  the  altar  it 
must  be  recalled  that,  as  is  generally  conceded, 
religion  has  passed  through  the  animistic  stage. 
That  is  to  say,  man  in  his  primitive  state  might 
regard  any  object — tree,  rock,  mountain,  fountain, 
stream,  sea,  etc. — as  the  seat  of  divine  power.  His 
mental  processes  then  led  him  to  approach  what- 
ever he  regarded  as  divinity  as  he  approached 
human  superiors,  namely  with  gifts,  which  he 
applied  directly  to  the  objects  of  his  worship, 
casting  his  offerings  into  fountain,  stream,  sea,  or 
fire,  laying  them  at  the  foot  or  on  the  top  of  the 
mountain,  or  smearing  oil  or  fat,  or  pouring  blood 
or  wine  on  the  divine  stone.  In  other  words,  these 
objects  were  both  divinity  and  altar. 

The  best  Biblical  example  of  this  primitive  mode 
of  thinking  and  acting  is  in  the  passage  Gen.  xxviii. 
11-18.  Jacob  had  pillowed  his  head  on  a  stone, 
and  there  resulted  his  dream  of  the  ladder.  In 
accordance  with  the  mental  processes  of  his  time, 
on  awakening  he  conceived  the  cause  of  this  dream 
to  be  the  divinity  in  (or  of)  the  stone — note  his 
exclamation,  "  this  is  a  Bethel"  (a  *'  place  or  house 
of  God  ") — and  he  "  poured  oil  upon 
3.  Altar  and  the  stone."    In  this  he  paralleled  the 

Divinity  custom  of  the  pre-Mohammedan  Arabs, 
One.  as  proved  by  W.  R.  Smith  (Rel.  of 
Sem.,  Lecture  v.)  and  Wellhausen 
(HeiderUum,  pp.  99  sqq.).  The  passages  referred  to 
in  these  two  authors  demonstrate  that  such  a  stone 
was  more  than  an  altar;  it  was  the  visible  embodi- 
ment of  the  presence  of  deity.  The  same  might 
be  shown  in  the  customs  of  other  peoples,  as  for 
example,  the  Samoans  (cf .  Turner,  Samoaf  London, 
1884,  pp.  24,  281).  This  anointing  of  sacred  stones 
is  a  custom  followed  by  the  Samoyeds  to  this  day, 
and  was  known  in  Russia  and  in  the  west  of  Ireland 
in  the  early  part  of  the  last  century.  The  custom 
is  entirely  on  a  par  with  the  superstitious  practise, 
only  recently  abandoned,  in  remote  parts  of  Wales 
and  Cornwall,  of  putting  pins  and  other  trifles  in 


wells  and  springs  reputed  to  have  healing  qualities, 
doubtless  in  pagan  times  the  seat  of  worship  (cf. 
Folk-LorSf  in  which  many  examples  are  given). 
The  Greek  and  Roman  custom  of  pouring  a  libation 
to  Neptune  into  the  sea  at  the  beginning  of  a  voy- 
age will  occur  to  the  reader  as  a  survival  from  the 
time  when  the  sea  was  a  deity  and  not  merely  the 
domain  of  one. 

The  stone  (in  the  Old  Testament  the  word  is 
often  rendered  *'  pillar,"  q.v.)  and  cairn  "  or  wit- 
ness "  (Gen.  xxxi.  45-54;  cf.  Josh.  xxiv.  26-27 
with  xxii.  26-27)  were  almost  certainly  such  em- 
bodiments of  the  presence  of  deity  (note  the  words, 
Gen.  xxxi.  52,  "  This  heap  be  witness  and  this 
pillar  [stone]  be  witness,"  and,  in  Josh.,  "It  [this 
stone]  hath  heard  ");  the  covenant  and  oath  were 
under  the  protection  of  the  deity  there  present 
(cf .  Baal-berith  =  "  Baal  [protector]  of  the  cove- 
nant," Judges viii.  33,  and  El-berith=  "God  [pro- 
tector] of  the  covenant,"  Josh.  ix.  46,  R.  V.,  and  the 
Greek  Zeus  orkios  =  "  Zeus  [protector]  of  the 
oath ").  In  the  Genesis  passage  the  covenant- 
making  feast,  at  which  the  clan  and  the  deity  were 
commensals,  followed  the  appeal  to  the  covenant- 
guarding  object.  And  while  the  fact  is  not  ex- 
pressly stated,  that  the  pillar  of  Jacob  and  Laban 
was  anointed  hardly  admits  of  question,  in  view  of 
the  custom  attending  the  holding  of  such  a  feast- 
sacrifice.  At  least  in  early  times,  then,  the  same 
object  was  sometimes  both  divinity  and  altar. 

The  next  step  shows  the  differentiation  between 
the  two.  The  later  Arabic  term  for  altar  is  nud> 
from  the  same  root  as  the  Hebrew  mag^ebah  ("  pil- 
lar ").  It  has  been  shown  by  W.  R.  Smith  and 
Wellhausen  in  the  works  already  cited  that  the 
ansab  (pi.  of  nv4b)  were  stones,  the  objects  of  wor- 
ship, and  later  merely  altars.  This  shows  a  devel- 
opment in  conception.  A  similar  unfolding  took 
place  in  Hebrew  practise  (see  II.,  below),  where 
stones  are  shown  to  have  been  used 
3.  Altar  and  as  altars.  But  often  among  the  He- 
Divinity  brews  the  stone  pillar  was  retained, 
Differen-  an  altar  was  erected,  and  the  two 
tiated.  stood  side  by  side  (Hos.  iii.  4;  Isa. 
xix.  19).  Then  the  pillars  came  to 
be  more  or  less  ornate  (cf.  the  Greek  HemuB  and 
the  two  pillars  in  Solomon's  Temple,  1  Kings  vii. 
15-22,  which  last  are  hard  to  explain  except  as  a 
transference  to  the  Temple  of  the  pillars  custom- 
ary at  shrines).  That  the  ma^ebah  represented 
deity  is  now  generally  granted.  The  old  custom 
of  applying  the  sacrifice  to  the  monolith  had  become 
outworn;  it  was  no  longer  deity  but  only  deity's 
representative,  and  the  altar  was  provided  on  which 
to  place  (or,  in  the  case  of  fire-sacrifices,  to  consimie) 
the  offerings. 

That  the  altars  were  rude  at  first,  and  that  the 
elaborate  ones  of  later  times  were  the  product  of 
developed  esthetic  perceptions,  is  as  clear  from 
archeological  investigations  as  is  the  development 
of  the  house  and  temple  from  the  simple  cave  or 
booth  dwellings,  and  of  the  elaborate  ritual  from 
the  simple  worship  of  primitive  ages. 

The  location  of  altars  is  implicitly  indicated  in 
the  foregoing.  Wherever  deity  indicated  its  pres- 
ence either  by  some  such  subjective  manifestation 


Altar 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


140 


as  a  dream,  or  by  terrestrial  phenomena  such  as  the 
issue  of  a  foimtain  or  of  subterranean  gases,  or  by 
such  supposed  interference  in  the  sphere  of  human 
events  as  by  a  storm  which  changed  the  fortime  of 
battle,  or  by  aerial  phenomena  such  as  the  forma- 
tion of  thunder-claps  with  resultant  lightning  on 
the  crest  of  a  moimtain — thither  men  brought  their 
offerings  and  there  altars  were  foimd  or  placed. 
Naturally  the  tops  of  hills  (see  High  Places)  and 
groves  were  imiversally  adopted;  and  these  passed 
from  early  to  late  possessors  of  the  lands  as  sacred 
places.  The  one  test  was  the  supposed  residence 
or  frequent  attendance  of  deity  at  the  spot. 

n.  In  the  Old  Testament:  The  altars  of  the 
oldest  code  were  of  earth,  and  therefore  simple 

mounds,  or  of  imhewn  stones  (Ex. 
I.  Pre-Dcu-  xx.  24).  (Were  the  two  mules' 
teronomic  burden  of  earth,  II  Kings  v.  17,  for 
and  Deu-  an  altar?)  Sometimes  a  single  boulder 
teronomic.  or  monolith  sufficed  (Josh.  xxiv.  26- 

27;  cf.  xxii.  26-27;  Judges  vi.  20; 
I  Sam.  vi.  14,  xiv.  33;  I  Kings  i.  9).  For  the 
cairn  as  an  altar,  note  Gen.  xxxi.  45-54,  and  cf. 
xxviii.  18.  As  late  as  the  Deuteronomic  code 
(Deut.  xxvii.  5)  imdressed  stone  is  specified  as  the 
material  for  the  altar,  and  the  height  of  the  altar 
is  limited.  The  elaboration  in  form  and  material 
of  the  altars  of  Solomon  (I  Kings  viii.  64)  and  of 
Ahaz  (II  Kings  xvi.  10-11)  are  directly  traceable 
to  contact  with  outside  culture  and  the  develop- 
ment of  esthetic  perception  and  desire  (see  Art, 
Hebrew).  The  locations  correspond  closely  with 
primitive  usage  and  with  the  fact  that  early  Hebrew 
worship  was  in  large  part  derived  from  or  coalesced 
with  Canaanitic  practise.  "  High  places,''  i.e., 
the  tops  of  hills,  were  especially  used,  and  there 
are  several  traces  of  tree  and  foimtain  altars,  e.g., 
the  Paneas  source  of  the  Jordan  and  the  Fountain 
of  Mary  near  Jerusalem. 

Post-Deuteronomic  means  exilic  or  postexilic 
and  the  history  of  the  Hebrew  altar  is  bound  up 

with  that  of  the  Temple.  The  ef- 
a.  Post-  fects  of  contact  with  advanced  cul- 
Deuter-  ture  are  shown  in  the  elaborated 
onomic.     structure      and      equipment,      while 

the  differentiation  of  the  altar  of 
burnt  offering  and  that  of  incense  tells  the  story  of 
advancing  elaboration  of  cult.  The  "  table  of 
showbread  "  was  in  form  and  purpose    an  altar. 

Geo.  W.  Gilmorb. 
nL  In  the  Christian  Church:  The  oldest  desig- 
nation of  the  place  of  celebration  of  the  ''  Lord's 
Supper  "  is  "  the  Lord's  table  "  (Gk.  trapeza  kurioUf 
I  Cor.  X.  21).  This  expression  or  "  table  "  alone 
or  with  an  adjective  ("  holy,  sacred,  mystic  table;  " 
trapeza  hiera,  hagia,  mystikSf  etc.)  is  used  by  the 
Greek  Fathers.  The  general  Greek  word  for  altar 
{thysiastSrion)  is  less  frequently  used  and  hOmoa 
ia  purposely  avoided.  The  Latin  writers  use  mensa, 
aUare,  aUariumy  but  show  repugnance  to  ara. 

1.  Before  the  Reformation:  a.  To  about  the  Tear 
1000:  As  the  oldest  meeting-places  of  Ghristian 
worship,  rooms  in  ordinary  dwellings,  differed  essen- 
tially from  the  Jewish  sanctuary  in  Jerusalem  and 
from  the  temples  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  so  also 
the  "  table  of  the  Lord  "  differed  from  the  Jewish 


and  heathen  altars;  and  it  is  significant  that  the 
absence  of  altars  in  the  Christian  service  was  es- 
pecially offensive  to  the  heathen  (Minucius  Felix, 
Octaviua,  10;  Origen,  contra  CeUunif  vii.  64,  viii. 
17;  Cyprian,  Ad  Demetrianum,  12).  The  celebration 
of  the  agape  and  the  Eucharist  required  a  table, 
and  it  was  but  natural  that  the  first  disciples  of  the 
Lord,  like  himself,  should  celebrate  the  sacred  meal 
about   and   on   a   table.    When   the 

X.  Form  religious  service  was  transferred  from 
and        private  houses  to  special  buildings, 

Structure,  the  exclusive  use  of  tables  for  the 
celebration  of  the  Eucharist  was  still 
continued.  The  frequent  notices  that  the  perse- 
cuted sought  and  found  a  safe  hiding-place  beneath 
the  altar  or  embraced  the  legs  of  the  altar  as  a  sign 
of  their  distress  (cf.  Schmid,  pp.  31-32,  69-70), 
as  well  as  notices  in  Gregory  of  Toiub  {Miracu- 
lorum  libri  int.,  i.  28)  and  Paulus  Silentiarius  (De- 
acriptio  ecdesia  S.  Sophia,  pp.  752  sqq.),  that  the 
altars  in  St.  Peter's  at  Rome  and  in  St.  Sophia  at 
Constantinople  were  supported  by  columns,  pre- 
suppose the  table-form  of  the  altar.  The  recol- 
lection of  this  original  form  has  never  been  lost  in 
the  Church,  and  to  this  day  the  table-altar  is  the 
rule  in  the  Greek  Church. 

When  relics  first  began  to  be  transferred  from 
their  original  resting-places  to  churches,  their 
receptacles  were  placed  beneath  the  altar— seldom 
before  or  behind  it,  and  not  imtil  the  Middle  Ages 
above  it.  The  space  was  then  sometimes  walled 
up,  giving  the  altar  a  coffin-  or  chest-like  form. 
Such  altars  are  found  here  and  there  as  early  as  the 
fifth  century,  and  during  the  Middle  Ages  they 
became  usual.  The  terms  martyrium  and  confessio 
were  applied  to  such  tombs  as  well  as  to  the  crypt- 
like space  which  held  the  coffin  (area),  to  the  coffin 
itself,  and  to  the  altar.  To  make  it  possible  to 
see  and  touch  the  holy  contents  an  opening  (Jenes- 
trella)  was  left  in  front  with  a  lattice  of  metal 
or  marble  (transenna)  or  two  doors  {regiolce).  It 
must  not  be  assvuned  that  all  altars  of  the  Middle 
Ages  were  provided  with  relics.  A  canopy 
{ciborium),  supported  by  pillars,  was  frequently 
found  as  early  as  the  time  of  Constantine.  The 
material  used  was  wood,  stone,  and  metal;  gold, 
silver,  and  precious  stones  were  sometimes  em- 
ployed. 

It  was  usual  in  antiquity  to  spread  a  table  with 

a  cloth  in  preparation  for  a  banquet,  and  this  custom 

was  transferred  to  "  the  table  of  the 

a.  Accet-  Ix>rd."  Optatus  of  Mileve  in  the  second 
scries  and  half  of  the  fourth  century  is  the  first  to 
Omamenta-  mention  such  a  covering  (£>e  schis- 
tion.  mate  Donatiatorumf  vi.  1,  5).  Thence- 
forth altar-cloths  are  more  frequently 
mentioned.  Their  size  can  not  be  determined. 
They  seem  to  have  been  generally  of  linen,  though 
other  materials,  as  silk  and  gold-brocade,  were 
used.  Only  one  such  covering  was  used  at  first, 
later  the  number  varied.  To  this  period  belongs 
the  corporaJe  (called  also  palla  corporaliay  oporto- 
rium  dominici  corporUf  Gk.  ainddn),  in  which  the 
bread  intended  for  the  oblation  was  wrapped  (Isi- 
dore of  Pelusium,  Epiat.,  i.  123).  Later  there  were 
two  corporalia  (or  paUa):  one  spread  over  the  altar- 


141 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Altar 


cloths,  on  which  the  holy  vessels  stood;  the  other 
used  to  cover  the  cup  and  the  paten.  In  time  the 
name  corporale  was  restricted  to  the  first  of  these, 
and  palla  was  used  for  the  second.  Both  were  of 
linen.  Among  the  most  elaborate  and  costly  of 
altar-appendages  in  the  Romanesque  period  were 
the  antependia  or  frorUalia,  which  were  used  as 
decorations  for  the  altar-front;  the  back  and  the 
sides  of  the  altar  also  were  often  adorned  in  like 
manner.  When  altars  of  gold  and  silver  are  men- 
tioned it  is  probable  that  in  most  cases  metal  plates 
in  the  front  of  the  altar  are  meant.  The  oldest 
specimens  which  have  been  preserved  date  from 
the  ninth  to  the  twelfth  centuries.  They  represent 
scenes  from  Bible  history  and  the  lives  of  saints, 
usually  with  the  figure  of  Christ  in  the  center. 
Precious  stones  and  glass  are  inserted.  Ante- 
pendia were  also  made  of  costly  cloths  with  gold 
and  silver  embroidery,  and  mosaics  and  reliefs 
were  built  into  the  sides  of  the  altar.  Crosses  are 
represented  in  these  decorations,  and  stood  near 
altars;  they  were  also  placed  above  or  hung  below 
the  ctboriumf  but  in  the  first  millennium  crucifixes 
did  not  stand  on  the  altars.  In  like  manner  lamps 
were  hung  from  the  ciboria  or  stood  about  the  altars, 
but  not  on  them. 

At  first  there  was  only  one  altar  in  the  place  of 
worship,  symbolic  of  unity.  In  a  basilica  without 
transepts  it  stood  at  the  center  of  the  chord  of  the 
apse.  The  Eastern  Church  retained  the  single 
altar;  but  in  the  West  the  number  increased  under 
the  influence  of  the  custom  of  private  masses  and 
the  veneration  of  relics.  A  church  in  Gaul  in  the 
time  of  Gregory  the  Great  (d.  604)  had 

3.  Number  thirteen;  the  cathedral  at  Magde- 
and         burg,     forty-eight.     After    the    year 

Varieties    1000  altars  received  different  names 

of  Altars,  according  to  their  position  and  use. 
The  main  altar  was  called  the  altare 
maju8f  capitaneum,  cardinale,  fnagistrunif  or  prin- 
cipale,  "  high  altar ";  the  others  were  aUaria 
minora.  After  Alexander  VL  began  to  grant 
special  indulgences  at  certain  altars  the  term  altare 
privileffiatum  came  into  use;  a  mass  for  the  dead 
read  at  such  an  altar  brought  plenary  indulgence. 
Abbey-churches  had  an  altar  dedicated  to  the  holy 
cross  (altare  eanctcB  crucis),  placed  between  the 
choir  and  the  nave,  and  intended  for  the  lay 
brothers.  Portable  altars  (altaria  viatica^  porta- 
hilia,  iiineraria,  gestatoria,  motoria)  are  mentioned 
from  the  seventh  century;  they  were  used  by  mis- 
sionaries, prelates,  and  princes  on  journeys. 

b.  Vrom  the  Tear  1000  to  1300:  The  increasing 
veneration  which  was  paid  to  relics  led  early  in  this 
period  to  a  desire  to  place  holy  remains  on  the  altar 
— ^not  beneath  it  or  near  it  as  had  been  done  pre- 
viously. In  the  thirteenth  century,  relics  on  the 
altar  were  a  part  of  its  regular  equipment.  When 
the  entire  body  of  a  saint  was  removed  from  its 
original  resting-place  some  special  provision  for 
its  shrine  had  to  be  made,  and  this  led  to  an  ex- 
tension of  the  altar  at  the  rear  {retabiUum),  Wood 
or  stone  was  used,  and  decorations  similar  to  those 
of  altars  were  provided.  In  some  instances  such 
rdabvla  took  the  place  of  the  canopies;  where  the 
latter  were  retained  they  began  to  be  made  in  two 


stories,  the  relic-case  being  put  in  the  upper  one. 
Many  such  cases  have  been  preserved;  they  are 
made  of  copper,  silver,  gold,  and  ivory,  and  are 
ornamented  with  enamel,  filigree-work,  and  gems. 
Altars  were  surroimded  with  columns  connected 
by  cross-bars  from  which  curtains  hung.  Railings 
fencing  off  the  altar  were  known  to  the  earlier  time, 
but  were  not  general.  They  became  more  common 
with  the  growing  distinction  between  clergy  and 
laity,  and  as  the  number  of  the  clergy  increased, 
the  size  of  the  chancel  became  greater.  From  the 
thirteenth  century,  crosses,  crucifixes,  and  candles 
appear  on  the  altar.  The  position  of  the  cross  and 
the  lights  was  not  fixed,  and  the  latter  numbered 
one  or  two,  seldom  more.  Other  articles  which 
belonged  to  the  altar  furniture  were  gospel-books, 
often  in  costly  binding,  flabella,  little  bells,  and 
thuribles. 

0.  From  1300  to  the  Beformation:  The  ciborium 
altar  lasted  through  the  period  of  Romanesque  art 
and  even  defied  the  influence  of  the  Gothic.  In 
France  the  retabulum  was  retained  till  toward  1400, 
but  in  Germany  before  that  time  it  gave  way  to 
higher  structures  built  upon  the  altar.  The  tend- 
ency to  regard  such  additions  as  mere  receptacles 
for  the  relic-cases  disappeared.  The  holy  remains 
were  again  placed  within  the  altar,  or,  if  retained 
upon  it,  filled  only  a  subordinate  part.  Wood 
came  to  be  more  generally  used  as  material.  Doors 
were  provided  for  the  shrine.  Later  both  shrine 
and  doors  were  set  upon  a  pedestal  (predella),  which 
after  1475  became  an  integral  part  of  the  altar. 
The  earlier  altars  of  this  period  hold  rigidly  to  the 
Gothic  style,  but  later  more  freedom  is  apparent. 
Carving,  sculptiu^,  reliefs,  and  painting  were  freely 
used  as  decoration. 

2.  Since  the  Reformation:  The  Reformed 
Churches  undertook  to  remove  all  accessories  of 
medieval  worship,  including  the  altar,  for  which  they 
substituted  a  simple  table.  The  Lutheran  churches, 
however,  aiming  merely  to  do  away  with  that  which 
was  contrary  to  Scripture,  opposed  only  the  con- 
ception of  the  "  table  of  the  Ix)rd  "  as  a  sacrificial 
altar.  The  secondary  altars  were  no  longer  used, 
but  were  not  always  removed  from 
I.  Lutheran  the  churches.  The  high  altar  was 
and        generally  reserved  for  the  celebration 

Reformed    of  the  Lord's  Supper,  the  relic-cases 

Churches,  with  the  monstrance  and  host  being 
removed,  and  the  decorations  with 
the  crucifixes  and  lights,  and  the  antependia  and 
the  like  being  retained.  The  relics  beneath  the 
altar  were  sometimes  merely  covered  over,  not 
disturbed.  New  altars  built  for  evangelical  chiuxhes 
during  the  first  half  of  the  sixteenth  century  fol- 
lowed the  general  plan  and  structure  of  those  al- 
ready existing.  In  the  paintings  Bible  scenes  or 
events  of  the  Reformation  took  the  place  of  inci- 
dents in  saints'  lives.  Portraits  of  founders  and 
their  families  were  introduced.  The  general  form 
and  structure  were  made  subordinate  to  the  paint- 
ings, but  in  the  latter  half  of  the  century  the  archi-  . 
tectural  features  sometimes  obscured  the  paintings. 
During  the  baroco  period  altars  and  all  church 
furniture  shared  in  the  generally  depraved  taste 
of  the  time.    From  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth 


Altar 
▲Itman 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


142 


century  the  pulpit  began  to  be  placed  behind  the 
altar,  and  elevated  above  it,  and  then  the  organ  and 
ehoir  were  placed  above  the  pulpit.  The  result 
was  to  dwarf  and  degrade  the  altar,  and  the  taste- 
less pictures  and  other  decorations  of  the  time  do 
not  diminish  the  displeasing  effect.  The  nineteenth 
century  brought  a  return  to  the  early  Christian 
and  Gothic  forms.  The  altars  of  the  latest  time 
are  marked  by  eclecticism  and  by  a  striving  after 
novelty  which  often  mixes  discrepant  elements. 

(NlKOLAUS  Mt^LLER.) 

In  the  Church  of  England,  after  the  Reformation 
much  stress  was  laid  by  many  Reformers  on  bring- 
ing the  altar  down  into  the  body  of  the  church  and 
designating  it  as  the  ''Holy   Table,''  the  name 
which  it  nearly  always  bears  in  the 
a.     The     Prayer-book.     By  the  eighteenth  cen- 
Church  of   tury  it  had  usually  assumed  the  shape 
England,    of  a  small  table,  frequently  concealed 
from  sight  by  the  immense  structure 
of  pulpit  and  reading-desk  in  front  of  it;  but  with 
the  Tractarian  and    Ritualist  movements  of  the 
nineteenth  century  and   the  increasing  frequency 
and  reverence  of  the  celebration  of  the  Euchsurist,  it 
gradually  resumed  its  former  shape  and  dignity. 
In  the  American  Episcopal  Chimsh  this  change  was 
productive  of  bitter  controversy,  and  about  1860 
the  retention  of  a  table  vnth  legs  was  considered  a 
sign  of  unimpeachable  Protestant  orthodoxy. 
Bibuoorapht:  On  primitive  altars,  besides  the  works  men- 
tioned in  the  text,  consult:   C.  Maurer,  De  ari$  Oracorum 
pluribuM  dei$  in  commune  poniu,   Darmstadt,  1885;    Er 
B.  Tylor,  Early  HUt.  of  Mankind,  London,  1878;  idem, 
HiaL  of  CivUixoHon,  ib.  1891;   J.  G.  Fraser,  Oolden  Bough, 
3  vols.,  ib.  1900.    On  Jewish  altars:  P.  Scholtu,  OOUendienat 
undZaubenvesen,  Regensburg.  1865;  C.  Piepenbring,  Hi§- 
toire  de8  lieux  de  eulte  et  du  9aeerdoee  en  lerael,  in  RHR, 
zxiv.  (1891)  1-60, 133-186;    Bensinger,  ArehAologie,  f  52; 
Nowack,  ArcKOdogiet  ii..  SS  73  sqq.;  A.  yan  Hoonacker,  Le 
Keu  du  euUe  dane  la  Uffielation  rituelle  dee  Hebreux,  1894; 
A.  F.  von  Gall,  AltiaraelitiecKe  KulUUUte,  in  ZATW,  iii. 
(1898).  On  Christian  altars:   J.  Pocklington,  AUare  Chrie- 
tianumt   London,   1637;    Bven  Bring,  Dieetartatio  hietoriea 
de  fundoHone  et  dotations  altarium,  ib.  1751;    J.  Black- 
bume,  A  Brief  Hietorical  Inquiry  into  the  IrUroducOon  of 
Stone  AUare  into  the  ChrieHan  Church,  Cambridge,  1844; 
On  the  HieL  of  ChrieHan  AUare,  published  by  the  Cam- 
bridge C^amden  Society,  1845;  M.  Meurer,  AUareehmiuJc, 
Leipsio,  1867;    A.  Schmid,  Der  chrietUche  Altar  und  eein 
Sehmuck,  Ratisbon,  1871;   Charles  Rohault  de  Fleury,  La 
Meeee,  itudee  archfologiQuee  eur  eee  monumente,  8  vols., 
Paris,  1883-89  (the  most  comprehensive  collection  of  the 
material,  with  illustrations,  to  the  close  of  the  Romanesque 
period);  E.  U.  A.  MOnienberger  and  S.  Beisel,  Zur  Kennt- 
niee  und  WUrdigung  der  mittelalierliehen  AUdre  Deutech- 
lande,  2  vols.,  Frankfort,  1885-1901;    V.  Stats,  Oothieche 
AWkre,  Berlin,  1886;    A.  Hartel,  AUdre  und  KaneUr  dee 
MittelaUere  und  der  NeuteU,   Berlin,   1892;     N.   MCUler. 
Ueber  dae  deutech-evangelieche  KirchengebAude  m  JtJir' 
hundert  der  Reformation,  Leipsic,  1895;   U.  D.  M.  Spence, 
White  Robe  of  Churchee,  pp.  210-243,  New  York.  1900; 
E.  Bishop,  Hietary  of  the  Christian  Altar,  London,  1906. 
Consult  also  works  on  Christian  archeology  and  Christian 
art,  especially  Christian  architecture. 

ALTAR-BREAD :  The  bread  used  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  and  Greek  churches  in  the  Sacrament  of 
the  Eucharist.  It  is  made  from  pure  wheaten 
flour,  m  xed  with  water,  and  baked,  all  conditions  be- 
ing regu.ated  by  str'ct  law.  The  Coimcil  of  Flor- 
ence, to  meet  the  contention  of  Michael  Cerularius 
that  the  Latins  did  not  possess  the  Eucharist 
because  of  their  use  of  imfermented  bread,  defined 
that  either  kind  may  be  validly  employed.    Never- 


theless, it  is  unlawful  to-day  for  a  Latin  priest 
to  use  fermented,  or  for  a  Greek  priest,  except 
in  the  Armenian  and  Maronite  rites,  to  use  im- 
fermented bread.  The  practise  of  the  Greeks 
has  always  been  the  same,  but  in  the  Western 
Church  both  fermented  and  unfermented  bread 
were  employed  down  to  the  ninth  century.  The 
altar-bread  is  also  called  a  host,  because  of  the 
victim  whom  the  sacramental  species  are  destined 
to  conceal.  In  the  Latin  Church  the  host  is  cir- 
cular in  form,  bearing  an  image  of  the  crucifixion 
or  the  letters  I.  H.  S.,  and  is  of  two  sizes;  the  larger 
is  consumed  by  the  celebrant  or  preserved  for  solemn 
exposition,  and  the  smaller  given  to  the  people  in 
conmiimion.  The  name  "  particles  "  given  to  the 
smaller  hosts  recalls  the  fact  that  down  to  the 
eleventh  century  communion  was  distributed  to 
the  faithful  by  breaking  off  portions  of  a  large  bread 
consecrated  by  the  celebrant.  The  large  host  of 
the  Greeks  is  rectangular  in  shape,  and  the  small 
host  triangular.  Great  care  is  taken  in  the  prep- 
aration of  altar-breads,  many  synodal  enactments 
providing  that  it  shall  be  committed  only  to  clerics 
or  to  women  in  religious  communities. 

John  T.  Creaoh. 

ALTAR-CARDS:  Three  cards,  containing  cer- 
tain prayers  of  the  mass,  placed  on  the  altar 
in  Roman  Catholic  churches,  the  central  card 
being  larger  than  those  placed  at  either  end.  Their 
introduction  dates  from  the  sixteenth  century, 
when  the  middle  card  began  to  be  employed  as  an 
aid  to  the  memory  of  the  celebrant  and  to  relieve 
him  from  the  necessity  of  continually  referring 
to  the  missal.  When  the  reading  of  the  beginning 
of  St.  John's  Gospel  was  prescribed,  the  card  on  the 
Gospel  side  was  added,  and  later,  to  make  the 
arrangement  appear  symmetrical,  the  third  card 
came  into  use.  In  masses  celebrated  by  a  bishop, 
the  practise  anterior  to  the  sixteenth  century  is 
maintained  by  the  substitution  of  a  book  called 
the  canon,  from  which  are  read  the  prayers  usually 
printed  on  altar-cards.  Since  most  of  these  prayers 
are  to  be  said  secretly  or  inaudibly,  altar-carda  are 
sometimes  called  secret-cards.   John  T.  Creagh. 

ALTAR-CLOTHS,    See  Altar,  III.,  1,  a,  J  2. 

ALTENBURG,    COLLOQUY    OF.    See    Philip- 

PI8T  . 

ALTENSTEIN,  Ol^'ten-stoin',  KARL  FREIHERR 
VON  STEIN  ZUM:  German  statesman,  first 
minister  of  public  worship  in  Prussia  (1817-40); 
b.  at  Ansbach  (20  m.  w.s.w.  of  Nuremberg),  Ba- 
varia, Oct.  1,  1770;  d.  in  Berlin  May  14,  1840. 
He  lost  his  father  at  the  age  of  nine,  and  to  the  fact 
that  his  character  was  formed  imder  the  influence 
of  his  mother  has  been  attributed  his  incapacity 
in  after-life  for  making  thoroughgoing  and  clear- 
cut  decisions.  He  was  educated  in  his  birthplace 
and  at  the  imiversities  of  Erlangen  and  Gdttingen, 
where  he  studied  law  primarily,  but  found  plenty 
of  time  for  researches  in  philosophy,  especially  the 
philosophy  of  religion,  and  the  natural  sciences. 
In  1703  he  received  a  minor  legal  appointment  at 
Ansbach,  which  in  the  mean  time  had  become 
Prussian.  Here  he  was  imder  Hardenberg,  who 
recognized  his  ability  and  had  him  transferred  to 


148 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Altar 
▲Itmann 


Berlin  in  1799.  At  the  capital  he  gained  the  repu- 
tation of  an  authority  in  financial  matters,  and  was 
made  a  pri^^  coyncilor  in  the  financial  department 
in  1S03|  Bucceeding  Stein  as  minister  of  finance  in 
180S*  Unable  to  cope  with  the  almost  iinposaible 
task  of  satisfying  the  demands  of  Napoleon,  he 
retired  in  1810.  Hardenberg,  who  had  been  com- 
pelled to  join  in  overthrowing  him^  tried  three  years 
later  to  bring  him  back  to  public  life,  and  in  1817 
secured  hia  appomtnient  as  head  of  the  newly 
founded  minifltry  of  pubUc  woralup,  edueation^  and 
medicine.  These  important  branches  of  public 
administ ration  had  until  then  formed  departments 
of  the  ministry  of  the  interior,  and  had  been  badly 
managed. 

Alten&tein  took  up  religious  questions  as  a  man 
who  understood  and  cared  for  them^  though  his 
Christianity  had  a  decidedly  rationalistic  tinge.  Dif- 
ficulties of  many  kinds  beset  him  during  his  long 
tenure  of  office^  arising  partly  from  the  det<jmiined 
and  obstinate  character  of  his  sovereign  and  partly 
fmm  demagogic  opposition,  as  well  as  from  the  great 
Halle  controversy  of  1830  and  from  the  vexed 
question  of  the  Catholic  attitude  in  regard  to  mixed 
marriages.  When^  in  1824t  without  his  knowledge, 
the  direction  of  education  was  taken  from  Nicolo- 
vius  and  given  to  Von  Kamptz,  Altenstein  was  on 
the  verge  of  resigning  his  post,  but  he  decided  that 
it  was  hisduty  to  remain.  One  of  the  great  achieve- 
ments of  his  administration  wa^  the  systematic 
improvement  to  a  remarkable  extent  of  primary 
and    secondary    education.  (F.  BoBaE.) 

BiftUOoftAt'HT :  Freiberr  von  St*in,  ia  DeuUrhe  Ret-ue,  vol 

viL,    I&82;  H.  TreitBchke,  Druts^ke  Gi!*chidiU  in  J,9,  Johr- 

hundtrt,  Lfiipeic.  ia82;  ADB.  vol.  Jtijcvi. 

ALTHAMERf  d'thflm^er,  ANDREAS  (ftometiraes 
known  by  the  Greek  form  of  his  name,  Palaioa- 
pbjra):  German  Reformer;  b.  in  the  village  of 
BrenB,  near  Gundelfingen  (28  m,  n.w.  of  Augaburg), 
Wartlemberg,  c.  1500;  d.  at  Ansbach,  probably 
in  1519*  He  studied  at  Leipsie  and  TQbingien. 
In  1524  he  is  found  settled  as  prie^  at  GmUnd  In 
Swabia,  where  he  was  the  leader  of  the  evangelical 
party,  and  he  remained  there  after  he  had  been 
deposed  and  had  married.  He  escaped  with  diffi- 
culty in  the  reaction  of  the  Swabian  League,  and 
fled  to  Wittenberg,  remaining  there  nine  months 
and  proceeding  to  Nuremberg  in  the  summer  of 
1526.  His  Lutheran  convictions  were  now  mature, 
and  he  maintain eii  a  constant  ht^rary  activity 
against  both  the  ZwingUans  and  the  Roman  Catb- 
oUcfl.  He  was  paator  at  Eltersdorf,  near  Erlangen, 
in  1527,  deacon  at  St.  Sebaldus's,  Nuremberg,  in 
1528;  he  took  part  aa  an  ardent  Lutheran  in  the 
disputation  at  Bern,  and  in  the  same  year  was 
called  to  Ansbach  to  assist  in  spreading  the  Refor- 
mation in  Brandenburg.  Id  November  he  pub- 
lish^ a  complete  catechism,  remarkable  not  only 
for  the  clearness  and  precision  of  it^  teaching,  but 
also  as  being  the  first  work  of  the  kind  to  take  the 
title  of  catechism.  For  the  next  few  years  he  was 
the  soul  of  the  Protestant  party  in  that  part  of 
Germany ;  and  by  hia  untiring  energy  and  gifts  of 
organisation  did  much  in  the  development  there 
of  tbe  evangehcal  religion.  Of  his  theological 
works  may  be  mentioned  his  Annotationes  in  Jacobi 


tSpistolam  {Strasburg,  1527),  which  carried  still 
further  Luther's  views  of  that  epistle,  though  it  was 
modified  in  the  edition  of  1533.  His  notes  on  the 
Gemmnm  of  Tacitus,  published  in  complete  form 
1536,  have  preserved  his  fame  &s  a  ciassicai  scholar 
even  where  the  Reformer  has  been  forgotten. 

(T.  KOLDE.) 
BifiLioaiiAPliT:    T.    Kolde,  Andrea§   Aitham^,  der  Fiuma- 
ntMt    und  Rtf^rmatof   in  Brandenburg- A  n^back^  Erlangeii, 
1S35  (cwntajnii  a  reprint  uf  huU  aa.1.«iqhi9m}« 

ALTHAUSp  PAUL:  German  Protestant;  b.  at 
Falleraleben  (17  m.  n.e.  of  Brunswick)  Dec.  29, 
1861.  He  was  educated  at  the  universities  of 
Erlangen  and  GOttingen,  and  held  various  pastor- 
ates from  1887  to  1897,  when  he  was  appointed 
associate  professor  of  practical  and  systematic 
theology  at  the  University  of  G6ttingen,  becoming 
full  professor  tiivo  years  later.  He  has  written  Die 
histori^che  und  dogmatisehe  Grui^iage  der  luiheri- 
schen  TauflUurgie  (Hanover,  1S93)  and  Die  Heih- 
hefleutung  der  Tau}€  tm  Nenen  Testament  (Gtiteraloh, 
1897). 

AITmG,  JOHANW  HEmRICH :  Reformed  theo- 
logian; b.  at  Emden  (70  m.  w.n.w.  of  Bremen), 
East  Friesland^  Feb.  17,  15S3;  d.  at  Groningen 
(92  m.  n.e.  of  Amsterdam)  Aug.  25,  1644.  He  stud- 
ied at  Groningen  and  Herbom,  acted  as  tutor  for 
several  Gennan  princes,  and  traveled  as  far  as 
England.  In  1613  he  became  professor  of  dog- 
matics at  Heidelberg,  and  in  1616  director  of 
the  seminary  in  the  CoUtgium  Sapieniim.  Leaving 
Heidelberg  because  of  the  disturbances  of  the 
Thirty  Years*  war,  he  went  to  Holland,  and  in  1627 
was  aptK»inted  professor  at  Groningen.  He  waj* 
one  of  the  delegates  from  the  Palatinate  to  the  Synod 
of  Dort  (1618-19)  and  was  a  decided  but  Bib* 
lical  predestinarian.  He  collaborated  on  the  Dutch 
Bible  version.  He  published  notliing  during  bis 
lifetime;  after  his  death  his  son,  Jacob  Altlng  (b.  at 
Heidelberg  1618;  d.  at  Groningen,  where  he  was 
professor  of  Hebrew,  1679)  published  several  of 
id.*?  works,  the  most  noteworthy  being  the  Theol&gia 
hisforica  (Amsterdam,  1664),  a  pioneer  work  on 
the  history  of  doctrine.        (E.  P,  Karl  MOllijr*} 

ALTMAITN,  Qlt'mfln:  Bishop  of  Passau  1065- 
91;  d.  at  Zeisetmauer  (12  m.  n.w.  of  Vienna), 
Ixvwer  Austria,  Aug.  8,  1091.  A  Westphalian  of 
noble  birth,  he  becanse  first  a  student  and  then  head 
of  the  school  of  Paderbom.  Later  he  was  provoat 
of  Aachen,  then  chaplain  to  Henry  11 L,  after  whose 
death  be  was  attached  to  the  household  of  the  Em- 
press Agnes.  In  1064  he  made  the  pilgrimage  to 
Jerusalem,  and  was  chosen  bishop  of  Passau  before 
hia  return.  He  adhered  steadfastly  to  Gregory 
VIL  in  his  conflict  with  Henry  IV„  and  was  the 
first  of  the  German  bishops  to  proclaim  against  the 
king  the  sentence  of  excommunication  which  had 
been  pronounced  in  Rome.  He  allied  Idmself 
with  the  South  German  princes,  and  acted  as  papal 
legate  in  the  assemblies  at  Ulm  and  Tribur  in  the 
autumn  of  1076.  Rudolf  of  Swabia  had  no  more 
faithful  partisan.  As  a  result  of  this  attitude, 
Altmaim  had  to  leave  his  diocese,  which  suffered 
severely  (1077-78)  from  Henry's  resentment.  He 
went  to  Rome  early  in  1079,  and  was  there  when 


▲Itmann 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


144 


Gregory  VJI.  hurled  a  second  anathema  at  Henry 

in  the  synod  of  1080.     He  returned  to  Germany 

as  permanent  papal  vicar.     Under  his  induence 

Liutpold  of  AuBtria  broke  with  Henty,  and  Altmann 

was    able   to    return    to    Pasflau.     After   Rudolf's 

death  (Oct.  15^  1080),  he  was  entrusted  with  the 

pope'i  instructions  with  regard  to  the  setting  up 

of  a  new  contestant  for  the  throne,  and  Hermann 

of  Luxemburg  was  chosen  (Aug.,  1081)*     Altmann 

does  not  appear  aa  leader  of  the  papal  party  in 

(jermajiy  after  Liutpold 's  defeat  by  the  Bohemians 

at  Mailberg  in  1082.     He  maintained  himself  for  a 

while  in  the  eastern  part  of  hia  diocese,  Pasaau  itself 

being  held  by  an  opposition  bishop,  and  rejected 

all   compromise.     In   the  internal   administration 

of  hia  diocese  bis  policy  was  vigorously  Hildebran- 

dine.  (Carl  MirbtO 

BiBuoamAE^^ir:    Hw  life,  by  an  anonyniouA  author  of  the 

twelfth    centuryf     ed-    W.   WatlenbiMsh,    m    in    MGH, 

SeripL,    idu    (1854)    225-243;    uiother    life    by  Rupert, 

abbot  of  Gottweiff  (d.    1199;>  in  in  MPL^  cxlviii.;    nnd 

there  are  modern  lives  by  T*  WietlemAim,  Augsburg,  ISSl, 

J,  St(Ua.  Vienita,  1853,  and  A.  LinBeDm«yer,  Poflii&u,  1&9L 

Cbniiult  C.  Mirbt,  Dit  Publirimiik  im  Z^Halter  Qrrgart  VIL^ 

Le  psic,  Ifi^;   W.  Murten^.  Gr^itr  VIL.  it>.  lEM;  Hauck. 

KD,  iii.  341. 

ALTMAliir,  WILHELM:  German  librarian  and 
historian;  b.  at  Adelnau  (65  m.  a.e*  of  Posen) 
Apr.  4,  1862»  He  was  educated  at  the  urdversities 
of  Brealau,  Marburg,  and  Berlin  (Ph.D.,  1885), 
fijid  was  librarian  succeasively  at  Brealau  (18S6- 
89),  Greifawald  (1889-1900).  and  Berlin  (190(M>6), 
being  appointed  chief  librarian  of  the  musical  col- 
lection in  the  Royal  Library  of  Berlin  in  1906. 
In  theology  hia  position  is  liberal.  He  has  written 
Wahl  AlbTechis  11.  zum  romi^chen  Kanig  (Berlin, 
1886);  Der  Ronwnug  Ludmigs  des  Baiem  (1886); 
5ii*dt«Ti  *u  EherhaH  Windecht  (1891);  Die  Urkun- 
den  Kaiaer  Sigij^munds  (2  vols.^  Innsbruck,  1896-99); 
and  Richard  Wagners  Brkfe  nach  Zeitfolgung  -and 
InhaU  (Leipsic,  1905)*  He  haa  also  edited^  among 
other  works,  Ada  N.  Gramis  (Breslau,  1890); 
Atisgewdhite  Urkunden  zur  ErldMierung  der  Ver- 
fassungsge^chicfile  Deutschlands  im  Miilekdter  (Ber- 
lin, 1891;  in  collaboration  with  E.  Bemheim):  and 
Eberhari  Wimieffes  Denkw^rdigkeil^n  zur  Ge&chichte 
dt9  Zeil<dters  Kaist^r  Sigismufuh  (1893). 

ALTRUIST  COMMUinTY.  See  CoMMUNiaM,  IT .,  2 . 

ALUMBRADOS.     Bee  Aloubradob. 

ALUMHATEi  A  term  used  to  denote  the  po- 
sition of  a  fltudent  in  an  episcopal  or  papal  semi- 
nary. In  order  to  enter  such  an  institution  the 
candidate  must  be  capable  of  receiving  orders  and 
have  the  e^epress  intention  of  taking  them.  The 
seminariit  receives  the  privileges  of  the  clerical 
state  aa  soon  as  he  is  tonsured,  even  before  ordina- 
tion. The  alumni  of  the  seminaries  and  coUegea 
for  the  training  of  miflsionaricB  have  special  priv- 
ileges, on  condition  that  when  they  enter  the  college 
they  solemnly  swear  not  to  join  any  religious  order, 
but  aa  aecular  priests  to  devote  their  whole  Uvea  to 
missionary  work,  under  the  general  direction  of  the 
Propaganda,  to  which  they  are  required  to  make 
annual  reporta.  (E.  Fuikdbero.) 

BmuooRAPwr:    P*  Hin»diiua,  Kirchrnirechi,  iv.  603  iqq. 

fil7,  Berlin,  1SS8;   O.  Mejer,  1^  PropoffaT^at  i.  73  sqq., 

225  iqq.,  OattlaceD,  lSfi2, 


ALVAH  OF  CORDOVA  (called  also  Paul  Alvar): 
Spanish  Christian  champion  against  the  Moham- 
medans; b.  about  800;  d.  about  86 L  His  ances- 
tora  appear  to  have  been  Jews,  and  his  family  was 
wealthy.  He  lived,  highly  esteemed,  upon  an 
inherited  estate  near  Cordova,  where  he  was  edu- 
cated with  1ms  lifelong  friend  Eulogius  (q.v.)  by 
the  abbot  Speraindeo  (d.  before  852),  author  of  a 
work  against  Islam  and  of  a  glorification  of  two 
Christ  tan  brothers  who  suffered  martyrdom  under 
Abd  al -Rahman  II.  From  this  teacher  Alvar  and 
his  fellow  pupil  imbibed  a  feeling  of  hatred  toward 
the  Mohammedans.  Spanish  Christians  at  the  time 
were  filled  with  a  fanatical  longing  for  martyrdom 
and  found  an  easy  way  to  the  attainment  of  their 
desire  by  pubUcly  reviling  Mohammed j  which  was 
forbidden  imder  the  penalty  of  death,  Alvar  en- 
couraged such  proceedings^  whde  Eulogius^  after 
some  hesitation,  became  the  soul  of  the  movement. 
In  Alvar's  chief  work^  the  Indittdus  lumitiosus 
(854),  he  undertakes  to  prove  that  Mohammed 
was  a  precursor  of  Antichrist  and  that  it  was  there- 
fore permimble  to  revile  him*  That  he  did  not 
himself  seek  a  martyr's  death  is  explained  by  the 
often-repeated  assertion  of  Eulogius,  that  only 
such  should  sacrifice  themselves  as  were  ripe  for 
eternal  life  through  personal  holiness.  The  move- 
ment died  out  after  Eulogius  had  suHered  (859  )^ 
and  Alvar  then  wrote  his  friend's  life  in  a  k train 
of  extravagant  glorification.  Ilia  last  and  most 
mature  work  was  a  ConjesmOf  imitated  (but  not 
slavishly)  from  the  Otatio  pro  correptione  vitw  of 
Isidore  of  Seville  j  in  mystico-€ontemplativc  form 
it  expresses  deep  contrition  and  the  longing  for 
nalvatton.  A  few  of  Alvar's  Latin  poems  have 
been  preeervedp  and  a  Liber  scintiUarumt  a  sort  of 
Christian  ethics  in  the  form  of  a  collection  of  quo- 
tations from  Biblical  and  ecclesiastical  writers*  is 
ascribed  to  him  with  probability  by  a  Gothic 
manuscript  of  Madrid  {d.  M  PL,  xc.  94-95).  His 
works  are  in  MPLj  cxv,,  cxxi, 

BiEUOonAPnr:    W.    von   Baudlasan,   Eid&gvM*  umJ   Alvw^. 
Ldpsio.  1S72. 

ALYPIUS,  SAINT  ;  1,  A  saint  of  the  Roman 
Calendar;  b.  of  a  prominent  family  at  Thagaste, 
Nunii4ia,  in  the  fourth  century.  lie  became  a 
pupil  of  Augustine  in  Carthage  and  later  one  of  hia 
most  devoted  friends,  and  was  converted  from 
Manicheanism  by  him.  He  preceded  Augustine 
to  Rome  to  study  law  and  was  assessor  there  to 
the  court  of  the  Italian  treasury.  Wlien  Augu^stine 
went  to  Milaji,  AJypiua  accompanied  him,  attended 
the  preaching  of  Ambrosct  was  converted  to  Chris* 
tianity*  and  baptised  with  Augustine  on  Easter, 
387.  With  Augustine  he  returned  tf)  Africa  and 
lived  with  him  at  Thagaate  till  in  391  Augustine 
became  bishop  of  Hippo  and  Alypius  abbot  of  a 
monastery  at  Thagaate,  In  394  he  became  bishop 
of  Thagaste  and  survived  Augustine.  His  day 
is  Aug.  15.  He  is  mentioned  many  times  in  Augus- 
tine's "  Confeaaiona "  (vi.  7-16  and  elsewhere), 
and  several  of  Augustine'a  letters  to  him  have  been 
preserved. 

S.  A  saint  of  the  Greek  Calendar;  b.  at  Adria- 
nople  about  560,  In  imitation  of  Simeon  ho  stood 
upon  a  pillar,  hence  waa  called  The  Btylite,     He 


146 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Altnumn 
Amalarins 


18  said  to  have  died  at  the  age  of  108,  and  to  have 
spent  his  last  fifty  years  on  his  pillar.  His  day 
is  Nov.  26.    See  Sttlites. 

Bibuoorapht:  1.  A3B,  Aug..  iii.  201-208.  2.  Simeon 
Metaphrastas,  Vita  9aneH  Alypii  Cionitaet  ed.  L.  Surius,  in 
Dc  probotu  •anctorum  hUtoriit,  Not.,  vi.  688-595,  Cologne. 
1575. 

ALZOO,  dl'tsoH,  JOHANN  BAPTIST:  Roman 
Catholic;  b.  at  Ohlau  (17  m.  s.e.  of  Breslau),  Sile- 
sia, June  29,  1808;  d.  at  Freiburg-im-Breisgau 
}AaT,  I,  1878.  He  studied  at  Breslau  and  Bonn, 
served  as  private  tutor,  and  was  ordained  priest 
in  1834.  He  became  professor  of  church  history 
and  exegesis  at  Posen  (1836),  Hildesheim  (1845), 
and  Freiburg  (1853).  While  at  Posen  he  supported 
his  archbishop,  Martin  von  Dunin  (q.v.)  in  his 
measures  against  mixed  marriages.  In  1869  he 
became  a  member  of  the  commission  on  dogma 
in  the  preparation  for  the  Vatican  Council,  and  was 
the  only  member  of  the  commission  who  held  the 
declaration  of  papal  infallibility  as  wholly  inoppor- 
tune. His  chief  works  were:  Univeraalgeachichte 
der  chriaUichen  Kirche  vom  katholischen  Stand- 
punkU  (Mainz,  1841;  10th  ed.  by  F.  X.  Kraus, 
Handbuch  der  dUgemtinen  Kirchengeachichte,  2 
vols.,  1882;  Eng.  transl.,  from  9th  ed.,  3  vols., 
Cincinnati,  1874-78,  new  ed.,  1903;  it  is  said  that 
the  English  translation  does  not  faithfully  repro- 
duce the  original,  being  less  candid  and  reliable); 
Grundriss  der  Patrologie  oder  die  dltem  chriat- 
lichen  LUterargeschichU  (Freiburg,  1866);  Die  deut- 
8chen  Plenarien  im  ISten  und  zu  Anfang  dee  16ten 
Jahrhunderte   (1874). 

Bibuoorapbt:  F.  X.  KraiiB,  OedHchiniMtrede  auf  Johanne§ 
Akog,  Freiburg.  1879. 

AMADEISTS,  See  Francis,  Saint,  of  Absisi, 
AND  THE  Franciscan  Order,  III.,  §  7. 

AMALARIUS,  am-a-lQ'ii-us,  OF  METZ  (AMA- 
LARIUS  SYMPHOSIUS):  Liturgical  writer  of 
the  ninth  century;  b.  about  780;  d.  850  or  851. 
In  his  yout^  he  enjoyed  the  instruction  of  Alcuin, 
and  Metz  has  commonly  been  regarded  as  the 
place  of  his  principal  activity.  He  appears  as  a 
deacon  at  the  Synod  of  Aachen  in  817,  and  was 
mainly  responsible  for  the  patristic  part  of  the 
Regula  AquiagranensiSf  which  imposed  the  canonical 
life  upon  the  clergy  of  the  empire.  In  825,  now  a 
ehorepiecapue,  he  was  in  Paris  for  the  synod  called 
by  Louis  in  connection  with  the  iconoclastic  con- 
troversy, and  was  selected  by  the  emperor,  with 
Halitgar  of  Cambrai,  to  accompany  the  papal 
envoys  to  Constantinople  about  this  matter.  The 
authorities  do  not  relate  whether  he  accomplished 
the  mission,  but  it  is  certain  that  he  once  visited 
Constantinople.  His  principal  work  (written  not 
earlier  than  819)  was  De  ecdesiasticia  officiisy  in 
which  he  discusses  all  liturgical  usages,  the  festivals 
and  offices  of  the  Church,  and  the  vestments  of  the 
clergy  down  to  the  smallest  detail,  from  the  stand- 
point of  mystical  symbolism.  The  diversities 
between  the  German  antiphonaries  next  drew 
his  attention,  and  in  831  he  went  to  Rome  to  ask 
Gr^ory  IV.  to  issue  an  authorized  Roman  antipho- 
nary.  The  pope  did  not  see  his  way  to  do  this, 
but  he  called  Amalarius's  attention  to  the  Roman 
I.— 10 


antiphonaries  at  the  abbey  of  Corbie.  He  came 
home  to  revise  his  earlier  book  in  the  light  of  new 
sources,  and  compile  an  antiphonary  based  on  the 
Prankish  ones  together  with  these  Roman  texts; 
the  commentary  on  this  forms  his  work  De  ordine 
antiphonarii.  After  the  restoration  of  Louis  to 
the  throne,  the  rebellious  archbishop  of  Lyons, 
Agobard  (q.v.),  was  deposed,  and  Amalarius  was 
put  in  charge  of  his  diocese.  Here  he  used  his  power 
to  bring  about  a  sweeping  change  in  the  liturgy, 
but  aroused  strong  opposition,  led  by  the  deacon 
Florus,  a  warm  partizan  of  Agobard,  who  worked 
against  Amalarius  unceasingly,  and  finally  ac- 
cused him  of  heresy  at  the  Synod  of  Quiercy  in 
838.  The  synod  condemned  some  of  his  expres- 
sions, and  Agobard,  shortly  afterward  returning 
to  Lyons,  began  to  undo  all  that  he  had  done  in 
regard  to  the  liturgy.  Nothing  is  known  of  his 
later  life,  except  that  in  the  controversy  over 
Gottschalk's  teaching  he  wrote  in  support  of 
Hincmar.  He  is  said  to  have  been  buried  in  the 
abbey  of  St.  Amulf  at  Metz.  His  writings  give 
an  insight  into  the  liturgical  forms  of  the  early 
ninth  century,  and  are  especially  illuminating  on 
the  relation  of  the  Gallican  liturgies  to  the  Roman, 
which  was  gaining  steadily  in  the  Prankish  empire. 
To  its  permanent  conquest  over  the  Gallican, 
Amalarius 's  work  undoubtedly  contributed.  He  is 
also  important  from  his  influence  on  later  medie- 
val liturgiologists,  many  of  whom  follow  his  mys- 
tical method,  and  most  of  whom  quote  him  exten- 
sively. He  shows  a  wide  knowledge  of  Scripture  and 
the  Fathers,  with  praiseworthy  diligence  and  con- 
scientiousness in  the  use  of  his  authorities.  His 
works  are  in  MPL,  cv.  (Rudolf  Sahre.) 

Bibuoorapht:  R.  Mdnohmeyer,  Amalar  von  MeU,  aein 
Ld)en  und  seine  Schriften,  Mdnster,  1893;  Hittoire  liiU- 
raire  de  la  France^  "vol.  iv.;  Ceillier,  AtUeura  aacriet  yoIb, 
xviii.,  xix..  Paris,  1752, 1754;  Hefele,  Coneiliengeechichte, 
vol.  iv.;  R.  Sahre,  Der  Lihtrffiker  Amaktriue^  Dresden, 
1893. 

AMALARIUS  OF  TREVES  (AMALARIUS  FOR- 
TUNATUS):  Archbishop  of  Treves.  Little  is 
known  of  his  life,  but  he  is  not  the  same  as  the 
liturgiologist  Amalarius  of  Metz,  with  whom  he 
has  been  identified.  He  became  archbishop  about 
809,  and  is  supposed  to  be  the  Bishop  Amalharius 
whom  Charlemagne  commissioned  about  811  to 
consecrate  the  newly  erected  church  at  Hamburg. 
In  the  spring  of  813  he  set  out  for  Constantinople 
with  Abbot  Peter  of  Nonantula,  to  bring  to  a 
conclusion  the  negotiations  for  peace  between  the 
Frankish  and  Byzantine  courts.  The  envoys, 
learning  that  Michael,  to  whom  they  were  accred- 
ited, had  been  succeeded  by  Leo  V.,  remained 
eighty  days  in  Constantinople,  and  returned  in 
company  with  two  Byzantine  ambassadors,  to 
find  Charlemagne's  son  Louis  on  the  throne.  This 
is  the  last  known  fact  in  Amalarius's  life.  There 
is  no  solid  foundation  for  the  assumption  that  he 
died  in  814  or  816.  Certain  passages  in  a  letter 
of  his  to  Hilduin,  abbot  of  Saint-Denis  (ed.  G.  Meier, 
in  Neues  Archiv  fiir  dUere  deiUsche  Geschichtskunde, 
xiii.,  1887,  307-323),  have  led  to  the  supposition 
that  he  resigned  his  see  (his  successor  Hetti  was  in 
possession  of  it  in  816)  and  lived  some  time  longer 
as  head  of  a  monasteiy.    His  writing  are  a  short 


Amalek 
Amama 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


146 


treatise  on  baptism,  formerly  ascribed  to  Alciiin, 
in  answer  to  a  letter  of  inquiry  addressed  by 
Charlemagne  to  the  archbishops  of  his  empire 
(in  MPL,  xcix.  887-902),  and  the  Odoporicum 
or  Versus  marini,  a  poem  of  eighty  hexameters, 
giving  an  account  of  his  journey  to  Constantinople 
(MPLf  ci.  1287-88,  among  the  works  of  Alcuin; 
ed.  E.  Dttmmler,  in  MGH,  Poeta  lot,  csvi  Carol,, 
i.  426-428,  1881;  cf.  Addenda,  ii.  694). 

(Rudolf  Sahrb.) 

Biblioorapht:  Rettbers.  KD,  i.  426-428;  J.  Marx.  Q^ 
wehichte  dM  EmHiU  Trier,  Trier.  1858-^2;  •  Hauck.  KD, 
u.  192. 

AMALEK,  am'a-lek,  AMALEKITES,  am'-olek- 
aits:  A  Bedouin  people  who  are  somewhat  prom- 
inent in  the  older  history  of  Israel.  Their  terri- 
tory was  the  steppes  south  of  the  hill-country  of 
Judea  and  the  Sinaitic  desert  (the  modem  Tih; 
Gen.  xiv.  7;  Ex.  xvii.  8;  Num.  xiii.  29,  xiv,  25, 
43,  46;  I  Sam.  xv.  4-7,  xxvii.  8).  From  Judges 
V.  14  and  xii.  15  it  has  been  conjectured  that  they 
once  dwelt  in  Palestine  and  were  gradually  driven 
to  the  south.  Neither  the  Old  Testament  nor 
extra-Biblical  sources  give  satisfactory  informa- 
tion concerning  their  ethnographical  relations  (cf . 
Noldeke,  Utber  die  Amalekiter  und  einige  andere 
Naehbarvdlker  der  IsraelUen,  GCttingen,  1864). 
Israel  is  said  to  have  gained  a  great  victory  over 
them  at  Rephidim  while  on  the  way  to  the  prom- 
ised land,  and  Yahweh  then  conmianded  the  ex- 
tirpation of  this  people  (Ex.  xvii.  8-16;  cf.  Deut. 
XXV.  17-19;  I  Sam.  xv.  2-3).  Again  when  cer- 
tain of  the  Israelites  attempted,  against  Yahweh's 
command,  to  enter  Canaan  from  Kadesh,  they 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Amalekites  (Num.  xiv. 
45).  In  post-Mosaic  time  the  Kenites  lived  in  the 
southern  part  of  the  wilderness  of  Judah  among 
nomad  Amalekites  (Judges  i.  16,  LXX.).  They  are 
said  to  have  made  forays  against  Israel  in  the 
narratives  of  Ehud  and  Gideon  (Judges  iii.  13,  vi.  3, 
33,  vii.  12),  but  it  is  doubtful  if  Amalekites  were 
expressly  named  in  the  sources  from  which  these 
narratives  are  drawn.  At  Sfim[iuers  command 
Saul  made  war  upon  them  and  gained  a  great 
victory;  because  he  did  not  carry  out  the  injunc- 
tion to  destroy  them  utterly  he  was  reject^  by 
the  prophet  (I  Sam.  xv.).  Their  king,  Agag,  is 
here  named,  and  their  sheep,  oxen,  and  other 
possessions  are  mentioned,  as  well  as  a  "  city  of 
Amalek,"  which  is  not  referred  to  elsewhere. 
David  attacked  them  after  they  had  made  a  raid 
upon  Ziklag,  and  only  those  who  had  camels  es- 
caped (I  Sam.  XXX.).  Thenceforth  the  Amalek- 
ites disappear  from  history  except  for  the  notice, 
in  I  Chron.  iv.  42,  that  a  band  of  Simeonites  (prob- 
ably in  the  time  of  Hezekiah)  exterminated  the 
last  remnant  of  them,  dwelling  on  Mont  Seir. 
That  Haman  is  called  an  Agagite  in  Esther  iii.  1 
(*'  an  Amalekite,"  Josephus,  Ant.,  XI.  vi.  6)  has 
no  significance,  owing  to  the  character  of  the  book. 

(F.  Buhl.) 

Bxbuoorapht:  A.  Dillmann,  Commentary  on  Oeneeia,  on 
chape.  X.  and  xxxvi.,  2  vols.,  Edinburgh.  1897  (best); 
T.  Ndldeke,  Ueber  die  AmeUekiter  und  einioe  andere  Nach- 
barvdVcer  der  leraelilen,  OOttinsen.  1864;  A.  H.  Sayoe, 
Raeee  of  the  Old  Tetlam^nt,  London,  1891;  DB,  i.  77-78; 
SB,  i.  128-131. 


AMALRIC,  a-mal'rik  (Fr.  Amaury),  OF  BENA 
AND  THE  AMALRICIANS,  a-mal-iish'ons:  A 
notable  representative  of  pantheism  in  the  Middle 
Ages  and  his  followers.  Amalric  was  bom  at 
Bena,  near  Chartres,  and  toward  the  end  of  the 
twelfth  century  lectured  in  Paris  on  pliilosophy 
and  theology.  He  enjoyed  the  reputation  of  a 
subtle  dialectician,  and  the  favor  of  the  Dauphin, 
afterward  King  Louis  VIII.  How  far  he  carried 
his  pantheism  in  the  public  teaching  can  not  now 
be  determined;  but  his  doctrine  of  the  member- 
ship of  believers  in  the  body  of  Christ  was  so  pan- 
theistic in  tendency  that  it  aroused  suspicion,  and 
he  was  accused  of  heresy  by  the  chancellor  of  the 
diocese,  who  exercised  an  official  oversight  over 
the  schools  of  Paris.  In  1204  he  was  summoned 
to  Rome  to  give  an  account  of  his  teaching  before 
Innocent  III.,  who  decided  against  him.  Return- 
ing to  Paris,  he  was  forced  to  recant.  Soon  after- 
ward he  died,  and  received  churchly  burial  at  St.- 
Martin-des-Champs  (1  m.  e.  of  Morlaix,  Finist^re). 
After  his  death  traces  of  a  sect  formed  by  him  were 
discovered,  and  a  synod  was  called  in  Paris  in  1209 
to  take  measures  for  its  suppression.  Amalric's 
teaching  was  condemned,  and  he  himself  was 
excommunicated;  nine  ecclesiastics  together  with 
William  the  Goldsmith,  one  of  the  seven  prophets 
of  the  sect,  were  burned  at  the  stake.  At  the 
Fourth  Lateran  Council  in  1215,  Innocent  III. 
renewed  the  condemnation  of  Amalric 's  teaching. 
There  is  no  doubt  that  Amalric  took  up  the 
teaching  of  Johannes  Scotus  Erigena,  and  devel- 
oped it  into  a  thoroughgoing  pantheism.  Only 
three  propositions  can  certainly  be  ascribed  to 
Amalric  himself:  (1)  that  God  is  all  things; 
(2)  that  every  Christian  is  bound  to  believe  him- 
self a  member  of  Christ,  and  that  none  can  be  saved 
without  this  faith;  and  (3)  that  no  sin  is  imputed 
to  those  who  walk  in  love.  The  teaching  of  his 
disciples  is  an  expansion  of  these  theses.  God, 
they  said,  has  revealed  himself  thrice,  and  each 
time  more  completely.  With  the  incarnation  in 
Abraham  the  epoch  of  the  Father  begins;  with 
the  incarnation  in  Mary,  that  of  the  Son;  with 
the  incarnation  in  the  Amalricians,  that  of  the 
Holy  Spirit.  As  the  coming  of  Christ  set  aside 
the  Mosaic  law,  so  the  sacraments  and  ordinances 
of  the  second  dispensation  were  now  abolished. 
The  sect  called  the  veneration  of  the  saints  idolatry; 
the  Church,  the  Babylon  of  the  Apocalypse;  the 
pope.  Antichrist.  The  revelation  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  in  the  hearts  of  the  believers  takes  the  place 
of  baptism,  and  is  indeed  the  resurrection  of  the 
dead  and  the  kingdom  of  heaven;  no  other  is  to 
be  expected;  nor  is  there  any  hell  but  the  con- 
sciousness of  sin.  Their  doctrine,  that  the  spirit, 
which  is  God,  can  not  be  affected  by  the  deeds  of 
the  flesh,  or  commit  sin,  became  a  cover  for  mani- 
fold excesses,  proven  not  only  by  contemporary 
records,  but  also  by  numerous  testimonials  as  to 
the  Brethren  of  the  Free  Spirit,  who  were  the  direct 
successors  of  the  Amalricians.  (A.  Hauck.) 
Bibuoorapht:  Sources  are:  Q.  Armoricus,  De  gestie  Phi- 
lippi  AufftutH,  in  Bouquet,  Recueil,  xvii.  83;  B.  Guido,  Vita 
Innoeentii  papa,  in  Manei,  Concilia,  xxii.  801-809,  986;  C. 
B&umker,  Bin  Traktat  gegen  die  Amalricianer  axM  dem  An- 
fang  dee   XIII.  JahrhunderU,  Paderbom,  1895.     Conault 


147 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Aiaama 


C.  Hahn.  OnehickU  der  Ketaer  im  MiUOaiUr,  iii.  176  sqq.. 
Stuttcart,  1845;  Krdnlein,  Amalrich  von  Bena  und  David 
9an  Dinart,  in  TSK,  xii.  (1847)  271  sqq.;  W  Preger,  (7e- 
tddehte  der  deut§chen  Mytik  im  MiUelaUer,i.  166  sqq.,  173 
0qq.,  Leipsio,  1874;  A.  Jundt,  Hiatoire  du  pcmthHtme 
populaire  au  moyen  Age,  p.  20,  Paris,  1875;  H.  Reuter, 
OeediiehU  der  reHgideen  AufkUtruno  im  MiUekUter,  ii.  218 
0qq.,  Berlin,  1877. 

AlCANA  SOCIETY.    See  Communism,  II.,  3. 

AMANDUS,  a-man'dns:  Bishop  and  missionary 
of  the  Franks;  d.  at  the  abbey  of  Ehio,  near 
Toumai,  Feb.  6,  661  (?).  He  was  a  man  of  rank 
from  Aquitania,  took  holy  orders  in  early  youth 
against  the  will  of  his  father,  and  lived  in  a  cell 
in  the  city-wall  of  Bourges  till  he  was  induced  by 
a  vision  of  St.  Peter  to  give  himself  up  to  mission- 
work  in  Friesland.  He  preached  and  baptized 
near  Ghent.  The  Prankish  government  neglected 
to  protect  the  mission  near  the  frontier,  and  the 
hostility  of  the  haughty  Frieslanders  hindered 
the  work.  Amandus  therefore  went  to  Carinthia 
and  Camiola  to  seek  a  better  field  among  the  Slavic 
invaders,  south  of  the  Danube.  Here,  however, 
he  was  not  successful;  and  he  returned  to  Ghent, 
where  he  founded  two  monasteries,  Blandinium 
and  Gundarum,  and  a  third,  Elno,  near  Toumai. 
From  these  the  Friesian  mission-work  was  carried 
on  with  more  success.  Amandus  was  made  bishop 
of  Maestricht,  and  in  this  position  he  helped  to 
carry  through  the  Roman  resolutions  against  the 
Monothelites,  and  tried  to  reform  the  clergy.  As 
the  latter  showed  themselves  obstinate,  he  retired 
from  his  see  between  647  and  649,  entered  the  abbey 
of  Elno,  and  worked  to  the  end  of  his  life  for  the 
conversion  of  the  Prankish  and  Basque  heathen. 
He  was  said  to  have  performed  miracles,  and  it 
was  believed  that  miracles  occurred  at  his  tomb, 
which  became  a  place  of  pilgrimage. 

A.  Werner. 
Bibuoorapht:  Baudemund  and  Milo  wrote  accounts  of  his 

life  which  with  other  sources  are  in  ASB,  Feb..  i.  815-003. 

Consult  Gosse,  Eaeai  mr  St.  Amand,  1866;  J.  J.  de  Smedt. 

Vie  de  St  Amand,  Ghent.  1881;  RettberR.  KD,  i.  554.  ii. 

507-508;    Friedrich,  KD,  ii.  322;    J.  Desilve,  De  eehola 

Elnonenei  S.  Amandi,  Louvain,  1890;  Hauck.  KD,  i.  269 

sqq. 

AliAKDUS,  JOHANlfES.  See  Albert  of  Prus- 
sia, §  2. 

AMARNA  TABLETS. 

I.  Tell  el-Anaama.  IV.  Value  of  the  Tablets. 

II.  The  Tablets.  Historical  (f  1). 

III.  Authors  and  Contents.  Geographical  (f  2). 

Linguistic  (f  3). 

L  Tell  el-Amama:  The  Amama  tablets  are  a 
collection  of  cuneiform  documents,  so  called 
from  Tell  el- Amama,  the  name  by  which  the 
place  where  the  tablets  were  discovered  is  gen- 
erally known  outside  of  Eg3rpt.  It  is  really  a 
conventionalized  word,  compounded  of  the  Arab 
tell,  "  mound,"  and  a  word  formed  either  from  the 
name  of  the  Arabic  tribe  Amran  or  from  a  place 
near  Amarieh.  The  place  is  160  miles  above  Cairo, 
between  Thebes  and  Memphis,  or,  more  closely, 
between  Assiout  and  Beni-Hassan.  The  mound 
is  the  site  of  the  city  built  by  AmenopMs  IV., 
known  otherwise  as  the  heretic  king  Khu-en-aten, 
that  he  might  there  develop  untrammeled  by  the 
hostile  priesthoods  his  favorite  cult  of  the  disk  of 
the  sun  (alen)  with  which  he  hoped  to  supersede 


all  other  cults  and  to  unify  the  religion  of  Egypt 
(see  EoTPT,  I.).  His  cttempt  was  of  course  op- 
posed by  all  the  priesthoods  of  all  the  other  cults, 
and  after  his  death  his  name  was  held  accursed 
because  of  his  efforts  in  that  direction.  His  po- 
sition in  Egypt  was  very  like  that  of  Julian  "  the 
Apostate  "  among  the  Christians  of  Rome.  The 
place  which  he  built  for  his  capital  was  allowed 
to  fall  into  ruins,  not  being  occupied  after  his  death 
by  any  other  king.  It  is  this  fact  which  accounts 
for  the  presence  of  the  tablets  there  and  also  for 
their  preservation.  The  foreign  office  of  his  reign 
with  its  archives  was  located  there,  and  when  the 
palace  was  disused,  the  chamber  where  the  tablets 
were  kept  was  covered  by  the  debris  of  the  disin- 
tegrating buildings.  These  facts  constitute  one 
of  the  strongest  proofs  of  the  genuineness  of  the 
documents,  which  indeed  is  established  beyond  all 
question.  The  mound  was  excavated  in  1891-92 
by  W.  M.  F.  Petrie  and  a  corps  of  assistants  under 
the  auspices  of  the  Eg3rpt  Exploration  Fund. 
The  finds  made  were  most  valuable,  although 
the  site  had  been  rifled  by  Arabs  and  travelers. 
The  entire  reign  of  the  king  whose  capital  was  there 
was  illuminated  by  the  finds,  and  the  activities, 
religious,  political,  and  industrial,  were  laid  bare. 
That  excavation  was  the  result,  however,  not  the 
cause,  of  the  finding  of  the  tablets.  One  of  the 
hopes  was  that  other  tablets  would  be  discovered, 
a  hope  which  largely  stimulated  the  search  but  was 
not  realized. 

XL  The  Tablets:  The  discovery  was  accidental. 
In  1887  a  peasant  woman  while  searching  in  the 
ruins  for  antiquities  to  sell  to  travelers  discovered 
the  place  of  deposit  within  the  palace  enclosure. 
The  tablets  were  all  taken  out,  naturally  without 
the  extreme  care  which  skilled  excavators  would 
have  used,  were  conveyed  down  the  river,  and  sold. 
Eighty-two  letters  and  fragments  came  into  the 
possession  of  the  British  Museum,  160  went  to 
Berlin,  the  Gizeh  museum  has  sixty,  while  a  few 
are  in  private  hands.  In  all,  about  320  documents 
of  the  series  are  known.  Some  fragments  were 
afterward  found  in  the  place  of  deposit  by  Petrie, 
verifying  the  location  as  given  by  the  peasants, 
but  adding  hardly  anything  to  the  knowledge 
already  gained.  The  tablets  are  different  in  many 
respects,  particularly  in  shape,  from  those  recovered 
from  Babylonian  and  Assyrian  mounds.  Most  of 
them  are  rectangular,  a  few  are  oval,  some  are 
flat  on  both  sides,  some  convex  on  both,  some 
pillow-shaped,  some  are  kiln-dried,  others  sun- 
dried.  Many  of  them  confirm  by  the  texture  of 
the  clay  the  assertions  of  the  inscriptions  as  to  their 
sources.  Six  of  them  are  the  largest  known  of 
this  species  of  tablet,  measuring  ten  inches  by  eight. 
The  language,  except  in  three  of  the  documents, 
is  the  neo-Babylonian,  closely  related  to  Assyrian, 
Aramaic,  Hebrew,  and  Arabic,  approximating 
most  closely  the  Assyrian.  One  letter  is  in  the 
Hittite  language  but  in  the  cuneiform  script. 
Sometimes  a  Sumerian  ideograph  is  used,  of  which 
the  explanation  occasionally  follows  either  in 
Assyrian  or  in  Canaanitic.  In  all  but  half  a  dozen 
tablets  the  general  character  of  the  writing  is 
inferior,  showing  the  work  of  unskilled  scribes. 


Amamft 
Ambo 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


148 


The  (Merences  are  often  individualistic,  and 
mannerisms  which  run  through  a  whole  series  com- 
bine with  other  details  to  point  infallibly  to  identity 
of  source  for  that  series.  The  spelling  is  poor,  and 
modifications  of  characters  occur  which  have  not 
been  discovered  in  other  cuneiform  documents. 
The  tablets  are  all  to  be  dated  within  the  reigns 
of  Amenophis  III.  and  IV.,  father  and  son,  about 
1500-1450  B.C.  Besides  the  foregoing,  a  tablet 
recognized  by  nearly  all  scholars  as  belonging  to 
the  series  was  found  by  Bliss  in  his  excavation  of 
Tell  el-Hesy  (Lachish)  in  Palestine.  This  con- 
tains the  name  of  Zimrida  of  Lachish  (almost  cer- 
tainly the  writer  of  letter  No.  217  in  Winckler's 
arrangement,  and  mentioned  in  Nos.  181  and  219 
of  the  same),  not  to  be  confounded  with  Zimrida 
of  Sidon,  who  is  also  a  correspondent  (as  is  appar- 
ently done  by  Bliss,  Mounds  of  Many  Cities,  Lon- 
don, 1896,  pp.  54  sqq.).  Some  of  the  letters 
contain  Egyptian  dockets  mostly  illegible,  probably 
notes  of  date  of  receipt  and  other  remarks.  The 
condition  of  the  tablets  varies  greatly;  on  some 
only  a  few  characters  remain;  others  lack  only  a 
few  to  be  complete. 

UL  Authors  and  Contents:  With  the  excep- 
tion of  some  fragments  of  a  bilingual  dictionary, 
compiled  by  order  of  the  Pharaoh,  and  a  mytho- 
logical fragment,  the  tablets  are  letters,  most  of 
which  deal  with  the  political  situation  of  Syria, 
Palestine,  and  Philistia.  The  most  noteworthy 
are  the  following:  One  letter  is  from  Amenophis 
III.  to  Kallima-Sin  of  the  Babylonian  Kasshite 
dynasty,  asking  the  latter  for  a  daughter  as  a  wife 
and  replying  to  the  latter's  insinuation  that  there 
was  no  information  that  a  former  wife,  sister  of 
KallimarSin,  was  yet  alive  and  well-treated.  Four 
letters  from  Kallima-Sin  to  Amenophis  III.  com- 
plain that  a  Babylonian  envoy  was  kept  in  Egypt 
six  years,  and  when  sent  back  brought  only  a  small 
quantity  of  gold,  and  that  of  inferior  quality.  He 
asks  more  and  better  gold,  which  is  needed  at  once 
for  a  building  which  he  is  erecting;  he  asks  for  a 
daughter  of  Amenophis  as  a  wife,  or  if  not  that, 
then  some  one  whom  he  can  palm  off  as  a  daughter 
of  the  Pharaoh.  One  of  the  letters  shows  that 
he  is  sending  his  daughter  to  the  harem  of  Ameno- 
phis. There  are  six  letters  of  Bumaburiash  of 
Babylon  to  Amenophis  IV.,  assuring  the  latter  of 
the  former's  fraternal  feelings,  asking  presents 
and  promising  others  in  return,  also  seeking  help 
against  his  "  vassal "  Asshur-uballit  of  Assyria 
who  revolts  against  the  suzerain  power.  There 
is  also  a  letter  of  Asshur-uballit  to  Amenophis  IV., 
seeking  presents,  including  gold  for  the  decoration 
of  a  palace,  sindlar  to  those  which  had  been  sent 
to  his  father  Asshur-nadin-ahi,  and  promising 
others  in  return.  Some  of  the  finest,  longest,  and 
best-written  are  from  Tushratta,  king  of  Mitanni 
(see  Abstria),  to  Amenophis  IV.,  one  of  whose 
wives  is  a  sister  of  Tushratta.  One  of  these  prom- 
ises a  daughter  of  the  writer  to  the  Pharaoh,  but 
it  is  expected  that  a  great  deal  of  gold  (not  alloyed 
like  the  last  that  was  sent)  will  be  returned  for  her. 
After  considerable  delay  and,  apparently,  bargain- 
ing also  the  daughter  was  sent.  This  series  teUs  too, 
of  a  victory  of  Tushratta  over  the  Hittites,  and 


might  be  taken  to  prove  that  Mitanni  was  not  a 
Hittite  kingdom.  Three  from  the  same  person 
to  Amenophis  IV.  include  in  their  contents  condo- 
lence upon  the  death  of  the  Pharaoh's  father,  for 
which  consolation  is  found  by  the  writer  in  the  fact 
that  the  son  of  that  father  succeeds  to  the  throne; 
friendly  relations  are  promised;  two  golden  statu- 
ettes which  have  been  promised  are  asked  for 
(not  wooden  one  likes  those  which  have  been  sent); 
complaints  are  made  about  the  detention  of  am- 
bassadors in  Egypt;  and  gold  is  requested.  Tush- 
ratta also  writes  a  letter  to  the  queen  dowager 
Ti,  asking  her  good  offices  with  the  Pharaoh  in 
urging  the  latter  to  fulfil  the  engagements  entered 
into. 

The  rest  of  the  tablets  contain  correspondence 
from  petty  kings  and  governors  of  Amoritic,  Syrian, 
Palestinian,  and  Cypriote  (?)  cities  to  the  Pharaohs, 
telling  of  revolts  and  assaults  upon  the  Pharaoh's 
authority,  and  of  invasions  by  the  Hittites  and 
^abiri;  or  they  make  accusations  against  other 
of  the  Pharaoh's  governors,  or  defend  themselves 
as  loyal  subjects  of  Egypt.  The  most  noteworthy 
of  these  are  a  series  from  Alaahia  (either  a  district 
in  north  Syria  or  Cyprus);  fifty-seven  from  Rib- 
Addi  of  Gebal  (Byblos)  to  the  Pharaoh,  and  eight 
to  Egyptian  officers  high  in  position;  eight  from 
Abv-MiUci  of  Tyre  (the  name  compounded  of  the 
name  of  the  god  for  which  "  Moloch  "  was  given 
in  the  Old  Testament;  see  Moloch);  seven  from 
Abd-^iba  of  Jerusalem  (the  latter  spelled  U-ru- 
aha^iMf  "  city  of  peace  ";  Winckler,  TeH-et-Amama 
Letters,  Letter  180,  line  25),  which  tell  of  a  con- 
federation formed  by  Gezer,  Ashkelon,  and  Lachish 
against  Jerusalem,  and  asking  help  against  them 
and  the  Jfdbiri;  two  are  from  Ammunira  of 
Beirut. 

IV.  Value  of  the  Tablets:  The  results  gained 
from  the  study  of  the  documents  are  threefold — 
historical,  geographical,  and  linguistic. 

The  most  remarkable  result  of  the  discovery 
is  the  fact  that  the  correspondence  even  between 
Egypt  and  its  vassals  was  carried  on  not  in  Egyp- 
tian, but  in  an  Asiatic  tongue,  and  that  the  cunei- 
form. This  implies  that  the  entire  area  covered 
by  the  correspondence  outside  Egypt  was  control- 
led in  culture  by  Babylonia.  This  control  was 
so  thoroughgoing  that  governmental 
z.  Histor-  transactions  and  diplomatic  inter- 
ical.  coiuse  were  necessarily  carried  on  in 
the  tongue  of  the  lower  Euphrates. 
The  royal  correspondence  reveals  the  relations 
between  the  court  of  Egypt,  on  the  one  side,  and 
the  courts  of  Babylonia,  Assyria,  and  Mitanni, 
on  the  other,  consisting  of  intermarriages,  with 
Egypt  as  the  haughtier  power  in  the  earlier  period, 
this  strain  of  superiority  giving  way  later  to  one  of 
equality.  The  Pharaohs  entered  into  marriage 
relations  with  the  daughters  of  Asiatic  regal  houses, 
but  at  first  refused  and  afterward  granted  the  re- 
quest for  reciprocity  in  this  respect.  This  division 
of  the  documents  shows  the  kings  making  requests 
of  each  other  for  bakshish  and  complaining  of  the 
quality  of  that  formerly  given.  Egypt  seems  the 
source  of  gold,  and  from  the  plaints  appears  guilty 
of  attempting  to  cheat  by  alloying  heavily  the 


140 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Amama 
Ambo 


metal  which  it  sent  as  a  present,  in  one  case  the 
proportion  of  pure  gold  being  only  six  parts  in 
twenty.  The  relation  of  Assyria  to  Babylonia 
receives  side-light  in  the  fact  that  the  Babylonian 
asks  help  against  his  **  vassal ''  Asshur-uballit  of 
Assyria,  who,  however,  seems  to  be  in  friendly 
relations  with  Egypt;  a  second  point  in  this  con- 
nection is  contained  in  the  reference  in  the  Tnsh- 
ratta  correspondence  to  the  sending  of  the  image 
of  Ishtar  of  Nineveh  to  Eg3rpt,  which  implies  that 
Nineveh  was  then  a  part  of  Mitanni  (see  Abstria, 
vi.,  2,  and  cf .  C.  Niebuhr,  Stvdien  ,  .  .  zur  Ge- 
schichte  des  alten  Orients,  Leipsic,  1894,  p.  92). 

But  the  most  important  results  historically  are 
those  which  relate  to  the  connections  of  Egypt 
with  Syria  and  Palestine.  Thothmes  III.  had 
carried  the  arms  of  Eg3rpt  as  far  as  the  Taiurus 
Mountains.  A  period  of  Egyptian  quiescence  had 
followed,  and,  as  a  consequence,  in  the  period  of 
the  letters  Egyptian  hegemony  was  threatened  in 
three  ways:  first  by  revolts  of  the  cities  under 
governors  who  had  been  appointed  by  the  Pharaoh 
or  by  the  governors  who  were  unfaithful;  second, 
by  a  Hittite  advance  from  the  north  and  northeast; 
third,  by  the  ffabiri  from  the  east.  The  corre- 
spondence abounds  in  charges  by  governors  who 
claim  to  be  faithful  to  the  Pharaoh  against  other 
governors;  and  again  and  again  they  beg  for  help 
from  him  which  apparently  is  not  sent,  though  the 
news  of  continuous  loss  of  territory  is  the  burden 
of  the  letters.  Some  of  the  men  charged  with 
rebellion  protest  their  fidelity  and  make  counter- 
charges, but  in  many  cases  practically  confess  their 
disloyalty  by  their  excuses  for  not  rendering  ser- 
vice due  or  required.  The  whole  situation  is  one 
of  the  weakening  of  Egyptian  influence  as  its 
leadership  and  control  slips  away  under  the  batter- 
ing of  the  triplex  adverse  forces.  The  mention  of  the 
advance  of  the  Hittites  is  most  illuminating,  show- 
ing the  beginning  of  the  empire  established  in  the 
century  foUowing.  The  question  raised  by  the  fre- 
quent mention  of  the  J^abiri  has  been  answered  in 
three  ways:  (a)  they  were  the  Hebrews  of  the  Exo- 
dus just  arriving  from  the  wandering;  (b)  they  were 
Hebrews,  but  not  those  of  the  Exodus,  representing 
rather  the  Abrahamic-Lot  tribes  prior  to  the  settle- 
ment in  Egypt  which  is  described  in  the  last  chap- 
ters of  Genesis;  (c)  they  were  not  Hebrews  at  all, 
but  people  of  nomadic  strain  whose  exact  affilia- 
tions are  unknown.  The  first  of  these  three  answers 
is  not  now  supported  by  any  prominent  authority; 
the  other  two  are  still  under  debate.  In  favor  of 
the  second  is  the  single  Egyptian  inscription  (Me- 
neptah's;  see  Eotft)  which  plainly  mentions  the 
Hebrews  as  already  in  Canaan  during  the  reign  in 
which  most  modem  scholars  place  the  Exodus  and 
before  the  tribes  under  Moses  could  have  entered 
the  land. 

The  geographical  information  can  not  be  given 
here  at  length,  since  almost  every  item  would 
require  extended  discussion.  A  large  number  of 
known  cities  or  localities  is  named,  such  as  Tyre, 
Sidon,  B3rblos,  Beirut,  Ajalon,  Accho,  Megiddo, 
Kadesh,  Gath,  Lachish,  Jerusalem,  Mitanni,  and 
Edom.  Other  places  are  mentioned  in  such  con- 
nections that  the  approximate  locality  is  recognized, 


such  as  Tunip,  south  of  Aleppo.    Still  other  place- 
names  appear  in  the  correspondence,  the  exact  or 
even  approximate  location  of  which  is  undeter- 
mined,  such  as    ^atna  and    Irlpata, 
3.  Geo-      One  hundred  and  thirty  towns  in  all 
graphicaL   are  mentioned.    But  the  existence  of 
these  places  is  made  known  and  their 
relative  importance  often  appears  from  the  char- 
acter of  the  passage  in  which  the  names  occur. 
For  the  political  geography  of  the  region  and  the 
time,  these  tablets  are  of  the  first  importance. 

The  linguistic  data  given  in  the  letters   afford 
a  means  of  comparison  of  the  Babylonian  and 
Assyrian  with  earlier  and  with  later  forms,  and  so 
constitute  a  standard  of  comparison  in  what  had 
been  a  dark  period  for  both.     For  Aramean  and 
Canaanitic  the  data  are  the  earliest 
3.  Linguis-  known  and,  therefore,  of  the  highest 
tic.         value.    These  letters  show  the  Sem- 
itic languages  represented  as  differing 
only  dialectically,  and  as  in  all  probability  mutually 
intelligible   to    the   inhabitants   of   the   different 
regions.  Geo.  W.  Gilmore. 

Bibuoorapbt:  H.  Winckler,  Der  Thoniafelfund  van  EU 
Amama^  in  Sohrader.  KB,  y.  1,  Berlin,  1896;  idem.T'ef-tf^ 
Amama  Letters,  New  York,  1806  (transliterated  text  and 
transL  in  Germ,  and  Eng.);  C.  Beiold,  Oriental  Diplo- 
macy, London,  1893;  C.  R.  Conder,  Tel-el-Amama  TabUU, 
ib.  1893  (transL  and  discuasion  of  the  tablets  in  the 
British  Museum);  W.  M.  F.  Petrie,  Telrtl-Amama,  ib. 
1894  (aooount  of  the  exoavation  and  its  results);  idem, 
Tel-eUAmama  Letters,  ib.  1898;  C.  Niebuhr,  Die  Amame^ 
Zeii,  ^Qvpten  und  Varderaaien  urn  lUOO  vor  Ckrietue  naeh 
dem  Thontafelfunde  von  elr-Amama,  Leipsic,  1899;  Aeeyr- 
ian  and  Babylonian  Literature,  New  York,  1901  (gives 
transL  of  selected  letters).  The  discussion  in  periodicals 
has  been  very  full;  consult  Preebyterian  Review,  x.  (1888) 
476-481;  PSBA,  x.  (1888)  640-669;  Babylonian  and  Ori- 
ental Record,  iii.  (1889)  286-288.  v.  (1891)  114-119;  Bib- 
liotheea  Sacra,  1.  (1893)  696;  Thinker,  ix.  (1894)  408;  Na- 
tion, lix.  (Jan.  5,  1894). 

AMAZIAH,  am''a-za'ia:  Eighth  king  of  Judah. 
He  was  the  son  of  Joash,  and  reigned  83S-810 
B.C.,  according  to  the  old  computation;  797-792,  ac- 
cording to  Duncker;  800-792,  according  to  WeUhau- 
sen;  796-778,  according  to  Kamphausen;  799-773, 
according  to  Hommel.  At  the  age  of  twenty-five 
he  succeeded  his  father,  who  had  been  murdered 
by  his  servants,  and  his  first  act  was  to  put 
the  conspirators  to  death;  in  harmony  with  Deut. 
xxiv.  16,  however,  he  spared  their  children.  He 
attacked  the  Edomites,  gained  a  victory  over  them, 
and  captured  a  stronghold  known  as  "  the  Rock," 
to  which  he  gave  the  name  "  Joktheel."  He  may 
also  have  taken  and  destroyed  Elath,  which  his 
son  Uzziah  rebuilt  (II  Kmgs  xiv.  22).  He  next 
began  war  against  Joash  of  Israel,  but  was  defeated, 
and  Jerusalem  was  taken  and  pillaged.  Like  his 
father,  Amaziah  was  slain  by  conspirators,  whose 
motive  is  not  known.  He  was  buried  with  royal 
honors  at  Jerusalem.  The  prophetic  writers  of 
the  Book  of  Kings  reckon  him  among  the  better 
kings  of  Judah,  but  the  Chronicler  ascribes  his 
downfall  to  idolatry  and  apostasy  from  Yahweh. 

(W.  LOTB.) 
Biblioorapht:  His  history  is  in  II  Kings  xiv.   1-20;  II 
Chron.  xxv.    Consult  the  works  mentioned  under  Abab. 

AMBO:  A  sort  of  raised  platform  in  eariy 
Christian  churches,  used  for  a  variety  of  purposes. 


Ambo 
▲mbroalan 


THE  NEW  8CHAFF-HERZ0G 


150 


The  name  is  met  with  frequently  in  medieval 
works,  more  rarely  in  the  older,  which  employ  a 
number  of  synonymous  expressions.  C^rp^i^ 
speaks  of  a  pulpitum,  by  which  he  evidently  means 
a  raised  place  to  which  the  lectors  ascended  to 
read  to  the  people  ''  the  precepts  and  good  tidings 
of  the  Lord."  Eusebius  relates  (HisL  eccl.,  vii. 
30)  that  Bishop  Paul  of  Samosata  erected  both 
a  '^  bema  "  and  a  lofty  throne  to  speak  from;  and 
the  context  shows  that  he  is  not  speaking  of  the 
semicircular  apse,  which  was  sometimes  called 
''  bema  "  also.  So,  according  to  Sozomen  (Hist, 
ecd,,  viii.  5),  John  Chrysostom  preached  seated  upon 
the  platform  (Gk.  hima)  of  the  readers;  and  the 
same  historian  speaks  (ix.  2)  of  a  grave  placed 
"  beneath  the  ambo,"  adding  the  definition  "  plat- 
form of  the  readers."  Other  expressions  are 
analoffius  or  analoffiumf  auggestv^,  aolea,  pyrgus, 
and  ostensorium.  Other  historians  besides  Sozo- 
men mention  Chrysostom  going  up  into  the  "  am- 
bo "  to  preach,  so  as  to  be  heard  better. 

With  the  beginning  of  the  Middle  Ages,  the 
mention  of  the  ambo  becomes  frequent.  Among 
the  services  of  Pope  Sixtus  III.  to  the  Church, 
Platina  notes  that  he  adorned  the  ambo  or  sug- 
gestus  in  the  Basilica  Liberiana,  ubi  evangelium  et 
epiatola  canitur.  The  so-called  liturgy  of  St.  John 
Chrysostom  contemplates  the  reading  of  the  gospel 
in  that  place  by  the  deacon.  The  use  of  the  ambo 
for  psalm-singing  is  evidenced,  e.g.,  by  the  fifteenth 
canon  of  the  Council  of  Laodicea  (341?)  which 
reads: ''  Besides  the  appointed  singers,  who  mount 
the  ambo  and  sing  from  the  book,  others  shall 
not  sing  in  the  Church."  While  in  primitive  times 
the  bishop  was  the  only  preacher,  and  taught  the 
people  from  his  throne  or  from  the  altar,  in  the 
succeeding  centuries  the  cases  grow  more  nimierous 
in  which  he  commits  the  ofiice  to  other  clergy,  who 
choose  the  ambo  from  which  to  speak.  Pastoral 
letters  of  the  bishops  were  read  from  the  same 
place.  The  ambo  of  St.  Sophia  in  Constantinople 
had  a  special  use,  serving  for  imperial  coronations. 
With  all  the  variety  of  use  the  Middle  Ages  did  not 
forget  the  original  purpose  of  the  ambo.  Innocent 
III.,  commanding  that  the  deacon  shall  go  up  into 
it  to  read  the  gospel,  draws  a  parallel  between  it 
and  the  mountain  from  which  the  Lord  taught  the 
people.  He  prescribes  two  entrances;  one  for  the 
deacon,  the  other  for  the  subdeacon.  It  was 
considered  proper  that  the  gospel  should  be  read 
from  a  higher  step  than  the  epistle,  to  show,  as 
Hugh  of  St.  Victor  says,  that  the  teaching  of  Christ 
is  far  higher  than  that  of  his  apostles. 

The  early  rule  was  to  have  only  one  ambo  in 
each  church,  and  this  continued  in  the  Middle 
Ages,  except  in  the  largest  churches.  The  position 
of  the  ambo  in  the  primitive  and  early  medieval 
churches  can  not  be  positively  determined;  pre- 
sumably it  stood  in  the  nave,  in  front  of  the  division 
between  nave  and  choir.  Where  there  were  two, 
they  were  placed  one  on  each  side  against  the 
columns  dividing  nave  from  aisles.  Sometimes, 
as  in  St.  Clement's  at  Rome,  the  ambo  formed  an 
integral  part  of  the  screen  dividing  the  clergy  from 
the  laity.  As  to  material,  the  ambo  was  frequently 
made  of  wood.    That  which  Abbot  Suger  of  St. 


Denis  restored  about  the  middle  of  the  twelfth 
century  was  decorated  with  tablets  of  ivory,  and 
Emperor  Henry  II.  gave  one  to  the  cathedral  of 
Aachen  which  had  not  only  ivory,  but  precious 
stones  and  gilded  copper-plates  set  in  the  wood. 
Most  of  the  extant  older  ambos  are  of  marble, 
frequently  adorned  with  mosaics  or  reliefs  on  the 
sides  toward  the  congregation.  As  far  as  it  is 
possible  to  form  a  general  conception  of  their  struc- 
ture, they  consisted  of  a  flat  base,  either  square, 
oblong,  hexagonal,  or  circular,  supported  by  col- 
mnns  or  a  plinth,  sometimes,  however,  resting  on 
figures  of  lions  or  men.  Access  to  the  ambo  was 
given  by  one  or  two  flights  of  steps,  and  it  was 
railed  around  in  front  and  occasionally  surmounted 
by  a  canopy.  Decoration  was  mainly  used  on  the 
surface  of  the  front,  and  was  of  infinite  variety, 
and  frequently  of  great  richness.  Especially 
beautiful  are  the  marble  reliefs  with  Biblical  and 
allegorical  scenes  made  for  the  churches  of  northern 
and  central  Italy  by  the  artists  of  the  twelfth  and 
thirteenth  centuries,  with  Niccol6  Pisano  at  their 
head.  Most  of  the  ambos  now  extant  are  in  Italy; 
notable  northern  examples  are  that  already  men- 
tioned at  Aachen,  one  at  Halberstadt,  and  one  at 
Windisch-Matrei.  With  the  developemnt  of  Gothic 
architecture  the  place  of  the  ambo  was  taken  in  a 
general  way  by  the  rood-loft  above  the  choir- 
screen,  and  the  modem  lectern  and  pulpit  serve 
the  same  purpose.      See  Pulpit. 

(NiKOLAUB  MttLLER.) 
Bibuoorapht:  R.  de  Fleury,  La  Meue:    HiuUs   archMo- 
oiguM  tur  tet  monumenU,  iii.  1  sqq.,  and  plans.    Paris, 
188.  Consult  the  works  on  Christian  archeology  and  art. 

AMBROSE  OF  ALEXANDRIA:  Friend  of  Ori- 
gen;  d.  about  250.  Attracted  by  Origen's  fame 
as  a  teacher,  he  visited  his  school  about  212,  and 
was  converted  by  Origen  from  the  Valentinian 
heresy  to  the  orthodox  faith  (Eusebius,  Hist,  eccl., 
VI.  xviii.  1 ).  He  was  a  sufferer  during  the  perse- 
cution under  Maximinus  in  235  (Eusebius,  Hist, 
eccl.,  VI.  xxviii.),  and  is  last  mentioned  in  Origen's 
Contra  Celsum,  which  the  latter  wrote  at  the  so- 
licitation of  Ambrose.  He  was  wealthy  and  pro- 
vided his  teacher  with  books  for  his  studies  and 
secretaries  to  lighten  the  labor  of  composition 
(Eusebius,  Hist,  eccl.,  VI.  xxiii.  1-2;  Jerome,  De 
vir.  ill.,  Ivi.).  Origen  often  speaks  of  him  in  terms 
of  affection  as  a  man  of  education  and  literary  and 
scholarly  tastes.  All  of  his  works  written  after 
218  are  dedicated  to  Ambrose. 

AMBROSE  THE  CAMALDOLITE  (Ambrogio 
TraverBari,  Lat.  Traversarius):  Prominent  human- 
ist; b.  at  Portico  (36  m.  n.e.  of  Florence)  1386; 
d.  Oct.  20,  1439.  He  became  general  of  the  Order 
of  the  Camaldolites  in  1431.  Pope  Eugenius  IV. 
sent  him  to  the  Council  of  Basel,  but  his  exertions 
in  behalf  of  his  master  were  unsuccessful,  as  were 
also  his  efforts  at  Ferrara  and  Florence,  1438-39, 
toward  a  union  with  the  Greeks.  As  an  enthu- 
siastic humanist  Traversari  offers  "  the  first  ex- 
ample of  a  monk  in  whom  the  polite  scholar  is  in 
conflict  with  the  Holy  Spirit  "  (G.  Voigt,  Die 
Wiederbelebung  des  klassischen  AUertums,  i.,  Berlin, 
1893,  p.  321).  At  the  table  of  Cosimo  de'  Medici, 
where  the  most  learned  met,  he  took  an  active  part 


161 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Ambo 
▲mbroalan 


in  tbe  eonverBalion  about  the  authors  of  antiquity. 
He  Btudied  eapeciftlly  the  Greek  ecclesiastical 
authors.  K.  Benhath. 

BisLioaftAFHT;  Eb  epdsll«»,  witb  life  by  L.  Meliua,  wiem 

edited  by  P-  CuiDAto,  FLoreDoe,  ITSO.     CoDsult  Creigh- 

iOD,  Papacy,  ii.  270-272,  277-278.  379. 

AMBROSE  (Lat.  Ambrom^is),  SAOTT,  OF  MHAJI: 

One  of  the  great  leaders  and  teachers  of  the  We^t-em 
Church;  b.  of  a  rich  and  noble  Roman  fanaOy  at 
Treves  c.  340;  d.  at  Milan  Apr.  4,  379.  He  was 
educated  in  Rome  for  the  bar,  and  about  370  was 
appointed  consular  prefect  for  Upper  Italy  and 
took  up  his  residence  at  Milan.  In  374  a  fierce 
contest  arose  in  the  city  between  the  orthodox 
and  the  Arian  parties  concerning  the  election  of  a 
bishop  to  succeed  Auxei^tius.  Ambrofl€|  as  the 
firet  magistrate,  repaired  to  the  church  to  main- 
tain order  and  was  himself  by  unanimous  vote 
transferred  from  his  official  position  to  the  epis- 
copal chair.  He  was  aa  yet  only  a  catechumen, 
but  he  was  immediately  baptized,  and,  eight  days 
afterward  (Dec.  7,  374)  was  consecrated  bishop. 
As  a  leader  of  the  Church  Ambrose  difltinguished 
bhnself  by  his  support  of  the  orthodox  faith.  In 
379  he  succeeded  in  establiahing  an  orthodox 
bishop  at  Sirmium  in  spite  of  the  efforts  of  the 
Arian  empress  Justina.  In  385-386  he  refused 
to  deliver  up  a  basilica  in  Milan  to  the  empress  for 
Arian  worship.  These  contests  with  Arianism 
he  has  reported  himself  in  his  letters  to  his  sister 
Marcellina  {Epist.,  xx,,  xxii.)  and  to  the  Emperor 
Valentinian  II.  (EpiM^^  xxi,)p  and  in  his  oration 
De  basilicis  Iraikndu.  Also  with  the  Roman  monk 
Jovinian  (q*v.)  he  had  a  sharp  coiitrover»y  (EpisLt 

Ambrose  opposed  paganism  no  less  zealously 
than  heresy.  In  the  senate  hall  at  Rome  stood 
an  altar  to  Victory  on  which  aU  oaths  were  taken. 
In  382  Gratian  had  tliis  altar  removed,  probably 
at  the  instigation  of  Ambrose.  The  senate,  which 
favored  the  old  rehgion^  made  repeated  efforts  to 
have  the  altar  restored,  under  Gratian,  Valen- 
tinian IL,  and  Theodosius,  but  unsuccessfully  owing 
to  Ambrose's  opposition.  On  the  other  hand,  he 
held  that  the  State,  though  it  might  interfere  with 
paganism,  must  not  interfere  with  the  Church. 
In  388  the  Christians  burned  a  synagogue  at  Callini- 
eum  in  Mesopotamia  and  Theodofliue  ordered  that 
it  be  rebuilt  at  the  expense  of  the  bishop  of  the 
place,  but  Ambrose  induced  the  emperor  to  recall 
the  order.  In  370  the  people  of  Theisalonica 
during  a  riot  murdered  the  military  governor, 
and  Theodosius  retahated  with  a  fearful  massacre; 
Ambroee  rebuked  the  emperor  and  counseled  him 
to  do  public  penance  (EpiM,,  U.). 

As  a  teacher  of  the  Church  Ambrose  concerned 
himself  more  with  practical  and  ethical  than  with 
metaphysical  questions;  his  writings  are  rich  in 
striking  practical  remarks,  but  not  original.  Of 
his  dogmatical  works  the  De  myst^riis  reminds 
of  Cyril  of  Jenisalem  and  the  De  fitU  and  De  spirUu 
Bon^o  follow  Basil  very  closely.  Concerning  the 
question  of  sin,  Ambrose  stands  nearer  to  Augustine 
than  the  earlier  Western  Fathers  or  the  Eastern 
theologians,  but  is  more  in  accord  with  the  earEer 
than  with  the  later  views  of  the  great  teacher. 


His  exegetical  works  are  mostly  founded  upon  Basil 
and  are  marred  by  the  aUegoncal  method;  their 
ohief  and  best  characteristic  is  their  practical 
tendency.  The  same  thing  may  be  said  of  his 
sermons,  which  exliibit  the  full  worth  of  the  true 
Roman  gentleman.  Among  his  moral  and  ascetic 
works  are  De  offteiis  minislroruTn  (modeled  upon 
Cicero),  Dtf  mrginibusj  De  mduiSj  De  virginHatef 
etc.  The  growing  tendency  toward  asceticism 
shows  itself  in  the  high  value  he  attached  to  celi- 
bacy, the  martyr's  death,  and  voluntary  poverty; 
and  the  notion  of  a  higher  and  purer  Christian  life 
to  be  attained  by  such  meanji  betrays  the  influence 
of  the  Stoic  moral  theory  which  he  found  in  his 
modeL  Ambrose  introduced  a  comprehensive 
reform  in  Church  music  (see  Ambrosian  Chant); 
and  a  hturgy  long  used  in  the  diocese  of  Milan  ia 
associated  mth  his  name  by  tradition.  Of  the 
hymns  ascribed  to  him  not  more  than  four  or  five 
are  genuine,  and  the  Te  Deuni  is  not  in  this  number 
(see  Ti^  Deum),  His  extant  works  aLso  include 
ninety-one  letters. 

Ambrose  was  buried  in  the  Ambrosian  basilica 

at  Milan  near  the  martyrs  Gervasius  and  Protasius. 

In   the   ninth   centmy    Archbishop   Angilbert   II. 

placed  the  remains  of  the  three  in  a  porphyry 

sarcophagus,   which  was  discovered  in   1864,  and 

opened  in  1871   (cf.  BIraghi,  /  ire  sepokhri  Sunt- 

ambrmiani,    Biilan,    1864;  A.   Riboldi,   ZJejcmwms 

d^lle  retiquie  dei  SS.  Ambro^t  Gervasio,  e  Pro- 

tasioj   1874;  F.   Venosta,  Sard*  Ambrogio^   la  sua 

basilica,  In  sepoUura  e  lo  ec^priment^  del  suo  ccrpOf 

1874).  (T.  FORSTERtO 

BiHLitKinAFBT:  The  worlu  of  Ambrose  have  boen  pubUihed 

by  the  Ben«diotinw  of  Hi.  Mmtif,  2  voIa.,  Paris,  1 6S6-^B0: 

oftea  i^piiiaied.  &a  in  MPL.  xiv.-3cvii.,  by  Ballerini.  tt  voIh.. 

Milmn,  1S75-S6;  iiwi  in  C8EL,  Vieim*.  1806  sqq.    Some  of 

Mb  priadpal  work*  are  traniilAted  in  ATPjVF,  vol  St.,  New 

York.  18m.    The  oldott  life  i»  by  Pauiinua  (in  Ihe  Bene- 

djctioe    cdiiion    of    the    work*).     Lat«r    Iiv«B    mm'.    In 

Freocli,  by  Lcmis  Baunard*  Parin,  1871,  nod  thu  Duo  de 

BrogLie,   189*9,   Eog.   trsnaJn,   London.   18^;   in  Oermui, 

by  T.  F6Tflttr,  Halle,  1854;  in  English,  by  Alfred  Burry, 

I^ndon,  1S©S.     ConBuJt  alpa  J,  Pruncr.  £)ie  Tht&hoie  de* 

Ambronia,  EichatMt.  1862;  P,  Ewald.  Der  Einflut*  d«r 

ttmKh-ckvfvnitckm  Mafot  ou/  du  Bikik  bei  AmhrMtua, 

LeipBtc,  ISai;  M.  Ihm.  Studm  Ambratiania.  ISSS;  G.  M. 

Drewi,  A  uretiut  A  m^roniM,  def  Vatef  dw  Kirchengm^fiQim, 

Freiburg,  1893;  J.  B.   Kellner,  Dtr  heilige  AmlfTittiua  ai* 

Erkl&rer  dss  Alien  Tftamentt,  RatUboo.  1393;    R.  Thamin, 

SL   AmbnyiM  et  ta  fiuraZe  cAritwniu  uu  tp^irikma  nkle, 

Paris.  18&5. 

AMBROSE,  ISA&C:    Puritan j  b.  in  Lancaahire, 

England,  1604;  d.  at  Preston  1664.  He  studied 
at  Brasenose  College,  Oxford,  and  after  1631 
became  one  of  the  king's  four  preachers  in  Lan- 
caahire  with  residence  at  Garetang,  Favoring 
Presbyterianism,  he  buffered  imprisonment  and 
other  hardshipfl  during  the  civil  war,  and  was 
ejected  from  Garstang  for  non-conformity  in  1662. 
He  is  described  as  a  learned  man,  of  qiuet  and 
retiring  disposition  and  sincere  piety.  Hb  beet- 
known  work  is  Looking  unto  Jet^us  (London,  1658). 
A  collected  edition  of  his  works  appeared  in  1674 
and  has  been  often  reprinted  (Dundee,  1759; 
London,  1829,  etc,)- 

AMBROSIAH  CHAIfT;  A  lively,  rhythmical, 
melodious  congregational  song,  which  grew  out 
of  a  union  of  the  ancient  Greek  musical  syitein 


Axnlurosian 
Amnrloan 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


152 


in  four  keys  with  the  traditional  Church  psalmody. 
Whether  it  was  introduced  by  Ambrose,  bishop  of 
Milan  (374-397),  or  whether  he  merely  regulated 
and  improved  it,  is  not  certain.  The  singing  had 
been  confined  to  the  choir  (Gk.  psaUaiy  Lat.  can- 
tores),  who  recited  the  psalms  and  prayers  in  mo- 
notonous fashion  with  no  fixed  rules.  The  new  Am- 
brosian  tunes  were  lively  and  joyous,  all  took  part 
in  the  singing,  and  the  people  found  pleasure 
and  enjoyment  in  it.  Augustine  in  his  Confessions 
(IX.  vii.  15;  X.  xxxiii.  50)  speaks  in  glowing 
terms  of  the  effect  of  this  new  method  of  sing- 
ing, which  was  executed  "  with  a  clear  voice  and 
modulation  most  suitable."  Antiphonal  or  re- 
sponsive singing  between  men  and  women,  con- 
gregational choirs,  or  congregation  and  choir, 
borrowed  from  the  Greek  (}hurch,  came  particularly 
into  use  (see  Antiphon).  As  text  Ambrose  used 
the  Greek  and  Latin  hymns  already  existing,  both 
rimed  and  unrimed.  He  also  composed  hymns 
himself,  generally  without  rimes,  but  well  adapted 
to  the  melodies;  as  Deus  creator  omnium;  Jam, 
surgit  hora  tertia;  Sterne  rerum  conditor;  Veni 
redemptor  gentium;  perhaps  also  O  lux  heata  Trini- 
tas;  Splendor  patemcB  glories. 

The  Ambrosian  music  spread  rapidly  and  was 
soon  dominant  throughout  the  West.  But  in 
course  of  time  an  artificial  and  profane  manner 
crept  in,  which,  toward  the  close  of  the  sixth  cen- 
tury, called  forth  the  Gregorian  reaction;  and 
thus  the  singing  in  the  churches  was  again  confined 
to  the  choirs  or  the  clergy.  The  popular,  fresh, 
congregational  singing  of  the  Reformation  period 
may  be  regarded  as  a  partial  revival  of  the  ancient 
Ambrosian  chant.  M.  Herold. 

Bibuoorapht:  H.  A.  Daniel,  Theaaurua  hymnologieu$, 
HaUe,  1841;  C.  Fortlage,  Ge$dnge  chriatlicher  Voneit,  Ber- 
lin. 1844;  F.  J.  Mone,  Lateiniache  Hymnen  det  MxttelalterBt 
3  vols,,  Freiburg,  1863-64;  J.  Kayser,  BeUrOoe  ntr  Oe- 
wehiehte  und  Erkldrung  der  Altetten  Kirchenhymnen,  Pader- 
bom,  1881;  F.  Gevsrt,  Les  originea  du  chant  liiurtfique 
datu  Vigliae  latine,  Paris,  1890;  M.  Dreves,  Aurdiua  Am- 
brotiua  der  **  Voter  dee  Kirchengeaanga,'*  Freiburg,  1893; 
H.  A.  Kdstlin.  Oeachiehte  der  Muaik,  Berlin,  1899. 

AMBROSIANS:  Name  of  several  religious  so- 
cieties, organized  in  the  city  or  diocese  of  Milan 
after  the  fourteenth  century,  which  chose  St. 
Ambrose  as  their  patron.  The  only  one  to  attain 
more  than  local  importance  was  the  Order  of  the 
Brethren  of  St.  Ambrose  of  the  Grove  (Fratree 
S,  Ambrosii  ad  Nemus),  founded  before  1530  by 
three  pious  Milanese,  Alexander  Grivelli,  Alberto 
Besuzi,  and  Antonio  Petrasancta,  and  csdled  after 
their  meeting-place,  a  grove  outside  the  Porta 
Cumena  in  Milan,  to  which  Ambrose  used  at  times 
to  resort  (cf.  his  De  bono  mortis,  iii.  11).  Gregory 
XI.  confirmed  the  society  in  1375  on  the  rule  of 
St.  Augustine;  Eugenius  IV.  in  1445  united  it 
with  three  other  Ambrose-brotherhoods,  which 
had  originated  independently  at  Genoa,  Eugubio, 
and  Recanati  near  Ancona,  into  a  Congregatio  S. 
Ambrosii  ad  Nemus  Mediolanensis,  Sixtus  V. 
brought  about  in  1589  the  reunion  of  the  Milanese 
and  a  non-Milanese  division  of  the  order,  which 
was  temporarily  separated  under  the  name  of 
Congregatio  fratrum  8.  Ambrosii  ad  Nemus  et  S. 
Bamaba,  To  these  combined  Ambrose  and 
Barnabas  orders,  Paul  V.  granted  many  privileges 


in  1606.  But  Innocent  X.,  considering  the  small- 
ness  and  insignificance  of  the  order,  decided  upon 
its  dissolution  about  1650.  The  bull  with  respect 
to  it  is  given  in  the  BuUarium  magnum^  iii.  194. 

The  following  societies  were  confined  to  Milan 
and  its  neighborhood:  (1)  The  Nuns  of  St.  Am- 
brose of  the  Grove,  founded  in  1475  by  two  ladies 
of  Milan  not  far  from  Pallanza  on  Lago  Maggiore. 
(2)  The  Schola  S.  Ambrosii  or  Oblationariif  a  society 
of  old  men  and  women  who  undertook  to  assist  at 
the  Ambrosian  mass  in  the  churches  of  Milan, 
especially  in  bringing  oblations  (oblationes).  (3) 
The  Society  of  the  Oblates  of  St.  Ambrose,  founded 
by  Archbishop  Carlo  Borromeo  and  confirmed 
by  Gregory  XIII.  in  1578.  They  were  bound  to 
strict  obedience  to  superiors,  especially  the  arch- 
bishop of  Milan.  During  the  seventeenth  century 
the  society  was  in  a  flourishing  state  and  numbered 
about  200  members,  but  having  decreased  to  only 
16  in  1844  it  was  abolished.  O.  ZdCKLERf. 

Biblioorapht:  Helyot,  Ordrea  monaatiquea,  iv.  62-63.  Paris. 

1716;  Heimbucher,  Orden  und  Kongregationen,  i.  488-489, 

610,  ii.  336-338. 

AMBROSIASTER:  The  name  commonly  used 
for  the  unknown  author  of  the  Commentaria  in 
xiii,  epistolas  beati  Pauli,  which,  from  about  850 
until  the  time  of  Erasmus,  were  commonly  ascribed 
to  Ambrose  of  Milan.  This  opinion,  which  is  not 
yet  quite  extinct,  has  no  support  in  ancient  tra- 
dition, and  there  are  many  reasons  against  it — 
such  as  the  style,  the  Scripture  version  used,  the 
opinion  about  the  authorship  of  the  Epistle  to  the 
Hebrews,  and  the  attitude  toward  Greek  literature. 
But  the  idea  that  it  is  a  compilation  made  about 
800  is  equally  baseless.  The  Codex  Cassinensis, 
though  lacking  Romans,  shows  that  the  commen- 
tary had  its  recognized  form  earlier  than  570.  The 
Scripture  text  is  consistent,  belonging  to  a  time 
before  Jerome  and  to  the  recension  known  as  the 
Itala.  The  anthropology  is  naive  pre-Augustinian; 
the  eschatology  is  still  millenarian;  the  polemics 
against  heresy  point  to  the  period  about  380;  the 
filioque  is  lacking.  Nimierous  small  details  of 
historical  allusion  point  to  the  same  date. 

Little  success  has  attended  the  attempt  to  iden- 
tify the  author.  Because  Augustine  in  420  quoted 
a  passage  as  from  sanctus  Hilarius,  some  critics 
have  been  inclined  to  see  in  the  Ambrosiaster's 
work  a  part  of  the  lost  commentary  of  Hilary  of 
Poitiers  on  the  Epistles.  For  a  long  time  it  was 
thought  that  Augustine  referred  to  the  Roman 
deacon  Hilary,  the  partisan  of  Lucifer  of  Calaris. 
The  presbyter  Faustinus,  the  opponent  of  Dam- 
asus  and  author  of  a  treatise  on  the  Trinity,  has 
also  been  suggested.  But  neither  the  style,  the 
Scripture  version  used,  nor  the  christology  is  his. 
The  author  was  probably  a  presbyter  of  the  Roman 
Church;  possibly  Augustine  and  he  were  both 
quoting  Hilary.  The  attempt  to  identify  him, 
on  the  ground  of  notable  similarities,  with  the 
author  of  the  pseudo-Augustinian  Quastiones  ex 
uiroque  tesiamento  has  not  met  with  general  ap- 
proval. 

Though  the  work  of  Ambrosiaster  does  not,  from 
an  antiquarian  standpoint,  belong  to  the  most  inter- 
esting relics  of  Chnstian  antiquity,  its  exegesis 


168 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


▲mbrosian 
American 


is  often  valuable,  distinguished  by  soberness, 
clearness,  and  richness  of  thought,  and  singularly 
unbiased  and  objective  for  its  period.  Certain 
prejudices,  as  against  the  speculations  and  "  soph- 
istries "  of  the  Greeks,  and  against  the  deacons, 
are  explicable  by  the  circmnstances  of  the  time 
assigneid  above  to  its  composition.  The  author 
repeatedly  remarks  that  the  institutions  of  the 
Church  have  imdergone  essential  alterations  since 
the  apostles'  time.  Of  great  interest  are  his  re- 
marks about  the  primitive  organization,  which  he 
considers  to  have  been  very  informal,  all  teaching 
and  all  baptizing  as  occasion  offered.  He  thinks 
that  the  primitive  institutions  were  modeled  after 
the  synagogue;  that  presbyters  and  bishops  were 
originally  the  same,  as  indeed,  he  says,  they  still 
are  fundamentally;  that  the  Roman  Church  was 
founded  not  by  the  apostles,  but  by  certain  Jewish 
Christians,  who  imposed  a  Judaic  form  upon  it 
to  be  corrected  by  better-informed  later  arrivals; 
that  not  Peter  alone,  but  Paul  also,  had  a  primacy. 
In  a  manuscript  written  about  769  by  Winitharius, 
a  monk  of  St.  Gall,  and  elsewhere,  Origen  is  named 
as  the  author,  which  is  explicable  by  the  presence 
of  certain  Origenistic  ideas.  (F.  Arnold.) 

In  1899  Dom  Morin  {Revue  d^histaire  et  de  lit- 
Urature  religieuse)  suggested  as  the  author  of  the 
"  Ambrosiaster  "  works  Isaac  the  Jew,  a  professed 
convert,  who  prosecuted  Pope  Damasus  on  a 
capital  charge  and  who  was  said  by  the  friends  of 
the  pope  to  have  relapsed  to  Judaism  and  "  pro- 
faned the  Christian  mysteries "  (382  a.d.).  In 
1903  Morin  withdrew  this  identification  in  favor 
of  Decimius  Hilarianus  Hilarius,  prefect  of  Rome 
in  383,  and  pretorian  prefect  of  Italy  in  396.  A. 
Souter  (formerly  of  Caius  College,  Cambridge, 
now  professor  at  Mansfield  College,  Oxford),  in 
an  article  in  the  SUzungsberichte  of  the  Vienna 
Academy,  1904,  and  in  A  Study  of  Ambrosiaster  (T/S, 
vol.  vii..  No.  4,  1905)  adopted  the  later  view  of 
Morin,  and  from  an  exhaustive  study  of  manu- 
scripts and  comparison  of  the  Ambrosiastrian 
works  with  contemi)orary  writings  has  concluded 
that  this  view  "  entirely  satisfies  the  conditions 
of  the  problem,"  and  he  advises  those  who  may 
incline  to  a  different  view  to  **  read  the  works  of 
the  author  carefully  in  the  forthcoming  Vienna 
edition  [part  of  which  he  is  himself  editing]  before 
coming  to  a  conclusion  on  the  subject."  C.  H. 
Turner,  fellow  of  Magdalen  College,  Oxford,  ex- 
pressed hearty  approval  of  Morin 's  first  identifi- 
cation and,  in  an  article  m  JTS  (Apr.,  1906,  pp. 
355  sqq.),  refuses  to  be  convinced  by  the  argu- 
ments of  Morin  or  those  of  Souter  that  Decimius 
Hilarianus  Hilarius  rather  than  Isaac  the  Jew 
wrote  the  "  Commentaries  "  and  the  "  Questions." 
The  writer's  millenarianism,  extraordinary  famil- 
iarity with  Jewish  history  and  customs,  and  un- 
stron^y  favorable  to  the  theory  that  the  books 
usually  friendly  attitude  toward  Judaism  are 
were  written  by  Isaac  and  are  as  strongly  inimical 
to  the  theory  that  the  official  Decimius  Hilarianus 
Hilarius  was  the  author.  Equally  in  favor  of 
Isaac's  authorship  are  allusions  by  Jerome  to 
views  regarding  the  genealogies,  ascribed  to  some 
Judaising  teacher  whose  name  he  does  not  deign 


to  mention,  which  are  identical  with  those  of 
'*  Ambrosiaster."  A  young  Roman  Catholic  scholar 
Joseph  Wittig,  has  recently  advocated  the  Isaac 
hypothesis,  and  has  called  attention  to  the  fact 
that  "  Isaac  "  and  "  Hilary  "  both  mean  "  laugh- 
ing" as  a  means  of  accounting  for  the  ascription 
of  the  "  Commentaries  "  to  HUary  by  Augustine. 
Recent  writers  (Hamack,  JQlicher,  Morin,  Souter, 
Turner,  and  others)  are  agreed  in  attributing 
the  Commentaria  and  the  Quastiones  to  the 
same  author.  The  Commentaria  as  "  the  earliest 
commentary  on  the  Pauline  epistles "  and  the 
Qucestiones  as  **  the  earliest  substantial  book  on 
Biblical  difficulties,"  are  of  considerable  importance. 
Jiilicher  pronounces  the  Commentaria  **  the  best 
commentary  on  St.  Paul's  epistles  previous  to  the 
sixteenth  century,"  and  Hamack  is  equally  appre- 
ciative. Several  other  extant  works  are  attributed 
to  the  same  author.  A.  H.  Newman. 

Bibliographt:  His  work  is  usually  included  among  the 
works  of  Ambrose;  it  is  in  AiPL,  xvii.  and  in  P.  A.  Bal- 
lerini.  Ambroni  Opera,  iii.  349-372,  971-974,  Milan,  1877. 
Consult  A.  Souter,  A  Study  of  Ambronaater,  Oxford,  1905 
(claims  to  prove  finally  that  Ambrosiaster  was  Hilary  the 
layman);  C.  Oudin,  Commentariut  de  ecriptoribue  ec- 
eleaiaaticia,  i.  481  sqq.,  Leipdo,  1722;  J.  B.  Pitra,  Spicily 
gium  Soleamenae,  i.,  pp.  xxvi.-xxxiv.,  49-159,  567,  Paris, 
1852;  J.  H.  Reinkens,  Hilariua  von  Poiiiera,  pp.  273, 
Sohaffhausen,  1864;  DCB,  i.  89-90;  J.  Langen,  Com- 
menkarium  in  Epistolas  PaiUintu  .  .  .  Bonn.  1880;  H.  B. 
Swete,  Theodore  of  Mopeueetia  on  the  Minor  Epietlea  of 
St  Paul,  L,  p.  Ixxviii..  ii..  p.  351,  Cambridge.  1880-82; 
Marold,  Der  Ambroaiaater  nach  Inhalt  und  Uraprung,  ZWT, 
xxvii.   (1884)415-470. 

AMEN.    See  Lituroical  Formulas. 

AMERICAN  BAPTIST  MISSIONARY  UNION. 
See  Baptists,  II.,  3,  §  7. 

AMERICAN  BAPTIST  PUBLICATION  SOCIETY. 
See  Baptists,  II.,  3,  §  7. 

AMERICAN  BIBLE  SOCIETY.  See  Biblb  So- 
cieties, III.,   1. 

AMERICAN  BIBLE  UNION.  See  Bible  So- 
cieties, III.,  2. 

AMERICAN  BOARD  OF  COMMISSIONERS 
FOR  FOREIGN  MISSIONS.  See  Congreoa- 
TioNALisTs,  I.,  4,  §  11;  Missions. 

AMERICAN  AND  FOREIGN  BIBLE  SOCIETY. 
See  Bible  Societies,  III.,  2. 

AMERICAN  AND  FOREIGN  CHRISTIAN 
UNION:  A  society  organized  May  10,  1849,  by 
the  union  (as  indicated  by  the  name)  of  the 
American  Protestant  Society  (founded  1843),  the 
Foreign  Evangelical  Society  (instituted  1839  as 
the  expansion  of  the  French  Association  of  1835), 
and  the  Christian  Alliance  of  1842.  The  piupose 
was  to  prosecute  more  efficiently  the  work  of  the 
three  societies  named;  viz.,  to  convert  Roman 
Catholics  to  Protestantism;  or,  to  quote  its  con- 
stitution, "  by  missions,  colportage,  the  press,  and 
other  appropriate  agencies,  to  diffuse  the  principles 
of  religious  liberty,  and  a  pure  and  evangelical 
Christianity,  both  at  home  and  abroad,  where  a 
corrupted  Christianity  exists." 

For  a  number  of  years  the  society  prospered, 
and  spread  its  influence  over  Europe,  North  and 
South  America,  and  adjacent  islands.  From  1849 
to  1859  its  yearly  receipts  averaged  $60,000.    But 


▲xaerioan 
Azmnonitos 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


164 


it  was  compelled  gradually  to  contract  ita  opera- 
tioiui.  It  withdrew  from  France  in  1866,  from 
Italy  and  Europe,  and  other  foreign  stations  gen- 
erally, in  1S73;  and  ultimately  it  limited  its  efforts 
to  the  support  of  the  American  Church  in  Paris, 
Its  monthly  periodical,  The  Christian  Wm'id  (35 
vols,.  New  York,  1850-^4),  gave  an  account  of  its 
work;  the  number  for  April,  ISSO,  contams  a  his- 
torical sketch  of  the  first  thirty  years;  that  for 
luBe,  1SS4,  has  the  thirty- fifth  annual  report; 
consult  alio  the  last  number  (Nov.,  1884). 

AMERICAN  LECTURES  ON  THE  HISTORY 
OF  RELIGIONS  I  A  lectureship  made  possibk 
by  the  union  of  a  number  of  universities  and  theo- 
logical aeminaries  in  the  United  States,  each  of 
which  provides  a  sum  proportionate  to  the  require- 
ments of  the  year.  The  lectures  are  under  the  care 
of  a  committee  consisting  of  representatives  of  the 
institutions  which  unite  in  furnishing  the  funds 
and  hearing  the  lectures.  The  courses  thus  far 
d^vered  and  published  are: 

ia95:  T.  W.  Rh^i  Djivids,  Buddhimn  ^  iu  Hitt^ry  ««<* 
Ltleraiuri!^  New  York,  1895. 

1890:  D.  O.  BrmtoD,  Btlimon^  of  PtimUim  PmtpU*,  ib. 
1807. 

1808:  T.  K.  Ch«yTi#.  Jewi^  Eeiiffitnm  Lift  after  the  EziU, 
ih.  1898. 

1899:  K.  BuddCp  The  Reliffion  of  terael  to  the  EriU.  ib, 

1903 1  G.  Stdndarff,  The  EtUgion  of  Iht  Early  Eoyv^mnM, 
lb.  1906. 

1906:  G.  W.  Knox,  Th0DKttlapmrtitofBieligi&ninJav^n, 
ib.  1900, 

AMERICAN  MISSIONARY  ASSOCIATIOlf.     See 

CONGREGATlONALra'ra,  I.,  4,  |  10, 

AMERICAN  REFORM  TRACT  AND  BOOK 
SOCIETY.     See  TitAcr  Societies. 

AMERICAN  SEAMEN'S  FRIEND  SOCIETY. 
See  Seamen,  Missioks  ron* 

AMERICAN  SUHDAY-SCHOOLUNION.  SeeSuK- 

DAY-SCHOOLS. 

AMERICAN  TRACT  SOCIETY.     See  Tract  So- 

CIETIES. 

AMES,  WILLIAM  (LaL  Amesius):  Puritan;  b. 
at  Ipswich,  Suffolk,  England,  1576;  d.  at  Rotter- 
dam  Nov.  14,  1633.  He  studied  at  Christ's  College, 
Cambridge,  and  became  fellow.  From  the  first 
he  was  a  rigid  and  zealous  Fuiitan  and  so  without 
hope  of  preferment  in  the  Church  of  England,  In 
1611  he  went  to  Leyden,  thence  to  The  Hague, 
where  he  beeame  chaplain  to  Sir  Horace  Vere, 
commander  of  the  English  troops  in  the  Nether- 
lands, but  lost  this  post  through  intrigues  of  the 
High-church  party  at  home.  He  was  paid  four 
florins  a  day  by  the  States  General  to  attend  the 
Synod  of  Dort  (1618-19)  and  aseiflt  the  presider^tj 
became  profe^ssor  of  theology  at  Franeker  in  1622, 
and  rector  in  1636;  shortly  before  his  death  he 
became  pastor  of  the  English  church  ip  Rotterdam, 
He  contemplated  settUng  in  New  England,  and 
his  family  went  thither^  taking  with  them  his 
library,  HiH  influence  on  the  Continent  was  con- 
siderable, and  hia  reputation  is  greater  there  than 
in  his  native  land.  As  a  decided  Cal^Hniit  he  was 
active  in  the  Arminian  and  other  controversies 
of  his  time,  both  with  voice  and  pen.  His  most 
noteworthy    books    were    the   AffduUa    theologica 


(AmBterdam,  1623 ;  Eng.  transL,  The  Marrow  af 
Socrtd  DivinUy^  London^  1642)  and  the  De  con- 
sHerUia  ei  ejus  jure  vel  eambus  (1632;  Eng.  transl.^ 
Ctmaciencef  1639),  an  ethical  treatise  which  was 
really  a  continuation  of  the  old  scholastic  casuistry. 
A  collected  edition  of  his  Latin  works^  with  UJe  by 
M,  Nethenus,  was  published  in  five  volumes  at 
Amsterdam  in  1638.  <E.  F.  Eakl  MD^lleh,) 

AMICE,  am'is:  A  vestment  worn  by  Roman 
Catholic  priests  when  celebratirig  mass.  See  Vbbt* 
MEKTB  ANn  Insignia,  Ecctli^iastical. 

AMIOT(wrongly  spelled  Amyol),a"mi"6\  JOSEPH 
MARIA:  Jesuit  missionary;  b.  at  Toulon  Feb.  IS, 
1718;  d.  at  Peking  Oct.  8,  1793.  Ho  joined  tho 
Jesuits  in  1737  and  entered  China  &b  a  missionary 
in  1751.  The  reigning  emperor,  Kien-Lung,  was 
hostile  to  the  Christians,  but  the  missionaries  were 
allowed  to  proceed  to  Peking  and  to  work  there, 
if  not  in  the  provinces.  Father  Amiot  devoted 
himself  assiduously  for  the  rest  of  his  life  to  the 
study  of  Chinese  hiatory,  language,  and  literature 
and  was  one  of  the  first  to  give  Europe  accurate 
information  concerning  Eastern  Asia,  The  rcaulta 
of  his  work  were  published  for  the  most  part  in 
the  Mimmres  conc&nant  tcs  Chinois  (15  vob.,  Parifl, 
1776-01  )j  in  the  proceedings  of  learned  societies, 
and  in  the  Letlres  Mifianles  et  curieusea  (34  vols., 
1717-76),  They  include  a  life  of  Confucius  {Me- 
mmreSj  vol,  xii/)  and  a  Didionnaire  iartaTe-man- 
ichou-fran^ia  (ed.  Langl&s,  3  vols.,   1789-90). 

AIOSH,    See  MzNNONiTBa, 

AMLUfG,  WOLFGANG:  German  Reformed 
theologian;  b,  at  Mlinnerstadt  (35  m.  n,n,e,  of 
WClr^burg),  Franconia,  in  1542;  d.  at  Zerbst  May 
18,  1606.  He  ©tudied  at  Ttibingen,  Wittenberg, 
and  Jena^  was  appointed  rector  of  the  school  of 
ZdTb&i  in  1566^  miniater  at  Koswig  in  1573,  and^ 
shortly  after,  minist^*r  BJid  superi^ntendent  at  St. 
Nicolai  in  Zerbst.  He  was  vehemently  opposed 
to  the  Formula  ConcGrdiw,  and  led  the  population 
of  Anhalt  from  Lutheranism  to  Calvinism,  He 
wrote  the  Confessio  Anhnldina  (1578). 

AMMXAHUS  MARCELLmuSj  am"mi-a'nusm4r"- 
»el-ll'nus:  Author  of  a  Roman  history  IRerum 
geatarum  libri  zzxi.)  e^rtending  from  Nerva  to  the 
death  of  Valeria  (96-378).  He  was  a  native  of 
Antioch,  and  is  said  to  have  died  about  400,  He 
devoted  himself  to  philosophical  studies,  entered 
the  army  under  C^nfltantius,  accompanied  Julian 
in  the  war  against  the  Persians,  and  took  jmrt 
under  Julianas  successors  in  the  wars  both  of  the 
Orient  and  the  Occident,  He  afterward  retired  to 
Rome  and  resumed  hia  studies.  The  first  thirteen 
books  of  hia  history  are  lost ;  the  remaining  eighte-en. 
beginning  with  the  year  353,  give  much  valuable 
information  concerning  the  general  state  of  the 
Chmrh  and  many  important  particulars — the 
character  of  Julian,  his  proceedings,  views  held 
by  the  educat-ed  concerning  Christianity,  etc. 

The  question  whether  Amraianuft  was  a  Christian 
has  often  been  raiaed.  At  present  the  generally 
accepted  view  is  that  he  was  not.  Hia  work  con- 
tains many  cauatic  remarks  on  the  doctrines  of 
Chriatianity,     He  speaks  of  the  martyrs,  of  synods. 


165 


REUGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


American 
Anunonites 


and  of  other  details  of  the  Christian  system,  in  a 
way  which  points  to  a  non-Christian  author.  It  is, 
however,  equally  certain  that  he  was  not  an  adherent 
of  the  common  paganism.  He  recognized  a  supreme 
numen,  which  curbs  human  arrogance  and  avenges 
human  crime,  and,  in  general,  his  views  are  those  of 
the  best  Greek  writers,  approaching  a  monotheistic 
standpoint.  It  seems  probable  that  he  believed 
that  primitive  pure  Christianity  and  the  philosophy 
of  enlightened  pagans  were  the  same.  From  this 
point  of  view  Ammianus  could  consistently  speak 
with  favor  of  many  things  he  found  among  the 
Christians.  He  censures  Constantine's  interfer- 
ence in  the  Arian  controversy  and  calls  it  a  "  con- 
fusion of  the  absolute  and  plain  Christian  religion 
with  old-womanish  superstition,"  meaning  by 
"  superstition,''  as  the  connection  shows,  the  con- 
troversy concerning  the  Trinity  and  the  divinity 
of  Christ.  He  censiu«d  the  emperor  Julian  for 
forbidding  to  the  Christians  instruction  in  liberal 
studies,  while  he  did  not  blame  the  restoration 
of  pagan  sacrifices  at  the  beginning  of  Jovian's 
reign.  He  was  not  opposed  to  the  paganism  of 
Julian,  but  to  the  violation  of  religious  toleration. 

(E.  VON  WOlfflin.) 
Biblioorapht:  The  editio  prinoeps  (books  xiy.-xxvi.  only), 
ed.  Angelus  Sabinus.  was  published  in  Rome,  1874;  a  bet- 
ter edition  (books  xvi.-zxx.)  is  S.  CSelenius,  Basil,  1533; 
the  latest  is  by  V.  (lardthausen,  Leipsio.  1874.  Consult 
Teuffel-Sohwabe,  Oeschiehte  der  rdmiachen  Litteratur,  p. 
1092.  Leipdc.  1890. 

AMMON,CHRISTOPHFRI£DRICHVON:  Ger- 
man theologian;  b.  at  Baireuth  Jan.  16,  1766; 
d.  in  Dresden  May  21,  1850.  He  distinguished 
himself  as  a  student  at  Erlangen,  and  became 
professor  there  in  1789.  In  1794  he  went  to  G6t- 
tingen  as  professor,  university  preacher,  and  di- 
rector of  the  theological  seminary;  returned  to  Er- 
langen in  1804;  in  1813  went  to  Dresden  as  court 
preacher;  became  member  of  the  Saxon  ministry 
of  worship  and  public  instruction  in  1831,  and  vice- 
president  of  the  consistory  in  1835.  He  was  a 
versatile  and  many-sided  man,  an  accomplished 
scholar  in  diverse  fields,  an  influential  official  in 
Church  and  State,  a  prolific  writer,  and  much 
admired  as  preacher  and  orator.  The  most  note- 
worthy of  his  theological  writings  were:  Entwurf 
einer  reinen  biblischen  Theologie  (3  vols.,  Erlangen, 
1792;  2d  ed.,  1801-02);  Handbuch  der  chrisUichen 
SiUenlehre  (1795;  2d  ed.,  3  vols.,  Leipsic,  1838); 
Summa  theologies  Christiana  (1803;  4th  ed.,  ib. 
1850);  Die  Fortbildung  dee  ChriaterUums  tur  Welt- 
religion  (ib.  1833;  2d  ed.,  4  vols.,  183eM0). 
At  first  Ammon  was  a  decided  rationalist,  but 
his  tone  changed  in  successive  editions  of  Ms  works, 
and  in  1817  he  surprised  his  friends  by  defending 
the  theses  of  CisLUs  Harms  (q.v.)  in  BiUere  Artnei 
jUr  die  Glaubensachwdche  der  Zeit  (Hanover). 
Later  he  returned  to  his  earlier  views,  and  his 
vacillation  subjected  him  to  much  harsh  criti- 
cism. His  last  writings  were  Die  Geechichte  dee 
Leben  Jeeu  (3  vols.,  Leipsic,  1842-47)  and  Diewahre 
und  falsche  Orthodoxie  (1849).  From  1813  to  1822 
he  was  editor  of  the  Kritischea  Journal  der  neueeten 
thedogiachen  Litteratur,  (F.  W.  Dibeliub.) 

Biblioorapht:    Ch.  F.  v.  Amman,  naeh  Ltben,  Anaiehten 

und  Wirken,  Leipsic,  1850. 


AMMONITES:  A  people  of  Palestine,  allied, 
according  to  Gen.  xix.  38,  to  Abraham  through 
Lot,  and  therefore,  like  the  brother  people  Moab, 
akin  to  the  other  Abrahamic  nations,  Israel,  Ish- 
mael,  and  Edom.  The  name  is  here  explained  as 
ben  *ammif  "  son  of  my  kinsman."  Their  territory 
lay  east  of  the  Jordan  and  north  of  Moab,  from 
whom  they  were  separated  by  the  Amon  (Num. 
xxi.  13).  An  Amoritic  king,  Sihon,  and,  later,  the 
Israelites  are  said  to  have  excluded  them  from  the 
western  and  richer  part  of  this  district  and  to  have 
confined  them  to  the  steppe  lands  farther  to  the 
east  (Josh.  xii.  2,  xiii.  10,  25;  Judges  xi.  22). 
Cities  belonging  to  them  are  mentioned  (Judges 
xi.  33;  II  Sam.  xii.  31),  whence  it  appears  that  they 
were  in  part  a  settled  people,  in  part  nomadic. 
Their  chief  city  and  the  one  most  frequently  named 
was  Rabbah  (Rabbath-ammon;  Deut.  iii.  11; 
Josh.  xiii.  25;  II  Sam.  xii.  26-27;  Ezek.  xxi.  20; 
and  often),  the  modem  Amman.  They  had  a  king 
in  the  earliest  time.  Their  religion  was  doubtless 
like  that  of  the  Moabites;  their  chief  divinity  was 
Milcom  (I  Kings  xi.  5,  33;  II  Kings  xxiii.  13;  the 
mention  of  Chemosh  as  god  of  the  Ammonites  in 
Judges  xi.  24  is  probably  an  error;  see  Chemobh). 
The  name  ''  Milcom  **  has  been  explained  as  mean- 
ing "  Am  is  king,"  Am  {*Am)  being  the  name  of 
an  older  deity  (cf.  Balaam,  "  Am  is  lord,"  and  Gen. 
xix.  38).  The  relations  between  the  Israelites  and 
Anmionites  were  generally  hostile  (Judges  xi.; 
I  Sam.  xi.;  II  Sam.  x.  1-14,  xii.  26-31;  II  Kings 
xxiv.  2;  II  Chron.  xx.;  Neh.  ii.  10,  iv.  3,  vi.  1; 
Jer.  xl.  13-14,  xlix.  1-6;  Ezek.  xxv.  1-10;  Amos 
i.  13;  Zeph.  ii.  8);  and  this  fact  is  reflected  in  the 
account  of  their  disgraceful  origin  in  Gen.  xix. 
30-38.  Solomon  had  an  Ammonitish  wife  (I  Kings 
xiv.  21).  Assyrian  inscriptions  state  that  Baasha, 
king  of  Ammon,  was  among  the  allies  defeated  by 
Shalmaneser  II.  at  Karkar  (854  B.C.),  and  show  that 
the  Ammonite  Puduilu,  a  contemporary  of  Bianasseh 
of  Judah,  like  all  the  west- Asiatic  princes  of  the 
time,  was  a  vassal  of  Esarhaddon  (681-668  B.C.). 

In  postexilic  times  also  the  Ammonites  shared 
the  fortimes  of  their  neighbors,  and  were  under 
Persian,  Egyptian,  and  Syrian  rule.  Their  old 
capital  Rabbah  was  made  a  Hellenistic  city  and 
named  "  Philadelphia  "  after  Ptolemy  II.,  Phila- 
delphus.  In  218  b.c.  it  was  captiu«d  imder  Anti- 
ochus  the  Great.  In  the  Maccabean  period  the 
Anmionites  were  under  a  tyrant  Timotheus,  whom 
Judas  defeated  in  several  battles  (I  Mace.  v.  6-8). 
About  135  B.C.  Philadelphia  was  ruled  by  a  tyrant 
named  Zeno  Cotylas  (Josephus,  Ant,,  XIII.  viii.  1). 
It  was  included  in  the  Decapolis  by  Pompey,  and 
long  remained  under  Roman  rule.  At  the  beginning 
of  the  Jewish  wars,  like  most  of  the  Hellenistic 
cities,  it  was  attacked  by  the  Jews.  The  name 
"  Anunonite  "  occius  for  the  last  time  in  Justin 
Martyr  (d.  166),  who  says  they  were  very  numerous. 
The  present  extensive  ruins  at  Amman  belong  to 
Roman  times.  (F.  Buhl.) 

Biblioorapht:  E.  Kautssoh,  in  Riehm.  HandwOrterbuek  det 
HbliacKen  AUertuma,  pp.  6fr-l»6,  Bielefeld.  1884  (an  Admi- 
rable sketoh);  A.  H.  Sayoe,  Raota  of  the  Old  TMtament, 
London,  1891;  A.  Dillmann.  Commeniary  on  (Tenem,  on 
zix.  38.  Edinbuish.  1897;  DB,  i.  82-83:  BB,  ^  141- 
146. 


Ammoxiiiis 
Amos 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


156 


AMMONIUS,  am-m5'ne-UB,  OF  ALEXANDRIA: 

An  Alexandrian  of  the  third  century  who  is  thought 
to  have  made  one  of  the  earliest  attempts  to  pre- 
pare a  harmony  of  the  Gospels.  Eusebius  (Hist, 
eed.f  vi.  19)  and  Jerome  (De  vir.  ill.,  Iv.)  strangely 
confuse  him  with  Anmionius  Saccas  (q.v.).  He 
may  have  been  a  younger  contemporary  of  Origen. 
Of  his  work  nothing  is  known  except  what  may  be 
gathered  from  a  statement  of  Eusebius  (EpisL  ad 
Carpianum),  that  he  put  beside  the  text  of  the 
Gospel  of  Matthew  the  parallel  passages  from  the 
three  other  Gospels.  Whether  he  wrote  out  the 
parallels  in  full,  or  merely  indicated  them  by  some 
system  of  reference,  and  whether  or  not  he  also 
included  the  variants  from  Matthew  can  only  be 
conjectured.  His  work  was  probably  intended 
for  the  learned  rather  than  for  general  use.  The 
so-called  Ammonian  sections  are  contained  in  the 
edition  of  the  **  Tables  "  of  Eusebius  (i.e.,  his  gos- 
pel harmony),  using  the  Authorized  Version  as  text, 
prepared  by  S.  H.  Turner  (New  York,  1860).  See 
Bible  Text,  II.,  1,  §  4. 

Bxbuoarapht:  McGiffert  in  Euaebius,  Hiat.  ecel.,  in  NPNF, 
L38,39;  267. 

AMMONIUS  (AMMON,  AMUH)  THE  HERMIT. 
See  MoNASTicisM. 

AMMOinnS  SACCAS,  sakOcas:  The  founder 
of  Neoplatonism ;  he  lived  at  Alexandria  c.  175- 
242.  He  was  of  Christian  parentage  and  education, 
but  retiuned  to  heathenism.  For  a  long  time,  it 
is  said,  he  earned  his  living  as  a  porter  and  carried 
the  grain  sacks  from  the  ships;  hence  his  name. 
Herennius,  Longinus,  Plotinus,  and  Origen  the 
Neoplatonist,  as  well  as  the  Christian  Origen,  were 
among  his  pupils.  He  wrote  nothing,  and  it  is 
impossible  to  reproduce  his  system  from  the  state- 
ments of  his  disciples. 

AMOLO,  am'6-l5:  Archbishop  of  Lyons,  841- 
852.  He  was  educated  in  the  school  of  Lyons 
under  Agobard,  whom  he  succeeded  in  the  arch- 
bishopric, and  whom  he  resembled  in  his  freedom 
from  credulity  and  superstition.  In  a  letter  to 
Theotbold,  bishop  of  Langres,  dealing  with  a  case 
of  the  exhibition  of  unauthorized  relics  by  two  men 
who  came  from  Italy  and  pretended  to  be  monks, 
he  advised  that  they  should  be  prohibited,  citing 
other  cases  in  his  experience  which  had  been  mere 
fraud  and  avarice.  Amolo  also  followed  Agobard 
in  his  protest  against  the  powerful  position  which 
the  Jews  were  acquiring  in  the  south  of  France. 
His  book  Adveraua  Jvdaos,  dedicated  to  Charles 
the  Bald,  contains  some  interesting  details  as  to 
the  Messianic  expectations  of  the  Jews  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  Middle  Ages.  In  a  letter  to  Gottschalk, 
who  had  sought  to  find  in  him  a  supporter,  he 
exhorts  the  imprisoned  monk  to  submit  to  the  judg- 
ment of  the  ecclesiastical  authorities,  and  defi- 
nitely repudiates  several  of  his  assertions  on  the 
subject  of  predestination.  His  works  are  in  MPLy 
cxvi.,  and  his  letters  in  MGH,  Epiat.,  v.  (1899)  361 
sqq.  (A.  Hauck.) 

AMON,  EGYPTIAN  DEITY:  The  local  deity 
of  Thebes  in  Upper  Egypt.  The  etymology  of  the 
name,  as  in  the  case  of  most  Egyptian  deities,  is 
uncertain;  the  theologians  of  the  later  time  ex- 


plained it  as  meaning  "  the  concealed,''  from  the 
root  'MN,  "  to  be  veiled,  hidden."  Amon  appears 
to  have  been  originally  a  harvest-god;  but  as  early 
as  the  Middle  IGngdom  he  was  thought  of  as  sun- 
god,  according  to  the  teaching  that  all  Egyptian 
deities,  whatever  might  be  their  names,  were  only 
different  forms  of  the  one  sun-god.  As  such  he  was 
called  Amon^Rasetn-nUru,  "  Amon  the  Sun  God, 
the  King  of  the  Gods,"  and  was  later  identified  by 
the  Greeks  with  their  25eus  (hence  the  late  Greek 
name  for  Thebes,  Diospolia).  His  holy  animal 
was  a  ram  with  horns  curving  downward.  He  is 
usually  represented  in  human  form,  blue  in  color, 
wearing  a  close-fitting  hat  with  two  long  upright 
plumes.  Less  often  he  is  represented  ithyphallic, 
in  the  form  of  the  harvest-god,  Min  of  Koptos, 
with  whom  he  was  often  identified.  Ram-headed 
figures  of  Amon  are  also  found,  especially  in  Nubia. 
Amon  gained  much  from  the  changed  political 
conditions  after  the  fall  of  the  Old  Kingdom. 
Thebes  became  the  metropolis  of  Egypt  and  its 
god  took  the  chief  place  in  the  Egyptian  pantheon. 
The  Pharaohs  undertook  their  campaigns  in  Asia 
and  Nubia  in  the  name  of  Amon  and  naturally 
the  lion's  share  of  the  booty  fell  to  him.  His  great 
temple,  near  the  present  Kamak,  "the  throne  of 
the  world,"  was  begun  by  the  kings  of  the  twen- 
tieth dynasty,  and  was  extended  and  adorned  by 
succeeding  generations  until  it  became  the  most 
imposing  of  Egyptian  temples  (see  No).  His 
worship  was  introduced  in  the  conquered  prov- 
inces and  his  sanctuaries  arose  all  over  Nubia,  in 
the  oases  of  the  Libyan  desert,  and  in  Syria.  Under 
the  New  Kingdom  he  was  preeminently  the  national 
god  of  Egypt.  The  only  check  to  the  growth  of 
his  power  and  wealth  was  the  abortive  attempt 
of  Amenophis  IV.,  about  1400  B.C.,  to  introduce 
the  worship  of  the  sun's  disk.  Under  the  Rames- 
sids  Amon's  possessions  were  almost  incredible 
(cf.  Erman,  Life  in  Ancient  Egypt,  London,  1894, 
pp.  302-303).  His  high  priest  came  to  be  the 
first  person  in  the  State  after  the  king,  and  even- 
tually, toward  the  end  of  the  twentieth  dynasty, 
was  able  to  supplant  the  latter.  The  priests  of 
Amon  did  not  long  retain  the  throne,  but  their 
great  wealth  perpetuated  their  political  influence 
imtil  the  twenty-sixth  dynasty,  when  their  power 
seems  to  have  declined,  and  Amon  gradually  sank 
back  to  the  position  of  a  local  deity.  In  the  oases, 
however,  and  in  Ethiopia  his  worship  and  the  au- 
thority of  his  priests  lasted  till  Roman  times  and 
the  introduction  of  Christianity. 

(G.  Stkindorpf.) 
Bibuoorapht:  C.  P.  Tiele,  Hiatory  cf  ths  Eovptian  Religion^ 
pp.  147-150,  Boston.  1882;  H.  Bniffsoh,  Relioion  .  .  . 
der  aUen  Atovpter^  pp.  87  sqq.,  Leipdo,  1885;  A.  Erman. 
Lift  in  AncietU  Egtfpt,  paasim,  London,  1894;  A.  Wiede- 
mann, Reliifion  of  the  Ancient  Effj/ptiana,  109-110,  New 
York,  1897  (authoritatiye);  E.  A.  W.  Bud«e.  GotU  of  the 
Egyptiane,  i.  23.  79.  88.  ii.  1-16.  324.  London.  1903  (the 
fullest  aooount.  in  a  volume  richly  illustrated);  P.D.  Chan- 
tepie  de  la  Saxissaye.  LekrbwJi  der  ReUoionegeaehichie,  i. 
208-209.  Tabinsen.  1905;  O.  Steindorff.  Religion  of  the 
Ancient  Egyptiana,  New  York.  1905. 

AMON,  6'men,  KING  OF  JUDAH:  Fourteenth 
king  of  Judah,  son  and  successor  of  Manasseh. 
He  reigned,  according  to  the  old  chronology, 
642-641  B.C.;  according  to  Eamphauaen,  640-639; 


157 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Ammooaui 
Amo« 


according  to  Hommel,  641-640.  During  his  short 
reign  nothing  of  importance  took  place.  Judah, 
which  was  tributary  to  the  Assyrians,  enjoyed 
peace.  Amon  walked  in  the  ways  of  his  father, 
Manasseh,  imitated  the  Assyrians  in  worshiping 
the  heavenly  bodies,  and  continued  the  Baal  and 
Moloch  cults.  His  servants  conspired  against  him 
and  slew  him.  The  "  people  of  the  land  "  rose  up 
against  the  conspirators,  slew  them,  and  made 
Jofiiah,  his  son,  eight  years  old,  king  in  his  stead. 
His  history  is  found  in  II  Kings  xxi.  18-26;  II 
Chron.  xxxiii.  20-25.  (W.  Low.) 

Bxbuoorapht:  Consult  the  works  mentioned  under  Ahab. 

AMORITES,  am'd-raits:  According  to  Gen.  x. 
15-18;  I  Chron.  i.  13-16,  one  of  the  eleven  tribes 
descended  from  Canaan.  They  are  frequently 
mentioned  in  lists  of  the  Palestinian  peoples  dis- 
possessed by  Israel  (Gen.  xv.  21;  Ex.  iii.  8;  Deut. 
vii.  1;  Josh.  iii.  10;  etc.).  As  distinguished  from 
the  Canaanites,  they  seem  to  have  fonned  the  chief 
part  of  the  population  of  the  west-Jordan  high- 
lands (Num.  xiii.  29;  Deut.  i.  7,  19-20,  44;  Josh. 
V.  1,  X.  6).  In  certain  passages  (particularly  in 
E  and  D)  the  term  is  used  as  a  general  designation 
of  the  pre-Israelitic  peoples  of  Palestine  (Gen.  xv. 
16;  Josh.  vii.  7,  xxiv.  15, 18;  Judges  vi.  10;  I  Sam. 
vii.  14;  II  Sam.  xxi.  2;  I  Kings  xxi.  26;  II  Kings 
xxi.  11;  Isa.  xvii.  9,  LXX.;  Ezek.  xvi.  3;  Amos 
ii.  9-10).  In  Judges  i.  34-35  the  people  of  the 
lowlands  west  of  the  mountains  of  Judah  are  called 
Amorites.  Elsewhere  (as  in  Gen.  xiv.  7,  13,  xlviii. 
22,  and  in  many  passages  in  which  the  east-Jordan 
kings,  Sihon  and  Og,  are  called  Amorites)  it  is 
doubtful  whether  or  not  a  particular  tribe  is  meant. 
The  extrarBiblical  sources  have  raised  new  prob- 
lems instead  of  throwing  light  on  the  ethnographical 
question.  The  "  Amara "  of  the  Egyptian  in- 
scriptions, who  are  usually  identified  with  the 
Amorites,  lived  in  the  valley  between  Lebanon  and 
Anti-Lebanon  (cf.  W.  Max  MUUer,  Asien  und 
Europa,  Leipsic,  1893,  pp.  218-233).  Hence  it 
seems  probable  that  the  Amorites  moved  south- 
ward in  the  fifteenth  century  B.C. — a  movement 
which  may  be  referred  to  in  the  Tell  el-Amama 
letters  (cf .  H.  Winckler,  GeachichU  Israds,  i.,  Leipsic, 
1895,  p.  52).  (F.  Buhl.) 

The  Amorites  are  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment more  frequently  than  any  other  people  of 
Palestine  except  the  Canaanites.  West  of  the 
Jordan  they  seem  to  have  been  confounded  the 
one  with  the  other;  but  as  the  Canaanites  are 
never  said  to  have  lived  east  of  the  Jordan  so 
the  Amorites  do  not  appear  on  the  Mediterranean 
coast-land.  The  difficult  question  as  to  whether 
or  not  the  two  peoples  are  essentially  identical  is 
probably  to  be  decided  in  the  negative,  though  it  is 
quite  possible  that  the  Amorites  as  well  as  the 
Canaanites  were  a  Semitic  people.  There  is,  in 
any  case,  no  sufficient  warrant  for  the  assumption 
of  Sayce  and  others  that  they  were  akin  to  the 
Libyans.  The  Babylonian  name  for  Canaan,  mat 
Amur^,  "land  of  the  Amorites"  shows  that  at 
least  the  eastern  side  of  Palestine  was  Amoritic  at 
an  eariy  date,  and  it  is  a  plausible  supposition  that 
the  two  related  peoples  separated  in  southern 
SIsTria,  the   Canaanites    following    the  coast-land 


(their  proper  home)  and  then  spreading  eastward 
to  the  hUl-country,  and  the  Amorites  coming 
gradually  southward,  mainly  east  of  the  Jordan. 
A  learned  annotator  intimates  (Deut.  iii.  9)  that 
they  were  once  the  dominant  people  about  Anti- 
Lebanon,  as  the  "  Sidonians  "  or  Phenicians  were 
about  Lebanon.  After  their  loss  of  the  Moabite 
country  (Num.  xxi.  21-35)  they  were  gradually  ab- 
sorbed by  the  Hebrews,  Amorites,  and  Arameans. 

J.  F.  McCURDY. 
Bibuooeapht:  A.  H.  Sayoe.  Th»  WhUe  Race  of  Ancient 

PaleaUne,  in  Expoeitor,  July,  1888;   idem,    Racee  of  the 

O.  7..  London,  1891;  DB,  I  84^85;  SB,  i.  145-147. 640-643; 

Meyer,  in  ZATW,  I   (1881)  122  sqq.;    J.  F.  MoCurdy. 

Hietory,  Prophecy  and  the  Monumente,  If  130-131,  3  yoIb., 

New  York.  1896-1901. 

AMOS,  6'mes:  The  third  of  the  minor  prophets, 
originally  a  herdsman  and  farmer  of  Tekoa  (a 
town  twelve  miles  s.s.e.  of  Jerusalem),  and  destitute 
of  a  prophetical  education  (Amos  i.  1,  vii.  12,  14- 
15).  The  Fathers  wrongly  identified  him  with 
the  father  of  Isaiah  (Amoz),  because  his  name 
in  the  Septuagint  is  identical  with 
Life.  that  of  Isaiah's  father.  He  prophe- 
sied in  the  Northern  Kingdom  during 
the  reigns  of  Uzziah  in  Judah  (777-736  B.C.)  and 
Jeroboam  II.  in  Israel  (781-741),  when  Israel  was 
at  the  very  height  of  its  splendor  (i.  1,  vii.  10-11). 
His  prophecies  were  apparently  all  given  in  one 
year,  specified  as  "two  years  before  the  earth- 
quake," a  momentous  but  undatable  event  (i.  1; 
cf.  2^ch.  xiv.  5;  Josephus,  Ant.,  IX.  x.  4,  gives  a 
fabulous  story) .  The  place  was  Beth-el,  the  greatest 
sanctuary  of  the  Northern  Kingdom.  His  plain 
speaking  led  to  the  charge  of  conspiracy,  and  he 
was  compelled  to  return  to  Judah  (Amos  vii.  10- 
12).     Nothing  more  is  known  of  him. 

The  Book  of  Amos,  after  the  opening  verse,  is 
divisible  into  three  parts:  (1)  Chaps,  i.  2-ii.  16, 
describing  the  judgments  of  God  upon  Damascus 
(i.  3-5),  Philistia  (i.  6-8),  Tyre  (i.  ^10),  Edom 
(i.  11-12),  Anmion  (i.  13-15),  Moab  (ii.  1-3),  Judah 
(ii.  4-5),  and  Israel  (ii.  6-16).  (2)  Chaps,  iii.-vi.,  a 
series  of  discourses  against  the  Northern  Kingdom 
threatening  punishment  and  judgment.  The  sub- 
division of  this  section  is  a  matter  of 
The         dispute.    The  prophet  sets  forth  in 

Book  of  his  usual  rhetorical  manner  the  moral 
Amos,  and  religious  degeneracy  of  the  people. 
(3)  Chaps,  vii.-ix.,  beginning  with  three 
successive  threatening  visions  (vii.  1-3,  4-6,  7-9). 
These  were  made  the  basis  of  the  complaint  against 
Amos  of  Amaziah,  high  priest  at  Beth-el,  to  the 
king  Jeroboam  II.,  and  hence  resulted  his  banish- 
ment (vii.  10-13).  Before  he  goes,  however,  he 
insists  upon  the  reality  of  his  call  (vii.  14-15),  and 
foretells  the  sad  fall  of  the  high  priest  and  his 
family  (vii.  16-17).  Chaps,  vii.,  viii.,  and  ix.  contain 
two  visions  and  their  explanations.  The  first  is 
of  threatening  content,  but  the  second  (ix.  1-7) 
adds  a  promise  of  salvation  for  a  faithful  remnant 
and  of  the  universal  sway  of  religion  and  prosperity 
(ix.  8-15).  The  book  gives  only  an  abstract  of 
the  prophet's  complete  discourses. 

The  style  of  Amos  is  rhetorical.  His  figures, 
analogies,  and  similes  are  excellent,  though  at  times 
surprising  (cf.  iii.  3-6;  iv.  2;  v.  7;  xiii.  11-14).   The 


Amulet 


THE  NEW  8CHAFF-HERZ0G 


158 


notion  that  Amos  borrows  his  similes  chiefly  from 
his  early  mode  of  life,  and  thus  betrays  his  extrac- 
tion, is  generally  accepted;  but  it  is  hardly  well 
founded  when  the  variety  of  them  is  observed  (cf. 
ii.  13;  iii.  4,  5,  8,  12;  vi.  12;  viii.  8;  ix.  5;  and  the 
visfons  of  vii.  1  and  viii.  1).  On  the  other  hand, 
the  Hebrew  of  Amos  is  abnormal,  but  it  is  uncertain 
how  much  belongs  to  the  author  himself.  The 
integrity  and  genuineness  of  the  book  are  generally 
acknowledged;  only  i.  &-11;  ii.  4,  5;  iii.  14b;  iv. 
13;  V.  8,  9;  viii.  6,  8,  11,  12;  ix.  6,  6,  8-15,  partly 
on  account  of  the  contents,  partly  on  account  of 
the  connection,  have  been  regarded  as  glosses  by 
modem  critics  (Duhm,  Stade,  Giesebrecht,  Comill, 
Schwally,  Smend,  Wellhausen). 

The  modem  school  of  Biblical  scholars  regard 
the  Book  of  Amos  as  the  oldest  written  testimony 
to  that  activity  of  the  prophets  of 
Its  Im-     the  eighth  century  b.c.  whereby  the 
portance.    religion  of  Israel  was  given  a  more 
ethical    and    spiritual    character.     It 
is  therefore  important  to  note  its  contents  and 
presuppositions.    Two    evils    in    the    moral    and 
rdigious    conditions    of    the    Northern    Kingdom 
receive  the  prophet's  severe  condemnation,  viz., 
the  reprehensible  conduct  of  the  high  and  mighty 
(ii.  6-7a;  iii.  10;  iv.  1;  v.  7,  11-12;  viii.  4-6),  and 
the  perverted  religious  forms  and  observances  (ii. 
7b-8;  V.  26;  viii.  14).   The  latter,  with  their  idola- 
trous representations  of  the  deity,  were  specially 
offensive  to  a  pious  Judean,  who  believed  that 
Yahweh  dwelt  on  Zion  and  not   in  visible  form. 
Reliance  upon  the  offerings,  gifts,  feasts,  and  pro- 
cessions of  Beth-el  and  the  other  sanctuaries  as  a 
means  of  securing  Yahweh's  favor  was  a  terrible 
mistake,  which  could  only  bring  the  most  direful 
consequences   (iv.  4-13;  v.  4-6,  21-24;  ix.  1-8). 
The  true  way  to  serve  Yahweh  was  to  become 
like  him  and  to  practise  goodness  and  righteousness 
(v.  14,  24).    The  prophet  makes  no  claim  to  new 
ideas   concerning  Yahweh  or  his  relations  to  the 
world  in  general  and  to  Israel  in  particular.    What 
he  has  to  say  upon  these  topics  is  all  assumed  as 
already  known  to  the  pious.     It  is  the  idolatrous 
worship,  with  its  attendant  evils,  which  he  repro- 
bates and  wishes  to  correct.         (A.  KdHLERt.) 
Biblioorapht:  Besides  the  works  mentioned  in  the  article 
Minor  Prophbts,   consult:    W.  R.  Harper,  Amo9  and 
Ho9tat  in  International  Critieal  Commentary^  New  York. 
1905  (gives  a  full  list  of  the  important  literature,  clxxviii.- 
dxxzix.);  O.  Baur,  Der  Prophet  Amo»  erklOrt,  Giessen, 
1847;  J.  H.  Gunning.  De  godepraken  van  Amos,  Leyden, 
1885;  K.  Hartung,  Der  Prophet  Amo§  naeh  dem  Orund- 
texte  erkUkrt,  in  Btbluche  Studien,  iii.,  Freiburg,  1888;  H. 
G.  Bfitchell,  Amo9,  an  Eaeay  in  Exegeeie,  Boston,  1893, 
1900;  J.  J.  P.  Valeton,  Amoe  en  Uoeea,  Nijmwegen,  1894 
(Germ,  transl.,  Giessen,  1898,  an  excellent  work);  8.  R. 
Driyer,  Joel  and  Amoe,  in  Cambridge  Bible,  1897;  8.  Oettli, 
Amo9  und  Hoeea,  svoei  Zevtgen  gegen  die  An^t)endung  der 
Evolutiona&ieorie  auf  die  Religion  leraele,  in  BeitrUge  nw 
Fdrderung  Chrietlichen  Theologie,  v.  4,  GOtersloh,  1901. 

AMPHILOCHIUS,  am^fi-lO^ki-ns,  SAINT  :  Ap- 
parently a  cousin  of  Gregory  Nazianzen,  and 
closely  associated  with  him  and  with  Basil  the 
Great  in  directing  the  policy  of  the  Church  at  the 
time  of  the  defeat  of  Arianism.  He  was  originally  a 
lawyer,  but  retired  to  a  life  of  devotion  and  ascet- 
icism. In  373  he  was  chosen  bishop  of  Iconiima, 
the  metropolitan  see  of  Lycaonia.    The  year  of 


his  death  is  imcertain;  but  Jerome  includes  him, 
as  still  living,  in  his  Z)e  viria  iUustribxu  (392),  and 
he  appears  as  taking  part  in  a  synod  at  Constan- 
tinople in  394.    Of  the  numerous  works  ascribed 
to  him  byCombefis  (cf.  AfPG,  xxxix.),not  a  few  are 
doubtless  not  genuine.  Late  investigation,  however, 
has  brought  to  light  other  genuine  works  of  Amphi- 
lochius.  ■  The  Epistola  synodica  in  defense  of  the 
orthodox  doctrine  of   the  Trinity  (376),  and  the 
Iambi  ad  Sdeucumj  ascribed  to  Gregory  Nazianzen 
{MPG,  xxxvii.),  not  without  importance  for  the 
history  of  the  canon,  are  not  the  only  works  of  Am- 
philochius  which  are  still  extant.        (F.  Loofs.) 
Bibuoorapht:  Fabridus-Harles,    Bibliotheca    Orctca,    viii. 
373-381,    Hamburg,    1802;  DCB,  i.    103-107  (quite   ex- 
haustive); J.  Fessler,  Inetitutionee  pairologice,  i.  600-004. 
Innsbruck,  1900;  K.  Holl,  Amphilochivu  von  Ihonium,  TQ- 
bingen,  1904;   G.  Ficker,  Amphilochiana,  part  i..  Leipsic, 
1906. 

AMPULLJE,  am-pul'lf  or  -16:  [Flasks  or  vials 
for  holding  liquids.  In  ecclesiastical  usage  they 
have  been  employed  for  the  water  and  wine  of  the 
mass  and  for  the  consecrated  oil  used  in  baptism, 
confirmation,  and  extreme  unction.  Such  vessels 
were  sometimes  of  considerable  size  and  were  made 
of  gold,  silver,  crystal,  onyx,  or  glass.  Specimenis 
are  preserved  at  Paris,  Cologne,  Venice,  and  else- 
where; and  there  is  one  at  Reims  said  to  have  been 
miraculously  provided  for  the  baptism  of  Ciovia 
in  496.]  Deserving  of  most  notice  are  the  so-called 
ampuUcB  aanguinolentce,  phioloB  cruentce  or  rubricatce 
("  blood-ampulke ")»  glass  flasks  which  contain 
a  reddish  sediment  and  are  alleged  to  have  once 
held  the  blood  of  martyrs.  They  have  been  found 
almost  exclusively  in  the  graves  of  the  catacombs, 
near  the  slab  with  which  the  grave  was  sealed  or 
fastened  to  it  by  mortar.  They  are  first  mentioned 
by  Antonio  Bosio,  the  explorer  of  the  Roman 
catacombs,  who  relates  that  in  certain  graves  as 
well  as  in  glass  or  clay  vessels,  he  found  blood  con- 
gealed and  dried,  which,  when  moistened  with 
water,  assiuned  its  natural  color  {Rama  aotterraneaf 
Rome,  1632,  p.  197).  Soon  afterward  a  certain 
Landucci  discovered  such  vessels  with  a  watery 
or  milky  fluid  which,  when  shaken,  assumed  the 
color  of  blood  (De  Rossi,  619).  The  discovery  of 
a  phiola  rubricata  came  to  be  regarded  as  certain 
proof  of  a  martyr's  grave,  and  the  CJongregation 
of  the  Sacred  Rites  decided  accordingly  in  1668 
when  doubts  were  raised  concerning  the  indicia 
martyrii  at  the  removal  of  relics  from  the  cata- 
combs. Doubts  continued,  however,  and  a  Jesuit, 
Victor  de  Buck,  made  the  strongest  presentation 
of  the  case  of  the  skeptics,  arguing  on  scientific 
grounds  (De  phiolia  rubricatiSf  Brussels,  1855). 
After  a  new  find  in  the  cemetery  of  S.  Satumino  in 
1872  a  papal  commission  imdertook  an  exact 
microscopical  investigation,  which  was  believed 
to  establish  the  presence  of  blood.  Roman  Catholic 
archeologists  and  theologians  had  generally  con- 
ceded a  possibility  that  the  claims  might  be  well 
founded,  while  opposing  the  unsystematic  and 
imscientific  assumption  that  all  red  sediment  was 
blood,  and  demanding  an  adequate  investigation 
in  each  case. 

The  following  weighty  and  conclusive  objections, 
however,  are  made  even  to  the  possibility:  (1)  There 


160 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


▲mo* 
Amulet 


IS  no  literary  testimony  that  the  blood  of  martyrs 
was  preserved  as  is  presupposed,  and  no  satisfactory 
reason  has  been  given  why  it  should  have  been 
thus  saved.  (2)  A  large  percentage  of  these 
ampulke  come  from  the  graves  of  children  under 
seven  years  of  age,  who  can  hardly  have  suffered 
in  the  persecutions  of  the  Christians;  furthermore, 
more  than  one-half  of  them  are  of  the  time  of 
Constantine  or  later.  (3)  Non-Christian  graves 
furnish  similar  vessels  with  red  sediment.  (4)  In 
no  case  has  the  sediment  been  proved  to  be  blood 
by  chemical  and  microscopic  examination.  The 
attempt  made  in  1872  is  untrustworthy,  and  its 
results  are  rejected  by  competent  judges.  (5)  The 
specimens  with  inscriptions  (such  as  sang.,  aa., 
and  the  like)  and  the  monogram  of  Christ  or  the 
cross  are  forgeries.  The  red  sediment  is  probably 
oxid  of  iron  produced  by  the  decomposition  of  the 
glass.  It  has  been  suggested  that  it  is  the  remains 
of  communion  wine,  and  the  sixth  canon  of  the 
Synod  of  Carthage  of  397  lends  support  to  the  view, 
but  the  chemical  analysis  is  against  it  (cf .,  however, 
Berthelot  in  Revue  archiotogique,  new  series,  xxxiii., 
1877,  p.  396).  Certain  heathen  burial  customs 
in  which  wine  (cf.  Schultze,  Katakombenf  pp.  52, 
54,  and  note  15)  or  oil  was  used  offer  analogies. 
The  original  purpose  and  significance  of  these 
ampulls  was  probably  not  uniform. 

(Victor  Schultze.) 

Bibuoobapht:  F.  X.  KraiiB,  Die  BliUampuUen  der  rOmi- 
•cften  Katakomben,  Frankfort,  1868;  idem,  Ueber  denge- 
genwOriioen  Stand  der  Froife  nach  dem  InhaUe  und  der  Be- 
deutung  der  r&miechen  BliUampuUen,  FreiburR,  1872;  idem, 
Roma  eoUerraneat  pp.  507  eqq.,  ib.  1879:  "  Paulinus,"  Die 
MOrtyrer  der  Katakomben  und  die  rdmieche  Praxie,  Leip- 
sio.  1871 ;  O.  B.  de  Rossi,  Roma  aoUerranea,  iii.  602  sqq., 
Rome,  1877;  Victor  Sohultie,  Die  eoffenannten  BhUglAeer 
der  rOmieehen  Katakomben,  in  ZKW,  i.  (1880)  515  sqq.; 
idem.  Die  Katakomben,  pp.  225  eqq.,  Leipaio,  1882. 

AKRAPHEL.  See  Hammurabi  and  his  Code, 
I.,  §  1. 

AMSDORF,  IflKOLAUS  VON:  German  Protes- 
tant; b.  at  Torgau  (30  m.  n.e.  of  Leipsic)  Dec.  3, 
1483;  d.  at  Eisenach  May  14,  1565.  He  began 
his  studies  at  the  University  of  Leipsic  in  1500, 
but  two  years  later  went  to  Wittenberg,  being 
among  the  first  students  in  the  newly  founded 
imiversity  in  that  city.  There  he  fell  under  the 
influence  of  Luther,  whose  intimate  friend  he  be- 
came, and  to  whose  teachings  he  lent  unquestioning 
adhesion  from  the  very  beginning.  He  was  with 
Luther  at  the  Leipsic  disputation  in  1519,  accom- 
panied him  to  Worms  in  1521,  and  was  in  the 
secret  of  his  sojourn  at  the  Wartburg.  In  1524 
he  became  pastor  and  superintendent  in  Magdeburg 
and  was  active  in  introducing  the  Reformation 
into  that  city,  organizing  the  ritual  closely  on 
the  model  of  Wittenberg.  He  perf9rmed  similar 
services  in  Goslar  and  Einbeck.  From  the  first 
he  was  rigid  in  his  views,  opposed  to  the  least 
departure  from  the  orthodox  Lutheran  doctrine, 
and  fierce  in  his  attacks  on  such  men  as  Melanch- 
thon  and  Butzer  who  came  to  represent  a  policy 
of  conciliation  and  compromise  both  within  the 
Protestant  Church  and  toward  the  Roman  Catholic 
princes.  Thus  he  was  largely  instrumental  in  the 
failure  of  the  Regensburg  conference  of  1541,  where 


his  attitude  toward  the  emperor  was  as  fearless 
as  it  was  narrow.  In  the  same  year  the  Elector 
John  Frederick  appointed  him  bishop  of  Naum- 
burg-Zeitz  against  the  wishes  of  the  chapter  and 
in  spite  of  the  protest  of  the  emperor.  The  battle 
of  Mtthlberg  (1547)  compelled  Um  to  seek  refuge 
in  Weimar.  His  quarrel  with  Melanchthon  and 
his  supporters  had  grown  embittered  with  time, 
and  he  helped  to  found  a  new  imiversity  at  Jena 
in  opposition  to  the  tendencies  represented  at 
Wittenberg.  In  the  same  spirit  he  assumed 
charge  of  the  Jena  edition  of  Luther's  works,  which 
was  to  correct  the  alleged  faults  and  omissions  of 
the  Wittenberg  edition. 

In  1552  Amsdorf  was  made  superintendent  at 
Eisenach,  whence,  with  Flacius,  whom  he  caused 
to  be  called  to  Jena,  he  carried  on  a  virulent 
polemic  against  the  so-called  Philippists  and  Adi- 
aphorists.  The  formal  break  between  the  orthodox 
Lutheran  party  and  the  followers  of  Melanchthon 
at  the  colloquy  of  Worms  in  1557  was  largely  due 
to  Amsdorf 's  efforts.  From  1554  to  1559  he  was 
engaged  in  a  violent  controversy  with  Justus 
Menius,  superintendent  at  Gotha,  concerning  the 
doctrine  of  good  works  as  essential  to  salvation; 
and  in  the  stress  of  conflict  he  was  led  to  assume 
the  extreme  position  that  good  works  are  actually 
detrimental  to  the  welfare  of  the  soul,  denoting 
by  "  good  works,"  however,  those  that  man  per- 
forms for  the  express  purpose  of  attaining  sal- 
vation. When,  in  1561,  as  a  result  of  his  views  on 
the  doctrine  of  sin,  Flacius,  together  with  his 
followers,  was  expelled  from  Jena,  Amsdorf  was 
spared  because  of  his  advanced  age  and  his  great 
services  to  the  Protestant  cause  in  the  early  days 
of  the  Reformation.  (G.  Kawerau.) 

Biblioorapht:  E.  J.  Meier,  biography  of  Amsdorf  in  M. 
Meurer,  D<u  Leben  der  AUvOier  der  luiheriechen  Kirehe,  iii., 
Leipsic,  1863;  Eiohhom.  Amedorfiana,  in  ZKO,  yoL  xzii., 
1901. 

AMULET,  am'yu-let:  A  word  first  used  to  des- 
ignate objects  having  a  magical  effect  in  warding 
off  or  driving  away  evils — the  evil  eye,  illness, 
demons,  etc. — ^and  thus  practically  equivalent  to 
"  taUsman."  By  degrees  it  came  to  be  employed 
for  objects  worn  about  the  person.  Used  down  to 
the  seventeenth  century  for  things  forbidden  by 
the  Church,  it  gradually  acquired  a  more  general 
meaning.  The  limits  of  this  article  preclude  the 
discussion  of  the  origin  of  amulets,  of  their  pMsy- 
chological  basis,  or  of  their  significance  in  the  uni- 
versal history  of  religion. 

In  the  Old  Testament,  objects  of  the  kind  are 

mentioned  among  the  ornaments  worn  by  women 

(Isa.  iii.  16-26)  and  by  animals  (Judges 

In  the  Old  viii.    21);  the  bells  on  the  border  of 

Testament  the  hi^h  priest's  robe  had  no  other 

and  Juda-  primary  significance  (cf .  "  the  beUs 
isnu  of  the  horses,''  Zech.  xiv.  20).  Later 
Judaism  completely  surrounded  the  in- 
dividual with  intangible  spirits,  but  provided  nu- 
merous means  of  protection  against  the  evil  they 
might  effect — the  presence  of  angels,  pronouncing 
the  name  of  God,  amulets  containing  the  Holy  Name, 
and  fragments  of  Scripture  worn  on  the  person 
(the  "  phylacteries  "  of  Matt,  xxiii.  5)  or  fastened 


Amulet 
Anabaptists 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


160 


to  the  door-posts  of  houses.  The  special  power 
over  demons  attributed  to  Solomon  may  also  be 
mentioned;  formulas  of  exorcism  were  referred 
to  him,  and  the  possessed  were  supposed  to  be 
healed,  on  the  invocation  of  his  name,  by  the 
methods  prescribed  by  him. 

The  demonological  conceptions  of  Judaism  and 
the  magic  of  the  East  had  a  very  strong  influence 
on  the  Greco-Roman  world.  Christi- 
In  the  anity>  however,  at  first  rejected  these 
Early  superstitious  observances,  and  pro- 
Church,  tested  against  every  accusation  of 
the  use  of  magic  arts.  There  came  a 
change  with  the  entrance  of  the  pagan  multitudes, 
with  their  material  ideas  of  religion  and  their  need 
for  an  external  realization  of  the  supernatural. 
The  ideas  about  demons,  found  in  the  exorcisms 
of  the  second  century  (Origen,  Contra  CeUum^  vi. 
39,  40)  were  generalized,  paganized,  and  Judaized. 
As  the  ecclesiastical  writers  abundantly  testify 
(see  passages  quoted  in  Bingham,  Originea,  vii. 
250),  magical  formulas  began  to  be  used  again; 
mysterious  objects,  inscribed  with  characters  often 
unintelligible,  were  placed  upon  the  bodies  of  new- 
bom  infants  and  the  sick;  and  Chrysostom  (on 
I  Gor.  vii.  3)  warns  his  hearers  against  love-philters. 
The  teachers  of  the  Ghurch  branded  all  this  as  actual 
apostasy  from  the  faith;  and  the  Christian  civil 
government  punished  severely  the  use  of  amulets 
in  sickness.  To  meet  this  tendency  an  attempt 
was  made  to  give  these  methods  a  Christian  color- 
ing, or  to  employ  elements  susceptible  to  a  Christian 
interpretation.  The  demons,  who  had  been  sup- 
posed to  have  special  care  of  races  or  of  individuals, 
now  became  angels,  and  protection  was  afforded 
by  their  names  inscribed  on  amulets.  In  like  man- 
ner the  name  of  God  was  used.  Even  some  of  the 
clergy  provided  such  amulets,  though  the  Church 
forbade  them  to  do  so,  and  excommunicated 
those  who  wore  them  (Synod  of  Laodicea;  Synod 
of  Agde,  544).  The  cross  (see  Cross  and 
ITS  Use  as  a  Symbol,  §  3)  took  a  specially 
prominent  place  among  these  protecting  objects. 
Women  and  children  commonly  wore  verses  from 
the  Gospels  for  this  purpose.  Chrysostom  told  the 
people  of  Antioch  that  they  ought  rather  to  have 
the  Gospels  in  their  hearts.  That  of  John  was 
thought  to  be  particularly  efficacious;  it  was  laid 
on  the  head  to  drive  out  fever,  and  Augustine 
commends  the  practise  (Tradatua  vi  in  cap,  t. 
Johannis  evangelii,  MPL,  xxv.  1443),  "not  be- 
cause it  is  done  for  this  purpose,''  but  because  it 
means  the  abandonment  of  the  pagan  ligatures. 
The  whole  range  of  sacred  tilings  was  brought  into 
service.  Satyrus,  the  brother  of  Ambrose,  in  a 
shipwreck,  hung  the  eucharistic  bread,  wrapped 
in  an  orarium,  about  his  neck  "  that  he  might  get 
help  from  his  faith "  (Ambrose,  De  chiiu  fratris, 
xliii.).  Similar  use  was  made  of  oil  and  wax  from 
holy  places  and  of  water  and  salt  that  had  been 
blessed.  Relics  of  the  saints,  enclosed  in  costly 
cases,  were  worn.  Since  the  Church  was  unable 
entirely  and  all  at  once  to  drive  out  every  vestige 
of  heathen  superstition,  it  did  the  next  best  thing 
when  it  took  into  consideration  the  needs  of 
popular,  unspiritual  devotion,    and   gradually,  by 


the  conversion  of  the  old  means,  forced  into  the 
background  or  effaced  their  non-Christian  ele- 
ments. 

Lack  of  space  forbids  the  discussion  in  detail 
of  the  diversified  forms  even  of  Christian  develop- 
ment of  the  idea,  as  they  are  found  in  the  numerous 
relics  of  antiquity,  from  those  of  the  catacombs 
down,  or  to  give  any  account  of  the  multiplicity 

of  objects  which  are  commonly  used 
Survi-  among  the  devout  Roman  Catholics 
▼als.        at  the  present  day,  with  at  least  some 

remnant  of  the  idea  of  the  ancient 
amulets  underlying  them — scapulars,  crosses,  the 
agnus  dei,  rosaries,  and  an  endless  variety  of 
medals  with  pictures  of  the  Virgin  and  the  saints. 
These  objects  may  serve  different  purposes;  they 
may  be  tokens  of  sharing  in  a  wide-spread  and 
approved  devotion,  or  signs  of  membership  in  some 
pious  confraternity,  or  souvenirs  of  a  visit  to  some 
holy  place;  but  in  most  instances  the  priestly 
blessing  which  they  have  received  is  distinctly 
understood  to  give  them  a  positive  power  (on 
condition  of  the  proper  faith  and  other  dispositions 
on  the  part  of  the  wearer  or  possessor)  against  the 
assaults  of  evil  spirits  and  other  ills. 

(Johannes  Ficker.) 

Bibuoorapht:  W.  King,  Taliaman  and  AmuUU,  in  ArchcB- 
oloffuxd  Journal,  xxvi.  (1869)  26-34.  149-157.  226-236; 
J.  A.  Bfartigny.  Dictionnaire  dea  antiguiUa  chretiennea,  arti- 
cle AtntUette,  Paria,  1877;  W.  R.  Smith,  in  Journal  of  Phi- 
ioiow,  xiv.  (1881)  122-123;  E.  C.  A.  Riehm.  Handwdrter- 
buchdeabibliachen  Altertuma,  Bielefeld,  1884;  J.Wellhaunen. 
Skizaen,  iii.  144.  Berlin.  1887;  M.  Friedlftnder.  Jeunah  Re- 
ligion, pp.  331-338,  London.  1891;  J.  L.  Andr^.  Taliamana, 
in  The  Reliquary,  vu.  (1893)  162-167.  196-202,  viii.  (1894) 
13-18:  DB,  i.  88-90.  iii.  869-874. 

AMYOT.    See  Amiot. 

AMYRAUT,  am"i-r«',  MOISE  (Lat.  Moses  Amy- 
raldus):  Calvimst  theologian  and  preacher;  b. 
at  Bourgueil  (27  m.  w.s.w.  of  Tours),  Touraine, 
1596;  d.  at  Saumur  Jan.  8,  1664.  He  came  of  an 
influential  family  in  Orleans,  began  the  study  of 
law  at  Poitiers,  and  received  the  degree  of  licentiate 
in  1616;  but  the  reading  of  Calvin's  Institntio 
turned  his  mind  to  theology.  This  he  studied  eager- 
ly at  Saumur,  under  Cameron,  to  whom  he  was 
much  attached.  After  serving  as  pastor  for  a 
short  time  at  Saint- Aignan,  he  was  called  in  1626 
to  succeed  Jean  Daill^  at  Saumur,  and  soon  became 
prominent.  The  national  synod  held  at  Charenton 
in  1631  chose  him  to  lay  its  requests  before  Louis 
XIII.,  on  which  occasion  his  tactful  bearing  at- 
tracted the  attention  and  won  the  respect  of  Riche- 
lieu. In  1633  he  was  appointed  professor  of  theol- 
ogy at  Saumur  with  De  la  Place  and  Cappel,  and 
the  three  raised  the  institution  into  a  flourishing 
condition,  students  being  attracted  to  it  from 
foreign  countries,  especially  from  Switzerland. 
Theological  novelties  in  their  teaching,  however, 
soon  stirred  up  opposition,  which  came  to  little  in 
France;  but  in  Switzerland,  where  the  professors 
were  less  known,  it  reached  such  a  pitch  that  stu- 
dents were  withdrawn,  and  in  1675  the  Helvetic 
Consensus  was  drawn  up  against  the  Saumur  inno- 
vations. Amyraut  was  specially  attacked  because 
his  teaching  on  grace  and  predestination  seemed  to 
depart  from  that  of  the  Synod  of  Dort,  by  adding 


161 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Amnlet 
Anabaptists 


a  conditiQiml  universal  grace  to  the  unconditional 
particular. 

Amyraut  first  published  his  ideas  in  his  Trmii 
de  la  prSdeitifiation  (SaumuTi  163i)j  which  imme- 
diately caufled  great  excitements  The  controv^er^ 
became  so  heated  that  the  national  synod  at  Alen^n 
in  1637  had  to  take  notice  of  it.  Amyraut  and  his 
friend  Te^tard  were  acquitted  of  heterodoxy,  and 
sUence  was  imposed  on  both  Bides.  The  attaekjs 
continued,  however,  and  the  question  came  again 
before  the  synod  of  Charenton  in  1644—46,  but 
with  the  same  result.  Amyraut  bore  hiniBelf  so 
well  under  all  these  assaults  that  be  succeeded  in 
conciliating  many  of  his  opponents,  even  the 
venerable  Du  Moulin  (1655).  But  at  the  synod 
of  Loudun  in  1659  (the  last  for  which  permission 
was  obtained— partly  through  Amyraut 's  influ- 
ence— from  the  crown),  fresh  accuaationa  were 
brought,  this  time  including  DaiUd,  the  president 
of  the  synod^  because  he  had  defended  what  is 
called  **  Amyraldism,"  This  very  synod,  how- 
ever, gave  Amyraut  the  honorable  commission 
to  revise  the  order  of  discipline.  In  France  the 
harmlessneBa  of  his  teaching  was  generally  recog- 
nised; and  the  controversy  would  soon  have  died 
out  but  for  the  continual  a^tation  kept  up  abroad, 
especially  in  Holland  and  Switzerland. 

Amyraut 's  doctrine  has  been  colled  ^'  hypothet- 
ical uni verbalism  ";  but  the  term  is  misleading, 
Btnee  it  might  be  applied  aLso  to  the  Arminianism 
which  he  steadfastly  opposed.  His  main  propo- 
sition is  tliis:  God  wills  all  men  to  be  saved,  on 
condition  that  they  belie ve-^a  condition  which 
they  could  weU  fulfil  in  the  abstract,  but  which  in 
fact,  owing  to  inherited  corruption,  they  stubbornly 
reject,  so  that  this  universal  will  for  salvation 
actually  saves  no  one.  God  also  wills  in  particular 
to  save  a  certain  number  of  persons,  and  to  pass 
over  the  others  with  this  grace.  The  elect  will 
be  saved  as  inevitably  as  the  others  will  be  damned. 
The  essential  point,  then,  of  Amyraldiam  is  the  com- 
bination  of  real  particularism  with  a  purely  ideal 
universaham.  Though  still  believing  it  ^  stron^y 
as  ever,  Amyraut  eame  to  see  that  it  made  little 
practical  difference,  and  did  not  press  it  in  his  last 
years,  devoting  himself  rather  to  nonn^ontroversial 
studies,  especially  to  his  system  of  Christian  morals 
{La  imfrak  ckresiitnnef  6  vols.^  Saumur,  1652-fiO). 
The  real  significance  of  Amyraut ^s  teaching  lies 
in  the  fact  that^  while  leaving  unchanged  the  special 
doctrines  of  Cahinism,  be  brought  to  the  front  its 
ethical  message  and  its  points  of  universal  human 
interest.    See  Calvinibm:,     (E.  F.  KarlMI^lleh.) 

Biblioohaphy:  E.  and  6.  Haafft  La  Franet  ProU^tantt,  L 
72-80.  FaH«.  1S40  <givp*  m  complete  lit^t  of  hia  voluminoua 
vorki);    E,  S&igey,  in    Rtvue  de  thMlogie,  pp.  178  nqq., 

feflcAff,  1852,  pp.  41  aqq,,  156  [>qq. 

AKABAPTISTS- 
I.  Tb«  Sober  AnAbsptiitA.  II.  The  Fautical  AiuMjAp- 

In  BwitierLftad  (f  1).  tistB. 

AiubftptiAt  Tenets  (£  2).  The  Zwiek^u  Pn»phets 

In  the  Netterlanda  and  C|  1). 

EoilaQd  (1 3).  Ih  SttuburE  and  MQxi- 

•tef  (I  2). 

The    name   "  Anabaptists  "  (meaning  "  Rebap- 
tiierB  '7  was  given  by  their  opponents  to  a  party 
I.— 11 


among  the  Proteetanta  in  Eefonnatton  times 
whoee  diatinguiahing  tenet  was  opposition  to  infant 
baptism,  which  they  held  to  be  unscriptural  aad 
therefore  not  true  baptism.  They  baptized  all 
who  joined  them;  but,  according  to  their  belief, 
this  was  not  a  rebaptiarn  as  their  opponents  charged. 
In  opposition  to  the  Church  doctrine  they  held 
tlmt  baptism  should  be  administered  only  to  those 
who  were  old  enough  to  express  by  means  of  it 
their  acceptance  of  the  Christian  faith »  and  hence, 
from  their  point  of  view,  their  converts  were  really 
baptised  for  the  first  time»  Another  epithet  often 
applied  to  them  w^aa  '*  Catabaptists/*  meaning 
pseudobaptists,  as  if  their  baptism  were  a  mockery , 
and  with  an  implication  of  drowning,  which  was 
considered  the  appropriate  punishment  for  their 
conduct  and  frequently  followed  their  arrest. 

In  studjdng  this  movement  the  following  facta 
should  be  borne  in  mind:  (1)  The  Anabaptist^ 
did  not  invent  their  rejection  of  infant  baptism^ 
for  there  have  always  been  parties  in  the  Church 
which  were  antipedobaptists  (cf.  A*  H.  Ne^Tiian, 
History  of  Antipedobaptism,  Philadelphia,  1S97). 
(2)  There  are  two  kinds  of  Anabaptists,  the  sober 
and  the  fanatical.  Failure  to  make  tliis  distinc- 
tion has  done  mischief  and  caused  modem  Baptiste 
to  deny  their  connection  with  the  Baptists  of  the 
Reformation,  whereas  they  are  the  lineal  descend- 
anta  of  the  sober  kind  and  have  no  reason  to  be 
ashamed  of  their  predecessors.  (3)  Even  among 
the  fanatical  Anabaptists  there  were  harmless 
dreamers;  not  all  the  fanatics  were  ready  to  estab- 
lish a  Kingdom  of  the  Saints  by  unsaintly  deeds. 
(4)  Information  concerning  the  Anabaptists  is 
largely  derived  from  prejudiced  and  deficient 
soiures, 

L  The  Sober  AnabaptiBts;  These  were  the 
product  of  the  Reformation  in  Switzerland  started 
by  Zwingli.  Shortly  after  he  began  to  preach  Ref- 
ormation doctrine  in  Zurich,  in  1519,  some  of  his 
hearers,  very  humble  persons  mostly,  gathered  in  pri- 
vate bouses  to  discuss  his  sermons,  andZwingU  often 
met  with  them.  He  had  laid  it  down  as  a  principle 
that  what  is  not  taught  in  the  Bible  is  not  a  law 
of  God  for  Chris tiatxB,  and  had  applied  this  prin- 
ciple  to  the  payment  of  tithes  and  the  observance 
of  Lent.  In  1522  these  friends  of  Zwingli  asked 
him  where  he  found  Ms  plain  Scripture  authorisdng 
infant  baptism  and  whether,  according  to  his 
principle    he    was   not   compelled   to 

I.     In      give  it  up-      Zwingli,  however,  though 

Switzer-  he  wavered  at  first,  decided  to  stand  by 
land.  the  Church,  arguing  that  there  waa 
fair  inferential  support  in  the  Bible 
for  the  practise,  and  that  it  was  the  Christian 
substitute  for  the  JcT^ish  rite  of  circumcision. 
Over  this  point  an  estrangement  took  place  between 
him  and  his  parishioners*  The  Ettle  company 
received  accessions  of  a  desirable  character,  and 
came  to  include  scholars  and  theologians  like 
Felix  Man^  and  Conrad  Grebel,  who  socially  and 
intellectually  were  the  peers  of  Ewingli's  foUowers. 
Hfibmaier  was  a  visitor.  In  1524  as  the  result  of 
letters  or  visits  from  Tbomaa  Mflnier  and  Andreas 
Carlstadt  they  took  very  decided  antipedobaptist 
positions;  but  pubhc  opinion  in  Zurich  was  against 


Anabaptists 
Anaoletus 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


162 


them,  and  the  magistrates  on  Jan.  18,  1525,  after 
what  was  considered  the  victory  of  the  Church 
party  in  a  public  debate,  following  many  private 
conferences,  ordered  that  these  antipedobaptists 
present  their  children  for  baptism,  and  made  it  a 
law  that  any  parents  refusing  to  have  their  infant 
children  baptized  should  be  banished.  On  Jan.  21 
they  forbade  the  meetings  of  the  antipedobaptists 
and  banished  all  foreigners  who  advocated  their 
views.  Shortly  after  this  the  antipedobaptists 
began  to  practise  believers'  baptism.  In  a  com- 
pany composed  entirely  of  laymen  one  poured 
water  in  the  name  of  the  Trinity  on  other  members 
in  succession,  after  they  had  expressed  a  desire 
to  be  baptized,  and  so,  as  they  claimed,  they 
instituted  veritable  Christian  baptism.  Like  scenes 
were  enacted  in  other  assemblies.  It  is  noteworthy 
that  these  first  believers'  baptisms  were  by  pouring; 
immersion  was  introduced  later.  Also  that  in  all 
the  lengthy  treatises  of  Zwingli  on  baptism  there 
is  no  discussion  as  to  the  mode.  These  early 
Baptists  practised  pouring,  sprinkling,  and  im- 
mersion as  suited  their  convenience,  and  did  not 
consider  the  mode  as  of  much  importance. 

Though  infant  baptism  was  the  first  and  the  main 
issue  between  the  Anabaptists  and  the  Church 
party,  there  were  others  of  great 
2.  Anabap-  importance.  The  former  said  that 
tist  Tenets,  only  those  who  had  been  baptized 
after  confession  of  faith  in  Christ  con- 
stituted a  real  Church;  the  latter,  that  all  baptized 
persons  living  in  a  certain  district  constituted  the 
State  Church.  The  Anabaptists  maintained  that 
there  should  be  a  separation  between  the  State 
and  the  Church;  that  no  Christian  should  bear 
arms,  take  an  oath,  or  hold  public  office;  that  there 
should  be  complete  religious  liberty.  All  this 
was  not  in  accord  with  the  times;  and  thus  the 
Anabaptists  were  considered  to  be  enemies  of  the 
standing  order,  and  were  treated  accordingly. 
On  Sept.  9,  1527,  the  cantons  of  Zurich,  Bern,  and 
St.  Gall  united  in  an  edict  which  may  be  taken  as 
a  specimen  of  its  class.  It  gives  reasons  for  prose- 
cuting the  Anabaptists,  which  are  manifestly  prej- 
udiced and  even  in  part  false,  and  then  decrees 
the  death  by  drowning  of  all  of  them  who  are 
teachers,  baptizing  preachers,  itinerants,  leaders 
of  conventicles,  or  who  had  once  recanted  and  then 
relapsed.  Foreigners  in  these  cantons  associating 
with  the  Anabaptists  were  banished,  and  if  found 
again  were  to  be  drowned.  Simple  adherents 
were  to  be  fined.  It  was  made  the  botmden  duty 
of  all  good  citizens  to  inform  against  the  Anabap- 
tists (for  the  full  text  consult  S.  M.  Jackson, 
Htddreich  Zwingli,  New  York,  1903,  pp.  259-281). 
Similar  laws  against  the  Anabaptists  were  made 
and  enforced  in  South  Germany,  Austria,  the 
Tyrol,  the  Netherlands,  England,  and  wherever 
they  went.  Such  treatment  suppressed  Anabap- 
tism,  or  at  all  events,  drove  it  beneath  the  surface. 
How  ineffectual  it  was  to  extinguish  it  appears  from 
the  fact  that  early  in  1537,  four  Anabaptists  from 
the  Netherlands  quietly  stole  into  Geneva,  and 
began  making  converts.  John  Calvin,  who  neg- 
lected no  opportunity  to  do  God  service,  as  he 
conceived  it,  got  wind  of  their  presence  and  had 


them  and  their  seven  converts  banished  by  the 
magistrates  (the  incident  is  described  by  Beza  in 
his  life  of  Calvin,  ed.  Neander,  p.  8;  cf.  Calvin's 
TracU,  Eng.  transl.,  i.  xxx.;  Doumergue,  Jean 
Calvin,  ii.  242;  Herminjard,  Correspondance  des 
Rifarmateura,  iv.  272).  Anabaptists  persisted  in 
great  numbers  in  Moravia,  the  Palatinate,  Switzer- 
land, Poland,  and  elsewhere. 

Only  in  the  Netherlands  did  the  Anabaptists 

escape  persecution,  and  there  they  became  quite 

numerous.  They  were  joined  in  1536  by 

3.  In  the  a  remarkable  man,  Menno  Simons (q. v.), 
Nether-     who  organized  them  and  his  name  has 

lands  and   been  given  to  the  sect  (see  Mennon- 

England.  ites).  From  the  Netherlands  they 
passed  into  England;  but  no  sooner  did 
they  make  converts  there  than  Henry  VIII.  in- 
cluded them  in  a  decree  of  banishment,  and  those 
who  remained  he  threatened  to  put  to  death. 
Indeed,  in  1535  there  is  record  of  ten  persons  who 
were  burned  in  London  and  other  English  towns 
on  the  charge  of  Anabaptism  (cf.  John  Foxe,  Acts 
and  Monuments,  ed.  Townsend,  v.,  London,  1843, 
p.  44).  How  little  this  cruel  course  succeeded  is 
evidenced  by  the  continued  presence  in  England 
of  the  Baptist  Church. 

That  among  the  sober  kind  of  Anabaptists  there 
were  unworthy  persons,  that  some  of  them  held 
visionary  views,  and  that  a  few  may  have  been 
goaded  into  occasional  violence  of  expression,  and 
possibly  of  conduct,  may  be  accepted  as  proved; 
but  that  they  were  as  a  party  guilty  of  the  charges 
brought  against  them,  as  in  the  joint  edict  men- 
tioned above,  is  untrue.  As  a  class  they  were  as 
holy  in  life  as  their  persecutors;  and  their  leaders, 
in  Biblical  knowledge  and  theological  acumen, 
were  no  mean  antagonists. 

n.  The  Fanatical  Anabaptists :  The  earliest  men- 
tion of  Anabaptism  in  connection  with  the  Lutheran 
Reformation  is  in  the  spring  of  1521  when  Niklaus 
Storch,  Markus  Stttbner,  and  a  third  person,  who 
was  a  weaver,  as  Storch  had  been, 
X.  The      made  their  appearance  in  Wittenberg 

Zwickau    and  sought  to  convert  the  professors 

Prophets,  of  its  university  to  their  views,  which 
were  the  familiar  Anabaptist  ones  of 
opposition  to  military  service,  private  prop- 
erty, government  by  those  not  true  Christians, 
infant  baptism,  and  the  oath,  together  with  the 
novel  one  that  there  should  be  a  dissolution  of  the 
marriage  bond  in  the  cases  where  there  was  not 
agreement  between  the  married  couple  in  religious 
belief.  These  views  they  pressed  with  great 
vehemence  and  no  little  success.  They  also  claimed 
to  be  inspired  to  make  their  deliverances.  As 
they  came  from  Zwickau,  they  are  called  the  Zwick- 
au Prophets  (q.v.).  Carlstadt  was  impressed  by 
them,  and  characteristically  allowed  iconoclastic 
practises  in  his  church.  Melanchthon  wavered, 
but  Luther,  who  at  the  time  of  their  visit  was  at 
the  Wartburg,  was  so  much  stirred  by  the  confusion 
they  induced  that  he  left  his  seclusion  and  opposed 
them  stoutly  and  silenced  them  by  ridicule  rather 
than  by  arguments. 

Among  the  leaders  and  followers  on  the  peasant 
side  in  the  Peasants'  war  which  desolated  Germany 


168 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Anabaptista 
Anaoletna 


in  1525,  were  those  who  held  antipedobaptist  views. 
After  the  war  Strasburg  became  the  center  of  the 
Anabaptists  and,  after  1529,  when  it  was  visited  by 
Melchior  Hoffmann  (q.v.)»  "  the  evil 
a.  In  Stras-  genius  of  the  Anabaptists/'  it  was 
hurg  and  the  center  of  their  propaganda.  Hoff- 
Munster.  mann  imited  to  the  usual  Anabaptist 
views,  belief  in  himself  as  the  inspired 
interpreter  of  prophecy  and  as  inspired  leader 
generally.  He  declared  that  he  was  one  of  the 
"  two  witnesses  "  of  Rev.  xi.  3 ;  that  Strasburg 
was  to  be  the  New  Jerusalem,  and  the  seat  of  uni- 
versal dominion;  and  that  non-resistance  might 
be  given  up.  These  views  he  preached  with  great 
effect  through  East  Friesland  and  the  Netherlands, 
and  his  followers  called  themselves  **  Melchior- 
ites."  After  he  had  been  thrown  into  prison  (1533) 
Jan  Matthys,  a  baker  from  Haarlem,  appeared  in 
Strasburg  and  claimed  to  be  the  other ''  witness  " 
of  the  Apocalypse;  but  he  altered  the  programme 
by  transferring  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  the 
saints  to  MQnster,  and  advocating  force  in  main- 
taining it.  After  sending  four  apostles,  one  of 
whom  was  the  notorious  John  of  Leyden,  he  came 
thither  himself  (Feb.,  1535),  and  led  a  successful 
revolt  against  the  magistracy  and  bishop  of  the 
city.  In  Apr.,  1535  he  was  killed  and  was  succeeded 
by  John  of  Leyden  who  caused  himself  to  be  pro- 
claimed king,  and  declared  polygamy  to  be  the  law 
of  the  kingdom.  Meanwhile  the  city  was  besieged 
by  the  expelled  bishop  aided  by  the  neighboring 
princes  and  by  the  imperial  troops.  If  half  that  is 
said  to  have  gone  on  within  the  city  be  true  (the 
reports  come  from  very  prejudiced  sources),  fa- 
naticism was  there  the  oixier  of  the  day.  Hence 
the  defense  was  lax,  owing  to  dependence  on  divine 
power  to  work  deliverance.  Nevertheless,  the 
siege  lasted  many  months,  and  treachery  within 
rather  than  assaults  without  at  last  opened  the 
gates  on  June  25,  1535  (see  MCnster,  Anabap- 
TI8TB  in).  The  fanatical  Anabaptists  were  univer- 
sally taken  as  typical,  and  to  this  day  when  Ana- 
baptism  is  mentioned  it  is  supposed  to  be  the 
equivalent  of  absurd  interpretation  of  Scripture, 
bLsisphemous  assumption,  and  riotous  indecency. 
Monster  was,  however,  only  the  culminating  point 
of  fanaticism  engendered  by  persecution,  and 
Anabaptism  in  itself,  strictly  interpreted,  is  not 
responsible  for  it. 

Biblioorapht:  The  aources  are  the  writiocs  of  Anabap- 
tists, the  official  records  of  proceedings  against  them,  and 
the  writings  of  their  opponents.  Of  the  extensive  litera- 
ture, the  following  works  may  be  mentioned:  C.  W.  Bou- 
terwek.  Zwr  LUUratwr  und  OeaehidUe  der  Wiedertikufer, 
Bonn.  1864;  C.  A.  Cornelius,  Die  nuderl&ndiaeKen  WimUr- 
tttufer,  Munich,  1860;  E.  Egli,  Die  ZHaieKer  WiedertAufer, 
Zurich.  1878;  idem,  Dis  St  Gallen  WiedsrtAufer,  1887; 
H.  8.  Burrage,  Hittory  of  ike  AnabapHtU  in  StritMerland, 
New  York,  1882;  L.  Keller,  Die  ReformaHon  und  die 
dUeren  Reformparteien,  Leipsic,  1885;  R.  Nitsche,  Oe- 
sdktdUs  der  WiederUkwfer  in  der  iScAuwu,  Einsiedeln,  1885; 
J.  Loserth,  Der  AnabapHemue  in  Tirol,  Vienna,  1892; 
idem,  Der  Kommuniemue  der  nUUiriechen  Wiedert&ufer, 
1804;  K.  Kautsky,  Der  Kommuniemtie  im  MittelaUer  im 
ZeiiaUer  der  JUformaHon,  Stuttgart,  1804,  Eng.  transl.. 
Communion  in  Central  Europe  in  As  Time  of  the  Reformat 
Hon,  London,  1807;  H.  LQdemann,  R^ormation  und  Titufer- 
fMM  tfi  ikrem  Verh/hUnie  eum  ^rieUiehen  Prineip,  Bern, 
1806;  R.  Heath,  Anabapiiem  from  He  Riee  at  Zwideau  to 
use,  London,  1806;  E.  MQUer,  GeeekiehU  der  bemie^tn 


Tdufer,  Frauenfeld.  1895;  K.  Rembert,  Die  WiedertAufer 
im  Herwootum  JiOich,  Berlin,  1899;  G.  TrumbQlt,  Die 
Wiedert&ufer,  in  Monographien  sur  WeUgeechichte,  vii, 
Leipsic,  1899;  £.  C.  Pike.  The  Story  of  the  AnabapOete,  in 
Erae  of  Nonconformity,  London,  1904;  the  biographies  of 
Anabaptist  leaders,  especially  that  of  Balthasar  Hflbmaier, 
by  H.  C.  Vedder,  New  York,  1906,  and  works  on  the 
Reformation.  See  also  the  works  mentioned  in  the  arti- 
cle, MONSTER,  ANABAFTIBTS  IN. 

AN ACHORITE.    See  Anchoret. 

ANACLETUS,  an''a  klt'tns:  The  name  of  one 
pope  and  one  antipope. 

Anacletus  L:  Roman  presbyter  at  the  close 
of  the  first  century.  The  hypothesis  of  Volkmar, 
that  he  had  no  historical  existence  is  opposed  by 
the  prevailing  unanimity  of  the  Greek  and  Latin 
lists  of  the  popes.  These  differ,  however,  in  the 
place  which  they  ascribe  to  him,  some  naming  him 
fourth  and  some  third.  The  latter  is  the  older  or- 
der. As  the  name  in  Greek  is  sometimes  written 
AnenklHaa  and  sometimes  KlHos,  the  Catalogua 
Liberianus  and  other  early  authorities  were  be- 
trayed into  the  mistake  of  making  two  distinct 
persons.  It  is  impossible  to  determine  his  date. 
Twelve  years  is  the  longest  time  assigned  to  his 
pontificate.  The  assertion,  that  he,  as  well  as 
Linus  and  Clemens,  was  consecrated  by  St.  Peter, 
sprang  from  the  tendency  to  connect  him  as  closely 
as  possible  with  the  beginnings  of  the  Church. 
That  he  met  a  martyr's  death  under  Domitian,  or, 
as  Baronius  and  Hausrath  assert,  under  Trajan, 
can  not  be  adequately  demonstrated.  His  festival 
in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  falls  on  July  13. 

(A.  Hauck.) 

Bibuoorapht:  Liber  ponUflealie,  ed.  Duchesne,  vol.  i.,  pp. 
lxix.-bcx..  62;  G.  Volkmar,  Ueber  Eunodia,  Eunodiue,  und 
Anadet,  in  Baur  and  Zeller,  Theoloffieche  JahrbUcher,  xvi 
147-151.  Tflbingen,  1857;  A.  Hausrath,  Neuteetament- 
Kehe  Zeiigeeehichte,  ui.  391,  Heidelberg,  1876;  J.  B.  Light- 
foot,  The  Apoetolie  Faihere,  I.  i.  201  sqq.,  London,  1890; 
A.  Hamack,  in  Siteungeberiehle  der  Berliner  Akademie, 
1892,  617-658;  idem,  Litteratur,  U.  i.  70  sqq. 

Anacletus  IL  (PietroPierleoni):  Antipope,  1130- 
38.  He  was  descended  from  a  Jewish  family  which 
had  grown  rich  and  powerful  under  Gregory  VII., 
studied  in  Paris,  and  later  became  a  Cluniac  monk. 
Paschal  II.  recalled  him  to  Rome,  and  in  1116 
made  him  a  cardinal.  He  accompanied  Gelasius 
II.  on  his  flight  to  France,  and  after  his  death  took 
a  leading  part  in  the  elevation  of  Calixtus  II.,  who 
made  him  legate  to  England  and  France  in  1121, 
and,  conjointly  with  Cardinal  Gregory,  who  was 
to  be  his  rival  for  the  papacy,  to  France  in  1122. 
It  is  impossible  to  determine  how  far  the  descrip- 
tion of  him  as  an  immoral  and  avaricious  prelate 
is  based  on  the  enmity  of  his  later  opponents;  but 
it  is  certain  that  even  imder  Paschal  II.  he  was 
already  laying  his  plans  to  be  made  pope.  On 
Feb.  14,  1130,  he  attained  his  aim  so  far  as  to  be 
chosen  by  a  majority  of  the  cardinals,  though  not 
to  be  enthroned  before  nine  of  them  had  elected 
Gregorio  Papareschi  as  Innocent  II.  Anacletus 
used  both  his  own  resources  and  those  of  the  Church 
to  win  over  the  Romans,  and  Innocent  was  obliged 
to  flee.  In  Sept.,  1130,  Anacletus  allied  himself 
with  Roger  of  Kcily,  and  thus  made  a  decided  ene- 
my of  Lothair  the  Saxon,  who  was  already  inclined 
to  support  Innocent,  and  now,  with  Ebi^and  and 


Ana^nost 
Anastaaiaa 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


164 


France,  declared  for  him.    In  Oct.,  1131,  Innocent 
excommunicated  Anacletus  at  Reims;   in  the  fol- 
lowing spring  he  set  out  for  Italy;  and  in  Apr., 
1133,  entering  Rome  in  Lothair's  company,  he  took 
possesfiion  of  the  Lateran,  while  Anacletus  held  the 
Vatican.    Lothair  pronounced  the  latter  an  out- 
law and  a  criminal  against  both  the  divine  and  the 
royal  majesty;  but  he  was  himself  forced  to  leave 
Rome  in  June,  and  Anacletus  forced  Innocent  once 
more  to  flee  to  Pisa.     In  the  autunm  of   1136 
Lothair   returned,    and   succeeded   in   compelling 
southern  Italy  to  recognize  Innocent.    The  end  of 
the  schism  was,  however,  due  less  to  him  than  to 
Bernard  of  Clairvaux,  who  succeeded  in  separating 
not  only  the  city  of  Milan,  but  many  of  the  princi- 
pal Romans  from  Anacletus's  party  (see  Bernabd, 
Saint,  of  Clairvaux).    Negotiations    were  even 
opened  with  Roger  of  Sicily,  his  last  supporter ;  but 
at  this  juncture  Anacletus  died,  Jan.  25,  1 138.     His 
letters  and  privileges  are  in  MPL^  clxxix.  689-732, 
and  in  Jaff^,  Regeata,  i.  911-919.      (A.  Hauck.) 
Bibuoobapht:  A.  von  lUumont,  OeBchicfUe  der  Stadt  Rom, 
ii.  408.  3  voU.,  Berlin,  1867-70;  P.  Jaff^,  Geachichte  de§ 
deuUchen  Reieha  unier  Lothar,  Berlin,  1843:  Bower,  Pope; 
ii.  464-470;  W.  Bemhardi,  Lothar  von  Supplinburg,  Leip- 
ric,    1879;  W.    Martens,   Die   Beeeixung  dee   pApettichen 
ShMs,   323   sqq.,    Freiburg,    1886;  Hefele,    ConcUienoe- 
ediidUet  v.  406  sqq.;  J.  Langen,  Oeechichte  der  rdmiecken 
Kirehe,  pp.  316  sqq.,  Bonn,  1893;    Hauck,  KD,  iv.  128- 
138. 

AKAGNOST.    See  Lector. 

AKAMMELECH,  a-nam'elec  or  a^'nam^'m^aec: 
According  to  II  Kings  xvii.  31,  a  deity  worshiped 
with  childnsacrifice  by  the  Sepharvites  who  were 
settled  in  Samaria  by  Sargon  (see  AnRAiiMELECH). 
If  Sepharvaim  be  sought  in  Babylonia,  it  is 
natural  to  refer  the  name  ''  Anammelech  "  to  the 
Babylonian  god  Anu  {Anu^malik  or  Anu-^malhUf 
''King  Anu";  cf.  Jensen,  pp.  272 sqq.;  Schrader,  p. 
353;  BsBthgen,  pp.  254-255).  If,  however,  as  is  more 
probable,  Sepharvaim  was  a  city  of  Syria,  the 
Babylonian  derivation  is  untenable.  The  name  of 
a  goddess  Anath  is  found  in  a  Greco-Phenician 
inscription  (CISf  i.  95)  of  Lapithos  in  Cyprus  be- 
longing to  the  time  of  Ptolemy  I.  Soter  (d.  283  B.C.). 
It  occurs  also  on  a  Phenician  coin  with  a  picture  of 
the  goddess  riding  upon  a  lion,  and  a  star  above  her 
head.  The  name  "  Anath  "  appears  in  the  Old  Tes- 
tament towns  Beth-anath  (in  Naphtali,  Josh.  xix. 
38;  Judges  i.  33)  and  Beth-anoth  (in  Judah,  Josh. 
XV.  59);  also  in  the  proper  name  "  Anath  "  (Judges 
iii.  31,  V.  6),  and  perhaps  in  the  town  Anathoth 
near  Jerusalem.  It  is  not  impossible  that  the  pas- 
sage in  II  Kings  is  corrupt,  and  "  Anammelech  " 
may  be  merely  a  variant  of  "  Adrammelech."  It 
is  wanting  in  Lucian's  text  of  the  Septuagint. 
Bibuoobapht:   P.   Sohols,   06ttend%enet  und   Zavbervoeaen 

bet  den  alien  HtbrHem  und  den  henaehbarten  Voikem,  pp. 

405-407.  Ratiflbon,  1877;  F.  Baethgen,  BeitrUge  *wr  eemi- 

tieehen  Religioneoeechichte,  Berlin,   1889;  P.  Jenaen,  Die 

Koemologie  der  Babyloniert    Strasburg,   1800;   Sohrader, 

KAT, 

ANANIAS,  an^'-a-nai'os :  The  high  priest  in  whose 
time  the  apostle  Paul  was  imprisoned  at  Jerusalem 
(probably  58  a.d.;  Acts  xxiii.  2,  xxiv.  1).  In  the 
Lucan  description  of  the  conflict  between  Paul  and 
Palestinian  Judaism  (xxi.-xxvi.;  cf.  K.  Schmidt, 
Apaatelgeschichte,  i.,  Erlangen,  1882,  pp.  240  sqq.), 


Ananias  is  represented  as  head  of  the  Sadducaic 
hierarchical  party  which  was  dominant  in  the 
Sanhedrin,  and  confirmed  its  complete  apostasy 
from  the  hope  of  Israel  by  persecution  of  the  apostle 
of  Christ,  whereas  the  apostle  deposes  and  divests 
of  its  divine  authority  and  dignity  the  leadership 
which  had  become  faithless  to  its  calling.  Accord- 
ing to  Josephus  {Ant,f  XX.  v.  2,  vi.  2,  ix.  2-4;  War, 
II.  xii.  6,  xvii.  6,  9),  Ananias,  son  of  Nebeda^us, 
was  appointed  high  priest  about  47  a.d.  by  Herod 
of  Chalcis  (the  twentieth  in  the  succession  of  high 
priests  from  the  accession  of  Herod  the  Great  to 
the  destruction  of  Jerusalem).  In  the  year  52  he 
had  to  go  to  Rome  to  defend  himself  before  Claudius 
against  a  charge  made  by  the  Samaritans  against 
the  Jews.  He  was  not  deposed  at  this  time,  how- 
ever (cf.  C.  Wieseler,  Chronologiache  Synopae  der 
vier  Evangdien,  Hamburg,  1843,  pp.  187-188), 
but  held  his  office  until  Agrippa  II.  appointed 
Ishmaei,  son  of  Phabi,  his  successor,  probably  in 
59  A.D.  Ananias  is  the  only  high  priest  after 
Caiaphas  who  ruled  for  any  length  of  time.  He 
exercised  considerable  influence  after  leaving  his 
office  until  he  was  murdered  in  the  beginning  of 
the  Jewish  war.  (K.  Schmidt.) 

Bibuoobapht:  SchOrer,  Oeechichte,  i.  584,  603,  ii.  204,  210. 
221.  Eng.  transl..  I.  ii.  173,  188-189,  II.  i.  182,  200  sqq. 

ANAPHORA,  on-af'o-ra:  Name  used  in  the 
Eastern  liturgies  for  the  later  or  more  sacred  part 
of  the  eucharistic  service,  answering  to  the  Misaa 
fiddium  of  the  early  times,  from  which  the  catechu- 
mens were  excluded,  and  in  the  main  to  the  canon 
of  the  Roman  mass.  It  begins  with  the  kiss  of 
peace  and  accompanying  prayers,  after  the  "  greater 
entrance  "  or  solenm  oblation  of  the  elements  on 
the  altar.  (Georg  Ribtbchel.) 

ANASTASIUS:  Of  the  many  bearers  of  this 
name  in  the  Eastern  Church  the  following  three 
are  specially  deserving  of  notice: 

1.  Anastagius  I.:  Patriarch  of  Antioch,  559- 
599.  He  was  a  friend  of  Gregory  I.,  and  strongly 
opposed  Justinian's  later  church  policy,  which 
favored  the  Aphthartodocetse  (see  Julian  of 
Haucarnassus;  Justinian;  Monophtsitbs).  He 
was  banished  in  570  by  Justin  II.,  was  recalled  in 
593  by  Maurice,  and  died  in  599.  His  day  lb  Apr. 
21.  Of  his  writings  there  have  been  printed:  (1) 
Five  addresses  on  true  dogmas;  (2)  four  sermons 
(of  doubtful  genuineness);  (3)  ''A  Brief  Exposition 
of  the  Orthodox  Faith"  (in  Greek);  (4)  fragments; 
(5)  an  oration  delivered  Mar.  25,  593,  when  he 
resumed  the  patriarchal  chair. 

2.  Anastasius  XL:  Patriarch  of  Antioch,  599- 
609,  in  which  year  he  was  murdered  by  Antiochian 
Jews.  His  day  is  Dec.  21.  He  translated  the 
Cura  pastoralis  of  Gregory  I. 

8.  Anastasius  Sinaita:  Priest,  monk,  and  abbot 
of  Mount  Sinai ;.b.  before  640;  d.  after  700.  He 
defended  ecclesiastical  theology  against  heretics 
and  Jews,  and  composed  various  works  which  have 
not  been  fully  collected  and  examined.  They 
include:  (1 )  A ' '  Guide  "  in  defense  of  the  faith  of  the 
Church  against  the  many  forms  of  Monophysitism; 
(2)  ''  Questions  and  Answers  by  Different  Persons 
on  Different  Topics  ";  (3)  "  A  Discourse  on  the  Holy 


166 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Ana^nost 
Anastaaiaa 


Communion";  (4)  anagogic  obaervations  on  the 
ox  days  of  creation;  (5)  a  diaoourae  and  homilies 
on  the  sixth  Psalm;  (6)  two  discourses  on  the 
creation  of  man  in  the  image  of  God;  (7)  a  fragment 
against  Ariamsm;  (8)  a  list  of  heresies;  (9)  ''A 
Short  and  Clear  Exposition  of  our  Faith" ;  (10)  a 
treatise  on  the  celebration  of  Wednesday  and 
Friday;  (11)  a  fragment  on  blasphemy.  The  "Ar- 
gument against  the  Jews  "  (MPG,  Ixxxix.  1208-82) 
is  not  earlier  than  the  ninth  century;  the  Anti- 
quorum  patrum  doctrina  de  verbi  incamatione  (ed. 
Blai,  Nova  coUectio,  vii.  1,  6-73),  however,  appears 
to  be  genuine.  G.  KrOoeb. 

Biblioorapht:  For  the  various  Eastern  writers  named  An- 
astasius,  oonsult  Fabricius-Harles,  Biblioihsca  OroBea,  z. 
671-613,  Hamburg,  1807.  Their  writings  are  in  MPO, 
Izzzix.  and  in  J.  B.  Pitra,  Jun»  eceletiasHci  Oraeontm 
Awforia  «<  numumenia,  ii.  238-206,  Rome,  1868.  Also 
K  Krumbaoher,  OeaehichU  der  bytantiniaeKen  lAtteraiwr, 
Munich,  1807.  For  Anastasius  Sinaita:  J.  B.  KumpfmOl- 
ler,  De  AnoBkuio  Sinaiia,  WOrsburg,  1865;  O.  Barden- 
hewer.  Dm  heilioen  Hippolyhu  von  Rom  Commeniar  gum 
Bueff  Daniel,  pp.  13-14,  106-107,  Freiburg.  1877;  A.  C. 
MeGiifert,  Diaiogue  between  a  ChruHan  and  a  Jew,  17, 
86-37,  New  York,  1880;  A.  Papadopouloe-Kerameus, 
'Ai4A«cTa  crX,  i..  pp.  400-404.  St.  Petersburg.  1801; 
D.  Serruys,  Anaetaaiana,  in  MUangee  d'arcMoloffie  et  d'hie- 
brire,  zzii  167-207,  Rome,  1002. 

ANASTASIUS,  an^'os-t^'shi-TTS  or  zhus:  The 
name  of  four  popes  and  one  antipope. 

Anastasius  L:  Pope  398-401.  According  to 
the  Ltber  pontificalia  (ed.  Duchesne,  i.  218-219), 
he  was  a  Roman  by  birth,  was  elected  near  the  end 
of  November  or  early  in  December,  398,  and  was 
pontiff  three  years  and  ten  days.  He  is  principally 
known  for  the  part  he  took  in  the  controversy  over 
the  teaching  of  Origen.  He  showed  himself  also 
a  rigid  upholder  of  the  orthodox  position  against 
the  Donatists.  At  the  synod  held  in  Carthage 
Sept.  13,  401,  a  letter  was  read  from  him  exhorting 
the  African  bishops  to  expose  the  misrepresentations 
of  the  Donatists  against  the  Church,  and  practically 
to  hand  them  over  to  the  secular  arm.  His  letters 
and  decrees  are  in  M PL,  XX.  51-80.    See  Obigenis- 

TIC  CONTROVEBMES.  (A.  HaUCK.) 

BiBLiooaAPHT:  Ltber  ponHfiealie,  ed.  Duchesne,  i.  218 
sqq.,  Paris.  1886;  Bower,  Popee,  i.  126-131;  B.  Jung- 
mann,  DiuertaHonee  eduAm,  ii.  206-206,  Regensburg, 
1881;  J.  Langen,  Qeeekidde  der  rOmitKtn  KireKe  bie 
Leo  /.,  pp.  663  sqq.,  Bomi.  1881. 

Anastasius  IL:  Pope  496-498.  According  to 
the  Liber  ponHficalia  (ed.  Duchesne,  i.  258-259), 
he  was  a  Roman  by  birth.  He  was  consecrated  ap- 
parently on  Nov.  24, 496.  His  pontificate  fell  within 
the  period  of  the  schism  between  the  East  and  West, 
which  lasted  from  484  to  519,  as  a  consequence  of 
the  sentence  of  exconmiimication  pronounced  by 
Pope  Felix  II.  against  Acadus,  patriarch  of  Con- 
stantinople. Anastasius  endeavored  to  restore 
conmiunion  with  Constantinople,  sending  two 
bishops  immediately  after  his  consecration  with  a 
letter  to  the  Eastern  emperor  offering  to  recognize 
the  orders  conferred  by  Acacius  (who  was  now 
dead),  at  the  same  time  asserting  the  justice  of  his 
condemnation.  The  Liber  pontificalia  (I.e.)  relates 
that  upon  the  arrival  in  Rome  of  the  deacon 
Photinus  of  Thessalonica,  Anastasius  communicated 
with  him,  though  he  maintained  the  orthodoxy  of 


Acacius  and  was  thus,  according  to  the  Roman  view, 
a  heretic.  This  seems  to  have  aroused  opposition 
among  the  Roman  clergy,  and  a  suspicion  arose 
that  the  pope  intended  to  reverse  the  decision 
against  Acacius.  In  the  Decretum  of  Gratian  he 
is  said  to  have  been  ''  repudiated  by  the  Roman 
Church  "  (Af  PL,  clxxxvii.  Ill),  and  hence  eccle- 
siastical writers  as  late  as  the  sixteenth  century 
usuaUy  regard  him  as  a  heretic.  The  baptism  of 
Clovis,  king  of  the  Franks,  fell  at  the  beginning 
of  his  pontificate,  but  the  letter  of  congratulation 
which  the  pope  is  supposed  to  have  written  to  him 
is  a  forgery.    He  died  in  November,  498. 

(A.  Hauck.) 
Bibliooraprt:  Liber  ponUfiealia,  ed.  Duchesne,  i.  268  sqq., 
Paris.  1886;  Bower,  Popes,  L  201-296;  R.  Baxmann, 
Die  Politik  der  P&pefe  von  Oregor  /.  bie  auf  Oregor 
VII.,  i.  20  sqq.,  Elberfeld,  1868;  J.  Havet,  QueeHone  Miro- 
vingiennee,  Paris.  1886;  J.  Langen,  QeaehiehU  der  rOmi- 
ecKen  Kirche  bie  Nieholae  /.,  pp.  214  sqq.,  Bonn,  1886. 

Anastasius  m.:  Pope  911-913.  He  was  a 
Roman  by  birth.  His  pontificate  fell  in  the 
period  during  which  Rome  and  its  Church  were 
under  the  domination  of  the  noble  factions,  and 
consequently  little  is  known  of  his  acts.  Nicholas, 
patriarch  of  Constantinople,  protested  to  him 
against  the  toleration  by  the  legates  of  his  pred- 
ecessor, Sergius  III.,  of  the  fourth  marriage  of 
the  Eastern  emperor,  Leo  VI.  Before  Anastasius 
could  answer  this  letter,  he  died,  probably  in  Au- 
gust, 913.  Two  privileges  ascribed  to  him,  one  gen- 
uine, one  spurious,  are  in  MPL,  cxxxi. 

(A.  Hauck.) 
Biblioorapht:  Ltber  pontifUalie,  ed.    Duchesne,   ii    230, 
Paris,   1892;   Bower,   Popee,  ii.  307-308;   R.  Bazmann, 
Die  Politik  der  P&peU,  ii.  82,  Elberfeld,  1868. 

Anastasius  IV.  (Conrad  of  Suburra):  Pope 
1153-54.  He  had  been  a  canon  regular  and 
abbot  of  St.  Rufus  in  the  diocese  of  Orleans,  and 
was  made  cardinal-bishop  of  Sabina  by  Honorius 
II.  After  the  contested  election  of  1130,  he  had 
taken  his  stand  as  one  of  the  most  determined 
opponents  of  Anacletus  II.  He  remained  in  Rome 
as  the  vicar  of  Innocent  II.  when  the  latter  fled  to 
France,  and  on  the  death  of  Eugenius  III.  (July 
5,  1153),  was  elected  to  succeed  him.  In  his  short 
reign  he  ended  the  controversy  with  Frederick  Bar- 
barossa  over  the  title  to  the  archiepiscopal  see  of 
Magdeburg,  recognizing  Wichmann  of  Naumburg, 
which  Eugenius  III.  had  refused  to  do.  The  decision 
was  looked  upon  in  Germany  as  a  victory  for  the 
emperor.  Another  long-standing  dispute  in  Eng- 
land was  terminated  by  Anastasius's  final  recog- 
nition of  Archbishop  William  of  York,  who  had 
been  rejected  by  Innocent  II.  and  Celestine  II., 
had  been  confirmed  by  Lucius  II.,  and  had  again 
been  deposed  by  Eugenius  III.  He  died  Dec.  3, 
1154,  and  was  succeeded  on  the  following  day  by 
the  English  cardinal  Nicholas  Breakspear  as 
Adrian  IV.  His  letters  and  privileges  are  in  MPL, 
clxxxviii.  (A.  Hauck.) 

Bibuoosapht:  Ltber  ponii/ieaZu,  ed.  Duchesne,  ii.  281, 
388,  449,  Paris,  1892;  Bower.  Popee,  ii.  486-487;  A. 
▼on  Reumont,  (Tssdkidkit  der  Stadt  Rom,  ii.  442.  8  vols., 
Berlin.  1867-70;  Hefele.  ConeaiengeeehiehU,  ▼.  637;  J. 
Langen,  Oeechichte  der  rOmieehen  Kirche  von  Oregor  VII. 
bie  Innocenz  III.,  p.  414,  Bonn.  1893. 


Anastasiaa 
Anoillon 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


166 


Anartagjus:  Antipope  855.  As  cardinal-prieet 
of  St.  Marcellus,  in  Rome,  he  had  been  in  decided 
opposition  to  Pope  Leo  IV.,  and  from  848  to  850 
had  been  obliged  to  absent  himself  from  that  city. 
After  twice  inviting  him  to  appear  before  a  synod, 
Leo  finally  excommunicated  him  (Dec.  16,  850), 
and  pronomiced  a  still  more  solemn  anathema 
against  him  at  Ravenna  (May  29,  853),  repeating 
it  in  a  council  at  Rome  (June  19),  and  deposing 
him  from  his  priestly  functions  (Dec.  8).  Ana- 
stasius,  however,  relied  on  his  wealth  and  his  con- 
nections in  Rome,  and  aspired  to  be  elected  pope 
on  the  death  of  Leo.  Leo  died  on  July  17,  855, 
and  the  Roman  clergy  at  once  chose  Benedict 
III.  to  succeed  him.  Anastasius  set  himself  up 
as  a  rival  candidate.  Accompanied  by  some 
friendly  bishops  and  influential  Romans,  he  inter- 
cepted the  imperial  ambassadors  on  their  way  to 
Rome,  and  won  them  over  to  his  side.  On  Sept.  21 
he  forced  his  way  into  the  Lateran,  dragged  Bene- 
dict from  his  throne,  stripped  him  of  his  pontifical 
robes,  and  finally  threw  him  into  prison.  These 
proceedings,  however,  caused  great  indignation  in 
Rome.  Not  only  almost  all  the  clergy,  but  also  the 
populace  sided  with  Benedict,  who  was  liberated 
and  consecrated  (Sept.  29)  in  St.  Peter's.  Hergen- 
r6ther  identifies  Anastasius  with  the  librarian  of 
the  Roman  Church  of  the  same  name  (see  Ana- 
stasius BiBLiOTHECABius),  but  this  secms  doubt- 
ful. The  antipope  relied  on  secular  assistance, 
while  the  author  was  a  convinced  adherent  of  the 
strict  ecclesiastical  party.  (A.  Hauck.) 

Bibuoosapht:  Liber  ponHfioalu,  ed.  Duchesne,  ii.  106  sqq., 
Paris,  1892;  MPL,  exxviii.,  pp.  1331, 1346;  Bower,  Popea, 
u.  (1846)  227-228;  J.  Langen,  GeachiehU  der  r&mitchen 
KvrcK*  hit  NichoUu  /.,  pp.  837,  844.  Bonn,  1886;  Hefele. 
CaneUiengeachiehUt  iv.  178  sqq. 

ANASTASIUS  BIBLIOTHECARinS:  One  of  the 
few  important  men  among  the  Roman  clergy  in 
the  middle  of  the  ninth  century;  d.  879.  He  grew 
up  in  Rome,  and  inherited  from  his  uncle  Arsenius 
(whose  visits  to  the  Carolingian  courts  in  865  had 
such  an  important  influence  on  the  development 
of  the  papal  power)  close  relations  with  both  the 
spirituid  and  secular  powers  of  the  day.  He  was 
for  some  time  abbot  of  what  is  now  Santa  Maria 
in  Trastevere,  and  about  the  end  of  867  Adrian  II. 
made  him  librarian  of  the  Roman  church.  In 
£69  Emperor  Louis  II.  sent  him  to  Constantinople 
to  arrange  the  marriage  of  his  daughter  Irmengard 
with  the  eldest  son  of  Basil  the  Macedonian.  Here 
he  attended  the  last  session  of  the  eighth  ecumenical 
council;  and  when  the  acts  of  the  council,  entrusted 
to  the  Roman  legates,  were  taken  from  them  by 
pirates  on  the  homeward  journey,  he  supplied  a 
copy  of  his  own.  He  seems  to  have  influenced 
John  VIII.  in  favor  of  his  friend  Photius.  Hinc- 
mar  of  Reims  begged  his  intercession,  which  was 
successful,  with  Adrian  II.  The  references  in 
Hincmar's  writings  seem  to  identify  the  librarian 
with  the  cardinal-priest  of  St.  Marcellus  who  was 
the  iconoclastic  candidate  for  the  papacy  in  855, 
and  was  several  times  excommunicated.  (On  the 
question  of  his  part  in  the  compilation  of  the  Liber 
PoTUificalis  see  Liber  Pontificalis.)  His  Chrono- 
ffraphia  tripartita  is  important  for  its  influence  on 


the  study  of  general  church  history  in  the  West. 
In  a  rough  age,  when  East  and  West  were  drifting 
further  asunder,  he  labored  zealously  to  make  the 
fruits  of  Eastern  culture  accessible  to  the  Latins. 
Most  of  his  works  are  in  MPLy  cxxix.;  the  Chrono- 
graphia  tripartita  is  in  Theophanis  chronographia, 
ed.  C.  de  Boor,  Leipsic,  1883,  pp.  31-34b. 

(F.  Arnold.) 

Bibuoorapht:  J.  Hergenrdther,  PhoHua,  ii.  228-241, 
Regensburg,  1868;  P.  A.  Lap6tre,  De  Anaataaio  bibliothe- 
oario,  Paris.  1884;  Krumbacher,  Geachichte,  pp.  122-124, 
127;  Liber  PontifCoalia,  ed.  Duchesne,  ii..  pp.  vi.,  188.  Paris. 
1802;  Wattenbach,  DGQ,  304.  ii.  510. 

ANATHEMA,  a-nath'e-ma:  Among  the  Greeks 
the  word  anathSma  denoted  an  object  consecrated 
to  a  divinity;  a  use  of  the  word  which  is  explained 
by  the  custom  of  hanging  or  fastening  (ano^i^^/Zuzi) 
such  objects  to  trees,  pillars,  and  the  like.  The 
weaker  form  ctnathema  was  originally  used  side  by 
side  with  anathSma  in  the  same  sense.  The  double 
form  explains  the  frequent  variations  of  manu- 
scripts between  the  two,  which  later  become  con- 
fusing, since  anathema  took  on  a  restricted  signifi- 
cation and  was  used  in  a  sense  exactly  opposite  to. 
anathSma.  This  later  usage  arose  partly  from  the 
use  of  anathema  in  the  Septuagint  as  an  equivalent 
for  the  Hebrew  ij^rem,  which  is  correct  enough 
according  to  the  root-idea  of  the  Hebrew  word; 
but  the  latter  had  acquired  a  special  meaning  in 
the  religious  law  of  the  Old  Testament,  designating 
not  only  that  which  was  dedicated  to  God  and 
withdrawn  from  ordinary  use  as  holy,  but  also 
and  more  especially  that  which  was  offered  to  God 
in  expiation,  to  be  destroyed.  In  like  manner 
anathema  came  to  denote  not  only  what  belonged 
irrevocably  to  God,  but  what  was  abandoned  to 
him  for  punishment  or  annihilation.  This  double 
meaning  is  explicable  by  the  interrelation  of  law 
and  religion  under  the  old  covenant.  The  declara- 
tion of  ^em  recognized  God's  right  to  exclusive 
possession  of  certain  things  and  to  the  annihilation 
of  whatever  offended  his  majesty.  Under  this 
law  booty  taken  in  war  was  wholly  or  partly  de- 
stroyed (Deut.  xiii.  16;  Josh.  vi.  18,  viii.  26),  idola- 
trous peoples  were  put  to  death,  and  cities  were 
razed,  never  to  be  rebuilt  (Josh.  vi.  26;  I  Kings 
xvi.  34).  The  same  double  sense  of  heremy  anath- 
ema, is  found  in  the  early  Greek  and  Roman  law, 
which  has  the  same  combination  of  religious  and 
secular  bearing;  devotio  in  one  aspect  is  the  same 
as  the  Greek  kathierdsie,  in  another  as  imprecation 
maledictio,  exeecratio. 

In  postexilic  Israel  the  herem  found  a  new  use 
as  a  penal  measure  directed  to  the  maintenance 
of  the  internal  purity  of  the  community.  It  then 
denoted  the  penalty  of  exclusion  or  excommu- 
nication, sometimes  with  confiscation  of  property 
(Ezra  X.  8).  It  was  developed  by  the  synagogue 
into  two  grades,  niddui  (Luke  vi.  22;  John  ix.  22, 
xii.  42)  and  l^erem,  which  included  the  pronouncing 
of  a  curse.  It  was  now  an  official  act  with  a  formal 
ritual.  The  connection  between  exclusion  and 
cursing  explains  the  use  of  anathema  in  the  sense 
of  simple  cursing  (Mark  xiv.  71)  or  of  binding  by 
a  solemn  vow  (Acts  xxiii.  12).  In  the  technical 
sense  the  word  anathema  occurs  in  four  passages 


167 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Anastaaiiui 
Anoillon 


of  Paul's  epistles,  all  of  which  show  thai  he  was 
thinking  of  a  definite  and  recognized  conception 
and  a  purely  spinlual  one  (Rom,  ix.  3;  I  Cor,  xii. 
3,  xvi.  22;  Gal.  i.  8,  9),  The  falling  under  this 
aoletnn  curse  ib  conditioned  and  justified  by  the  act 
of  the  aubject,  in  failing  to  love  God  or  in  preach- 
ing a  falae  gospel*  Th^e  passages  show  that  Paul 
was  not  thinking  of  anathema  as  a  disciplinary 
measure  of  the  comtn unity,  aa  under  the  synagogue; 
there  is  no  connection  between  it  and  the  penalties 
inflicted  on  moral  o£[enders  (I  Cor,  v.  5,  11;  I  Tim. 
].  20).  It  is  pronounced  only  against  those  who 
set  thefnselvea  Ln  treasonable  oppoadtion  to  God 
hinruielf,  to  his  truth  and  his  revelation.  Faults 
use  of  the  wordj  therefore,  goes  back  of  the  prac- 
tise of  the  synagogue  to  the  Septuagint  use.  This 
explains  the  fact  that  in  the  development  of  eccle- 
sia^ical  discipline  the  word  ''  anathema  '^  is  not 
used  as  a  t'echnical  term  for  excommunication 
before  the  fourth  century.  It  occurs  iu  the  canons 
of  Elvira  (305)  against  mockers  and  in  those  of 
Laodicea  (341?)  against  Judaizers;  and  after  the 
Council  of  Chalcedon  (451)  it  becomes  a  fixed 
formula  of  excommimication^  used  especially  against 
heretics r  as  in  the  anathemas  of  the  Council  of  Trent 
and  later  papal  utterances.  No  settled  unity  of 
belief  has,  however,  been  arrived  at  in  regard  to  it; 
now  absolute  finality  of  operation  is  claimed  for 
it|  now  it  is  oonsidered  as  revocable.  And  there 
is  as  little  agreement  as  to  its  effecta,  the  limits 
of  its  use,  and  its  position  in  the  scale  of  penalties, 
Du  Cange  includes  the  prevalent  conceptious  of 
it  when  he  defines  it  na  "  excommimicatiou  in- 
flicted by  bishop  or  council,  not  amounting  quite 
to  the  major  excommunication,  but  still  accom- 
panied by  execration  and  cursing,''     See  Excoai- 

MTJNI  CATION.  (G-  HeINRICL) 

BmuoanjLPBT:  See  iind^r  Exoomui7NICATION. 

AHATOLIUS,  an"Q^t^'U-us,  OF  COWSTAim- 
HOPLE:  Patriarch  of  Constantinople;  d.  458.  He  be- 
longed to  the  Alexandrian  school,  wasapocrmortu* 
at  Constantinople  of  Dioflcurus  of  Alexandria  (q.v,), 
and  succeeded  Flavian  as  patriarch  after  the 
"  Robber  Synod  *'  of  Epheeus  (449).  It  was  a 
time  of  conflict,  and  AnatoHus  was  more  than  once 
accused  of  heresy,  ambition,  and  injustice.  At 
the  Council  of  Chalcedon  (451)  he  succeeded  in 
having  reaffirmed  a  canon  of  the  second  general 
council  (Constantinople,  381)  which  placed  Con- 
utantinople  on  aa  equal  footing  with  Rome.  He 
crowned  the  emperor  Leo  L  in  467,  which  is  said 
by  Gibbon  (chap,  xxxvi.)  to  be  the  first  instance  of 
the  performance  of  such  a  ceremony  by  an  eccle- 
eiastic.  Anatoli  us  is  identified  by  John  Mason 
Neale  {Hymn^  c/  the  Eastern  Church,  London,  1S62) 
with  the  author  of  the  hymns  (in  Neale's  trans- 
lation) Fierce  tmis  the  wHd  billow,  and  The  day  is 
poa*  and  over.  Othera  think  that  Anatolius  the 
hymn-writer  lived  at  a  later  time* 
Bt^htoonAfari  DCB,    L  lU;  Julima,  HymnolofrVf    pp.  ^. 

1140. 

AITATOLmS  OF  LAODICEA :  Bishop  of 
Ijaodicea  in  the  third  century.  He  was  a 
native  of  Alexandria,  and  excelled  in  rhetoric 
and  philosophy^  the  natural  scieneeSt  and  mathe- 
m&tica.    His  fellow   citizens   requested    him    to 


establish  a  school  of  Aristotelian  philosophy.     In 

262  he  left  Alexandria,  acted  for  a  time  as  coadjutor 

of  Bishop  Theotecnus  of  Cs^sarea,  and  was  made 

bishopof  Laodicea  in  258  or  269.  Eusebius  (Hist,  &xl,, 

VI L  xxxii.  14-20)  gives  a  considerable  extract  from 

a  work  of  his  on  the  paschal  festival ,  and  mentiooa 

another^  in  ten  books,  on  calculation.     The  Latin 

Liber  Anatoli  dt  raiione  pmchali  probably  belongs 

to  the  sixth  century*     It  is  in  MPG,  x.,  and  in 

B.    Kruschj    Siudien   tur   miiieldlierlichefi   Chrono- 

hgie,    Leipdc,    1880,  pp.   31 1-327 j   cL    ANF,   vL 

146-153.  G.  KbI^ger. 

BiBLtOGRAPfiT:  T.   Zahn,    Fm'Mchurioen   mtr   OeKhiiAte  dtt 

Kanitnt,  ill.   177-1^6,   Leipitie,   1SS4:   A.   AniFomb^,   Ths 

PoKhal  Canon  aiiribv4«d  to  Anat&Hu*  of  LaoditW3,  in  ^1%^ 

li*h  Historical  Review,  jl  (ISOS)  £15-535;  KrOger,  Hi*- 

toTf,  p.  216. 

AHCHIETA,      an"shi-^'ta,     JOSfi      DE:       The 

apostle  of  Brazil;  b.  at  La  Laguna,  TenerifTe, 
Canary  Islands,  1533;  d»  at  Retirygba,  Braeil, 
June  15^  1597.  He  joined  the  Jesuits  in  1550| 
and  three  years  later  went  to  Branl.  In  1567  he 
was  ordained  priest  ^  and  thenceforth  lived  aa 
mi^ionaiy  in  the  wild  interior^  laboring  amid 
great  hardships  for  the  conversion  of  the  savages. 
He  became  provincial  before  his  death.  Both  the 
Indians  and  the  Portviguese  beUeved  that  he  worked 
miracles.  He  wrote  two  catechisms  in  the  native 
Brazilian  tongue,  a  dictionary  of  the  »ame,  and  a 
grammar  (Arte  de  grammatica  da  lingoa  mais  usada 
na  coala  do  Bra»ilt  Coimbra,  15^5),  which  is  the 
standard  work  on  the  subject,  A  treatise  by  liim 
in  Latin  on  the  natural  products  of  Brazil  was  pub- 
lished by  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Lisbon  (1812). 

Hibuookap^t:  His  life  hu  been  |>ubliflfa«d  to  Spa&lih  (Jerftx 
de  la  Fronter*,  1677),  in  Portu^nusse  (LJAbon,  1672),  in 
Latin  (Cblfitiie,  1617),  &ad  in  English  ( London ^  1846). 

AHCHORET     (ANCHORITE,     AJIACHORITE): 

A  name  applied  to  one  of  the  class  of  early  aseeties 
who  withdrew  from  the  world  to  devote  thejuselves 
in  solitude  to  the  service  of  God  and  the  care  of  their 
souls,  practically  synonymous  with  hermit.  See 
AacETicmM;  Monabticism. 

AITCILLOIf,  On-ai'yen:  Name  of  an  old  Hugue- 
not family  of  France,  one  of  whose  members 
resigned  a  high  judicial  position  in  the  sixteenth 
century  for  the  sake  of  his  faith.  His  son,  Georges 
AncHloQ,  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Evan- 
gelical Church  of  Metz.  Other  members  of  the 
family  were  the  following: 

David  Ancillon:  Great-grandson  of  Georges 
Ancillon;  b.  at  MetE  Mar,  17,  1517;  d.  at  Berlin 
Sept,  3,  1692,  He  attended  the  Jesuit  college  of  his 
native  city,  studied  theology  at  Geneva  (1633-41). 
and  was  appoints  preacher  at  Meaux  (1641)  and 
Metz  (1653),  In  1657  he  held  a  conference  on  the 
traditions  of  the  Church  with  Dr.  B^daciar,  suf- 
fragan of  the  bishop  of  Metz;  and,  aa  a  false  report 
of  this  conference  was  spread  by  a  monk,  he  pub- 
lished his  celebrated  TraHi  de  ta  TradUion  (Sedan, 
1657).  At  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantea 
he  went  to  Frankfort  and  became  pastor  at  Hanau 
(1685).  where  he  wrote  an  apology  of  Luther, 
ZwingU,  Calvin,  and  Beza.  Later  he  went  to  BerEn, 
where  the  Elector  Frederick  William  appointed 
him  preacher  to  the  French  congregation.    The 


Anoyra 
Andxeii 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


168 


Vie  de  Ferdt  wluch  appeared  at  Amsterdam  in 
1691  under  hia  name,  is  a  mutiiated  copy  of  a 
mannscrtpt  which  he  had  not  intended  for  pubhea- 
lion. 

Charles  Ancillon:  Eldest  eon  of  David  AnciUon; 
b.  at  Metz  July  28,  1659;  d.  in  Berlin  July  5,  1715. 
He  was  judge  and  director  of  the  French  colony 
Id  Braodenburg  and  historJographer  to  Frederkk  I. 
Of  his  writings  the  following  have  interest  for  the 
Church  historian:  B^fiexi&ns  polUiques  (Cologne, 
1685)  J  Irrivocainim  de  t'Milde  Nantes  (AmBterdam, 
1688);  Histoire  ds  Vfiahlusement  dm  Fran^aia  r^- 
fugii*  dans  ks  Hois  de  Brandebcmrg  (Berlin,  1690). 
He  publiflKed  also  Melange  cfiiiqM€  de  liUi-raiure 
(3  vols.,  Baael,  1698)^  bajsed  upon  conversations 
with  his  father,  and  eontaimiig  an  account  of  liis 
life. 

Jean  Pierre  FrM^ric  Ancillon:  Great-grandaon 
of  Charles  Ancillon;  b.  in  B^^rlin  Apr.  30|  1767;  d. 
there  Apr.  19,  1837.  He  was  teacher  in  the  mili- 
tary academy  of  Berlin  and  preacher  to  the  French 
congregation,  his  sermons  attracting  much  atten- 
tion. Iq  1806  he  was  appointed  tutor  to  the  crown 
prince^  and  in  1825  minister  of  state,  which  position 
ha  retained  till  his  death.  He  published  two  vol- 
umes of  sermons  (Berlin,  iSlS). 

BiaLlDORAl'HT:  E.  Atid  ^,  Hof&gt  La  France  ptv>tetianie,  i.  80- 
^5,  P&ru,  184&;  R.  L.  Foole,  A  HUtary  of  the  HugvmnoU  of 
tks  ZXipcrraictn,  pp.  144  sqq.,  LondoQ,  iJillO;  G.  de  Feliod, 
Hiitoirv  d^  pfoteitanU  de  Ffun^x,  pp.  377-37S,  TouloiUQ, 
18S5. 

AHCTRA,  an-sai'ra,  SYNOD  OF:  A  council 
held  at  Ancyra  (the  modem  Angora,  215  m.  e.s.e, 
of  Constantinople),  a  considerable  town  in  the  center 
of  Galatia.  The  year  is  not  stated,  but  it  wa» 
probably  soon  after  the  downfall  of  Maximinus  had 
freed  the  Eajstem  Church  from  persecution,  pre- 
Bumably  in  314.  Nine  canons  of  the  synod  deal 
with  tb©  treatment  of  the  lapsed.  The  tenth 
permits  deacons  to  many  if  they  have  expressed 
such  an  intention  at  their  ordination.  The  thir- 
teenth forbids  chorepificopi  to  ordain  priests  and 
deacons.  From  the  eigliteenth  cjinon  it  may  be 
inferred  that  the  episcopate  of  Asia  Minor  was 
inclined  to  appoint  bishopa  without  regard  to  the 
right  of  election  on  the  part  of  the  people,  and  that 
the  latter  frequently  succeeded  in  opposing  eueh 
appointmenta;  it  also  provide  that  bishops  named 
for  any  church  but  not  received  by  it  must  remain 
members  of  the  presbytery  to  which  they  had  be- 
longed, and  not  seek  an  opportunity  to  exercise 
episcopal  jurisdiction  elsewhere.  (A.  Hauck.) 
BtSLloGiiAPtiv:  I^efele,  CimciliengetcfachU,  i.  218-242,  Eng . 

tfuflsl,,  i.  199-222. 

ANDERSON,  CHARLES  PALMERSTON;  Prot- 
estant Episcopal  biahop  of  Chicago;  b.  at  Ke^npt- 
ville,  Canada,  Sept,  8,  1864.  He  was  educated  at 
Trinity  College  School,  Port  Hope,  Ont.,  and 
Trinity  University.  Toronto  (B.D.,  1888).  He  was 
ordained  priest  in  ISSS  aiid  was  rector  at  Beach- 
burg,  Ont,  in  1888^91,  and  at  Grace  Church,  Oak 
Park,  Chicago,  in  1891-1900.  In  the  latter  year 
he  was  consecrated  bishop  coadjutor  of  Chicago, 
and  on  the  death  of  Biahop  William  E.  McLaren 
in  1905  he  became  bishop.  He  is  a  member  of  the 
committee  of  the  Episcopal  Church  on  Capital  and 


Labor  and  of  the  Sunday-School  Commiflsion,  and 
is  the  author  of  The  Christian  M'mistTy  (Milwaukee, 
1902). 

ANDERSON,  GALUSHA;  Baptist;  b.  at  Claren- 
don, N.  Y.,  Mar,  7,  1S32  He  was  educated  at 
Rochester  Univengity  (B.A.,  1854)  and  Rochester 
Theological  Seminary  (1856).  He  was  pastor  of 
a  Baptist  church  at  Janesville,  Wis.,  from  1856  to 
1S58  and  of  the  Second  Baptist  Church,  St.  Louis, 
from  1858  to  1S66,  when  he  was  appointed  profe-ssor 
of  homUetics^  church  polity,  and  past<irsil  theology 
in  Newton  Theological  Institution,  Newton  Centre, 
Moss.  In  187 3  he  resumed  the  ministry  and  was 
pastor  of  the  Strong  Place  Baptist  Church,  Brooklyn, 
in  1873-76  and  of  the  Second  Baptist  Church, 
Chicago,  in  1876-78.  From  1 878  to  1885  he  wa« 
president  of  Chicago  University,  and  after  a  pas- 
torate of  two  years  at  the  First  Baptist  Church, 
Salem,  Mass.  (1885-87),  he  occupied  a  similar  po- 
sition at  Denison  University  until  1890.  In  the 
latter  year  he  was  appointed  professor  in  the  Bap- 
tist Union  Theological  Seminary,  Morgan  Park,  111., 
and  from  1892  until  hm  retireinent  as  professor 
emeritus  in  1904  was  professor  of  practical  theology 
in  the  Divinity  School  of  the  University  of  Chicago, 
in  collaboration  wdth  E.  J.  Goodspeed  he  trans- 
lated selected  homilies  of  Asterius,  under  the  title 
AndetU  Sermon§  for  Modem  rimea  (New  York, 
1904). 

ANDERSONp  JOSEPH:  Congregationaliat;  b.  at 
Broom toro  (a  hatnlet  of  Rosashire),  Scotland,  Dec. 
16,  1836.  He  was  educated  at  the  College  of  the 
City  of  New  York  (B.A.,  1S54)  and  Union  Theo- 
logical Seminary  (1857),  and  held  aucceseive  paa- 
t orates  at  the  First  Congregational  Church,  Stam- 
ford, Conn.  (1858-61),  the  First  Congregational 
Cbiurch,  Norwalk.  Conn. "  (1861-64),  and  the  First 
Congregational  Church,  Waterbury,  C^nn.  (1865- 
1905),  of  which  he  is  now  pastor  emeritus.  He  was 
moderator  of  the  General  Association  of  Connec- 
ticut in  1877  and  1S90,  and  of  the  General  Confer- 
ence of  Congregational  Churches  in  187S,  and  has 
been  a  member  of  the  Yale  Corporation  since  J  R84* 
He  was  also  president  of  the  Connecticut  Bible 
Society  in  1884-1904  and  a  delegate  to  the  Inter- 
national Congregational  Council  held  at  London  in 
1891 .  He  is  vice-president  of  the  American  Social 
Science  Association  and  of  the  Mattatuek  Historical 
Society,  as  well  as  a  corporate^memberof  the  .Amer- 
ican Board  of  Commiasionera  for  Foreign  Missions, 
a  director  of  the  Missionary  Society  of  Connecticut 
since  1875,  and  a  member  of  the  American  Anti- 
quarian Society  and  the  American  Historical 
Assoc iation.  Ainong  his  numerous  works  special 
mention  may  be  made  of  The  Toum  and  City  of 
WaierbuTy  (3  vols.,  Waterbury,  Conn,,  1896), 
which  he  edited  and  in  great  part  wTot«, 

ANDERSON,  LARS,  See  Anorea,  Lc&enz, 
ANDERSON^  MARTIN  BREWER:  American 
Baptist;  b.  at  Brunswick,  Me.,  Feb.  12,  1815; 
d.  at  Lake  Helen,  Fla„  Feb,  26,  1890.  He  was 
graduated  at  WatendUe  College  (Colby  University), 
Me.,  1840;  studied  at  Newton  Theological  Institu- 
tion 1840-41 ;  was  tutor  in  Latin,  Greek,  and  mathe- 
matica  in  WaterviUe  CoOego  1841-43,  and  professor 


160 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Anoyra 
Andreii 


of  rbetoric  1843-50.  He  waa  editor-in-chief  and 
jomt  proprietDr^  with  the  Rev.  James  S.  Dickenonj 
of  Ths  New  York  RecordeTf  a  Baptist  weekly  news- 
paper  (later  known  as  The  Examiner),  1S50-53, 
Bud  fint  president  of  tbe  University  of  Rochester, 
N.  Y*,  1S53-88.  He  was  president  of  the  American 
Baptist  Home  Missionary  Society  1864-66,  of  the 
American  Baptist  Missionaiy  Union  1  $70-72,  and 
member  of  the  New  York  State  Board  of  Charities 
1808-72,  A  volume  of  selections  from  lua  Paper* 
and  Addreaaeat  was  edited  by  W.  C.  Morey  (2  vols,, 
Philadelphia,  1895), 

BrBuoaHAFHT:  A.   C.    Ktiadriok   and    Floretioe    KendHck, 
MioHn  Br^vxr  AmUrwon^  a  Biography^  FMadelphlA,  18:05, 

AllBERSOIf,  RUFUS:  American  Congiegation- 
aUst;  b.  at  North  Yarmouth,  Me.,  Aug,  17,  1796; 
d.  in  Boston  May  30,  lESO,  He  was  graduated  at 
Bowdoin  College  1818;  studied  at  Andover 
Theological  Seminary  1S19-22;  became  aadstant 
to  the  corresjjonding  secretary  of 'the  American 
Board  1822,  assistant  secretary  1824^  and  for- 
eign secretary  1832,  which  last  position  he  filled 
till  1866^  resigning  then  because  he  was  con- 
vinced that  the  age  of  seventy  years  constitutes 
"  a  limit  beyond  wMch  it  would  not  be  wise  to 
remain  in  so  arduous  a  position,"  He  visited 
officially  the  miBsions  of  the  Board  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean 1828—29  and  again  in  1843-44,  in  India 
1854-55,  and  in  the  Sandwich  Islands  1863. 
His  publbhed  works  include;  OhservalionB  on 
the  Peloponncaus  and  Gretk  Inlands  {Bt^ioiif  1S30) ; 
F<?reign  AtiasumSj  ihcir  Relalwni  arid  Claima 
(New  York,  1869)-  A  Heaihen  Nation  [the  Sandwich 
Islanders]  Evangelized  (1870);  a  history  of  the  mis- 
sions of  the  American  Board  to  the  Oriental  churches 
(2  vols.,  1872)  and  in  India  (1874). 

AITBERSON,  WILLIAM  FRANKLDf :  Methodist 
Episcopalian;  b.  at  Morgan  town,  W.  Va.,  Apr,  22, 
1860.  He  was  educated  at  the  State  University 
of  West  Virginia,  Morgantown,  W.  Va„  Ohio  Wes- 
leyan  University,  Delaware,  O.  (B.A*,  1884),  Drew 
Theological  Seminary  (B,D.,  1887),  and  New  York 
University  (M,A.,  1897).  He  has  held  successive 
pastorates  at  the  Mott  Avenue  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church  (1887^9),  St,  James's  Church,  Kingston, 
N,  Y,  (1890-94),  Washington  Square,  New  York 
(1895-98),  and  Higiiland  Avenue  Churchy  Ossining, 
N,  Y.  (1899^190*),  He  was  recording  secretary 
of  the  Board  of  Education  of  the  Methodist  Episco- 
pal Church  from  1898  to  1904,  w^hen  he  was  elected 
corresponding  secretary.  In  1898  he  was  made 
a  member  of  the  Board  of  Managers  of  the  Mis- 
sionary Society  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church, 
and  was  a  member  of  the  General  Missionary 
Committee  in  1901-02,  In  theology  he  is  progres- 
sively conservative.  He  is  the  editor  of  The  CAWji- 
tian  StuderUf  and  in  addition  to  numerous  contri- 
butions to  religious  magazines  has  written  The 
Compuhimi  o}  Love  (Cincinnati,  1904). 

AWDRADA,  an-dra'da,  ASTOIflO  D' :  Jesuit 
missionary;  b.  at  Villa  de  Oh^iros,  Alemtejo, 
Portugal,  about  1580;. d,  at  Goa  Mar.  16,  1634. 
He  w^ent  to  the  missions  in  the  East  Indies,  became 
superior  of  the  missions  of  Mongolia,  and  made  two 
journeys  into  Tibet,  being  one  of  the  first  Euro- 


peans to  penetrate  that  land.  He  published  an 
account  of  his  first  journey  (1624)  under  the  title 
Novo  deBcubrimento  do  Grao  Coiayo  o  dos  Reynoa 
de  Tibet  (Lisbon,  1626),  His  letter  from  Tibet  for 
1626  was  published  in  Itahan  (Rome,  1626}  and 
French  (Paris,  1629). 

AHDRABA,  DIDACUS,  did'a-etrs  (DIOGO) 
PAYVA  D':  Theologian;  b,  at  Coimbra,  Portugal, 
July  26,  1528;  d,  at  Lisbon  Dec,  I,  1576,  H© 
joined  the  Jesuits,  taught  theology  at  Coimbra, 
and  w*as  one  of  the  Portuguese  delegates  to  the 
Council  of  Trent.  He  replied  to  Martin  Chemnitz's 
attack  on  the  Jesuits  (Theohg\(E  Jeauiiarum  pr<3p- 
cipua  capita f  Letpsic,  1562),  in  his  ExplicatiGnum 
orthod4iTaruTn  de  cotUroversia  reli^ionia  capii^bua 
iibri  decern  (Venice  and  Cologne,  1564;  the  first 
book,  De  origine  Societatis  Jesu,  was  published 
separately  at  Louvain,  1566,  and,  in  French  at 
Lyons,  1565).  Chemnitz  then  wrote  his  celebmted 
Examen  c^fncUii  Tridenlini  quodripartitum  (Frank- 
fort, 1565-73).  Andrada  was  prevented  by  death 
from  finishing  his  reply,  but  what  he  had  pre- 
pared was  published  under  the  title,  Defenaio 
TridentiniF  fidei  catholicae  quinque  Iibri  (Lisbon, 
1578)*  See  Chemnitz.  He  was  a  brother  of  the 
Augustinian  monk  known  as  Thomas  a  Jeeu  (q*v»). 

Bislioohaprt:  H.    Hurtcr,   Nftmtn4^Ia(ar  literarittM  reeenti' 
<?rM  tkeologisx  cathoiica*  i.  43  ftqq.i  lan&brucki  IS92. 

Ain)R£A,  an'dr^-a»  JAKOB;      Lutheran;  h.  at 

Waiblingen  (7  m,  n,e.  of  Stuttgart),  WQrttemberg, 
Mar.  25,  1528;  d,  at  Tiibingen  Jan,  7,  1590,  He 
WBa  educated  at  the  Pffidagogium  at  Stuttgart, 
and  studied  theology  at  TQbingen  from  1541  to 
1546.  In  the  latter  year  he  became  deacon  at 
Stuttgart,  but  had  to  leave  in  1548,  after  the  intro- 
duction of  the  Interim  (q,v.),  and  went  to  Tiibingeni 
where  he  was  appointed  deacon  at  the  Siiftakirche. 
In  1553  he  took  the  degree  of  doctor  of  theology, 
was  appointed  city  pastor  and  afterward  superin- 
tendent-general at  Gappingen,  Hn  now  developed 
activity  in  behalf  of  the  Evangdical  Church  at 
large,  helping  to  introduce  the  Reformation  in  many 
places.  In  1557  be  attended  the  diets  of  Frankfort 
and  Regensburg,  and  was  present  at  the  Conference 
of  VVorms*  In  1559  he  attended  the  Diet  of  Augs- 
burg; in  1560  he  held  a  church-visitation  in  Lauin- 
gen;  in  1561  he  was  at  Erfurt;  and  in  the  fall  of 
the  same  year,  in  company  with  the  Ttibingen 
chancellor  Jakob  Beurlin  and  the  Stuttgart  court- 
preacher  Balthasar  B  idem  bach,  he  went  to  Paris 
to  attend  the  religious  colloquy  in  Poissy, 

Beurlin  having  died  at  Paris,  Andrei  was  ap- 
pointed profcflsor  of  theology,  provost,  and  chan- 
cellor in  Tubingen.  In  1503  he  went  to  Straaburg 
to  settle  a  dispute  caused  by  Zanchi  on  the  inami»' 
tihititaa  gratis,  in  1564  he  attended  the  conference 
in  Bebcnhausen  to  examine  the  Heidelberg  Cate- 
chism, and  the  colloquy  in  Maulbronn.  In  156S 
his  prince  sent  him  to  Brunswick-Wolfenbflttel  to 
assist  in  the  introduction  of  the  Reformation  and 
in  framing  an  Evangelical  Church  ordinance;  at 
the  same  time  also  he  joined  with  Chemniti,  Sel- 
nekker,  and  other  theologians  of  northern  Germany, 
in  paving  the  way  for  a  consensus  of  the  Saxon 
and  other  Evangelical  Churches.    Therewith  began 


Andrea 
Andrew 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


170 


the  most  important  period  in  Andre&'s  life,  his 
activity  in  behalf  of  the  Formula  of  Concord. 

Andre&'s  first  plan  was  to  neutralize  the  differ- 
ences by  means  of  formulas  so  general  that  they 
could  be  accepted  by  all.  Two  years  were  spent 
in  traveling,  during  which  he  visited  every  Evan- 
gelical Church,  university,  and  city  in  northern 
and  southern  Germany,  and  conferred  with  all 
important  theologians.  But  neither  the  Flacians 
nor  the  Philippists,  the  two  extreme  parties  among 
the  Lutherans,  had  full  confidence  in  him;  and  in 
the  convention  at  Zerbst,  May,  1570,  his  attempt 
proved  a  failure.  Andre&  now  changed  his  plan. 
There  was  to  be  no  more  attempt  at  compromise, 
but  the  line  was  to  be  sharply  drawn  between 
Lutherans  and  the  adherents  of  Zwingli  and  Cal- 
vin; and  thus  the  Philippists  and  all  other  indi- 
vidual shades  of  Lutheranism  were  to  be  destroyed. 
Andreft  preached  six  sermons  on  the  points  in  con- 
troversy in  1572  and  published  them  in  the  two 
following  years.  Copies  were  sent  to  Duke  Julius, 
Chemnitz,  ChytrHus,  and  others.  He  then  sent  an 
epitome  of  these  sermons,  with  the  approval  of  the 
TQbingen  faculty  and  the  Stuttgart  consistory,  to 
the  theologians  of  north  Germany,  for  examination 
and  criticism,  who  introduced  some  changes  and 
produced  the  so-called  Swabian-Saxon  Concordia. 
A  comparison  of  this  Swabian-Saxon  Concordia 
with  Andrea 's  original  Swabian  Concordia  and  the 
Maulbronn  Formula  by  a  convention  at  Torgau,  May 
28,  1676,  resulted  in  the  lAber  Torgenais,  which  was 
again  revised  by  Andreft,  Chemnitz,  and  Selnekker 
at  the  monastery  of  Bergen  in  March,  1577.  Three 
further  conferences  were  held  at  Bergen,  May  19- 
28,  1580,  at  which  Chytr&us,  Musculus,  and  K6mer 
were  present  besides  Andreft,  Chenmitz,  and  Sel- 
nekker. The  outcome  was  the  Bergiache  Bnch  or 
Formula  Concordia^  which  appeared  June  25,  1680, 
and  which  bicame  the  symbolical  book  of  the 
Lutheran  Church  (see  Formula  of  Concord).  An- 
dreft received  much  abuse — even  Selnekker,  Chy- 
trftus,  and  Chemnitz  were  dissatisfied — but  he  bore 
it  patiently,  convinced  that  he  had  worked  for 
the  truth  and  the  peace  of  the  Church.  He  con- 
tinued his  reformatory  work,  visited  churches,  and 
took  part  in  controversies;  at  the  request  of  Duke 
Frederick  of  Wttrttemberg  he  spoke  against  Beza 
at  the  colloquy  of  MUmpelgart  in  March,  1586, 
discussing  the  Lord's  Supper,  the  person  of  Christ, 
predestination,  baptism,  etc. 

There  is  no  collected  edition  of  Andreft 's  writings, 
which  numbered  more  than  one  hundred  and  fifty. 
Among  the  more  noteworthy  were:  ReftUatio 
criminationum  Hosii  (Tubingen,  1560);  De  duabus 
naturis  in  Christo  (1565);  Bericht  von  der  Ubiquitat 
( 1589) ;  De  instauratione  atudii  theologicif  De  studio 
aacrarum  literarunif  published  posthumously  (1591 
sqq.).  His  sermons  have  been  often  published  (cf. 
Ztvanzig  Predigten  von  den  Jahren  1557, 1559 ,  1560, 
ed.  Schmoller,  GUtersloh,  1890).        (T.  Kolde.) 

Bibuoorapht:  J.  V.  Andreft,  Fama  Andreana  refUmamn*, 
Strasburg,  1630  (an  autobiography  written  in  1562.  ed- 
ited by  his  grandson,  the  main  source  for  Andre&'s  life); 
G.  M.  Fittbogen,  Jacob  AndreA,  der  Verftuaer  dea  ConcoT' 
dienbuchea.  Sein  Leben  und  aeine  theologxathe  Bedeu- 
tunOf  Leipsic.  1881  (not  altogether  satisfactory);  XL,  i. 
818-821. 


AlVDREA,  JOHANll  VALENTIN:  Theologian 
and  satirist,  grandson  of  Jakob  Andreft;  b.  at 
Herrenberg,  near  TObingen,  Wttrttemberg,  Aug.  17, 
1586;  d.  at  Stuttgart  June  27,  1654.  In  1601  he 
entered  the  University  of  Tttbingen,  where  his 
reading  covered  a  vast  range  on  the  mathematical 
sciences,  language,  philosophy,  theology,  music, 
and  art.  After  living  for  a  number  of  years  as 
tutor  in  noble  families  and  traveling  extensively 
in  France,  Switzerland,  Austria,  and  Italy,  he 
became  deacon  at  Vaihingen,  Wttrttemberg,  in 
1614.  His  duties  gave  him  leisure  for  prolific 
authorship,  and  forty  of  his  writings  (numbering 
about  100  in  all)  were  produced  during  his  six 
years'  sojourn  in  Vaihingen.  In  1612  he  published 
De  chriatiani  cosmoxeni  genitura,  a  eulogy  of  early 
Christianity,  and  Die  Chrietenburg,  an  epic  allegory 
dealing  with  the  struggles  and  ultimate  triumph 
of  the  Christian  soul.  These  were  followed  by 
Twrbo  (1616),  a  comedy  in  which  pedantry  was 
wittily  satirized,  and  Menippus  (1618),  of  which 
worlcUy  folly  was  the  subject.  In  1 6 1 9  he  published 
ReipubliccB  christianopolitancB  deecriptio,  an  account 
of  an  ideal  Christian  state  after  the  manner  of 
More's  Utopia  and  Campanella's  CUy  of  the  Sun. 
In  all  of  these  Andreft  appears  as  a  foe  of  secta- 
rianism and  intolerance,  and  with  wit  and  energy 
pleads  for  a  union  of  denominations  on  the  basis 
of  the  fundamental  Christian  teachings.  In  1614 
there  appeared  anonymously  Fama  fratemUatis 
Rosea  Crude,  followed  the  next  year  by  Confessio 
fratemitatis  Rosea  Crude,  satires  on  the  astro- 
logical and  mystic  agitations  of  the  time.  Andreft, 
whose  authorship  of  the  two  pamphlets  is  more 
than  probable,  though  not  established  beyond 
doubt,  later  declared  that  the  Order  of  the  Rosi- 
crucians  (q.v.)  was  a  myth  and  a  product  of  his 
own  brain;  nevertheless  he  has  been  spoken  of  as 
the  founder  or  restorer  of  that  fraternity. 

From  1620  to  1639  Andreft  was  superintendent 
at  Calw,  displaying  in  the  unhappy  days  of  the 
Thirty  Years'  war  heroic  devotion  to  duty.  In 
1634  Calw  was  sacked,  and  of  its  4,0CX)  inhabitants 
only  1,500  escaped  the  sword,  while  the  plague 
carried  off  nearly  one-half  of  the  remainder.  An- 
dreft worked  unceasingly  among  the  dying,  uniting 
in  himself  the  duties  of  physician,  minister,  and 
grave-digger,  and  when  the  progress  of  the  infec- 
tion had  been  checked  he  set  to  work  resolutely 
to  restore  law  and  order  in  the  devastated  city. 
In  1639  he  was  called  to  Stuttgart  as  court  preacher 
with  a  seat  in  the  (DonsLstorium.  Upon  him  fell 
the  task  of  reorganizing  the  church  system  and 
the  schools  which  had  shared  in  the  ruin  that  the 
war  had  brought.  An  admirer  of  the  Genevan 
system  of  government,  he  attempted  to  introduce 
its  prindpai  features  into  the  country,  but  failed 
because  of  the  opposition  of  his  fellow  members 
in  the  Consistorium.  He  was  partially  successful, 
however,  in  establishing  general  and  local  conven- 
tions composed  of  government  officials  and  members 
of  the  clergy  for  the  enforcement  of  the  church 
laws.  The  public  regulation  of  private  morals 
was  a  cardinal  principle  with  him  through  life, 
and  foimd  expression  in  his  TheopkUus,  written  in 
1622  and  published  in  1649.    This  work  contains 


171 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Andrett 
Andrew 


also  a  dissertation  on  the  education  of  the  yoving 
that  ei^titlei  Andrei  to  serious  cooside  ration  as  a 
predeceBSor  of  Pestalozxi,  In  1650  Andrea  became 
general  superintendent  in  Wiirttemberg,  but  was 
coropellod  by  failing  health  to  resign  his  office- 

(H.  HdL£CHER.} 
BtvLfooSAfirr:  Hia  autobtOKraphy  wm»  pubUahed;  in  Germ^ 
by  D.  C.  Seyboldt  in  1799,  a^nci  in  the  original  Liitin  by 
F.  H.  RbeiDWiilii,  Berlin,  1849.  Cuiuult  also  W.  Ho&- 
baoh,  J.  V.  Andnd  und  sein  ZeUaUer,  Bflrlin,  1819;  K. 
Htkllemaiuit  V.  Andreas  txli  padttoog,  2  voLi.t  LeipAics»  1S84- 
m;  3.  P.  GldcbJer,  J.  V^  AndnA,  Stuttsnrt.  1886;  A. 
Landenberg^,  J^  V.  Andrmu,  Barnien,  1S36;  P.  Wuna, 
J.  r.  ArtdrtA.  Cfllw,  1887. 

ANDREA,  LORENZ    (LARS  AlfDERSOIT):    The 

great  ecdesiastico-political  Swedish  reformer;  b. 
probably  at  Strengiias  (40  m.  e.  of  Stockholm) 
about  14^;  d.  there  Apr  29,  1552,  He  was 
arehdeacon  of  Strengnti^  when  through  Olaus  Petri 
(q*v.)  he  w£LB  converted  to  the  Lutheran  views. 
In  1523  the  newly  chosen  king  Gustavus  Vasa 
chose  him  to  be  his  chancellor.  As  such  he  aided 
Olaua  and  Lauren  tins  Petri  in  their  reformatory 
activity  and  contribute*!  largely  to  bring  about 
the  religious  liberty  granted  at  the  Diet  of  VesterflB 
in  1527 »  and  the  fiill  introduction  of  the  Refor- 
mation at  the  Council  of  Oerebo  in  1529.  In  1540 
he  and  Olaus  Petri  opposed  the  effort  of  Vasa  to 
transform  the  Swedish  Church  in  the  direction  of 
presbyterianism  and  thus  roused  the  king's  anger. 
On  trumped  up  charges  of  high  treason  Andrei 
was  sentenced  to  death.  The  king  pardoned  him  | 
but  deprived  him  of  his  offices  and  he  lived  the  rest 
of  his  life  in  retirement.  He  wrot«  Tro  och  Gernin- 
gar  ("  Faith  and  Good- Works  "),  reprinted  Stock- 
holm, 1S57,     See  Sweden. 

AlfDREW  THE  APOSTLE:     One  of  the  twelve 

apostles,  brother  of  Peter;  bom*  like  hiro,  in  Beth- 
saida  (John  i,  40,  44).  and  a  member  of  Peter's 
family  in  Capernaum  (Mark  i.  29).  According  to 
John  i.  35-42^  Andrew  was  one  of  the  first  to  follow 
Jeaus  in  consequence  of  the  testimony  of  the  Bap- 
tist, and  ho  brought  Peter  to  the  Lord.  In  Jesua's 
later  choice  of  disciples  in  Galilee  Peter  and  Andrew 
were  the  first  whom  he  called  to  follow  him  per- 
manently and  intimately  (Matt.  iv.  18^20;  Mark 
i,  16-18).  It  is  not  therefore  without  good  reason 
that  the  Greeks  give  to  Andrew  the  epithet  '*  the 
first  called/*  According  to  the  Ada  A ndres 
{Tischendorfi  Ada  apostotorum  apocrypha,  Leip- 
aic,  1851 »  pp,  xl.  Bqq.,  105  sqq.;  R.  A.  Lipsius, 
Die  apokryphen  Apmidgeschichien,  i.,  Brunswick, 
1883,  543  sqqOt  he  labored  in  Greece;  according 
to  Eusebiiis  {Hist,  tccl./m,  1),  in  Scythia,  whence 
the  Ru^ans  worsliip  him  as  their  apostle.  His 
day  is  Nov,  30,  because,  according  to  tradition, 
he  was  cmcified  on  that  day  at  Patne  in  Achaia 
by  the  proconsul  jEgeas  upon  a  ctnx  decussata  (X, 
hence  known  as  St.  Andrew's  cross;  cf.  Fabricius, 
Codex  apocryphus,  Hamburg,  1703,  pp.  456  aqq.). 
The  name  Andrew,  although  Greek,  was  common 
unong  Jews  (Dio  Cassius,  Ixviii.  32). 

(K.  Schmidt.) 

BTU4CMnAi>^r;  DB,  i.  (1@0S>  92-03,  contains  a  r&nim^  of 
the  cont«nte  of  npooryphal  Uterftturfi;  the  mferoocc  tp 
lipaiufl  in  the  text  point*  to  the  fulWt  diicussion  of  this 
literature;  Hani»ck,  LiU^nlurt  L  127-128;  DCS,  i.  30. 


AITOREW  OP  C^SAREA:  Metropolitan  of  Cte«- 
area  in  Cappadocia,  author  of  a  commentary 
on  the  Apocalypse  which  haa  some  importance  in 
e^eegetical  history.  He  has  been  variously  thought 
to  have  flourished  between  the  fifth  and  the  ninth 
centuries.  His  time  was  certainly  after  the  Per* 
sian  persecutions  and  the  strife  between  Arians 
and  the  orthodox  "  New  Rome,"  A  reference  of 
the  prophecy  of  Gog  and  Magog  to  the  Scythian 
peoples  of  the  extreme  north,  "  w*hom  we  call 
Htuie,"  has  been  thought  to  indicate  the  period 
before  the  rule  of  the  Huns  was  broken;  but  the 
parallel  in  Arethas  {MPGj  cvi.  756)  shows  that 
"  Huns  "  was  used  as  a  generic  name  for  barbarian 
invaders.  The  only  sure  criterion  by  which  the 
earliest  possible  date  may  be  determined  is  An- 
drew's citation  of  authorities.  The  latest  of  these 
is  the  so-called  Dionysius  the  Areopagite,  whose 
writings  are  first  certainly  mentioned  in  533;  so 
that  Andrew  can  not  have  written  before  the 
middle  of  the  sixth  century.  He  cites  as  witnessea 
to  the  inspiration  of  the  Apocalypse,  Papias,  Ire- 
naeus^  Methodius,  Hippolytus,  Gregory  Naziansen, 
and  G^ril  of  Alexandria.  His  striking  omission  of 
Origen  is  explicable,  in  the  light  of  his  dependence 
on  the  latter 's  bitter  opponent  Methodius,  by  the 
recrudescence  of  Origenistic  controversy  in  the 
sixth  century.  Other  authoriti^  are  Epiphanius, 
Basil,  Euaebius,  and  Justin;  of  non-Chriatian 
writers,  he  once  cites  Joseph  us. 

Andrew's  expository  method  is  set  forth  in  the 
introductory  dedication  to  hia  brother  and  feUow 
worker  Macarius  The  Apocalypse,  he  says,  like 
any  other  inspired  Scripture,  is  at  once  historical^ 
tropological,  and  anagogical;  but  the  last  aspect 
is  most  prominent  in  it,  and  requires  unfolding. 
The  expositor  must^  however,  observe  his  limits. 
God  has  made  his  revelation  in  Christ  susceptible 
by  the  human  intellect;  and  bo  history  and  mystery 
are  not  to  be  treated  alike.  But  the  explanation 
may  at  least  console  and  edify  the  reader  by  show- 
ing the  transitoriness  of  all  earthly  things  and  by 
teaching  him  to  long  for  the  glories  of  the  future. 
Andrew's  exposition  is  accordingly  characterized 
by  the  effort  to  arrive  at  a  Christian  interpretation 
of  history,  by  an  interest  in  its  facts,  and  by  a  cau- 
tious restraint  in  the  elucidation  of  prophecy. 
But  in  spite  of  this,  his  conception  that  the  Apoca- 
lypse as  a  whole  offers  a  clear  re vdation  of  the  divine 
government  of  the  world  colors  hia  exposition 
throughout.  His  style  is  usually  glossarial,  though 
here  and  there  he  adds  an  edifying  excursus. 
Where  necessary,  he  gives  di^erent  views,  leaving 
the  reader  to  take  his  choice;  but  his  commentary 
is  much  more  than  a  mere  catena,  the  quotations 
occupjdng  a  relatively  small  space.  From  the 
standpoint  of  textual  criticism,  as  was  first  recog- 
nized by  Bengcl,  the  commentary  has  an  impor- 
tance of  its  own.  Matthsei  noticed  that  the  glosses 
of  Andrew  had  not  seldom  crept  into  the  manu- 
scripts; and  F.  Dclitzsch  was  inclined  to  attribute 
the  uncertainty  of  the  cursive  texts  of  the  Apoc- 
alypse to  the  influence  of  the  commentaries  of 
Andrew  and  Arethas  (q.v,).  The  commentary  is 
in  MPG,  cvi.  (G.  Hmnhici.) 

BiBUOoajtPffr:  DCB,  L  IM-i55;  KL,  I  830-832. 


Andrew 
Andrews 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


173 


ANDREW  OF  CARHIOLA:  Archbbbop  of  Car- 
niola  (Kraio)  in  th©  fifteenth  century.  He  was  a 
Slavonian,  and  became  a  Doininican  monk, 
Through  the  favor  of  the  Emperor  Frederick  IIL 
he  was  made  archbishop  of  Camiola  with  residence 
at  Lai  bach.  He  aasumed  the  title  *'  Cardinal  of 
San  Siflto.*'  In  1482  he  went  to  Switzerland  and 
tried  to  get  a  general  council  convened  at  BafleL 
On  July  21  he  nailed  a  formal  arraignment  of  Pope 
SixtuH  IV.  to  the  doors  of  the  cathedral  ^  accom- 
panying it  with  a  demand  for  a  council.  The 
pope  excommumcated  bim,  and  the  local  author- 
ities put  him  in  prison,  where  he  waa  found  dead 
on  Nov.  13,  1484,  probably  having  committed 
suicide.  Hia  secretaryr  Peter  Numagen  of  Treves, 
thought  him  crazy. 
BiBLioanAPHT:  Feter  Numagent  Getta  wrhiejnaofpi  Cray- 

tamvnti,  iv.  :l47-604.  Zunnh,  1654;  J.  Burckhardt,  En^ 
bi4thof  Andrtm  von  Krmn  und  der  iekU  Conj^svtrmidi  in 
Bawl,  U*S^^-Sf4,  Uawlp  l^i2,  E.  Frcinte.  SCrtua  I\\  und 
dit  Rtpublik  FlarrtUt  pp.  433  aqq.^  Itegeosburgt  1880. 

ANDREW  OF  CRETE;  Archbishop  of  Crete; 
b.  at  Damascus^  d.  not  earlier  than  726,  He  be- 
came a  monk  at  Jerui^alem  (whence  he  ia  some- 
timea  called  Andrew^  of  Jerusalem),  and  was  eent 
by  the  Patriarch  ThfHjdore  to  the  sixth  general 
council  (Constantinople,  680).  Later  he  was  made 
archbiahop.  He  waa  inclined  to  Monothelitismf 
but  waa  able  to  restore  his  reputation  for  orthodoxy 
by  real  for  image- worship.  He  ia  commemorated 
as  a  aidnt  in  the  Greek  Church  on  July  7.  Among 
Greek  hytnn- writers  he  occupied!  a  prominent  place 
as  the  inventor  of  the  so-called  canons  (see  Canon). 
His  penitential  canon  (**  the  great  canon  ")  of  250 
fitrophes  is  especially  famous.  It  m  BtUl  sung  on 
the  Thursday  before  Palm  Sunday  and  on  some 
other  days  of  Lent,  Andrew  was  also  the  author 
of  many  homilies,  some  of  them  very  long. 

G.  KrCoxsr. 
BrBLiooRAFifT:  Andrew*!!  worki!  are  in  MPOt  ximi.^ 
Anfholfmm  Grirca,  ed.  W.  Christ  and  M.  FaLr&nilEius, 
147-161,  Leipsic*  1S71;  llaTMiMi)  fli^Xtotfijcij,  pp.  330-331. 
AtheiiPp  4  8@0;  A*  Piipadopoiiio«-KciiMneuii,  ■Ai«*A««Ta  ktX. 
i.  1-14.  BL  Petersburg ,  1891;  A.  Maltsew,  AndathtM- 
hiKk  der  m-tJuidoT-kdthDlisckcn  iCtneAtf  ife*  Margenian-^ 
det,  176-277.  Berlin,  IS&d.  A  few  ataniafl  of  the  Qte^t 
OuioQ,  with  two  or  three  other  hymn!}  are  tnmsJated  in 
X  M.  ^fenle^B  Hifwinx  of  the  Eaatem  Chureh^  pp.  73-84, 
London.  1S76,  where  a  hrief  flketch  of  hia  life  i«  ^ven.  Con- 
milt  Fab ri ejus- Harks ,  Hibliotktca  Grmca,  jd.  fl2-64.  88-7fi. 
Hambtire,  1S06;  Analr^:Us  m^ra,  ed.  J.  B.  Pitra.  i.  626- 
©27,  Paris,  1S76;  A.  Ehrhard.  in  Krumb»chcr*a  GetchichU, 
p.  ISi;  F.  DkkAmp,  HtppolytGM  von  Thebtn^  p.  10B»  MOn- 
Bter,  I89S. 

ANDREW  OF  LUND  (ANDERS  SUNESON); 
Archbishop  of  Lund ;  b.  at  Knarthorp  (3  m.  a.w.  of 
Copenhagen)  about  U60;  d.  on  the  island  of  Iv6 
(in  Lake  Ivo,  near  Lund)  Jime  24,  1228.  He  came 
of  the  noble  family  of  Hvide  whose  members  filled 
the  highest  offices  in  Church  and  State.  In  11 82 
he  went  to  Paris ^  completed  his  atudies  there ,  and, 
returning  in  1 190,  was  made  dean  of  the  cathedral 
of  Roeskilde,  where  his  elder  brother  waa  biflbop. 
Canute  VL  made  him  at  the  same  time  court* 
chancellor.  In  1 1 94--96  he  was  on  mission  to  Rome 
and  Paris  in  ref^rd  to  the  repudiation,  by  Philip 
Augustus  of  France^  of  hia  wife  Ingeborg,  a  sister 
of  the  D&oisb  king.    In  1201  Andrew  succeeded 


Absalon  bs  archbishop  of  Lmid,  an  office  which 
carried  with  it  the  dignities  of  primate  and  papd 
legate. 

Andrew  was  zealous  in  the  suppresaion  of  con* 
cubinage  among  the  priesthood ,  active  in  raising  the 
standard  of  learning  among  them,  and  an  enemy 
to  the  sale  of  indulgences.  In  1206  he  preached  a 
cruaade  against  the  heathen  inhabitants  of  the 
island  of  Oesel  off  the  coast  of  Eethonia.  When 
Albert  of  Riga  (q»v.)  waa  compelled  to  seek  the  aid 
of  the  Danes  against  the  Russians  and  Esthonians 
in  1218,  he  agreed  to  place  the  bishopric  of  Esthonia 
under  the  authority  of  the  archbishop  of  Lund, 
and  in  the  following  year  Andrew  waa  engaged 
in  regulating  the  affairs  of  that  see.  In  1223  he 
resigned  his  office  and  retir^i  to  the  island  of  Iv6 
in  the  lake  of  the  same  name,  achieving  a  reputation 
for  wonder-working  sanctity.  He  was  the  author 
of  Lex  ScandiiE  promnci^k  (ed.  P.  G.  Thorsen, 
Copenhagen,  1853)  and  He^aemeron  (ed»  M.  C. 
Gert^t  ib,  1SG2),  a  dogmatic  poem  in  twelve  books, 
expository  of  the  th^logy  of  Peter  Lombard. 

(F,  Nielsen,) 

Biblioohapbt:  P,  E^  MiiUert  Vita  Andntr  B-unonim^  Archie 
piacopi  Lunden^itty  Copenhagen,  IBSO;  F.  Hamtnerich,  En 
nkolasliJuit  og  en  BiheUheotoQ  fra  Norden^  ib,  1805. 

ANDREW     AND     PHILIPp      BROTHERHOOD 

OF:  An  interdenominational  reUgious  society 
for  men  of  all  ages.  The  sole  object,  as  declared 
by  the  constitution,  is  to  spread  Christ- s  kingdom 
among  men.  The  brotherhood  waa  founded  by  the 
Rev.  Rufus  Wilder  Miller,  of  the  Reformed  Churchy 
who  organbed  the  first  local  chapter  at  Reading, 
Pa,,  May  4,  18S8.  Other  chapters  were  formed  in 
the  same  denomination,  conventions  began  to  be 
held,  and  the  Brotherhood  Star^  the  monthly  bulletin 
of  the  association  waa  established.  At  the  con- 
vention of  Reformed  chapters  at  Bethlehem,  Pa., 
in  1890,  the  formation  of  brotherhood  chapters 
in  other  denominations  was  recommended,  the 
chapters  in  each  denomination  to  be  under  the 
control  of  that  denomination,  and  all  to  be  united 
in  a  federation  of  brotherhoods.  In  this  way  the 
work  was  extended,  until  to-day  there  are  921 
chapters  in  the  United  States,  Canada,  Japan, 
Australia,  India,  and  other  lands,  with  about 
40,000  members,  representing  some  twenty-three 
denominations;  there  are  also  fifty-eight  brother- 
hoods for  boys. 

Each  local  chapter  ia  subjected  to  the  super- 
vision and  control  of  the  pastor  and  governing 
body  of  the  congregation,  and  chapters  of  each 
denomination  are  associated  in  a  denominational 
eicecutive  council.  From  these  councils  repre- 
sentatives are  elected  to  a  body  known  as  the 
federal  coimcil  of  the  brotherhood  of  Andrew  and 
Philip.  It  L^  through  this  larger  bcidy  that  the 
literature  of  the  association  is  issued.  Denomina- 
tional Councils  are  now  organiaed  in  the  Baptist, 
Congregational,  Methodist  Epbcopal,  Presbyterian^ 
and  Reformed  Churches. 

The  distinctive  characteristic  of  the  brotherhood 
ia  the  emphasis  it  places  upon  personal  work. 
There  are  two  rules  of  prayer  and  service.  The 
rule  of  service  is  to  make  personal  efforts  to  bring 
mem  and  boys  within  the  hearing  of  the  Gospel, 


178 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Andrew 
Andrews 


as  set  forth  in  the  service  of  the  church,  men's 

Bible-classes,  and  prayer-meetings.    The  rule  of 

prayer  is  to  pray  dajly  for  the  spread  of  Christ's 

kingdom  among  men,  and  God's  blessing  upon  the 

labors  of  the  brotherhood.    Chapters   sustain   a 

weekly  Bible-class,  or  men's  prayer-meeting,  and 

engage  in  a  great  variety  of  good  works,  as  ushering, 

work   in  Sunday-schools,  visiting  jails,  hospitals, 

etc. — all  as  the  needs  of  the  church  may  require. 

Chapters   also   maintain   free   reading-rooms   and 

gymnasiums,    organize   boys'   clubs    and    cottage 

prayer-meetings,  provide  for  the  evening  church 

service,  assist  in  the  orchestra  or  choir,  support 

home  and  foreign  missions,  and  do  other  work  of  a 

similar  character.  William  H.  Phelet. 

Bxbliographt:  Manual  of  Ihe  Brotherhood  of  Andrew  and 

Philip,  New  York,  n.  d.;  Brotherhood  Star,  Philadelphia 

(a  monthly);  Booklets  published  by  the  Federal  Council, 

26   E.  22   St.,  New  York;  W.   B.  Carpenter.  Religioue 

Brotherhoodt,  in  Contemporary  Review,  Ivii.  (1889)  20  sqq.; 

L.  W.  Baoon  and  C.  W.  Northrop,  Young  People' e  Soci- 

etiee,  pp.  48-60,  and  of.  Index,  New  York.  1900. 

AlVDREWES,  LANCELOT:  English  bishop;  b. 
at  Barking  (7  m.  e.  of  London)  1555;  d.  at  Win- 
chester House,  Southwark,  Sept.  26,  1626.  He 
entered  Pembroke  Hall,  Cambridge,  in  1571,  was 
graduated  B.A.  1575,  was  ordained  1580,  and 
became  catechist  at  Pembroke;  he  was  master  of 
Pembroke  from  1589  to  1605.  He  also  held  the 
living  of  St.  Giles's,  Cripplegate,  and  was  preben- 
dary of  St.  Paul's;  he  became  chaplain  to  the  queen 
and  dean  of  Westminster  in  the  latter  part  of 
Elizabeth's  reign.  Under  James  I.  he  was  made 
bishop  of  Chichester  in  1605,  of  Ely  in  1609,  and  of 
Winchester  in  1619.  He  was  a  man  of  austere 
piety,  rigorous  in  the  performance  of  private  devo- 
tion, liberal  in  charities,  one  of  the  most  learned 
men  of  his  time,  and  enjoys  a  well-deserved  repu- 
tation as  prelate,  as  preacher,  and  as  writer.  He 
was  thought  by  many  to  be  the  natural  successor 
to  Bancroft  as  archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  1611; 
but  George  Abbot  (q.v.)  was  appointed  instead. 
Andrewes  was  a  member  of  the  Hampton  Court 
Conference  (q.v.),  and  his  name  heads  the  list  of 
scholars  appointed  in  1607  to  prepare  the  Authorized 
Version;  he  belonged  to  the  first  company  of 
translators,  to  whom  were  assigned  the  books  of 
the  Old  Testament  as  far  as  II  Kings. 

The  only  writings  of  Bishop  Andrewes  published 
during  his  life  were  the  Tortura  Torti  sive  ad  Mat- 
then  Torti  reaponsio  (1609)  and  one  or  two  subse- 
quent treatises,  all  written  in  reply  to  Cardinal 
Bellarmine,  who  had  attacked  King  James  because 
of  the  oath  of  allegiance  imposed  upon  Roman 
Catholics  in  England  after  the  Gunpowder  Plot. 
In  1629  ninety-six  of  his  sermons  were  published, 
edited  by  Bishops  Buckeridge  and  Laud;  certain 
sermons  have  been  many  times  reedited  and  re- 
printed. A  number  of  volumes  based  upon  his 
works  (such  as  The  Pattern  of  CaiechUtical  Doc- 
trine, or  an  Exposition  of  the  Ten  Commandmente, 
1642)  pass  tmder  his  name.  His  prayers,  composed 
in  Greek  and  Latin  for  his  own  use,  are  famous, 
and  have  been  often  translated  (cf.  The  Oreek 
Devotions  of  Lancelot  Andrewes,  from  the  manu- 
eeript  given  by  him  to  William  Laud  and  recently 
discovered,  ed.  P.  G.  Medd,  London,  1892;  The  De- 


votions of  Bishop  Andrewes,  Greece  et  Latine,  ed. 
H.  Veale,  1896;  The  PrivaU  Devotions  of  Lancelot 
Andrewes,  ed.  E.  Venables,  1883). 

Bibuoorapht:  His  works,  with  his  life  by  H.  Isaacson  (first 
published  1650)  and  other  notices,  are  collected  in  the 
Library  of  Anglo-Catholic  Theology,  11  vols.,  Oxford,  1841- 
54.  There  are  many  later  memoirs  and  essays,  as:  A.  T. 
Russell,  Memoira  of  the  Life  and  Worke  of  L.  Andrewes, 
London,  1863;  St.  Jamea'a  Leeturee,  2d  ser..  Lecture  3,  ib. 
1876;  DNB,  i.  401-405;  R.  L.  Ottley,  Lancelot  Andrewes, 
ib.  1804;  A.  Whyte,  Lancelot  Andrewee  and  hie  Private 
Devotione,  Edinburgh,  1896. 

AlVDREWS,  EDWARD  GAYER:  Methodist 
Episcopal  bishop;  b.  at  New  Hartford,  N.  Y., 
Aug.  7,  1825.  He  was  educated  at  Clazenovia 
Seminary,  Cazenovia,  N.  Y.,  and  Wesleyan  Univer- 
sity, Middletown,  Conn.  (B.A.,  1847).  He  held 
various  pastorates  in  Methodist  Episcopal  churches 
in  Central  New  York  from  1848  to  1854,  when  ho 
was  appointed  teacher  and  principal  in  Cazenovia 
Seminary,  where  he  remained  until  1864.  He 
was  then  pastor  in  Stamford,  Conn.,  from  1864  to 
1867  and  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  from  1867  to  1872. 
In  the  latter  year  he  was  elected  bishop.  He  visited 
Methodist  Episcopal  missions  in  Europe  and  India 
in  1876-77,  in  Mexico  in  1881,  and  in  Japan,  Korea, 
and  China  in  1889-90,  while  in  1894  he  was  a  dele- 
gate to  the  British  and  Irish  Methodist  Conference. 
In  theology  he  holds  the  faith  of  his  denomination 
for  essentials  of  doctrine,  but  with  deference  to  the 
results  of  recent  Biblical  investigations. 

AlVDREWS,  ELISHA  BENJAMIN:  Baptist;  b. 
at  Hinsdale,  N.  H.,  Jan.  10,  1844.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Brown  Univereity  (B.A.,  1870),  Newton 
Theological  Institution  (1874),  and  the  Massachu- 
setts Institute  of  Technology  (1879-80),  and  also 
studied  in  the  universities  of  Berlin  and  Munich 
(1882-83).  He  served  in  the  Union  army  in  the 
Civil  War,  being  promoted  from  private  to  second 
lieutenant.  He  was  principal  of  the  Connecticut 
Literary  Institute,  Suffield,  Conn.,  1870-72,  and 
pastor  of  the  First  Baptist  Church,  Beverly,  Mass., 
1874-75.  In  the  latter  year  he  was  appointed 
president  of  Denison  University,  Granville,  111., 
and  held  this  position  until  1879,  when  he  accepted 
a  call  to  Newton  Theological  Institution  as  professor 
of  homiletics  and  practical  theology.  In  1882  he 
became  professor  of  history  and  political  economy 
at  Brown  University,  and  in  1888  of  political 
economy  and  finance  at  Cornell.  In  1889  he  was 
chosen  president  of  Brown  University,  where  he 
remained  until  1898.  He  then  became  superin- 
tendent of  the  Chicago  schools  until  1900,  when 
he  was  made  chancellor  of  the  University  of  Nebras- 
ka, at  Lincoln,  a  position  which  he  still  occupies. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  United  States  delegation 
to  the  Brussels  International  Monetary  Commis- 
sion in  1892,  and  is  also  a  member  of  the  Grand 
Army  of  the  Republic,  the  Loyal  Legion,  and  the 
American  Economic  Association.  In  theology  he 
is  a  liberal  evangelical  Baptist.  His  works  include 
Brief  Institutes  of  Constitutional  History,  English 
and  American  (New  York,  1886);  Brief  Institutes 
of  General  History  (1887);  Institutes  of  Economics 
(1889);  The  Problem  of  Cosmology  (1891);  Eternal 
Words  (1893;  a  volume  of  sermons);  Wealth  and 


Andrew 
Aziffel 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


174 


Moral  Law  (IS94);  An  Honest  Dollat^  with  tet?*n 
Other  En^ays  on  BimttaUittm  (1894);  Hiutary  of 
the  UnUed  Stales  (2  vols.,  1894;  revised  aod  eti- 
largedj  5  vola.,  1905);  and  HisLory  of  the  United 
Slates  in  the  last  Quarter  Century  (1896).  He  has 
lilso  published  OuiUneM  of  the  Princijdes  of  History 
(New  York,  1S93),  a  translation  of  J.  G.  Droy- 
sen^s  Gtundris  der  HUiorik  (3d  ed.,   Leipsic^  1882). 

AHDREWS,  SAMUEL  JAMES:  Catholic  Apo^ 
tolic  Church;  b.  at  Dimbuiy,  Conn.,  July  30,  1817; 

d.  at  Hartford  Oct.  II,  1906,  He  was  educated 
At  Williams  College  (B.A.»  1839).  and  studied  law 
ia  Hartford,  Boston^  and  New  York^  being  admitt^ 
to  the  Connecticut  bar  in  1842  and  to  the  Ohio 
bar  in  1844.  In  the  following  year,  however,  he 
gave  up  law  and  atudied  theology  at  Lane  Theo- 
logical  Seminary,  CJincinnati.  He  wae  hcensed  as 
a  Congregational  clergyman  in  Connecticut  in 
1846,  and  two  yean*  later  was  ordained  pastor  of 
the  Congregational  church  at  East  Windsor,  Conn. 
Loss  of  voice  compelled  him  to  retire  from  the 
nnnistiy  in  1855,  although  he  sttll  preached 
occasionally.  In  1865  he  w^as  appointed  an  in- 
Btructor  in  Trinity  College,  Hartford*  and  three 
yeans  later  took  clisrge  of  a  Catholic  ApofltoUc 
(Irvingite)  church  in  the  same  city.  In  theology 
he  was  a  coneiBtent  foUow^er  of  the  creed  which 
he  professed.  His  chief  writings  were:  Life  of  Our 
Lord  Upon  the  EaHh  (New  York,  1862);  God's 
Bevdalions  of  Himself  to  Man  (1885);  Christumily 
and  Anti-Chriatianity  in  Their  Final  Conflict  (189S); 
The  Church  and  its  Orgtmic  Ministries  (1890); 
WHliam  W<Uson  Andrews,  a  ReligUmi  Biography 
(1900;  life,  letters,  and  writings  of  bis  brother, 
William  Wataon  Andrews,  q.v.);  and  Man  and 
the  Ineamalion  (1905). 

AITDREWS,  WILLIAM  WATSOIT:  Catholic 
Apostolic  Church,  brother  of  Samuel  James  An- 
drewH;  b.  at  Windham,  Conn.,  July  26,  1810;  d, 
at  Wetherafield,  Conn.,  Oct,  17,  1897.  He  was 
graduated  at  Yale  in  1831.  During  this  year  his 
attention  was  drawn  lx>  the  reUgioua  movement 
then  going  on  in  England  which  culminated  in 
the  Cathohc  Apostolic  Church.  The  point  that 
Bcems  at  first  to  have  interested  him  most  was 
whether  the  gifts  of  the  Spirit  as  originaliy  given 
were  or  were  not  to  abide  in  the  Church,  and 
his  study  of  the  Script  urea  led  bim  to  the  con- 
clusion that  they  are  a  permanent  endowment, 
and,  if  not  still  posse^^sed,  it  was  becauie  of  unbelief. 
Closely  connected  w^th  the  work  of  the  Spirit  in 
the  Church  was  another  question:  Was  the  return 
of  the  Lord  to  be  desired,  and  the  Church  to  be 
ever  praying  and  looking  for  it?  Believing  this 
return  to  be  an  object  of  hope,  he  was  led  to  aek 
if  any  preparation  was  needed;  and,  if  so,  might 
not  the  work  in  England  be  the  preparation?  In 
1833  he  was  licensed  to  preach,  and  in  May,  1834, 
was  ordained  pastor  of  a  Congregational  church  in 
Kent,  Conn.  Here  be  continued  fifteen  years, 
declining  invitations  to  go  to  larger  spheres  of  labor, 
preferring  his  quiet  country  life,  which  gave  him 
time  for  study  and  reflection.  In  1842,  partly 
for  his  health,  and  partly  to  leara  from  personal 
observation  the  progress  of  the  religiouB  movement 


which  interested  him,  he  wexit  In  &igland  and  be- 
came fully  convinced  that  the  movement  was  of 
God.  He  offered  himself  to  its  leaders  as  ready 
to  take  part  in  it,  but  woe  directed  by  them  to 
return  to  his  parish  and  continue  his  work  there. 
This  he  did,  but  on  the  death  of  his  wife  in  1848, 
he  was  released  from  his  charge  by  the  North  Asso- 
ciation of  Litchfield  C^ounty,  and  eoon  entered 
the  Apostolic  communion.  In  1849  he  was  ap- 
pointed pastor  of  a  small  congregation  at  Potsdam, 
N.  Y.,  and  remained  there  for  six  years,  doing 
some  work  elsewhere  as  an  evangelist.  In  1856 
he  left  Potsdam  and  entered  upon  his  evangelistic 
work  in  which  he  continued  till  his  death.  From 
1858  his  home  was  in  Wethers  field,  Conn. 

The  only  book  publiihed  by  Mr.  Andrews  was 
The  Miscellanies  and  Correspondence  of  Hon.  John 
Cotton  Smith  (New  York,  1847).  Of  his  numerous 
addresseii,  articles,  and  pamphlets  mention  may  be 
made  of  his  sermon  at  Kent,  May  1849,  on  with- 
drawing from  the  Congregational  ministry;  The 
True  ConstUution  of  the  Church,  read  before  the  North 
Association  of  Litchfield  County,  1855;  Review 
of  Mrs,  OHphant's  Life  of  Edward  Irving,  in  The 
New  Englander,  1863  (reprint-ed  in  Scotland,  1864 
and  1900);  Remarks  on  Dr.  B^lshnell^a  *'  Vicarious 
Sacrifice,"  published  at  the  request  of  the  Hart- 
ford Fourth  Association,  186G;  The  Catholic  Apos- 
tolic Church,  in  the  Bihliothee^  Sacra,  1866;  The 
Catholic  Apostolic  Church,  in  ScliafT's  Creeds  of 
Christendom,  i.,  New  York,  1884,  905-915;  and 
an  address  at  Kent,  his  old  parish,  on  the  sixtieth 
anniveraaiy  of  hie  ordination,  May  27,  1894. 

Samuel  J.  ANnni^wst, 

BmuootUfHT:  William  WaUon  Andrews,  a  Etli&iirwf  Biog- 
raj^if.  with  Eitra^tt  from  hi*  Lrtt^ra  and  othrr  WriHnga  pfv- 
pmvd  bj/hi*  Brothttr^  Samuel  J.  Attdretpa.  New  York,  IflOO 
(ocmUint  the  iermon  »t  Kent,  Miiy^  1840,  and  the  addnn, 
1S&4,  meDtionod  abore,  pp.  206-265), 

AITGAltI£:  Certain  taxes  or  servieea  usually 
rendered  on  the  Ember  Days  (q,v.),  whence  the 
name  was  transferred  to  the  latter.  Consult  Du 
Cange«  «,v. 

AUGEL. 

I.  Biblical  Ckmwptiontt. 

Angeb  are  GodV  SerraatM  {|  1). 

The  New  TMtunent  Ctmceptba  not  Different  from  the 

Old  a  2). 
Later  Developments  {f  3). 
DistiDcttDnfl  Among  Angebi.     Cherubim  and  8erapbiiiL 

FaUeu  Aimh  (j  4J. 

II,  Judaic  NotioDA. 

Naia««andClai«««Ci  1). 
Funeiionst  Duties ,  ete.  (f  2), 
m.  Dewlopment  of  the  Scriptural  Ang«|alogy. 

The  Belief  ia  Aneela  Cacomon  ta  All  Antiquity  (fi  1), 

The  HexHieueh  (f  2). 

The  Propi)otB(|  3). 

The  New  Teptaroent  {|  4). 

OoiaolasioD  (f  C>. 

The  name  "  Angel*'  aa  a  designation  for  spiritual 
beings  of  the  supernatural  worlds  has  come  into 
modern  languages  with  Christianity  from  the  Greek 
angelo9  {'*  messenger  "),  which  is  itself  a  rendering 
of  the  Hebrew  mo/'aJtft.  The  latter,  in  form  an  ab* 
straet  noun  ("  mission^''  "  message  "),  oecura  only 
as  a  concrete  ("  messenger "),  and  acquired  a 
special  meaning,  particularly  in  the  singular,  as  the 
designation  of  a  supernatural  bearer  of  &  divine 


175 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Andrews 
Anffel 


revelation.  The  transition  was  then  easy  to  the 
sense  of  a  generic  name  for  the  beings  of  the  heaven- 
ly world,  from  whom  the  God  of  Israel  is  called 
"  Yahweh,  God  of  Hosts,"  or  "  Yahweh  of  Hosts." 
To  distinguish  angels  from  men,  they  are  called 
"sons  of  God "  (Gen.  vi.  2, 4;  Job  i.  6,  ii.  1,  xxxviii. 
7)  or  "  sons  of  the  mighty  "  (Ps.  xxix.  1,  margin, 
Ixxxix.  6).  A  special  connection  with  God  is  always 
implied,  as  well  as  a  certain  superiority  over  men 
(I  Sam.  xxix.  9;  II  Sam.  xiv.  17,  20).  This  con- 
nection is  emphasized  by  the  epithet  "  holy " 
(A.  v.,  "  saints  ";  Job  v.  1,  xv.  15;  Ps.  bncxix. 
5,  7;  Dan.  viii.  13;  Zech.  xiv.  5).  In  I  Kings 
xxii.  19-24  and  Acts  xxiii.  9  a  distinction  is  made 
between  angels  and  spirits,  and  in  the  Talmud  the 
latter  name  is  used  for  demons  only.  With  refer- 
ence to  their  duties  angels  are  called  "  watchers  " 
in  Dan.  iv.  13,  17,  23. 

I.  Biblical  Conceptions:  As  concerns  their 
fimction,  it  is  not  the  Biblical  conception  that 
angels  are  the  indispensable  means  of 
X.  Angels  communication  between  the  higher 
are  God's  and  lower  worlds,  nor  are  they  a  per- 
Servants.  sonification  of  nature  powers.  Yet 
they  are  consistently  represented  as 
serving  God's  purposes  in  revelation  and  salvation, 
and  are  his  ''  ministering  spirits  "  (Heb.  i.  14)  from 
the  appointment  of  the  cherubim  to  guard  Eden 
(Gen.  iii.  24)  to  their  activity  at  the  second  coming 
and  the  end  of  the  world  (Matt.  xiii.  41,  xxiv.  29- 
31;  cf.  Gen.  xxiv.  7,  40,  xlviii.  16;  Ex.  xiv.  19, 
xxiii.  20,  23;  Luke  xvi.  22).  Sometimes  they 
appear  in  companies  (Gen.  xxviii.  12,  xxxii.  1-2; 
II  Kings  vi.  16-17;  Matt.  xxv.  31;  Luke  ii.  13; 
Rev.  xix.  14),  but  usually  it  is  one  angel  who  exe- 
cutes God's  command;  he  is  called  the  "  angel 
of  God  "  or  "  angel  of  Yahweh  "  (Gen.  xvi.  7,  9-11, 
xxi.  17;  Ex.  iii.  2,  xiv.  19;  Judges  vi.  20;  and 
often).  The  relation  of  the  "  angel  of  Yahweh  " 
to  Yahweh  himself  is  a  difficult  question.  One  of 
the  three  who  appear  in  Gen.  xviii.  2,  22  (cf.  xix. 
1)  is  evidently  Yidiweh,  and  Yahweh  and  his  angel 
are  both  called  the  guide  of  Israel  (Ex.  xiii.  21, 
xiv.  19).  Similar  identification  apparently  occurs 
elsewhere,  while  in  Zech.  i.  9,  12-14,  and  other 
passages  there  is  a  sharp  distinction. 

In  the  New  Testament  (he  angel  of  the  Lord 
occurs  only  when  an  angel  has  been  previously 
mentioned  (Matt.  i.  24;  Luke  i.  11, 
a.  The  New  13,  ii.  9,  10,  13;  Acts  xii.  7,  11,  vii. 
Testament  30,  38,  Gk.  text).    There  is  no  thought 
Conception  of  an  identification  of  the  angel  with 
not  Differ-  the   Lord.    That    the   conception   is 
ent  from    different  from  that  of  the  Old  Testar 
the  Old.     ment  can  not  be  proved,  and  such  an 
assumption   is   not    in    accord    with 
Stephen's  references  (Acts  vii.  30-35)  to  the  appear- 
ance in  the  burning  bush  (Ex.  iii.).    But  the  dis- 
tinction between  the  angel  and  Yahweh  does  not 
hinder  from  making  the  angel  speak  as  Yahweh 
or  from  speaking  of  the  angel  as  of  Yahweh.    It 
follows  that  the  distinction  can  not  be  a  product 
of  later  times.    The  angel  is  not  the  Logos,  the 
second  person  of  the  Trinity,  as  assumed  by  the 
Greek  Fathers,  the  older  Lutheran  dogmaticians, 
and  Hengstenberg;  nor  is  he  merely  a  theophany 


(Vatke,  De  Wette,  Wellhausen,  Kosters,  and 
others).  The  former  view  is  not  consistent  with 
the  New  Testament  revelation,  which  makes  it 
impossible  to  find  in  the  Old  Testament  a  knowledge 
of  the  threefold  character  of  God;  and  the  latter 
falls  because  a  **  mission,"  not  an  **  appearance," 
of  God  is  always  spoken  of.  The  true  Biblical 
conception  of  the  **  angel  of  Yahweh "  is  that  of  a 
created  being  (Neh.  ix.  6),  belonging  to  the  heav- 
enly hosts  (Augustine,  Jerome,  Hofmann,  Riehm), 
who  represents  God,  but  is  in  no  way  identified 
with  God.  The  fact,  that  in  the  New  Testament 
the  angel  of  Yahweh  recedes,  does  not  justify  the 
assumption  that  he  is  a  type  of  Christ.  A  real- 
ization of  God's  presence  through  angels  and  the 
communication  of  his  revelation  by  them  was 
as  necessary  in  the  old  covenant  as  the  revelation 
and  presence  of  God  in  Christ  or  in  the  Holy  Spirit 
are  in  the  new  (cf.  Acts  vii.  38;  Gal.  iii.  19;  Heb. 
ii.  2).  The  angel  has  no  more  place  in  the  new 
covenant  because  the  first  has  b^n  made  old  and 
IB  "  ready  to  vanish  away  "  (Heb.  viii  13). 

From  the  beginning  the  appearance  of  an  angel 
is  looked  upon  as  a  sign  of  God's  favor  (Gen.  xxiv. 
7, 40,  xlviii.  16;  Ex.  xxiii.  20;  II  Kings 
3.  Later  xix.  35;  Isa.  Ixiii.  9),  and  the  belief 
Develop-  that  God's  angels  guard  his  servants 
ments.  finds  expression  in  the  Psalms  (Ps. 
xxxiv.  7,  xci.  11).  From  the  unity  of 
God  arises  the  conception  of  a  multiplicity  of 
angels  (Gen.  xxviii.  12,  xxxii.  2);  and  then  it 
is  only  a  step  to  that  of  Yahweh's  hosts  (Josh, 
v.  14-15),  with  which  he  comes  to  the  help 
of  Israel  (Isa.  xxxi.  4-5),  which  surround  his 
throne,  offering  him  praise  and  adoration  (I  Kings 
xxii.  19;  Ps.  cxlviii.  2),  and  constitute,  in  the 
language  of  the  synagogue,  "  the  family  above." 
Apocalyptic  literature  develops  the  thought, 
depicting  in  symbolic  narratives  the  part  of  the 
angels  in  the  history  of  Israel  (cf.  the  visions  of 
Zechariah,  Ezekiel,  and  Daniel).  In  the  Book  of 
Daniel  (viii.  16,  ix.  21,  x.  13,  xii.  1)  two  angels 
are  named — Gabriel  and  Michael.  The  fact  that 
names  are  given  (cf.  Judges  xiii.  18)  and  the  names 
themselves  indicate  Babylonian  influence,  which 
later  tradition  recognizes  by  ascribing  the  many 
angels'  names  which  it  knows  to  Babylon  (Genesis, 
Rdbbah  xlviii.).  What  is  said  of  these  two  angels 
does  not  contradict  existing  views,  but  is  merely 
a  development  of  them,  influenced  by  contact  with 
Babylonian  and  Persian  ideas.  The  fantastic  and 
bizarre  conceptions  of  later  Judaism,  however, 
can  not  deny  their  origin  from  this  heathenism 
(cf.  Tobit  iii.  17,  v.  6,  21,  vi.  4-17,  viii.  2-3).  That 
which  is  really  new  in  the  Book  of  Daniel  concerns 
the  participation  of  the  angels  in  the  sin  of  the 
worid.  In  the  New  Testament  the  apocalyptic 
symbolism  appears  in  the  Book  of  Revelation 
only  (cf.  xii.  7  sqq.;  Jude  9).  All  allusions  to  angels 
in  New  Testament  history  and  in  the  Epistles  can 
be  explained  as  in  full  accord  with  Old  Testament 
conceptions,  and  if  new  ideas  are  found  by  any  it 
is  only  because  of  the  desire  to  find  them.  It 
requires  great  art  of  eisegesis  to  ascribe  to  Paul 
(as  does  Everling)  the  angel  doctrine  of  Jewish 
legend  and  rabbinic  theology. 


Anrel 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


176 


There  are  evidently  distmctions  among  angels, 
based  on  differences  of  duties,  not  of  rank.  In 
this  way  passages  like  Dan.  x.  13, 
4.  Distinc-  xii.  1;  I  Thess.  iv.  16;  Jude  9  are  to 
tions  among  be  explained.  The  same  observation 
Angels,  holds  with  regard  to  the  cherubim  and 
Cherubim  seraphim,  who  belong  to  the  angels, 
and  Sera-  The  signification  of  the  latter  name 
phim.  Fal-  (only  in  Isa.  vi.)  is  not  certain.  From 
len  Angels,  comparison  with  the  Arabic  it  has 
been  thought  to  mean  nobUis,  whence 
the  signification  would  be  **  angel-leader  **  (cf .  Josh, 
v.  13-15;  Dan.  x.  13,  xii.  1).  Another  derivation 
is  from  the  Hebrew  aaraph,  "to  bum,"  and  the 
name  is  then  thought  to  be  given  to  these  beings 
because  of  their  peculiar  relation  to  the  divine 
holiness,  of  which  they  are  the  heralds  and  guards. 
Whether  the  prophet  coined  the  name  with  refer- 
ence to  the  act  attributed  to  the  seraph  in  verses 
6-7,  or  found  it  already  in  use,  can  not  be  deter- 
mined. In  any  case  it  is  the  name  only  and  not 
the  representation  that  is  new.  The  description 
of  their  form  is  different  from  that  of  the  cherubim. 
In  the  latter  case  the  description  is  symbolic,  and 
the  symbolism  is  more  and  more  richly  developed 
from  the  cherubim  that  guard  Eden,  in  the  figures 
of  the  Tabernacle  (Ex.  xxv.  17-22)  and  the  Temple 
(I  Kings  vi.  23-28),  and  the  visions  of  Ezekiel 
(Ezek.  i.  4-14,  iii.  12-14,  ix.  3,  x.  6-22,  xi.  22,  xU. 
18),  to  the  description  of  the  Apocalypse  (Rev. 
iv.  6-11).  In  that  way  they  unite  in  themselves 
all  excellencies,  they  typify  the  exaltation  of  God 
above  every  creature,  as  well  as  the  purpose  that 
every  creature  shall  be  a  bearer  of  the  majesty  of 
God.  Sin  is  found  among  the  angels  (Gen.  vi.  1-4; 
II  Pet.  ii.  4;  Jude  6),  but  not,  as  among  men,  as 
something  affecting  all.  Since  Satan  appears 
among  the  "  sons  of  God  "  (Job  i.  6;  cf .  I  Chron. 
xxi.  1;  Zech.  iii.  2),  he  is  reckoned  among  the 
angels.  The  interest  which  he  shows  in  the  sin  of 
men  in  these  passages  justifies  the  assmnption 
(first  in  Wisdom,  ii.  24;  cf.  Rev.  xii.  9,  xx.  2)  that 
he  is  the  serpent  of  Gen.  iii.  He  is  therefore  the 
first  fallen,  to  whom  the  other  fallen  angels  (or 
demons)  join  themselves  as  his  angels  (Matt. 
xxv.  41).  "  Evil  angels "  (Ps.  Ixxviii.  49)  are 
angels  who  do  ill  at  God's  command,  not  wicked 
angels. 

As  concerns  the  origin  of  the  Biblical  conception 
of  angels,  the  view  that  they  represent  the  natural 
powers  of  old  Semitic  heathenism  stands  or  falls 
with  the  representation  of  Deut.  iv.  19  (also  in 
Paul)  that  heathenism  is  an  apostasy  from  the 
true  God.  It  may  be  noted  that  angels  never 
serve  as  an  explanation  of  the  events  of  nature, 
but  appear  only  in  connection  with  a  divine 
revelation.  The  decision  depends  also  on  the 
question  as  to  the  reality  of  angels.  That  they, 
as  well  as  Satan  and  the  demons,  actually 
exist  is  held  to  be  indubitably  proved  by 
the  words  and  conduct  of  Jesus.  The  upper 
world,  to  which  we  are  striving,  is  full  of  life 
and  needs  not  to  be  peopled  by  us,  but  is 
prepared  for  us  with  all  that  is  proper  to  it, 
freed  from  the  limitations  of  the  present. 

(H.  CBEMSRt.) 


XL    Judaic  Notions:    To  the  two  names  known 
to  Daniel  the  Book  of  Tobit  (iii.  17)  adds  that  of 
Raphael,  while  the  Book  of  Enoch 
I.  Names    (xxi.)  knows  seven  archangels — Uriel, 
and        Raphael,     Raguel,     Michael,     Sariel, 
Classes.     Gabriel,  Jerahmeel — and  seven  classes 
of  angels  (Ixi.  10),  namely,  the  cheru- 
bim, seraphim,  ophanim,  all  the  angels  of  power, 
principalities,  the  Elect  One  (Messiah),  and  the 
(elementary)  powers  of  the  earth  and  water.    They 
have  seven  angelic  virtues  (Ixi.  11):  the  spirit  of 
faith,  of  wisdom,  of  patience,  of  mercy,  of  judgment, 
of  peace,  and  of  goodness. 

In  the  Slavonic  Enoch  and  rabbinic  literature, 
the  further  development  of  the  heavenly  hierarchy 
introduces  the  seven  heavens,  and  tells  of  the  food 
of  angels,  the  hours  at  which  they  worship  God, 
their  language,  and  their  knowledge.  They  medi- 
ate between  God  and  man,  carry  prayers  to  the 
throne  of  God  (Tobit  xii.  12-15;  Gk.  Apoc. 
Baruch  xi.),  and  accompany  the  dead  on  their 
departure  from  this  world.  Angels  are  also  the 
guardians  of  the  nations.  In  Enoch  xxxix.  59 
the  seventy  shepherds  are  the  guardian  angels  of 
the  seventy  nations,  over  whom  rules  Michael, 
as  Israel's  angel-prince.  With  these  God  sits  in 
council  when  holding  judgment  over  the  world, 
each  angel  pleading  the  cause  of  his  nation. 
It  was  these  angel-princes  whom 
a.  Func-  Jacob  saw  in  his  dream  (Gen.  Rabbah 
tions,  Du-  Ixviii.).  There  is  also  a  special  angel- 
ties,  etc.  prince  set  over  the  world,  Sar  ha- 
*olam  (Talmud,  Yebamot  16b;  HuUin 
60a;  Sanhedrin  94a),  who  is  said  to  have  composed 
Ps.  xxxvii.  25,  civ.  31,  and,  partly,  Isa.  xxiv.  16. 
Besides  the  guardian  angels  of  the  nations,  sixty- 
three  angels  are  mentioned  as  janitors  of  the  seven 
heavens,  and  at  each  of  these  heavens  stand  other 
angels  as  seal-bearers.  The  head  and  chief  of  all 
these  is  Asriel.  Angels  protect  the  pious  and  help 
them  in  their  transactions.  Every  man  has  a 
^>ecial  guardian  angel,  and  there  are  accompanying 
angels.  Thus  two  angels — one  good  and  one  evil — 
accompany  man  as  he  leaves  the  synagogue  on  Sab- 
bath eve.  Three  good  angels  receive  the  souls 
of  the  pious,  and  three  evil  angels  those  of  the 
wicked,  who  testify  for  them  (Talmud,  Shabbat 
119a;  Ketubot  104a).  Great  as  is  the  number  and 
influence  of  the  angels,  yet  in  many  respects  they 
are  inferior  to  man.  Enoch  (xv.  2)  intercedes 
on  behalf  of  the  angels,  instead  of  having  them 
intercede  for  him;  and  none  of  the  angels  could 
see  what  he  saw  of  God's  glory  (xiv.  21),  or 
learn  the  secrets  of  God  as  he  knew  them  (Slavonic 
Enoch  xxiv.  3;  Aacensio  laaice  ix.  27-38).  Adam 
was  to  be  worshiped  by  the  angels  as  the  image  of 
God  (Vita  Ada  et  Ev€B,  p.  14;  Gen.  Rabbah  viii.); 
before  his  fall  his  place  was  within  the  precincts  of 
God's  own  majesty,  where  the  angels  can  not  stay 
(Gen.  Rabbah  xxi.).  They  were  inferior  in  intelli- 
gence to  Adam,  when  names  were  given  to  all 
things  (PirJfe  Rabbi  ElVezer  xiii.).  Adam  reclined 
in  Paradise,  and  the  mimstering  angels  roasted 
meat  and  strained  wine  for  him  (Talmud,  Sanhe- 
drin 59b).  Every  man  that  does  not  practise 
magic  enters  a  department  of  heaven  to  which  even 


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Anffel 


the  ministering  angels  have  no  access   (Tahnud, 
Nedarim  32a). 

The  essence  of  the  angels  is  fire;  they  sustain 
themselves  in  fire;  their  fiery  breath  consumes 
men,  and  no  man  can  endure  the  sound  of  their 
voices  (Tahnud,  Shabbat  88b;  Jfagigah  14b).  An- 
other theory  is  that  they  are  half  fire  and  half 
water,  and  that  God  makes  peace  between  the  op- 
posing elements  (Jerusalem  Talmud,  Rosh  ha-Sha- 
nah  ii.  58a).  According  to  one  tradition,  each 
angel  was  one-third  of  a  world  in  size;  according 
to  another,  2,000  parasangs,  his  hand  reaching  from 
heaven  to  earth.  The  angels,  niunbering  either 
496,000  or  499,000,  are  said  to  have  been  created 
either  on  the  first  day  (Book  of  Jubilees  ii.  2),  the 
second  day  (Slavonic  Enoch),  or  on  the  fifth  day 
(Gen.  Rabbah  iii.).  Their  food  is  manna,  of  which 
Adam  and  Eve  ate  before  they  sinned  (Vita  Ada 
et  EvcB,  p.  4). 

As  a  rule,  the  angels  are  represented  as  good, 
and  as  not  subject  to  evil  impulses  (Gen,  Rabbah 
xlviii.  14);  nevertheless,  two  were  expelled  from 
heaven  for  138  years  on  account  of  prematurely 
disclosing  the  decree  of  Sodom's  destruction  (ib.). 
Two  narratives  are  given  in  Enoch  vi.-xv.,  of  the 
fall  of  the  angels.  According  to  one,  Azazel  was 
the  leader  of  the  rebellion,  and  the  chief  debaucher 
of  women;  according  to  the  other,  Samiaza,  or 
Shamhazai,  was  the  chief  seducer.  Each  has 
ten  chieftains  and  100  angels  at  his  command. 
They  are  punished  at  the  hands  of  Michael,  Gabriel, 
Raphael,  and  Uriel  (Enoch  ix.  1,  xl.  2). 

B.  Pick. 

m.  Development  of  the  Scriptural  Angelology: 
The  nature  of  Holy  Scripture  forbids  any  attempt 
to  build  upon  its  text  a  systematic  angelology. 
The  Bible  covers  a  wide  field  of  time,  and,  for 
anything  save  its  main  purpose,  it  is  a  book  of 
imperfect  record.  Moreover,  its  evidence  on  this 
question  is  less  apt  to  be  direct  than  indirect.  An 
elaborate  angelology  can  therefore  be  derived  from 
the  Bible  only  by  doing  violence  to  sound  exegesis. 
Yet  it  is  possible  to  detect  a  general  movement  of 
thought  and  to  deduce  a  conclusion,  touching  the 
weight  to  be  given  to  the  scriptural  doctrine  of 
angels. 

The  belief  in  angels  is  not  an  original  element 

in  the  Scriptures;  the  Bible  holds  it  in  oonunon  with 

all  the  men  of  antiquity,  who  lacked  a   unifying 

conception  of  law  and  made  the  poet 

I.  The      and  the  theologian  one  and  the  same 
Belief  in     person.     So    the    mind    instinctively 
Angels  Com-  peopled   space   with    personal    forces 
mon  to  All  both   good   and   evil.    The    field   of 
Antiquity,    reality,    being    governed    neither    by 
the  scientific  idea  of  law  nor  by  the 
monotheistic  idea  of  God,  was  inevitably  broken 
up    and   parceled  out    by    a    kind    of    spiritual 
feudalism.     The  belief  in  angels  being   thus    in- 
stinctive, it    follows    that,  so   far   as    the    Scrip- 
tures are  concerned,  the   doctrine   in  question  is 
not  a  primary  one;    on   the    contrary,   it    is    a 
subordinate  element.    To  be  true    to    the    Bible 
itself,  the  emphasis  must   be  put  on   the   rela- 
tion between  that  belief  in  angels  which  the  men 
I.— 12 


of  the  Bible  inherited  from  antiquity  and  that 
saving  knowledge  of  the  divine  unity  which  b  the 
heart  of  God's  word.  The  center  of  gravity  and 
interest  is  not  in  angelology  as  such. 

The  central  and  controlling  element  in  the  Old 
Testament  is  the  self-revelation  of  God  in  his  holy 
and    creative    unity.    The    pith    of 
2.  The      prophecy  is  God's    manifestation  of 
Hezateuch.  himself  in  terms  of  the  moral  order  in 
the  experience  of  the  chosen  nation. 
It   is  significant,   then,   that   in   the    Hexateuch 
the  angels  in   their  plurality  play  a  small  part 
(Gen.  xix.  15,  xxxii.  1).    The  "angel  of  Yahweh," 
"  the  angel  of  the  presence,"  on  the  other   hand, 
are  constantly    in    evidence.    The  unity  of  God, 
dominating  the  religious  consciousness,  has  given 
a  monarchical  turn  to  the  angelology  of  antiquity. 
In    the   preexilic    prophets    the    angels  appear 
but  twice.     In  both  cases  (Hosea  xii.  4,  Isa.  xxxvii. 
36)  the  usage  is  unitary.     This  fact, 
3«  The      taken  with  the  extreme  rarity  of  the 
Prophets,    term  on  the  one  hand,  and,  on  the 
other  hand,  with  the  fact  that  the 
existence  of  heavenly  hosts  is  taken  for  granted 
(Isa.  vi.  1-6),  gives  a  weighty  piece  of  evidence. 
Even  in  exilic   prophecy  as  a  whole  there  is  no 
emphasis.    The  "  angel  of  the  presence  "  appears 
once  (Isa.  Ixiii.  9).     The  angels  in  their  plurality 
do    not    appear.    The   prophetic   passion    spends 
itself  upon  God's  presence  in  the  crises  of  the 
nation's  history,  and  upon  his  power  to  guide  it 
toward  a  supreme  moral  end  (the  day  of  Yahweh). 
Even  in  Ezekiel,  in  whom  the  apocalyptic  tend- 
ency  begins   to   be   strongly  marked,  the  angels 
are  not  named. 

But  in  Zechariah  a  new  turn  is  taken.  The 
angel  of  Yahweh  appears  incessantly.  Moreover, 
the  angels  in  their  pliu^ty  appear  (Zech.  ii.  3). 
The  apocalyptic  tendency  is  becoming  dominant. 
The  moral  passion  of  prophetism  is  declining. 
And  from  Zechariah's  time  on,  there  seems  to  he 
a  steady  increase  in  the  amount  of  attention  given 
to  the  angels.  How  far  this  is  due  to  the  influence 
of  Parseeism  and  how  far  to  the  inherent  tendency 
of  Judaism,  it  may  be  impossible  to  determine 
with  precision.  But  certain  it  is  that  as  Judaism 
abounds  in  its  own  sense  and  its  difference  from 
prophetism  develops,  the  angels  play  a  larger  and 
yet  larger  part.  The  climax  is  reached  when  the 
Essence  impose  upon  those  entering  the  order  a 
terrible  oath  not  to  betray  the  names  of  the  angels 
(Josephus,  War,  II.  viii.  7).  At  this  point,  Judaism 
comes  close  to  Chaldean  magic. 

Davidson  has  said  (DB,  i.,  p.  97)  that  in  the  New 
Testament  there  is  no  advance.  The  statement  is 
misleading.  There  is  not  nor  can 
4-  The  New  there  be  any  advance  beyond  the 
Testament  Jewish  angelology.  The  Jewish  my»- 
tic  knew  a  great  deal  about  the 
angelic  hosts,  their  hierarchical  order,  and  their 
names.  In  truth,  he  knew  more  than  there  was 
to  know.  "  Advance "  in  this  direction  would 
have  meant  a  fuller  exposition  of  unreality.  But 
the  New  Testament  is  the  literary  product  of  a 
magnificent  revival  of  Hebrew  prophetism.    The 


Anffel 
Anfflo-SazonB 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


178 


clarity  of  the  moral  and  spiritual  consciousness 
relegates  the  angels  to  a  secondary  position.  Even 
in  the  New  Testament  Apocalypse  the  angels  are 
wholly  subsidiary  to  the  Kingdom  of  God.  Thus 
in  xix.  10,  xxi.  17,  and  xxii.  9  a  view  appears  fun- 
damentally opposed  to  that  of  mystical  Judaism. 
Angels  and  men  are  citizens  of  one  divine  conmion- 
wealth.  Worship  of  the  angels  is  not  to  be  thought 
of.  So,  again,  in  the  synoptic  gospels  and  the 
Acts,  the  existence  of  the  angels,  while  taken  for 
granted,  is  not  a  primary  element  of  consciousness. 

In  the  Pauline  and  Petrine  letters,  the  angels 
play  an  even  more  subordinate  part.  The  Chris- 
tians of  Corinth,  in  danger  of  falling  below  their 
dignity,  are  informed  that  the  disciples  of  Christ 
will  be  his  coassessors  in  judging  the  angels  (I  Cor. 
vi.  3).  Peter,  dwelling  on  the  consummation  of 
prophecy,  declares  that  angels  desire  to  understand 
the  mystery  of  the  gospel  (I  Pet.  i.  12).  In  Heb. 
i.  14  their  fimction  is  clearly  described.  They  are 
spirits  worshiping  God  and  sent  from  God  to  serve 
the  followers  of  Jesus. 

When,  therefore,  the  Scriptures  are  placed  against 

the  background  of  antiquity,  a  certain  unity  of 

movement  and  thought  is  foimd.    The  doctrine 

of   angels   is  inherited,   not   created. 

5*    Con-    And  it  is  controlled  and  utilized  by 

elusion,  the  saving  word,  the  self-revelation 
of  God  as  the  creative  unity  within 
human  consciousness  and  society,  the  moralizing 
power  in  history,  and  the  moral  end  toward  which 
nature  and  history  are  being  guided  (Rom.  xi.  36). 
From  this  point  of  view  the  ecclesiastical  discussion 
over  the  worship  of  angels  and  the  careful  dis- 
tinction between  dulia  and  latria  is  more  or  less 
a  reversion   of   type.  Henrt  S.  Nash. 

Bibuoorapht:  J.  Ode,  CommerUaritiB  de  anifdis,  Utrecht, 
1730;  E.  C.  A.  Riehm,  De  naiura  et  notiont  aymboliea  Chen^ 
horvm,  Basel,  1864;  idem.  Die  Cherubim  in  der  Stiftehlktte 
und  im  Tempel,  in  TSK,  xliv.  (1871)  399  sqq.;  A.  Kohut, 
Ueber  die  jildiecke  Angelologie  und  Ddmondogie  in  ikrer 
Abhangigkeit  vom  Pareiamue^  Leipdc,  1866;  F.  Godet, 
ttudee  bibliquea,  i.  1-34,  Paris,  1873;  W.  H.  Koflten,  De 
Mal'aeh  Jahwe  and  Het  onMaan  en  de  ontwikkelino  der 
anoelolooie  onder  larael,  in  ThT,  ix.  (1876)  367-416,  x. 
(1876)  34-69.  113-141;  J.  H.  Oswald.  AnoeloUnfie,  im 
8inne  der  katholieehen  Kirehe  dargettelltt  Paderbom,  1883; 
O.  Everling.  DiepatdiniecKenAnoeloloQieund  DUmonologie, 
G6ttingen,  1888;  J.  M.  Fuller,  Angeldlooy  and  Demonoiogy, 
Excursus  II.  to7o&it,inWace'si4pocivpAa.i.  171-183,  Lon- 
don, 1888;  T.  K.Cheyne.  Origin  and  RelioioueContenia  of  the 
Pealter,  pp.  322-327,  334-337,  London,  1891  (very  valua- 
ble); C.  H.  Toy.  Judaiem  and  Chrietianity,  pp.  141-172, 
Boston,  1891;  C.  G.  Montefiore,  Hibbert  Leetwree,  pp.429 
sqq.,  London,  1892  (characterised  by  G.  B.  Gray  as  valua- 
ble); R.Stabe,  JMi»eK-babylonieeheZaubertexte,H9Xi9,l9l9h 
(a  work  of  special  interest);  F.  Weber,  JiUHedie  Theolo- 
gie  auf  Orund  dee  Talmud,  pp.  166  sqq.,  Leipsic,  1897; 
M.  Schwab,  Vocabulaire  de  Vangilologie  d'aprh  manueerUe 
hfbreux,  Paris.  1897;  H.  Oehler.  Die  Engelwelt,  Stuttgart, 
1898;  W.  Lacken.  Michael,  Gdttingen.  1898;  DCB,  i. 
93-«7;  EB,  i.  166-170;  JE,  i.  683-697  (deals  with  bibUcal, 
talmudic,  and  post-talmu-  ican«elology);  and  the  works  on 
Old  and  New  TesUment  theology  (including  R,  Smend, 
AlUeetamenaiehe  Religionegeeehiehte,  Freiburg.  1893)  and 
dogmatics;  W.  Bousset,  Die  Religion  dee  Judenthume,  pp. 
313-326.  Berlin,  1903. 

ANGELA  OF  BRESCIA.    See  Merici,  Angela. 

ANGELICALS:  A  sisterhood  fomided  about 
1630  by  Ludovica  di  Torelli,  Countess  of  Guas- 
talla  (then,  at  the  age  of  twenty- five,  for  the  second 


time  a  widow),  to  care  for  sick  and  reformed  women. 
The  members  were  to  lead  lives  of  angelic  purity 
(whence  the  name)  and  self-denial,  indicated  by 
coarse  clothing,  a  wooden  cross  on  the  breast,  and 
a  cord  about  the  neck.  The  foundress  placed  them 
imder  the  supervision  of  Antonia  Maria  Zaccaria, 
founder  and  director  of  the  Bamabites  (q.v.); 
and  herself  labored,  under  the  monastic  name  of 
Paola  Maria,  as  manager  of  the  main  convent  of 
her  society  near  Milan  till  her  death  (Oct.  29,  1569). 
The  order  was  first  confirmed  by  Paul  III.  (1534) 
with  the  rule  of  St.  Augustine,  with  the  provision 
that  the  Angelicals  were  to  assist  the  Bamabites 
in  their  missionary  work  among  women.  The 
obligation  to  live  in  seclusion  was  adopted  in  1557. 
Archbishop  Borromeo  of  Milan  subjected  the 
statutes  of  the  order  to  a  stricter  revision,  which 
was  confirmed  by  Urban  VIII.  (1625).  The  order 
never  spread  outside  of  Lombardy  (especially 
Biilan  and  Cremona)  and  was  dissolved  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  nineteenth  century.  A  branch,  how- 
ever, still  exists,  the  Society  of  the  GuastallinsD 
foimded  by  the  same  Countess  Torelli,  devoted  to 
the  education  of  girls  of  noble  birth  (the  number 
being  limited  to  18);  they  occupy  a  building  out- 
side the  Porta  Romana  at  Milan,  and  are  under 
the  supervision  of  the  Bamabites. 

O.  Z6CKLERt. 
Bxblioorapht:  C.  O.  Rosignoli.  Vita  e  virtit  delta  conteeaa 
di  Ouaetalla  L.    ToreUa,    Milan.    1686;     Helyot.   Ordree 
monaeHquee^  iv.  11&-223;  Heimbuoher.  Orden  und  Kon- 
gregaHonen,  i.  619-620. 

ANGELIS,  an'je-lis,  GIROLAMO,  ji-rOl-dmd: 
Jesuit  missionary;  b.  at  Castro  Giovanni,  Sicily, 
1567;  d.  in  Japan  Dec.  24,  1623.  He  joined  the 
Jesuits  at  the  age  of  eighteen,  and  in  1602  went  to 
Japan.  When  the  Jesuits  were  expelled  from  the 
country  in  1614,  he  assumed  Japanese  dress  and 
remained  for  nine  years  without  discovery.  He 
was  then  imprisoned  and  burned  alive  with  two 
other  Jesuits  and  forty-two  native  Christians. 
He  wrote  ReUuione  del  regno  dilezOj  printed  with 
letters  of  other  Jesuits  at  Rome  in  1624,  and  sep- 
arately the  next  year.  He  was  canonized  by 
Pius  IX. 

ANGELUS,  an'je-lus:  The  ordinary  name  (ta- 
ken from  its  opening  word  in  Latin)  of  a  Roman 
Catholic  prayer,  recited  three  times  a  day,  when 
the  church  bells  ring  at  6  a.m.,  at  noon,  and  at 
6  p.m.  It  consists  of  three  versicles  and  resp>onse8, 
each  followed  by  a  "  Hail  Mary !"  and  a  collect, 
which  is  the  same  as  that  for  the  Annunciation  in 
the  Anglican  Prayer  Book,  the  whole  forming  a 
devotion  in  honor  of  the  incarnation  of  Christ. 
In  its  present  form  it  dates  from  the  middle  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  though  the  custom  of  ringing 
bells  at  certain  times  of  the  day  to  remind  the 
faithful  of  certain  prayers  is  at  least  as  old  as  the 
thirteenth. 

AKGILBERT,  an-gil'bert,  or  ENGELBERT  (Fr. 
pron.  an"zhil-bftr'),  SAINT :  Friend  and  counselor 
of  Charlemagne,  whose  daughter  Bertha  he  is  said 
to  have  married,  and  by  her  had  two  sons, 
Hamid  and  Nithard  (the  historian);  d.  Feb.  19, 
814.  He  enjoyed  the  confidence  of  Charlemagne 
till  the  end  of  the  latter's  life,  and  was  employed 


179 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Anffel 
Anfflo-Sazons 


in  many  difficult  negotiationa.  That  he  entered 
the  monastery  of  Centuia  (the  modem  St.  Riquier^ 
about  25  m.  n.w.  of  Amiecis)  in  790  is  not  probable; 
he  was  abbot  of  the  monastery  later,  however, 
and  rebuilt  it  with  much  splendor.  He  waa  named 
the  *'  Homer  "  of  the  literary  circle  at  Charlemagne's 
courtj  and  a  few  Latin  lyrics  and  a  fragment  of  an 
epic  ascribed  to  hinx  are  extant  (in  MPL,  xeix, 
825^64;  MGH,  Script.,  xv.  1,  1887,  173^181; 
Poeta  Latini  sEvi  caroUnit  i.,  1881^  355-381)* 

AITGILRAM,  an"giI-rom  (Fr.  pron.mi"«hil-ram'): 
Bishop  of  Meti  768,  after  787  with  the  title  of  arch- 
bmhop;  d.  791.  In  7^  he  was  made  court  chap- 
lain by  Charlemagne,  who  obtained  from  the  pope 
a  dispensation  freeing  AngUram  from  the  obligation 
of  residing  at  the  seat  of  his  bishopric.  Most  co- 
ffees of  the  pseydo^Isidorian  decretals  contain 
a  minor  collection  of  statu tes^  eonslBting  of  seventy- 
one,  seventy- two,  or  eighty  chapters  relating  to 
euita  against  the  clergy,  etpecially  bishops,  and 
generally  bearing  the  name  Capihtla  AngUramni. 
In  some  manuscripts  the  superscription  states  that 
Angilram  presented  these  capiiula  to  Pope  Adrian; 
in  others  (the  older  and  better)  that  the  pope 
presented  them  to  Angilram  when  he  was  in  Rome 
in  connection  with  his  affair.  In  either  veraion 
the  story  is  improbable,  and  it  is  generally  agreed 
that  Angilram  had  nothing  to  do  with  these  capi- 
iula. They  were  probably  written  by  the  author 
of  the  paeudo-Ifiidorian  decretals  (q.v,)« 
Bibuoqeapht;  Kcttbert^.  KD.  i.  501  sqq,;  BinachJiu,  £te- 

Uhrbitch  dea  Kirchenrt^hts,  p.  87,  lb.  1886. 

AITGLICAH     CHURCH     or     COMMUHIOIT:      A 

comprehensive  name  for  the  Reformation  churches 
of  English  origin,  including  the  Church  of  England 
and  its  branches  in  Ireland,  Scotland,  the  colonies, 
and  India,  with  the  various  missionary  jurisdic- 
tions, and  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  of  the 
United  States.  The  liturgy  in  all  is  the  Book  of 
Common  Prayer  with  modifications  (see  Common 
Pratt ER,  Book:  op),  and  the  Thirty-oine  Articles 
are  accepted  with  changea  necessary  to  fit  local 
conditions  (see  Thirtt-nine  Articles),  All 
have  episcopal  orgamzation  and  hold  to  the 
'■  historic  episcopate  "  (see  Apostolic  StJccESflioN). 
The  Lamljeth  Conference  (q-v.)  is  a  meeting  of 
bishops  of  the  Anglican  communion  intended  to 
promote  the  unity  and  fellowsliip  of  its  members. 
See  ENoLANn,  Cmlthch  or;  Iueland;  Scotland; 
Protestant  Ephcopal  Chuhch, 

ANGLO-SAXOSS,  CONVERSIQlf  OF  THE:     The 

Angles,  Saxons,  and  kindred  peoples  who  by  the 
end  of  the  sixth  century  were  established  in  the  east 
of  Britain  from  the  Forth  southward  and  in  the 
greater  part  of  the  south,  in  their  Continental  homes 
were  all  worahipera  of  Woden,  whom  they  considered 
their  ancestor.  They  dispossessed  in  England  a 
fully  Christianized  people,  but  did  not  adopt  their 
religion  (see  Celtic  Church  lv  Britain  and  Ire- 
iand).  The  first  Christian  church  among  them 
was  Prankish  in  origin  and  was  established  in  Kent, 
whose  king,  Ethelbert,  (c.  56()-61(J),  married  a 
Christian  princess,  Bertha,  daughter  of  Charibert, 
king  of  Paris,     She  was  granted  full  freedom  of 


religion  in  her  new  home,  and  brought  with  her  to 
England  a  Christian  chaplain ,  Liudhard  by  name, 
A  ruined  church  near  Canterbury,  dating  from 
Roman  times  (8t*  Martin's,  three  quarters  of  a 
mite  east  of  the  present  cathedral),  waa  repaired 
for  her  use.  The  real  conversion  of  the  Anglo- 
SaxoQSj  however,  is  properly  regarded  as  begun  by 
Pope  Gregory  the  Great  (590-604). 
Gregory  As  the  story  goes  (Bede,  Hist,  ted., 
the  Great  ii.  1 ),  while  Gregory  was  still  a  deacon. 
Sends  a  either  in  578  or  585,  he  saw  one  day 
Mission  in  the  slave-market  at  Rome  certain 
to  Keot.  boys  whose  fair  complexion,  bright 
facee^  and  golden  hair  excited  his 
admiration.  Inquiring  about  them,  he  was  told 
that  they  were  Angles;  whereupon  he  exclaimed 
'*  No  wonder,  for  they  have  the  faces  of  angels." 
Informed  that  they  were  heathen  and  from  Deira, 
he  remarked  **  From  wrath  [d^  ira"]  they  must  be 
saved  and  caUed  to  the  mercy  of  Christ.  Who  ia 
their  king?"  '*  ^lle/'  was  the  reply;  and  the 
pun-loving  Italian  concluded,  "  Alleluia!  the 
praises  of  God  must  be  sung  in  those  parts/'  Bo- 
taking  himself  to  the  pope,  Gregory  asked  that  be 
be  allowed  to  go  in  person  as  missionary  to  the 
land  of  the  captives,  but  the  Romans  would  not 
permit  him  at  that  time  to  leave  their  city.  When 
he  became  pope,  Gregoiy  remembered  the  beauti- 
ful captives.  He  tried  to  find  EngUsh  boys  whom 
he  could  instruct  at  Rome  and  then  send  to  their 
people;  and  in  596  he  despatched  a  mission  of 
monks  t<>  England  under  the  lead  of  Augustine 
(see  AuousTiKE,  Saint,  of  Canterbury).  When 
Augustine  died  (604  or  605)  Kent  had  been  con- 
verted and  the  gospel  had  found  entrance  into 
Essex.  Justus  and  Mellitus  had  been  established 
as  bishops  at  Rochester  (for  West  Kent)  and  London 
(for  the  East-Saxons),  respectively.  With  the 
consent  of  his  witan,  Ethelbert  promulgated  lawa 
recognizing  the  Church  as  an  institution  and  Chris- 
tian obligations.  A  heathen  reaction  followed 
Ethelbert 's  death  (616),  which  for  a  time  checked 
further  advances  from  Canterbury  (see  JuBTtns; 
Laurence;  MELLrruB). 

As  in  Kent,  so  in  Northimibria  the  way  for  the 
introduction  of  Christianity  was  prepared  by  the 
marriage   (625)  of  the  king,   Edwin^ 
Horthum-    with  a  Christian  princess,  Ethelburga, 
brla  and     daughter  of  Ethelbert  of  Kent.     She 
Wessei*     was    accompanied   to   the    North   by 
Paulinus,  who  became  first  bishop  of 
York  and  converted  Iving  Etiwin  and  many  of  liia 
people    (see   EnwiN;  Pauunus),    The  work   was 
interrupted  and  many  of  itn  results  destroyed  in 
633,  when  Penda,  king  of  Mercia,  a  heathen  cham- 
pion, in  alhance  with  the  Britons  of  Wales,  over- 
threw and  slew  Edwin.     It  was  resumed  in  635  by 
Aidan  supported  by  King  Oswald,  and  was  com- 
pleted   by    their    successors    (see    Ajoak,    Saint; 
Oswald,  Saint;  Oswt).    At  the  same  time  the 
West-Saxons    were    gained    for    Christianity    by 
Birinus  (q.v.).    The  church  of  Aidan  and  Oswald^ 
however,  had  no  connection  with  Canterbury  or 
Rome,  but  waa  organiEed  as  a  part  of  the  old  British 
or  Celtic  Church,  and  continued  such  tUl  the  synod 
of  Whitby  in  664. 


Anfflo-Saxons 
An  final  ■ 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


180 


A  marriage  between  Peada,  son  of  Peoda  ai^d 
uoder^king  of  the  Middle-Angles,  i^ith  a  Northum- 
brian princess,  daughter  of  Oswy,  led  to  his  con- 
version.  He  wils  baptized  by  Finan^  Aidan's 
guccessor  at  Lindisfame,  in  653.  Finan  also  bap^ 
tued  (probably  at  the  same  time)  Sigbert,  king  of 
£lase]i;,  which  had  relapsed  into  heatheniscD  after 
the  time  of  Augujstine.  Feada's  conversion  was 
followed  by  that  of  his  people.  Four 
Kcrcia  and    priests  of  the  Northumbrian  Church, 

Ess^x.  Oedd  (q.v.),  Adda,  Betti,  and  Diuma, 
settled  in  his  kingdom,  and  even 
Fenda  did  not  restrict  thcdr  preaching.  Penda, 
the  last  powerful  pagan  nileff  was  slain  in  battle 
with  Oawy  of  North  umbria  in  655,  and  the  com- 
plete Chris tiani^at ion  of  Mercia  soon  followed- 
Diuma  was  consecrated  hisl^op  of  Mereia  by  Finan, 
probably  in  656*  His  see  was  at  Lichfield,  About 
ten  years  later  Diuma 's  third  successor,  Jaruman, 
supported  by  Wulfhere,  king  of  Mercia,  and  Penda 's 
son,  completed  the  conversion  of  Fltisex,  a  part  of 
whose  people  had  a  second  time  relapsed  into 
heathenism. 

Christianity  was   introduced   into   East   AngLia 
from  Kent;  but  the  only  result  was  that  the  king, 
Redwald,  set  up  Christian  and  heathen 
East        akais  side  by  side.     An  obscure  story 
AagUa*     comiected    with    the    conversion    of 
Edwin  of  Northumbria   (Bede,  Hist, 
ecd.t  ii.  13)  has  led  to  the  conjecture  that  Faulinus 
(q.v.)  may  have  been  sent  on  a  mission  to  East 
Anglia    before    616.     Eorpwald,    Redwald's    son, 
became  a  Christian  through  the  influence  of  Edwin 
in  627  or  62S,  but  in  the  same  year  he  was  killed 
by    a   heathen.     After    three   years    his    brother, 
Sigbert^  who  had  aceepted  Christianity  in  Gaul, 
gained  the  throne,  and  with  the  help  of  Felix  (q.v.), 
who  became  bishop  of  Dunwich  in  631,  evangel- 
ized tliD  land. 

SuMex  received  the  Gospel  through  the  labors 

of  Wilfrid  of  York  (q,v.)  between  681  and  686, 

although    its    king,    Ethel walh,    had 

Sussex,      been  baptised  earlier  in   Mercia   and 
had  made  some    unsuccessrul  efforts 
to  introduce  the  Gospel.    Its  first  bishop  was  Ead- 
bert  (709). 

The  Anglo-Saxon  Church,  like  all  churches  of 

the  early  Middle  Ages,   had  in  many  respects  a 

national    character.    The    tithes    of 

The  As^o-  the  kings  determined  the  appointment 

Saxon      of  bishops,  if  indeed  the  kings  did  not 

Church,  directly  name  them.  Princes  and 
rulers  took  part  in  synods,  and  bishops 
attended  the  councils  of  the  rulers.  ICings  issued 
ecclesiastical  ordera.  The  Anglo-Saxon  tongue 
was  heard  in  divine  service^  and  the  baptismal 
formula  also  was  Anglo-Saxon.  The  Old  and  New 
Testaments  were  read  in  Anglo-Saxon,  and  old 
homilies  were  translate  into  the  vernacular. 
Dioceses  were  formed  according  to  political  divi- 
sions and  were  named  after  peoples  rather  than 
towns. 
Bt^t^oonApnr:  An^lo-^Saxcn  CkFonitU,  ed.   B.  Thorp«,  in 

RoUm  Smgt.    No.  n.   2   yob..    I86h  fcbo   ed.   C.  Plum^ 

mcr,     Oxfordt   1892;    Bftde,    hUtoriad    worlu.    p^irticii- 

l*rly    Hut     €CfL,   ed*    C.     Plummer.    2    voIjs.,    Oxford. 

1886;    Oildu,     D*    eseidio    et    canqueMiu    Britanmce,  ed. 


T.  UomiDieD,  ib  MGH,  Chroniai  minora,  lU,  (1808) 
1-S5;  Aim  «d.  H.  Willi&Bia.  ^ith  traoaL,  London .  1899; 
the  letters  of  Gregory  the  Grrot.  ed.  P.  Ew&ld  and  L.  M. 
HartmAnn.  ia  MUH,  EpiiUda^  L-u,,lSS7-Q3\  those  reli* 
ting  to  the  tdiMioD  to  EDflcuidt  wiib  other  materi&l  per- 
tainins  to  6t»  Augustine ,  in  The  Miaaton  a/  St.  Auft^Mtirie^ 
ed.  A,  J.  Mswn.  CmnbridgB,  IS^T;  Oaddan  and  Stubbs, 
CouncHt,  vol.  ui.;  il.  M.  Lappenber^K  Ge^thichte  vrni  Eng^ 
land,  L.  Hambyrgi  1S34,  Eng.  trsiiisl,^  A  Hist/pry  of  Eng- 
land»  undm-ihe  An4il&-3a:ron  Kingt^  2  vols.,  Lofidon.  1845; 
6.  Thorpe,  Anaeni  Laws  and  IfrntHutea  &f  EnffMnd^  ib. 
Id40;  R.  Sehmidt  Die  Qmetxe  dEer  Anoflfa^Jtsm,  t.«]piiic, 
18S8;  J.  M,  Kemble,  The  Harom  in  England,  ii,  342-4&fi. 
London,  iB7&;  J.  R.  Green,  Miilary  of  the  Ejiglish  FeopU, 
vol,  L,  book  L,  ib.  1877:  idem.  The  Making  of  Enstand. 
lb.  IS82;  W.  Stubbs,  The  Contiifutionai  HUtonf  of  Kng^ 
iand,  L^vh,  via.,  Oxford,  lfiS3:  E.  Wmkehnmnn.Gtaekichte 
der  Angeltachten  &t>  mm  Tode  Ksnig  Alfrmis*  Berlin,  ISH^; 
W.  liriffht.  Early  Engiinh  Church  History,  Qjcford,  1897; 
W.  Iftitit.  Thi  English  Church  fr&m  ii*  Foundation  to  the 
Norman  Conquest,  Landon,  13^9. 

ANGLUSj  THOMAS.     See  White,  Thomas. 

AUGOLA.     See  Africa,  II. 

AIVGU5,  JOSEPH:  En^bh  Baptist;  b.atBotam 
(15  m.  n.w.  of  Newcastle),  Northumberland ,  Jan* 
16,  1816;  d,  at  Hampstead,  LoDcton,  Aug.  28,  1902. 
He  studied  at  King's  College,  London,  at  Stepney 
Baptbt  CoUegie,  and  at  Edinburgh  University 
(M-A.,  1SS8),  and  became  pastor  of  the  New  Park 
Street  Baptist  Church,  South wark,  London  (1838), 
cosecretary  of  the  Baptist  ^tissiouary  Society 
(1S40),  sole  secretary  (1842),  and  president  of 
Stepney  College  (1849),  which  position  he  held 
tin  XS93,  During  his  administration  the  College 
was  removed  to  Kegent's  Park  and  aHiliated  with 
the  University  of  London^  its  attendance  doubled » 
ila  endowment  was  augmented  by  a  professorial 
fund  of  £30,000,  and  scholarships  were  provided 
for  missionary  and  other  students-  He  was  a 
member  of  the  firat  London  School  Boards  and  of 
the  New  Testament  Revision  C^ompany,  He 
publiBhed:  The  VGlunlarff  System  (London,  1839), 
a  prize  essay  in  reply  to  tlie  lectures  of  Dr.  Glial- 
meri  on  Church  establishments;  Chriai  our  Life 
(1853),  which  won  a  priie  for  an  essay  on  the  life 
of  Christ  adapted  to  missionary  purposes  and 
suitable  for  translation  into  the  languages  of  India; 
Christian  Churches  (1SG2);  Ijecturea  on  Ftdure 
Puninhmeni  (1870);  Aposioiic  Mi^ione  (1871; 
new  ed.  1892);  Six  /.cdure*  on  Regeneration  (1897). 
He  wrote  the  commentary  on  Hebrews  for  SchafT's 
internationat  Commentary  on  the  New  Testament , 
New  York  and  Edinburgh  (1883);  and  for  the 
Religioua  Tract  Society  he  prepared:  Handbooks 
0f  the  Bible  (1854;  partly  rewritten  by  Samuel  G. 
Green  1904),  the  English  Tongue  (1862),  EnglM 
lAlerature  (1865);  and  Specimens  of  English  Liiera- 
lure  (1866;  new  ed.  1880).  For  the  same  society 
he  edited  Butler's  Analogy  (1855),  and  Sermmia 
(1882),  and  Wayland's  EJemenU  of  Marat  Science 
(1858), 

AflHALT:  Duchy  of  the  German  empire,  sur- 
rounded, except  for  a  short  distance  on  the  west, 
where  it  touches  the  duchy  of  Brunswick,  by 
Pnisalan  territory  (government  districts  of  Magde- 
burg, Potsdani,  Merseburg).  Its  area  is  906  iquare 
miles;  population  (1900),  316,000;  capital,  Dessau. 
Ninety-six  per  cent,  of  the  people  are  Protestants; 
3i  per  cent,  &re  Roman  Catholics;  while  the  Jews 


181 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Anfflo-Saxons 


Anfflo-Si 
Animftls 


comprise  little  more  than  one-half  of  1  per  cent. 
Among  the  minor  Protestant  bodies  are  Irvingite 
congregations  in  Bemburg  and  Coswig.  The 
Evangdical  State  Church  is  a  product  of  the  Wit- 
tenberg Reformation.  During  the  controversies  of 
the  later  sixteenth  century  it  held  fast  to  the  orig- 
inal formulas,  but  remained  free  from  the  one- 
sided tendency  represented  in  the  Formvla  of 
Concord,  Attempts  to  introduce  certain  church 
practises  from  the  Palatinate,  with  the  Heidelberg 
catechism,  toward  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury were  ineffectual.  The  political  division  into 
four  principalities  after  1606  favored  certain 
divergencies, — for  example  in  Anhalt-Bemburg 
and  Anhalt-C5then  there  was  a  stronger  tendency 
toward  Reformed  usages  and  teachings.  But  in 
1880  a  united  Church  in  a  united  land  was  formally 
established;  and  that  the  union  is  not  nominal  but 
real  is  shown  by  the  freest  Christian  fellowship, 
by  the  adoption  of  a  uniform  form  of  divine  service, 
and  by  the  use  of  the  same  church  books.  To-day 
the  distinction  between  Lutheran  and  Reformed 
is  not  thought  of. 

The  Church  is  legally  recognized  as  a  distinct 
institution,  independent  of  the  secular  government, 
and  the  management  of  its  internal  affairs  is  en- 
trusted to  the  consistory,  which  reports  directly 
to  the  duke.  A  synod,  consisting  of  the  super- 
intendents of  the  five  circles  into  which  the  land  is 
divided,  five  members  named  by  the  duke,  and 
twenty-nine  members  elected  in  the  circles,  meets 
every  three  years;  it  has  a  share  in  ecclesiastical 
legislation,  considers  church  needs  and  conditions 
in  general,  and  exercises  a  control  over  the  funds 
imder  the  administration  and  at  the  disposal  of 
the  consistory.  Previous  to  1874  the  consistory 
had  the  chief  direction  and  administration  of  the 
schools,  but  in  that  year  a  state  board  of  education 
was  created.  The  consistory,  however,  is  repre- 
sented in  this  board,  and  the  local  pastors  are 
generally  the  inspectors  of  the  lower  schools. 
With  very  few  exceptions  the  duke  is  patron  of 
churches  and  livings. 

The  number  of  livings  in  the  duchy  is  155  with 
eight  secondary  ones,  and  there  are  212  parishes 
and  215  churches.  A  legally  established  pastors' 
association  has  three  endowed  libraries.  Church 
music  is  promoted  by  an  annual  course  in  organ- 
playing  in  Dessau.  Seventy-nine  parishes  have 
Simday-schools.  The  contributions  for  foreign 
missions  average  14,000  marks  yearly,  and  for  the 
Qustav  Adolf  Verein  (q.v.)  10,000  marks.  The 
woric  of  the  Innere  Mission  (q.v.)  is  also  well 
supported,  and  a  deaconesses'  house  has  been  es- 
tablished in  Dessau.  (H.  DuNCKBRt.) 

ANICETUS,  an-i-st'tus:  Pope  from  about  154 
to  about  165.  According  to  the  Liber  pontificalia 
(ed.  Duchesne,  i.  58, 134),  he  was  a  Syrian  by  birth. 
Iremeus  {Adversus  hcereseSf  III.  iii.  3-4)  mentions 
him  as  the  successor  of  Pius  I.  and  the  predecessor 
of  Soter,  and  refers  to  the  journey  of  Polycarp  to 
Rome,  which  took  place  in  Anicetus'  pontificate. 
A  fuller  accoimt  of  it  is  given  in  IremBUs'  letter  to 
Victor,  of  which  Eusebius  has  preserved  a  con- 
siderable fragment  (Hist,  ecd.,  V.  xxiv.  12-17; 
see  PoLTCARP).    The  dates  of  Anicetus  are  un- 


certain. If  Polycarp  died  in  155,  the  accession  of 
Anicetus  must  be  placed  in  154,  and  the  assign- 
ment of  eleven  years  to  his  pontificate  would 
bring  its  termination  to  165.  He  is  called  a  martyr 
in  the  Roman  martyrology,  as  well  as  by  Rabanus 
Maurus,  Florus,  and  others,  and  is  commemorated 
on  Apr.  17.  (A.  Hauck.) 

Bxbuoorapht:  Liber  ponHficalu,  ed.  Duchetne,  i.  58.  134, 
Pftrifl,  1886;  Bower.  Pope*,  i.  13-14;  Jaff^.  Regesta,  i.  0;  J. 
B.  Lightfoot,  ApoMtolic  Fathera,  i.  201  sqq.,  London,  1890; 
A.  Hamack,  in  SiUung^terichte  der  Berliner  Akademie,  pp. 
617-658,  1892;  idem,  Litteratur,  ii.  1,  pp.  70  sqq. 

ANIMALS:  L  Regulations  Respecting  Their 
Use.  1.  For  Food:  According  to  the  lists  (Lev.  xi. 
1-31, 46-47;  Deut.  xiv.  1-19),  the  clean  animals  (i.e., 
those  whose  flesh  might  be  eaten)  were  ruminant 
quadrupeds  which  parted  the  hoof,  were  cloven- 
footed,  and  chewed  the  cud;  aquatic  animals  that 
had  fins  and  scales;  all  birds  except  the  nineteen 
species  specified,  which  were  birds  of  prey  or  car- 
rion; only  those  flying  insects  which,  like  the 
grasshopper,  have  two  long  legs  for  leaping.  No 
vermin  was  clean,  nor  was  the  carcass  of  any  clean 
animal,  if  it  had  died  naturally,  or  been  torn  to 
death.  Everything  was  unclean  that  touched  the 
unclean;  so  was  the  kid  seethed  in  its  mother's 
milk,  and  the  heathen  sacrifices  in  all  their  parts. 
See  Dietary  Laws  of  the   Hebrews. 

2.  For  Sacrifloe:  The  general  rule  was,  that 
only  the  clean  animals  could  be  offered;  this  dates 
back  to  the  pre-Mosaic  period  (Gen.  viii.  20). 
Asses,  camels,  and  horses  were  not  offered  by  the 
Hebrews.  But  only  the  tame  among  even  the 
clean  animals  could  be  sacrificed;  therefore,  no 
animal  of  the  chase.  Doves  were  not  regarded  as 
wild.  Every  animal  offered  must  be  without 
blemish  (Lev.  xxii.  20),  at  least  seven  days  old 
(verse  27;  Ex.  xxii.  30),  because  too  young  flesh 
is  disgusting,  and  therefore  imclean.  Nor  must 
it  be  too  old;  for  bo  vines  three  years,  for  small 
cattle  one,  was  usual  (Ex.  xxix.  38;  Lev.  ix.  3; 
Num.  xxviii.  9;  Lev.  i.  6,  "  bullock,"  a  yoimg  ox). 
What  man  might  not  eat,  it  was  profanation  to 
sacrifice.  See  Defilement  and  Purification, 
Ceremonial. 

n.  The  Emblematic  Use  of  Animals. — 1.  In 
the  Old  Testament:  Locusts  were  used  as  the 
symbol  of  the  divine  judgments.  The  twelve 
oxen  which  bore  the  brazen  sea  in  the  court  of  the 
temple  (I  Kings  vii.  25)  were  doubtless  symbolic; 
the  animal  shapes  which  appeared  in  prophetic 
visions  were  idso  symbolic  (Ezek.  i.  5-14),  and 
seem  to  be  identified  with  the  cherubim  (Esek. 
X.  1). 

2.  In  the  New  Testament:  Peter  uses  a  lion  as 
the  emblem  of  Satan  (I  Pet.  v.  8);  on  the  other 
hand,  a  lion  is  the  emblem  of  Christ  (Rev.  v.  5). 
The  ass  symbolizes  peace  (Matt.  xxi.  5);  the  dove, 
innocence  and  the  Holy  Ghost;  the  dog  and  swine, 
imcleanness  and  vulgarity  (Matt.  vii.  6;  II  Pet.  ii. 
22).  But  the  emblematic  use  of  beasts  is  much 
greater  in  Revelation  than  in  all  the  other  books 
of  the  Bible  combined.  Constant  mention  is  made 
of  the  four  living  creatures  (iv.  6,  etc.)  who  were 
from  the  fifth  century  considered  as  symbolizing 
the  four  evangelists.    CSirist  is  constantly  called 


Animisin 
AnnlhllatJoniin 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


182 


the  Lamb;  the  Devil,  the  dragon  (xii.  3,  etc.). 
There  are,  besides,  a  beast  who  comes  out  of  the 
bottomless  pit  (xi.  7),  horses  (vi.  2,  etc.),  locusts 
(ix.  3),  birds  (xix.  17),  and  frogs  (xvi.  13). 

8.  The  Eoolesiastioal  Use  of  Animals :  This 
was  very  varied.  There  was  not  only  the  lamb 
for  Christ  but  also  dolphins,  hens,  pelicans,  apes, 
and  centaurs.  The  old  Gothic  churches  exhibit 
these  fanciful  and  really  heathen  designs.  Bernard 
of  Clairvaux  raised  his  voice  against  them.  In 
the  catacombs  one  finds  the  drawing  of  a  fish  to 
symbolize  Christ,  because  the  initials  of  the  title 
of  Christ  (Gk.  ISsous  Christos  Theou  Uioa  SdtSr) 
spell  the  Greek  word  for  "  fish  "  (ichthus).  See 
Sybibolibm. 

m.  The  Use  of  Emblematic  Animals  in  Worship: 
Among  the  Hebrews  there  are  two  spoken  of. 
The  brazeh  serpent  which  Moses  made,  which  was 
at  last  destroyed  by  Hezekiah,  because  it  was 
worshiped  (II  Kings  xviii.  4).  The  golden  calf 
was  not  intended  as  a  substitute  for  the  Yahweh 
worship,  but  as  an  aid;  but  it  became  a  snare  to 
Israel  in  the  wilderness  before  Sinai  (Ex.  xxxii.) 
and  in  the  days  of  Jeroboam  I.  and  his  successors 
on  the  throne  of  Israel  (I  Kings  xii.  28-30). 

ANIMISM.  See  CoMPARATrvB  Religion,  V.,  1, 
a,  §§  1-4;  Heathenism,  §§  2,  6. 

AinfA:  1.  Mother  of  the  Virgin  Mary.  See 
Anne, Saint.  2.  A  ''prophetess,"  mentioned  in 
Luke  ii.  36-38.    See  Hannah. 

AlllfA  COMNENA,  cem-nt'na:  A  Byzantine 
princess  of  both  literary  and  political  importance, 
daughter  of  Alexius  Comnenus  (q.v.);  b.  Dec.  2, 
1083;  d.  after  1148.  Brought  up  in  a  circle  of 
highly  cultivated  women,  and  betrothed  in  early 
youth  to  the  heir-presumptive  of  the  empire,  the 
son  of  the  last  emperor  of  the  house  of  Ducas,  she 
seemed  to  have  a  brilliant  future  before  her.  But 
the  prince  died,  and  his  place  was  taken  later  by 
Nicephorus  Bryennius,  the  son  of  a  conquered 
pretender.  It  became  plain  that  the  emperor 
intended  to  make  Anna's  brother  John  his  heir, 
instead  of  his  daughter  or  her  husband.  When 
Alexius  died  (1118),  Anna  was  the  soul  of  a  con- 
spiracy against  John.  It  failed,  and  military 
rule  suppressed  the  court  cabals.  Anna  recovered 
her  confiscated  property;  but  on  the  death  of  her 
husband,  ten  years  later,  she  fell  gradually  into 
disfavor  at  court  and  lived  much  alone,  solacing 
herself  by  literary  interests,  her  taste  for  which 
was  the  result  of  the  brilliant  literary  epoch  of 
which  Michael  Psellus  was  the  chief  representative. 
She  wrote  a  remarkable  history  of  her  father's 
reign,  with  the  title  A2exuu,  which  professes  to  be 
a  continuation  of  the  unfinished  history  of  the 
Comneni  by  her  husband.  Her  style  is  typical  of 
literary  classicism,  being  full  of  quotations  from 
standard  authors,  and  affecting  to  despise  the 
barbarisms  of  the  living  tongue.  This  affectation 
is  carried  so  far  that  she  apologizes  for  mentioning 
barbarian  names  as  for  an  offense  against  the 
customs  of  polite  society.  Allied  to  this  is  the 
haughty  assertion  of  the  primacy  of  Byzantium 
over  idl  uncivilized  foreigners,  whether  popes, 
Turks,    or   crusaders.    Its   strong   personal   bias, 


its  prejudice  against  the  two  successors  of  Alexius, 

and  its  constant  revelation  of  the  bitterness  of 

disappointed  ambition  detract  from  the  historical 

value  of  the  work.     Yet  the  wealth  of  information 

contained  in  it  makes  it  the  principal  source  for  the 

history  of  Byzantium  at  the  epoch  of  the  first 

crusade.     It  is  in  MPG,  cxxxi.;  the  best  edition 

is  by  A.  Reifferscheid,  in  the  B^liotheca  Teubneri- 

ana  (2  vols.,  Leipsic,   1884).      (C.  Neumann.) 

Biblioorapht:  Gibbon.  Dedine  and  FaUt  vols.  v.  and  vi., 

PMsim    (by   the    only    thorough    student    of  Byzantine 

literature  as  a  whole);  H.  von  Sybel,  Oeachiehte  dea  eraten 

KreuMzuges,  pp.  460-468,  Leipsic,  1881  (on  the  chronology 

of  Anna  Comnena);  G.   Neumann,   GriechUche  Geachicht- 

•ehreiber    im    It    Jahrhundert,     Leipsic,    1888;     T.    A. 

Archer  and  C.  L.  Kingsford,  The  Cruaadea,  pp.  40,  62, 

101-102,  358.  New  York,    1806;  Dieter,    Zur  Olavbena- 

Vfttrdigkeit  der  Anna  Komnena,  in  Bytantinuche  ZeiiackrifU 

iii.  (1804)386-300;  Krumbacher.  QeachicKte,  pp.  274-270. 

AinfAS  (called  Ananos  by  Josephus):  Jewish 
high  priest,  son  of  Seth.  He  was  appointed  high 
priest  in  7  a.d.  by  Quirinius,  governor  of  Syria, 
and  retained  his  office  under  three  successive  gov- 
ernors, till  he  was  deposed  in  the  year  14  by  Va- 
lerius Gratus.  His  second  successor  in  the  high- 
priesthood  was  his  son  Eleazar;  the  fourth,  his 
son-in-law  (John  xviii.  13)  Joseph,  called  Caiaphas 
(Matt.  xxvi.  3  sqq.),  who  held  the  office  from  18 
to  36  A.D.  Four  other  sons  of  Annas  officiated  as 
high  priests;  and  as  he  was  called  happy  for  this 
reason,  it  may  be  inferred  that  he  lived  to  see  the 
installation  of  most  of  them.  He  was  dead  at  the 
time  of  the  siege  of  Jerusalem,  and  his  tomb  was 
then  shown.  According  to  the  New  Testament, 
Annas  acted  as  high  priest  after  his  deposition; 
he  occupied  an  influential  position,  and  presided  at 
the  trial  of  Jesus.  These  statements  are  not  to  be 
rejected  as  imhistorical,  since  high  priests  who 
were  no  longer  active  retained  not  only  their  official 
title  but  also  many  of  the  prerogatives  of  office. 
That  Annas  was  held  in  high  repute  beside  the 
acting  Caiaphas  can  be  explained  from  the  length 
of  his  life  and  from  his  family  relations.  The  form 
of  expression  in  Luke  iii.  2  and  Acts  iv.  6,  where 
Annas  appears  as  an  acting  high  priest,  is  some- 
what incorrect.  Like  most  members  of  the  aris- 
tocratic high-priestly  line,  he  was  a  Sadducee 
(Acts  iv.  1,  6,  V.  17)  and  Josephus  calls  his  son 
Annas  the  Younger,  a  rigid  Sadducee.  [  Josephus 
(with  John  xviii.  13)  seems  to  show  that  Annas 
was  the  most  influential  man  in  Jerusalem  for  a 
generation.]  F.  Sieffert. 

BiBLioaRAPHT:  Josephus,  Ant.,  XVIII.  ii.  1-2,  iv.  3,  XX. 
ix.  1;  SohOrer,  Geachiehte,  ii.  217,  221.  Eng.  transl.  II.  i." 
182-183,  108,  202-204;  DB,  i.  00-100;  EB,  i.  171-172; 
J^,i.  610-611. 

AinfATS  (AinfATES).  See  Taxation,  Eccle- 
siastical. 

ANNE  (AinfA),  SAINT:  Mother  of  the  Virgin 
Mary.  According  to  apocryphal  tradition  (Eixm- 
gelium  de  nativitate  Mari<s  and  Protevangelium 
Jacobi)f  she  is  said  to  have  been  bom  at  Bethlehem, 
the  daughter  of  the  priest  Mat  than.  She  was 
married  to  the  pious  Joachim  of  the  tribe  of  Judah, 
and  for  twenty  years  was  childless.  At  her  assid- 
uous supplication,  an  angel  foretold  "  that  she 
should  conceive  and  bring  forth,  and  that  her  seed 
should  be  praised  in  the  whole  world."    Joachim 


188 


REUGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Annihilationlam 


too  received  comforting  promises  from  the  angel. 
When  the  daughter  was  one  year  old  the  parents 
prepared  a  banquet,  and  Anna  sang  a  song  of  praise 
similar  to  the  Magnificat.  When  three  years  of 
age,  Mary,  having  been  dedicated  before  her  birth 
to  the  service  of  God,  was  brought  to  Jerusalem 
by  her  parents  and  given  to  the  priests  to  be  edu- 
cated in  the  Temple.  According  to  later  apocryphal 
legends,  Joachim  died  soon  after  Mary's  birth,  and 
Anna,  "  not  out  of  sensual  lusts,  but  at  the  prompt- 
ing of  the  Holy  Spirit,''  married  first  Cleophas, 
to  whom  she  bore  Mary,  the  wife  of  Alplueus,  and 
after  his  death  Salomas,  by  whom  she  became  the 
mother  of  a  third  Mary,  the  wife  of  Zebedsus. 
The  legend  in  this  form,  which  owes  its  develop- 
ment to  the  luxuriant  Anne  cult  of  the  later  medieval 
period,  was  known  to  Jean  Gerson  (d.  1429;  cf. 
his  Oratio  de  natimtate  Virginia  MaricBf  Opera,  iii. 
59).  Conrad  Wimpina  (in  his  Oratio  de  divcB  Anna 
trinvbiOy  1518),  as  well  as  Johann  Eck  (in  a  sermon 
in  vol.  iii.  of  his  HomUicBf  Paris,  1579),  defended 
the  legend. 

Thus  the  most  fantastic  excesses  of  the  Anne  cult 
coincide  with  the  Reformation  epoch,  and  were 
defended  by  Roman  Catholic  theologians  of  the 
most  different  schools, — not  only  inmiaculistic 
Franciscans,  but  also  Dominicans,  Carmelites, 
and  Augustinian  hermits.  Even  Luther,  in  his 
youth,  when  overtaken  by  a  thunderstorm,  cried 
to  Anne  for  help,  and  vowed,  if  delivered,  to  become 
a  monk  (Kbstlin,  Leben  Luihere,  i.  49,  Berlin,  1893). 
It  was  a  firm  belief  in  the  popular  mind  of  the  time 
that  Christ's  grandmother  preserved  health,  made 
rich,  and  protected  in  death.  The  pictorial  repre- 
sentations of  the  fifteenth  to  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury dedicated  to  Anne  are  almost  inniunerable 
as  well  as  the  Anne  churches.  In  post-Reformation 
times  popes  promoted  the  Anne  cult;  thus  Gregory 
XIII.  in  1584  ordered  that  on  July  26,  the  supposed 
day  of  Anne's  death,  a  double  mass  should  be  said 
throughout  the  whole  Church;  and  Benedict  XIV. 
in  his  jDe  festia  Maria  Virginis  (ii.  9),  reconmiends 
the  veneration  of  St.  Anne.  In  the  Greek  church 
St.  Anne  is  also  celebrated,  partly  by  festivals 
(July  25  in  conunemoration  of  her  death;  Dec. 
9,  as  the  day  of  her  conception;  Sept.  9,  as  the  day 
of  her  marriage  with  Joachim),  partly  by  a  rich 
ascetic-homiletical  literature,  which  reaches  back 
to  Gregory  of  Nyssa,  but  without  following  the 
later  medieval  legends  of  Western  tradition. 

O.  ZdCKLERf. 
Bibuoorapht:  J.  Trithemius.  Dt  laudtbiu  S.  Annals  Maim, 
1494;  P.  CuuBiufl,  S.  J.,  De  Maria  deipara  virginet  i.  4, 
Ingobtadt,  1677;  C.  Frants,  Oeachiehte  det  Marten-  und 
Annen^uUua,  Halberatadt.  1864;  H.  SamBon.  Die  SchuU- 
keiUoent  pp.  1  sqq.,  Paderbom,  1880.  From  the  Protes- 
tant standpoint:  O.  Kawerau,  Caepar  OUtUl,  pp.  16  sqq.. 
HaUs,  1882;  E.  Schaumkell.  Der  Cultua  der  heiligen  Anna 
am  Auegang  dee  MitUlaltere,  Freiburg,  1803;  G.  Bossert. 
8L  Anna  CuUue  in  WQrttembero*  in Bl&Uer  fUr  wftrUemherg- 
iache  KirehenoeechiehU,  i.  (1886)  17.  64  sqq.  For  Anoe 
in  art:  H.  Detiel.  Chriaaiehe  Ikonograj^ie,  i.  66-80.  Frei- 
burg. 1804. 

ANNET,  PETER.    See  Deism. 

ANUI  CLERI:  A  method  of  repaying  loans 
for  the  erection  of  a  church  or  parsonage,  whereby 
succeeding  pastors  contribute  a  portion  of  their 
income  in  fixed  instalments. 


ANNIHILATIONISll 

Definition  and  Classification  of  Theories  (i  1). 

Pure  Mortalism  (i  2). 

Conditional  ImmortalityCi  3). 

Annihilationism  Proper  ({4). 

Mingling  of  Theories  ({  6). 

Early  History  of  Annihilationistio  Theories  ({6). 

Nineteenth  Century  Theories  ({  7). 

English  Advocates  (i  8). 

Modifications  of  the  Theory  (i  0). 

A  term  designating  broadly  a    large  body  of 

theories  which  unite  in  contending  that  hmnan 

beings  pass,  or  are  put,  out  of  exist- 

I.  Defini-  ence  altogether.    These   theories   fall 

tion  and    logically  into  three  classes,  according 

Classifica-  as  they  hold  that  all  souls,  being 
tion  of      mortal,    actually    cease    to   exist    at 

Theories,  death;  or  that,  souls  being  naturally 
mortal,  only  those  persist  in  life  to 
which  immortality  is  given  by  God;  or  that,  though 
souls  are  naturally  immortal  and  persist  in  exist- 
ence unless  destroyed  by  a  force  working  upon 
them  from  without,  wicked  souls  are  actually  thus 
destroyed.  These  three  classes  of  theories  may 
be  conveniently  called  respectively,  (1)  pure  mor- 
talism, (2)  conditional  immortality,  and  (3)  anni- 
hilationism proper. 

The  conunon  contention  of  the  theories  which 

form  the  first  of  these  classes  is  that  human  life 

is  bound  up  with  the  organism,  and 

3.  Pure    that  therefore  the  entire  man  passes 

Mortalism.  out  of  being  with  the  dissolution  of 
the  organism.  The  usual  basis  of 
this  contention  is  either  materialistic  or  panthe- 
istic or  at  least  pantheizing  (e.g.,  realistic);  the 
soul  being  conceived  in  the  former  case  as  but  a 
function  of  organized  matter  and  necessarily  ceasing 
to  exist  with  the  dissolution  of  the  organism,  in 
the  latter  case  as  but  the  individualized  manifes- 
tation of  a  much  more  extensive  entity,  back 
into  which  it  sinks  with  the  dissolution  of  the 
organism  in  connection  with  which  the  individ- 
ualization takes  place.  Rarely,  however,  the  con- 
tention in  question  is  based  on  the  notion  that  the 
soul,  although  a  spiritual  entity  distinct  from  the 
material  body,  is  incapable  of  maintaining  its  exist- 
ence separate  from  the  body.  The  promise  of 
eternal  life  is  too  essential  an  element  of  Christianity 
for  theories  like  these  to  thrive  in  a  Christian  atmos- 
phere. It  is  even  admitted  now  by  Stade,  Oort, 
Schwally,  and  others  that  the  Old  Testament, 
even  in  its  oldest  strata,  presupposes  the  persist- 
ence of  life  after  death, — which  used  to  be  very 
conmionly  denied.  Nevertheless,  the  materialists 
(e.g.,  Feuerbach,  Vogt,  Moleschott,  Btichner, 
Hackel),  and  pantheists  (Spinoza,  Fichte,  Schelling, 
Hegel,  Strauss;  cf.  S.  Davidson,  Doctrine  of  the 
Last  Things,  London,  1882,  pp.  132-133),  still  deny 
the  possibility  of  immortality;  and  in  exceedingly 
wide  circles,  even  among  those  who  would  not 
wholly  break  with  Christianity,  men  permit  them- 
selves to  cherish  nothing  more  than  a  "  hope  " 
of  it  (S.  Hoekstra,  De  hoop  der  onaterfelijkheid, 
Amsterdam,  1867;  L.  W.  E.  Rauwenhofif,  Wije- 
begeerte  van  den  Godsdienet,  Leyden,  1887,  p.  811; 
cf.  the  "  Ingersoll  Lectxires")* 


ihilatioiiia 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


184 


The  class  of  theories  to  which  the  designation 
of  "  conditional  immortality  "  is  most  properly- 
applicable,  agree  with  the  theories 
3.  Con-  of  pure  mortalism  in  teaching  the 
ditional  natural  mortality  of  man  in  his  en- 
Immor-  tirety,  but  separate  from  them  in 
tality.  maintaining  that  this  mortal  may, 
and  in  many  cases  does,  put  on  im- 
mortality. Immortality  in  their  view  is  a  gift  of 
God,  conferred  on  those  who  have  entered  into 
living  communion  with  him.  Many  theorists  of 
this  class  adopt  frankly  the  materialistic  doctrine 
of  the  soul,  and  deny  that  it  is  a  distinct  entity; 
they  therefore  teach  that  the  soul  necessarily  dies 
with  the  body,  and  identify  life  beyond  death  with 
the  resurrection,  conceived  as  essentially  a  recrea- 
tion of  the  entire  man.  Whether  all  men  are  sub- 
jects of  this  recreative  resurrection  is  a  mooted 
question  among  themselves.  Some  deny  it,  and 
affirm  therefore  that  the  wicked  perish  finally  at 
death,  the  children  of  God  alone  attaining  to 
resurrection.  The  greater  part,  however,  teach  a 
resurrection  for  all,  and  a  "  second  death,"  which 
is  annihilation,  for  the  wicked  (e.g.,  Jacob  Blain, 
Death  not  Life,  Buffalo,  1857,  pp.  39-42;  Aaron 
Ellis  and  Thomas  Read,  Bible  versus  Tradition, 
New  York,  1853,  pp.  13-121;  George  Storrs,  Six 
Sermons,  ib.  1856,  p.  29;  Zenas  Campbell,  The 
Age  of  Gospel  Light,  Hartford,  1854).  There  are 
many,  on  the  other  hand,  who  recognize  that  the  soul 
is  a  spiritual  entity,  disparate  to,  though  conjoined 
in  personal  union  with,  the  body.  In  their  view, 
however,  ordinarily  at  least,  the  soul  requires  the 
body  either  for  its  existence,  or  certainly  for  its 
activity.  C.  F.  Hudson,  for  example  (Debt  and 
Grace,  New  York,  1861,  pp.  263-264),  teaches  that 
the  soul  lies  unconscious,  or  at  least  inactive,  from 
death  to  the  resurrection;  then  the  just  rise  to  an 
ecstasy  of  bliss;  the  unjust,  however,  start  up  at 
the  voice  of  God  to  become  extinct  in  the  very  act. 
Most,  perhaps,  prolong  the  second  life  of  the  wicked 
for  the  purpose  of  the  infliction  of  their  merited 
punishment;  and  some  make  their  extinction  a 
protracted  process  (e.g.,  H.  L.  Hastings,  Retribution 
or  the  Doom  of  the  Ungodly,  Providence,  1861,  pp. 
77,  153;  cf.  Horace  Bushnell,  Forgiveness  and  Law, 
New  York,  1874,  p.  147,  notes  5  and  6;  James  Mar- 
tineau,  A  Study  of  Religion,  ii.,  Oxford,  1888,  p. 
114).  For  further  discussion  of  the  theory  of  con- 
ditional immortality,  see  Immortality. 

Already,  however,  in  speaking  of  extinction  we 
are  passing  beyond  the  limits  of  **  conditionalism  " 
pure  and  simple  and  entering  the  region 
4.  Annihila-  of  annihilationism  proper.  Whether  we 
tionism      think  of  this  extinction  as  the  result  of 
Proper;      the    punishment   or   as   the   gradual 
dying    out    of    the    personality    un- 
dei*  the  enfeebling  effects  of  sin,  we  are  no  longer 
looking  at  the  soul  as   naturally  mortal  and  re- 
quiring a  new  gift  of  grace  to  keep  it  in  existence, 
but  as  naturally  immortal  and  suffering  destruction 
at   the   hands  of  an   inimical   power.     And   this 
becomes  even  more  apparent  when   the  assumed 
mortalism  of  the  soul  is  grounded  not  in  its  nature 
but  in  its  sinfulness;  so  that  the  theory  deals  not 
with  souls  as  such,  but  with  sinful  souls,  and  it  is 


a  question  of  salvation  by  a  gift  of  grace  to  ever- 
lasting life  or  of  being  left  to  the  disintegrating 
effects  of  sin.  The  point  of  distinction  between 
theories  of  this  class  and  "  conditionalism  "  is  that 
these  theories  with  more  or  less  consistency  or 
heartiness  recognize  what  is  called  the  ''  natural 
immortality  of  the  soul,*'  and  are  not  tempted 
therefore  to  think  of  the  soul  as  by  nature  passing 
out  of  being  at  death  (or  at  any  time),  and  yet 
teach  that  the  actual  punishment  inflicted  upon 
or  suffered  by  the  wicked  results  in  extinction  of 
being.  They  may  differ  among  themselves,  as  to 
the  time  when  this  extinction  takes  place, — 
whether  at  death,  or  at  the  general  judgment, — 
or  as  to  the  more  or  less  extended  or  intense  pun- 
ishment accorded  to  the  varying  guilt  of  each  soul. 
They  may  differ  also  as  to  the  means  by  which  the 
annihilation  of  the  wicked  soul  is  accomplished, — 
whether  by  a  mere  act  of  divine  power,  cutting  off 
the  sinful  life,  or  by  the  destructive  fury  of  the 
punishment  inflicted,  or  by  the  gradual  enervating 
and  sapping  working  of  sin  itself  on  the  personality. 
They  retain  their  common  character  as  theories 
of  annihilation  proper  so  long  as  they  conceive  the 
extinction  of  the  soul  as  an  effect  wrought  on  it  to 
which  it  succiunbs,  rather  than  as  the  natural 
exit  of  the  soul  from  a  life  which  could  be 
continued  to  it  only  by  some  operation  upon  it 
raising  it  to  a  higher  than  its  natural  potency. 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  adherents  of 
these  two  classes  of  theories  are  not  very  careful  to 
keep  strictly  within  the  logical  limits  of 
5.  Mingling  one  of  the  classes.  Convenient  as  it 
of  Theories,  is  to  approach  their  study  with  a 
definite  schematization  in  hand,  it  is 
not  always  easy  to  assign  individual  writers  with 
definiteness  to  one  or  the  other  of  them.  It  has 
become  usual,  therefore,  to  speak  of  them  all  as 
annihilationists  or  of  them  all  as  conditionalists; 
annihilationists  because  they  all  agree  that  the  souls 
of  the  wicked  cease  to  exist;  conditionalists  be- 
cause they  all  agree  that  therefore  persistence  in 
life  is  conditioned  on  a  right  relation  to  God. 
Perhaps  the  majority  of  those  who  call  themselves 
conditionalists  allow  that  the  mortality  of  the  soul, 
which  is  the  prime  postulate  of  the  conditionaUst 
theory,  is  in  one  way  or  another  connected  with  sin; 
that  the  souls  of  the  wicked  p>ersist  in  existence  after 
death  and  even  after  the  judgment,  in  order  to 
receive  the  punishment  due  their  sin;  and  that  this 
punishment,  whether  it  be  conceived  as  infliction 
from  without  or  as  the  simple  consequence  of  sin, 
has  much  to  do  with  their  extinction.  When  so 
held,  conditionalism  certainly  falls  little  short  of 
annihilationism  proper. 

Some  confusion  has  arisen,  in  tracing  the  his- 
tory of  the  annihilatiomst  theories,  from  confound- 
ing with    them    enunciations  by  the 
6.  Early    earlier  Church  Fathers  of  the  essential 
History      Christian  doctrine  that  the  soul  is  not 
of  Annihila-  self-existent,  but, owes,  as  its  existence, 
tionistic     so    its  continuance    in  being,  to  the 
Theories,     will  of  God.    The  earliest  appearance 
of  a  genuinely  annihilationist  theory 
in   extant   Christian   literature   is    to    be    found 
apparently  in    the  African  apologist  Amobius,  at 


185 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Annihilationinn 


the  opening  of  the  fourth  century  (cf .  Salmoud, 
pp.  473-474;  Falke,  pp.  27-28).  It  seemed  to 
him  impossible  that  beings  such  as  men  could 
either  owe  their  being  directly  to  God  or  persist 
in  being  without  a  special  gift  of  God;  the  imright- 
eous  must  therefore  be  gradually  consumed  in  the 
fires  of  Gehenna.  A  somewhat  similar  idea  was 
announced  by  the  Socinians  in  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury (O.  Fock,  Der  Socinianismus,  Kiel,  1847,  pp. 
714  sqq.).  On  the  positive  side,  Faustus  Socinus 
himself  thought  that  man  is  mortal  by  nature  and 
attains  immortality  only  by  grace.  On  the  negative 
side,  his  followers  (Crell,  Schwaltz,  and  especially 
Ernst  Sohner)  taught  explicitly  that  the  second 
death  consists  in  annihilation,  which  takes  place, 
however,  only  after  the  general  resurrection,  at 
the  final  judgment.  From  the  Socinians  this 
general  view  passed  over  to  England  where  it  was 
adopted,  not  merely,  as  might  have  been  antici- 
pated, by  men  like  Locke  (Reasonableneas  of  Chria- 
tianityf  §  1),  Hobbes  (Leviaihan)^  and  Whiston, 
but  also  by  Churchmen  like  Hammond  and  Warbur- 
ton,  and  was  at  least  played  with  by  non-confonnist 
leaders  like  Isaac  Watts.  The  most  remarkable 
example  of  its  utilization  in  this  age,  however, 
is  supplied  by  the  non-juror  Henry  Dodwell  (1706). 
Insisting  that  the  ''  soul  is  a  principle  naturally 
mortal,"  Dodwell  refused  to  allow  the  benefit  of 
this  mortality  to  any  but  those  who  lived  and  died 
without  the  limits  of  the  proclamation  of  the  Gos- 
pel; no  "  adult  person  whatever,"  he  insisted, 
"  living  where  Christianity  is  professed,  and  the 
motives  of  its  credibility  are  sufficiently  proposed, 
can  hope  for  the  benefit  of  actual  mortality." 
Those  living  in  Christian  lands  are  therefore  all 
inmiortaliaed,  but  in  two  classes:  some  "  by  the 
pleasure  of  God  to  punishment,"  some  "  to  reward 
by  their  imion  with  the  divine  baptismal  Spirit." 
It  was  part  of  his  contention  that  ''  none  have 
the  power  of  giving  this  divine  immortalizing 
Spirit  since  the  apostles  but  the  bishops  only," 
so  that  his  book  was  rather  a  blast  against  the 
antiprelatists  than  a  plea  for  annihilationism; 
and  it  was  replied  to  as  such  by  Samuel  Clarke 
(1706),  Richard  Baxter  (1707),  and  Daniel  Whitby 
(1707).  During  the  eighteenth  century  the  theory 
was  advocated  also  on  the  continent  of  Europe 
(e.g.,  E.  J.  E.  Walter,  Prufung  einiger  wichtigen 
Lehren  theologisches  und  philoaophischea  InhaUa,  Ber- 
lin, 1782),  and  almost  found  a  martyr  in  the  Neucha- 
tel  pastor,  Ferdinand  Olivier  Petitpierre,  commonly 
spoken  of  by  the  nickname  of  "  No  Eternity  " 
(cf.  C.  Berthoud,  Les  Quatre  PetUpierres,  Neuchatel, 
1875).  In  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century 
also  it  found  sporadic  adherents,  as  e.g.,  C.  H. 
Weisse  in  Germany  {TSK,  ix.,  1836,  271-340)  and 
H.  H.  Dobney  in  England  (NgU8  of  Lectures  on 
Future  Punishment,  London,  1844;  new  ed..  On 
the  Scripture  Doctrine  of  Future  Punishment, 
1846). 

The  real  extension  of  the  theory  belongs,  however, 
only  to  the  second  half  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
During  this  period  it  attained,  chiefly  through  the 
able  advocacy  of  it  by  C.  F.  Hudson  and  E.  White, 
something  like  a  popular  vogue  in  English-speaking 
lands.    In  French-speaking  countries,  while  never 


becoming  really  popular,  it  has  commanded  the 
attention  of  an  influential  circle  of  theologians 
and  philosophers  (as  J.  Rognon,  UlmmortaliU  na- 
tive et  Venseignement  biblique,  Paris,  1894,  p.  7; 
but  cf.  A.  Gretillat,  Exposi  de  thiologiesyst^matique, 
IV.,  1892,  p.  602).    In  Germany,  on 

7.    Nine-    the  other  hand,  it  has  met  with  less  ac- 

teenth  Ccn-  ceptance,  although  it  is  precisely  there 

tury        that  it  has  been  most  scientifically 

Theories,  developed,  and  has  received  the  adher- 
ence of  the  most  outstanding  names. 
Before  the  opening  of  this  half  century  in  fact  it 
had  gained  the  great  support  of  Richard  Rothe's 
advocacy  (Tfieologische  Ethik,  2  vols.,  Wittenberg, 
1845-i7;  2d  ed.,  1867-72,  §§  470-472;  Dogmatik, 
iii.,  Heidelberg,  1870,  §§  47-48,  especially  p.  158), 
and  never  since  has  it  ceased  to  find  adherents  of 
mark,  who  base  their  acceptance  of  it  sometimes 
on  general  grounds,  but  increasingly  on  the  view 
that  the  Scriptures  teach,  not  a  doctrine  of  the 
inunortality  of  the  soul,  but  a  reanimation  by 
resurrection  of  God's  people.  The  chief  names 
in  this  series  are  C.  H.  Weisse  (Philosophische 
Dogmaiik,  Leipsic,  1853-62,  §  970);  Hermann 
Schultz  (Voraussetzungen  der  chrisUichen  Lehre 
der  Unsterblichkett,  Gbttingen,  1861,  p.  155;  cf. 
Grundriss  der  evangelischen  Dogmatik,  1892,  p.  154: 
"  This  condemnation  of  the  second  death  may  in 
itself,  according  to  the  Bible,  be  thought  of  as 
existence  in  torment,  or  as  painful  cessation  of 
existence.  Dogmatics  without  venturing  to  decide, 
will  find  the  second  conception  the  more  probable, 
biblically  and  dogmatically ");  H.  Plitt  (Evan- 
gelische  Glaubenslehre,  Gotha,  1863);  F.  Brandes, 
(TSK,  1872,  pp.  545,  550);  A.  Sch&ffer  (Auf  der 
Neige  des  Lebens,  Gotha,  1884;  Was  ist  GlUckf 
1891,  pp.  290-294);  G.  Runze  (UnsterblichkeU 
und  Auferstehung,  i.,  Berlin,  1894,  pp.  167,  204: 
"  Christian  Eschatology  teaches  not  a  natural 
inmiortality  for  the  soul,  but  a  reanimation  by 
God's  almighty  power.  .  .  .  The  Christian  hope  of 
reanimation  maJces  the  actualization  of  a  future 
blessed  existence  depend  entirely  on  faith  in  God  "); 
L.  Lemme  {Endlosigkeit  der  VerdammniSf  Berlin, 
1898,  pp.  31-32, 60-61);  cf.  R.  Kabisch  (Die  Escha- 
tologie  des  Paulus,  G6ttingen,  1893). 

The  same  general  standpoint  has  been  occupied 
in  Holland,  e.g.,  by  Jonker  (Tfieologische  Studien, 
i.).  The  first  advocate  of  conditionalism  in  French 
was  the  Swiss  pastor,  E.  P^tavel-OllifT,  whose  first 
book,  La  Fin  du  mal,  appeared  in  1872  (Paris), 
followed  by  many  articles  in  the  French  theological 
journals  and  by  Le  Problhne  de  Vimmortalit^  (1891 ; 
Eng.  transl.,  London,  1892),  and  The  Extinction 
of  Evil  (Eng.,  1889).  In  1880  C.  Byse  issued  a 
translation  of  E.  White's  chief  book.  The  theory 
not  only  had  ah-eady  been  presented  by  A.  Bost, 
(Le  Sort  des  michants,  1861),  but  had  been  taken 
up  by  philosophers  of  such  standing  as  C.  Lambert 
(Systhne  du  monde  moral,  1862),  P.  Janet  (RDM, 
1863),  andC.  Renouvier  (La  Critique  philosophique, 
1878);  and  soon  afterward  Charles  S^retan  and 
C.  Ribot  (RT,  1885,  no.  1)  expressed  their  g^eral 
adherence  to  it.  Perhaps  the  more  distinguished 
advocacy  of  it  on  French  ground  has  come,  how- 
ever, from  the  two  professors  Sabatier,  Auguste 


Annihilationism 
Annnnciatioii 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


186 


and  Armand,  the  one  from  the  point  of  view  of 
exegetical,  the  other  from  that  of  natural  science. 
Says  the  one  (UOrigine  du  pich4  dans  le  systhne 
th^ologique  de  Paul,  Paris,  1887,  p.  38):  "  The  im- 
penitent sinner  never  emerges  from  the  fleshly 
state,  and  consequently  remains  subject  to  the  law 
of  corruption  and  destruction,  which  rules  fleshly 
beings;  they  perish  and  are  as  if  they  had  never 
been."  Says  the  other  {Eaaai  sur  VimmortaliU 
au  point  de  vue  du  naturaliame  ^olutiannistef  2ded., 
Paris,  1895,  pp.  198,  229):  "  The  immortality  of 
man  is  not  imiversal  and  necessary;  it  is  subject 
to  certain  conditions,  it  is  conditional,  to  use  an 
established  expression."  "  Ultraterrestrial  im- 
mortality will  be  the  exclusive  lot  of  souls  which 
have  arrived  at  a  sufficient  degree  of  integrity 
and  cohesion  to  escape  absorption  or  disintegra- 
tion." 

The  chief  English  advocate  of  conditional  im- 
mortality has  undoubtedly  been  Edward  White 
whose  Life  in  Christ  was  published  first  in  1846 
(London),  rewritten  in  1875  (3d  ed.,  1878).  His 
labors  were  seconded,  however,  not  only  by  older 
works  of  similar  tendency  such  as  George  Storrs's 
Are  the  Wicked  Immortal  f  (21st  ed.,  New  York, 
1852),  but  by  later  teaching  from  men  of  the  stand- 
ing of  Archbishop  Whately  {Scripture  Revelation 
Respecting  the  Future  State,  8th  ed.,  London,  1859), 
Bishop  Hampden,  J.  B.  Heard  (The  Tripartite 
Nature  of  Man,  5th  ed.,  Edinburgh,  1852),  Preb- 
endary (Nonstable  (The  Duration  and  Nature  of 
Future  Punishment,  London,  1868),  Prebendary 
Row  (Future  Retribution,  London,  1887),  J.  M. 
Denniston  (The  Perishing  Soul,  2d  ed.,  London, 
1874),  S.  Minton  (The  Glory  of  Christ,  London, 
1868),  J.  W.  Barlow  (Eternal  Punish- 
8.  English  ment,  Cambridge,  1865),  and  T.  Davis 
Advocates.  (Endless  Suffering  not  the  Doctrine 
of  Scripture,  London,  1866).  Less 
decisive  but  not  less  influential  advocacy  has 
been  given  to  the  theory  also  by  men  like  Joseph 
Parker,  R.W.Dale, and  J.  A.  Beet  (The Last  Things, 
London,  1897).  Mr.  Beet  (who  quotes  Clemance, 
Future  Punishment,  London,  1880,  as  much  of  his 
way  of  thinking)  occupies  essentially  the  position 
of  Schultz.  "  The  sacred  writers,"  he  says,  "  while 
apparently  inclining  sometimes  to  one  and  some- 
times to  the  other,  do  not  pronounce  decisive 
judgment "  between  eternal  pimishment  and 
annihilation  (p.  216),  while  annihilation  is  free 
from  speculative  objections.  In  America  C.  F. 
Hudson's  initial  efforts  (Debt  and  Grace,  Boston, 
1857,  5th  ed.,  1889;  Christ  Our  Life,  1860)  were 
ably  seconded  by  W.  R.  Huntington  (Conditional 
Immortality,  New  York,  1878)  and  J.  H.  Pettmgell 
(The  Life  Everlasting,  Philadelphia,  1882,  com- 
bining two  previously  published  tractates;  The 
Unspeakable  Gift,  Yarmouth,  Me.,  1884).  Views 
of  much  the  same  character  have  been  expressed 
also  by  Horace  Bushnell,  L.  W.  Bacon,  L.  C.  Baker, 
Lyman  Abbott,  and  without  much  insistence  on 
them  by  Henry  C.  Sheldon  (System  of  Christian  Doc- 
trine, Cincinnati,  1903,  pp.  573  sqq.). 

There  is  a  particular  form  of  conditionalism 
requiring  special  mention  which  seeks  to  avoid 
the  difficulties  of  annihilationism,  by  teaching,  not 


the  total  extinction  of  the  souls  of  the  wicked, 
but  rather,  as  it  is  conunonly  phrased,  their  *'  trans- 
formation "  into  impersonal  beings  incapable  of 
moral  action,  or  indeed  of  any  feeling.  This  is 
the  form  of  conditionalism  which  is  suggested  by 
James  Martineau  (A  Study  of  Religion,  ii.,  Oxford, 
1888,  p.  114)  and  by  Horace  Bushnell  (Forgiveness 
and  Law,  New  York,  1874,  p.  147,  notes  5  and  6). 
It  is  also  hinted  by  Henry  Drummond 
Q.  Modifica-  (Natural  Law  in  the  Spiritual  World, 
tions  of  the  London,  1874),  when  he  supposes 
Theoiy.  the  lost  soul  to  lose  not  salvation 
merely  but  the  capacity  for  it  and 
for  God;  so  that  what  is  left  is  no  longer  fit  to  be 
called  a  soul,  but  is  a  shrunken,  useless  organ 
ready  to  fall  away  like  a  rotten  twig.  The  Alsa- 
tian theologian  A.  Sch&ffer  (Was  ist  Gluck  f,  Gotha, 
1891,  pp.  290-294)  similarly  speaks  of  the  wicked 
soul  losing  the  light  from  heaven,  the  divine  spark 
which  gave  it  its  value,  and  the  human  personality 
thereby  becoming  obliterated.  "  The  forees  out 
of  which  it  arises  break  up  and  become  at  last  again 
impersonal.  They  do  not  pass  away,  but  they  are 
trsmsformed."  One  sees  the  conception  here  put 
forward  at  its  highest  level  in  such  a  view  as  that 
presented  by  Prof.  O.  A.  CJurtis  (The  Christian 
Faith,  New  York,  1905,  p.  467),  which  thinks  of 
the  lost  not,  to  be  sure,  as  "  crushed  into  mere 
thinghood  "  but  as  sunk  into  a  condition  "  below 
the  possibility  of  any  moral  action  or  moral  con- 
cern .  .  .  like  persons  in  this  life  whose  personality 
is  entirely  overwhelmed  by  the  base  sense  of  what 
we  call  physical  fear."  There  is  no  annihilation 
in  Prof.  CJurtis's  view;  not  even  relief  for  the  lost 
from  suffering;  but  it  may  perhaps  be  looked  at 
as  marking  the  point  where  the  theories  of  anni- 
hilationism  reach  up  to  and  melt  at  last  into  the 
doctrine  of  eternal  pimishment. 

Benjamin  B.  Warfield. 

Bibuoorapht:  An  exhaustive  bibliography  of  the  subject 
up  to  1803  is  given  in  Esra  Abbot's  Appendix  to  W.  R. 
Alger's  History  of  the  Doctrine  of  a  Future  Life,  also  pub- 
lished separately.  New  York,  1871;  consult  also  W.  Reid, 
EverlaeHng  Puniehment  and  Modern  Speculation,  pp.  311- 
313,  Boston,  1874.  Special  works  on  annihilationism  are  J. 
C.  Killam,  AnnihilaHoniam Examined,  Syracuse,  1860;  I.  P. 
Warren.  The  Wicked  not  Annihilated,  New  York.  1867; 
N.  D.  George,  Annihilationiam  not  of  the  Bible,  ib.  1874; 
J.  B.  Brown,  Doctrine  of  Annihilation  in  the  Light  of  the 
Ooepet  of  Love,  London,  1876;  S.  C.  Bartlett.  Life  and 
Death  Eternal,  A  Refutation  of  the  Theory  of  Annihila- 
Ooniem,  Boston,  1878.  The  subject  is  treated  in  S.  D.  F. 
Salmond,  ChrieHan  Doctrine  of  Immortality,  pp.  473-499. 
Ekiinburgh,  1901;  R.  W.  Landis.  Immortality,  pp.  422 
sqq..  New  York,  1860;  A.  Hovey,  State  of  the  Impenitent 
Dead,  pp.  93  sqq.,  Boston,  1876;  C.  M.  Mead,  The  Soul  Here 
and  Hereafter,  Boston,  1879;  G.  Godet,  in  Chritienne 
Evang&Uiiu,  1881-82;  F.  Godet,  in  Retfue  ThSologique,  1886; 
J.  Fyfe.  The  Hereafter,  Edinburgh.  1889;  R.  Falke, 
Die  Lehre  von  der  ewigen  Verdamniea,  pp.  26-38,  Eise- 
nach, 1892.  On  conditional  immortality,  consult  W. 
R.  Huntington.  Conditional  Immortality,  New  York,  1878; 
J.  H.  Pettingell,  Theological  Trirlemma,  ib.  1878;  idem. 
Life  EverUuting.  WhatieUt  Whence  ie  it  t  Whoeeiaitf 
A  Sympoeium,  Philadelphia.  1882;  E.  White.  Life  and 
Death  :  A  Reply  to  J.  B.  Brown'e  Lectures  on  Conditional 
Immortality,  London.  1877;  idem.  Life  in  ChrieL  A  Study 
of  the  Scripture  Doctrine  on  ...  the  Conditions  of  Human 
Immortality,  New  York.  1892.  Further  discussions  may 
be  found  in  the  appropriate  sections  of  most  works  on 
systematic  theology  and  also  in  works  on  eschatology 
and  futiue  punishment  See,  besides  the  works  mentioned 
in  thfi  text,  the  literature  under  Immortautt. 


187 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Annihilationia 
Aniiiinoiatioii 


AHHIVERSAltlUS  (bc.  di^),  ANlOVERSARUm ; 

A  day  or  sen^ice  in  memory  of  a  deceased  person. 
From  the  second  century  it  was  usual  in  Christian 
congregations  to  celebrate  the  death-days  of  their 
tnartyrB  with  divine  service  na  they  recurred  an- 
nually. Families  ako  used  to  commemorate  their 
departed  members  on  their  deatb'days*  From 
this  eufltom  arose  the  festivals  of  tbe  martyrs  and 
saints,  as  also  those  anniversaries  for  departed 
members  of  the  congregations  which  are  still  held 
in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  and  consist  in 
masses  and  almi  provided  for  by  special  endow- 
ments, 

ANRO:  Archbishop  of  Cologne;  b,  probably 
1010;  d-  at  Cologne  Dec.  4,  1075.  He  came  of  a 
noble  Swabian  family,  received  his  education  at 
Bamberg,  and,  through  the  favor  of  Emj^eror  Henry 
11  Lf  attained  the  digoities  of  dean  of  Goslar  and 
archbishop  of  Cologne  (1056)-  After  the  death  of 
Henry  III.  (1056)  and  the  accession  of  his  infant 
SOD,  Henry  IV.,  imder  the  regency  of  his  mother 
Agnes  of  Poitou,  Anno  exercised  considerable  in- 
fluence at  court,  and  took  part  in  the  content 
which  broke  out  between  the  empire  and  Rome. 
The  lack  of  capacity  for  the  duties  of  government 
revealed  by  the  queen-regent  led  to  the  formation 
of  a  conspiracy  in  1062|  under  the  leadership  of 
Anno,  w^ho  in  the  same  year  made  himself  master 
of  the  young  king's  person  and  thereby  became 
virtual  ruler  of  the  empire.  Desire  for  personal 
aggrandi^ment  restrained  him  from  makiag  use 
of  his  power  for  the  interests  of  Germany  in  the 
quariBl  with  the  papacy^  which  now  entered  upon 
an  acute  phaae.  Upon  the  death  of  Pope  Nicholas 
IL  (1001)  the  party  hostile  to  German  influence, 
under  the  lejidership  of  Hildebrand,  had  chosen  as 
his  successor  Ansel m  of  Lucca,  who  assumed  the 
title  of  Alexander  II.  In  opposition  the  imperial 
party  had  raised  to  the.  papal  office  Cadalus  of 
Parma  under  the  name  of  Honorius  IL  A  synod 
at  Augsburgj  summoned  in  1062  to  decide  on  the 
conflicting  claims  of  the  two  candidates,  fendered 
a  temporary  decision  in  favor  of  Alexander  II.; 
and  two  years  later  a  second  synod,  at  Mantua, 
made  formal  acknowledgment  of  Alexander's 
righta.  Annoj  who  was  in  complete  control  at 
Augsburg,  was  actuated  in  this  course,  so  seemingly 
hostile  to  the  welfare  of  the  empire,  by  the  desire 
to  preserve  in  his  hands  the  balance  of  power 
between  the  papal  and  imperial  forces  and  thus  to 
secure  for  himself  the  rflle  of  arbiter  between  the 
two.  When  the  council  of  Mamtua  assembled, 
Ixowever,  his  influence  had  undergoae  serious 
diminution  and  he  was  unable  to  prevent  the  con- 
finnation  of  the  Italian  pope.  A  strong  rival  for 
power  now  app)eajed  in  the  person  of  Adalbert, 
archbishop  of  Hamburg-Bremen  (see  Adalbert  of 
HAMBmtG*BEEMEN),  with  whom  Anno  was  com- 
pelled to  share  his  authority  over  the  young  king 
(1063).  Two  years  later  the  archbishop  of  Cologne 
fomid  himself  almost  eotirely  superseded. 

The  fall  of  Adalbert  in  1066  brought  Aimo  once 
more  to  the  front  for  a  brief  time,  but  he  never 
again  exercised  the  authority  he  had  formerly 
poaeessed.  The  last  years  of  his  life  were  embit- 
%mnd  by  quarrelB  with  Rome,  by  a  rising  of  the 


citizens  of  Oslogne  which  he  suppressed  with  ex- 
treme severity,  and  by  charges  of  treasonable 
correspondence  with  William  I.  of  England,  for 
which  there  seems  to  have  been  little  foundation. 
There  was  not  wanting  in  the  worldly  prelate  a 
certain  ascetic  austerity  which  the  misfortunes  of 
his  later  years  tended  to  accentuate,  giving  him  a 
posthumous  reputation  of  gieiat  holiness^  and  in 
11  S3  he  was  canonised.  (Cajil  NIiitBT.) 

BiBLfoattAl'itt';  Soutocr  for  biography  are:  Viia  tajtcH  Anno- 
f*M.  by  a  monk  of  Slegbufff  (c.  UOO),  in  MGH,  Script. , 
3d.  (tS54)  405-614  and  m  MFL,  cxliii.;  Vita  tnirwr  mn^i 
Annonia  by  Another  monk  fc.  llSfS),  ed»  F,  W.  E.  Roth  in 
NA,  3dL  (1887)  '20/&-'2lhi  tL  poem  by  an  unknown  author 
ed,  J.  Kehrein,  Frankfort,  1865,  Consult  T*  Lindneri 
Anrw  //»  der  HeUiff^t  Lcipaic*  IS^;  E.  StfrmdorfiT,  Jahr- 
hi^ehet  dtM  deulsdW  Jimch»  ufi^  Hvinrkk  HI.,  2  vols., 
ib,  lS74rn81^  W.  von  Ciesebr^cht.  GttcM^Me  der  dtulMch*n 
Kaiterieit.  voh  iii-,  ib.  iStK)'  G.  Mey^r  vnn  Knonau,  Jahr- 
bi^cAur  drw  detUftchen  RHcfui  unier  HHnrich  IV ..  2  voIb.,  ih* 
1B0O-&4;  Watt«nbaeh,  DGQ,  ii.  107-109,  137,  140,  146^ 
183:  HBuck.  KD,  voL  lii. 

ANNOTATED  BIBLES,    See  Bibles,  Annotated. 

ANlfXJLUS  PISCATORIS,  an'yu^us  pis-fca-feo'ris; 
The  official  ring  worn  by  the  popes.  Every  Roman 
Catholic  bishop  wears  a  ring,  which  symbolizes 
that  he  is  wedded  to  his  diocese.  This  eustom 
dates  from  very  early  times,  and  is  mentioned  by 
Isidore  of  Seville,  who  calls  the  ring  signum  pon^ 
tificaiis  honoris.  The  ring  worn  by  a  pope  b  en- 
graved with  a  representation  of  St.  Peter  fishing — 
whence  its  special  name — and  with  the  title  of  the 
pontifFp  From  the  fifteenth  century  papal  briefs 
have  been  sealed  with  this  ring,  and  are  accordingly 
said  to  be  given  "  under  the  seal  of  the  fisherman." 
At  the  present  time,  instead  of  this  seal,  an  im- 
print of  the  same  device  in  red  ink  is  more  com* 
monly  used.  The  ring  is  given  to  the  newSy  elected 
pontiff  in  the  conclave  by  the  cardinal  camerliiigo, 
and  ia  broken  on  the  death  of  the  pope. 

AimUHCIAnOH,  FEAST  OF  THEi  A  festival 
celebrated  in  the  Greek,  Roman  Catholic,  and 
Anglican  churches  on  Mar.  25,  in  commemoration 
of  the  beginning  of  the  incarnation  (Luke  i.  26-38)- 
Though  Augustine  mentions  the  date  of  the  event 
SM  nine  montlia  before  Christmas,  the  e^irliest  indis- 
putable evidence  for  the  celebration  of  the  feast  is 
furnished  by  Proclua,  patriarch  of  Constantinople! 
who  died  before  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century. 
The  probable  date  of  its  origin  is  about  the  end  of 
the  fourth  centujy*  The  Council  of  Toledo  (656) 
ordered  Us  observance  on  Dee.  18,  objecting  to  its 
celebration  in  the  mournful  season  of  Lent;  and 
the  church  of  Milan  kept  it  on  the  fourth  Sunday 
itv  Adveat;  but  the  Roman  date  finally  prevailed 
tlinoughout  the  West,  The  ancient  Roman  year 
having  commenced  with  March,  on  the  twenty- 
fifth  of  which  naonth  the  vernal  equinox  fell  in  the 
Jvilian  calendar,  it  was  natural  for  Christian  coun- 
tries to  date  their  years  from  the  feast  which  com- 
memorated the  initial  step  in  the  work  of  redemp- 
tion; in  some  parts  of  England  and  the  United 
Slates  this  date  is  still  the  legal  term  from  which 
lease*?,  etc.  are  reckoned. 

ANNUIiCIATlOn,  ORDERS  OF  THE  (AlTOTm^ 
CIADES):  P'ive  Roman  Catholic  congregations, 
two  for  men  and  three  for  womeOt  have  their  name 
from  the  annunciation  to  the  Virgin  Mary  (Luke  i. 


Annus 
Anselm 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


188 


2&"38).  (1)  The  highest  knightly  order  of  the 
house  of  Savoy  (now  the  niltng  house  of  Italy): 
As  the  ipirituai  order  of  the  "  Knights  of  the 
Collar  "  it  was  founded  by  Count  Amadeus  VL 
in  1362,  and  was  specially  favored  by  Amadeus 
VIIL  (Pope  Fehx  V,;  d.  1451).  In  1518  under 
Charles  II L  it  was  dedicated  to  Santa  Maria  Annun- 
Eiata.  Later  it  became  a  i^eeular  order  of  merit  and 
nobility.  (3)  The  **  Archbrothers  of  the  Annunci- 
ation "  :  Founded  about  1460  by  Cardinal  Johan- 
nes de  Turrecremata  (Juan  de  Torquemada)  in  the 
Church  of  Santa  Maria  sopra  Minerva  at  Rome;  it 
had  importance  only  for  that  church.  (3)  The 
"  Annunciades  of  Santa  Marcellina "  (or  of  St. 
Ambrose):  Founded  in  Genoa  in  140S  for  the  care 
of  the  nick  and  the  performance  of  Like  deeds  of 
charity.  Their  most  famous  member  was  the  as- 
cetic and  mystical  writer  Catharina  Fiesc!y~Adomo 
who  died  in  1510  (aee  Catharine,  Saint,  op 
Genoa).  (4)  The  **  Blue  Annunciadea  "  {Annun- 
tiatm  ceelestea ;  Italian,  TurcMne^  from  turchina^ 
**  turquoise'*;  so  called  from  the  color  of  their 
doak) :  Founded  in  1 504  by  the  ploua  Maria  Vittona 
Fomarif  a  widow  of  Genoa.  In  the  seventeenth 
century  they  had  more  than  fifty  convents,  mostly 
in  upper  Italy.  (5)  The  Eeligieueee  AnnoTtcinde^ 
(known  also  as  the  ''  Order  of  the  Ten  Virtues  of 
the  Holy  Virgin  **):  Founded  about  1498  by  Jeanne 
de  Valois,  Queen  of  France*  smd  her  conf elisor, 
Gilbert  Nicolai.  At  one  time  they  had  forty- five 
convents  in  France  and  Belgium.  The  order  was 
destroyed  by  the  French  Revolution. 

O.  ZfiCKLERt- 
BlSLioGRAFnT:     ffelyot,    Ordres    manatti^utt,    iv.    6^03, 

207-300.  vil  239-250,  viiL,  322-325,  Pari*.  1715;  Hdro- 

buchett  Of^en  uful  Kongregatianen,  i.  621-523. 

ANMJS  CAREirri^,  an 'us  kfl-ren'shi-!:  The 
term  during  which  a  canon  or  other  prebendary 
must  renounce  part  of  his  revenues  to  the  pope, 
the  bishop,  the  church  buildings  or  furniture,  or 
for  some  other  ecclesiastical  purpose.  In  some 
countries  a  certain  percentage  is  annually  paid  to 
an  ecclesiastical  fund. 

AHNUS  CLAUSTRALISp  cles-traais:  The  first 
year  in  which  a  canon  holds  his  bene  fleet  a^d  during 
w^hich  he  i.^  bound  to  be  in  strictest  residence, 

AITlfUS  DECRETOIUUS,  dec"fe*t5'ri-ns :  The 
year  1624,  which  by  the  peace  of  Westphalia  (1648) 
was  taken  a^  the  basis  for  the  division  between 
the  Roman  Catholic  and  the  Protestant  churches 
in  German  territory. 

AimUS  DESERVTTUS,  des-er-vi'tns,  or  AinfUS 
GRATIj^p  gr&'ahi-i  or  -^:  The  term,  varying  in 
length  in  dilTerent  countries,  during  which  the  heira 
of  an  ecclesiastic  are  entitled  to  enjoy  his  revenues 
after  his  death. 

AmrUS  LUCTUS:  The  year  of  mourning,  in 
some  countries  an  obstacle  to  marriage  (q.v.), 

AHOnfTIKG,     See  Ointment;  SACRAMENTAta. 

ANOMOIOS,  AJ^OMOIAHS    (ANOMCEANS).     Bee. 

AaiAKlSM. 

AHRICH,  GUSTAV  ADOLF:  German  Lutheran; 
b,  at  Runzenheim  (a  village  of  Lower  Alsace) 
Dec.  2,  1867.  He  was  educated  at  the  universities 
of  Straaburg,  Marburg,  and  Berlini  and  in   18&4 


became  privat  decent  at  Strmfiburg.  He  was 
pastor  at  Lingolsheim)  Lower  Alsace,  from  1S96 
to  1901,  when  he  became  director  of  the  Theolo- 
gischer  Studienstift,  Straaburg.  Since  1903  he 
has  been  associate  professor  of  church  litBtory  at 
Straeburg.  He  has  written  Das  antike  Myst^ri- 
mtweaen  in  seinem  VerMltnisH  zum  Chrislenium 
{Gottingen,  1894);  Ctenwns  und  Origenti  a^  Be- 
grilnder  der  Lehrevom.  Fegef etier  (Tiibingen,  1902); 
and  has  edited  Die  Anfdnge  des  HeiligenkuUs  in 
dcT  chfisiiichen  Kirche  of  E,  Lucius  (1901), 

AHSEGIS,  an-s^'jis  (abbreviated  form  of  Anaeg* 
idl):  1.  The  Elder  Ansegis:  Abbot  of  Fonta- 
nella  (St,  Wandrille,  15  m.  n,H.w»  of  Rouen);  b.  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  eighth  century;  d.  at  Fon* 
tanella  July  20*  833.  He  received  his  first  instruc- 
tion in  a  cloister-achool  in  the  diocese  of  Lyons, 
became  a  monk  in  the  monastery  of  Fon tanella, 
and  waa  made  abbot  of  St,  Germain  de  Flay,  in 
the  diocese  of  Beauvais,  in  S07.  HJa  energy  and 
good  management  attracted  the  notice  of  Charle- 
magne, who  called  him  to  his  court  of  Aix-la- 
Chapelle^  and  put  him  with  Elnhard  m  charge  of  his 
building  operations >  Louis  the  Piou^  also  held 
him  in  great  favor,  and  endowed  him  in  817  'with 
the  abbey  of  Luxeuil,  and  in  823  with  that  of 
Fontanella.  Here  he  published  his  collection  of 
Prankish  laws,  LibH  iv.  cQpitularium  regum  Fran- 
cotuvif  which  in  829  obtained  official  authority. 
Most  of  these  capUuIaria  can  be  compared  with 
the  original  documents,  and  the  comparison  shows 
that  Ansegis  altered  very  little  in  the  text^  but 
Benedict  of  Main^  (Benedictus  Lcvita),  who, 
twenty  years  later,  continued  the  work,  made 
arbitrary,  not  to  say  fraudulent,  alterations.  In 
the  ninth  century  the  work  was  translated  into 
German,  and  up  to  the  thirteenth  century  the 
German  kiDgi^  took  an  oath  on  the  book  as  con- 
taining the  rights  of  the  realm, 

BiBLiooRAFirr;  Sources  ure:  Vita  Sam-Hjinseffim,  by  an  un- 
knovm  cc^ntfimporor?,  in  MFL,  ev.;  af  the  Capiiidar%um 
eBtlmrtia  the  trtsat  fcdition  U  by  A,  Boretiuft  in  MGH,  Leg,, 
11. ,  Capituktria  Reffum  Franc^jrum,  i,  (1883)  382-450*  Con- 
pujt  H.  Bnmnef.  Dmtisdve  Jlechl4^««cAtc4te,  L  392-384, 
L«ipiiic.  1SS7. 

3.  The  Younger  Ansegis  became  archbishop  of 
Sens  in  872;  d.  Nov,  25,  882.  In  876  he  was 
appointed  papal  vicar  in  Gaul  and  Germany, 
with  the  right  to  convoke  synods  and  to  act  as  the 
representative  of  the  pope  in  all  affairs  of  the  Church. 
At  the  synod  of  Ponthion  (876)^  however,  a  num- 
ber of  the  Prankish  bishops  refused  to  acknowl- 
edge his  authority  I  and  nothing  is  heard  of  a  real 
activity  on  hia  part  as  papal  vicar.  In  877  he  seem.^ 
to  have  lost  the  confidence  of  the  pope,  and  in  dirj 
following  year  another  papal  vicar  was  appointe<L 
On  his  tombstone  he  ia  called  Primus  Gallomm 
Papa,  and  up  to  the  fifteenth  century  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Sens  was  styled  GuUim  el  Gtrmanorum 
Pn'moB,  (P.  HiNSCBiust.) 

BiBLio^a^APnT :  E,  L.  Dammler.  Getchi^hf^s  det  a»tfr&jik- 
itchen  Reicht,  1 748. 767,  TBS.  837,845»qq,.  iL  m  70. 81,122, 
Leipfiic*  1S62-6A;  P.  Hinsebiua,  Kiet^nredU,  j.  507,  Ber- 
Lin,  1809. 

AlfSELM,    SAINT,    OF    C AHTERBXmy :      The 

father  of  medieval  scholasticism  and  one  of  the 
most  eminent  of  English  prelates;  b,   at  Ao^ta, 


189 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Anntui 
Anselm 


Piedmont,  1033;  d.  at  Canterbury,  England, 
Apr.  21,  1109.  He  was  well-bom  and  his  parents 
were  wealthy.  While  still  a  boy  he  wished  to  be 
a  monk,  but  his  father — a  harsh  man  and  unkind 
to  his  son — forbade;  his  mother,  a  good  and  devout 
woman,  had  died  early.  When  about  twenty- 
three  Anselm  left  home,  and,  after  three  years  in 
Burgundy  and  France,  went  to  Bee  in  Normandy, 
where  his  celebrated  coimtryman,  Lanfranc,  was 
prior.  Here  he  became  a  monk  (1060).  He 
succeeded  Lanfranc  as  prior  in  1063,  and  became 
abbot  in  1078.  The  abbey  had  possessions  in 
England,  which  called  Anselm  frequently  to  that 
coimtry.  He  was  the  general  choice  for  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury  when  Lanfranc  died  (1089), 
but  the  king,  William  Ruf us,  preferred  to  keep  the 
office  vacant,  and  apply  its  revenues  to  his  own  use. 
In  1093  William  feU  ill  and,  thinking  his  end  near, 
literally  forced  Anselm  to  receive  an  appointment 
at  his  hands.  He  was  consecrated  Dec.  4  of  that 
year.  The  next  four  years  witnessed  a  continual 
struggle  between  king  and  archbishop  over  money 
matters,  rights,  and  privileges.  .Anselm  wished  to 
carry  his  case  to  Rome,  and  in  1097,  with  much 
difficulty,  obtained  permission  from  the  king  to  go. 
At  Rome  he  was  honored  and  flattered,  but  he 
obtained  little  practical  help  in  his  struggle  with 
the  king.  He  returned  to  England  as  soon  as  he 
heard  of  the  death  of  William  (1100),  and  at  the 
earnest  request  of  the  new  king,  Henry.  But  a 
difficulty  at  once  arose  over  lay  investiture  and 
homage  from  clerics  for  their  benefices.  Though 
a  mild  and  meek  man,  Anselm  had  adopted  the 
Gregorian  views  of  the  relation  between  Church 
and  State,  and  adhered  to  them  with  the  steadiness 
of  conscientious  conviction.  The  king,  though  in- 
clined to  be  conciliatory,  was  equally  firm  from 
motives  of  self-interest.  He  had  a  high  regard  for 
Anselm,  always  treated  him  with  much  considera- 
tion, and  personal  relations  between  them  were 
generally  friendly.  Nevertheless  there  was  much 
vexatious  disputing,  several  fruitless  embassies  were 
sent  to  Rome,  and  Anselm  himself  went  thither  in 
1103,  remaining  abroad  till  1106.  His  quarrel 
with  the  king  was  settled  by  compromise  in  1107, 
and  the  brief  remaining  period  of  his  life  was  peace- 
ful, though  clouded  by  failing  bodily  powers.  He 
was  canonized  in  1494. 

Anselm  is  one  of  the  most  attractive  characters 
of  the  medieval  Church.  He  was  preeminently  a 
scholar,  and  considered  the  monastic  life  the  hap- 
piest and  best.  When  duty  called,  however,  he 
did  not  shrink  from  assiuning  the  burdens  of  ad- 
ministration and  from  mixing  in  the  turmoils  of 
statecraft,  and  he  proved  that  steadfast  rectitude 
is  as  efficacious  as  the  devious  ways  of  politicians. 
His  honesty  and  simplicity  were  sometimes  found 
embarrassing  by  diplomatic  pontiffs  and  time- 
serving bishops.  He  was  unfeignedly  humble, 
kind  of  heart,  and  charitable  in  judgment,  of  spotless 
integrity,  as  zealous  in  good  works  as  in  the  per- 
formance of  duty,  patient  imder  trial  and  adversity. 
He  was  skilful  in  winning  and  training  the  yoimg, 
achieved  marked  success  as  a  teacher,  and  the  com- 
mon people  were  always  on  his  side.  In  the  history 
of  theology  he  stands  as  the  father  of  orthodox 


scholasticism,  and  has  been  called  "  the  second 
Augustine.'*  His  mind  was  keen  and  logical, 
and  his  writings  display  profundity,  originality, 
and  masterly  grasp  of  intellect.  Of  the  two  theo- 
logical tendencies  occupying  the  field  in  his  time — 
the  one,  more  free  and  rational,  represented  by 
Berengar  of  Tours;  the  other,  confining  itself  more 
closely  to  the  tradition  of  the  Church,  and  repre- 
sented by  Lanfranc — he  chose  the  latter;  and  he 
defines  the  object  of  scholastic  theology  to  be  the 
logical  development  and  dialectic  demonstration 
of  the  doctrines  of  the  Church  as  handed  down 
through  the  Fathers.  The  dogmas  of  the  Church 
are  to  him  identical  with  revelation  itself;  and 
their  truth  surpasses  the  conceptions  of  reason  so 
far  that  it  is  mere  vanity  to  doubt  a  dogma  on 
account  of  its  unintelligibility.  Credo  vi  intelUganif 
non  qucero  intelligere  vi  credam^  is  the  principle 
on  which  he  proceeds;  and  after  him  it  has  become 
the  principle  of  all  orthodox  theology.  As  a  meta- 
physician Anselm  was  a  realist,  and  one  of  his 
earliest  works,  De  fide  Trinitatis,  was  an  attack  on 
the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  as  expounded  by  the 
nominalist  Roscelin.  His  most  celebrated  works 
are  the  Monologium  and  Proslogiunif  both  aiming 
to  prove  the  existence  and  nature  of  God;  and  the 
Cur  delta  homOf  in  which  he  develops  views  of 
atonement  and  satisfaction  which  are  still  held  by 
orthodox  theologians.  The  two  first-named  were 
written  at  Bee;  the  last  was  begun  in  England 
''  in  great  tribulation  of  heart,''  and  finished  at 
Schiavi,  a  mountain  village  of  Apulia,  where  Anselm 
enjoyed  a  few  months  of  rest  in  1098.  His  medi- 
tations and  prayers  are  edifying  and  often  highly 
impressive. 

[in  the  Monologium  he  argues  that  from  the 
idea  of  being  there  follows  the  idea  of  a  highest  and 
absolute,  i.e.  self-existent  Being,  from  which  all 
other  being  derives  its  existence — a  revival  of 
the  ancient  cosmological  argument.  In  the  Proa- 
logium  the  idea  of  the  perfect  being — "  than  which 
nothing  greater  can  be  thought " — can  not  be 
separated  from  its  reality  as  existing.  For  if  the 
idea  of  the  perfect  Being,  thus  present  in  conscious- 
ness, lacked  existence,  a  still  more  perfect  Being 
could  be  thought,  of  which  existence  would  be  a 
necessary  metaphysical  predicate,  and  thus  the 
most  perfect  Being  would  be  the  absolutely  Real. 
The  argument  is  significant,  partly  as  showing 
the  profound  influence  of  Realism  over  Anselm's 
thought,  and  partly  as  revealing  him  to  be  the  first 
to  enter  upon  the  perilous  transcendent  pathway 
of  the  ontological  argument,  to  be  followed  by 
Descartes  {Meditationes),  Hegel  and  his  school, 
and  especially  J.  Caird  (Philosophy  of  Religion, 
New  York,  1881,  pp.  153-159.  For  criticism  of  the 
ontological  argument,  cf .  Kant,  Critique  of  the  Pure 
Reason,  New  York,  1881,  pp.  500  sqq.,  Ueberweg, 
History  of  Philosophy,  i..  New  York,  1873,  pp.  383- 
386). 

The  key  to  Anselm's  theory  of  the  Atonement 
(see  Atonement)  was  the  idea  of  "  satisfaction." 
In  justice  to  himself  and  to  the  creation,  God, 
whose  honor  had  suffered  injury  by  man's  sin, 
must  react  against  it  either  by  punishing  men, 
or,  since  he  was  merciful,  by  an  equivalent  satis- 


Anselm 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


190 


faction,  viB.,  the  death  of  the  God-iiuiii,  which  will 
more  than  compensate  for  the  injury  to  hii  honor^ 
on  the  ground  of  which  he  forgives  bsh.  Inddental 
features  of  his  theory  are — sin  as  a  violation  of  a 
private  relation  between  God  and  maHj  the  inter- 
action of  the  divine  righteouflneeis  and  grace,  and 
the  necesBity  of  a  representative  suScring.  In 
the  Reformed  doctrine,  sin  and  the  Atonement 
took  on  more  of  a  public  character,  the  active 
obedience  of  Christ  wus  aIi»o  empliasized,  and  the 
repreaentative  relation  of  Christ  to  the  law  brought 
to  the  front,  Ici  the  seventeenth  century  the  fo- 
renfiic  and  penal  justice  of  God  came  into  promi- 
nence j  Christ  was  conceived  of  as  sneering  the 
punishment  of  our  sin, — a  complete  equivalent  of 
the  puninhment  whicli  we  must  have  suffered, — on 
the  ground  of  which  our  guilt  and  punishment  are 
pardoned.  In  the  following  century,  Owen  {Works  f 
ix,  253-254)  held  tliat  the  sufleringg  of  Christ  for 
einnefB  were  not  taniidem  but  idem,  in  more  recent 
diBCUBSiona  along  this  line,  Hodge  (Systematw 
Theology,  ii,  480-495)  maintains  tiiat  Christ  suffered 
neither  the  kind  nor  degree  of  that  which  sinners 
mu8t  have  suffered,  but  any  kind  and  degree  of 
suffering  which  is  judicially  inflicted  in  satisfaction 
of  justice  and  law.  There  has  indeed  been  no 
theory  of  the  work  of  Christ  wliich  has  not  con- 
ceived of  it  as  a  satisfactionj  even  the  so*called 
moral  infiuence  theories  center  in  this  idea  (cf, 
W.  N.  Clarke,  Outlim  of  ChriMian  Theotogy,  New 
York,  1S9S,  pp,  348,  349).  It  is  therefore  evident 
how  fundamental  is  the  idea  of  satisfaction  pre- 
sented by  Anselm,  Only  it  must  be  observed  first 
that  in  the  evolution  of  the  Christian  doctrine 
of  salvation  the  particular  way  in  which  the  satis- 
faction was  realized  has  been  differently  conceived; 
and  secondly,  if  the  forgiveness  of  sin  in  Jesus 
Christ  takes  place  only  when  the  ethical  nature  of 
God  is  satisfied,  the  special  form  in  which  the 
satisfaction  is  accomplished  is  of  subordinate 
importance.  In  one  clasa  of  views— the  repre- 
tentative  or  juridical— the  satiaf action  was  con- 
ditioned on  a  unique  and  isolated  divine-human 
deed — the  death  or  the  life  and  death  of  Christ- 
in  the  other  theories,  the  satisfaction  is  threefold — 
in  the  expression  of  the  divine  good- will,  through  the 
life  and  death  of  Christ,  in  the  initial  re^ponae  of 
sinners  to  forgi\ang  grace,  and  in  the  final  bringing 
of  all  souls  to  perfect  union  with  the  Father.  Cf. 
C.  A,  Beckwith,  BeaiUie^  of  ChriMtian  Theology, 
Boston,  1906,  pp.  226^229.  For  criticism  of  An- 
selm  on  the  Atonement,  cf.  Hamack,  Dogttien- 
yeachichte,  iii.^  Freiburg^  1890,  pp.  351-358,  Kng, 
trans!.,  vi.  67-78.]  C.  A.  Begkwsth, 

Bibuoghaprt:  Ther  beit  «<litioti  at  Amnlm's  worku  is  by 
C.  GerberoTi,  a  morik  of  the  ConflrecAtion  of  Sdt,  ftlayrp 
Paria,  1675  (2d  ed,,  1721;  reprinted  nt  Venioe,  1744,  oad, 
with  coiTi>c(ion»  and  BdifilJODS,  in  MFL,  c1vLti.^>clix.). 
The  Monalogium  and  Froala<gium  were  pubEsIisd  by  C* 
Hmam^  TObingfMi.  1863:  the  Cur  diut  komo,  by  H.  LAmioer, 
Berlin.  1857.  mid  by  O.  F.  Fritische  (3d  ed.*  Zurich.  1&03J. 
ThtMQnulo&fum  and  Prostoffiiim  were  Imnslftted  into  Freneh 
by  H.  Boui^hUt^,  Lf  RaH&ruditjrw  cktitkn,  Pftrii,  1842; 
the  Cvr  dfUM  homo,  into  Oenriati  by  B,  SchlrUts*  Quudlin- 
built  iSflL  In  Ensliah  upe:  The  Cur  deu*  hom&,  with  ee- 
leetioni  from  bJa  letters^  London.  l&S9i  hU  Book  of  Medi- 
ioHont  anrf  Praym,  with  prefnoe  by  C&rdhia]  Manning, 
1572;  ft&d   the   Prvtlogiumi   Monalogium,  mud   Cw  deua 


homo,  tratiai.  by  3.  N.  Denne^  with  introductioa,  bibltoe" 
raphy;  etc.,  Chicago,  1903. 

The  auuriiT^i  for  Anselm's  Life  are  the  llittona  novorttm 
and  Vita  An*eimi  of  hJs  chapliuo  and  friends  Eadcner, 
printed  in  Gefbcron  and  Migiie,  ut  syp..  and  edited  for 
the  R&IU  Strict  by  M.  Rule.  Ixindon,  18S4;  the  Vila  aHa 
by  John  of  SiUisbury-  i*i  MFL^  ^3ccix..ftnd  the  Viia  hrevioT, 
ib^  dviil.  Of  modem  worka  the  following  may  be  men- 
tioned: R,  W.  Church.  The  Life  of  St  Anaeim.  London, 
1S70  i"  masterly,  aecurate.  vigorout  ");  F.  R.  Hasae,  An- 
trim van  Canterbury,  2  parts^  part  j..  I^b^n^  Leipaie,  IS43, 
part  Ji.,  ZrfAre.  ib.  1S52,  abridged  Eng.  tranaL  by  W, 
Turner,  Londfln;  1850:  0.  de  R^mu^nt,  Bt.  Afi^^me  ds 
Caniot^&V*  Parid*  1808  (csontalnA  able  eritieiim  of  An^ 
aeim^fi  philoflophy.  with  which  cf,  E.  Salawt  in  Milangt 
d'hitioire^  de  m<^rai€,  ef  dp  critit/ue,  Pari^,  185fil);  M.  HuJe, 
life  and  Timet  of  ^SL  Anteim,  2  vola..  LoniJOQ.  1SS3  (the 
result  of  ions  study,  but  marred  by  prejudice)^  DNB, 
ii,-  10-30;  P.  Ratftfy,  Hittairt  de  St.  Antelme,  Parif, 
1889:  J.  M.  W.  HifLff,  St  Anteim  of  Cant^hutv,  a  Chapter 
in  the  Hif4.  of  Reliffiim,  London.  18&6:  A.  C.  Welch*  An^ 
telm  and  %ie  Wark^  London »  liWl;  E.  A,  Freeman »  Hi*- 
totjf  of  ifie  Norm/iti  Ctmiiuttt^  pas,Nim;  idem.  Histofy  of  the 
Rmgn  of  Williav%  Hufum,  voL  i..  chap.,  tv,.  and  VoK  ii.*  chap. 
vii.  (v^aluable  for  referenced  to  authorities). 

ANSELM  OF  HAVELBERG:  Bishop  of  Havel- 
berg,  later  arctibisbop  of  Ravenna;  d.  1158,  He 
took  EB  active  part  In  ecclcii^iai^tical  and  6tiU  mora 
in  political  affairs  imder  the  emperors  from  Lothair 
III.  to  Frederick  I.  Having  joined  the  Premon- 
Btrants  he  i^ent  to  Magdeburg,  probably  influenced 
by  Norbert,  who  consecrated  him  in  1129  bishop  of 
Havel  berg.  As  Rueh  he  Labored  zealously  for  the 
order,  to  whose  duties  especially  belonged  the  or- 
ganic ation  of  the  church  in  the  Wendic  countries, 
and  founded  a  Prcmonstrant  chapter  in  Havelberg. 
In  1135  Lothair  III.  sent  him  as  ambassador  to  Gon- 
fitantinople  in  the  hope  of  ejecting  a  union  agaLnsi 
Roger  of  Sicily.  He  held  a  friendly  conference 
on  the  principal  points  of  controversy  between 
the  Eastern  and  the  Western  Clmrches,  with  the 
archbishop  of  Nicomedia,  and  afterward  at  the 
request  of  Pop©  Eugeniua  III,  wrote  three  "  Dta* 
logueii,"  descriptive  of  it.  In  1147  he  t^>ok  part 
OS  papal  legale  in  the  crusade  againat  the  Wend.-?, 
and  then  devoted  several  years  to  the  affaira  of  hm 
bishopric.  The  Emperor  Frederick  L  employed 
him  again  on  political  miiiaions;  he  sent  him  t4^ 
Constantinople  in  1154,  when  he  wished  to  secure 
a  Greek  princeen  for  hia  wife,  and  in  1155  caused 
him  to  be  chosen  archbishop  of  Ravenna.  In  the 
same  year  Anselm  was  succesaful  in  mediating 
between  Frederick  and  tlie  Pope  (Giesebrecht,  v, 
69,  64),  His  writings,  besides  the  one  mentioned 
above,  treat  especially  of  the  relation  between  can- 
ons and  xnonkSf  wliich  was  much  di.HCus^ied  in  his 
time.     They  are  in  MPL,  dxxxviii. 

S,  M,  Deutbch. 
BiBLiDoaAFnT:  3pieker,   Afoelm  von   fiavelberg^  In   ZHT, 

vol.JdwJt  ii.  (1840)  1-94;  W,  Ton  GwmKhreaht, G&eMchU 

der  dea^tttken  Kai»ertnU  iv.-v.,  Brunswick,  1B74:  UaUGlt, 

KB,  vqL  iv.  pajifllm. 

AITSELH  OF  LAOH  (Lat.  Laudunjen&is :  called 
also  SchoUulicus):  Archdeacon  of  I^on;  b,  at 
Laon  about  the  middle  of  the  eleventh  cent  my; 
d,  there  July  16,  1117.  He  enjoyed  the  instructioa 
of  Anselm  of  Canterbury  at  Bee,  and  from  1070 
was  teacher  of  scholastic  theology  at  Paris ^  where 
he  gathered  around  him  a  number  of  prominent 
pupils.  With  the  most  notable  of  them,  the 
genial  William  of  Chatnpeaux  (q.v.),  he  laid  the 
foundation  of  the  later  Univerdty  of  Paris,    To- 


191 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


ward  the  end  of  the  century  he  became  archdeacon 
and  cathedral  achoUutictia  in  his  native  city.  His 
reputation  as  the  foremost  Biblical  exegete  made 
the  school  renowned  and  induced  young  Abelard 
to  attend  his  lectures.  His  influence  on  posterity 
was  mainly  due  to  his  Gloaaa  irUerlineariSf  a  para- 
phrastic commentary  on  the  Vulgate,  which  far 
surpassed  the  popular  Gloasa  ordinaria  of  Wala^ 
frid  Strabo,  but  was  not  able  to  displace  entirely 
this  older  work.  He  also  wrote  exegetical  notes 
on  the  Song  of  Songs,  Matthew,  and  Revelation. 

O.  ZOCKLERf. 
Bxblxoobapht:  Axueim's  works  are  in  MPL,  olxii  (includes 
an  interesting  letter  on  the  problem  of  evil,  Num  Deus 
villi  malum  t).  A  number  of  previously  unprinted  sen- 
tences were  published  by  G.  Leffevre  in  Antelmi  Laudu- 
nensts  si  RadtUfi  iratrU  ejut  9enienHa^  Evreux,  1804. 
Consult  Hx&UArt  littiraire  de  la  France,  z.  182  sqq.;  P. 
Feret,  La  Faeulti  de  thiologie  de  Parie,  L  25-33,  Paris. 
1884;  H.  Hurter,  Theologia  catholica  iempore  medii  cm, 
pp.  17-18,  Innsbruck.  1890. 

ANSELM  OF  LUCCA:  1.  Anselm  Badagius 
(Badagio):  Bishop  of  Lucca  1057-73,  also  pope 
(Alexander  II.)  1061-73.  See  Alexander  II., 
pope. 

8.  Bishop  of  Lucca  1073-86;  d.  at  Mantua 
Mar.  18,  1086.  He  was  nephew  and  successor 
of  the  preceding,  and  bore  the  same  family  name. 
In  1073  he  is  designated  electu8  Lucenaia  by  Gregoiy 
VII.,  whom  he  consulted  as  to  whether  he  should 
receive  investiture  from  the  king.  The  pope  de- 
cided that  it  should  be  postponed  until  Henry  IV. 
had  cleared  himself  of  association  with  his  excom- 
municated counselors  and  had  made  his  peace  with 
Rome.  Henry  especially  requested  that  Anselm's 
consecration  should  not  take  place  until  after  his 
investiture;  and  in  fact  he  received  the  ring  and 
staff  from  the  king's  hand  before  he  was  conse- 
crated, Apr.  28,  1075.  Soon  after,  troubled  in 
conscience  by  this  relation,  he  wished  to  resign 
his  see  and  retired  to  a  monastery,  but  was  recalled 
by  Gregory,  whom  he  afterward  supported  with  a 
more  ardent  loyalty  than  any  other  Italian  bishop. 
His  personality  counted  for  much  when  Guibert 
of  Ravenna  had  been  set  up  as  an  antipope,  and 
the  struggle  of  Gregory  with  Henry  IV.  and  the 
Lombard  bishops  reached  its  height.  With  Goimt- 
ess  Matilda,  Anselm  was  the  principal  upholder 
of  the  papal  cause  in  the  north  of  Italy.  He  was 
driven  from  his  diocese,  but  was  entrusted  with  a 
vicariate  covering  the  whole  of  Lombardy.  When 
Gregory  felt  death  approaching,  he  conunended 
Anselm  to  Otto  of  Ostia  and  Hugh  of  Lyons  as  his 
choice  for  successor;  but  Anselm  died  while  still 
an  exile.  His  most  notable  literary  work  was  his 
CoUectio  canonum,  which  was  incorporated  almost 
bodily  in  the  Decretum  Gratianu  Other  important 
writings  of  his  were  directed  to  the  ending  of  the 
schism;  the  principal  one  preserved  is  the  Liber 
contra  Wibertum  et  aequacea  ejus,  written  in  1085- 
86  after  Gregory's  death.  Fragments  of  a  com- 
mentary on  the  Psalms  and  some  devotional  trea- 
tises attributed  to  Anselm  have  also  been  preserved. 

(Carl  Mirbt.) 
BxxuooaAFHT:  The  Liber  etmira  Wiberhm  and  CoUeeUo 
eanonioa,  with  spurious  works,  etc.,  are  in  M PL,  exlix.; 
the  former,  ed.  K  Bemheim.  also  in  MGH,  LQMi  de 
liU,  i.  (1801)  519-628  (ef.  Preface,  pp.  66-66).  His  Ufe. 
written  immediately  after  his  death,  at  the  request  of 


Matilda,  by  Bardo,  a  priest  who  had  been  his  close  i 
date,  is  in  MPL,  cxlviiL  and,  with  extracts  from  some 
of  his  works,  ed.  R.  Wilmans,  in  MQH,  Script.,  xii.  (1866) 
1-36.  Consult  A.  Overmann,  Die  vita  Aneelmi  Luceneie 
epiecopi  dee  Rangeriue,  in  NA,  vol.  xxi.,  1806;  W.  von 
Giesebrecht,  Oeechichte  der  dexUechen  Kaieerzeit,  vol.  iii., 
Leipsic,  1800;  J.  Langen,  Oeechichte  der  r&miedien  Kirdte 
von  Oreoor  VII.  hie  Innocene  III.,  Bonn,  1803;  C.  Mirbt, 
Die  PublieieiUc  im  Zeiialter  Qregore  VII.,  Leipsic,  1804;  W. 
Martens, Gregory//., 2 vols., ib.  1804;  G.  Meyer  von  Kno- 
nau,  JahrbUcher  dee  deutachen  Reiche  unter  Heinrich  IV. 
und  Heinrich  V.,  vol.  ii.,  ib.  1804;  Wattenbach,  DOQ,  ii. 
(1804). 

ANS6AR  or  ANSKAR  (Aasgejr,  Oagejr,  "  God's 
Spear";  the  modem  Oscar):  The  apostle  of 
Scandinavia,  first  archbishop  of  Hamburg  (831- 
865);  b.  of  prominent  Prankish  parents  near  the 
monasteiy  of  Corbie  (9  m.  e.  of  Ainiens),  probably 
in  801;  d.  at  Bremen  Feb.  3, 865.  After  his  mother's 
early  death  he  was  brought  up  at  Corbie,  and  made 
rapid  progress  in  the  learning  of  the  time.  In  822 
he  was  one  of  a  colony  sent  to  found  the  abbey 
of  Corvey  (New  Corbie)  in  Westphalia,  and  became 
there  a  teacher  and  preacher.  When,  four  years 
later,  Harold,  king  of  Denmark,  made  an  alliance 
with  the  Franks  which  included  the  acceptance 
of  their  religion,  Ansgar  was  among  those  chosen  to 
accompany  the  king  to  Denmark  to  evangelize  the 
people.  He  and  his  companion  Autbert  founded 
a  school  at  Harold's  court  after  the  Frankish  model, 
but  their  work  had  to  be  abandoned  on  account 
of  the  downfall  of  Harold  (827)  and  the  illness  and 
death  of  Autbert.  In  the  autunm  of  829,  probably, 
Swedish  ambassadors  appeared  at  the  imperial 
court  and  asked  that  Christian  missionaries  be 
sent  to  their  country.  Again  Ansgar  was  selected, 
and  with  him,  Witmar,  his  former  colleague  in  the 
abbey-school  at  Corvey.  After  a  perilous  journey, 
they  reached  Sweden  and  were  allowed  to  preach 
freely,  with  considerable  success,  at  Bjdrkd  (Birka) 
on  an  island  in  Lake  Mftlar. 

Ansgar  spent  two  years  in  Sweden,  returning 
home  in  831  to  report  to  the  emperor.  The  time 
was  now  ripe  for  the  accomplishment  of  a  plan  of 
great  importance  for  the  northern  missions,  which 
Charlemagne  had  had  in  mind,  and  for  which  his 
son  had  now  foimd  the  right  man,  viz.,  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  bishopric  of  Hamburg.  Besides  a 
diocese  formed  from  those  of  Bremen  and  Verden, 
the  new  metropolitan  was  to  have  the  right  to  send 
missions  into  all  the  northern  lands  and  to  conse- 
crate bishops  for  them.  Ansgar  was  consecrated 
in  Nov.,  831,  and,  the  arrangements  having  been 
at  once  approved  by  Gregory  IV.,  went  to  Rome  to 
receive  the  pallium  directly  at  the  hands  of  the 
pope  and  to  be  named  legate  for  the  northern  lands. 
This  commission  had  previously  been  bestowed 
upon  Ebo,  archbishop  of  Reims;  but  an  amicable 
agreement  was  reached  by  which  the  jurisdiction 
was  divided,  Ebo  retaining  Sweden  for  himself. 
For  a  time  Ansgar  devoted  himself  to  the  needs  of 
lus  own  diocese,  which  was  still  missionaiy  terri- 
tory with  but  a  few  churches.  He  founded  in 
Hamburg  a  monastery  and  a  school;  the  latter 
was  to  serve  the  Danish  mission,  but  accomplished 
little. 

After  the  death  of  Louis  le  D^bonnaire  (840), 
Ansgar  lost  the  abbey  of  Turholt,  which  had  been 
given  as  an  endowment  for  his  work,  and  in  845 


tiurar 
[itnropoiiiorphiam 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


102 


Hamburg  was  destroyed  by  the  Danes,  so  that  be 
was  a  bishop  without  either  see  or  revenue.  Many 
of  his  helpers  deserted  him,  and  his  work  was  in 
danger  of  extinction .  The  new  king,  Louis  the 
Germanp  came  to  his  aid;  after  failing  to  recover 
Turholt  for  him,  he  planned  to  bestow  upon  him 
the  vacant  diocese  of  Bremen,  There  were  many 
canonical  and  other  difficulties  in  the  way;  but  after 
prolonged  negotiation.^  Nicbolaa  L  approved  the 
union  of  the  two  dioceses  (864).  From  848  Ansgar 
redded  in  Bremen  ^  and  did  what  he  could  to  revive 
the  Danish  mission.  When  he  was  establinhed  in 
a  position  of  dignity  once  more,  be  succeeded  in 
gaining  permission  from  King  Haarik  to  build  a 
church  in  Sles\^ick,  and  secured  the  recognition 
of  Christianity  as  a  tolerated  religion.  He  did  not 
forget  the  Swedish  mission,  and  spent  two  years 
there  in  person  (848-850)^  at  the  critical  moment 
when  a  pagan  reaction  was  threatened,  which  he 
succeeded  in  averting.  In  his  own  diocese  he 
showed  himself  a  model  bkhopp  forward  in  all 
works  of  cliarity,  and  of  a  prayerful  and  ascetic 
life.  Hia  humility  waa  most  marked;  when  people 
attempted  to  venerate  him  as  a  wonder-worker, 
he  reproved  them,  saying  that  it  would  be  the  great- 
est  of  miracles  if  God  should  deign  to  make  him  a 
really  devout  man.  He  was  canonized  by  Nicholas 
I,  not  long  after  his  death.  A  collection  of  brief 
prayers  from  his  hand  is  extant  with  the  title  Fi§- 
mewim  (ed.  J.  M.  Lappenberg,  Hamburg,  1844). 
The  Vita  et  miracida  of  Willehad,  first  bbhop  of 
Bremen  (MGH,  Script.,  ii„  1829,  378-390;  also 
in  MPLj  cxviii.  1012^32)  is  attribute<l  to  Ansgar 
by  Adam  of  Bremen;  the  life,  however,  is  by  an- 
other. (A.  Hauck;) 

BtnucKiRiLPBT:  Rimbert  (diflciplc  und  lucoesflor  of  Aiugnr), 
Viia  AnthiTii,  ed,  C.  F-  DaliliiiiUMi,  in  MQH ,  Skripi..  ii. 
(1S29)  6S3-725,  and  MPL.  exviii.:  Adjun  of  Bremen, 
Gmla  HammertburotruU  ecdetioF,  L  17-30  et  poAium;  there 
are  modern  Uvpa  by  Q,  H,  Klippf^t,  Lt^nabemekTeibung  drt 
ErtbiMthuft  Antgar,  BremflD*  1843:  A.  Tappehom.  Lebcti 
dtM  htUiofn  A  ntgar,  ApQtUU  POfi  D&nemm-k  vrwt  Schwedtrt, 
UHnBteT,  1303,  »[id  oibtf.  ComiuU  i^liia  G.  Dfihio,  Gtf- 
aehiehif  des  EriMttam*  Hambtirff^Bremen,  u  42  aqq.*  iL 
51-52,  flcrlin*  1877s  G.  F.  Maclear,  AjmtiM  of  Madiit- 
va!  Europt^  pp.  151-171.  Londoa.  t8SS;  Watt«nbacJi« 
DGQ,  19Q4,  i.  297,  U.  79,  608:  Hauck,  KD,  u.  3,^, 
602,  CIS.  024.  660,  S73  iqq..  72(1,  765;  T.  von  S«!iub#rt. 
Afugar,  ICiel.  1901. 

AHSO :  A  monk  and  abbot  (776-800)  of  Lobbea 
(35  m.  a,  of  Bruiasels),  but  not,  like  tuis  predeces- 
aorSj  also  a  bishop.  He  was  conddered  a  worthy, 
■ealoue  roan,  but  no  scholar;  nevertheless,  while 
a  monk,  he  compiled  from  the  sotireea  biographies 
of  the  first  two  of  the  abbot  bishops  of  Lobbea, — the 
Viia  5.  Ursmari  (In  A8B,  April,  ii.  560-562,  and 
ASM,  iii.  1,  24&'250)  and  the  Vila  5.  Ermini  or 
Ermintmi*  {ASB,  April,  iii.  375-377;  ASM^  iii.  1, 
564-.568). 
BtBLiCKiRjkPBr:  Hittoirt  lUt&ain  de  hn  Prance,  iv.  203, 

AlVTERUS}  an'te-ros:  Bishop  of  Rome  in  the 
thiid  century,  eueeesBor  of  PontianuE.  According  to 
the  CvAahgux  Liberianus,  he  was  consecrated  Nov. 
21,  335 1  the  divergent  account  of  Eusebius  (iftti, 
eed.f  VI.  XXIX.  t },  which  makes  him  enter  upon  hia 
office  in  the  reign  of  Gordlanut,  is  of  le^  author- 
ity. After  a  pontificate  of  little  over  a  month, 
he  died  Jan.  3,  2^.     The  atone  placed  over  his 


grave  in  the  cemetery  of  Calixtus  was  discovered 
in  1854.  (A.  Hauck.) 

BifiuooKAPaT:  Lt&sr  ponti^^eaiiM,  ed.  Ducheatiia.  L  147,  P&m, 

isse. 

AlTTHOinSTS.    See  Anthony,   Saint,   Ordeeia 

OP. 

AHTHOrTY,  ALFRED  WILLIAMS:  Free  Bap- 
tist; b.  at  Providence,  R.  I.,  Jan.  13,  i860.  He 
was  educated  at  Brown  University  (B.A.,  1883), 
Cobb  Divinity  School  {18S3-S6).and  the  University 
of  Berlin  (1S8S-90),  and  waa  pastor  of  the  Essex 
Street  Free  Baptist  Church,  Bangor^  Me.,  from 
1885  to  1888.  On  hia  return  from  Gernmny  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  New  Testament  exegesis 
at  Cobb  Divinity  School,  a  position  which  he  still 
holds.  He  is  alio  a  member  of  the  conference 
board  of  the  General  Conference  of  Free  Baptists, 
the  chairman  of  the  Free  Baptist  committee  of 
conference  on  union  with  other  bodies,  a  member 
of  the  Interdenominational  Commission  of  Maine 
since  its  organisation  in  1891  and  secretary  since 
1904,  trustee  and  aecretary  of  the  board  of  the 
Maine  Indujs trial  School  for  Girls  since  1899,  and 
member  of  the  school  committee  of  Lcwiston  since 
1906,  Among  the  societies  to  which  he  belongs 
are  the  American  Philological  Association,  the 
American  Institute  of  Sacred  Literature,  the  Society 
of  Biblical  Literature  and  Exegesis,  and  the  Maine 
Academy  of  Medicine  and  Science.  In  theology 
he  is  a  moderate  progressive.  He  ha^  written: 
An  Introduction  fo  the  Life  of  JenuB  (New  York, 
189fi);  The  Method  of  Jemts  (1899);  The  Sunday- 
School — Its  Progress  in  Method  and  Scope  (1899); 
and  The  Higher  CrUicism  in  the  Nmo  Testnment 
(1901);  and  has  edited  Preachers  and  Pfeoching 
(1900),  and  New  Wine  Skiiu  (1901). 

AWTHOHY,  SAIHT,  THE  HERJIIT*    See  Mon- 

ABTICISM. 

ANTHOItY,  SAmX,  ORDERS  OF:  The  oldest 
and  moet  insportant  of  the  religious  orders  named^ 
after  St.  Anthony,  tlie  father  of  monastieiim,  ia 
that  of  the  Hospitalers  of  St.  Anthony,  founded 
about  the  time  of  the  firat  crusade  (1095-99)  by 
a  nobleman  of  St.  Didier  la  Mot  he  in  Dauphin^. 
Gaston  by  name.  According  to  the  traditions  of 
the  order,  Gaaton*s  son,  Gu^rin,  was  cured  of  the 
disease  known  as  St.  Anthony's  fire  {morhm  Mocer), 
whereupon  the  father  founded  a  hospital  for  those 
suffering  from  this  and  similar  maladies,  near  the 
great  church  of  St.  Didier,  and,  with  his  Hon  and 
eight  knightly  comrades,  undertook  the  part  of 
nurses  in  the  mstitution,  Bt,  Anthony  appeared 
to  the  founder,  gave  him  his  staff  (shaped  like  the 
letter  **  T  "),  and  encouraged  him  in  the  work. 
Urban  IL  is  said  to  have  confirmed  the  order  at 
the  synod  at  Clermont  in  1095.  Cahxtus  11.  in 
1118  dedicated  the  church  belonging  to  the  Bene- 
dictine monastery  Mona  Major  at  St.  Didier  to  St. 
Anthony,  and  so  made  it  the  chief  sanctuary  of 
the  order,  which  waa  subject  to  the  Benedictines. 
From  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century  the  order 
spread  through  the  foundation  of  many  houses 
(as  at  Rome  in  1194;  at  Acco  in  1208;  and  many 
in  central  and  north  Germany),  and  it  acquired 
considerable  wealth  through  the  persistent  ieal 
of  its  almsgatherers.     They   wore   a   blar^k   robe 


198 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Ani 


sffar 
tnropomorphism 


with  a  light  blue  **  T  '^  (St»  Anthoay'a  cross),  and 
a  littk  bell  on  the  neck  announced  their  coming. 
After  a  bard  struggle  the  Hospitalers  freed  them^ 
Helves  from  the  BenedictinDs,  and  in  1286^  by  adopt* 
ing  the  rule  of  St.  Augustine,  they  became  regu- 
lar canoes  (popularly  known  as  TdnniesheTm).  In 
1297  Bomface  VIIL  freed  thera  from  all  episcopal 
jurisdiction  and  made  their  head  masteFj  the  general 
abbot  of  St.  Didier,  directly  subject  to  the  papal 
iBee.  At  the  beginning  of  tlie  sixteenth  century 
the  number  of  houses  amounted  to  364.  The  order 
had  suffered  a  moral  deterioration,  which  the 
general  abbot,  Brunei  de  Gmmont,  with  papal 
support,  vainly  endeavored  to  correct  in  the  seven- 
teenth century*  In  1774  the  order  was  united 
with  the  Knights  of  Malta  (see  John,  Saint^  Order 

OP  HOSMTALEHS  OF).  O.  ZfiCKLERf, 

BtBLloOftAPRT:  Hciinbticber,  Orden  und  Konffregotionen,  i. 
401-402;  Beiy oU  Ordf^a  motiOMtuiutit,  ii,  108-114;  Beif&n^ 
Die  TOnntMh&m  und  der  ehrtame  Rat  in  fJUdttheim,  m 
Ztiimhrilt  fUr  d^uttchf  CuUurifmichichtM^  1872,  pp.  121 , 
3S4:  G.  Ubrhorn,  Diechruflidu  Litbettk&Uokmt  im  Mit- 
itiaU^,  pp.  17S,  432,  47S,  Stut^s&rt,  ISS4. 

AliTHOHY,  SAUfT,  OP  PADUA  t  The  moat 
celebrated  of  the  followers  of  St.  Francis  of  Aasisi; 
b.  at  Lisbon,  of  a  distiDguiahed,  knightly  family, 
about  1195-  d.  at  Padua  June  13,  1231.  When 
fifteen  years  of  age  he  joined  the  Augustinian 
canons  at  Lisbon.  After^vard  he  went  to  Coimbra 
and  by  zealous  study  made  himself  master  of  the 
theology  of  his  time.  The  translation  of  the  bones 
of  the  first  martyred  Franciscans  from  Morocco  to 
Goimbra  awakened  in  Anthony  a  desire  for  mar- 
tyrdom ;  to  accomplish  liis  purpose  in  1220  he  joined 
the  Minorites  and  sailed  to  Africa;  being  confined 
to  his  bed  by  sickness  throughout  the  winter,  he 
resolved  to  return  home.  On  the  way  he  was 
driveD  to  Messina  and  with  the  brethren  there 
went  to  the  chapter  at  Assisi  in  1221 »  where  he  was 
taken  to  a  hermitage  in  the  Romagna.  By  acci- 
dent bis  oratorical  gifts  became  known  when  he  was 
ordained  priest  at  Forh;  and  he  was  made  preacher 
of  the  order.  Of  his  public  activity,  wlucb  now 
commenced,  very  little  is  known.  For  a  time  he 
acted  as  lector  to  the  Minorites  at  Bologna,  although 
Francis  of  Assisi,  influenced  by  Elias  of  Cortona, 
who  wished  to  introduce  scientific  study  into  tlie 
order^  gave  his  permission  very  reluctantly*  An- 
thony next  went  to  France,  and  was  guardian  at 
Puy  and  custos  in  Limousin.  As  in  the  Romagna, 
he  showed  himself  an  indefatigable  persecutor  of 
heretics  in  the  struggle  with  the  Cathari.  At 
Rimini  he  converted  some  of  them  by  his  per* 
flUAsive  powers,  and  he  united  the  converts  at 
Fadua  into  a  brotherhood  of  peniteots.  Finally 
he  was  made  provincial,  and  in  1229  went  to  Padua, 

In  1230  Anthony  took  part  in  the  general  chapter 
at  Assisi,  and  he  was  released  from  his  office  as 
provincial  in  order  that  he  might  devote  himself 
entirely  to  preaching*  He,  however,  took  a  prom- 
inent part  in  the  controversy  of  the  parties  which 
developed  among  the  Minorites*  He  sided  with 
Eliaa  ind  was  among  the  delegates  sent  to  Rome 
to  ha're  the  differences  decided  by  the  pope^  who 
aeoofdingly  issued  the  bull  Quo  dongoH,  Sept.  28, 
1230  (see  Francis,  SAmr,  of  Asaisi.AKD  THE  Fran- 
ciscan Ordkr). 
I.— 18 


Anthony^s  fame  rests  solely  upon  his  ability  as 
a  preacher,  which  produced  a  great  impression, 
especially  in  the  district  of  Treviso*  The  Latin 
sketches  of  his  sermons  convey  little  impression  of 
his  manner,  but  they  show  him  to  have  been  a 
strict  preacher  of  repentance  and  of  contempt  of 
the  world,  who  urged  indefatigably  the  use  of  the 
means  of  grace  provided  by  the  Church,  It  is  said 
that  30,000  auditors  listened  to  liim  in  an  open 
field  at  Padua.  His  restless  activity  wore  him  out, 
and,  suffering  from  dropsy,  he  vainly  sought  relief 
by  retiring  to  solitude^  taking  up  bis  abode  in  a 
tree.  He  was  canonused  for  political  reasons  by 
Gregory  IX.,  May  30,  1232.  [There  is  a  curious 
story  that  on  one  occasion,  disgusted  with  the  in- 
difference of  his  audience,  Anthony  betook  himself 
to  the  seashore  and  addressed  his  discourse  to  the 
fishes,  which  came  in  shoals  to  listen.  Joseph  Ad- 
dison, Remarks  on  It<dyt  at  the  end  of  '^  Brescia, 
Verona  and  Padua,"  gives  the  Italian  text  and  an 
English  translation.]  E.  Lemfp, 

Bebliographt:  Of  the  worki  aecribed  to  Anthony  ooTy  the 
aermomi  preserved  at  Pmlua  are  certaixily  gefiuine.  TbcHW 
which  ■  hAve  bts^n  publinhtd  will  b«  found  m  A.  Pogi, 
SertrwriMa  S.  ArUonii  Padw^ni  de  SanctUt  \viRTion,  lti&4; 
A.  Jds«,  L^euda  aeu  vita  wt  mitacuia  S.  A  ntonii  de  Piuiuat 
fiolojruA,  IBS3;  idem,  S&-mofte&,  Padua,  1885,  The 
eflition  (Padua,  1S95  BqqJ  be^gun  by  A,  M.  LDcat«lii  (d. 
1602)  does  not  §tate  what  UBS.  ore  followed.  Other  ool- 
leeticina  iife  not  gpauine  or  very  dotibtfuL  The  aoaree* 
and  Dio«t  important  literature  for  Anthony  are  gathered 
in  Leon  de  Kerval,  S,  Anionit  de  Padua  i^ifd  dui^,  etc.,  in 
CoUt^±um  d^^tudet  et  det  documsnU  tur  Vhitt&ire  reliffieum 
«f  litUrairt  du  m#vm  dot,  vol.  v.,  pAriH.  1604,  For  iua 
life;  E,  d«  A««vedo,  VUn  d^  glotioao  iauituiturpo  porlv- 
ehat  §atU'  Antonio  di  PoffcFra,  Bologna,  1790,  lodt  ed., 
Veaioo.  ISftS:  H,  J.  Coleridge.  5,  J..  TA*  Chronick  of  SL 
Antony  of  P&dua,  London,  1S7&:  E.  Lempp^  in  ZKG*  xL 
(1890)  177-211,  6a3-S38.iii.  (1891),  414-t5t,  xili,  (1892) 
1-16:  J.  Rigmild,  La  Vw  de  Saint  Antoine  d^  Padua,  ,  .  , 
ptddiie  pour  la  premi^  foit  av€c  une  intraductmn  tur  fet 
towrcet  .  .  ,  par  Ferdinapd-Marje  d'Araulei,  Bardeaujt, 
iS99]  Mm.  A.  B«U,  Saini  Antony  of  Padua;  Seven fuU* 
pagt  RejrroducHonM  from  Old  MoMterw  of  Scerte*  in  the  Lif« 
of  SL  Antontf,  Lpndoo.  J 900:  A.  Lepitre.  Antoina  de  Pa- 
dove  (iD  the  Joly  series).  Paris,  lOOl,  Enj^.trauaLbyEditJa 
Gue»t.  London,  1902* 

ANTHROPOLOGY.     See  Theology. 
ANTHROPOMORPHISM     and     AUTHROPOPA- 

THISM(Gk.  ajiihropetA,  "  man/'  +  morphi,  **  form/* 
and  paihoBf  '*  passion,  suffering "):  Terms  dea- 
i  gnat  ing  views  of  God  which  reprcfient  bim  aa 
posseaaed  of  a  human  form  or  members,  human 
attributes,  or  human  passiona,  Such  views  arise 
from  the  natural  tendency  or  neceaaity  of  man  t^ 
conceive  of  higher  beings  by  analogy  with  himself, 
and  are  incidental  to  all  religions  at  a  certain 
stage  of  their  development.  Many  passages  of  the 
Bible  easily  lend  them^selves  to  an  anthropomor- 
phic interpretation.  The  Audians  (q.v.)  of  the 
fourth  and  fifth  centimes  taught  that  all  referencefl 
to  God^s  hands,  ears,  eyes,  etc.,  are  to  be  inter- 
preted literally.  Some  philosophers  believe  the 
conception  of  God  as  a  personal  spirit  to  be  anthro- 
pomorphic. Scholars  who  accept  the  compilatoiy 
theory  of  the  origin  of  the  Pentateuch  consider 
anthropomorphism  a  marked  characteristic  of  the 
Elohifit,  usually  cited  as  E.  Others  maintain  that 
the  Scriptures,  rightly  interpreted,  lend  no  support 
to  such  views.  See  Comparativi:  Relioiok,  VI,, 
l,a,i3. 


Anthropomorphlmi 
AntiohTlst 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOQ 


194 


Anthropomorphism  is  inseparable  from  any  con- 
ception of  supernatural  powers  or  God.  This  fact 
hais  received  two  interpretations.  (1)  Religion 
never  outgrows  the  essential  characteristics  of  its 
origin,  whether  this  is  conceived  of  as  mytholog- 
ical (Comte),  animistic  (Tylor),  or  through  dreams 
(Spencer).  In  the  lower  stages  of  religion,  the 
gods  are  only  larger  men.  According  to  Feuerbach, 
following  Xenophanes  and  Lucretius  (De  rerum 
naturaf  v.  121),  man  creates  God  in  his  own  image 
(cf.  Feuerbach,  Wesen  des  ChriaterUhuma,  chap.  1, 
§  2).  In  the  progress  from  polytheism  to  mono- 
theism, the  human  qualities  are  indefinitely  en- 
larged, concentrated,  and  united  in  one  being,  but 
the  being  is  still  human.  Between  the  mode  of 
himian  intelligence  and  omniscience,  the  human  will 
and  omnipotence,  between  human  goodness  and 
divine  perfection,  between  personality  and  the 
Infinite  is  not  only  an  immeasurable  but  an  irrec- 
oncilable difference.  The  result  for  thought  is 
either  that  there  is  no  God  (Comte),  or,  if  such  a 
being  exists,  we  are  compelled  to  distrust  all  anthro- 
pomorphic notions  and  take  refuge  in  the  Unknown 
and  the  Unknowable  (Spencer,  First  Prtnciplea, 
New  York,  1892,  pp.  108-123).  The  latter  alter- 
native leaves  room  for  the  religious  sentiments, 
but  only  in  the  form  of  awe.  To  rid  the  idea  of 
God  of  every  trace  of  anthropomorplusm,  however, 
simply  abolLshes  the  idea  itself.  (2)  According  to 
the  second  view — ^which  is  met  with  imder  many 
variations — religious  ideas  are  not  only  incurably 
anthropomorphic,  but  they  share  this  property 
with  all  other  ideas.  They  contain  objective 
truth,  even  if  this  is  lacking  in  scientific  accuracy 
of  expression.  Either  rational  and  moral  qualities 
are  to  be  ascribed  to  God,  on  the  ground  that  these 
are  essential  to  the  perfection  of  personality  (S. 
Harris,  The  Self-Revelation  of  God,  New  York,  1887, 
pp.  433-440),  or,  since  they  are  derived  from  the 
human  consciousness  and  the  region  of  the  finite, 
they  may  be  interpreted  only  analogically  and 
symbolically;  e.g.,  force,  cause,  energy,  the  eternal, 
the  infinite,  the  power  not  ourselves  that  makes 
for  righteousness,  even  personality  and  fatherhood 
have  a  real  meaning  for  religious  feeling  and  thought, 
although  their  full  significance  transcends  both 
definition  and  comprehension.  The  Scriptures, 
which  are  marked  by  definite  stages  of  anthropo- 
morphic representations  of  God, contain  a  corrective 
for  an  undue  reliance  on  this  mode  of  conception. 

C.  A.  Bbckwith. 
Biblxoorapht:  John  Fiske,  Outlines  of  Connie  Philosophy, 
part  1,  chap,  vii.,  part  3,  chap,  ii.,  Boston,  1801;  idem.  Idea 
ofOod,  pp.  111-118.  Boston.  1886;  F.  Paulsen.  Binle%iuno 
in  die  Philoeophie,  pp.  275-281,  Berlin.  1895.  Eng.  transl.. 
pp.  252-256,  New  York.  1808. 

ANTICHRIST. 

The  Idea  Possibly  of  Babylonian  Origin  (}  1). 

Old  Testament  Conceptions  (}  2). 

Later  Hellenistic  Jewish  Literature  (}  3). 

In  the  New  Testament  (}  4). 

In  Po8t<?hristian  Judaism  and  in  the  Church  (}  5). 
The  name  "Antichrist"  is  first  found  in  the 
Epistles  of  John  (I.  ii.  18,  22,  iv.  3;  II.  7).  The 
idea,  however,  is  in  earlier  New  Testament  wri- 
tings, and  its  roots  are  in  the  Old  Testament. 
According    to    a   modem    supposition  they  are 


even  to  be  sought  in  the  Babylonian  chaos-myth, — 
a  native  myth  of  the  springtime,  which  narrates 
how  Tiamat,  the  ruler  over  the  deeps  of  dark- 
ness and  the   waters,  aided  by  her 
X.  The  Idea  powers,    rebelled  against  the  upper 
Possibly  of  gods,  but  was  overcome  by  Marduk, 
Babylonian  the  son  of  the  gods,  who  had  been 
Origin.      elevated    to   the    throne,   and    then 
created  the  heavenly  lights.    It  has 
been  supposed  that  the  Old  Testament  writings 
indicate  that  this  myth  migrated  to  Canaan  in 
veiy  ancient  times,  was  transferred  by  the  Israel- 
ites to  the  latter  end  of  the  world,  and  was  applied 
in  various  forms  also  to  political  enemies  of  the 
people;  and  herein  is  sought  the  origin  of  the  Old 
Testament  idea  of  a  rise  and  conquest  of  evil  powers, 
which  preceded  the  establishment  of  the  kingdom 
of  God  (Gunkel,  Schdpfung  und  Chaos,  Gdttingen, 
1895,  pp.  221  sqq.).     But  influence  of  old  Oriental 
thoughts   upon   the    figurative   style   of   Biblical 
writings  can  be  admitted  only  in  a  very  limited 
degree. 

Neither  the  sources  of  the  eschatological  ideas 
which  meet  in  the  notion  of  Antichrist,  nor  the 
characteristic  features  of  their  devel- 
2.  Old  Tes-  opment  can  be  traced  back  to  extra- 
tament  Biblical  elements.  The  belief  in  the 
Concep-  election  of  Israel  as  a  people  of  God, 
tions.  sanctified  unto  him  and  blessed  by 
him,  received  a  rude  shock  by  the  ex- 
perience of  a  reality  apparently  opposed  to  such 
choice.  Hence  arose  the  prophecy,  that,  because 
of  its  faithlessness  Israel  is  given  over  to  heathen 
powers,  but  that  it  shall  be  delivered  from  them, 
their  presumption  being  pimished  for  exceeding 
their  divine  commission  as  God's  scourges.  Thus 
the  opinion  was  formed  that  before  the  kingdom 
of  God  is  completed  it  is  to  be  attacked  by 
the  godless  world.  As  the  representative  of  the 
latter,  Ezekiel  (xxxviii.  2,  xxxix.  1-6)  mentions 
Magog,  the  land  of  King  Gog,  a  comprehensive 
designation  of  the  nations  of  the  north.  Zechariah 
(xii.-xiv.)  describes  more  minutely  the  oppres- 
sion of  the  people  of  God  by  hostile  powers. 
When  Antiochus  IV.  Epiphanes  of  Syria  under- 
took with  cruel  severity  to  supplant  the  religion 
of  Israel  by  Greek  heathenism,  these  ideas  found 
a  further  development.  The  heathen  world-power 
then  appeared  not  as  an  instrument  of  punish- 
ment in  the  hand  of  God,  but  as  his  adversary, 
attacking  with  destructive  purpose  the  veiy  cen- 
ter of  his  kingdom.  The  history  of  the  godless 
world-kingdom,  which  reaches  its  climax  in  the 
person  of  the  proud  king,  is  thus  represented  in  the 
Book  of  Daniel. 

Gradually  the  last  enemy  of  the  kingdom  of  God 
came  to  be  thought  of  as  the  antitsrpe  of  the  Messiah; 
at  least  such  is  the  representation  of 
3.   Later    the  later  Hellenistic  Jewish  literature 
Hellenistic   (cf.  Num.  xxiv.  7,  LXX.;  Sibyllinee, 
Jewish      iii.   652   sqq.).    In   the   extant   pre- 
Literature.  Christian    Palestinian    literature    no 
indication  is  found  of  a  personal  an- 
titype of  the  Messiah.    In  the  older  portions  of 
the  Book  of  Enoch  the  appearance  of  the  Messiah 
is  spoken  of  as  taking  place  at  the  end  of  all  struggles 


195 


REUGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


AnthropomorphUm 
AntiohTlst 


and  judgments  (Enoch  xc.  37).  In  the  pseudo- 
Solomonic  Psahns  (xvii.  27-39)  of  the  time  of 
Pompey ,  and  in  the  Fourth  Book  of  Ezra,  of  the  time 
of  the  Flavian  emperors,  it  is  the  godless  powers 
or  the  heathen  nations  who  are  overpowered  by 
the  Messiah.  In  the  almost  contemporary  Apoc- 
alypse of  Baruch  (xl.  1-2)  this  passage  is  applied 
to  the  destruction  of  a  last  impious  king  by  the 
Messiah.  The  conception  here  is  not  yet  influenced 
by  Christianity;  and  thus  the  expectation  of  a 
personal  opponent  to  the  Messiah  is  found  in  pre- 
Christian  Judaism. 

In  the  New  Testament  writings  the  thought 
seems  to  be  influenced  by  ideas  which  origina- 
ted in  the  Christian  revelation.  The 
4.  In  the  great  struggle  against  sin  as  selfish- 
New  Testa-  ness  revived  the  idea  of  a  final  cul- 
ment.  mination  of  the  enmity  against  God. 
On  the  other  hand,  by  the  separation 
of  the  religious  life  from  the  national-political  life, 
the  idea  is  divested  of  its  natural  form  and  is  more 
spiritualized.  In  his  eschatological  discourse  where 
the  abomination  of  desolation  in  the  holy  place 
is  spoken  of  as  expressive  of  the  tribulation  of  the 
approaching  end  (Matt.  xxiv.  15),  Jesus  quoted 
the  Book  of  Daniel.  But  the  Messianic  son  of  man 
is  here  not  opposed,  as  in  Daniel,  by  a  ruler  who  at 
the  same  time  destroys  the  religious  and  national 
side  of  the  theocracy,  but  by  a  great  number  of 
pseudo-prophets  and  pseudo-Messiahs  (Matt.  xxiv. 
5),  who  are  thought  of  as  fanatical  representatives 
of  a  Jewish  natural  Messianic  idea.  The  apostle 
Paul,  when  he  declares  that  the  appearance  of  the 
man  of  sin,  the  opponent  who  rises  against  every- 
thing which  contains  good  and  God's  service,  will 
precede  the  coming  of  Christ  (II  Thess.  ii.  3-4), 
no  doubt  also  thought  in  the  first  place  of  a  pseudo- 
Messiah  in  personal  recollection  of  the  bitter  oppo- 
sition to  the  Gospel  by  Judaism  filled  with  politico- 
Messianic  thoughts  (I  Thess.  ii.  15).  For  his 
picture  of  the  adversary  he  doubtless  took  some 
traits  from  the  description  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes 
in  the  Book  of  Daniel  and  that  of  Caligula  in  his- 
tory, who  had  his  image  in  the  form  of  Jupiter  set 
up  in  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem.  Furthermore, 
Paul's  high  conception  of  the  superhuman  virtue 
of  Christ,  is  reflected  in  the  description  of  his  anti- 
type. In  John's  Apocalypse  the  counterpart  of 
the  kingdom  of  God  in  the  last  times,  besides  the 
nations  Gog  and  Magog,  which  are  to  march  against 
the  holy  city  after  the  completion  of  the  millennium 
(Rev.  XX.  8),  includes  also  the  Roman  power,  per- 
sonified (xvii.  11)  in  the  incendiary,  matricide, 
and  persecutor  of  the  Christians  on  the  imperial 
throne,  Nero  (xvii.  9  sqq.),  as  well  as  a  multitude 
of  false  prophets  who  mislead  to  the  cult  of  the 
world-kingdom  and  its  rule  (xiii.  11-17,  xvi.  13, 
xix.  20,  XX.  10),  representing  no  doubt  the  heathen- 
ish Roman  practises  of  augury  and  necromancy. 
The  last  development  of  the  idea  within  the  New 
Testament  is  found  in  the  Epistles  of  John,  where 
the  thought  is  of  an  opponent  to  the  true  Christ, 
putting  himself  in  his  place,  brought  about  by 
doctrinal  necessities  to  characterize  heretics  who 
destroy  the  imity  of  the  historical  Jesus  and  the 
bearer  of  the  revelation  of  God,  Christ.    In  these 


persons,  according  to  the  clear  statement  of  the 
epistles  (I  John  ii.  22;  II  John  7),  the  idea  and  the 
character  of  the  Antichrist  are  realized. 

In  post-Christian  Judaism  the  early  national 
conception  was  enhanced.  The  name  "  Anti- 
christ," borrowed  from  Christianity,  does  not 
become  current  until  late  (e.g.,  in  Abrabanel). 
But  in  the  first  Christian  centuries  there  is  found 
in  Jewish  literature  the  notion  of  a 
5.  In  Post-  perpetrator    of    outrages    upon    the 

Christian    Jewish  people  in  the  last  days.    Spo- 

Judaism  radically,  the  figure  of  a  powerful 
and  in  the  woman  after  the  manner  of  (Ileopatra 

Church,  appears  {StbyUineSf  iii.  77,  v.  18, 
viii.  200);  oftener  that  of  an  imperial 
Roman  anti-Messiah.  In  later  times  Antichrist 
was  represented  in  Jewish  theology  as  victor  over 
the  suffering  Messiah,  and  was  called  Romulus, 
also  Amullus.  In  the  Christian  Church  of  the 
first  centuries  the  main  types  of  the  Biblical  Anti- 
christ reappear.  Origen  identified  the  notion  in 
an  abstract  sense  with  that  of  false  doctrine.  Cer- 
tain contemporaneous  representatives  of  heretical 
teaching  were  called  by  the  name,  without  thereby 
excluding  the  expectation  of  an  Antichrist  as  a 
future  individual  (cf.  Didache,  xvi.).  Very  often 
the  latter  was  thought  of  as  a  false  Jewish  Messiah 
— hence  circumcised  and  compelling  circumcision — 
and  it  was  expected  that  he  would  come  from  the 
tribe  of  Dan  and  from  the  East.  The  connection 
of  Antichrist  with  Nero  in  the  Apocalypse  of  John 
was  also  developed  by  representing  him  as  the 
resuscitated  Nero  (Lactantius,  De  mortibus  perse- 
cuiorum,  ii.;  Jerome,  on  Dan,  xi.  17;  Auguistine, 
De  civUate  Dei,  xx.  13).  Both  conceptions  were 
strangely  fused  (Victorinus,  Comment,  ad  Apoc,) 
or  outwardly  connected  with  each  other  into  the 
notion  of  a  double  Antichrist,  a  Western  (Roman) 
and  an  Eastern,  appearing  in  Jerusalem.  In  re- 
lation to  Satan,  the  Antichrist  was  thought  of 
as  a  man  working  his  will,  as  his  son,  and  even  as 
his  incarnation. 

The  idea  receded  in  the  Middle  Ages,  and  when 
it  again  appeared  it  was  mostly  applied  to  phe- 
nomena of  the  present.  It  has  often  been  applied 
to  the  papacy,  an  interpretation  which  was  adopted 
by  Luther  (Adveraus  execrabilem  Antichriati  huUam) 
and  other  Reformers,  and  taken  into  the  symbolical 
books  of  the  Lutheran  Church  {Art.  Schmal.,  ii.  4; 
Tra€i.  de  pot.  Papa).  On  the  other  hand,  Roman 
Catholics  have  referred  the  Antichrist  to  Luther 
and  Protestantism.  F.  Sieffert. 

As  Bousset  (Anlichrist)  has  so  convincingly 
shown,  a  tradition  was  evidently  current  in  Jewish 
thou^t  which  imderlay  the  teaching  both  of 
Paul  and  the  Apocalypse  concerning  the  Antichrist. 
The  tradition  appears  to  have  contained  the  fol- 
lowing features.  The  coming  of  Antichrist  was 
prevented  by  the  Roman  power.  When  this  power 
should  fall,  the  Antichrist,  not  of  foreign  birth 
but  a  Jewish  false  Messiah,  would  establish  him- 
self in  the  temple  at  Jerusalem  and  require  men 
to  worship  him.  His  reign  would  last  for  three 
and  one-half  years.  By  means  of  his  miraculous 
power  he  would  convert  the  world  to  his  side. 
Later,  his  real  character  would  be  exposed;  the 


Antidioomarlanites 
Antinomianlsm 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


106 


believing  Jews  having  fled  into  the  wilderness 
would  be  pursued  by  him,  and  then  he  would  be 
slain  by  the  true  Messiah  with  the  breath  of  his 
mouth.  This  tradition  is  in  part  followed  and  in 
part  contradicted  by  the  Apocalypse  and  by  Paul. 
In  its  background  is  the  Book  of  Daniel  with 
its  fierce  foreign  oppressor;  the  Apocalyptic  Belial, 
a  supernatural  spirit  who  will  antagonize  God 
at  the  end  of  time  (SybillineSt  bk.  iii.);  the  doc- 
trine of  Satan  (Rev.  xx.  2);  the  Babylonian  dragon- 
m3rth  (Gimkel,  Schdpfung  und  Chaos);  and  a  man 
filled  with  Satanic  might.  The  doctrine  of  Anti- 
christ contains  one  of  the  solutions  which  the  early 
Church  had  to  offer  for  two  problems  of  the  religious 
consciousness — the  origin  and  overthrow  of  evil, 
and  theodicy.  C.  A.  B. 

Biblioorapbt:  McClintook  and  Strong,  CyetopcDdiat  i.  254- 
261  (nble  historical  review,  but  omits  surrey  of  the 
Pseudepijp*apha,  a  lack  supplied  in  IL  F.  Charles,  Crik- 
ical  Hittory  of  the  Doetrint  of  a  Future  Life,  Lon- 
don, 1899);  J.  G.  Walch,  Bibliotheca  iheolooiea,  ii.  217 
sqq.,  4  vols.,  Jena,  1757-66  (gives  bibliography  of  contro- 
versy between  Protestants  and  Catholics);  T.  Malvenda, 
De  ArUichriato,  Rome,  1604;  J.  H.  Newman,  The  ProUe- 
tarUldeaof  AnU-Chriet,  in  his  Critical  and  Hietorical  B»- 
aaye,  ii.  112-185.  London,  1871;  DCB,  i.  120-122;  8.  Hun- 
tingford.  The  Apoealypee  .  .  .  and  the  Antichriet  of  St. 
Paul  and  St.  John,  London,  1881;  Computati&n  of  666 
.  .  .  the  Coming  of  Anti-Chriet,  ib.  1891;  W.  Bousset,  Der 
Antidiriat  in  der  Ueberlieferung  dee  Judenthume,  dee  Neuen 
Teetamente  und  der  €Uten  Kirche,  Gdttingen,  1895,  Eng. 
transl.,  London,  1896;  H.  Gunkel,  Sch&pfung  und  Chaoe, 
Gdttingen,  1895s  R  Wadstein,  Antidiriet,  in  ZWT, 
zxxviii.-xxxix.  (new  series,  iii.-iv.,  1895-96),  79-157,  251- 
293;  M.  Friedl&nder,  Dsr  Antichriet  in  den  vor^rietlichen 
iadiachen  Quelltn,  Gdttingen,  190L 

AHXmiCOMARIAIHTES,  an"ti-dic"o-m6'ri-<m- 
aits:  A  name  applied  by  Epiphanius  (Hcer., 
Izxviii.)  to  opponents  of  the  belief  in  the  perpetual 
virginity  of  Mary,  the  mother  of  Christ.  The  New 
Testament  speaics  of  the  "  brethren  "  of  Jesus; 
and  in  Tertullian's  time  the  opinion  was  still  prev- 
alent that  Mary's  marriage  with  Joseph  was  a  true 
marriage.  Thus  he  writes  (De  monogamia,  viii.): 
"  Truly  it  was  a  virgin  who  bore  Christ,  but  after 
doing  so  she  married,  in  order  that  the  last  title  of 
sanctity  might  be  checked  off  in  the  inventory  of 
Christ;  a  mother  who  was  both  a  virgin  and  a 
once  married  woman."  But  by  the  fourth  century 
it  was  considered  as  established  that  there  had  not 
been  a  real  marriage.  The  older  belief  had  not, 
however,  altogether  disappeared.  Epiphanius 
found  the  opinion  current  in  Arabia  that  Mary, 
after  the  birth  of  Christ,  had  lived  with  Joseph  as 
his  wife  and  had  children  by  him.  He  classed  the 
adherents  of  this  view  as  a  sect,  bestowed  upon 
them  a  name  of  his  own  composition,  meaning 
"  opponents  of  Mary,"  and  controverted  their 
belief  in  a  lengthy  treatise,  which  he  gives  in  the 
passage  cit^  above.  (A.  Hauck.) 

ANTILEGOMENA.    See  Canon  op  Scripture. 

ANTIMENSIUM,  an''ti-mcn'si-um:  A  name  ap- 
plied in  the  Greek  Church  to  a  linen  cloth  spread 
upon  the  altar  before  the  beginning  of  the  eucha- 
ristic  service,  and  considered  as  making  it  an  altar 
ready  for  the  sacrifice.  Since  the  Greek  Church, 
like  the  Roman  Catholic,  holds  that  the  eucharis- 
tic  sacrifice  may  be  offered  only  on  a  consecrated 
altar,  and  since  this  consecration  can  be  performed 
only  by  the  bishop   (taking  place  usually  at  the 


time  of  the  consecration  of  the  church),  the  mass 
could  not  be  celebrated  in  churches  not  yet  conse- 
crated, if  the  use  of  this  consecrated  cloth — in  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  of  a  portable  altar-stone 
(see  Altar) — were  not  held  to  supply  the  de- 
ficiency. Georg  Rietbchel.) 

ANTINOMIANISM    AND    AlfTINOMIAN 
CONTROVERSIES. 

I.  Antinomianism  in  General. 

New  Testament  Antinonuanism  (}  1 ). 

Gnostic  Antinomianism  ({  2). 

Antinomianism  of  the  Middle  Ages  ({3). 

Of  the  Sixteenth  and  Seventeenth  Centuries  (}  4). 

In  England  (}  5). 

The  Ranters  (}  6). 

Later  Phases  of  Antinomianism  (}  7). 

II.  Antinomian  Controversies. 

1.  Of  the  German  Reformation. 

Luther's  Earlier  Teachings  About  the  Law  (}  1). 
Agrioola's  Controversy  with  Melanchthon,  1527  (}  2). 
Agrioola's  Controversy  with  Luther,  1537  sqq.  (}  3). 
Jakob  Schenk  ({  4). 
Later  Controversies  (}  5). 
Settlement  of  the  Controversy  (}  6). 

2.  The  Antinomian  Controversy  in  New  England. 

L  Antinomianism  in  General:  The  name  anti- 
nomianism is  a  comparatively  modem  designation 
of  several  types  of  ethical  thought  in  which  hos- 
tility to  the  Mosaic  law  (includhig  the  decalogue) 
and  to  the  principles  therein  embodied  has  led  to 
immoral  teaching  and  practise.  Traces  of  such 
thought  are  evident  in  the  New  Testament.  The 
spiritualization  of  the  law  into  the  one  precept  of 
love  to  God  taught  and  exemplified  by  Jesus 
encouraged  some  overenthusiastic  devotees  to 
believe  that  they  had  been  exalted  to  such  a  height 
of  spirituality  and  such  an  overmastering  love  to 
God  that  they  needed  to  have  no  regard  to  moral 
precepts  or  to  outward  conduct; 
X.  New  Teg-  while  Paul's  insistence  on  the  goodness, 
tament  holiness,  and  spirituahty  of  the  law 
Antino-  did  not  suffice  to  convince  all  of  those 
mianigm.  who  considered  themselves  his  dis- 
ciples that,  as  being  utterly  ineffectual 
for  human  salvation  and  as  occasioning  and  inci- 
ting to  sin,  it  was  not  itself  sin  and  worthy  to  be 
treated  with  abhorrence.  Paul's  sharp  conflict 
with  Judaizers  in  regard  to  the  observance  of 
Jewish  ceremonies  could  hardly  fail  to  convince 
his  more  radical  anti-Judaistic  followers  that  the 
effort  to  keep  the  law  perfectly  was  not  only  vain 
but  involved  the  setting  at  naught  of  the  gospel  of 
free  grace  in  Christ  Jesus.  Some  such  perversion 
of  Paul's  teaching  was  probably  in  the  mind  of 
the  writer  of  II  Pet.  iii.  16.  The  members  of  the 
Corinthian  Church  who  were  puffed  up  and  did  not 
mourn  over  the  incestuous  person,  as  well  as  the 
parties  guilty  of  the  abominable  union  (I  Cor.  v. 
1-6),  were  probably  antinomian,  and  of  like  tend- 
ency were  doubtless  the  Nicolaitans  (Rev.  ii.  2, 
15;  see  Nicolaitans),  those  that  held  the  teaching 
of  Balaam  (Rev.  ii.  14),  and  those  that  suffered 
the  woman  Jezebel  (Rev.  ii.  20). 

Many  Gnostics  objected  to  the  Mosaic  law  as 
being  too  formal  and  not  sufficiently  spiritual,  on 
the  one  hand,  and  as  giving  too  much  place  to  carnal 
indulgence,  on  the  other  (see  Gnosticism).  Hold- 
ing the  flesh  in  contempt  as  an  evil  product  of  the 


107 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Anttdioomarlaniteg 
Antinomianiflm 


demiurge,  some  thought  it  their  duty  to  practise 
a  rigorous  asceticism,  while  others  are  represented 
by  their  Christian  assailants  as  thinking  it  right 
to  destroy  the  body  by  vicious  practises.  The 
Cainites  (q.v.)  regarded  with  approval 

2.  Gnostic  Cain,   Esau,    Korah,   the   Sodomites, 
Antinomian- and  all  other  characters  reprobated 

ism.  in  the  Old  Testament,  and  presumably 
supposed  that  they  were  doing  God 
service  in  themselves  defying  the  authority  of  Jeho- 
vah (the  demiurge)  and  doing  the  things  forbidden 
in  the  law.  Carpocrates  (q.v.)  and  Epiphanes  ap- 
pear to  have  disseminated  antinomian  teachings. 
The  followers  of  Marcion  (q.v.)  and  the  Mani- 
cheans  (q.v.)  were  antinomian  in  the  sense 
that  they  rejected  the  Mosaic  law  because 
of  its  permission  of  marriage  and  even  polyg- 
amy and  concubinage,  of  capital  punishment, 
etc.;  but  did  not,  so  far  as  appears,  make  repudia- 
tion of  the  law  an  excuse  for  fleshly  indulgence. 
The  followers  of  Priscillian  (q.v.),  a  strong  ascetic 
party  in  Spain  with  Gnostic  tendencies  (fourth 
and  fifth  centuries),  were  tortured  into  confessing 
the  most  immoral  practises;  but  there  is  no  good 
reason  for  crediting  the  calunmies  of  their  perse- 
cutors. The  Messalians  (q.v.),  a  mystical  sect 
that  flourished  in  Syria,  Mesopotamia,  and  Armenia 
from  the  fourth  century  onward,  are  said  to  have 
practised  a  squalid  kind  of  asceticism,  mendicancy, 
promiscuous  sleeping  together  of  men  and  women, 
and  prayer  to  the  devil.  On  accoimt  of  the  last- 
named  practise  they  were  sometimes  called  Satan- 
ites.  It  seems  probable  that  they  were  antinomian. 
Of  like  character,  or  worse,  were  the  Adamites 
referred  to  by  Epiphanius,  and  the  same  may  be 
said  of  medieval  parties  known  by  this  name 
(see  Adamites). 

The  Bogomiles  and  kindred  sects  (see  New 
MAmcHEANs)  are  accused  by  their  enemies  of  the 
most  immoral  practises.  Amalric  of  Bena  (d.  1204) 
carried  pantheistic  ideas  so  far  as  to  maintain  that 
''  to  those  constituted  in  love  no  sin  is  imputed  " 
(see  Amalric  of  Bena).  His  followers  are  said 
to  have  maintained  that  harlotry  and  other  carnal 
vices  are  not  sinful  for  the  spiritual  man,  because 
the  spirit  in  him,  which  is  God,  is  not 

3.  Antino-  affected  by  the  flesh  and  can  not  sin, 
mianism  of  and  because  the  man,  who  is  nothing, 
the  Middle  can  not  sin  so  long  as  the  spirit,  which 

Ages.  is  God,  is  in  him.  Such  teachings 
were  carried  to  the  most  immoral 
consequences  by  the  Brethren  of  the  Free  Spirit 
and  the  Beghards  (qq.v.),  if  the  inquisitorial 
records  of  the  fifteenth  century  can  be  believed. 
Johann  Hartmann  in  the  diocese  of  Mainz  claimed 
Ihat  by  contemplation  he  had  become  so  com- 
pletely one  with  God  and  God  so  completely  one 
with  him  that  an  angel  could  not  tell  the  difference; 
that  a  man  free  in  spirit  is  rendered  impeccable 
and  can  do  whatever  he  will  and  whatever  pleases 
him.  He  carried  these  doctrines  to  the  most 
extreme  and  revolting  consequences  (cf.  the  docu- 
ments in  DOllinger,  Beitrdge  zur  SektengeschichU  des 
MitUlaltera,  ii.,  Munich,  1890.  pp.  384  sqq.).  This 
type  of  antinomianism  seems  to  have  been  wide- 
spread during  the  later  Middle  Ages  and  was  per- 


petuated in  some  of  the  parties  of  the  Reformation 
time. 

The  pantheistic  sect  of  the  "  Libertines,"  who 
appeared  in  the  Netherlands  about  1525  and 
thence  spread  into  France  and  were  combated 
by  Calvin  (see  Libertines,  3;  Loistb)  were  An- 
tinomians.  They  disregarded  the  Mosaic  law 
and  law  in  general  as  inapplicable  to  the  spiritual 
man  and  felt  free  to  lie,  steal,  and  indulge  the  pas- 
sions. David  Joris  (q.v.),  the  mystic,  was  accused 
by  his  opponents  of  antinomian  teachings,   but 

apparently  without  sufiicient  reason. 

4.   Of  the   It  would  be  easy  to  point  out  anti- 

Sizteenth    nomian   tendencies  in  a  number  of 

and  Seven-  continental  parties  of  the  sixteenth 

teenth      and  seventeenth  centuries  not  com- 

Centuries.   monly  reckoned  among  Antinomians. 

The  hyper-Calvinistic  (supralapsarian) 
teaching  of  men  like  Piscator  (d.  1625)  and  Gomar 
(d.  1641)  in  the  Netherlands,  as  that  ''  sins  take 
place,  God  procuring  and  himself  willing  that  they 
take  place,  nay,  absolutely  so  willing  "  and  that  in 
giving  the  law  and  commanding  its  observance 
He  made  its  observance  absolutely  impossible, 
really  struck  at  the  root  of  human  responsibility 
and  discouraged  any  effort  to  control  the  natural 
impulses.  So,  too,  the  Jesuit  casuists  of  the  more 
reckless  type  in  substituting  for  the  Mosaic  law 
the  Canon  Law  and  in  making  the  violation  of  the 
latter  easy  by  their  doctrines  of  ''  philosophical 
sin,"  "  direction  of  attention,"  "  mental  reserva- 
tion," and  "  probabilism,"  etc.,  were  construct- 
ively antinomian.  Mystics  of  the  later  time,  so 
far  as  they  pantheistically  identified  themselves 
with  God  and  supposed  that  by  virtue  of  such 
spiritual  exaltation  they  were  subject  to  no  ordi- 
nances human  or  divine,  were  antinomian  in  the 
sense  in  which  the  Brethren  of  the  Free  Spirit  were. 
Of  special  importance  in  this  connection,  because 
of  the  wide-spread  influence  exerted  by  his  teach- 
ings on  English  and  American  thought  and  life,  is 
Hendrik  Niklaes,  foimder  of  the  Familists  (q.v.). 
In  1577  several  of  his  works  were  published  in 
English  and  called  forth  a  considerable  body  of 
polemical  literature.  At  this  time  there  are  said 
to  have  been  one  thousand  Familists  in  England, 

and  they  were  making  an  active  and 
5.   In      successful   propaganda.    To  counter- 
England,    act  their  influence  the  privy  council 

issued  a  form  of  abjuration  to  be 
applied  to  members  of  the  party  arraigned  for 
heresy.  Their  principles  were  too  nearly  [identical 
with  those  of  the  Brethren  of  the  Free  Spirit  not 
to  be  subversive  of  morality  as  well  as  of  Scriptural 
authority  and  historical  Christianity,  and  their 
errors  were  all  the  more  insidious  because  of  the 
fact  that  they  allowed  themselves  to  conform  out- 
wardly to  any  required  ecclesiastical  or  civil  usages, 
and  by  the  use  of  ambiguous  language  to  profess 
the  acceptance  of  any  doctrine. 

During  the  Civil  War  and  Commonwealth  times 
almost  every  imaginable  type  of  religious  propa- 
gandism  went  forward  with  astonishing  zeal  and 
success.  Familism  (with  other  important  influ- 
ences) produced  a  rdatively  pure  and  evangelical 
mysticism  in  the  Society  of  Friends  and  a  grosser 


Antinomianiflm 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


108 


fonn  of  antinomianism  in  the  Ranters  (see  below). 
The  first,  as  far  as  known,  to  propagate  distinct- 
ively antinoinian  principles  in  England  at  this 
time  was  John  Eaton,  who  wrote  The  Honeycomb 
of  Free  Juatification  by  Christ  Alone  (London,  1642). 
He  distinguished  the  time  of  the  law,  the  time  of 
John  the  Baptist,  and  the  Christian  dispensation, 
as  glorious,  more  glorious,  and  most  glorious. 
Under  the  Mosaic  law  "  sin  was  severely  taken 
hold  of,  and  punished  sharply  in  God's  children.  .  .  . 
John  laid  open  their  sins,  and  the  danger  of  them, 
yet  we  read  not  of  any  pimishment  inflicted  on 
God's  children.  .  .  .  The  third  time,  the  most 
glorious,  is  since  Christ  groaned  out  his  blood  and 
life  upon  the  cross,  by  which  sin  itself,  and  guilt, 
and  punishment  are  so  utterly  and  infinitely  abol- 
ished that  there  is  no  sin  in  the  Church  of  God, 
and  that  now  God  sees  no  sin  in  us;  and  who- 
soever believeth  not  this  point  is  undoubtedly 
damned"  (quoted  by  E.  Pagitt,  Hereeiography, 
London,  1662,  p.  122).  The  following  summary 
of  teachings  of  seventeenth-century  Antinomians 
from  Thomas  Gataker's  Antinomianiem  Discovered 
and  Confuted  (London,  1652;  quoted  by  Pagitt, 
p.  123)  may  be  accepted  as  substantially  trust- 
worthy: 

1.  That  the  Moral  Law  is  of  no  iiae  at  all  to  a  believer,  nor 
a  rule  for  him  to  walk  in,  nor  to  examine  bis  life  by,  and  that 
Christians  are  free  from  the  mandatory  power  of  it:  whence 
one  of  them  [Antinomiann]  cried  out  in  the  pulpit, "  Away 
with  the  Law,  which  cuts  off  a  mans  legs  and  then  bids  him 
walk."  2.  That  it  is  as  possible  for  Christ  to  sm  as  for  a 
child  of  God  to  sin.  3.  That  the  child  of  God  need  not 
nor  ought  not  to  ask  pardon  for  sin,  and  that  it  is  no  less 
than  blasphemy  for  him  so  to  do.  4.  That  God  doth  not 
ohasten  any  of  his  children  for  sin,  nor  is  it  for  the  sins  of 
God's  people  that  the  land  is  punished.  5.  That  if  a  man 
know  himself  to  be  in  a  state  of  grace,  though  he  be  drunk, 
or  commit  murder,  God  sees  no  sin  in  him.  6.  That  when 
Abraham  denied  his  wife,  and  in  outward  appearance  seemed 
to  lie  in  his  distrust,  lying,  dissembling,  and  equivocatmg 
that  his  wife  was  his  sister,  yea.  then  all  his  thoughts,  words, 
and  deeds  were  perfectly  holy  and  righteous  from  all  spot 
of  sin  in  the  eyes  of  God. 

By  far  the  most  imattractive  of  the  sectaries 

of  this  time  are  the  Ranters,  who  seem  to  have 

been  almost  identical  in  doctrine  and 

6.  The      practise   with   the    Brethren   of   the 

Ranters.  Free  Spirit  and  who,  by  their  enthu- 
siastic propagandism,  seduced  multi- 
tudes from  the  fellowship  of  the  evangelical  de- 
nominations. According  to  Samuel  Fisher  {Baby 
Baptism  Mere  Babismy  London,  1653),  "  Some 
Ranters  are  not  ashamed  to  say  that  they  are  Christ 
and  God,  and  there  is  no  other  God  than  they, 
and  what's  in  them,  and  such  like  blasphemies." 
They  denied  the  existence  of  the  devil,  heaven, 
and  hell.  Moses  they  declared  to  be  a  conjurer 
and  Christ  a  deceiver  of  the  people.  Prayer  is 
useless.  Preaching  and  lying  are  all  one.  The 
Scriptures  they  regarded  as  cast-off  fables,  and  when 
they  condescended  to  use  them  at  all  they  practised 
the  most  absurd  allegorizing.  They  claimed  that 
nothing  is  sin  but  what  a  man  thinks  to  be  so. 
Their  practise  is  represented  as  corresponding 
with  their  immoral  teaching. 

A  large  proportion  of  the  Particular  Baptists 
of  England  during  the  latter  half  of  the  eight- 
eenth century,  by  way  of  reaction  against  So- 
cinianism  and  the  missionary  movement,  became 


involved   in   a  hyper-Calvinistic    (supralapsarian) 
type  of  thought  that  involved   making  God   re- 
sponsible for  evil,  complete  denial  of 
7.  Later     human  initiative  or  part  in  salvation 
Phases  of    and  conduct,  renunciation  of  the  law 
Antinomi-    as  a  rule  of  life,  and  the  disowning  of 
anism.       human  agency  and  responsibility  in 
the    extension    of    the    kingdom   of 
Christ.    This   Baptist    antinomianism    was    com- 
bated in  England  by  Andrew  Fuller,  John  Ryland, 
and  others.     A  still  more  virulent  type  of  anti- 
nomianism   appeared    among   American    Baptists 
in  the  nineteenth  century  by  way  of  reaction  against 
the  missionary  and  educational  work  of  the  denomi- 
nation.    Here  as  in  England  leaders  and  led  were 
illiterate   and   deeply   prejudiced   against   human 
institutions  and  agencies,  which  they  regarded  as 
an  impertinent  interference  with  God's  sovereignty. 
These  antinomian  Baptist  parties  are  still  extant. 
See  Baptisto,  I.,  4,  §§  4-5;  II.,  3,  §§  3,  4. 

A.  H.  Newman. 
n.    Antinomian  Controversies: 
1.  Of  the  German  Beformation:     Antinomian 
doctrines  were  vigorously  discussed  in  Germany 
during  the  Reformation  period  imtil  the  Formula 
of  Concord  made  a  final  adjustment  of  the  matter 
in  1577.     Luther  had   held   that  the  Mosaic  law, 
as  an  ancient  code  devised  imder  special  conditions 
for  a  particular  people,   was  superseded  by  the 
civil  law  of  modem  states,  and  no  longer  possessed 
for    Christians   a  juridical   or  ceremonial    force. ^ 
Furthermore,  the  whole  law,  even  the  decalogue 
included,  was  in  no  wise  to  be  employed  by  Chris- 
tians in  the  spirit  of  justification  by 
z.  Luther's  works,  since   that   involved  a  super- 
Earlier      ficial  and    mercenary  idea  of  divine 
Teachings    justice.    There  was,  however,  need  to 
about  the    preach  the  law  from  a  spiritual  stand- 
Law,      point,   emphasizing  a   realization    of 
sin  by  which   the  conscience  should 
be    humbled    before    the    divine    wrath;    though 
the    preaching   of    the    law   exclusively    led    to 

1  In  combating  the  leKalistic  element  in  medieval  Roman 
Catholic  teaching  and  in  the  radical  religious  parties  of  the 
early  Reformation  time,  Luther  allowed  himself  to  use  lan- 
guage in  disparagement  ot  the  Mosaic  law  so  strong  and 
unqualified  as  to  give  great  encouragement  to  those  that 
were  eager  for  fleshly  freedom.  A  few  sentences  should  be 
quoted:  "  Christ  is  not  harsh,  severe,  biting  as  Moses.  .  .  . 
Therefore,  away  with  Moses  forever,  who  shall  not  terrify 
deluded  hearts."  Again:  "  The  gospel  is  heavenly  and 
divine,  the  law  earthly  and  human;  tne  righteousness  of 
the  gospel  is  just  as  distinct  from  that  of  the  law  as  heaven 
from  earth,  as  light  from  darkness.  The  gospel  is  light  and 
day,  Uie  law  darkness  and  night."  In  his  polemic  "  against 
the  Heavenly  Prophets  "  (Erl.  ed..  xxix.  160)  he  says:  "  We 
will  take  our  stand  on  the  right  groimd  and  say  that  these 
sin-teachers  and  Mosaic  prophets  shall  leave  us  uncon- 
founded  by  Moses;  we  will  neither  see  nor  hear  Moses.  How 
does  this  please  you,  dear  revolutionists  7  And  we  say 
fiu'ther  that  all  such  Mosaic  teachers  [i.e.,  the  Zwickau 
prophets,  q.v.]  deny  the  gospel,  banish  Christ,  and  over- 
throw the  whole  New  Testament.  I  speak  now  as  a  Chris- 
tian and  for  Christians,  since  Moses  was  given  to  the 
Jewish  people  alone  and  has  nothing  to  do  with  us  Gen- 
tiles and  Christians.  We  have  our  gospel  and  New  Testa- 
ment; if  they  will  prove  from  this  that  pictures  are  to  be 
done  away  with,  we  will  gladly  follow  them.  But  if  they 
wish  by  means  of  Moses  to  make  Jews  of  us,  we  will  not 
suffer  it."  Of  course,  he  did  not  mean  utterly  to  repudiate 
Moses,  but  rather  by  a  tour  de  force  to  repudiate  what  he 
oonsidered  an  imauthoriied  use  of  Moses.  (a.  h.  n.) 


100 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Antinomlaniam 


either  hypocrisy  or  despair.  In  his  emphasis 
on  justification  by  faith,  Luther  asserted  that 
true  repentance  proceeded  from  a  realizing  sense  of 
the  work  of  Christ.  The  preaching  of  faith  was 
to  take  precedence  of  all  dse,  since,  faith  having 
been  attained,  contrition  and  consolation  spon- 
taneously followed.  Nevertheless,  more  frequently 
and  in  entire  consistency  with  the  formal  defi- 
nition of  his  position  in  1520,  the  process  of  salva- 
tion was  described  by  him  as  beginning  with  the 
operation  of  the  law  upon  the  soul,  which  in 
repentance  casts  about  for  aid  and  is  met  with  the 
promise  of  remission  of  sins  through  Christ. 

The  antinomian  controversy  Was  preluded  by 
the  complaints  preferred  in  Bohemia  in  1524  against 
one  Dominicus  Beyer,  who  strictly  adhered  to 
Luther's  doctrine,  but  was  accused  by  some-  of 
reversion  to  the  Roman  view  in  preaching,  as  it 
was  said,  the  approach  to  faith  through  works  of 
merit.  Luther,  Melanchthon,  and  Bugenhagen 
completely  exonerated  Beyer  and  clearly  enun- 
ciated the  Wittenberg  position.  Later  Melanch- 
thon's  Articuli  de  qutbus  egerunt  per 
a.  Agricola's  viaitaiores  (1527;  CRf  xxvi.  7  sqq.) 
Controversy  placed  the  preaching  of  the  law  at 
with  Me-  the  portal  of  Christian  instruction, 
lanchthon,  asserting  that  it  led  to  repentance, 
2527.  which  was  the  antecedent  of  faith, 
and  without  which  the  preaching  of 
the  gospel  was  unintelligible.  Johann  Agricola, 
who  had  eagerly  emphasized  Luther's  earlier 
statements  of  repentance  as  a  consequence  of  the 
gospel  of  divine  grace,  chose  to  regard  Melanch- 
thon's  declaration  as  a  personal  affront.  After 
addressing  to  Luther  several  memorials  on  the 
subject,  he  made  specific  complaints  and  circulated 
in  manuscript  a  censure  of  Melanchthon 's  teaching. 
In  a  conference  at  Torgau  (Nov.  26-28,  1527)  an 
adjustment  was  finally  effected  by  Luther,  who 
distinguished  between  faith  in  the  general  sense 
(fides  generalia),  as  indeed  antedating  repentance, 
and  the  justifying  faith  which,  impelled  by  con- 
science, apprehends  divine  grace. 

Agricola,  though  professing  satisfaction,  neverthe- 
less continued  in  his  antinomian  position;  repent- 
ance, consciousness  of  sin,  and  the   fear  of  God 
were  to  be  based  upon  the  gospel  and  not  upon  the 
law.     He  began  even  to  gather  a  party  about 
himself  as  the  Paul  of  the  Reformation,  who  must 
set  right  Peter  (Luther).    Reports  to  this  effect 
having  gained  currency,  three  published  discourses 
of  his  were  examined  and  found  to  contain  anti- 
nomian views.   In  July,  1537,  and  again  in  Septem- 
ber, Luther  preached  against  such  error, 
3.  Agric-  though  without  mention  of  Agricola, 
oU^Con-  declaring  in  the  latter  instance  that 
troversy    the  gospel  could  no  more  be  preached 
with  Luther,  independently  of  the  law  than  could 
2537  sqq.    the  law  independently  of  the  gospel. 
At  the  close  of  October,  Agricola  came 
to  an  agreement  with  Luther  whereby  unanimity 
was  recognized  in  the  substance  of  doctrine.    But 
now  Agricola  imdertook  to  publish  his  Summarien 
abet  die  Evangelienj  the  imprimatur  of  the  rector 
being  dispensed  with  on  the  ground  that  Luther 
had  already  seen  and  approved  of  the  work.    Luther 


thereupon  forbade  its  completion,  and  determined 
upon  an  unsparing  conflict.  He  published  some 
antinomian  theses  of  Agricola  which  had  been 
privately  circulated,  and  on  Dec.  18  held  his  first 
disputation  against  them.^  Agricola  did  not  put  in 
an  appearance,  and  Luther  accordingly  challenged 
him  to  a  second  disputation  (Jan.  12,  1538),  at 
which  a  solemn  reconciliation  took  place.  Agricola 
even  authorized  Luther  to  draw  up  a  retraction  in 
his  name,  which  the  latter  did  in  cUunaging  fashion 
in  a  letter  to  Caspar  GQttel  of  Eisleben.  The 
conflict  seemed  over,  and  in  Feb.,  1539,  Agricola 
was  appointed  to  the  Wittenberg  consistory.  The 
dispute  was,  however,  revived  through  reflections 
made  against  Luther  by  Agricola  in  a  disputation 
at  the  University.  Luther  responded,  and  pro- 
ceeded to  vigorous  attacks  on  the  antinomians. 
He  considered  even  the  exconununication  of 
Agricola.  The  latter,  on  his  side,  thought  himself 
c^umniated  and  collected  material  for  his  justi- 
fication. In  Mar.,  1540,  he  submitted  his  com- 
plaints to  the  Elector.  To  these  complaints  Luther 
responded  that  what  Agricola  termed  calunmies 
were  but  conclusions  inevitably  to  be  drawn  from 
the  latter's  propositions.  The  Elector  instituted 
formal  proceedings  against  Agricola,  who,  though 
imder  pledge  not  to  leave  Wittenberg,  withdrew 

>  The  more  important  of  Agricola's  eighteen  propoutiona 
are:  i.  Repentance  in  to  be  taught  not  from  the  decalogue 
or  any  law  of  Moees,  but  from  the  suffering  and  death  of 
the  Son  through  the  gospel,  ii.  For  Christ  says  in  the  last 
chapter  of  Luke:  "  Thus  it  behooved  Christ  to  die  and  in 
this  manner  to  enter  into  his  glory,  that  repentance  and 
remission  of  sins  might  be  preached  in  his  name."  iii.  And 
Christ,  in  John,  says  that  the  Spirit,  not  the  law,  oonyicts 
the  world  of  sin.  iv.  The  last  discourse  of  Christ  teaehee 
the  same  thing:  *  Go,  preach  the  gospel  to  every  creature." 
vii.  Without  anjrthing  whatever  the  Holy  Spirit  is  given 
and  men  are  justified:  this  thing  [the  law]  is  not  necessary 
to  be  taught  either  for  the  beginning,  the  middle,  or  the  end 
of  justification,  viii.  But  the  Holy  Spirit  having  been 
given  of  old  is  also  given  perpetually,  and  men  are  justified 
without  the  law  through  the  gospel  concerning  Christ  alone, 
xiii.  Wherefore,  for  conserving  purity  of  doctrine  we  muvt 
resist  those  who  teach  that  the  gospel  is  not  to  be  preached 
except  to  those  who  have  been  crushed  and  made  contrite 
through  the  law.  xvi.  The  law  only  convicts  of  sin  and  that, 
too,  without  the  Holy  Spirit;  therefore  it  convicts  unto 
damnation,  zvii.  But  there  is  need  of  a  doctrine  that  not 
only  with  great  efficacy  condemns,  but  also  at  the  same 
time  saves:  but  that  is  the  gospel,  which  teaches  conjointly 
repentance  and  remission  of  sins,  xviii.  For  the  gospel  of 
Christ  teaches  the  wrath  from  heaven  and  at  the  same  time 
the  justice  of  God,  Rom.  i.  For  it  is  the  preaching  of  re- 
pentance joined  to  a  promise  which  reason  does  not  naturally 
apprehend,  but  which  comes  through  divine  revelation. 

Luther  added  to  these  acknowledged  articles  of  AgrioolA 
several  other  statements  of  doubtful  authenticity  which 
Agricola  was  supposed  to  have  made:  The  law  is  not  worthy 
to  be  called  the  word  of  God.  Art  thou  a  harlot,  a  knave, 
an  adulterer,  or  any  other  sort  of  sinner  if  thou  believest 
thou  art  in  the  way  of  salvation.  The  decalogue  belongs 
to  the  town  hall,  and  not  to  the  pulpit.  All  who  go  about 
with  Moses  must  go  to  the  devil.  To  the  gallows  with  Moses  I 
To  hear  the  word  and  live  accordingly  is  the  consequence 
of  the  law.  To  hear  the  word  and  feel  it  in  the  heart  is 
the  proper  consequence  of  the  gospel.  Peter  knew  noth^ 
ing  about  Christian  freedom.  His  declaration  "making 
your  calling  sure  through  good  works  "  is  good  for  nothing. 
As  soon  as  thou  thinkest  it  must  go  thus  and  so  in  Christen- 
dom, everybody  is  to  be  refined,  honorable,  discreet,  holy, 
and  chaste,  thou  hast  ahready  prostituted  the  goapeL 
Agricola  disowned  the  most  manifestly  immoral  of  these 
propositions,  and  there  is  no  reason  to  believe  that  he  prap- 
tised  or  approved  of  the  immorality  that  seems  involved  in 
hia  teachings.  ▲.  h.  M. 


Antinoxnianism 
Antiooh 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


200 


ID  August  to  Berlin.  From  there  he  recalled  his 
complaints  and  at  Luther's  demand  prepared  a 
letter  of  retraction.  For  a  time  he  modified  Mb 
views  to  some  extent  so  that  they  approximated 
in  a  measure  to  those  of  Luther;  but  Luther's 
distrust  was  not  removed,  nor  was  Agricola  really 
convinced  of  error. 

After  Agricola  it  was  especially  Jakob  Schenk, 
court-preacher  of  Duke  Henry  and  the  Reformer 
of  Freiberg,  who  came  imder  suspicion  of  Anti- 
nomianism ;  he  is  said  to  have  declared  that  "  all 
who  preached  the  law  were  possessed  with  the 
devil;  ...  do  what  you  will,  if  you  only  believe, 
you  are  saved,"  and  "  to  the  gallows  with  Moses  I " 
An  inquiry  instituted  against  him   (June,   1538) 

ended  in  his  being  called  by  the  Elector 

4.  Jakob    to  Weimar  as  court-preacher.   In  1541 

Schenk.    Duke  Henry  summoned  him  to  Leipsic 

as  preacher  and  university  lectm^r, 
but  council,  clergy,  and  theological  faculty  were  all 
strongly  opposed  to  him.  Objection  was  made 
to  the  publication  of  his  sermons,  and  they  were 
foimd  in  several  points  to  be  at  variance  with  the 
Augsburg  Confession.  In  the  indictment  appears 
the  old  charge  of  antinomian  doctrine,  resting, 
indeed,  on  very  slight  foundations.  In  1543  he 
finally  left  the  duchy.  The  contents  of  his  pub- 
lished writings  furnish  no  adequate  basis  for  calling 
him  an  Antinomian.  But  there  is  no  doubt  that 
his  sermons  erred  repeatedly  in  that  direction. 

In  connection  with  the  Majoristic  dispute  over 
the  necessity  of  good  works,  Luther's  pupils,  An- 
dreas Poach  of  Erfurt  and  Anton  Otho  (Otto) 
of    Nordhausen  denied   that    the   law   had    any 

significance  whatever  for  believers, 
5.  Later  and  thus  arose  the  dispute  de  tertio 
Contro-  usu  legia,  Otho  directed  his  conten- 
▼ersiea.      tion    immediately    against    Melanch- 

thon,  though  the  latter  had  merely 
repeated  Luther's  statements.  Against  Otho  and 
those  of  similar  views  arose  several  leaders,  in 
particular  MOrlin  and  Wigand.  On  the  other  hand, 
Melanchthon  and  his  more  immediate  school  was 
accused  of  antinomian  doctrine  in  declaring  the 
gospel  to  be  the  proclamation  of  repentance. 

The  Formula  of  Concord  fixed  the  terminology 
of  the  whole  matter  by  deciding  that  the  law  was  a 

special   revelation   teaching   what   is 

6.   Settle-  just  and  pleasing  in  the  sight  of  God, 

ment  of  the  and  refuting  whatever  is  opposed  to 

Controversy,  the  divine  will;  while  the  gospel,  on 

the  other  hand,  taught  what  it  was 
necessary  to  believe,  especially  the  doctrine  of 
forgiveness  of  sin  through  Christ.  All  that  per- 
tained to  the  punishment  of  sin  belonged  to  the 
preaching  of  the  law,  though  it  was  conceded  that 
it  might  be  said  the  gospel  discoursed  of  repentance 
and  the  remission  of  sin,  if  gospel  were  imderstood 
to  mean  the  sum  of  Christian  doctrine.  The 
preaching  of  the  law  became  effective  to  a  con- 
sciousness of  sin  only  when  the  law  was  spiritually 
expoimded  by  Christ.  (G.  Kawerau.) 

8.  The  Antinomian  Oontroveray  in  New  Eng-- 
land:  The  Puritans  of  New  England,  following 
in  the  footsteps  of  Calvin  and  Knox,  were  theo- 
cratic in  their  ideas  of  Christianity  and  were  in- 


clined to  make  the  legalistic  system  of  the  Old 
Testament  their  model.  The  enforcement  of  rigor- 
ous regulations  pertaining  to  every  department 
of  life  (strict  observance  of  Simday  as  Sabbath, 
regular  attendance  at  church,  avoidance  of  every 
form  of  frivolity  in  dress  or  demeanor)  provoked 
reaction  here  as  it  had  done  in  Geneva.  Mrs. 
Anne  (Marbury)  Hutchinson  (b.  in  Lincolnshire 
1590  or  1591;  married  about  1612  to  William 
Hutchinson  of  Alford,  Lincolnshire),  who  had  been 
imdcr  the  ministry  of  John  Cotton  (q.v.)  at  Bos- 
ton, Lincolnshire,  had  imbibed  antinomian  views, 
probably  from  Familists,  and,  on  her  arrival  in 
New  England  (whither  she  followed  her  eldest  son, 
Edward,  arriving  in  Sept.,  1634),  while  she  continued 
to  enjoy  the  ministrations  of  Cotton,  now  pastor 
of  the  Boston  (Mass.)  church,  soon  began  to  express 
in  strong  language  her  aversion  to  the  preaching  of 
a  ''  covenant  of  works  "  in  contradistinction  to  a 
"  covenant  of  grace,"  by  most  of  the  Massachu- 
setts preachers.  She  regarded  Cotton  as  a  preacher 
of  a  "  covenant  of  grace,"  and  he  was  no  doubt 
considerably  influenced  by  her  views;  when  the 
agitation  of  the  question  seemed  likely  to  wreck 
the  colony,  he  foimd  difficulty  in  convincing  the 
dominant  party  of  the  soundness  of  his  opinions. 
Rev.  John  Wheelwright,  Mrs.  Hutchinson's  brother- 
in-law,  a  Cambridge  graduate  (arrived  in  New  Eng- 
land May,  1636),  accepted  her  views.  Sir  Henry 
Vane  (arrived  Oct.,  1635;  chosen  governor  May, 
1636;  see  Vane,  Sir  Henry)  became  a  zealous 
advocate  of  the  "  covenant  of  grace."  Mrs.  Hutch- 
inson expounded  her  views  to  large  gatherings  of 
women,  who  twice  a  week  resorted  to  her  house, 
and  thus  propagated  them  widely.  She  claimed 
that  after  a  year  of  prayer  it  had  been  revealed  to 
her  that  she  had  trusted  in  a  covenant  of  works; 
under  like  divine  impulse  she  had  come  to  New 
England,  there  being  no  one  in  England  that  she 
durst  hear.  She  was  the  daughter  of  an  English 
clergyman  and  combined  considerable  theological 
information  and  argumentative  effectiveness  with 


a  steadfastness  and  persistence  worthy  of  a  better 
cause.  Like  most  religious  reformers  of  the  time 
she  had  wrought  herself  into  the  conviction  that 


/" 


the  few  dogmas  she  held  represented  the  whole 
truth  and  that  all  other  teaching  was  diabolical 
and  abominable.  The  chief  opponents  of  Mrs. 
Hutchinson  were  John  Wilson,  pastor  of  the 
Charlestown  church,  Hugh  Peters,  pastor  of  the 
Salem  church,  and  John  Winthrop  (qq.v.).  In 
Dec.,  1636,  the  ministers  censured  Vane  as  respon- 
sible for  the  hurtful  agitation,  and  sought  to  convince 
Mrs.  Hutchinson  of  her  errors.  The  Boston  church 
of  which  Vane  was  a  member  undertook  to  censure 
Wilson,  but  could  not  secure  the  required  unanim- 
ity, and  Cotton  was  content  publicly  to  admonish 
him.  In  Jan.,  1637,  Wheelwright,  in  a  sermon, 
denounced  the  "  covenant  of  works  "  people  as 
"  antichrists  "  and  thus  added  fuel  to  the  flames. 
In  March  the  Court  by  a  majority  vote  censured 
Wheelwright,  and,  in  the  gubernatorial  election  in 
May,  Vane  was  defeated  and  Winthrop  was  elected. 
Coercive  measiu^s  soon  removed  the  disturbing 
element  from  Massachusetts.  Vane  returned  to 
England.    Wheelwright    foimded    the    town    of 


801 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Antlnomianlflm 
Antiooh 


Exeter  in  New  Hampshire.  The  Hutchinsons 
went  to  Rhode  Island  (1638),  and  most  of  the  party 
ultimately  settled  near  Newport.  After  the  death 
of  her  husband  in  1642,  Mrs.  Hutchinson  moved 
into  Dutch  territory  in  Westchester  County,  New 
York,  and  was  murdered  there  by  Indians  in  Au- 
gust or  September,  1643. 

The  character  of  this  movement  may  best  be 
set  forth  by  quoting  a  contemporary  summary 
of  Mrs.  Hutchinson's  teachings: 

1.  That  the  Law.  and  the  preaching  of  it.  is  of  no  iiae  at 
alJ  to  drive  a  man  to  Christ.  2.  That  a  man  ia  unit€d  to 
Christ  and  justified  without  faith,  yea  from  eternity.  3. 
That  faith  is  not  a  receiving  of  Christ,  but  a  man's  discern- 
ing that  he  hath  received  him  already.  4.  That  a  man  is 
umted  to  Christ  only  by  the  work  of  the  Spirit  upon  him, 
without  any  act  of  his.  6.  That  a  man  is  never  effectually 
Christ's  tiU  he  hath  assurance.  6.  This  assurance  is  only 
from  the  witness  of  the  Spirit.  7.  Thii»  witness  of  the  Spirit 
is  merely  immediate,  without  any  respect  of  the  Word,  or 
any  concurrence  with  it.  8.  When  a  man  hath  once  this 
witness,  he  never  doubts  more.  9.  To  question  my  assur- 
ance, though  I  fall  into  murder  or  adultery,  proves  that  I 
never  had  true  assurance.  10.  Sanctification  can  be  no 
evidence  of  a  man's  good  estate.  11.  No  comfort  can  be 
had  from  any  conditional  promise.  12.  Poverty  in  spirit 
...  is  only  this,  to  see  I  have  no  grace  at  all.  13.  To  see 
I  have  no  grace  in  me  will  give  me  comfort;  but  to  take 
comfort  from  sight  or  grace  is  legal  [legalistic].  14.  An 
hypocrite  may  have  Adam's  graces  that  he  had  in  inno- 
cency.  16.  The  graces  of  saints  and  hypocrites  differ  not. 
16.  All  graces  are  in  Christ,  as  in  the  subject,  and  none  in 
us,  so  that  Christ  believes,  Christ  loves,  etc.  17.  Christ  is 
the  new  creature.  18.  God  loves  a  man  never  the  better 
for  any  holiness  in  him,  and  never  the  less  be  he  never  so 
unholy.     19.  Sin  in  a  child  of  Giod  must  never  trouble  him. 

20.  Trouble  in  conscience  for  sins  of  commission,  or  for  neg- 
lect of  duty,  shows  a  man  to  be  under  a  covenant  of  works. 

21.  All  covenants  of  God  expressed  in  works  are  legal  works. 

22.  A  Christian  is  not  bound  to  the  Law  as  the  rule  of  his 
conversation.  23.  A  Christian  is  not  bound  to  pray,  ex- 
cept the  Spirit  moves  him.  24.  A  minister  that  hath  not 
this  (new)  light  is  not  able  to  edify  others  that  have  it.  25. 
The  whole  letter  of  the  Scripture  is  a  covenant  of  works. 
26.  No  Christian  must  be  pressed  to  duties  of  holiness.  27 
No  Christian  must  be  exhorted  to  faith,  love,  and  prayer 
etc,  except  we  know  he  hath  the  Spirit.  28.  A  man  may 
have  all  graces  and  yet  want  Christ.  29.  All  a  believer's 
activity  is  only  to  act  sin.  (Pagitt,  ut  sup.,  124-126.)  The 
foUowing  utterances  ascribed  to  Mrs.  Hutchinson  and  her 
followers  are  also  significant:  "  In  the  sav'ng  conversion 
of  a  sinner  the  faculties  of  the  soul  and  working  thereof 
are  destroyed  and  made  to  cease;  and  the  Holy  Ghost  agi- 
Utes  instead  of  them.  .  .  .  That  God  the  Father.  Son, 
and  Holy  Ghost  may  give  themselves  to  the  soul,  and  that 
the  soul  may  have  true  union  with  Christ,  true  remission 
of  sins,  .  .  .  true  sanctification  from  the  blood  of  Christ, 
and  yet  be  an  hypocrite.  .  .  .  That  the  Spirit  doth  work 
in  hypocrites  by  gifts  and  graces,  but  in  God's  children  im- 
mediately. .  .  .  That  it  is  a  soul-damning  error  to  make 
sanctification  an  evidence  of  justification.  .  .  .  That  the 
devil  and  nature  may  be  the  cause  of  good  works." 

A.  "H.  Newman. 

Biblioobapht:  The  subject  of  early  Antinomianism  is 
treated  in  such  works  on  N.  T.  Theology  as  that  of  W. 
Beyschlag,  2  vols..  Edinburgh,  1894-96,  and  in  trea- 
tises on  Gnosticism  (q.v.).  Consult  Neander,  Christian 
Church,  i.  447-454  et  passim,  ii.  769,  iii.  588;  KL,  i.  357- 
358,  928-940.  v.  1527.  ix.  1187  (covers  the  whole  subject); 
C.  Schluseelburg,  Cataiogua  hereHcorum,  Frankfort,  1597. 

On  the  German  Antinomian  Controversy  consult:  G.  J. 
Planck,  'GeBchichte  der  ErtUtehung  .  .  .  det  protestantitdun 
Lehrbegriff*,  vo .  iv.,  6  vols.,  Leipsic,  1791-1800;  J.  J.  1. 
D&Uinger,  Die  Reformation,  iii.  387  aqq.,  Regensburg, 
1846;  F.  H.  R.  Frank,  Dte  Theologieder  Concordienfcrmel, 
ii.  243  aqq.,  Erlangen,  1861;  J.  K.  Seidemann,  Dr.  Jacob 
Sdienk,  Leipsic,  1875;  G.  MQUer,  Paul  lAndenau,  ib. 
1880;  K.  R.  Hagenbach,  Hietory  of  Chrietian  Doctrine; 
iL  418,  iii  67,  Edinburgh,  1880-81;  G.  Kawerau,  Agrieola, 
Berlin,  1881;  J.  Seehawer,  Zw  Lekre  vom  Gebra%eh  dee 


Geeeizee  und  zur  Oeechichte  dee  ep<Ueren  Antinomiemue, 
Rostock,  1887;  T.  Kolde,  Martin  Luther,  ii.  463  sqq.. 
Gotha,  1893;  F.  Loofs,  DogmengeechichU,  Halle.  1893; 
J.  KOstlin,  MarHn  Luther,  u.  125.  134,  413,  438,  448-452 
et  passim,  Berlin.  1903. 

On  the  later  English  and  American  Antinomianism 
consult:  Storj/  of  the  Riee,  Reign,  and  Ruine  of  the  Anti" 
nomiane,  Familiete  and  Libertinee  that  infected  the  Churchee 
of  New  England,  London,  1644;  Tobias  Crisp,  Worke, 
ib.  1690;  John  Fletcher,  Checke  to  Antinomianiam, 
in  Worke,  vols,  ii.-vi.,  8  vols.,  ib.  1803;  D.  Bogue, 
Hietory  of  Dieeeniere,  4  vols.,  ib.  1808-12;  W.  Orme, 
Life  of  Baxter,  ii.  232  and  chap,  ix.,  ib.  1830;  D.  Neal, 
Hietory  of  Puriiane,  2  vols..  New  York,  1848;  C.  F.  Adams, 
T^Aree  Epieodee  of  Maeeachusette  .  .  .  Hietory,  .  .  .  the 
Antinomian  Controverey,  Boston,  1892;  B.  Adams,  The 
Emancipation  of  Maeeadiueette,  ib.  1887  (on  Puritan- 
ism and  the  various  conflicts  of  New  England);  and  fur- 
ther the  works  of  Wesley  and  Andrew  Fuller. 

ANTIOCH,  PATRIARCHATE  OF.  See  Patriarch; 
Syria. 

ANTIOCH,  an'ti-ec,  SCHOOL  OF:  A  term  des- 
ignating, not  an  educational  institution  like  the 
catechetical  school  of  Alexandria,  but  a  theological 
tendency  deriving  its  influence  from  a  number  of 
prominent  teachers.  [The  name  is  from  Antioch 
on  the  Orontes,  16  m.  from  the  Mediterranean,  the 
famous  city,  the  third  in  point  of  population  in 
the  Roman  empire,  and  no  mean  rivaJ  of  Rome 
in  splendor.  There  were  the  groves  of  Daphne, 
where  the  sensual  was  pandered  to  in  all  ways. 
Yet  there  the  first  preachers  of  Christianity  came, 
and  it  was  there  that  the  converts  to  the  new  faith 
were  first  called  Christians.]  A  distinction  must 
be  made  between  an  old  and  a  new  school — the 
former  from  about  270  to  360,  the  latter  (to  which 
the  name  is  confined  by  some),  after  SiSO.  The 
presbyter  and  martyr  Lucian  (q.v.;  d.  311),  who 
had  great  influence  as  an  exegete  and  a  meta- 
physician, and  his  contemporary  the  presbyter 
Dorotheus  are  generally  mentioned  as  the  founders 
of  this  school,  but  it  may  even  go  back  as  far  as 
Paul  of  Samosata;  at  least,  Lucian  seems  to  have 
refused  his  assent  to  Paul's  condemnation.  Under 
altered  circumstances,  the  cool  int<}llectuality  of 
the  Antiochians,  which  shrank  from  the  "  mys- 
tery "  of  the  incarnation,  became  Arianism.  Arius 
himself,  Eusebius  of  Nicomedia,  and  Asterius  were 
disciples  of  Lucian;  and  the  name  of  the  last  was 
frequently  used  by  the  Eusebian  party  to  coun- 
tenance their  attempts  at  compromise.  Most 
important,  however,  was  Lucian's  activity  in  Bib- 
lical criticism.  In  this  field  his  influence  was 
directly  opposed  to  the  dogmatico-allegorical  ex- 
positions of  the  school  of  Origen,  and  it  made  for 
historical  investigation. 

Of  Lucian 's  scholars,  Arius  as  a  presbyter  in 
Alexandria  had  performed  for  some  time  the 
function  of  expoimding  the  Scriptures,  and  the 
clever  "  sophist "  Asterius  is  said  to  have  written 
commentaries  on  the  Gospels,  the  Psalms,  and  the 
Epistle  to  the  Romans,  of  which  only  an  unim- 
portant fragment  remains.  The  semi-Arian  bishop 
Eusebius  of  Emesa  (q.v.)  is  of  more  importance. 
Jerome  attests  the  influence  of  his  exegetical 
method  on  Diodorus,  and  calls  Chrysostom  "the 
follower  of  Eusebius  of  Emesa  and  Diodorus " 
{De  vir,  iU,,  cxix.,  cxxix.).  Eustathius  of  Antioch 
(q.v.)  must  be  mentioned,  not  only  for  his  dogmatic 
connection  with  the  school  (though  a  strict  adherent 


Antiooh 
Antitrinitarianiam 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


202 


of  th«  Council  of  Nicea,  he  met  the  Aimo  conclu- 
fiion  from  the  finite  qualities  of  Chmt  ^gainit  the 
fulness  of  his  Godhe&d  by  a  sharp  distinction  be- 
tween the  divine  and  human  naturea  in  him^  be- 
tween the  eternal  Bon  and  his  temple )j  but  even 
more  for  his  exegesis.  His  celebrated  tueatiae  on 
the  witch  of  Endor  (De  BngastHmylho)  ia  directly 
opposed  to  the  method  of  Origen.  Diodorus  of 
Tarsus  (q.Y.;  d.  378}  may  be  considered  the  father 
of  the  school  in  the  narrower  sense.  Chrysostom 
aDd  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia  were  among  his  pupils^ 
and  the  latter  became  the  Clascal  represeutative 
of  the  school.  His  theology  is  vigorous  and  orig- 
inal, a  genuine  offspring  of  the  old  Greek  theology 
as  seen  in  Origen^  emphasizing  strongly  the  freedom 
of  the  will  as  against  the  August inianism  char- 
acteristic of  Western  thought.  Both  Diodorus  and 
Theodore,  in  unisoD  with  the  great  doctors  of  their 
&g!s  as  regards  the  Nicene  faith,  combated  not  only 
Arianism  but  Apollinansm,  In  exegesis  Diodorus 
declares  that  he  prefers  the  historical  to  the  alle- 
gorical method;  and  Theodore  strives  with  great 
ener^  for  a  true  grammatico-historicttl  exposition, 
and  makes  remarkable  strides  toward  true  BibUcal 
criticism . 

Theodore's  brother,  Polychronius,  first  a  monk  in 
the  cloister  of  St.  Zebinas  near  Kyros,  then  bishop 
of  Apaniea  (d.  430),  was  superior  to  Theodore  as 
a  Hebrew  and  Syriac  scholar;  his  commentary  on 
Daniel,  of  wliich  considerable  fragment  i9  were  pub- 
liihed  by  Mai  in  his  Nairn  collectto,  L,  is  di^tin* 
gnished  by  its  study  of  the  liistory  of  the  period. 
The  principles  of  the  school  of  Antioch  bore  their 
fairest  fruit  in  the  thoughtful,  practically  edifying 
expositions  of  John  Chrysostom  (q,v.),  though 
both  he  and  another  distinguished  writer  closely 
akin  to  him,  Isidore  of  Pelusium  (q.v.)i  make  con- 
cessions  to  the  allegorical  method,  or  do  not  dis^ 
tinguiah  sharply  between  type  and  allegory.  The 
latest  writer  who  properly  belongs  to  the  school 
is  the  many-sided|  clever,  learned,  but  somewhat 
wavering  Theodoret.  In  spite  of  his  great  depend- 
eoco  on  and  reverence  for  Theodore,  he  not  only 
leaned  in  dogma  to  compromise,  'but  in  his  exe- 
gesis ho  drifted  away  from  Theodore ^a  principles 
and  bowed  to  ecclesiastical  traditionaHsQi,  aban- 
doning a  large  part  of  the  exegetical  conquests  of 
the  school. 

The  polemical  activity  of  the  school  h  of  no  small 
importance.  There  were  many  of  the  old  heretics 
still  left  in  the  region  of  its  influence,  as  weO  as 
numerous  Jews  and  pagans;  and  it  fought  the 
battles  of  the  Chnreh  against  them  at  a  time  when 
the  other  provinces  were  able  to  enjoy  a  large 
measure  of  peace.  (A.  HAiiNACS.,) 

BiaooaRAPRr:  L.  IHeiitfi]^  GeKhidtlm  ik9  Allen  TeMamtnta 
in  drr  thriMtlichen  Kirch*,  pp.  128-141,  Jena,  ISeW*;  H. 
Kihn,  Die  Bfdeutunff  der  antiacAudi^n  Sehule,  WeiflH^n- 
btttSt  19^3;  idem»  Throdor  t*&n  M&pauettta  und  J  tint- 
ttuf  Africanu*,  Freiburg,  1879;  idem,  in  Tabingrr  TQ, 
1880;  a  UtftfiunKf  ^fhala  AntiaditnnM,  N^uatodt,  1S&4: 
P.  Hercem-ather,  Die  mntiochi9chv  Sdiuie^  Waribuw, 
1856;  F.  A,  Bpccht.  Dtr  4i^eo«H»che  iStandpunkt  det 
Thetidor  und  TheodTtt,  Munich*  187h  Neander,  ChriM- 
Han  C*Mr<A,  i  674,  722.  il  182,  346,  38S'304,  4fl3-5M, 
fi42-544.  712-722.  72ft-72i,  737-736;  O.  Bwdfrrihewer. 
Paltichroniu^,  Ffflt^ufs.  1879^  M&Uer,  ChrUtian  Chvrch, 
1.  40e«4OO. 


AHTIOCH,  SYHOD  OF,  341  A,D.:  Records  of 
more  than  thirty  synods  held  at  Antioch  in  S3rria 
in  the  early  days  of  the  Church  are  preserved. 
Of  these  the  more  important  fall  witiun  the  period 
of  the  controversy  about  the  person  of  Christ , 
and  are  treated  in  connection  with  it.  That  of 
the  year  Ml  requires  separate  treatment.  It  was 
held  in  connection  ^ith  the  consecration  of  the  so- 
called  Golden  Basilica  begun  by  Constantine  and 
completed  by  Constantius.  Atbanasius  says  that 
ninety  bishops  were  present;  Hilary  says  ninety- 
seven.  The  synod  passed  twenty- five  canons, 
and  promul^ted  three  creeds  with  a  design  to 
remove  the  Kicienum,  The  first  canon  con-- 
firmed  the  decision  of  the  Nicene  cotmcil  on  the 
celebration  of  Easter*  and  the  second  enforced 
participation  in  the  complete  liturgy.  Most  of  the 
others  dealt  with  questions  of  ecclesiastical  organi- 
jsation^  such  as  the  relations  of  dioceses  and  the 
development  of  the  metropolitan  system,  Priesta 
were  forbidden  to  wander  from  one  diocese  into 
another;  schismatic  assemblies  were  prohibited; 
persona  esccomniunicated  by  one  bishop  were  not 
to  be  reconciled  by  another;  and  strangere  were  not 
to  be  received  without  "  letters  of  peace."  The 
provincial  system  gained  a  firmer  foothold  by  the 
reiteration  of  the  fifth  canon  of  Niccaa,  requiring 
synods  to  be  held  twice  a  year.  The  position  of  the 
chorepi^copus  su£fered  a  corresponding  depression 
in  the  eighth  and  tenth  canons.  Abstinence  from 
interference  with  other  dioceses  and  strict  guard- 
ianship of  church  property  are  enjoined  upou  the 
biiihopi,  who  are  also  forbidden  to  name  their 
succesfiors.  These  canons  formed  an  element  of 
ecclesiastical  law  for  both  East  and  West,  and 
were  included  in  the  Codex  canonum  used  by  the 
Council  of  Chaleedon,  (A,  Hauck.) 

BiDLiooRAPiiT:  Neaoder.  Chrkiinn  CAurcA,  i.  W)&-^06,  ii, 

187*   193,    205,   4^2^34,   436.   761;  Hefele,   Cmwilimffe^ 

icAidyt,  i.    502-630,  Eng,  tranuLp  ii.  56-82;  F.  MiuuiiieTi. 

GmdkuhU  det  QuoUen  de*  kanonitt^n  R^At*.  i.  65  hqq., 

Gmci*  1870. 

AHTIOCHUSj  an-tai'o-kns:  The  name  of  thir- 
teen kings  of  Syria,  belonging  to  the  dynasty 
founded  by  Seleucua  h,  Nicator  (312-280  nx,), 
after  the  death  of  Alexander  the  Great,  See 
SEL.i:trcinvE. 

AlfTIOCHUS:  Abbot  of  Mar  Saba  (about  3  hours 
s.w.  of  Jerusalem),  early  in  the  seventh  century,  a 
Galatian  by  birth.  He  wrote  a  work  entitled  in 
Greek  '*  Pandect  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,"  a  collec- 
tion of  moral  sayingis  from  the  Bible  and  the 
older  Church  Fathers.  An  introductoiy  epistle  de- 
scribes the  martyrdom  of  forty-four  monks  of  Mar 
Saba  and  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  when  the 
Persian  king  Chosroes  II.  conquered  Palestine 
(614),  and  the  last  chapter  gives  a  list  of  hei^ 
etice  beginning  with  Simon  Magus.  Another  of  his 
works,  ExoTTwhgesist  also  depicts  the  suffe  rings  of 
Jerusalem. 
BifiL]ooitA.FiiT:  MPG*  Ixxxl^c. 

AHTIPAS:  Son  of  Herod  the  Great.  See  HEnon 
AKo  BIS  Family. 

AimPATER  (an-tip'a-ter)  OF  BOSTRA;  Bishop 
of  Bostra  (70  m.  s.  of  Damascus)  soon  after  450. 
As  a  theologian  he  belongs  to  the  opponents  of  the 


208 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Antiooh 
Antltrinitariaiilflin 


Origenists,  againBt  whom  he  wrote  his  chief  work  (in 
Greek),  the  "  Refutation."  Only  a  few  fragments 
of  it  are  preservedi  in  the  "  Parallels  "  of  John  of 
Damascus.  Most  of  the  homilies  ascribed  to  An- 
tipater  are  not  his.  Even  the  two  on  John  the 
Baptist  and  Annunciation  Day,  which  Migne  claims 
for  him,  are  doubtful;  the  first  supposes  a  fully 
developed  veneration  of  the  Baptist,  and  its  dic- 
tion is  suggestive  of  Byzantine  rhetoric;  the  other 
address  is  more  simple.  The  question  as  to  the 
genuineness  of  the  homilies  can  not  be  decided 
imtil  more  of  them  shall  have  been  published. 
His  works  are  in  MPG,  Ixxxv.,  xcvi.  (the  quotations 
in  John  of  Damascus).  Philipp  Metbb. 

Biblioorapht:  Fabricius-Harles,  Bibliotheea  Qraca^  z.  518 
sqq.,  Hamburg,  1807. 

ANTIPHON,  an'ti-fen:  A  term  denoting  pri- 
marily alternating  song  or  chanting,  one  voice  or 
choir  answering  another.  It  was  a  Jewish  custom 
(Ezra  iii.  11;  I  Chron.  xxix.  20;  Ps.  cvi.  45;  Matt, 
xxvi.  30)  and  was  early  introduced  into  the  Chris- 
tian Church.  Basil  {Epist.,  ccvii.),  in  writing  to 
the  clergy  of  Neocsesarea,  mentions  the  two  com- 
monest methods:  "  Now,  divided  into  two  parts, 
they  sing  antiphonally  with  one  another.  .  .  . 
Afterward  they  again  conmiit  the  prelude  of  the 
strain  to  one,  and  the  rest  take  it  up."  The  latter 
method  could  be  either  hypophonic,  when  the  re- 
sponse consisted  of  the  closing  words  of  each  verse 
or  section;  epiphonic,  when  an  expression  like 
"  Amen,"  "  Alleluia,"  "  Gloria  Patri  "  was  re- 
peated at  the  end  of  a  psalm;  or  antiphonic  in 
the  strict  sense,  when  the  second  body  of  singers 
responded  to  the  first  half  of  each  verse  with  the 
second  half,  or  the  two  bodies  repeated  verses 
alternately.  Later  the  term  "  antiphon "  came 
to  mean  merely  a  verse  or  formula  with  which  the 
precentor,  or  precentors,  began,  and  which  was 
repeated  by  the  entire  choir  at  the  end  of  the  song. 
It  determines  the  mode  of  the  piece,  and  closes  with 
the  key-note  followed  by  the  dominant  and  the 
evovoR  (the  last  notes  of  the  piece;  the  name  is 
made  up  of  the  vowels  of  aectdorumf  amen).  The 
whole  antiphon  (abbreviated  into  ana)  is  now 
sung  both  at  the  beginning  and  at  the  end  of  psalms 
at  lauds  and  vespers  on  double  feast-days;  at  other 
times,  only  at  the  end.  A  collection  of  antiphons 
is  called  an  antiphonarium  or  anliphonale. 

The  Breviarium  Romanum  has  many  excellent 
antiphons,  and  the  Evangelical  Lutheran  Church 
has  also  made  use  of  them.  They  are  chosen  with 
reference  to  the  content  of  the  psalm  or  hynm  to 
which  they  are  joined,  or  they  indicate  its  relation 
to  special  days  and  times.  For  example,  an  anti- 
phon to  Ps.  Ixiii.  for  Christmas  is:  "  And  the  angel 
said  unto  them,  fear  not,  for  behold  I  bring  you 
good  tidings";  for  Trinity  Sunday,  ** Gloria  tibi, 
Trinitaa  ";  for  apostles'  days,  "  Ye  are  my  friends." 
The  music  of  the  ancient  antiphons  is  generaUy 
appropriate,  beautiful,  and  poweriul. 

M.  Herold. 

Biblioobapht:  F  Armknecht,  Die  heilioe  Ptalmodie^  Gdt- 
tingen,  1866;  L.  Sch6berlein,  SchaU  dea  lihtrgiachen  Chor- 
und  Oemeinde-OeaanQB,  i.  650  sqq..  ib.  1880;  W.  Ldhe, 
Agende,  Ndrdlingen,  1884;  M.  Herold,  Veaperale,  2  vob., 
GQteraloh,  1893;  F.  Hommel,  Antiphonen  und  PBolmen- 
tone,  ib.  1896;  R.  von  Liliencron.  Chorordnung,  ib.  1900. 


ANTIPOPE:  A  papal  usurper,  not  elected  in 
the  canonical  way,  but  resting  his  claims  on  fraud 
or  force.  Political  intrigues,  the  ambitions  of 
sovereigns,  and  the  action  of  a  minority  of  the  car- 
dinals have  generaUy  been  responsible  for  rival 
popes.  In  1046  there  were  four  claimants  of  the 
papacy:  Sylvester  III.,  Benedict  IX.,  Gregory  VI., 
and  Clement  II.  It  has  not  always  been  easy  to 
decide  which  of  the  rivals  was  the  true  pope,  and 
in  such  cases  schism  has  been  the  result.  The 
longest  schism  (known  as  "  the  Great  Schism  ") 
succeeded  the  death  of  Gregory  XI.  (1378)  and 
lasted  fifty  years  (see  Schism).  For  the  names 
of  the  antipopes,  see  the  list  given  in  the  article 
Pope,  Papacy,  and  Papal  System. 

ANTITACTiE,  an^ti-tac'tf  or  -t^:  The  name 
given  by  Clement  of  Alexandria  {Strom.,  iii.  34- 
39;  followed  by  Theodoret,  Hcereticarum  fabularum 
epitome,  i.  16)  to  a  branch  of  Gnostic  libertines, 
who    rejected   the   demiurge.     See   Carpocratbs 

AND  THE  CaRPOCRATIANS.  G.  KrOoER. 

ANTITRmiTARIANISM . 

The  Earliest  Antitrinitarianiflm  (}  1). 

Monarchianiam  and  Other  Forms  to  the  Reformation  (}  2). 

Antitrinitarianism  in  Great  Britain  (}  3). 

In  New  England  (S  4). 

Antitrinitarianiflm  of  the  Present  (}  5). 

Antitrinitarianism  is  the  general  name  for  a  num- 
ber of  very  different  views  which  agree  only  in  reject- 
ing the  Christian  doctrine  of  the  Triime  God.  This 
doctrine  did  not  originate  in  the  extra-Christian 
world,  but,  with  whatever  adumbrations  in  the  Old 
Testament  revelation  (cf .  Domer,  System  of  Christian 
Doctrine f  i.,  Edinburgh,  1880,  pp.  345  sqq.),  was  first 
distinctly  revealed  in  the  missions  of  the  Son  and 
Spirit,  and  first  clearly  taught  by  Jesus  (cf.  W. 
Sanday,  The  Criticism  of  the  Fourth  Gospelj  Lon- 
don, 1905,  pp.  218  sqq.)  and  his  apostles.  It  nat- 
urally, therefore,  as  a  purely  Christian  doctrine,  had 
to  establish  itself  against  both  Jewish  and  heathen 
conceptions;  and  throughout  its  history  it  has 
met  with  more  or  less  contradiction  from  the  two 
oppo!dte  points  of  view  of  modalism  (which  tends 
to  sink  the  persons  in  the  unity  of  the  Godhead) 
and  subordinationism  (which  tends  to  degrade  the 
second  and  third  persons  into  creatures). 

The  earliest  antitrinitarians  were  those  Jews 
who  in  the  first  age  of  the  Church  were  convinced, 
indeed,  that  Jesus  was  the  promised  Messiah,  but, 
in  their  jealously  guarded  monotheism,  could  not 
admit  him  to  be  God,  and  taught  therefore  a  purely 
humanitarian  Christology.  They  bear  the  name 
in  history  of  Ebionites  (q.v.).  The  emanationism 
of  the  Gnostic  sects,  which  swarmed 

z.  The      throughout  the  second  century,  tended 

Earliest  to  subordinationism;  and  this  tend- 
Antitrini-  ency  is  inherent  also  in  the  Logos 
tarianism.  speculation  by  which  the  Christo- 
logical  thought  of  the  Church  teachers 
through  the  second  and  third  centuries  was  domi- 
nated. The  Logos  speculation  was  not,  however, 
consciously  antitrinitarian;  its  purpose  was,  on 
the  contrary,  to  construe  the  Church's  immanent 
faith  in  the  Trinity  to  thought,  and  to  that  end  it 
suggested  a  descending  series  of  gradations  of  de- 
ity by  which  the  transcendent  God  (the  Father) 


Antitrlnitarianiflm 
Antonelli 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


804 


stretched  out  to  the  creation  and  government  of 
the  world  (Son  and  Spirit).  This  subordinationism, 
however,  bore  bitter  fruit  in  the  early  fourth  cen- 
tury in  the  Arian  degradation  of  the  Son  to  a 
creature  and  of  the  Spirit  to  the  creature  of  a 
creature. 

The  ripening  of  this  fruit  was  retarded  by  the 
outbreak,  as  the  second  century  melted  into  the 
third,  of  the  first  great  consciously  antitrinitarian 
movement  in  the  bosom  of  the  Church.  This 
movement,  which  is  known  in  history  as  Monarchi- 
anism  (q.v.)  arose  in  Asia  Minor  and  rapidly  spread 
over  the  whole  Church.  In  its  earliest  form  as  taught 
by  the  two  Theodoti  and  Artemon,  and 
2.  Monar-  in  its  highest  development  by  Paul  of 
chianism  Samosata,  it  conceived  of  Jesus  as  a 
and  Other  mere  man.  In  this  form  it  was  too 
Forms  to  the  alien  to  Christian  feeling  to  make 
Reforma-  much  headway;  and  it  was  quickly 
tion.  followed  by  another  wave  which  went 
to  the  other  extreme  and  made  the 
Father,  Son,  and  Spirit  but  three  modes  of  being, 
manifestations,  or  actions  of  the  one  person  which 
God  was  conceived  to  be.  In  this  form  it  was 
taught  first  by  Praxeas  and  Noetus  and  foimd  its 
fullest  expression  in  Sabellius,  who  has  given  his 
name  to  it.  The  lower  form  is  conunonly  called 
Ebionitic  or  dynamistic  Monarchianism;  the  higher, 
modalistic  Monarchianism  or,  to  use  the  nickname 
employed  by  TertuUian,  Patripassianism.  Modal- 
istic Monarchianism  came  forward  in  the  interests 
of  the  true  deity  of  Christ,  and,  appearing  to  offer 
a  clear  and  easy  solution  of  the  antinomy  of  the 
imity  of  God  and  the  deity  of  the  Son  and  Spirit, 
made  its  way  with  great  rapidity,  and  early  in  the 
third  century  seemed  to  threaten  to  become  the 
faith  of  the  Church.  It  was  partly  in  reaction 
from  it  that  the  Arians  in  the  early  fourth  century 
pressed  the  subordinationism  of  much  early  church 
teaching  to  the  extreme  of  removing  the  Son  and 
Spirit  out  of  the  category  of  deity  tdtogether,  and 
thus  created  the  greatest  and  most  dangerous 
antitrinitarian  movement  the  Church  has  ever 
known.  The  interaction  of  the  modalistic  and 
Arian  factors  brought  it  about  that  the  statement 
of  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  wrought  out  in  the 
ensuing  controversies  was  guarded  on  both  sides; 
and  so  well  was  the  work  done  that  the  Church 
was  little  troubled  by  antitrinitarian  opposition 
for  a  thousand  years  thereafter.  During  the  Middle 
Ages  the  obscure  dualistic  and  pantheistic  sects,  it  is 
true,  held  to  antitrinitarian  doctrines  of  God;  but 
within  the  Church  itself  defective  conceptions  of 
the  Trinity,  resting  conmionly  on  a  pantheistic 
basis,  manifested  themselves  rather  in  theological 
tendencies  than  in  distinct  parties  (e.g.,  Johannes 
Scotus  Erigena;  other  tendencies  in  Roscelin  and 
Abelard).  In  the  great  upheaval  of  the  Reforma- 
tion the  antitrinitarianism  of  the  obscure  sects 
came  into  open  view  in  the  Anabaptist  movement 
(Denk,  H&tzer,  Melchior  Hofmann,  David  Joris, 
Johannes  Campanus).  At  the  head  of  the  pan- 
theistic antitrinitarianism  of  the  Reformation  era, 
however,  stands  Michael  Servetus,  and  though  his 
type  of  thought  soon  passed  into  the  backgroimd, 
it  was  destined  to  be  revived  whenever  mystical 


tendencies  waxed  strong  (Boehme,  Zinzendorf, 
Swedenborg).  Meanwhile  Laelius  and  Faustus 
Socinus  succeeded  in  forming  an  organized  sect 
of  rationalistic  antitrinitarians  who  found  a  refuge 
in  Poland,  established  a  famous  university,  issued 
symbolical  documents  (the  chief  of  which  is  the 
Racovian  Catechism,  1605),  and  created  an  influ- 
ential literature  (Schlichting,  VOlkel,  the  two 
Crells,  Ostorodt,  Schmalz,  Wolzogen,  Wiszowati). 

By  the  mid(Ue  of  the  seventeenth  century  the 
Socinian  establishment  at  Racow  was  broken  up, 
but  the  influence  of  the  type  of  thought  it  repre- 
sented has  continued  imtil  the  present  day.  In 
Transylvania,  indeed,  the  old  Unitarian  organiza- 
tion dating  from  the  labors  of  Blandrata  and  David 
still  exists.  Elsewhere  antitrinitarianism  has  crept 
in  by  way  of  more  or  less  covert  innovations  rep- 
resenting themselves  as  ''  liberal,''  and  running 
conmionly  through  the  stages  of  Arminianism  and 
Ariamsm  to  Socinianism.  In  England,  for  ex- 
ample, a  wide-spread  hesitancy  with  regard  to  the 
doctrine  of  the  Trinity  was  observable  before  the 
end  of  the  seventeenth  century,  manifesting  itself 
no  less  in  the  high  subordinationism  of  writers  like 
George  Bull  thsai  in  the  frank  Arianism  of  others 
like  Samuel  Clarke.     It  was  not  imtil 

3.  Antitrin- 1774,    however,    that    the    first   Uni- 
itaiianism   tarian    chapel    distinctly    known    as 

in  Great  such  was  founded  (Theophilus  Lind- 
Britain.  sey),  though  this  type  of  thought 
was  rapidly  permeating  the  commu- 
nity imder  the  influence  of  men  of  genius  like 
Joseph  Priestly  and  men  of  learning  like  Nathaniel 
Lardner;  and  before  the  end  of  the  second  decade 
of  the  nineteenth  century,  a  large  body  of  the  fore- 
most Presbyterian  congregations  had  become 
avowedly  Unitarian.  A  somewhat  similar  history 
was  wrought  out  in  Ireland,  where  after  a  pro- 
tracted controversy  the  Synod  of  Ulster  was 
divided  in  1827  on  this  question,  W.  Bruce  leading 
the  Unitarian  party. 

By  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century,  the 

prevalent  attitude  of  suspicion  with  regard  to  the 

doctrine  of   the  Trinity  had  commu- 

4.  In  New  nicated  itself    to   the  New  England 
England,    churches,  and  soon  an  antitrinitarian 

movement,  developing  out  of  the 
lingering  Arminianism,  was  in  full  swing,  which 
from  1815  received  the  name  of  Unitarianism. 
The  consequent  controversy  reached  its  height 
in  1819,  the  date  of  the  publication  of  W.  E.  Chan- 
ning's  sermon  at  the  ordination  of  Jared  Sparks  at 
Baltimore,  and  was  virtually  over  by  1833.  The 
result  was  a  body  of  definitely  antitrinitarian 
churches  boimd  together  on  this  general  basis, 
whose  leaders  have  illustrated,  on  every  possible 
philosophical  foimdation,  every  possible  variety 
of  antitrinitarianism  from  the  highest  modalism 
or  Arianism  down  (and  increasingly  universally 
so  as  time  has    passed)    to   the    lowest    Socini- 


Meanwhile  the  "  liberal "  tendencies  of  modem 
theological  thought  have  produced  throughout 
Christendom  a  very  large  number  of  theological 
teachers  who,  while  not  separating  themsdves 
from  the  trinitarian  churches,  are  definitely  anti- 


206 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Antitrinitarlaniaiii 
Antonelli 


trinitarian  in  their  doctrine  of  God.  Accordingly, 
although  the  organized  Unitarian  churches,  which 

were  earlier  not  unproductirt  of  men 
5.  Antitrin-  of  high  quality  (e.g.,  John  James 
itarianism  Tayler,  James  Martineau,  James 
of  the  Dnunmond,  in  England;  Theodore  Par- 
Present    ker,  Andrews  Norton,  Ezra  Abbot,  A. 

P.  Peabody,  F.  H.  Hedge,  James  Free- 
man Clarke,  in  America),  show  no  large  power  of 
growth,  it  is  probable  that  at  no  period  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  Christian  Church  has  there  been  a  more 
distinguished  body  of  antitrinitarian  teachers 
within  its  fold.  Every  variety  of  antitrinitarian- 
ism  finds  its  representatives  among  them.  The 
Arian  tendency  is,  indeed,  discoverable  chiefly 
in  the  high  subordinationism  of  men  who  do  not 
wish  to  break  with  the  church  doctrine  of  the 
Trinity  (Franck,  Twesten,  Kahnis,  Meyer,  Beck, 
Doedes,  Van  Oosterzee),  though  a  true  Arianism  is 
not  unexampled  (Hofstede  de  Groot).  In  sequence 
to  the  constructions  of  Kant  and  his  idealistic  suc- 
cessors, a  great  number  of  recent  theologians  from 
Schleiermacher  down  have  stated  their  doctrine  of 
God  in  terms  of  one  or  another  form  of  modalism 
(De  Wette,  Hase,  Nitzsch,  Rothe,  Biedermann, 
Lipsius,  Pfleiderer,  Kaftan),  though  sometimes,  or  of 
late  ordinarily,  this  modalism  is  indistinguishable 
from  Socinianism,  allowing  only  a  "  Trinity  of 
revelation  " — of  God  in  nature  (the  Creation),  in 
history  (Christ),  and  in  the  conscience  (the  Church). 
Consonant  with  the  general  drift  of  modem 
thought  this  recent  antitrinitarianism  is  commonly, 
however,  frankly  Socinian,  and  recognizes  only  a 
monadistic  Godhead  and  only  a  human  Jesus  (cf . 
A.  B.  Bruce,  The  Humiliation  of  Christ,  Edinburgh, 
1881,  Lecture  v.;  James  Orr,  The  Christian  View 
of  God  and  the  World,  Edinburgh,  1903,  Lecture  vii., 
and  notes).  The  most  striking  instance  of  this 
bald  Socinianism  is  furnished  probably  by  A. 
Ritschl,  but  a  no  less  characteristic  example  is 
afforded  by  W.  Beyschlag,  who  admits  oiUy  an 
ideal  preexistence  in  the  thought  of  God  for  Jesus 
Christ,  and  affirms  of  the  Holy  Spirit  that  the 
representation  that  he  is  a  third  divine  person 
"  is  one  of  the  most  disastrous  importations  into 
the  Holy  Scriptures."  See  Ritschl,  Albrecht 
Benjamin;  Trinity.       Benjamin  B.  Warfibld. 

Bxbuoorapht:  J.  H.  Allen,  Hiitorical  Sketch  of  the  UniiO' 
rian  Movement  aince  the  Reformation,  New  York,  1894  (in 
American  Church  History  Series);  F.  S.  Bock,  Hietoria 
AnHtrinitariorumt  2  vols.,  KdnigBberg.  1774-84;  L.  Lange, 
Oeediiehte  und  Eniwickelung  der  Systeme  der  UnUarier  vor 
der  NicAniechen  Synode,  Leipsic,  1831;  F.  Trechael,  Die 
proteetantiechen  Aniitrinitarier  vor  Socin,  Heidelberg,  1839- 
44;  O.  Fock,  Der  Socinianismue  naeh  eeiner  Stellung  in 
der  Oeaammtenttnckeluno  dee  ehrietlichen  Oeiatee,  Kiel, 
1847;  R.  Wallace,  Antitrinitarian  Biography,  3  vols., 
London,  1850.  See  also  under  Arianism;  EBiONrrEs; 
Monabcbxanism;  Socimus  (Faustvb),  Socinians;  Uni- 
tarians: and  cif.  the  treatment  of  these  movements  in 
the  Church  histories. 

AHTON,  PAUL:  Lutheran;  b.  at  Hirschfelde 
(near  Zittau,  50  m.  e.s.e.  of  Dresden),  in  Upper 
Lausitz,  Feb.  2,  1661;  d.  at  Halle  Oct.  20,  1730. 
He  studied  at  Leipsic,  became  tutor  there,  and 
helped  to  found  Francke's  Collegia  biblica  (see 
Pietibm).  In  1687-89  he  traveled  in  southern 
Europe  as  chaplain  to  the  future  Elector  of  Saxony 


Frederick  Augustus,  and  on  his  return  became 
superintendent  at  Rochlitz.  In  1693  he  was 
summoned  as  court  chaplain  to  Eisenach,  and  two 
years  later  was  appointed  professor  in  the  newly 
established  university  at  Halle.  With  J.  J.  Breit- 
haupt  and  A.  H.  Francke  (qq.v.),  Anton  gave  to 
the  Hallensian  theology  its  pietistic  character, 
and  he  helped  largely  to  make  the  university  one 
of  the  leading  schools  of  Protestant  theology  in 
Germany.  He  adhered  more  closely  than  his 
colleagues  to  the  orthodox  Lutheran  doctrine. 
His  peculiar  activity  was  in  the  field  of  practical 
theology.  As  professor  of  polemics,  he  sought  to 
ground  that  study  upon  psychological  principles. 
"  Every  one,"  he  was  accustomed  to  say,  "  carries 
within  himself  the  seeds  of  unbelief  and  heresy; 
and  introspection  is  a  more  fruitful  means  for 
ascertaining  the  true  principles  of  belief  than  per- 
sonal or  sectarian  controversy."  The  Lord,  he 
taught,  would  forgive  a  thousand  faults  and  trans- 
gressions, but  not  hypocrisy  or  unfaithfulness  to 
duty.  The  consciousness  of  sin  was  always  present 
with  him,  and  he  impressed  himself  upon  hiis  audi- 
tors by  his  evident  sincerity.  Anton's  lectures 
were  edited  in  part  by  Schwenzel  in  1732  under  the 
title  Collegium  antitheticum.  His  devotional  works 
— such  as  Evangelische  Hausgesprdch  von  der  Erlo- 
sung  (Halle,  1723)  and  ErbaiUiche  Betrachtung  Ober 
die  sieben  Worte  Christi  am  Krem  (1727) — attained 
great  popularity.  (Georo  MCller.) 

Bibligorapht:  An  autobiography  to  1725  was  published 
in  Denkmal  dee  Herm  Paul  Anton,  Halle.  1731. 

ANTONELLI,  an"to-nerii,  GIACOMO,  ja'c6-m6: 
Cardinal  secretary  of  state  under  Pius  IX.  and 
chief  political  adviser  of  that  pope;  b.  at  Sonnino 
(64  m.  s.e.  of  Rome),  in  the  then  Papal  States,  Apr. 
2, 1806;  d.  in  Rome  Nov.  6, 1876.  He  received  his 
earlier  education  at  the  Roman  Seminary,  then 
studied  law  at  the  Sapienza,  and,  after  holding 
several  minor  posts  in  the  papal  government,  was 
appointed  delegate  or  governor  successively  of 
Orvieto,  Viterbo,  and  Macerata.  He  showed  so 
much  force  and  judgment  at  the  outbreak  of  the 
revolution  of  1831  that  Gregory  XVI.  found  a 
place  for  him  in  the  Ministry  of  the  Interior,  trans- 
ferring him  in  1845  to  the  position  of  treasurer 
of  the  Camera  Apostolica  or  minister  of  finance. 
On  his  appointment  in  1840  as  canon  of  St.  Peter's 
he  received  deacon's  orders,  but  he  never  became 
a  priest.  Pius  IX.  made  him  a  cardinal  in  1847, 
and  on  the  organization  of  the  municipal  council, 
in  the  autumn  of  that  year,  named  him  as  its  presi- 
dent. A  few  months  later,  on  the  establishment 
of  a  ministry  on  modem  lines,  he  was  again  placed 
at  the  head  (as  president  of  the  council,  though 
Recchi  was  nominally  prime  minister),  but  soon  re- 
signed the  position,  becoming  prefect  of  the  pontifical 
palaces,  in  which  position  he  organized  the  flight 
toGaeta.  Thence,  as  secretary  of  state,  he  con- 
ducted the  negotiations  which  led  to  the  pope's 
return  (Apr.  12, 1850),  from  which  date  till  his  death 
he  remained  at  the  head  of  public  affairs  under 
Pius  IX. 

As  the  strongest  supporter  of  the  reactionary 
policy,  Antonelli  was  regarded  by  the  Liberals 
as  an  incarnation  of  evil;  but  materials  are  not  yet 


Antoniana 
Apfaarsaohitea 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


206 


at  hand  for  the  formation  of  a  Snal  judgmeiit  on 
his  career.  Hie  opponents,  however,  admit  that 
he  was  a  man  of  genius  in  diplomacy  and  of  un- 
awerving  constancy  in  the  defense  of  his  principles. 
His  private  hfe  Jias  been  bitteriy  attacked,  and 
it  is  true  that  he  was  more  statesman  than  cleric. 
Whatever  may  be  thought  of  hia  character,  however, 
he  was  one  of  the  strong  men  of  the  nineteenth 
century;  and  his  name  will  be  indissolubly  con- 
nected in  liistory  with  that  of  the  pontijl  whom 
he  served  so  faithfully.    Bee  Piub  IX, 

BtSUOORAFST;  A.  de  Waal.  Cardifud  Antanmlli,  Boan,  1876^ 
Trti  hoftU^e*  iluatf^t,  Pio  IX.t  Ijamorieiire  y  AntoneUu 
Madrid,  1360;  E.  V^uillot,  CUibrm*  oaiholvqi*$9  c&fdam- 
porctiiutt,  P&riff,  1S70-  KL»  L  978-979. 

AFTOmAlfS,     an-ta'm-ona,     or     AirTOIflNES, 

aa^^tft-noinz';  1.  Religious  order®  among  the  Ro- 
man  Catholic  Chaldeana^Maronites^  and  Armenians, 
which  follow  a  rule  called  the  rule  of  St.  Anthony, 
In  reality  St*  Anthony  (251-356),  aithough  he  is 
justly  styled  the  father  of  eenobitic  life^  left  no 
rule  to  his  followers  i^ave  those  scattered  directions 
found  in  his  writings.  The  so^alleti  rule  of  St. 
Anthony  is,  therefore,  the  work  of  some  later  writer 
who  took  its  substance,  however,  from  the  teach- 
ings of  the  saint.  At  the  present  time  the  Antonians 
are  grouped  in  four  congregations;  the  Chaldean 
Antonians  of  St,  Hormisdas,  founded  in  Meso- 
potamia in  1809  for  missionary  work,  with  about 
one  hundred  members;  the  Maronite  Antonians 
of  Aleppo,  with  120  m.embers;  the  Maronite  Baia- 
dite  AntonianSf  the  moat  numerous  of  all,  with  700 
members;  and  the  Maronite  Congregation  of  Bt. 
Isaiah,  with  240  membera.  John  T.  Caeagh. 

A  fifth  congregation  called  after  St,  Anthony, 
now  almost  extinct,  was  founded  among  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  Armenians  by  Abraham  At  tar- Mu  ra- 
dian, a  merchant,  who  in  1705,  with  his  brother 
James,  a  priest,  retired  to  Mount  Lebanon  to  lead 
&n  ascetic  life*  Here,  in  1721,  they  established 
the  monastery  of  Kerem,  followed  by  another  at 
Beit^Ebasbo  near  Beirut.  In  1761  a  third  com- 
munity was  founded  in  Rome,  near  the  Vatican. 
About  1740  the  exiled  bishop  of  Haleb  (Aleppo), 
Abraham  Ardzivian,  who  had  found  refuge  at 
Kerem,  took  advantage  of  a  long  vacancy  in  the 
Cilioian  patriarchate  to  set  himself  up  as  catholicos 
of  CSlicia,  and  secured  papal  confirmation  in  1742. 
His  first  successor  was  the  above-mentioued  James, 
who  was  followed  by  Michael  and  Basil,  also  Anto- 
nians.  In  1856  the  patriarch  of  the  Cathohc 
Armenians,  Anthony  Hasun,  residing  in  Constan* 
tinople,  adopted  the  title  "  Patriarch  of  COicia," 
and  put  an  end  to  the  nominal  Antonian  patri- 
arehate.  The  Antonians  usually  numbered  fifty 
or  sixty,  and  served  the  Roman  Catholic  raiiision 
in  Turkey.  In  1 834  they  transferred  their  novitiate 
uiil  school  to  Itome,  only  the  abbot  and  a  few 
brothers  remaining  in  the  Lebanon.  In  1865 
Sukias  Gazanjian  was  chosen  abbot  and  was  con- 
iecrated  by  the  last  Lebanon  patriarch.  He  lived 
in  Constantinople  as  head  of  the  anti-Haatm  party. 
On  Hasun 'a  charges,  he  was  summoned  to  Rome 
in  1869;  but  before  his  case  could  be  heard,  the 
Vfttican  council  met.    He  and  \m  monks  were 


among  the  first  to  reject  papal  infallibility,  and 

were  obhged  to  escape  by  night,  with  the  help  of 
the  French  ambassador.  In  IS76  Malaclii  Or- 
manian,  the  best-know^  and  best-educated  of  the 
Antonians^  went  to  Rome  and  Anally  closied  their 
house  there.  (He  afterward  joined  the  Annenian 
Church,  and  has  published  Lc  Vatican  et  lu  Armi- 
nUns  and  other  works.)  The  present  members 
of  the  congregation,  having  made  their  submission 
to  the  pope^  are  concentrated  in  one  community 
in  Constantinople. 

2.  An  antinomian  sect  which  originated  in 
the  canton  of  Bern,  Switzerland,  early  in  the 
nineteenth  century,  founded  by  Anton  Unter- 
nahrer  (b.  at  Schtlpfheim,  in  the  canton  of 
Lucerne,  Sept,  5,  1759:  d.  in  the  jail  of  Lucerne 
June  29,  1S24),  Unlemfl.hrer  was  edticated  and 
confirmed  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church;  after 
a  varied  career  as  cowherd,  cabinet-maker,  private 
teacher,  and  quack  doctor,  he  settled  in  1800  at 
Amsoldingen,  near  Thun,  and  began  to  hold  re- 
ligious meetings,  to  preachj  and  to  issue  books. 
He  announced  himself  aa  the  Bon  of  God,  come  to 
fulfil  the  incomplete  work  of  Jesus,  to  judge  man- 
kind (especially  rulers  and  judges,  who  were  all 
to  be  abolished),  and  to  cancel  all  debts.  On  Apt. 
16,  1802,  he  appeared  before  the  Minster  of  Bern 
\rith  a  crowd  of  adherents,  to  whom  he  had  pre- 
dicted the  occurrence  of  some  great  event.  The 
tumult  was  suppressed,  and  Untemiihrer  ws^  con- 
demned to  two  years'  imprisonment.  On  his 
release  he  was  received  by  his  adherents  with  en* 
thusiasm,  and  riots  again  occurred.  For  five  years 
Untem&hrer  was  confined  in  Lucerne  as  a  lunatic. 
He  returned  to  the  world  more  collected  and  more 
serious,  but  by  no  means  cured,  and  in  1820  he 
was  permanently  confined  in  the  jail, 

Untemihrer's  publications  comprise  about  fifteen 
pamphlets,  including,  with  others^  Gtrichlsbuch- 
lein;  BiicA  dtr  ErfilUung;  and  Geheimnisa  der 
Liebe.  He  taught  that  the  primitive  relation  be- 
tween God  and  man  was  expressed  in  the  two 
commandments^  to  love  and  multiply^  and  to 
abstain  kom  the  tree  of  knowledge.  Tempted  by 
Satan,  man  ^'iolated  the  second  commandment 
and  attained  great  wisdom,  wliich  is  the  curse  of 
mankind.  It  began  with  the  distinction  between 
good  and  evil,  and  ends  in  institutions  innumer- 
able— State,  Church,  courts,  schools,  and  the  like. 
From  the  cutee  there  is  only  one  means  of  salvation; 
namely,  through  the  fulfilment  of  the  first  command- 
ment, to  love  and  multiply;  and  for  this  purpose 
all  retrain ts  arising  from  such  ideas  as  marriage, 
family,  etc.,  must  be  thrown  off.  The  principal 
seat  of  the  sect  was  Aroaoldingen,  whence  it  spread 
to  Gsteig,  near  Interlaken.  Suppressed  here  in 
1821,  it  reappeared  at  Wohlen,  near  Bern,  in  1S30, 
under  the  leadership  of  Benedict  Schori,  and  again 
at  Gsteig,  in  1838-40,  under  the  leadership  of 
Christian  Michel.  Severe  measures  were  necessary 
to  suppress  its  excesses. 

BiHLiQflnAPHT;  J.  Zieglcir«  Akttnm&Mmae  Naehrichten  Hher 
die  Kffenanntfn  Ankmit^ett  im  Kenton  Btm,  in  TinKh- 
»1<  B^^a&t  no-  O^tchichte  dtr  achweu^iMchni  rfformiritn 
Kvdig,  iii.  70  iqq.,  Bm,  1S42;  G.  ^qm,  Iku  Stkl£AW«M€n 
tm  Ktmion  Bern,  ib.  taSl. 


807 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Antoniftna 
Apharsaohitea 


AHTOWmUS,  an'^to-noi'iatjs,  PIUS;  Roman  em- 
peror 138-16! ;  b,  near  Latjuviijm  (Civila  Lavigna, 
18  m.  s.a.e.  of  Rome)  Sept.  19,  86;  d.  at  Lorium  (in 
Bouthern  Etniria,  12  Roman  milej  from  Rome)  Mar. 
7^151.  He  was  made  conauJ  in  1 3D  and  was  adopted 
by  Hadrian  in  1^8,  after  he  had  distinguiBbed  liim- 
Belf  by  his  adminift ration  of  the  province  of  Aiaia. 
On  his  accession  as  emperor  he  took  the  name 
Titus  iElius  Hadrianus  Antoninus  Hu^,  his  original 
one  having  been  Titus  AureUus  Fulviua  Boionius 
Arrius  Antcrumja.  Under  his  just  and  gentle  rule 
the  empire  enjoyed  almost  UDbroken  peace.  In 
his  last  years  he  lefl  the  government  more  and  more 
in  the  hands  of  his  associate^  Ma  reus  Aurelius  (q.v.), 
with  whom  he  was  on  terms  of  the  closest  friend- 
ship. For  the  Christian  Church  his  reign  is  marked 
by  the  flouriahing  of  Marmon  and  the  Gnostic 
schools,  by  the  apology  of  Arlstides  and  the  writings 
of  Justin,  probably  by  the  Oratio  of  Tatian,  and 
possibly  by  the  final  edition  of  the  Shepherd  of 
Hermaja.  Within  the  same  period  fall  the  beginning 
of  the  Easter  controverayy  the  visit  of  Poly  carp 
and  Hegesippus  to  Rome*  the  rise  of  the  monarchical 
episcopate  in  that  city,  and  the  early  stages  of  the 
consolidation  against  Gnosticism  of  the  Roman 
Church.  The  civil  magistrat^es  observed  the  same 
policy  of  tolerance  toward  the  C'hurch  as  under 
Trajan  and  Hadrian,  Practically,  however,  by 
forbidding  or  rendering  difficult  the  delation  of  the 
Christians  on  a  charge  of  atheism  by  the  excited 
population  of  Asia  Minor,  as  well  as  by  his  edicts 
addressed  **  to  the  people  of  Larisea,  Thessalonica, 
Athens,  and  all  the  Greeks,'*  Antoninus  so  far 
protected  them  that  he  was  considered  by  many 
ecclesiastical  writers  as  a  positive  friend  of  the  new 
reUgton.  His  prohibition  of  denunciation  by  fa- 
natical private  citizens,  however,  can  not  be  taken 
as  equivalent  to  an  official  sanction  for  the  practise 
of  Christianity.  (A.  Harnac^.) 

Bibliogkamiy:  E.  E.  Biyuic.  Reiffn  uf  Ankminut  Pm»^ 
Cambridge,  1865  (s  ffcholttJubip-eHKRy):  Neander,  ChHM- 
itAn  Church,  i  poMim;  B.  Aubd^,  H\itaire  dtM  ptm^cu- 
(KHM.  pp.  297-341.  Farid*  JS75;  W.  W.  Capen,  Th* 
Age  of  Ihi  Ant&nitM^  London,  1870:  3ch^,  CAurcA  Hiitory^ 
ii.  £1-52;  also,  on  the  perJ<Hl.  C.  Me^ivllle:^  Hintoryi  of  the 
Eojnan*  undef  the  Empire,  S  vola.,  Lomluti,  1S65. 

ANTONmUS,  SAIHT,  OF  FLOREKCE  (AHTO- 
mo  PIEROZZI):  Archbishop  of  Florence;  b.  in 
that  city  1339;  d.  there  May  2,  1459.  In  14(H 
be  joined  the  Dominicans,  and  in  1436  was 
made  prior  of  the  monastery  of  San  Marco 
in  Florence.  In  14^9  he  took  part  in  the  nego- 
tiationH  for  union  with  the  Greeks.  In  1446, 
againjst  his  wish  but  at  the  express  behest  of  Pope 
Eugenius  IV,,  he  waa  chosen  archbishop.  His 
blameless  life  and  devotion  to  duty  rendered  him 
beloved  by  allj  and  his  canonization  by  Adrian  VI. 
in  1523  was  looked  upon  as  the  just  due  of  an  un- 
tiring, humble,  and  exemplary  bishop.  He  haa 
baen  a  favorite  subject  of  Florentine  art.. 

The  humanifltic  tendency  of  the  time  had  no 
effect  upon  Antoninus,  He  wrote  certain  works 
quite  in  the  scholastic  spirit,  as:  Summa  iheologica 
C4  parts,  Venice  and  Nuremberg,  1477;  ed.  P.  and 
B.  Ballerim,  Verona,  1740),  based  upon  Thomas 
Aquinas,  the  first  text-book  of  ethics,  and  still 
esteemed  in  Italy;  Summa  confeBsionalis  or  Sum- 


mula  confeMumum  (Mondovi,  1472);  and  Summa 
historkdis  or  Chroniam  ab  orhe  amditu  bipartUum 
(3  %^ola.,  Venice,  MSO,  and  often;  ed,  P.  Maturus, 
S.  J.,  Lyons,  1587),  a  w*orid-chromcle  to  1457,  un- 
critical and  full  of  fables  and  legends,  but  showing 
industry  and  systematic  arrangement.  Here  and 
there,  as  in  judging  of  the  great  scliism,  he  ventures 
to  advance  his  own  opinion  and  he  questions  the  gen- 
uineness of  the  Donation  of  Const  an  tine.  A  com- 
plete edition  of  Antoninus'  works*  in  four  volumes, 
was  publLshcd  at  Venice,  1474-75,  and  a  second 
edition^  in  eight  volumes,  at  Florence,  1741.  In 
later  years  have  appeared:  Opera  a  ben  vivere  di 
Sant'  Ani^mma  (Florence,  1858)  and  LeUere  (1859). 

K.  Benrath. 
BtBUOGRAFBT:  A  11f«^  hy  Fmaciscus  C^tiiLDnetinia,  and  an* 
other  by  LconarduB  dti  Serubertia  ore  in  A  SB,  At&y*  i. 
3I4-9&2;  Quj^tif-Echiird»  Scriptore*  tntiiniM  pfffdieatorum, 
I  S17-81U.  Parii,  1719:  jEncaa  SiMufl.  Cowimentorti, 
p,  50,  Frankfort,  lfil4;  Creiflbton,  Pajmcp.  L  504;  A. 
vqrj  Reumant,  Brief e  htiligtr  und  g^itttfiirchti^er  Ita- 
lietier,  pp.  135-150,  Freiburg,  1877;  idetn^  Lattuzo  de* 
Mwdici,  i.  14S»  17B,  fia2-d6i,  L«ipaic,  1S71.  Eng.  trmiuL, 
i.  123.  161,  463-465«  London,  1876, 

AWTONIO  DE  LEBRIJA,  an-to'ni-5  d^  l^brt'ea, 
(Lat.  MHua  Antonuts  Nebtiasen$iSf  i.e,,  "  of  Lebri- 
ja/*  the  ancient  Nebrissa,  on  the  Guadalquivir, 
34  m.  8.  of  Seville):  Spanish  humanist;  b.  1442 
(1444?);  d,  at  Alcala  July  2,  1522,  He  studied 
in  his  native  land,  and  for  about  ten  years  in  Italy, 
and  returned  to  Spain  with  a  plan  for  reforming 
the  schools  and  stutlies.  As  professor  in  Salamanca 
and  by  his  IntrxKiticlwnes  in  Latinam  grammati^ 
cam  (1481 ;  innumerable  editions,  tranf^lations,  and 
adaptations,  even  as  late  as  Paris,  1&5S;  an  Eng, 
ed.,  London,  1631),  he  led  the  way  to  a  knowledge 
of  the  classics.  Retiring  from  the  university,  he 
spent  eight  or  ten  years  in  the  preparation  of  a 
Latin-Spanish  and  Spanish-Latin  lexicon  {Seville, 
n.d.;  Aleak r  1532;  and  often),  a  pioneer  work  at 
that  time.  He  published  also  archeologieal  works 
and  a  grammar  of  Greek  and  of  Castilian,  and 
labored  to  improve  the  text  of  the  Vulgate.  He 
was  one  of  the  chief  workers  on  the  Complutensian 
polyglot,  and  spent  his  last  years  as  teacher  at 
Alcala,  protected  by  Cardinal  Xinienes  from  the 
attacks  of  the  adherents  of  the  old  scholastic  school. 
As  historiographer  to  Ferdinand  the  Catholic  he 
wrote  a  history  of  two  decades  of  the  reign  of 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella  (Granada,  1545)  [by  some 
assigned  to  Hernando  da  Pulgar  rather  than  to 
Antonio;  cf.  Pott  hast,  WegweiveT,  Berlin,  1896, 
p.  946].  K.  Benrath. 

BiBLioaHAFRY:  Nicholaufl.  A.n£DiuuB,  Biiitiotheca  HupanO' 
n&va,  i.  132-139,  Madrid,  t7B^:  J.  B.  Muftoi.  in  Merrwria* 
de  la  f&U  licademia  d^  la  hi^tsria,  iij.  1-30,  Madrid, 
1799:  C.  J.  Hefele.  Cardinal  Xiinenta,  pp.  116-117,  134. 
379,  45S,  TQbinf^n,  1S44. 

ANTWERP  POLYGLOT,  See  Bibles,  Pol yo lot. 

APHARSACmTES,  Q-fflr^ea-kaits.  APHARSATH- 
CHITES,  Q-far"sath'kaita,  APHARSITES,  a-fOr'- 
sQit« :  Worils  occurring  only  in  the  Book  of 
Eara  (Apharsachites,  v,  6;  Apharsathchites  and 
Apharsites,  iv.  9).  Most  translators  and  commen- 
tators have  regarded  them  as  names  of  peoples^  in- 
cluding them  among  the  tribes  settled  in  Samaria 
by  the  Assyrians  (II  Kings  xvii.  24),  and  have  made 
unsatisfactory  attempts  to  identify  them  (e.g-j  the 


Aphraatea 
Apooalyptio 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


208 


Apharaitea  with  the  Parrhasii  of  East  Media — 
BO  M.  Hilier,  OnoTnasiicuTn  sacrUTrij  TQbingeni  1706 — 
or  with  the  Peraians — Gesemue^  Thesaurus;  Ewald, 
Geschicfite  Iwmla;  E.  BertheaUj  coimnentfljy  on 
Ezra,  GWttingen,  183S),  The  best  explanation 
has  been  given  by  Eduard  Meyer  {Entstehung  ties 
Judenthums,  Halb^  1896,  pp.  37  sqq.),  following 
a  hiDi  of  G.  Hoflfmann  (in  ZA^ii.f  I8S7,  pp.  54  sqq.). 
He  regards  ^*  Aphaneachites "  and  "  Apharattth" 
chites "  as  equivalent,  the  "  th "  (the  Hebrew 
letter  tau)  having  been  inserted  in  the  latter  by 
mistake,  and  gives  to  all  three  words  the  same 
meaning,  "  Persians/'  The  passage  Erra  iv,  9, 
accordingly^  he  readi:  "  Rehum  the  commissioner 
and  Shims hai  the  scribe,  and  the  rest  of  their 
colleagues  the  Persian  magistracy,  the  Persian 
tarpetayct  the  people  of  Erech^  Babylon,  and  Shu- 
shan,  that  is^  the  Elamites/'  The  word  tarpelaye 
(English  versions  "  TarpeUt*s '*)  b  left  untrans- 
lated aa  necessarily  meaning  an  official  clam  of 
some  unknown  sort  and  not  the  name  of  a  people. 
It  is  possible,  however,  that  the  *^  Apharsites  *' 
arc  not  "  Persians,"  but  that  the  form  arose  by 
dittography,  the  word  for  scribe  {mphera)  juat  above 
being  first  copied  by  mistake  and  then  assimilated 
to  the  form  for  "  PeraiariB*"  If  **  Apharsites''  were 
to  be  thus  ruled  out  of  the  verse  and  the  Bible  ^ 
the  "  TarpeliteB  "  would  be  an  unknown  people 
heading  ttie  list  like  t)iose  that  follow,  and  not  the 
name  of  a  daaa  of  officials,         J.  F.  McCueby, 

APHltA/lTES,  a-frrtia:  The  "Persian  sage." 
He  is  known  as  the  author  of  twenty-two  homilies, 
arranged  according  to  the  letters  of  the  Syriac 
alphabet,  and  a  treatise,  De  acirw  benedicto  (Isa. 
Ixv.  8),  in  Syriac »  The  first  ten  homilies  were 
written  in  the  years  330-337,  the  others  ia  344-345  j 
the  treatise  in  Aug.,  345.  The  latter  is  mentioned 
in  Armenian  lists  of  the  apocryphal  books.  In 
the  Ufe  of  Julianus  Saba  (P»  Bedjan,  Acta  martymm 
ei  sanciorum,  vL,  Paris,  1896,  p.  386)  it  is  said  that 
Aphraatcs  waa  a  pupil  of  Julianus  and  that  he  died, 
according  to  some,  at  the  age  of  104  years.  If 
this  be  true,  he  may  have  been  the  Aphraates 
mentioned  by  Theodore t  (Hist,  eccl.,  iv.  22-23), 
who  had  an  interview  with  Valens.  The  name 
occurs  again  in  the  Syriac  martyrology  of  the  year 
411,  Its  form  in  modern  Persian  is  Fmrhad.  The 
name  Jacobus  seems  to  have  been  adopted  by 
Aphraat^js  as  bishop  of  the  moiiastery  of  Mar  Mattai, 
near  Mosul  (cf,  G.  P.  Badger,  The  Nealorians^  i,, 
London,  1852,  p.  97). 

With  Ephraem  Syrus,  Aphraates  may  be  called 
the  first  classic  writer  of  the  Syrian  Church.  His 
Btyle  is  pure,  and  he  shows  deep  knowledge  of  the 
Scriptures,  with  earnest  aeal  for  the  welfare  of  the 
Church.  There  is  no  trace  of  the  christological 
eontroversiej  of  Anus,  a  single  polemical  passage 
a^nst  Valentinians,  Alarcionitea,  and  Manicheans^ 
but  many  against  the  Jews,  from  whose  traditions 
Aphraates  draws  richly  (cf.  S.  Funk,  Die  hag- 
gadiachen  Ekmenie  in  Aphraates,  Vienna,  1S91). 
He  med  the  Diatfmaron  of  Tatian  instead  of  the 
single  Gospels.  The  sixth  homily  shows  that 
m^mks  and  eremites  were  already  organized  in 
his  time  and  place.     Hia  psychology  is  peculiar, 


especially  his  doctrine  of  the  sleep  of  the  soul. 
His  days  are  Jan.  29  (Greek  calendar)  and 
Apr.  7. 

Gennadi  us  of  Marseilles,  in  his  De  viria  iUustrOtus 
(c*  495),  confounded  Aphraatea  with  Jacob  of 
Nisibis,  under  whose  name  nineteen  of  the  homilies 
were  published  in  an  Annenian  translation  by  N» 
Antonelli  (Rome,  1756).  George,  bishop  of  the 
Arabians,  in  a  letter  about  714  (P.  de  Lagarde, 
Anatecta  Syriacaj  Leipsic,  1858;  German  transL 
by  V.  Ryssel,  ib.  1891),  is  better  informed.  The 
Byriac  original  was  first  made  acce8»ible  by  W. 
Wright  (The  Htmiilies  of  Aphraates t  ^he  Persian 
S(^e,  1,,  text,  London,  1869;  the  translation  did 
not  appear).  With  Latin  translation  the  homilies 
are  in  Fottologia  Syriaca,  i.  (Paris,  1894),  There  is 
a  German  translation  by  G.  Bert  (TU,  iii.  3,  Leipsic, 
1888),  and  an  English  translation  of  selections  in 
NPNFf  2d  ser.j  vol.  xiii.  E.  Nestle. 

Bibuoohafst:  J.  B.  F.  8*«k,  Prdtffomfrm  in  A^raatiM 
Aermoiieti  Lcipaic,  1S78;  J.  Forgpt,  Dn  rUa  et  Kriptds 
Apfauatu,  Louvnin,  1883;  W,  Wright.  A  Merl  HUton/  of 
Si/rvK  Littraiunt  London^  1S94;  and  the  preface  to 
Wright'i  ed,  of  the  Homitin;  F.  C,  Burkitt,  Eitrly  Eaat^m 
ChriMtianili/,  pp.  132-140,  Lutidun.  19<M. 

APHTHARTODOCETjE,  af'tbar"t6-do^i'ti.  See 
Mono  FH  r  SITES. 

APIOITj  ^'pe-on:  Alexandrian  grammarian  of 
the  first  century.  He  w-as  bom  in  the  Great  Oasis 
of  Egypt,  was  educated  in  Alexandria,  and  gained 
repute  there  as  teacher  and  lecturer;  during  the 
reigns  of  Tiberius  and  CJlaudius  he  lectured  on  rhet- 
oric and  grammar  in  Rome;  under  Caligula  he 
traveled  through  Greece  and  Italy  lecturing  on 
Homer.  He  seems  to  have  been  vain  and  super- 
ficial, with  a  touch  of  the  charlatan  in  his  char- 
acter. Among  other  w^orks,  he  wrot*  a  glossary  on 
Homer,  a  eulogy  of  Alexander  the  Great,  and  a 
history  of  Egypt.  But  it  is  as  an  early  anti-Semite 
ttiat  Apion  is  remembered;  his  hatred  of  the  Jews 
waa  bitter  and  extreme  and  led  him  to  record 
slanders  in  his  history  of  Egypt  which  are  refuted 
by  Josephua  in  his  work  known  aa  Ctmtra  Apianem, 
although  but  a  part  of  it  is  directed  against  Apion. 
In  the  year  40  a.d.  Apion  he^ed  a  delegation  sent 
from  Alexandria  to  Caligula  at  Rome  to  make 
chargei  against  the  Jewar  the  counterdelegation, 
sent  by  the  Jews  for  their  defense,  was  led  by 
Philo  (q.v.).  The  extant  fragments  of  Apion*a 
historical  works  are  collected  in  C,  O.  Miiller'a 
Fragmenla  historiecrum  Gracorum,  iii.  (Paris,  1849), 
pp.  506-n516. 

BibuooRAJ^nr:  DCB,  i.  1^^130;  SehQrer,  OttehichU,  iiL 
406-11 1 »  LeipMc.  1898.  Eng.  tranjil,.  II.  iii.  257-201  (con- 
yiiiui  full  referencM  to  literature);  JE,  L  866^368. 

APOCALYPSE,  THE.  See  John  the:  Apijstle, 
XL,  L  For  apocryphal  apocalypses,  sec  Apoc- 
RTPHA,  B,  IV.;  see  also  Pseud  epigraph  a.  Old 
Testament,  IL,  4-21,  and  Apocalyptic  Liteha- 
TUBB,  Jewish. 

APOCALYPTIC  LITERATURE,  JEWISH:      The 

lateet  type  of  Jewish  prophetic  writing.  The 
literature  generally  called  '*  apocalyptio  '*  com- 
mences with  Daniel  (for  date,  ece  Daniel,  Book  of) 
and   clo«aes   with    IV   Ezra-Baruch.     On   the   one 


ji09 


BELIGI0U8  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Aphraates 
Apooalyptio 


side,  the  limit  is  the  time  of  the  Maccabean  rising; 
on  the  other,  the  downfall  of  the  Jewish  nationality. 

The  notion  of  two  ages  following  each 

Fundamen-  other  (this  age  and  the  coming  one; 

tal  Charac-  cf.  IV  Ezra,  vii.  60,  "  The  Most  High 

teristics.     made  not  one  age,  but  two  ")»  which 

stands  also  in  the  background  of  New 
Testament  literature,  governs  apocalyptic  con- 
ceptions. The  underlying  idea .  here  is  dualism, 
the  thought  being  that  God  alone  is  not  in  full  con- 
trol of  "  this  age,''  since  diabolic  might  finds  ex- 
ercise therein.  It  is  interesting  to  observe  how 
through  Jewish  apocalyptic  the  idea  of  "  world  " 
as  a  whole,  developing  itself  according  to  certain 
laws,  is  made  familiar  to  later  Judaism  (cf.  Dan. 
vii.  1  sqq.;  Enoch  Ixxxv.  sqq.;  Baruch  xxvii.  sqq.), 
and  how  the  inner,  significant,  religious-historical 
development  of  Judaism  is  conditioned  by  its 
external  history.  In  its  developed  form  apoca- 
lyptic literature  originated  in  a  period  when  a  civi- 
lized power,  the  Hellenic,  ruling  the  world  by  ex- 
ternal might  and  inner  mental  superiority,  entered 
upon  a  contest  with  Judaism,  in  which  the  latter, 
aroused  to  national  consciousness,  accepted  the 
gage  of  battle.  The  Greek  power,  and  afterward 
the  Roman,  supplied  the  apocalyptic  seer  with  the 
material  for  the  formation  of  his  conceptions. 
Thus  the  time  of  the  Maccabees  is  the  natal  hour 
of  the  Jewish  apocalyptic,  and  Daniel  is  its  mental 
creator. 

Two  other  thoughts  permeate  Jewish  apoca- 
lyptic: the  idea  of  a  world-judgment  and  the  hope 
of  resurrection  from  the  dead.  The  idea  of  the 
great  judgment  and  of  God  as  judge  of  the  world 
permeates  Jewish  literature  subsequent  to  the  wri- 
ting of  Dan.  vii.  In  their  entire  piuity  and  com- 
plete ethical  power  these  thoughts  come  out  only 
in  the  gospel;  but  the  two  thoughts,  that  in  this 
age  God  is  an  absentee  and  that  at  its  end  he  will 
destroy  his  world-adversaries  in  the  great  judg- 
ment, rule  the  Jewish  idea  of  God.  The  belief  in 
the  resurrection  of  the  dead,  which  is  still  greatly 
limited  in  Daniel,  only  gradually  took  hold  of  the 
Jewish  national  soul.  The  Psalms  of  Solomon 
know  little  of  it  (xvii.  44);  it  prevailed  in  the  time 
of  Jesus,  when  denial  of  the  doctrine  was  regarded 
as  disloyalty.  The  hope  of  a  resurrection  of  the 
dead  gave  a  strongly  individualistic  character  to 
apocalyptic  piety:  it  suggested  inquiry  about  the 
final  lot  of  the  individual — how  the  individual 
could  stand  in  judgment  before  God.  This  individ- 
ualism was  a  consequence  of  the  piety  of  Jeremiah 
and  the  Psalms;  but  the  thought  of  individual 
responsibility  in  the  final  judgment  nowhere  de- 
veloped in  Judaism  its  full  ethical  force,  and  it 
was  stifled  again  and  again  by  the  fanciful  expec- 
tations of  national  greatness  on  earth,  or  was 
applied  in  Pharisaic  party  polemic  against  the 
"  impious  and  apostates." 

In  general  it  must  be  emphasized  that,  when 
compared  with  the  preceding  epoch,  this  apoca- 
lyptic does  not  imply  an  advance  of  religious  in- 
dividualism; it  reveids  rather  a  stronger  influx  of 
national  elements  into  the  piety  of  Judaism.  In 
the  Maccabean  period  the  piety  of  later  Judaism 
became  again  national  piety.  The  temper  of 
1.-14 


apocalyptic  was  thoroughly  particularistic  and 
narrowly  national.  God's  Idngdom  involved  only 
mercy  to  Israel  and  judgment  to  the  heathen 
(Psahns  of  Solomon  xvii.  2).  In  spite  of  the  trans- 
cendental and  ideal  character  which  the  apocalyptic 
picture  gradually  assumed  (cf.  the  idea  of  a  "  com- 
ing age,"  world-judgment,  waking  from  the  dead), 
the  old,  earthly  hopes  of  Israel  of  a  kingdom  of 
Davidic  glory,  a  Messiah  bearing  David's  name, 
an  earthly  empire,  and  a  gloriously  renewed  Jeru- 
salem are  closely  bound  up  with  it.  This  divergence 
shows  itself  especially  in  the  position  which  the 
expected  Messiah  occupied  in  this  literature. 
With  the  world-judgment,  the  destruction  of  the 
world,  and  the  awaking  from  the  dead,  the  expected 
Davidic  king  was  to  have  little  to  do;  consequently 
his  form  occasionally  disappeared  entirely  (so  in 
Daniel  and  the  Assumption  of  Moses).  On  the 
whole,  however,  the  transcendental  retained  its 
position;  at  one  time  it  was  only  partly  pushed 
aside  (Enoch  xc.  4;  IV  Ezra  vii.  28;  Baruch  xxix.); 
at  another,  it  partly  corresponded  to  the  picture  of 
hope  which  involved  an  ideal  transfiguration 
(cf .  Psalms  of  Solomon  xvii.,  and  the  "  similitudes  " 
in  Enoch).  This  divergence  led  finally  to  the 
assumption  of  a  double  finale:  first,  the  interme- 
diate Messianic  realm  (Rev.  xx.;  Book  of  the 
Secrets  of  Enoch  xxxiii.),  in  which  earthly  ex- 
pectations were  to  be  realized;  and,  second,  the 
"  coming  age,"  ushered  in  by  the  world-judgment 
and  the  resurrection  from  the  dead  which  should 
satisfy  the  more  transcendental  aspirations  (cf. 
Enoch  xciii.,xci.  12-19;  IV  Ezra  vii.  28-29;  Baruch 
xl.  3;  Rev.  xx.;  Book  of  the  Secrets  of  Enoch 
xxxiii.). 

With  this  fundamental  character  of  Jewish 
apocalyptic  a  number  of  external  qualities  are  con- 
nected. All  apocalyptic  writers  indulged  in  fanciful 
computation  of  the  end.  The  apocalyptic  seer 
lived  in  a  time  when  all  felt  that  the  prophetic 
spirit  had  departed,  when  important  decisions 
awaited  the  coming  of  a  prophet  (I  Mace.  iv.  40; 
cf.  ix.  27,  xiv.  41)  and  the  judgment  of  prophecy 
(Zech.  xiii.  2  sqq.).  Apocalyptic  arithmetic  took 
the  place  of  prophecy;  thus  in  the  center  of  Daniel's 
prophecies  (Dan.  ix.)  the  seventy  years  of  Jeremiah 
are  interpreted  as  seventy  year-weeks  (i.e.,  70  X  7 
years),  which  interpretation  is  followed  by  Enoch 
Ixxxix.  sqq.;  or  the  duration  of  the  world  was  esti- 
mated on  the  basis  of  some  hidden 

External  wisdom  (Assumption  of  Moses  i.  1, 
Qualities,  x.  12;  Enoch  xc,  xci.;  IV  Ezra  xiv. 
11;  Baruch  liii.),  for  only  the  wise 
and  intelligent  could  understand  these  secrets 
(Rev.  xiii.  18,  xvii.  9;  Mark  xiii.  14).  A  conse- 
quence of  the  foregoing  is  the  non-creative  character 
of  this  literature;  it  followed  closely  the  older 
literature  of  Israel,  especially  the  idea  of  theoph- 
anies  (Isa.  vi.  and  Ezek.  i.),  the  prophecies  con- 
cerning Babylon  (Isa.  xiii.,  xiv.;  Jer.  l.-li.).  Tyre 
(Ezek.  xxvii.,  xxviii.),  and  Gog  and  Magog  (Ezek. 
xxxviii.,  xxxix.).  The  most  promiscuous  notions 
and  views  from  other  religious  departments  crept 
in,  and  these,  understood  only  in  part  or  not  at  all, 
were  circulated  as  coins  stamped  once  for  all. 
Behemoth  and  Leviathan,  the  dra^n,  the  beast 


Apooatastasia 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


810 


with  seven  heads,  the  four  ages,  the  seven  spirits, 
the  twenty-four  elders,  the  candlestick  with  seven 
branches,  the  two  witnesses,  and  the  woman 
clothed  with  the  sun — all  these  imply  great  religious- 
historical  connections  which  can  not  now  be  fully 
understood,  but  which  nevertheless  existed.  A 
necessary  rule  for  the  interpretation  of  apocalyptic 
literature  is  that  a  single  apocalypse  can  not  be 
explained  in  itself,  but  only  from  a  survey  com- 
prising, if  possible,  all  related  works.  The  fan- 
tastic element  in  Jewish  apocalyptic  literature  is 
not  due  to  an  excess  of  imagination  in  these  authors, 
who  were  so  poor  in  spirit;  the  impression  of 
strangeness  is  due  to  the  use  of  abnormal  religious 
images.  For  discussion  of  the  several  books,  see 
Apocrypha,  B,  IV.;  F^eudepiorapha,  Old  Tes- 
tament,  II.,   4-21.  (W.  BoussET.) 

Bibuoorapht:  The  best  treatment  is  to  be  found  in  R.  H. 
Charles's  editions  of  apocalyptic  writings,  e.g.,  his  Enochs 
London,  1803,  Apocalypte  of  Banich,  1896,  Atcenaion  of 
Itaiah,  1000.  JubiUea,  1002,  and  in  his  Critical  Hiitory  of 
lh«  Doctrine  of  a  Future  Life,  1800;  A.  Hilicenfeld,  Die 
jOdiadte  Apohalj/piikt  Jena,  1857;  J.  Dnimmond.  Jewish 
Meeaiah,  London.  1877;  R.  Smend,  in  ZATW,  v. 
(1885)  222-250;  DB,  i.  100-110;  Scharer.  OeechichU,  iii. 
181-185,  En«.  trans!..  II.  iii.  44  sqq.;  M.  S.  Terry. 
BiUiccd  Apocalyptice,  New  York,  1808;  EB,  i.  213- 
260  (reviews  the  important  apocalyptic  literature);  JE, 
i.  6d0-685  (treats  of  late  Jewish  productions);  W. 
Bousset,  Die  jUdieche  Apokalyptik,  Berlin.  1003;  F.  C. 
Porter,  The  Meuagee  of  the  Apocalyptical  Writera^  New 
York.  1005. 

APOCATASTASIS,  ap''o-ca-tas'ta-sis. 

Earliest  Advocates  (f  1).     In  the  Middle  Ages  (f  3). 

Opponents  (f  2).  The  Reformation  (f  4). 

In  Modem  Times  (f  5). 

By  Apocatastasis  ("restoration'')  is  meant 
the  ultimate  restitution  of  all  things,  including 
the  doctrine  that  eventually  all  men  will  be  saved. 
The  term  comes  from  the  Greek  of  Acts  iii.  21, 
but  is  given  a  wider  meaning  than  it  has  in  that 
passage.  The  doctrine  first  appears  in  Clement 
of  Alexandria  (flourished  2(X))  in  the  declaration 
that  the  punishments  of  God  are  "  saving  and 
disciplinary,  leading  to  conversion "  (Strom,, 
vi.  6).  His  successor  at  the  head  of  the  Alexandrian 
catechetical  school,  Origen  (186-253), 
I.  Earliest  taught  that  all  the  wicked  would  be 
Advocates,  restored  after  they  had  undergone 
severe  punishment  and  had  received 
instruction  from  angels  and  then  from  those  of 
higher  grade  (De  principiis,  I.  vi.  1-3).  He  also 
raised  the  question  whether  after  this  world  there 
perhaps  would  be  another  or  others  in  which  this 
instruction  would  be  given  {De  principiis,  II.  iii.  1), 
and  interpreted  Paul's  teaching  respecting  the 
subjection  of  all  things  to  God  as  implying  the 
salvation  of  the  "  lost  "  {De  principiis,  III.  v.  7). 
These  beliefs  and  speculations  he  based  on  Bible 
statements(especially  on  Ps.  ex.  1 ;  I  Cor.  xv.  25  sqq.), 
but  declared  that  the  doctrine  would  be  danger- 
ous to  disseminate  {Contra  Celsum,  vi.  26).  He, 
and  it  would  seem,  dement  of  Alexandria  also, 
advocated  the  Apocatastasis  as  part  of  a  theory 
of  the  divine  attributes  which  subordinated  right- 
eousness to  mercy;  of  human  freedom,  which  made 
the  will  never  finally  fixed;  and  of  sin,  which 
represented  it  rather  as  weakness  and  ignorance. 


Similar  ideas  of  the  divine  goodness,  human 
freedom,  and  sin  led  to  the  advocacy  of  the  Apoca- 
tastasis by  Gregory  Nazianzen  (328-389),  but  not 
openly;  by  Gregory  of  Nyssa  (332-398),  publicly,  as 
in  his  treatise  "  On  the  Soul  and  the  Resurrection  " 
{MPG,  xlvi.  104);  by  Didymus  of  Alexandria 
(308-396),  in  his  conmientary  on  I  Peter  iii.  (in 
Galland,  Bibliotheca  patrum,  vi.  292  sqq.);  and  by 
Diodorus  of  Tarsus  (flourished  375),  in  his  treatise 
"  On  the  Divine  Economy "  (in  J.  S.  Assemanus, 
Bibliotheca  orientalis,  III.  i.  324).  Even  Chrys- 
ostom  (347-407),  when  commenting  on  I  CJor.  xv. 
28,  quoted  without  contradiction  the  view  that  by 
the  expression  ''  God  shall  be  all  in  all  "  was  meant 
universal  cessation  of  opposition  to  God  (MPG, 
Ixi.  342).  So  also  the  Monophysite,  Stephen  bar- 
Sudaili,  abbot  of  a  monastery  at  Edessa  in  the  sixth 
century,  advocated  the  Apocatastasis  in  a  treatise 
which  he  wrote  on  the  subject  under  the  name  of 
Hierotheus  (as  is  stated  in  Assemanus,  ut  sup.,  ii. 
290  sqq.).  It  was  taught  also  by  Maximus  Con- 
fessor (580-662),  called  by  the  Greeks  Theologos 
and  revered  as  the  leader  of  the  Orthodox  against 
the  Monothelites,  drawing  from  Gregory  of  Nyssa, 
as  in  his  answer  to  the  thirteenth  question  of  his 
"  Questions  and  Doubts  "  {MPG,  xc.  796).  The  ex- 
istence of  this  belief  in  the  eighth  century  is  shown 
by  the  warning  against  it  given  in  718  by  Pope 
Gregory  II.,  when  sending  out  missionaries  {MPL, 
Ixxxix.  534).  In  the  ninth  century  it  was  roundly 
asserted  by  that  very  independent  speculative 
theologian  Johannes  Scotus  Erigena,  in  the  third 
book  of  his  treatise  "On  the  Division  of  Nature" 
{MPL,  cxxii.  619-742).  He  drew  from  Origen, 
pseudo-Dionysius  Areopagita,  Gregory  of  Nyssa, 
and  still  more  directly,  from  Maximus  Con- 
fessor. 

But  the  writers  defending  the  Apocatastasis 
are  decidedly  in  the  minority;  and  so  bad  was  the 
repute  of  Origen  for  sound  tldnking  that  any  theory 
known  to  be  derived  from  him  was  looked  at 
askance  by  the  sober-minded.  Jerome  (d.  420), 
for  example,  reckoned  the  Apocatastasis  among 
the  "  abhorrent "  heresies  of  Origen  {Epist.,  cxxxiv.). 
The  emperor   Justinian,  in  his  edict 

2.  Oppo-  against  Origen,  issued  in  545,  made  it 
nents.  the  ninth  of  the  ten  doctrines  for 
which  the  latter  should  be  anathe- 
matized; and  when,  at  Justinian's  call,  a  coimcil 
met  in  Constantinople  that  same  year  to  condenm 
Origen,  the  doctrine  appears  as  the  fourteenth  of 
the  fifteen  for  which  he  was  cursed  (Hefele,  Con- 
cUiengeschichte,  ii.  789,  797,  Eng.  transl.,  iv.  220, 
228). 

In  the  West,  Augustine  (354-430)  threw  his 
influence  against  the  Apocatastasis,  teaching  in  the 
most  unmistakable  language  the  absolute  endless- 
ness of  future  punishment  (e.g.,  "City of  God,"  xxi. 
11-23). 

At  a  later  period  the  doctrine  appears  in  the 
teachings  of  the  great  pantheistic  thinker  Amalric 
of  Bena  (d.  1204),  only  to  be  again  condemned  by 
the  Western  Church;  for  it  was  one  of  the  counts 
upon  which  Amalric  was  declared  a  heretic  by  Pope 
Innocent  III.,  and  for  which  his  followers,  the 
Brethren  and  Sisters  of  the  Free  Spirit,  after  his 


211 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Apooatastaaia 


death,  were  condemned  by  the  Fourth  Lateran 
Council,  in  1215  (Hefele,  ut  sup.,  pp.  863,  881). 

It  appears  also  among  the   mystics. 

3.   In  the    Jan  Ruysbroeck  (1293-1381),  Johann 

Middle      Tauler  (1300-61 ),  and  Johann  von  Goch 

Ages.       (d.  1475)  are  said  to  have  accepted 

it;  but  it  was  rejected  by  Eckhart 
(flourished  1300),  Suso  (1300-65),  and  their  fol- 
lowers (cf.  C.  Ullmann,  Reformers  before  the  Refor- 
mation, i.,  Edinburgh,  1855).  Still  later  it  is  found 
as  one  of  the  900  theses  which  that  brilliant  scholar 
Giovanni  Pico  della  Mirandola  proposed  to  defend 
in  public  debate  in  Rome  in  1487,  and  was  thus 
expressed:  "  A  mortal  sin  of  finite  duration  is  not 
deserving  of  eternal  but  only  of  temporal  punish- 
ment." But  it  was  among  the  theses  pronounced 
heretical  by  Pope  Innocent  VIII.  in  his  buU  of 
Aug.  4,  1484;  and  the  debate  was  never  held  (cf. 
Giovanni  Pico  della  Mirandola,  ed.  J.  M.  Rigg, 
London,  1890,  pp.  vii.  sqq.). 

The  Apocatastasis  emerged  in  the  Protestant 
Church  of  the  earb'est  days.    Thus  Luther,  writing 

on  Aug.  18,  1522,  to  Hans  von  Rechen- 

4.  The  Ref-  berg,  who  had  asked  him  if  there  was 

ormation.    any  salvation  for  those  out  of  Christ 

at  death,  states  that  a  belief  in  the 
ultimate  salvation  of  all  men,  and  even  of  the 
devil  and  his  angels,  was  held  among  the  sect  of 
Free  Spirits  in  the  Netherlands,  one  of  whom  was 
then  in  Wittenberg.  They  based  it  on  Ps.  Ixxvii. 
9,  10  and  on  I  Tim.  ii.  4.  He  then  proceeds  to  re- 
fute it.  Again  Luther  warns  against  this  belief 
when  writing  to  the  Christians  in  Antwerp  in  1525 
(cf.  de  Wette's  ed.  of  Luther's  letters,  ii.  453  and 
iii.  62).  The  doctrine  was  held  among  the  Ana- 
baptists. Hans  Denk  taught  it  in  itff  extreme 
form,  saying  that  not  only  all  men,  but  even  the 
devil  and  his  angels,  woiild  ultimately  be  saved; 
and  another  Anabaptist  leader,  Jacob  Kautz 
(Cucius),  in  1527  at  Worms  put  as  the  fifth  of  seven 
articles  he  propounded  for  debate:  "  All  that  was 
lost  in  the  first  Adam  is  and  will  be  found  more 
richly  restored  in  the  Second  Adam,  Christ;  yea, 
in  Christ  shall  all  men  be  quickened  and  blessed 
forever  "  (Zwingli,  Opera,  viii.  77;  cf.  S.  M.  Jackson, 
Selections  from  Zwingli,  p.  148).  So,  too,  Zwingli 
asserts  that  it  was  part  of  the  Anabaptist  creed 
that  the  devil  and  all  the  impious  will  be  blessed 
{Opera,  iii.  435;  cf.  Jackson,  ut  sup.,  p.  256).  In- 
deed, while  perhaps  not  universally  accepted  by 
Anabaptists,  it  was  held  by  so  many  of  the  party 
in  Switzerland,  Upper  Germany,  and  Alsace  that 
in  Article  xvii.  of  the  Augsburg  Confession  are 
these  words:  "  They  [the  Lutherans]  condemn 
the  Anabaptists,  who  think  that  to  condemned  men 
and  the  devils  shall  be  an  end  of  torments."  It 
is,  however,  not  put  in  the  Formula  of  Concord 
among  the  erroneous  teachings  of  the  Ana- 
baptists. 

Toward  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century 
the  doctrine  of  the  Apocatastasis  again  appeared, 
and  ever  since  it  has  found  numerous  defenders. 
The  earliest  were  Mrs.  Jane  Lead,  of  London  (162^ 
1704),  Johann  Wilhebn  Petersen  (1649-1727), 
and  the  Philadelphian  Society  which  Mrs.  Lead 
founded.    With  them  the  doctrine  was  established 


not  only  on  the  Bible,  but  also  on  personal  revela- 
tions. It  is  noteworthy  that  Jakob  Boehme  (1675- 
1624),  who  so  greatly  influenced  them, 
5.  In  Mod-  did  not  teach  it  (cf.  his  Beschreibung 
em  Times,  der  drei  Prinzipien  gottlichen  Wesens; 
Eng.  transl.,  Concerning  the  Three 
Principles  of  the  Divine  Essence,  London,  1648, 
chap,  xxvii.  §  20).  There  is  an  elaborate  de- 
fense of  the  Apocatastasis  by  Ludi^ig  Gerhard, 
VoUstdndiger  Lehrbegriff  der  ewigen  Evangelii  von 
der  Widerbringung  aUer  Dinge  (Hamburg,  1727). 
The  Philadelphians  won  over  the  authors  of  the 
Berleburg  Bibd  (1726-42;  see  Bibles,  Anno- 
tated, AND  Bible  Summaries);  but  their  chief 
convert  waa  Friedrich  Christoph  Oetinger  (q.v.; 
1702-82),  who  wove  tins  tenet  into  his  theological 
system,  depending  chiefly  upon  I  Cor.  xv.  and 
Eph.  i.  9-11.  It  is  said  that  Bengel  (1687-1752), 
the  father  of  modem  exegesis,  believed  in  it,  but 
thought  it  dangerous  to  teach  publicly. 

The  rationalists  of  Germany,  after  the  second  half 
of  the  eighteenth  century,  commonly  and  super- 
naturalists  frequently  have  upon  various  grounds 
advocated  the  Apocatastasis.  Thus,  Schleier- 
macher  (1768-1834)  was  pronounced  in  its  favor, 
deriving  his  principal  arguments  from  his  doc- 
trines of  the  will  and  of  the  atonement,  and  remark- 
ing that  the  sensitiveness  of  conscience  in  the 
damned,  as  revealed  in  the  parable  of  the  rich  man 
and  Lazarus,  shows  that  they  may  be  better  in 
the  next  life  than  in  this,  and  also  that  if  a  portion 
of  God's  creatures  were  forever  debarred  from 
participation  in  the  redemption  of  Christ,  then 
there  would  be  an  inexplicable  dissonance  in  God's 
universe.  Martensen  and  Domer  considered  the 
probability  that  between  death  and  the  last  judg- 
ment there  might  be  a  fresh  offer  of  the  gospel, 
but  put  a  rejection  and  consequent  exclusion  from 
salvation  among  the  possibilities.  The  difficulties 
of  the  estate  of  the  "  lost  "  have  driven  others, 
as  Rothe,  Hermann  Plitt,  and  Edward  White,  to 
the  theory  of  annihilationism  (q.v.).  Ritschl 
thought  that  such  information  as  the  New  Testa- 
ment gives  hardly  admits  of  a  decision  between 
the  theories  of  endless  punishment  and  complete 
annihilation.  Friedrich  Nitzsch  considered  belief 
in  a  final  restoration  as  well  founded  as  the  opposite 
view,  and  admitted  the  hypothesis  of  annihilation- 
ism as  a  third  possibility.  In  America  opposition 
to  the  orthodox  teaching  as  to  the  absolute  end- 
lessness of  conscious  suffering  after  death  of  those 
excluded  from  heaven  has  led  to  the  formation  of 
the  Umversafist  denomination  (see  Universal- 
iSTs);  and  there  are  many  of  other  religious  con- 
nections in  the  United  States,  England,  and  other 
countries  who  favor  the  doctrine  of  an  Apocatastasis 
in  more  or  less  modified  form.  For  further  dis- 
cussion consult  the  histories  of  Christian  doctrine 
and  the  works  mentioned  in  the  article  Univer- 
SALisTS.  The  teaching  of  the  Roman  Catholic. 
Church,  which  is  flatly  against  the  doctrine,  is 
presented  by  J.  B.  Kraus  in  Die  Apokataatasis 
der  unfreien  Kreatur  (Regensburg,  1850). 

[Many  significant  facts  indicate  a  relaxing  of 
the  traditional  rigidity  of  belief  with  reference 
to  this  subject.    There  is  an  unwillingness  on  the 


ApooatastaaU 
Apoorypha 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


818 


part  of  many  to  assume  any  dogmatic  attitude 
oonoeming  God's  dealing  with  those  who  die  im- 
penitent. Again,  there  is  a  refusal  to  limit  pro- 
bation to  the  earthly  life  merely,  fixing,  instead, 
the  decisive  moment  at  the  judgment,  thus  making 
room  for  those  to  whom  an  adequate  offer  of  the 
gospel  has  been  wanting  here  (cf.  Progressive 
Orthodoxy,  by  professors  of  Andover  Theological 
Seminary,  Boston,  1886).  Further,  denominational 
approval  or  disapproval  of  the  theory  of  an  Apo- 
catastasis  is  not  so  much  in  evidence  as  wide  and 
influential  advocacy  of  it  by  distinguished  writers 
and  preachers  in  many  communions — the  attitude 
partly  of  dogmatic  belief,  and  partly  of  the  "  larger 
hope."  It  has  been  represented  in  Great  Britain 
in  the  Established  Church  by  F.  D.  Maurice  {The 
Word  **  Eternal  "  and  the  Punishment  of  the  Wicked, 
Cambridge,  1853),  F.  W.  Farrar  (Eternal  Hope, 
London,  1878;  Mercy  and  Judgment,  1881),  E.  H. 
Plumptre  (The  Spirits  in  Prison,  London,  1886); 
among  Baptists  by  Samuel  Cox  (Salvator  Mundi, 
London,  1877;  The  Larger  Hope,  1883);  among 
Independents  by  J.  Baldwin  Brown  (The  Doctrine 
of  Annihilation  in  the  Light  of  the  Gospel  of  Love, 
London,  1875)  and  R.  J.  Campbell  of  the  London 
City  Temple.  In  America  it  has  found  expression 
among  Congregationalists  by  George  A.  Gordon 
(Immortality  and  the  New  Theodicy,  Boston,  1896), 
and  among  Baptists  the  grounds  for  it  have  been 
suggested  by  W.  N.  Clarke  (Outline  of  Christian 
Theology,  New  York,  1898,  pp.  476-480).  Impor- 
tant theoretical  considerations  have  influenced  this 
result:  (1)  The  tendency  toward  a  monistic  theory 
of  the  universe.  (2)  A  change  in  the  idea  of  God 
from  that  of  sovereign  and  judge  to  that  of  father. 
(3)  Election  conceiv^  of  not  as  limited  to  a  definite 
portion  of  mankind  but,  with  Schleiermacher,  as  a 
historical  process,  therefore  in  this  world  only  par- 
tially, in  the  world  to  come  to  be  completely, 
realized.  (4)  The  universal  immanence  of  God 
and  hence  the  presence  of  ethical  and  redemptive 


relations  wherever  the  moral  consciousness  exists. 
(5)  Life  regarded  less  as  probation  than  as  dis- 
cipline. (6)  Sin  defined  not  so  much  as  wilful 
and  incorrigible  perversity  as  natural  defect,  igno- 
rance, and  emotional  excess,  as  well  as  result  of 
unfortunate  heredity  and  unworthy  environment. 

C.  A.  B.] 

Bibuoorapht:  In  favor  of  the  doctrine  may  be  mentioned: 
F.  DelitsBch,  Biblitche  Ptychologie,  pp.  469-476,  Leipaic, 
1855.  Enc.  tranal.,  Edinburgh,  1865;  T.  K.  Birks.  Vic- 
tory of  Divine  OoodnsMt  London,  1870;  A.  Jukes,  Second 
Death  and  Reetitution  of  All  Things,  ib.  1878;  I.  A.  Dor- 
ner,  Eeehaioioov,  ed.  by  Newman  Smyth,  New  York,  1883; 
F.  W.  Farrar,  Eternal  Hope,  London,  1892;  Tennyson, 
In  Memoriam,  f  liv.  Against  it:  A.  A.  Hodge,  Popular 
Leeturea  on  Theological  Themes,  Philadelphia,  1887;  A. 
Hovey.  Biblical  Esehaiology,  ib.  1888;  and  in  general  the 
orthodox  writers  on  systematic  theology.  The  subject 
may  be  studied  in  the  various  histories  of  doctrine  and  in 
the  oompends  and  systems  of  divinity  in  the  sections  on 
"Esohatology." 

APOCRISIARinS,  ap"o-cris"i-6'ri-X7s:  A  general 
designation  in  early  times  for  ecclesiastical  am- 
bassadors, derived  from  the  Greek  apokrinesthai 
"  to  answer  "  (hence  the  Latin  term  responsales 
for  the  same  class).  The  name  is  found  applied 
to  the  legates  sent  by  the  pope  to  guard  his  metro- 
politan rights  in  Sicily  until  the  Mohammedan 
invasion,  and  to  episcopal  representatives  in  Rome. 
The  office  assumed  its  most  formal  and  important 
character  in  the  Eastern  Church,  where  the  patri- 
archs were  represented  at  the  imperial  court  by 
apocrisiarii,  and  bishops  maintained  similar  dip- 
lomatic agents  in  the  residences  of  the  patriarchs. 
The  popes  also,  at  least  from  Leo  the  Great  to  the 
time  of  the  iconoclastic  controversy,  regularly 
had  apocrisiarii  in  Constantinople;  they  were 
sometimes  called  also  diaconi^  because  usually 
chosen  from  the  order  of  deacons.  The  officials 
described  here  have  nothing  but  the  name  in  com- 
mon with  the  apocrisiarius  of  the  Prankish  eccle- 
siastical system  (see  Archicapellanus). 

Fbibobebq.) 


Writings  Withheld  from  Public  Use 

(§1). 
Writings  of  Uncertain  Origin  (f  2). 
Use  of  the  Term  by  Protestanto 
(§3). 
L  Old  Testament  Apocrypha. 
I.  Position  in  the  Canon. 

Apocrsrpha  in  the  Greek  Canon 

(§1). 
Used  in  Some  New  Testament 

Writings  (f  2). 
By  the  Church  Fathers  (f  3). 
The    Beginning     of     Exclusion 

(§4). 
Accepted  by  the  Roman  Catholic 

Church  (f  5). 
Rejected  by  Protestants  (}  6). 
n.  Hanuscripts  of  the  Greek  Text. 
m.  Ancient  Versions. 
1.  LaUn. 
The   Old    Latin  and    Jerome's 
Versions  (}  1). 


APOCBTPHA. 

2.  Syriac. 
The     Peshito     and     Hexaplar 
Syriac  Versions  (f  2). 
IV.  Origin  and  Contents  of  the  Indi- 
vidual Writings. 

1.  The  Apocryphal  Esra. 

2.  Additions  to  Esther. 

3.  Additions  to  Daniel. 

(a)  The  Song  of  the  Three  Chil- 
dren. 

(b)  The  History  of  Susanna. 

(c)  Bel  and  the  Dragon. 

4.  The  Prayer  of  MnnniiseH. 
6.  Baruch. 

6.  The  Epistle  of  Jeremiah. 

7.  Tobit. 

8.  Judith. 

9.  I  Maccabees. 

10.  II  Bfaccabees. 

11.  Ill  Bfaccabees. 

12.  Jesus  Sirach  (Ecolesiastieus). 

13.  The  Wisdom  of  Solomon. 


B.  New  Testament  Apocrypha. 
I.  Apocryphal  Gospels. 

1.  The  Protevangelium  of  James. 

2.  The  Gospel  of  Pseudo-Matthew. 

3.  The  Gospel  of  the  Nativity  of 

Bfary. 

4.  The  History  of  Joseph  the  Car- 

penter. 
6.  The  Gospel  of  Thomas. 

6.  The  Arabic    Gospel  of  the  In- 

fancy. 

7.  The     Gospel    of    Nicodemus — 

Writings  Connected  with  the 
Name  of  Pilate  and  Relating 
to  the  Trial  and  Death  of  Jesus. 
8-37.  Apocryphal     Gospels      Pre- 
served only  in  Fragments  or 
Known  only  by  Name. 
II.  Apocryphal  Acts  of  the  Apostles. 
III.  Apocryphal  Epistles. 
rV.  Apocryphal  Apocalypses. 


Apocr3rpha  is  a  Greek  word  meaning  "  hidden/' 
which,  when  applied  to  writings,  may  signify  either 
those  which  are  kept  in  concealment  or  those  the 
origin  of  which  is  unknown.  The  word  is  used  in 
both   senses   in   patristic   literature.    When    the 


followers  of  Prodicus,  according  to  Clement  of 
Alexandria  (Strom.,  I.  xv.69),  boasted  of  possessing 
the  "  apocryphal  books  "  of  Zoroaster,  they  called 
these  works  "  apocrjrphal "  not  because  they  did 
not  know  their  origin  (since  they  ascribed  them  to 


218 


REUGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Apooatastasia 
Apoorirpha 


Zoroaster),  but  because  they  regarded  the  books 

as  not  to  be  made  public.    The  reason  in  this 

case   for  keeping    the  writings   con- 

1.  Writings  cealed    was    the    special    value    at- 
Withheld   tached   to  them.     But  writings  may 

from  Pub-  also  be  withdrawn  from  general  use 
lie  Use.  because  they  are  inferior.  With  this 
thought  in  mind  Origen  and  Didymus 
of  Alexandria  make  a  distinction  between  the  '^  com- 
mon and  widely  circulated  books  "  (Gk.  koina  kai 
dedimeumena  or  dedimosieumena  biblia)  and  the 
apocryphal  books  of  Scriptiure  (Origen  on  Matt, 
xiii,  57,  ANF,  ix,  425;  Didymus  of  Alexandria 
on  Acts  viii,  90,  MPO,  xxxix,  1669).  In  like 
manner  Eusebius  calls  the  canonical  books  which 
were  used  in  the  chiurches  ded&nosieumena  (Hist, 
ecd,,  III,  iii,  6,  and  elsewhere).  Similarly  Jerome 
(Epi9t,f  xcvi)  explains  the  Greek  apokryphos  by  the 
Latin  abacanditus,  (For  further  illustration  cf. 
T.  Zahn,  GeachichU  des  neutestamenUichen  Kanoru, 
i,  Leipsic,  1888,  126  sqq.) 

The  Christian  usage  is  clearly  derived  from  a 
Jewish  custom.  The  Jews,  because  they  hesi- 
tated actually  to  destroy  copies  of  sacred  writings, 
were  in  the  habit  of  either  depositing  in  a  secret 
place  igenizah)  or  of  burying  such  as  had  become 
defective  or  were  no  longer  fit  for  public  use.  The 
new-Hebrew  word  for  this  "  concealing  "  is  ganaz, 
"  to  save,  hoard."  Writings  which  were  with- 
drawn from  public  use  because  of  questionable 
contents  were  treated  in  the  same  way;  thus  King 
Hezekiah  is  said  to  have  ''  stored  up  "  the  "  Book 
of  Remedies"  because  it  prejudiced  faith  and 
trust  in  God  (Peaafyim  iv,  9).  Hence  ganaz  came 
to  mean  "  to  declare  uncanonical "  (Shabbat  30b; 
cf.  FUrst,  Der  Kanon  des  Alien  TestamerUSf  Leipsic, 
1868,  pp.  91-93).  Since  the  Christian  phraseology 
undoubtedly  followed  the  Jewish,  it  can  not  be 
questioned  that  **  apocryphal "  in  ecclesiastical 
usage  according  to  its  original  and  proper  signifi- 
cation means  nothing  else  than  **  excluded  from 
public  use  in  the  Chiurch." 

But  "  apocryphal "  in  both  Greek  and  Latin 
may  be  applied  also  to  writings  the  origin  of  which 
is  unknown,  and  this  meaning  led  to  that  of  **  forged, 
spurious."  In  this  sense  Augustine  speaks  of 
'*  the  fables  of  those  scriptures  which  are  called 
apocryphal  because  their  origin,  being  obscure, 
was  unknown  to  the  fathers  "  (De  civitate  dei,  XV, 
xxiii,  4,  NPNFy  1st  ser.  ii,  305);  and  again  he 
says  the  apocryphal  books  "  are  so  called,  not 
because  of  any  mysterious  regard  paid  to  them,  but 
because  they  are  mysterious  in  their  origin,  and 
in  the  absence  of  clear  evidence  have  only  some 
obscure  presumption  to  rest  upon  "  (Contra  Fans- 
turn,  xi,  2,  NPNFy  1st  ser.  iv,  178).  In  many  cases 
it  can  not  be  decided  which  meaning 

2,  Writings  was    intended     (cf.     Hegesippus     in 
ofUncer-  Eusebius,    Hist,    ecd.y     IV,    xxii,   8; 

tain  Origin.  Clement  of  Alexandria,  Strom,,  III, 
iv,  29;  Apostolic  Constitutions ,  vi, 
16).  It  seems,  however,  that  the  original  meaning, 
so  sharply  and  consistently  expressed  in  Origen, 
was  not  that  generally  given  to  the  word  before 
his  time.  At  any  rate,  it  is  questionable  whether 
it  was  clearly  present  to  the  mind  of  Irenseus  and 


Tertullian  in  the  following  passages.  The  former, 
speaking  of  the  Maroosians,  says:  "  They  adduce 
an  unspeakable  number  of  apocryphal  and  spuri- 
ous writings,  which  they  themselves  have  forged  " 
(Hoar.y  I,  XX,  1,  ANF,  i,  344);  and  Tertullian  says: 
"  I  would  yield  my  ground  to  you,  if  the  scripture 
of  the  Shepherd  [of  Hermas]  .  .  .  had  deserved  to 
find  a  place  in  the  divine  canon;  if  it  had  not  been 
habitually  judged  by  every  council  of  churches 
.  .  .  among  apocryphal  and  false  writings  "  (De 
pudicitia,  x,  ANF,  iv,  85).  After  the  word  was 
once  introduced,  its  ambiguity  easily  led  to  a  notion 
differing  from  the  original  meaning.  In  the  case 
of  Augustine  this  is  certain.  Jerome,  too.  seems  to 
use  the  word  in  the  sense  of  **  obscure  in  origin  " 
when  he  says  that  all  apocryphal  writings  ''are 
not  really  written  by  those  to  whom  they  are 
ascribed"  (Epist,,  cvii,  12,  NPNF,  2d  ser.  xi,  194) 
The  two  senses — "  exclusion  from  public  use  in 
the  Chiurch  "  and  "  obscure  in  origin  " — are  often 
combined  in  the  same  passage.  The  meaning 
became  finally  so  generalized  that  the  word  sig- 
nifies simply  what  is  wrong  and  bad,  as  in  the  Latin 
adaptation  of  Origen's  "  Preface  to  the  Song  of 
Solomon  "  at  the  end:  **  Those  writings  which  are 
cidled  apocryphal  (which  contain  much  that  is 
corrupt  and  contrary  to  the  true  faith)  should 
not  be  given  place  or  admitted  to  authority;" — 
the  words  in  parentheses  appear  to  be  added  by 
the  Latin  editor.  (For  further  information  cf. 
C.  A.  Credner,  Geschichte  des  neutestamenUichen 
Kanons,  Berlin,  1860,  pp.  110  sqq.;  A.  Hilgenfeld, 
Der  Kanon  und  die  Kritik  des  Neuen  Testa- 
ments,  Halle,  1863,  pp.  6  sqq.;  H.  J.  Holtzmann, 
Einleitung  in  das  Neue  TestaTnent,  Freiburg, 
1892,  pp.  145  sqq.;  T.  Zahn,  Geschichte  des 
neutestamenUichen  Kanons,  I,  i,  Leipsic,  1888,  pp. 
123  sqq.) 

In  the  ancient  Church  and  in  the  Middle  Ages 
the  term  "  apocryphal  "  was  almost  never  applied, 
as  in  the  Protestant  Church,  to  those  portions  of 
the  Greek  and  Latin  Bibles  which  were  foreign  to 
the  Hebrew  canon.  Indeed,  it  could  not  be  so 
applied,  for  those  books  have  always  been  a  part 
of  the  Greek  and  Latin  Bibles.  Jerome  alone 
once  made  a  statement  (in  the  Prologus  galeatus) 
implying  that  these  writings  do  indeed  fall  into  the 
category  of  apocrypha.  During  the  Middle  Ages 
there  were  at  the  most  a  very  few  isolated  voices 
which  spoke  to  that  effect  (Hugo  of  St.  Cher;  cf. 
de  Wette-Schrader,  Einleitung  in  das  Alte  Testa- 
ment, Berlin,  1869,  p.  66).    It  was  in 

3.  Use  of  the  Protestant  Church  that  this 
the  Term  by  nomenclature  first  became  customary. 
Protestants.  The  earliest  to  introduce  it,  appealing 
expressly  to  Jerome,  was  Carlstadt 
in  his  De  canonids  scripturis  libeUus  (Wittenberg, 
1520;  reprinted  in  Credner,  Zur  Geschichte  des 
Kanons,  Halle,  1847,  pp.  291  sqq.).  He  there  ex- 
pressly stated  that  by  *'  apocryphal "  he  understood 
"non-canonical";  and  in  this  sense  the  Protes- 
tant Church  has  always  understood  the  word. 
The  first  edition  of  the  Bible  in  which  the  writings 
in  question  were  expressly  called  apocryphal  was 
that  of  Frankfort,  1534,  which  was  followed  in 
the  same  year  by  Luther's  first  edition  (cL  G.  W. 


Apocrypluk 


THE   NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


214 


Panzer,  Geachichle  der  deuUchen  Btbeliiheraetzung, 
Nuremberg,  1783,  pp.  294  sqq.). 

A.  Old  Testament  Apocrypha:  Those  portions 
of  the  Greek  and  Latin  Old  Testaments  whicli  are 
not  found  in  the  Hebrew  Canon, — the  term  **  apoc- 
rypha "  being  used  in  this  article  with  the  meaning 
given  to  it  by  the  Protestant  Church  (see  §  3,  above). 
L  Position  in  the  Canon:  The  Hebrew  canon 
of  the  Bible  in  the  first  century  of  the  Christian 
era  comprised  about  the  same  books  as  at  present, 
though  the  canonicity  of  the  books  of  Ecclesiastes 
and  the  Song  of  Songs  was  disputed  (Mishnah, 
EduyotfVf  3;  Yadayimf  iii,  5;  J.  Fiirst,  Dcr  Kanon 
des  Alien  Testaments  nach  den  Ueberlieferungen  in 
Tcdmiid  und  Midrasch,  Leipsic,  1868;  see  Canon  of 
Scripture,  I).  But  it  was  otherwise  with  the 
Hellenistic  Jews.  As  far  as  the  extent  of  the  Greek 
canon  of  the  Bible  can  be  traced,  it  included  a 
number  of  writings  which  are  wanting  in  the 
Hebrew  canon.  No  clear  proofs  of  this  from  pre- 
Christian  times  exist;  but  the  fact 
1.  Apoory-  that  Christians  using  the  Greek  Bible 
^  rxiiv  received  these  other  writings  also 
makes  it  highly  probable  that  these 
belonged  to  the  canon  of  the  Hellen- 
istic Jews.  While  it  may  be  conceded  to  the  oppo- 
nents of  this  view  that  Hellenistic  Jews  had  no 
strict  conception  of  a  canon,  it  can  not  be  denied 
that  certain  writings  were  received  into  the  Greek 
Bible-collection  which  were  foreign  to  the  Hebrew 
canon  (cf.  De  Wette-Schrader,  EvrdeUung^  pp.  311 
sqq.;  Bleek,  TSK,  1853,  pp.  323  sqq.).  The  fact 
that  Philo  did  not  quote  these  other  writings  proves 
nothing,  since  Philo  was  interested  mainly  in  the 
Pentateuch. 

In  the  New  Testament  there  are  no  express 
references  to  the  so-called  Apocrypha,  a  fact  the 
more  remarkable  since  most  of  the  New  Testament 
authors  took  their  quotations  from  the  Greek 
translation  of  the  Old  Testament.  But  to  under- 
stand this  rightly,  one  must  not  forget  that  a  num- 
ber of  canonical  writings  of  the  Old  Testament  are 
never  cited  in  the  New  Testament;  others  only 
seldom.  The  Pentateuch,  the  Proph- 
a™*^™  ets,  and  the  Psalms  are  frequently 
'*""*     *      quoted;  the  historical    books  not   so 


G^eek 
Oanon. 


Some  New 
Testament 


Wiltlnffii.  ®^*®^'  ^^^®  ^^®  ^"S  of  Songs,  Ec- 
clesiastes, Elsthcr,  Ezra,  and  Nehe- 
miah  are  never  cited.  The  lack  of  express  ci- 
tations can  therefore  not  be  emphasized;  and 
on  the  other  hand,  it  can  not  be  denied  that 
at  least  in  some  writings  of  the  New  Testament 
the  Apocrypha  are  used.  This  applies  particularly 
to  the  Epistle  of  James  and  that  to  the  Hebrews. 
That  Ecclesiasticus  was  known  to  the  author  of 
the  Epistle  of  James  can  not  be  denied  in  the  face 
of  the  many  parallels  (cf.  Werner  in  TQ,  1872, 
pp.  265  sqq.).  The  author  of  the  Epistle  to  the 
Hebrews  doubtless  refers  in  xi,  34  sqq.  to  the  story 
of  the  Maccabees  (cf.  II  Mace,  vi,  18-vii,  42). 
Striking  agreements  with  the  Wisdom  of  Solomon 
are  also  found  (thus  Heb.  i,  3= Wisdom  vii,  26; 
Heb.  iv,  12-13= Wisdom  vii,  22-24);  and  there  can 
be  no  doubt  that  Paul  made  use  of  this  book  (cf . 
in  general  Bleek,  TSK,  1853,  pp.  325  sqq.,  espe- 
ciaUy  337-349). 


Among  the  Chiurch  Fathers  the  Apocrypha  were 
in  common  use  from  the  earliest  times.  Clement  of 
Rome  puts  ''  the  blessed  **  Judith  beside  Esther  as 
an  example  of  female  heroism  (Epist.f  Iv,  ANFy  ix, 
245).  Barnabas  (xix,  9)  goes  back  to  Ecclus.  iv, 
31  when  he  quotes  "  Be  not  ready  to  stretch  forth 
thy  hands  to  take  whilst  thou  withdrawest  them 
from  giving."  Justin  Martyr  {AyoL,  i,  46,  A\F, 
i,  178)  refers  to  the  additions  to  Daniel.  That 
none  of  these  passages  has  the  form  of  a  true 
Scripture  citation  may  be  viewed  as 

nh       h*   accidental    and    may    be    explained 

Fa^^s  ^"^™  *^^®  small  extent  of  this  oldest 
Uterature.  But  from  the  time  of 
Athenagoras  true  citations  can  be  proved.  Athe- 
nagoras  ("  Plea  for  the  Christians,"  i,  9,  AXF, 
ii,  133)  quotes  among  the  "  voices  of  the 
prophets,"  as  divinely  inspired,  Baruch  iii,  25 
upon  an  equality  with  Isa.  xliv,  6;  Irenseus  (Hcer., 
IV,  xxvi,  3,  ANF,  i,  497)  cites  as  the  words  of 
"  Daniel  the  Prophet "  the  history  of  Susanna, 
and  (Hcer.,  V,  xxxv,  1,  ANF,  i,  565)  the  Book  of 
Baruch  as  the  work  of  Jeremiah;  Tertullian  quotes 
the  history  of  Susanna  (De  corona^  iv,  ANF,  iii, 
95),  Bel  and  the  Dragon  {De  idololairiay  xviii,  ANF, 
iii,  72),  and  the  Wisdom  of  Solomon  {Adversus 
ValeniinoSf  ii,  ANF^  iii,  504)  as  canonical  Scrip- 
ture. Clement  of  Alexandria  quotes  Ecclesiasticus 
very  often  with  the  formula  "  Scripture,"  "  Holy 
Scripture,"  '*  Wisdom  says,"  and  the  like,  and  not 
so  frequently,  but  with  the  same  formulas,  Wisdom 
of  Solomon,  Baruch,  and  Tobit.  Abundant  ex- 
amples of  the  same  practise  can  be  cit«d  from 
Hippolytus,  Cyprian,  and  others. 

In  view  of  these  facts  it  may  be  asserted  that 
the  Church  of  the  first  centuries  made  no  essential 
difference  between  the  writings  of  the  Hebrew 
canon  and  the  so-called  Apocrypha.  Only  in  an 
isolated  way  and  evidently  as  the  result  of  learned 
inquiry  does  an  express  limitation  of  the  canon 
to  the  extent  of  the  Hebrew  Bible  app>ear;  for 
example,  Melito  of  Sardis,  according  to  Eusebius 
(Hist,  eccl.,  IV,  xxvi,  14),  mentions  only  the  books 
of  the  Hebrew  canon  as  canonical,  but  he  gives 
this  list  expressly  as  the  result  of  learned  inquiry 
in  Palestine.  When  Origen  gives  a  list  which 
comprises  only  the  Hebrew  canon  (Eusebius,  Hist, 
ecd,,  vi,25),  he  gives  it  as  the  canon  of  the  Hebrews, 
and  his  own  view  can  not  be  deduced  from  the 
passage  given  by  Eusebius.  On  the  other  hand, 
from  Origen's  correspondence  with  Julius  Africanus 
it  is  deducible  that  he  was  by  no  means  in  favor 
of  excluding  those  partij  which  were  wanting  in 
the  Hebrew  canon,  because  he  defends  the  Greek 
additions  to  Daniel,  and  he  likewise  cites  some 
Apocryphal  writings  (Maccabees,  Wisdom,  Eccle- 
siasticus, Tobit,  Baruch)  as  "  Scriptural  authority," 
"  the  Holy  Word,"  "  Scripture,"  etc.  (cf .  De  Wette- 
Schrader,  Einleitung,  p.  53).  The  critique  which 
Julius  Africanus  wrote  on  the  Greek  text  of  the 
Book  of  Daniel,  trying  to  remove  the  portions 
not  found  in  the  Hebrew- Aramaic  text  {Epist,  ad 
Origenem),  evidently  remained  an  isolated  phe- 
nomenon. 

The  learned  disquisitions  of  men  like  Origen 
resulted,  however,  in  this,  that  stricter  regard  was 


816 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Apooryplut 


paid  to  the  diCferenoe  between  the  Hebrew  and 
the  Greek  canon.  Wherever  the  purpose  was  to 
fix  theoretically  the  range  of  the  canon,  recourse 
was  had  to  the  Hebrew  canon  as  to  something 
setUed  over  against  the  fluctuations  of  the  Greek 
canon.  Thus  there  are  a  number  of  lists  of  the 
canonical  books  from  the  fourth  century  which 
confine  themselves  to  the  Hebrew  canon  and 
either  do  not  mention  the  other  writings  or  assign 
to  them  a  lower  value.  Athanasius  is  most  instruct- 
ive in  this  respect.  In  his  Epistola  feataliSf  xxxix 
{NPNF,  2d  ser.  iv,  562),  after  men- 
^^^•^®'  tioning  the  canonical  writings  of  the 

£c^n^n.  ^^^  *^^  ^®^  Testaments,  he  adds 
*  Wisdom  of  Solomon,  Ecclesiasticus, 
Esther,  Judith,  Tobit,  Teaching  of  the  Apostles, 
and  the  Shepherd  of  Hennas  as  ''  not  included 
in  the  canon,  but  appointed  by  the  Fathers  to 
be  read  by  those  who  newly  join  us  and  wish 
for  instruction  in  the  word  of  godliness."  The 
specified  writings  were  to  be  read  in  the  Church, 
and  are  expressly  differentiated  by  Athanasius 
from  the  "Apocrypha";  they  are  not  mentioned 
at  all  in  the  lists  of  Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  Gregory 
Nazianzen,  and  AmphUochius  (cf.  T.  Zahn,  Ge- 
schichU,  II,  i,  172-180,  212-219).  The  usage  of 
Epiphanius  varies:  in  one  place  he  gives  only  the 
Hebrew  canon;  in  another  he  mentions  also  Tobit 
ai\d  Judith  as  in  the  canon,  while  Ecclesiasticus  and 
Wisdom  of  Solomon  seem  to  him  "  doubtful." 
That  he  expresses  only  his  own  opinion  is  proved 
by  still  a  third  passage  {Haer.,  Ixxvi),  where  after 
the  canonical  writings,  which  are  not  named  indi- 
vidually, he  mentions  Wisdom  of  Solomon  and 
Ecclesiasticus  as  "  Holy  Scripture."  His  waver- 
ing was  due  to  the  fact  that,  on  the  one  hand,  he 
used  the  canon  of  the  Jews  as  the  norm,  while,  on 
the  other  hand,  he  was  unwilling  to  give  up  his 
Greek  Bible  (cf.  T.  Zahn,  Oeachichte,  II,  i,  219-226). 
The  only  one  who  in  the  ancient  Church  opposed 
the  Apocrypha  was  Jerome;  and  this  was  no  doubt 
due  to  his  Hebrew  studies  and  his  zeal  for  the 
"body  of  truth  in  the  Hebrew."  The  principal 
passage  is  in  the  Prologus  galeatua  (NPNF,  2d 
ser.  vi,  489),  in  which  he  says  that  the  books  not 
on  the  list  he  gives  must  be  reckoned  among  the 
Apocrypha. 

All  these  declarations,  more  or  less  unfavorable 
to  the  Apocrypha,  lose  much  of  their  importance 
from  the  fact  that  the  men  who  excluded  the 
Apocrypha  from  the  canon  use  them  in  an  impar- 
tial manner  as  though  canonical ;  so  Athanasius,  Cyril, 
Epiphanius,  and  even  Jerome,  who  in  spite  of  his 
theory  is  not  afraid  to  quote  Ecclesiasticus  as 
"  SaCTcd  Scripture."  Roman  theologians  have 
righUy  laid  great  stress  upon  this  fact;  for  it  proves 
that,  notwithstanding  opposite  theories,  ecclesi- 
astical practise  on  the  whole  was  to  use  the  Apoc- 
ryphal like  the  canonical  writings.  Moreover, 
the  West  decided  in  their  favor.  Augustine  {De 
dodrina  Ckriatianaf  ii,  8)  counted  the  Apocrypha 
as  canonical,  and  the  same  was  the  case  with  the 
synods  at  Hippo  (393)  and  Carthage  (397),  held 
under  his  influence  (cf.  T.  Zahn,  GeschichUf  II,  i, 
246-259).  This  position  was  prevalent  down  to  the 
time  of  the  Reformation,  though  in  the  Middle  Ages 


there  were  not  lacking  voices  which  sided  with 
Jerome  (cf.  De  Wette-Schrader,  EinieUung,  pp. 
64  sqq.).  In  the  Greek  Church  of  the  Middle  Ages 
the  Apocrypha  were  as  a  rule  included  in  the 
canon. 

In  the  Chiurch  of  Rome  the  question  concerning 
the  Apocrypha  was  definitively  settled  by  the  Coun- 
cil of  Trent,  which  in  its  fourth  session  fixed  the  ex- 
tent of  the  canon  in  such  a  manner  that  it  included 
the  Apocrypha.  Hence  the  official  edition  of  the 
Vulgate  (that  of  1592)  includes  the  Apocrypha 
with  the  other  writings,  and  in  the 
6.  Accept-  following  order:  Nehemiah  (numbered 
B^^*  as  II  Ezra)  is  followed  by  Tobit, 
Oatholic  J^^^^»  Esther  (with  the  additions). 
Church.  J^^»  Psalms,  Proverbs,  Ecclesiastes, 
Song  of  Solomon,  Wisdom  of  Solomon, 
Ecclesiasticus,  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  Lamentations, 
Baruch  with  the  Epistle  of  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel, 
Daniel  with  the  additions,  the  Twelve  Minor 
Prophets,  I  and  II  Maccabees.  As  an  appendix 
(in  smaller  type  and  with  the  explicit  statement 
that  they  stand  "  outside  the  series  of  canonical 
books"),  the  Old  Testament  is  followed  by  the 
Prayer  of  Manasses,  III  and  IV  Ezra.  From  this 
official  canon  of  the  Church  of  Rome  the  manu- 
scripts and  editions  of  the  Greek  Bible  differ  mainly 
in  this,  that  in  them  III  Ezra  (which,  however,  is 
here  always  nimibered  as  I  Ezra)  is  put  on  a  par 
with  the  other  writings,  IV  Ezra  (as  a  rule  also  the 
Prayer  of  Manasses)  is  wanting,  III  Maccabees 
being  substituted  for  it;  some  few  manuscripts 
and  editions  contain  also  IV  Maccabees.  The 
arrangement  is  generally  this:  I  Ezra  stands  before 
the  canonical  Ezra;  Judith  and  Tobit  stand  together 
with  Esther;  Wisdom,  and  Ecclesiasticus  with  the 
Solomonic  writings;  Baruch  and  the  Epistle  of 
Jeremiah  with  Jeremiah.  The  position  of  the 
books  of  the  Maccabees  is  the  most  uncertain;  in 
the  (printed)  editions  they  generally  stand  at  the 
end  of  the  Old  Testament. 

In  the  Protestant  Church,  Carlstadt  {De  canoni- 
cis  scripturis,  Wittenberg,  1520)  was  the  first  to 
pay  special  attention  to  the  theory  of  the  canon. 
He  sided  with  Jerome  in  designating  the  writings 
in  question  as  "  apocrypha,"  that  is,  as  non-canon- 
ical writings  (cf .  Credner,  Zur  Geschichte  dee  Kanona, 
p.  364).  Yet  he  distinguished  within  them  two 
classes.  On  Wisdom,  Ecclesiasticus,  Judith,  Tobit, 
I  and  II  Maccabees,  he  remarked:  "  These  are 
apocrypha,  i.e.,  outside  of  the  Hebrew 
e.  BeJected  canon,  nevertheless*  they  are  holy 
^y  writings."  The  others,  however,  were 
for  him  "  plainly  apocrypha,  deserv- 
edly exposed  to  the  strictures  of  the 
censor  (Credner,  389)."  Though  this  discrimination 
has  found  no  favor,  Carlstadt's  position  is  on  the 
whole  that  of  the  Protestant  Church.  In  the  first 
complete  original  edition  of  Luther's  translation 
(1534)  the  Apocrypha  formed  a  supplement  to  the 
Old  Testament  with  the  heading  "  Apocrypha; 
that  is,  books  which,  although  not  estimated  equal  to 
the  Holy  Scriptures,  are  yet  useful  and  good  to 
read."  As  to  the  niunber  of  received  writings, 
Luther's  Bible  agreed  with  the  Vulgate,  with  the 
modification,  however,  that  of  the  three  books 


Protea- 
tants. 


Apocrypha 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


816 


found  in  the  appendix  to  the  V^gate  the  Prayer 
of  M&nassee  was  rcoeivedj  and  both  hooka  of  Ezra 
were  excluded.  In  the  Reformed  Chureh  the 
apociyphal  bookiJ  iiave  received  the  same  treat- 
ment as  in  the  Lutheran,  except  that  usually  a 
t  trie  tor  sentence  has  been  passed  upon  them. 
In  modem  timeSj  opposition  had  tw^ice  been  raided 
against  them,  each  time  in  England  ( 1S25  and  1850); 
and  the  result  has  been  a  substantial  augmentation 
of  information  about  them. 

IL  Manuscripts  of  the  Greek  Text:  As  the 
Apocrypha  form  an  integral  part  of  the  Greek  Old 
Testament,  they  are  included  in  the  Septuagint 
manuscripts,  of  which  the  moj^t  important  are: 
(1)  the  Cwiez  VatkamiSj  in  which  the  books 
of  Maccabees  do  not  appear;  (2)  the  Codex  SirmilU 
ctW|  containing  Esther,  Tobit,  Judith^  I  and  IV 
Maccabees,  Wisdom ♦  Ecclesiivsticus;  (3)  the  Codex 
AhxandrinuSf  ooiitaining  all  the  Apocrypha,  (For 
particularB  cf*  the  prolegomena  to  O.  F.  Fiitsssche, 
Libri  Apocryphi  Veteru  Tmtamenii  Grcectf  Leipsic^ 
1871,  On  the  manuscripts  of  the  Septuagint  in 
general  cf .  Swete,  Inlrodv^iion  /*  the  Old  Testament 
in  Greek,  Cambridge,  1900,  pp.  122-170;  see  also 
BiBLH  Text.  I,  4,  §  Z) 

nL  Ancient  Versions:  Mention  is  made  here 
of  only  the  Latin  and  Syriac  because  they  arc  the 
most  ImfKirtant  in  point  of  age  and  circulation, 

1.  Latin  t  Various  Old  Latin  texta  of  roost 
Apocrypha  exist*  the  interrelations  of  which  have 
not  yet  been  fully  investigated  (cf.  SchUrer,  Ge- 
achichle,  voL  iii).  These  must  be  distinguished 
from  Jerome's  translation,  and  an  eatimate  of  the 
amount  of  the  Old  Latin  that  has  been  preserved 
can  be  obtained  only  by  inference  from  what  is 
known  concerning  Jerome's  labors.  He  undertook 
a  tw^ofold  translation  of  the  Old  Testament,  At 
first  he  was  satisfied  with  revising  the  Old  Latin 
translation  on  the  had&  of  the  Septuagint;  after 
that  be  translated  the  Old  Testament  anew  from 
the  original  text  (cf.  Kaulen,  Ge^chichU  der  ViJgaia^ 
Mains,  186S,  pp.  153  sqq.;  see  Biblb^  Versions, 
A,  II,  2),  necesaarily  omitting  the  Apocrypha,  be- 
oanfie  they  were  not  in  the  original  text.  Jerome 
iftys  expre^ly  concerning  some  that  be  pasaea 
them  by.  In  response  to  special 
1*  Tlie  Old  requests  he  worked  over  two  of  the 
^*^*^*  apocr>'plml  books,  Tobit  and  Judith, 
VeraioM  ^^^  **^  performed  the  work  hastily 
and  reluctantly  and  evidently  not  in 
connection  with  his  great  Bible  version  (cf.  the 
preface  to  both  books,  Opera,  ed.  Vallarsi,  11  vols., 
Verona,  1734-42  x,  L  sqq,.  21  sqq.).  The  Vulgate 
texta  of  the  additions  to  Father  and  Daniel  are 
also  Jerome's  work.  He  received  these  into  his 
translation  from  the  original  textt  but  marked 
them  with  the  obelus  (cf*  his  remarks  on  Esther, 
Opera,  ©d,  Vallarai,  ix^  1581).  The  translation 
of  the  additions  to  Esther  is  so  free  that  in  some 
passages  it  gives  merefy  the  general  sense.  The 
additbns  to  Daniel  are  translated  with  greater 
Mclil^,  but  from  the  text  of  Theodotion,  as  noted 
by  Jerome  himself*  The  version  of  these  four 
books  passed  into  the  Vulgate.  The  Vulgate  con- 
tains also  the  books  of  E^ra  (put  into  the  appendix 
since  the  Council  of  Trent),  Barucli,  and  the  Epistle 


of  Jeremiah,  I  and  11  Maccabees,  Eoclesiasticus, 
and  Wisdom.  Since  Jerome  did  not  translate 
these,  the  Vylgate  text  la  to  be  regarded  as  essen- 
tially the  same  aa  that  of  the  Old  Latin.  The 
question  is  only  whether  some  of  these  texts  have 
not  undergone  correction  at  the  hand  of  Jerome, 
It  is  to  be  regretted  that  information  u  very  meager 
as  to  the  extent  of  Jerome's  revision  of  the  Old 
Latin  which  was  originally  made  from  the  Sep- 
tuagint. But  on  two  Apocrypha,  the  WiMlom  of 
Solomon  and  Ecelesiasticus^  there  ia  a  valuable 
notice  in  the  extant  "  Preface  to  the  Eklition  of  the 
Books  of  Solomon  according  to  the  LXX  ^'  (Val- 
larsi,  X,  436),  from  which  it  is  learned  that  in 
Eccleaiasticus  and  Wisdom  of  Solomon,  Jerome 
"  saved  the  pen,'^  i.e.,  he  did  not  emend  them  pince 
be  "  desired  to  correct  only  the  canonical  writings/' 
As  by  "  canonical  writings  *'  here  he  refers  only 
to  the  Solomonic  literature,  it  remains  a  possibility 
that  he  neverthcl^a  emended  the  non-Solomonic 
Apocrypha,  E^ra,  Baruch,  I  and  II  Maccabees, 
And  it  is  at  any  rate  worthy  of  notice  that  these 
four  books  are  extant  in  the  Latin  in  double  texts, 
whereas  Ecclesiaaticus  and  Wisdom  are  extant  only 
in  the  text  of  the  Vulgate.  The  presumption  is 
obvious:  that  one  of  Ciieh  of  these  four  double 
texts  embodies  the  revision  of  Jerome,  (The  chief 
collection  of  (3ld  Latin  texts  is  P.  Sabatier,  Bib- 
liorum  Baerorurm  laHne  vermane»  antiguw^  3  vols., 
Paris,  1751;  cf,  also  S.  Berger,  Notices  et  extrdils 
des  Tnamtserits  de  la  Bibliothhque  Nationaie  el  atdres 
bibHoikkjues,  Paris,  1893,  xxxiv,  2,  pp.  141-152; 
idem,  Histmre  de  ia  Vulgaie  pendant  ks  premitrs 
sittlm  dw  moyen  6ge^  Paris,  1S93;  Thielmann,  Be- 
rLcM  ^bcr  das  gesamnwlle  handschriJUidie  Material 
xu  einer  kriiischm  Auagabe  der  liUeinuchen  Ueber^ 
seizungen  des  AUen  TestamenUf  in  Silrungsberichie 
der  Munchener  Akademief  Aisl.  Klassef  1899,  voL 
ii,  pp.  205-243.) 

2.  ayrlaoi  Here  also  distinction  must  be 
made  between  the  common  Syriae  (Peshito)  and 
the  Hexaplar  Syriae  version.  The  former  was 
printed  by  Walton  in  the  London  Polyglot,  and» 
from  examination  of  six  manuscripts  in  the  British 
Museum,  by  P.  de  Lagarde  (Libri  Veteriji  Tesia- 
merUi  apocrypha  Syriace,  Leipaic,  1S6I).  The 
most  important  manuscript  is  the  Codex  Ambro^ 
9ianua  B,  21  Inf,  of  the  sixth  century^ 

2.  The      which  contains  the  whole  of  the  Old 
™^^  *^*  Testament  and  the  foUowing   Apoo^ 

8^ao^  rypha:  Wisdom,  Epistle  of  Jeremiah,^ 
Teraloii»»  ^  ^^^  ^^  Epistles  of  Baruch,  add!-' 
tions  to  Daniel,  Judith »  Ecclesiasticus, 
Apocalypse  of  Baruch.  IV  Ezra,  I-V  Maccabees  (V 
Maccabees  =  Joaephus,  War,  vi).  Only  Ezra  and 
Tobit  are  wanting.  The  character  of  this  Syriae 
translation  is  diflerent  in  the  different  books,  some 
being  quite  literal  and  faithful,  others  free  end 
inaccurate.  The  HexapJar  Syriae  is  the  Syriae 
translation  prepared  after  the  text  of  Origen'a 
Hexapbi,  and  is  for  the  most  part  extant  in  manu- 
scripts at  Milan,  Paris,  and  London.  The  most 
important  manuscript  is  the  Codex  Ambrosianua  C. 
313  InL  It  contains  Wisdom,  EcdesiasticuB, 
Baruch,  Epistle  of  Jeremiah,  and  the  additions 
to  Daniel.    To  the  Hexaplar  translation  belongs 


ai7 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Apoorypha 


also  the  Syriac  text  of  Tobit  i-xii.  The  rest  of  the 
book  is  from  the  Peshito. 

IV.  Origin  and  Contents  of  the  Individual  WritingB. 

1.  The  Apocryphal  Bzra  (I  Esdras;  for  II  Esdras 
see  PsEUDEPioRAPHA,  Old  Testament,  II,  7): 
In  the  Greek  Bibles  this  book  is  called  II  Ezra; 
in  the  Latin,  III  Ezra  (Nehemiah  =  II  Ezra).  The 
whole  is  a  worthless  compilation,  the  main  part  of 
which  is  identical  with  the  canonical  Ezra.  The 
mutual  relations  may  be  seen  from  the  following: 

Chap,  i  =  II  Chron.  xxxv-xxxvi:  The  reetoration  of  the 
temple  worship  under  Josiah  (639-609  B.c.)i  and  the  history 
of  Joaiah'B  sucoeaaors  till  the  destruction  of  the  Temple 
(588).  Chap.  ii«  1-14  =  Esra  i:  Cyrus  in  the  first  year  of 
his  reign  (537  B.C.)  allows  the  exiles  to  return,  and  restores 
to  them  the  vessels  of  the  Temple.  Chap,  ii,  15-25  =  Esra 
iv,  7-24:  In  consequence  of  an  accusation  against  the  Jews, 
Artaxerzes  (465-425  b.c.)  forbids  the  continuation  of  the 
building  of  the  Temple  and  the  walls  of  Jerusalem.  Chap, 
iii-v,  6,  independent:  Zerubbabel  obtains  the  favor  of  Da- 
rius (521-485  B.C.),  and  seciu^s  permission  to  lead  the  exiles 
back.  Chap,  v,  7-70  =  Exra  ii,  1-iv,  5:  List  of  those  who 
returned  with  Zerubbabel,  the  activities  of  Zerubbabel,  and 
the  interruption  of  the  building  of  the  Temple  during  the 
time  of  Csmis  (536-529  b.c.)  and  till  the  second  year  of 
Darius  (520  b.c).  Chap.  vi-vii  =  Esra  v-vi:  Resumption 
and  completion  of  the  building  of  the  Temple  in  the  sixth 
year  of  Darius  (516  b.c).  Chap,  viii-ix,  36  =  Exra  vii-x: 
Ezra  returns  with  a  caravan  of  exiles  in  the  seventh  year  of 
Artaxerxes  (458  b.c);  the  beginning  of  Ezra's  activities. 
Chap,  ix,  37-55  =  Neh.  vii,  73-viii,  13:  Ezra  proclaims  the 
Law. 

The  apocryphal  differs  from  the  canonical  Ezra 
in  the  following  four  points:  (1)  The  passage  iv, 
7-24  of  the  canonical  Ezra  is  placed  first;  (2)  the 
passage  iii-v,  6  of  the  apocryphal  Ezra  is  inserted 
from  an  unknown  source;  (3)  II  Chron.  xxxv- 
xxxvi  serves  as  a  preface;  (4)  Neh.  vii,  73-viii,  13 
is  added  at  the  end.  In  the  canonical  Ezra,  iv, 
6-23  is  in  the  wrong  place;  it  belongs  to  a  later 
period  and  treats  not  of  the  interruption  of  the 
building  of  the  Temple  but  of  the  interruption  of 
the  building  of  the  walls.  The  redactor  of  the 
apocryphal  Ezra  has  indeed  taken  it  out  of  its 
wrong  surroundings,  but  he  has  increased  the  con- 
fusion by  locating  the  passage  wrongly  and  by  add- 
ing as  supplement  the  account  of  the  interruption 
of  work  on  the  Temple.  Not  satisfied  with  this 
he  inserted  also  the  piece  iii-v,  6,  which  transfers 
the  action  into  the  time  of  Darius,  whereas  in  v, 
7-70  events  in  the  reign  of  Cyrus  are  discussed. 
Thus  the  history  goes  backward;  first  (ii,  15-25) 
Artaxerxes,  then  (iii-v,  6)  Darius,  finally  (v,  7-70) 
Cyrus.  And  in  the  last  passage  it  is  told  very 
ingenuously  how  Zerubbabel  had  already  returned 
with  the  exiles  under  Cyrus  (cf.  v,  8,  67-70),  after 
the  statement  has  been  made  expressly  that  Zerub- 
babel through  a  special  favor  of  Darius  obtained 
permission  to  return.  The  opinion  of  Ho  worth 
that  the  apocryphal  Ezra  is  more  original  than  the 
canonical  is  a  reversal  of  the  actual  state  of  the 
case,  as  is  sufficiently  shown  by  Kosters.  Con- 
cerning the  sources  used  by  the  compiler  two  facts 
appear:  (a)  The  canonical  Ezra  which  he  used  was 
not  that  of  the  Septuagint,  but  was  the  Hebrew- 
Aramaic  original  (cf.  Nestle,  Margtnalien  und 
Materialien,  Tubingen,  1893,  pp.  2»-29) ;  (b)  the  poi^ 
tion  iii-v,  6  he  certainly  found  ready  to  hand,  since 
it  stands  in  the  directest  opposition  to  the  rest 
of  the  narrative.    It  seems  to  be  from  a  Greek 


original,  not  a  translation  from  the  Hebrew.  The 
purpose  of  the  entire  compilation  was  correctly 
stated  by  Bertholdt  (HistoriachrkrUiache  Einleitung 
in  die  BUcher  dea  Allen  TeatamentSy  6  vols.,  Erlangen, 
1812-19,  iii,  1011)  in  the  following  words:  *'He 
intended  to  compile  from  older  works  a  history  of 
the  Temple  from  the  last  epoch  of  the  legal  worship 
to  its  rebuilding  and  of  the  reestablishment  of  the 
prescribed  divine  service."  The  compiler  evi- 
dently purposed  to  quote  further  from  Nehemiah; 
for  the  abrupt  close  can  not  possibly  have  been 
intended.  As  to  the  date  of  compilation  all  that 
can  be  said  is  that  the  book  was  used  by  Josephus 
{Ant,,  xi,  1-5). 

2.  Additions  to  Bather  (The  Rest  of  Esther): 
The  Book  of  Esther  narrates  how  Esther,  the  fosteiv 
daughter  of  a  Jew  named  Mordecai  at  the  court  of 
King  Ahasuerus  (Xerxes)  in  Shushan,  becomes  the 
wife  of  the  king;  how  Haman,  the  prime  minister 
who  intended  to  destroy  Mordecai  and  all  Jews, 
is  himself  brought  to  the  gallows;  and  how  by  her 
intercession  Esther  finally  induces  the  king  to 
revoke  the  edict  issued  under  Haman's  influence, 
and  thus  saves  her  people.  Into  this  narrative 
the  following  pieces  are  inserted  in  the  Greek  Bible: 
(a)  Before  i,  1,  Mordecai's  dream  of  the  miraculous 
deliverance  of  his  people;  (b)  after  iii,  13,  the  text 
of  the  first  edict  of  Artaxerxes  (thus  the  king  is 
named  in  this  section)  which  decrees  the  extermi- 
nation of  the  Jews;  (c)  after  iv,  17,  the  text  of  the 
prayers  of  Mordecai  and  Esther  for  the  salvation 
of  their  people;  (d)  in  place  of  v,  1-2,  the  reception 
of  Esther  by  the  king;  (e)  in  place  of  viii,  13,  the 
text  of  the  second  edict  of  Artaxerxes,  which  recalls 
the  first;  (f)  after  x,  3,  Mordecai  perceives  the 
significance  of  his  dream.  It  is  difficult  to  decide 
whether  these  pieces  were  interpolated  by  the 
translator  of  the  Septuagint  version  of  Esther  or 
by  a  later  hand.  There  is  no  reason  for  assuming 
for  them  a  Hebrew  original.  It  is  true  that  Hebrew 
and  Aramaic  texts  exist,  but  they  are  late  in  origin, 
and  most  likely  were  made  directly  or  indirectly 
from  the  Greek,  as  were  other  Hebrew  and  Aramaic 
texts  of  the  Apocrypha.  For  these  additions 
Josephus  is  the  oldest  witness  (Ant.^  VI,  vi,  6  sqq.), 
since  the  annotation  to  Esther  according  to  which 
Dositheus  and  his  son  Ptolemy  brought  the  book 
(to  Egypt)  in  the  fourth  year  of  the  reign  of  King 
Ptolemy  and  Cleopatra,  refers  to  the  book  as  a 
whole  and  can  not  be  used  as  testimony  for  the 
antiquity  of  the  interpolated  passages.  Moreover, 
this  testimony  is  very  indecisive,  since  there  were 
no  less  than  four  Ptolemies,  each  of  whom  had  a 
wife  named  Cleopatra.  In  this  book,  especially 
interesting  is  the  text-recension  which  is  extant 
in  0>dices  19,  93A,  108B,  the  latter  two  containing 
both  texts,  the  common  and  the  revised.  The 
revision  of  the  common  text,  which  on  the  whole 
characterizes  the  readings  of  these  manuscripts^  is 
more  radical  in  Elsther  than  is  usual,  on  which 
account  Fritzsche  published  both  texts  side  by 
side  in  his  edition  of  1848  as  well  as  in  his  collection 
of  the  Apocrypha.  Lagarde  did  the  same  in  his 
edition  of  the  Septuagint  (i,  1883). 

3.    Additions  to  Daniel:    (a)   The    Song  of  the 
Three  Children :    In  the  third  chapter  of  Daniel  it 


AjK>orypha 


THE  NEW   SCHAFF-HERZOG 


818 


is  told  how  the  three  children  Shadrach,  Meshach, 
and  Abednego  (or,  as  their  Hebrew  names  are  given 
in  i,  7,  Hananiah,  Mishael,  and  Azariah),  refusing 
to  fall  down  before  the  image  of  the  king,  were 
punished  by  being  thrown  into  the  furnace,  but 
were  miraculously  saved.  In  the  Greek  text  of 
Daniel  an  insertion  is  made  after  iii,  23,  in  which  it 
is  told  that  Azariah  when  in  the  furnace  prayed  to 
God  to  be  saved,  and  when  his  prayer  was  heard, 
that  the  three  sang  a  song  of  praise,  the  text  of  the 
prayer  as  well  as  of  the  song  being  given,  (b)  The 
History  of  Susanna:  In  the  Greek  text  this  pas- 
sage generally  stands  at  the  beginning  of  Daniel, 
and  Daniel  is  introduced  as  still  a  boy.  Susanna, 
the  wife  of  a  prominent  Jew  of  Babylon,  named 
Joacim,  is  wrongly  accused  of  adultery,  and  con- 
demned to  death,  but  is  saved  by  the  young  Daniel's 
wisdom  and  prophetic  gift,  (c)  Bel  and  the  Dragon  : 
Daniel  proves  to  the  king  of  Babylon  (whom 
Theodotion  calls  Cyrus)  that  the  god  Bel  neither 
eats  nor  drinks  the  offerings  put  before  him.  The 
destruction  of  a  dragon,  which  is  an  object  of  wor- 
ship, Daniel  brings  about  by  feeding  it  with  indigest- 
ible cakes.  Being  c^ust  into  the  lion's  den  at  the 
instigation  of  the  enraged  populace,  Daniel  is  not 
touched  by  the  lion,  and  is  miraculously  fed  by 
the  prophet  Habakkuk. 

Of  these  three  insertions  the  first  only  is  a  proper 
supplement  to  the  canonical  book  of  Daniel.  The 
other  two  are  independent  and  probably  originated 
independently.  There  is  no  certain  reason  for 
assimiing  that  either  of  the  three  insertions  was 
originally  written  in  Hebrew  or  Aramaic.  The 
history  of  Susanna  is  certainly  a  Greek  original, 
as  was  inferred  by  Julius  Africanus  and  Porphyry 
from  plays  on  words  possible  only  in  Greek  (cf. 
Bertholdt,  Einleitung,  iv,  1675  sqq.;  a  thorough 
but  neverthele,ss  abortive  effort  to  put  aside  the 
force  of  these  plays  was  made  by  Wiederholt  in 
TQ,  1869,  pp.  200-321).  Of  the  Song  of  the 
Three  Children  in  the  furnace  and  the  story  of  the 
dragon,  Gaster  published  an  Aramaic  text  from  a 
Jewish  chronicle  of  the  Middle  Ages,  which  he 
regards  as  the  original  (Gaster,  The  Unknown 
Aramaic  Original  of  Theodoiion's  Additions  to  the 
Book  of  Daniel,  in  PSBA,  xvi,  1894,  pp.  280-290, 
312-317;  xvii,  1895,  pp.  75-94).  But  the  author 
of  the  chronicle  says  that  he  gives  the  insertions, 
"  which  Thodos  found;  and  this  is  the  section  which 
was  inserted  into  his  text  by  Thodos,  the  wise  man, 
who  translated  in  the  days  of  Commodus,  King 
of  the  Romans"  {PSBA,  xvi,  283,  312).  Since 
Symmachus  and  Aquila  are  also  mentioned  as 
Bible  translators,  Thodos  is  no  doubt  Theodotion, 
as  Gaster  also  states.  The  chronicler  himself  thus 
declares  that  the  insertions  are  later  than  Theodo- 
tion. Still  less  originality  can  be  claimed  by  an- 
other Aramaic  (Syriac)  reproduction  of  the  story 
of  the  dragon,  which  Raymundus  Martini  quoted 
in  his  Pugio  fidei,  and  which  was  published  by 
Neubauer  {The  Book  of  TobU,  London,  1878,  pp. 
xci-xcii,  39-43);  the  same  can  also  be  said  of  the 
Hebrew  recension  of  the  History  of  Susanna  in 
Jellinek,  Bet  ha^Midrash  (6  vols.,  Vienna,  1877,  vi, 
126-128).  On  account  of  the  linguistic  agreement 
of  the  insertions  with  the  translation  of  the  rest  of 


the  book,  Fritzsche  is  led  to  the  assumption  that 
they  are  united  with  the  book  by  the  translator 
[of  the  Septuagint],  and  were  recast  by  him  (Exege- 
tisches  Handbuch,  i,  114).  This  is  improbable  if 
the  Greek  origin  of  the  insertions  is  maintained. 
Before  the  Daniel  legend  could  produce  new  for- 
mations in  the  Greek  language,  a  Greek  book  of 
Daniel  had  to  exist.  On  the  History  of  Susanna 
there  is  an  interesting  correspondence  between 
Julius  Africanus  and  Origen,  in  which  the  former 
denies  the  genuineness  of  the  story  and  the  latter 
defends  it  (Julii  Africani  de  histoHa  Susanna 
epistola  ad  Orvgenem  et  Origenis  ad  ilium  responsiOf 
ed.  J.  R.  Wctstenius,  Basel,  1674,  Eng.  transl., 
ANF,  iv,  385-392).  The  text  of  the  Septuagint 
of  the  Book  of  Daniel,  together  with  its  addi- 
tions, was  early  displaced  from  ecclesiastical  use 
by  the  version  of  Theodotion;  consequently  all 
manuscripts  and  editions  of  the  Septuagint  con- 
tain Theodotion's  version  of  Daniel.  The  text  of 
the  Septuagint  is  extant  in  only  one  manuscript, 
which  is  in  the  library  of  Prince  Chigi  at  Rome 
(Codex  ChisianuSf  no.  88  in  Holmes's  Vetus 
Testamentum;  Tischendorf  dates  it  in  the  eleventh 
century),  and  was  first  edited  by  Simon  de  Magis- 
tris  {Daniel  secundum  LXX  ex  teiraplis  Origenis 
nunc  primum  editus  e  singulari  Chisiano  codice, 
Rome,  1772).  A  correct  reprint  of  the  Codex 
Chisianus  was  first  published  by  Cozza  {Sacrorum 
bibliorum  vetustissima  fragmenta  Oraca  et  Latina, 
part  iii,  Rome,  1877),  and  after  him  by  Swete 
{The  Old  Testament  in  Greek,  iii,  Cambridge,  1894). 
Wherever  Theodotion  could  not  revise  after  a 
Hebrew  original,  his  text  in  the  additions  is  nothing 
but  a  revision  of  the  Septuagint.  The  text  of  the 
Septuagint  is  the  basis  of  the  Hexaplar-Syriac 
version. 

4.  The  Prayer  of  Manaasea:  After  King  Manas- 
seh  had  been  taken  to  Babylon  by  the  Assyrians, 
and  while  in  captivity,  he  repented  and  besought 
God  to  be  delivered;  God  heard  his  prayer  and 
brought  him  back  again  to  Jerusalem  (II  Chron. 
xxxiii,  11-13).  According  to  II  Chron.  xxxiii, 
18-19,  this  prayer  was  written  in  the  "  Book  of 
the  Kings  of  Israel  "  and  in  the  "  History  of  Hozai  " 
and  "  among  the  sayings  of  the  seers."  This 
reference  suggested  the  composition  of  a  prayer 
which  should  correspond  to  the  situation.  It  is 
found  in  some  manuscripts  of  the  Septuagint 
(e.g..  Codex  AUxandrinus)  among  the  hymns  given 
at  the  head  of  the  Psalms;  and  is  also  quoted  in 
full  in  the  Apostolic  Constitutions,  ii,  22.  The 
latter  furnishes  the  eariiest  trace  of  the  existence 
of  the  prayer;  it  may  be,  as  Nestle  supposes,  that 
it  was  tranisferred  from  this  passage  into  the  manu- 
scripts of  the  Septuagint.  It  is  nowhere  found  in 
the  text  of  Chronicles.  The  Latin  translation  in 
the  Vulgate  (since  the  Council  of  Trent  put  into 
the  appendix)  is  entirely  different  from  the  Old 
Latin,  and  is  of  very  late  origin. 

6.  Baraoh:  Under  the  name  of  Baruch,  the 
faithful  friend  and  companion  of  the  prophet 
Jeremiah,  whose  prophecies  he  wrote  down  (Jer. 
xxxvi,  4,  17  sqq.,  27,  32;  xlv,  1)  and  with  whom  he 
shared  the  involuntary  abode  in  Egypt  (Jer.  xliii, 
5-7),  a  work  is  extant  which  consists  of  the  follow- 


219 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Apocrypha 


ing  three  parts,  rather  loosely  connected:  (a)  i,  2- 
iii,  8:  In  the  fifth  year  after  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem  by  the  Chaldeans  (586  B.C.),  the  Jews  in 
Babylon  send  messages  to  Jerusalem  to  the  high 
priest  Joiakim,  forward  money  to  provide  sacrifices 
for  the  Temple,  and  ask  prayers  for  the  life  of  King 
Nebuchadnezzar  and  his  son  Belshazzar.  In  the 
letter  which  the  messengers  bring  to  Jerusalem  the 
point  is  especially  emphasized  that  the  present 
misfortune  is  but  a  punishment  for  the  people's 
sin  and  their  disobedience  to  God's  oonmiandments, 
especially  because  they  did  not  obey  the  king  of 
Babylon,  as  God  desired  them;  (b)  iii,  9-iv,  4: 
Israel  is  exhorted  to  return  to  the  soiurce  of  all 
wisdom,  who  is  God  alone;  (c)  iv,  5-v,  9:  The 
discoiuraged  people  are  exhorted  to  take  heart. 
Though  Jerusalem  is  devastated  and  the  people 
scattered,  God  will  bring  them  back  into  the  holy 
city. 

Opinions  differ  much  as  to  the  date  of  compo- 
sition. It  is  the  more  difficult  to  decide  because 
the  three  pieces  of  which  the  work  is  composed  are 
of  different  character  and  come  from  at  least  two, 
possibly  three,  authors.  The  position  of  Roman 
Catholic  theologians  that  the  book  really  belongs 
to  Baruch  is  untenable.  The  author  was  unac- 
quainted with  the  circumstances  of  the  times  (cf. 
Fritzsche,  Exegetiaches  Handbuch,  i,  170),  and  was 
in  the  dark  as  to  the  situation  invented  by  himself, 
not  having  pictured  it  clearly  to  his  own  con- 
sciousness. On  the  one  hand,  he  presupposed  the 
destruction  of  the  city  by  the  Chaldeans  (i,  2),  yet 
spoke  as  if  the  ritual  and  the  Temple  itself  still 
existed  (i,  10,  14).  Even  Ewald's  view,  that  the 
book  originated  in  the  latter  Persian  and  first 
Greek  period,  is  far  from  the  truth.  There  are 
parallels  with  the  Book  of  Daniel  which  make 
certain  literary  dependence  of  one  upon  the  other. 
Daniel  ix,  7-10  corresponds  almost  literally  to 
Baruch  i,  15-18.  But  it  is  hardly  conceivable  that 
such  a  very  original  and  creative  mind  as  the  author 
of  Daniel  copied  from  Baruch.  This  brings  the 
book  down  into  the  later  Maccabean  times,  on 
account  of  the  necessary  interval  between  Baruch 
and  Daniel.  With  this  date  most  of  the  Protestant 
critics  seem  to  be  satisfied  (so  Fritzsche,  Exege- 
tiaches Handbuch,  i,  173,  and  De  Wette-Schrader, 
Einleitung,  p.  603).  But  it  is  very  questionable 
whether  this  is  correct,  whether,  with  Hitzig  (ZWTf 
1860, pp.  262  sqq.)  and  Kneucker  (Das  Buch  Baruch, 
Leipsic,  1879),  the  date  should  not  be  brought  down 
to  the  time  of  Vespasian. 

Mention  should  be  made  of  the  fact,  first  noted 
by  P.  E.  E.  Geiger  (Der  Psalter  SalomoSy  Augsburg, 
1871,  p.  137),  that  Baruch  v  has  the  same  view- 
point as  the  Psalter  of  Solomon  xi.  The  thoughts 
are  in  part  derived  from  Isaiah.  A  literary  rela- 
tionship between  Pseudo-Solomon  and  Pseudo- 
Baruch  can  hardly  be  denied.  Considering  the 
psalmhke  character  of  Baruch,  it  seems  more 
appropriate  to  grant  priority  to  the  psalms  than  to 
Baruch.  This  would  lead  at  least  into  the  time  of 
Pompey,  in  which  the  psalms  originated  (cf. 
SchUrer,  Geschichte,  iii,  150  sqq.).  Besides,  the 
first  as  well  as  the  third  part  of  the  book  presup- 
poses the  destruction  of  Jerusalem   and  of  the 


Temple,  the  devastation  and  ruin  of  the  country, 
and  the  removal  of  the  inhabitants  into  captivity 
(i,  2;  ii,  23,  26;  iv,  10-16).    To  be  sure,  according 
to  the  author's  plan,  the  action  is  placed  in  the  time 
of  the  Chaldeans;   but  the  whole  work,  with  all 
its  exhortations  and  consolations,  suits  a  similar 
situation,  and   is  not  sufficiently  motived,  unless 
the  contemporaries  of  the  author  hved  under  the 
pressure  of  like  conditions  (cf.  Fritzsche,  Exege- 
tisches    Handbuch,    i,    172    sqq.).    Circumstances 
similar  to  those  of  the  time  of  the  Chaldeans  existed 
again  in  consequence  of  the  great  war  of  66-70  a.d. 
Such  a  destruction  of  city  and  Temple  took  place 
neither  in  the  time  of  the  Maccabeans  nor  in  the 
time  of  Pompey  (to  which  Graetz  assigns  the  book). 
Finally,  some  striking  peculiarities  suggest  the  war 
from  66  to  70.    The  author  considers  the  misfor- 
tune of  Israel  a  punishment  for  its  rebellion  against 
the  king  of  Babylon,  and  exhorts  the  people  to 
offer  sacrifice  and  prayer  to  Nebuchadnezzar  and 
Belshazzar  (ii,  21  sqq.,  i,  10  sqq.).     In  like  manner 
Josephus  (War,  II,  xvii,  2-4)  saw  the  real  cause  of 
the  war  in  the  abohtion  of  the  sacrifice  for  the  Ro- 
man emperor.    The  entire  unhistorical  juxtaposition 
of  Nebuchadnezzar  and  Belshazzar  suggests  Ves- 
pasian and  Titus.    That  parents  might  eat  the 
flesh  of  their  children  during  a  famine  (ii,  3)  was 
already  threatened  (Lev.  xxvi,  29;  Deut.  xxviii, 
53;  Jer.  xix,  9;  Ezek.  v,  10),  and  is  stated  as  a 
fact  (II  Kings  vi,  28  sqq.;  Lam.  ii,  20,  iv,   10). 
It  may  be  recalled  that  the  very  same  thing  is  also 
narrated  of  the  war  under  Vespasian  (Josephus,  War, 
VI,  iii,  4).     In  view  of  these  facts  the  inference  is 
allowable  that  the  Book  of  Baruch  originated  in  the 
time  of  Vespasian.    It  is   first  quoted   by  Athe- 
nagoras  ("  Plea  for  the  Christians,"  ix,  where  Baruch 
iii,  35  is  quoted  as  the  utterance  of  a  prophet),  and 
is  also  quoted  by  Irenseus  (Hcer.,  IV,  xx,  4;  V, 
XXXV,  1),  and  Clement  of  Alexandria  {Posdagogus, 
I,  X,  91-92;  II,  iii,  36). 

The  question  of  the  unity  of  authorship  can  be 
treated  only  in  connection  with  the  question  of  the 
original  language.  In  the  latter  respect  Jerome 
says  {Prolegomena  in  Jer.),  **  It  is  neither  found 
nor  read  among  the  Hebrews."  Over  against  this 
in  the  Hexaplar-Syriac  there  occurs  three  times 
(in  i,  17  and  ii,  3)  the  remark  "  This  does  not  exist 
in  the  Hebrew  "  (cf .  Ceriani's  notes  to  his  edition 
in  the  Monumenta  sacra  et  prof  ana,  i,  1,  Milan,  1861- 
1871).  According  to  this,  it  may  be  assumed  that  a 
Hebrew  Baruch,  corresponding  to  the  Greek  which 
has  been  preserved,  was  known  to  antiquity;  and 
the  linguistic  character,  at  least  of  the  first  part, 
confirms  this  assumption.  But  the  diction  from 
iii,  9  is  perceptibly  different.  Accordingly  the 
view  of  Fritzsche  has  much  in  its  favor;  viz.,  that 
the  first  part  is  a  translation  from  the  Hebrew; 
the  rest,  however,  is  from  a  Greek  original  (Exege- 
tisches  Handbuch,  i,  171  sqq.).  With  this  it  is  also 
decided  that  there  were  two  authors;  the  trans- 
lator of  the  first  part  added  the  rest  from  his  own 
resources,  but  both  are  to  be  dated  in  the  time  of 
Vespasian.  Finally  it  is  worthy  of  remark  that 
the  use  of  Theodotion's  version  of  Daniel  can  be 
shown  (cf.  L.  E.  T.  Andr^,  Lea  Apocryphes  de 
VAnden    Testament,   Paris,    1904,   pp.   251   sqq.; 


Apocrypha 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


220 


TLZ,  1904,  p.  255).  From  this  it  must  be  inferred  th&t 
this  version  is  much  older  than  is  generally  supposed. 

6.  The  Epistle  of  Jeremiah:  As  an  addition  to 
the  Book  of  Baruch  there  is  often  found  the  so- 
called  Epistle  of  Jeremiah  (occurring  as  chap,  vi  in 
the  Vulgate,  in  Luther's  Bible,  and  in  the  English). 
Originally  it  had  nothing  to  do  with  the  Book 
of  Baruch,  and  in  older  manuscripts  is  separated 
from  it.  But  without  any  valid  reason  the  two 
were  imited  at  a  very  early  period.  The  letter  is  ad- 
dressed to  the  exiles  designated  by  Nebuchadnezzar 
to  be  led  to  Babylon.  In  contents  it  is  a  some- 
what diffusive  and  rhetorical  exhortation,  though 
in  good  Greek,  against  the  Babylonian  deities, 
together  with  an  ironical  description  of  their  nothing- 
ness. Its  genuineness  is  out  of  the  question;  for  the 
epistle  was  certainly  originally  written  in  Greek. 
Besides,  the  duration  of  the  exile  (verse  3)  is  given 
as  lasting  seven  generations  in  opposition  to  Jer. 
xxix,  10.  Many  find  in  II  Mace,  ii,  1  sqq.  direct 
reference  to  this  epistle.  But  what  is  said  there 
has  nothing  to  do  with  it.  Still  less  can  it  be 
regarded  as  a  reference  to  the  epistle,  when  the  fact 
is  taken  into  account  that  in  one  Targum  to  Jer. 
X,  11,  this  Aramaic  verse  is  designated  a  "  copy '' 
from  an  epistle  of  Jeremiah  (cf.  Nestle,  Margi- 
nalien  und  Maierialien,  1893,  pp.  42  sqq.). 

?•  Tobit:  The  name  of  this  book  and  of  its 
hero  is  read  in  the  Vulgate  Tobias ;  but  in  the  Greek 
text  Tobit  (or  TdbiJth)^  in  the  English  translation 
"  Tobit,"  where  "  Tobias "  is  only  the  name  of 
the  son  of  Tobit.  According  to  the  Greek  text,  in 
the  first  part  of  the  book  Tobit  himself  tells  his 
story,  speaking  in  the  first  person;  from  iii,  7,  the 
narrator  speaks  in  the  third  person.  Tobit,  a  son  of 
Tobiel  of  the  tribe  of  Naphtali  belonged  to  the  exiles 
who  were  led  away  to  Nineveh  into  captivity  by  the 
Assyrian  king  Shalmaneser.  He  lived  there  also 
under  the  kings  Sennacherib  and  Esarhaddon  and 
always  distinguished  himself  by  an  exemplary  piety. 
Since  in  spite  of  this  piety  he  still  experienced 
misfortune,  he  was  derided  and  ridiculed  (i,  1- 
iii,  6).  A  similar  experience  was  that  of  a  pious 
woman  named  Sara,  the  daughter  of  Raguel  in 
Ecbatana  (iii,  7-15).  Because  both  prayed  to 
God  in  their  distress,  the  angel  Raphael  was  sent 
to  deliver  both  from  the  sufferings  which  befell 
them  in  their  innocence,  and  to  unite  Sara  and 
Tobias,  the  son  of  Tobit,  in  marriage  (iii,  16-xii,  22). 
Tobit  sang  a  psalm  of  praise  in  honor  of  God,  and 
lived  to  be  a  hundred  and  forty-eight,  and  Tobias 
lived  to  be  a  hundred  and  twenty-seven  (xiii,  xiv). 
This  is  the  course  of  the  narrative,  which  is  adorned 
with  many  details,  exhibits  a  good  talent  for  com- 
position, and  also  displays  the  spirit  of  the  strictly 
Pharisaic  legality.  Older  theology  down  to  the 
nineteenth  century  regarded  the  story  as  history; 
but  the  narrative  is  no  doubt  pure  fiction.  Its 
object  IB  obvious;  it  is  to  prove  that  God  never 
forsakes  the  pious  and  righteous;  on  the  contrary, 
he  always  takes  care  of  them,  though  they  seem  to 
be  forsaken;  finally  that  he  richly  rewards  their 
piety.  On  this  account  those  who,  like  Tobit, 
dwell  among  the  Gentiles  should  not  suffer  them- 
selves by  the  hardships  of  their  external  circimi- 
stances  io  become  faithless  to  God. 


The  contents  being  so  general,  it  is  impossible 
to  fix  the  time  of  composition.  But  with  some 
probability  it  may  be  said  that  the  book  originated 
during  the  last  two  centuries  b.c.  There  is  no 
reason  to  go  down  to  the  post- Vespasian  time,  as 
Hitzig  does  (ZPTT,  1860,  pp.  250  sqq.);  for  here 
the  case  is  essentially  different  from  that  of  Baruch. 
While  it  is  true  that  from  the  standpoint  of  the 
Assyrian  times  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  and, 
conformably  to  it,  its  rebuilding  also  are  prophe- 
sied (xiv,  4-5;  xiii,  9-10,  16  sqq.),  the  entire  book 
is  by  no  means  intended  to  comfort  the  readers  for 
the  destruction  of  Jerusalem.  It  is  true  that  Hit- 
zig  infers,  from  the  fact  that  the  author  depicts 
the  rebuilding  of  city  and  Temple  with  more  ex- 
travagant colors  than  would  apply  to  the  historical 
building,  that  he  did  not  live  while  this  historical 
building  stood.  But  a  careful  consideration  of  the 
principal  passage  sets  us  right.  Chap,  xiv,  5  reads: 
"  And  they  shall  build  the  house  but  not  like  to  the 
former,  imtil  the  times  of  that  age  be  fulfilled; 
and  afterward  they  shall  return  from  the  peaces  of 
their  captivity,  and  build  up  Jerusalem  gloriously, 
and  the  house  of  God  shall  be  built  in  it  forever 
with  a  glorious  building,  even  as  the  prophets 
spake  concerning  it."  Here  two  things  are  plainly 
distinguished:  (a)  the  historical  building  of  Zerub- 
babel,  which  is  insignificant  C'  not  like  to  the  for- 
mer ");  and  (b)  the  beautiful  building  of  eternity, 
which  is  to  follow  this  at  the  end  of  this  age,  which 
is  still  in  the  future  even  for  the  author.  The  very 
fact  that  the  writer  knew  nothing  of  a  repeated 
catastrophe  between  the  two  would  indicate  that 
he  lived  in  pre- Vespasian  or  even  in  pre-Hcrodian 
times.  Clear  signs  of  a  use  of  the  book  are  lacking  till 
the  second  century  of  the  Christian  era.  Reference 
is  made  in  xiv,  10  to  the  legend  of  Achikar  or  Achia- 
char,  which  is  extant  in  different  late  recensions  (cf. 
Conybeare,  Harris,  and  Lewis,  The  Story  of  Ahikar 
from  the  SyriaCy  Arabic,  Armenian^  Greek y  and  Slavonic 
Versume,  London,  1898).  No  Hebrew  (or  Aramaic) 
copy  of  the  book  was  known  to  Origen  and  his  Jew- 
ish advisers  (Epist.  ad  Africanum,  xiii:  "  The  Jews 
neither  use  Tobit  nor  Judith,  nor  do  they  have  them 
in  Hebrew ").  It  is  therefore  probable  that  the 
extant  Semitic  texts  are  late.  An  Aramaic  text 
was  edited  by  A.  Neubauer  (The  Book  of  Tobit, 
a  Chaldee  Text  from  a  Unique  MS,  in  the  Bodleian 
Library,  Oxford,  1878;  cf .  G.  Bicknell,  in  ZKT,  1878, 
pp.  216-222;  T.  Noldeke,  m  MonatsberichU  der 
Berliner  Akademie,  1879,  pp.  45-69;  and  G.  H.  Dal- 
man,  Grammatik  dee  JUdiach-^paUlstinischen  Aran 
mdisch,  Leipsic,  1894,  pp.  27-29).  There  exist 
also  two  Hebrew  compositions  generally  acknowl- 
edged to  be  of  late  date  (cf.  C.  D.  Ilgen,  Die  Ge- 
BchichU  Tobi'SyJeatL,  1800,  cxxxviii  sqq.,  ccxvii  sqq.; 
Fritzsche,  Exegetischea  Handbuchy  ii,  5,  9  sqq., 
xiv;  T.  N6ldeke,  Die  AUtestamentliche  LiUeratur, 
Leipsic,  1868,  pp.  108  sqq.).  The  Aramaic  text 
has  this  in  conmion  with  the  Latin  revision  of 
Jerome  (and  with  this  only),  that  the  story  of  Tobit 
IB  narrated  from  the  beginning  in  the  third  person, 
whereas  in  all  other  texts,  in  i,  1-iii,  6,  Tobit  speaks 
in  the  first  person.  The  Aramaic  text  is  thus  per- 
haps identical  with,  or  at  any  rate  nearly  related 
to,  that  used  by  Jerome.    Dalman  for  linguistic 


221 


REUGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Apoonrpha 


reasons  declares  it  to  be  later.  But  a  decision  is 
difficult,  since  Jerome  actually  leans  more  upon 
the  Old  Latin.  Since  the  uniform  adoption  of  the 
third  person  is  evidently  secondary,  the  originality 
of  the  Aramaic  as  against  the  Greek  is  out  of  the 
question.  It  is  probable  that  in  the  Aramaic  text 
also  the  first  person  in  chap,  i,  1-iii,  6  was  origi- 
nally preserved;  for  it  is  still  used  in  the  so-called 
Hebrcnia  Munsteri,  which,  according  to  other  indi- 
cations, was  made  from  the  Aramaic.  But  even 
with  this  supposition  there  is  no  reason  to  assimie 
an  Aramaic  text  as  the  original  of  the  Greek  (so 
Fuller  in  Wace's  Apocrypha,  i,  152-155,  164-171). 
The  style  of  the  Greek  text  makes  its  originality 
rather  probable.  Of  the  Greek  text  there  are  three 
recensions:  (a)  the  common  text  contained  also 
in  the  Vatican  and  Alexandrian  manuscripts  and 
followed  by  the  Syriac  version  to  vii,  9;  (b)  that 
preserved  in  the  Sinaitic  codex  upon  which  the  Old 
Latin  leans  for  the  most  part;  (c)  the  text  of  cod- 
ices 44,  106,  107,  which  are  the  basis  of  the  Syriac 
from  vii,  10.  The  manuscripts  named  represent 
in  the  beginm'ng  the  common  recension,  so  that 
this  text  is  preserved  only  for  vi,  9-xiii,  8.  In  his 
edition  of  the  Apocrypha,  Fritzsche  gives  all  three 
texts.  Swete  gives  the  text  of  the  Vatican  and 
Sinaitic. 

8.  Judith:  The  contents  of  this  book  are  briefly 
as  follows:  Nebuchadnezzar,  king  of  Assyria  (sic), 
overcomes  Arphaxad,  king  of  Media,  and  sends 
his  general,  Holof ernes,  against  the  Western  nations 
which  did  not  take  the  field  with  him  against 
Arphaxad.  They  are  subdued,  and  their  places  of 
worship  destroyed  (i-iii).  Holof  ernes  now  attacks 
the  Jewish  people,  who  had  recently  retiuned 
from  the  captivity  and  rededicated  their  temple. 
In  the  face  of  the  inuninent  danger  of  having  their 
sanctuary  profaned,  the  whole  people  are  bent  upon 
resistance  to  the  utmost,  and  the  high  priest  Joia- 
kim  makes  the  necessary  arrangements.  Holo- 
femes  directs  his  main  attack  upon  the  fortress 
Bethulia,  which  he  hopes  to  conquer  by  famine 
(iv-vii).  The  distress  having  become  very  great, 
a  beautiful  widow,  Judith  by  name,  offers  to  become 
the  savior  of  her  people.  Having  been  admit- 
ted to  the  hostile  camp,  she  contrives  to  gain  the 
confidence  of  Holofemes.  While  Holofemes  lies 
in  a  drunken  stupor,  Judith  kills  him  and  then 
hastens  back  into  the  dty.  The  Jews  make  a  sally, 
put  the  enemy  to  flight,  and  all  Israel  is  saved 
(viii-xiv).  Judith  is  praised  as  the  savior  of  the 
people,  and  at  her  death  at  the  advanced  age  of 
105  years  is  greatly  lamented  by  all  the  nation 
(xv-xvi). 

As  is  the  case  in  the  Book  of  Tobit,  so  here  there 
can  be  no  doubt  that  the  contents  is  not  history 
but  a  didactic  narrative.  The  historical  details 
are  so  incredibly  confused,  and  the  parenetic  object 
is  so  manifest,  that  only  by  wilfully  closing  the  eyes 
can  one  fail  to  see  that  the  book  is  fiction.  What  the 
parenetic  object  is,  is  plain  enough:  The  Jewish 
people  was  to  be  encouraged  to  fight  with  the 
sword  boldly  and  resolutely,  for  the  continuance 
of  its  faith  and  worship,  even  against  a  superior 
enemy.  This  points  clearly  to  Maccabean  times. 
It  may  be  admitted  that  the  presupposed  historical 


backgroimd  would  fit  well  the  time  of  Artaxerxes 
Ochus,  for  this  king  in  one  of  his  campaigns  against 
Phenida  and  Egypt  (c.  350  B.C.)  nuule  prisoners 
among  the  Jews;  and  Holofemes  of  Cappadoda 
and  the  eunuch  Bagoes  were  the  most  prominent 
generals  in  these  campaigns.  Since,  in  the  history 
of  Judith,  both  Holofemes  and  the  eunuch  Bagoes 
play  parts  (xii,  11  sqq.,  xiii,  1  sqq.,  xiv,  14),  it  seems 
easy  to  locate  the  Judith  story  in  the  time  of  Ochus. 

But  the  author  mentions  also  Nebuchadnezzar. 
All  that  can  be  said  is  that  in  his  literary  license 
the  author  took  a  part  of  his  material  from  events 
in  the  time  of  Ochus  (T.  Ndldeke,  Die  alUeatament- 
liche  LiUeratur,  Leipsic,  1868,  p.  96;  and  AufsOtze 
zur  persischtn  GeachichUf  Ldpsic,  1887,  p.  78). 
But  he  certainly  wrote  later.  And,  since  the  story 
deals  with  a  time  of  religious  oppression,  Macca- 
bean times  are  indicated  as  the  date  of  composition 
(cf.  Fritzsche,  Ewald,  Hilgenfeld,  and  Ndldeke). 
Volkmar,  Hitzig,  and  Graetz  date  it  in  the  time  of 
Trajan.  Volkmar  especially  has  vainly  expended 
much  learning  and  fancy  to  prove  that  the  history 
of  the  campaigns  of  Nebuchadnezzar  and  Holo- 
femes is  merely  a  disguised  representation  of  the 
campaigns  of  Trajan  and  his  generals  against  the 
Parthians  and  the  Jews.  The  fact  that  Clement  of 
Rome  (Iv)  mentions  Judith  forbids  this  late  dating. 
It  is  generally  agreed  that  the  Greek  text  is  a  trans- 
lation of  a  Hebrew  original,  as  is  evident  from  the 
entire  coloring  of  the  language  and  from  mistakes 
in  the  translation  (i,  8;  ii,  2;  iii,  1,  9,  10;  cf.  Fritz- 
sche, Exegetisches  Handbuch,  ii,  115  sqq.).  The 
Aramaic  recension  which  Jerome  perused  is  not  to 
be  regarded  as  the  original,  since  neither  Origen 
nor  his  Jewish  advisers  knew  of  a  Hebrew  (or 
Aramaic)  text  (Epist.  ad  Africanum,  xiii,  quoted 
above).  It  appears  that  the  original  was  lost 
before  Origen's  time,  and  that  the  Aramaic  trans- 
lation used  by  Jerome  originated  after  that  time. 
The  extant  paraphrastic  Hebrew  recensions  are 
still  later  products  (cf .  Zunz,  Die  gottesdienstlichen 
Vortrdge  der  Juden,  Berlin,  1832,  pp.  124  sqq.; 
Lipsius,  in  ZWT,  1867,  pp.  337-366;  Ball,  in  Wace's 
Apocrypha,  i,  252-257;  Gaster,  in  PSBA,  xvi,  1894, 
pp.  156-163).  Of  the  Greek  text  three  recensions 
are  extant:  (a)  the  common  and  original  one; 
(b)  that  of  the  codices  19, 108;  (c)  that  of  58,  which 
was  followed  by  the  Syriac  and  the  Old  Latin. 

9.  I  Maccabees:  The  name  Maccabeus  was 
originally  only  the  surname  of  Judas,  the  son  of 
Mattathias  (I  Mace,  ii,  4:  "  Judas  who  was  called 
Maccabeus  ").  By  it  Judas  was  at  all  events  to 
be  characterized  as  a  valiant  hero.  The  assured 
meaning  of  the  name  is  yet  to  be  found.  From 
Judas  the  name  was  afterward  applied  to  the  whole 
family,  even  to  the  whole  party  of  which  Judas 
became  leader.  So,  generally,  the  Maccabeans 
were  the  believing  Israelites,  who,  in  defense  of  the 
faith  of  their  fathers,  undertook  the  struggle  against 
the  Syrian  overlords.  I  Maccabees  tells  the  story 
of  these  struggles  and  the  history  of  the  independent 
Jewish  community  which  was  the  fruit  of  these 
struggles  up  to  the  time  of  the  death  of  the  high 
priest  Simon  (135  B.C.).  It  commences  with  the 
beginning  of  the  reign  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes 
(175  B.C.),  narrates  how  his  efforts  at  a  forcible 


Apoorypli* 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


222 


suppression  of  the  Jewish  religion  became  the  cause 
of  the  open  revolt  against  Syrian  overiordship, 
describes  the  changing  results  of  this  revolt  under 
the  leadership  of  Judas  Maccabeus  until  his  death 
(161  B.C.);  then  the  further  course  of  the  Macca- 
bean  efiforts  under  the  guidance  of  Jonathan,  brother 
of  Judas,  who,  by  adroitly  taking  advantage  of 
circumstances,  was  able  to  obtain  from  the  Syrian 
kin^  recognition  of  his  status  as  prince  and  high 
priest  of  the  Jews  (161-143  B.C.);  finally  the  history 
of  the  high  priest  Simon,  a  third  brother  (143-135 
B.C.).  The  narrative  is  rich  in  detail  and  by  its 
unadorned  simplicity  wins  a  confidence  which,  so 
far  as  Jewish  history  is  concerned,  is  not  shaken 
by  the  fact  that  the  author  shows  himself  badly 
informed  on  matters  concerning  foreign  nations, 
such  as  the  Romans.  The  exaggerate^  numbers 
even  do  not  detract  from  its  credibili-y  in  other 
things.  That  a  narrative  which  enters  so  into 
detail  must  be  based  upon  other  sources  is  a  matter 
of  course,  though  nothing  more  definite  can  be  stated 
concerning  the  character  of  the  sources.  A  ref- 
erence to  these  seems  to  be  indicated  in  ix,  22  (cf . 
Grimm,  in  Fritzsche,  Exegeiiaches  Handbuchj  iii, 
22  sqq.).  The  book  compares  to  good  advantage 
with  other  historical  books  in  that  it  fixes  all 
important  events  according  to  an  established 
chronology,  the  Seleucidan  era,  which  begins  in 
the  autumn  of  312  B.C.  But  I  Maccabees  ap- 
parently makes  the  era  begin  in  the  spring  of 
that  year.  The  time  of  composition  can  be  fixed 
with  great  probability  within  very  narrow  limits. 
On  the  one  hand  the  author  knew  a  chronicle  of 
the  acts  of  John  Hyrcanus  (135-105  B.C.;  cf.  xvj, 
24).  From  this  can  be  inferred  that  he  wrote  after 
John's  reign.  On  the  other  hand,  he  certainly  wrote 
before  the  expedition  of  Pompey,  since  the  Romans 
were  for  him  friends  and  protectors  of  the  Jewish 
people.  The  composition  belongs  therefore  to  an 
early  decade  of  the  first  pre-Christian  century. 
That  the  book  was  originally  written  in  Hebrew  is 
evident  from  its  linguistic  character,  a  conclusion 
confirmed  by  the  testimony  of  Origen  and  Jerome; 
the  former  (in  Eusebius,  Hist,  eccl.,  VI,  xxv,  3) 
gives  the  Hebrew  title  of  the  book,  the  meaning  of 
which,  on  account  of  the  uncertainty  of  the  t«xt-tra- 
dition,  is  difficult  to  ascertain.  Jerome  says  in  the 
Prologua  ffolecUus :  "  I  Maccabees  I  found  in  Hebrew; 
II  Maccabees  is  Greek,  as  can  be  proved  from  the 
very  language."  The  Greek  translation  was  used 
by  Josephus  (cf.  Grimm,  in  Fritzsche,  Exegetiaches 
Handbuch,  p.  28;  H.  Bloch,  Die  Quellen  des  Flaviua 
Josephus f  Leipsic,  1879,  pp.  80-90).  It  is  strange 
that  Josephus  knows  hardly  anything  of  chaps,  xiv- 
xvi.  J.  von  Destinon  {Die  Quellen  dee  Flavins 
Josephus,  Kiel,  1882,  pp.  60-91)  supposed  therefore 
that  the  book  originally  did  not  have  these  chapters 
and  that  the  first  copy  differed  also  in  other  respects 
from  the  present.  But  the  very  free  use  made  by 
Josephus  offers  no  sufficient  support  for  this  theory. 
A  Hebrew  recension  which  A.  Schweizer  (Unter- 
suehungen  Ober  die  Reste  eines  hebrdischen  Textes 
vom  ersten  Makkabderbuch,  Berlin,  1901)  considers 
original  was  made  in  the  Middle  Ages  from  the 
Latin  (cf.  TLZ,  1901,  p.  605;  REJ,  xliii,  1901, 
pp.  215-221). 


10.  H  Maocabees:  This  book  is  parallel  with 
I  Maccabees  except  that  it  begins  a  little  earlier; 
viz.,  with  the  last  year  of  Seleucus  IV,  Philopator, 
brother  and  predecessor  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes, 
and  closes  much  earlier;  viz.,  with  the  victory  of 
Judas  Maccabeus  over  Nicanor  (161  B.C.).  It 
therefore  covers  a  much  shorter  period  than  the 
first.  In  its  literary,  historical,  and  religious  char- 
acter it  differs  much  from  I  Maccabees.  It  is 
more  rhetorical,  and  its  language  and  style  prove 
chat  it  was  originally  produced  in  Greek.  In 
credibility  it  stands  far  below  I  Maccabees.  It 
narrates  in  part  the  same  events,  in  part  different 
events,  and  in  a  different  order.  On  the  whole, 
in  cases  of  conflict  between  the  two,  it  is  better  to 
follow  I  Maccabees,  though  it  may  be  admitted  that 
in  some  details  the  second  may  here  and  there 
follow  a  better  tradition.  The  means  by  which 
to  decide  with  certainty  in  every  case  no  longer 
exist;  and  the  second  book  deserves  a  less  degree 
of  confidence,  because  its  purpose  is  by  no  means 
exclusively  historical.  The  author's  interest  was 
evidently  more  narrowly  religious  than  that  of  the 
first.  His  inmiediate  object  was  not  to  narrate 
the  deeds  of  a  glorious  past,  but  to  influence  the 
present  religiously. 

Of  the  sources,  the  author  himself  sajrs  (ii,  19  sqq.) 
that  his  book  is  only  an  epitome  of  the  large  work 
of  Jason  of  Cyrene,  which  in  five  books  narrated  the 
history  of  the  Maccabean  struggles  in  the  times  of 
Antiochus  Epiphanes  and  his  son  Antiochus  Eupa- 
tor.  Unfortunately,  this  Jason  of  CJyrene  is  other- 
wise wholly  imknown.  This  much  can  be  said 
of  the  time  of  the  epitomist  with  some  certainty, 
that  he  wrote  before  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem, 
as  may  be  inferred  from  the  purpose  of  the  book 
and  also  from  xv,  37.  Josephus  seems  to  have  read 
neither  the  work  of  Jason  nor  that  of  the  epitomist. 
It  is  possible  that  the  description  of  the  tyrants  who 
persecuted  the  pious  and  virtuous,  given  in  Philo, 
Quod  omnis  probus  liber ,  xiii,  depends  upon  II 
Maccabees  (so  P.  E.  Lucius,  Der  EssenismuSf 
Strasburg,  1881,  pp.  36-39).  Heb.  xi,  35  sqq. 
seems  to  refer  to  II  Mace,  vi  and  vii.  The  first 
express  quotation  is  found  in  Clement  of  Alexan- 
dria (Strom.,  V,  xiv,  ANF,  ii,  467):  **  Aristobulus, 
who  is  mentioned  by  the  composer  of  the  epitome 
of  the  books  of  the  Maccabees  ''  (cf.  II  Mace,  i,  10). 

11.  ni  Macoabees:  If  II  Maccabees  falls  short 
of  credibility  when  compared  with  the  first,  the 
third  can  lay  still  less  claim  to  the  character  of  a 
historical  document.  It  has  the  name  **  Book  of 
the  Maccabees  "  very  improperly  and  only  because 
it  treats  also  of  the  oppression  and  deliverance 
of  believing  Israelites.  It  has  nothing  to  do  with 
the  time  of  the  Maccabees.  The  contents  are  as 
follows:  Ptolemy  IV,  Philopator  (222-205  B.C.) 
visits  the  temple  at  Jerusalem  after  his  victory 
over  Antiochus  the  Great  at  Raphia  (217  b.c). 
Being  seized  with  a  desire  to  penetrate  into  the 
Holy  of  Holies,  and  not  heeding  the  entreaties  of 
the  people  to  forego  his  outrageous  purpose,  the 
king  is  pimished  when  about  to  carry  out  his  design 
by  falling  paralyzed  to  the  ground.  Enraged  at 
this,  on  his  arrival  in  Egypt,  he  wreaks  his 
vengeance  on  the  Alexandrian  Jews.    But  all  his 


228 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Apocrypha 


decrees  are  frustrated  ^by  God's  miraculous  in- 
tervention. The  king  now  becomes  a  friend  and 
benefactor  of  the  Jews,  whom  he  permits  to  kill 
the  apostates,  a  privilege  of  which  they  make 
much  use. 

The  style  in  which  this  narrative  is  written  corre- 
sponds closely  to  the  insipidity  of  the  contents.  The 
book  is  more  bombastic  and  unnatural  than  II 
Maccabees.  Since  the  narrative  evinces  its  imhis- 
torical  character,  it  is  necessary  only  to  inquire 
what  facts  possibly  form  the  basis  of  or  induced  its 
composition.  To  begin  with,  it  is  to  be  remembered 
here  that  Josephus  transfers  the  story  of  the  con- 
finement of  Jews  in  the  Hippodrome  to  be  trodden 
down  by  elephants  to  the  reign  of  Ptolemy  VII, 
Physcon  {Apian  ii,  5) ;  like  III  Maccabees  (vi, 
36),  he  remarks  that  in  remembrance  of  the  deliver- 
ance experienced,  the  Alexandrian  Jews  annually 
celebrated  a  festival.  According  to  this  the  narra- 
tive seems  to  have  some  historical  foundation; 
and  as  concerns  the  chronology,  Josephus  is  to  be 
followed  rather  than  III  Maccabees.  At  all  events 
this  work  is  a  late  production.  The  author  knows 
the  Apocryphal  additions  to  Daniel  (cf.  vi,  6).  The 
book  is  mentioned  by  Eusebius  {Chron.,  ed.  SchOne, 
ii,  122  sqq.)  in  the  Canones  Apostolorum  (Ixxxv), 
by  Theodoret,  and  others  (Grimm,  in  Fritzsche, 
ExegeUsches  Handbuchy  p.  21).  The  abrupt  begin- 
ning shows  the  book  has  not  come  down  complete. 

12.  Jesus  Siraoh  (Eoolesiasticiia):  The  Book  of 
Proverbs  by  Jesus  the  son  of  Sirach  is  the  extra- 
canonical  double  of  the  canonical  Book  of  Proverbs. 
Like  that,  it  gives  the  results  of  practical  wisdom 
in  poetical  form.  It  comprises  the  w^hole  range  of 
human  life  in  all  directions  and  relations,  and  aims 
at  giving  the  correct  point  of  view  for  all  human 
enterprises  so  they  may  be  correct  as  concerns 
conduct.  The  highest  as  well  as  the  lowest,  the 
greatest  as  well  as  the  smallest,  are  brought  within 
the  sphere  of  the  author's  reflections  and  counsels. 
He  speaks  of  the  fear  of  God  and  of  divine  wisdom, 
of  friendship  and  mercy,  of  self-control  and  modera- 
tion, and  of  other  virtues;  he  speaks  also  of  the 
contrary  vices.  He  speaks  of  the  special  tasks 
which  differences  in  age,  sex,  calling,  and  in  civic 
and  social  position  make  obligatory  upon  the  indi- 
vidual. He  speaks  of  the  mutual  relations  between 
parents  and  children,  masters  and  servants,  high 
and  low,  rich  and  poor.  He  gives  maxims  of  pru- 
dence for  social  intercourse  and  political  behavior. 
The  form  in  which  he  clothes  his  thoughts  is  through- 
out that  of  Hebrew  poetry.  No  plan  for  the  book  is 
discernible.  The  writer  arranges  his  ideas  in  groups, 
but  these  groups  are  not  arranged  with  reference 
to  any  scheme.  The  morality  which  runs  through 
the  whole  is  indeed  somewhat  homely,  sometimes 
purely  utilitarian.  But  on  the  whole  there  is  a 
solid,  seriously  moral  disposition  expressed  in  the 
book,  combined  with  a  rational  and  practical  con- 
templation of  the  world.  What  the  author  offers 
is  the  ripe  fruit  of  a  many-sided  education  and  of 
a  long  experience. 

The  extant  Greek  text  is,  as  may  be  scon  from 
the  preface,  only  a  translation.  Jerome  asserts 
that  he  had  seen  a  Hebrew  exemplar  (cf .  the  Preface 
to  his  translation  of  the  Solomonic  books,  ed. 


Vallarsi,  ix,  1293  sqq.):  "  There  is  a  right  praise- 
worthy book  of  Jesus  the  son  of  Sirach  and  a 
pseudepigraphical  one  which  is  called  the  Wisdom 
of  Solomon.  The  first  I  found  in  the  Hebrew 
called  *  Proverbs, '  and  not  '  Ecclesiasticus,'  as 
among  the  Latins,  to  which  are  added  Ecclesiastes 
and  Song  of  Songs;  so  that  they  agreed  with  the 
books  of  Solomon  not  only  in  number,  but  also 
in  the  kind  of  matter." 

Prior  to  1896,  only  a  few  sayings  of  the 
Hebrew  original,  which  are  quoted  in  Rabbinic 
literature,  were  known  (collected  by  Schechter 
inJQR,  iii,  1891,  pp.  682-706;  still  more  com- 
pletely by  Cowley  and  Neubauer,  The  Original  He- 
brew of  a  Portion  of  Ecclesiasticus,  London,  1897, 
pp.  xix-xxviii).  Since  1896  large  portions  of  the 
Hebrew  text  have  been  discovered.  They  all  come 
from  the  genizah  ("  lumber-room  ")  of  the  ancient 
synagogue  at  Cairo.  The  fragments  are  remains  of 
four  d^erent  manuscripts,  and  supplement  each 
other  in  such  a  way  that,  on  the  whole,  two-thirds 
of  the  Hebrew  text  has  been  recovered.  Of  the 
flood  of  literature  which  these  finds  have  induced 
the  principal  text-publications  are  mentioned  be- 
low (especially  important  are  The  Book  of  EccU- 
siasticus  in  Hebrew,  London,  1901,  a  facsimile 
of  all  the  leaves;  the  condensed  work  of  N. 
Peters,  Der  jiingst  wiederaufgefundene  hebrdische 
Text  dee  Buchee  EcclesiasticuSy  Freiburg,  1902; 
and  R.  Smend,  Die  Weisheit  dee  Jesus  Sirach  er- 
Mdrty  1906,  and  Die  Weisheit  des  Jesus  Sirach  he- 
brdisch  und  deutsch  herausgegeben,  1906).  The 
denial  of  the  originality  of  the  Hebrew  text 
by  MargoUouth,  Bickell,  and  formerly  also  by 
Levi,  must  be  called  an  aberration.  Almost  all 
competent  scholars  regard  this  as  beyond  doubt. 
Besides  the  Greek  versions  and  the  Hebrew  frag- 
ments, there  is  still  another  witness,  the  Syriac 
translation.  This  was  not  made  from  the  Greek, 
like  the  other  Syriac  texts  of  the  Apocrypha,  but 
directly  from  the  Hebrew.  From  the  passage 
quoted  above  from  Jerome,  it  is  seen  that  the  book 
was  called  "  Proverbs  "  in  the  Hebrew.  In  Greek 
manuscripts  the  standing  title  is  "  The  Wisdom  of 
Jesus  the  Son  of  Sirach.''  In  the  Latin  Church 
the  title  Ecclesiasticus  has  become  customary  since 
the  time  of  Cyprian. 

The  author  calls  himself  ''  Jesus  the  Son  of 
Sirach  the  Jerusalemite  "  (I,  27).  The  preface  of 
his  grandson,  the  translator,  gives  his  date.  He 
says  of  himself  that  he  came  into  Egypt  "  in  the 
thirty-eighth  year  of  King  Euergetes."  Tliis  can 
not  mean  the  translator's  thirty-eighth  year  of  life, 
but  the  thirty-eighth  year  of  the  reign  of  Euergetes. 
Of  the  two  Ptolemies  who  had  the  name  "  Euer- 
getes" the  first  ruled  only  twenty-five  years. 
Consequently,  only  the  second,  whose  full  name 
was  Ptolemffius  VII,  Physcon  Euergetes  II,  can  be 
meant.  He  ruled  conjointly  with  his  brother  from 
170  B.C.  and  was  sole  king  from  145  B.C.  But 
his  regnal  years  were  reckoned  from  the  former 
date.  According  to  this,  the  thirty-eighth  year 
in  which  the  grandson  of  Jesus  Sirach  came  into 
Egypt  was  132  B.C.  The  grandfather,  the  author 
of  the  book,  may  have  lived  and  written  about 
190-170  B.C.    It  is  singular  that  in  the  Latin  Church 


Apocrypha 


THE  NEW   SCHAFF-HERZOG 


294 


the  book  has  usually  been  regarded  as  a  work  of 
Solomon,  on  which  account  some  Western  canonical 
lists  reckon  five  Solomonic  writings  (T.  Zahn, 
OeschicJUe  des  neuteatamenUichen  Kanana,  ii,  151, 
246,  251,  272,  1007  sqq.). 

18.  The  Wisdom  of  Solomon:  In  some  books 
of  the  Old  Testament,  wisdom,  that  is,  the  wisdom 
resting  in  God  and  coming  from  him,  is  praised 
as  the  highest  good,  as  the  source  of  all  peHection 
and  the  giver  of  all  happiness  and  blessing  (cf. 
Prov.  viii-ix  and  Job  xxviii,  12  sqq.).  In  later 
literature  this  was  a  favorite  thought,  and  was 
further  developed.  It  is  met  with  again  in  Jesus 
Sirach  and  in  the  Wisdom  of  Solomon.  The  author 
of  this  book,  who  assumes  the  name  of  Solomon, 
reproaches  his  royal  colleagues,  the  Gentile  rulers 
(i,  1;  vi,  1),  with  the  folly  of  impiety  and  especially 
of  idolatry.  Only  the  pious  and  righteous  is  truly 
happy;  the  impious  falls  under  divine  judgment. 
Idolatry  is  the  height  of  folly.  In  opposition  to 
it  the  author  recommends  true  wisdom,  using  the 
idea  in  its  fullest  possible  content.  For  he  under- 
stands by  the  word  "  wisdom  "  subjective  as  well  as 
objective,  human  as  well  as  divine.  Both  have 
one  meaning,  and  are  identical  in  essence.  Human 
wisdom  adjusts  true  knowledge  to  all  spheres  of 
life.  It  instructs  man  in  the  ways  of  God  and 
teaches  him  God's  holy  will.  On  this  account  it  is 
the  source  of  all  happiness  and  all  true  joy  to  him 
who  gives  himself  to  it.  It  imparts  not  only  honor 
and  glory  but  also  eternal  life  and  everlasting 
salvation.  And  this  it  can  do  only  because  human 
wisdom  is  but  an  emanation  from  the  divine  wis- 
dom, or,  rather,  is  identical  with  it.  Originally  it 
was  joint  possessor  with  God  of  his  throne  (ix,  4); 
it  was  present  when  God  created  the  world  (ix,  9); 
it  is  most  intimately  connected  with  God  and 
initiated  into  God's  knowledge  (viii,  3-4);  it  is  a 
breathing  of  the  power  of  God,  an  effulgence  from 
the  ^ory  of  the  Almighty  (vii,  25-26);  its  action 
is  identical  with  God's;  it  works  all  things  (viii,  5), 
orders  all  things  (viii,  1),  and  renews  all  things 
(vii,  27).  From  these  fundamental  thoughts  the 
standpoint  of  the  author  is  evident;  he  was  a 
Jewish  philosopher.  On  the  one  hand,  he  occu- 
pied throughout  the  standpoint  of  Old  Testament 
revelation;  on  the  other  hand,  he  had  acquired 
also  a  peculiar  philosophical  culture.  He  had 
learned  not  only  from  the  sages  of  his  people,  but 
also  from  the  Hellenes,  from  Plato  and  the  Stoics. 
He  thus  belongs  to  that  school,  the  classical  rep- 
resentative of  which  is  Philo,  which  can  be  desig- 
nated as  a  marriage  of  Jewish  faith  with  Greek 
philosophical  culture.  With  this  everything  is 
said  that  can  be  said  of  the  author  of  the  book. 
The  book  stands  between  Jesus  Sirach  and  Philo, 
and  is  the  bridge  from  the  one  to  the  other.  As  to 
its  date,  it  can  be  put  with  some  probability  be- 
tween the  two,  150-50  b.c.  (cf.  Grimm,  in  Fritz- 
sche,  Exegetischea  Handbuch,  vi,  32-34),  though  the 
inference  from  priority  in  thought  to  priority  in 
time  is  not  cogent.  It  is  certainly  wrong  to  think, 
like  Weisse  and  others,  of  a  Christian  author. 
Gear  traces  of  an  acquaintance  with  the  book  are 
found  in  the  New  Testament  (cf.  W.  Sanday  and 
A.  C.   Headlam,   Commentary  on  Romans,   1895, 


pp.  51-52,  267-269).  It  is  first  quoted  in  the  time 
of  Irenseus  (Eusebius,  Hist  eccL,  v,  26).  That  the 
book  was  originally  written  in  Greek  is  a  matter 
of  course,  considering  its  lofty  rhetoric,  which  is 
somewhat  artificial  and  overdone.  Jerome  says, 
"  The  very  style  betrays  Greek  eloquence." 

E.  SchOrer. 

Bibuoorapht:  Texts,  Greek,  along  with  the  Septuagint: 
Codex  A,  by  Grsbe.  4  vols..  Oxford.  1707-20;  by  H.  H. 
Baber,  3  vols.,  London.  1812-26;  facsimile  ed..  by  E.  M. 
Thompson,  ib.  1881.  Vatican  Codex  and  Codex  Friderieo- 
Auou$tanit9,  by  Tischendorf,  Leipsic.  1846,  and  4  vols., 
Rome,  1862.  Codex  B,  by  Mai.  5  vols.,  Rome,  1857;  by 
C.  Veroellone  and  J.  Cozsa,  6  vols.,  ib.  1868-81  (a  cor- 
rected ed.  of  Mai);  photographic  reproduction,  6  vols.,  ib. 
1889-00.  Critical  and  comparative  text:  H.  B.  Swete, 
Old  Teetament  in  Oreek  according  to  the  Septuaoint^  3  vols., 
8vo,  Cambridge,  1806-99  (a  4to  ed.  is  in  preparation). 

Separate  editions  of  the  Apocrypha:  A.  Fabricius,  Co- 
dex peeudepigraphue  veterie  teetamenti,  2  vols..  Hamburg. 
1722-23;  by  Augusti,  Leipsic,  1804;  and  by  Apel.  ib. 
1804;  O.  F.  Fritssche,  lAbri  Apocryphi,  ib.  1871  (apart 
from  Swete's,  the  best  edition).  Latin:  by  Stephens, 
Geneva,  1556-57;  the  Sixtine  ed.,  3  vols.,  Rome.  1590 
(corrected,  1592,  from  which  all  Roman  Catholic  editions 
are  copied).  P.  Sabatier,  Bibliorum  aacrorum  .  .  .  vetue 
italica,  Reims.  1739-49  (Old  Latin  text).  Syriac:  P. 
de  Lagarde,  Libri  veterie  ieetamenti  apocryphi  Syriace, 
Leipsic,  1861;  by  Ceriani,  Codex  Ambroeianue  B  21,  pho- 
tolithographic ed.,  2  vols.,  Blilan,  1876-83,  and  Codex 
AmbroeianuM  C  313,  photolithographic  ed.,  Milan,  1874, 
also  Baruch  and  Letter  of  Jeremiah,  Bfilan,  1861;  by  C. 
Bugati,  in  Syriac  the  additions  to  the  Book  of  Daniel, 
Milan,  1788.  German:  E.  Kautssch,  with  the  help  of 
numerous  scholars.  Die  Apocrypken  und  Paeudepigraphen 
dee  Alien  Teetamente,  2  vols.,  Tabingen,  1900  (contains 
introduction,  notes,  and  brief  bibliographies).  Eng- 
lish: The  older  Bibles  usually  contained  the  Apocrypha; 
beddee  these,  the  Variorum  ed.  by  C.  J.  Ball,  London. 
1802  (contains  full  notes);  the  Bagster  ed.,  London,  n.d. 
(authorised  text;  the  Revised  Version  was  issued  at 
Cambridge,  1895);  consult  also:  W.  R.  Churton,  Unca- 
nonieal  and  Apocryphal  Scripturee,  London,  1884.  Lexi- 
con: Wahl,  Clavie  .  .  .  apocryphorum,  Loipsic.  1853. 

Introductions:  L.  E.  T.  Andr€.  Lee  Apocryphee  de 
VAnden  Teetament,  Florence,  1903;  B.  Welte.  Die  deutero- 
kanoniedien  BUcher,  in  J.  G.  Herbst,  j^inleitung,  II.  iii. 
Freiburg,  1844;  W.  M.  L.  de  Wette.  Einleitung  in  die 
kanoniedien  und  apokryphiechen  BUcher,  8th  ed.  by  Schra- 
der,  Berlin,  1869;  S.  J.  Comely,  Introductio  in  veterie 
teetamenH  libroe  .  .  .  ii,  1-2.  Paris.  1887;  F.  Buhl. 
Kanon  und  Text  dee  Alien  Teetamente.  Leipsic,  1891  (Eng. 
transl.,  London,  1892);  F.  E.  Kdnig,  Einleitung  in  dae 
AUe  Teetamentj  tnit  Einechliue  der  Apokryphen,  Bonn, 
1893;  SchOrer,  Oeechichte,  iii,  1898  (Eng.  transl..  II.  iii, 
1891 ;  contains  general  and  special  introduction  and  notes 
of  literature);  K.  Budde,  Geechichle  der  althebrniechen  Lit- 
teratur:  Apocryphen,  von  A.  Bertholet,  Leipsic,  1906;  S. 
N.  Sedgwick,  The  Story  of  the  Apocrypha,  London.  1906. 

Exegetical  literature  on  the  entire  Apocrypha:  O. 
ZOckler,  [in  Kuragefaeeter  Kommentar,  Die  Apokryphen, 
Munich,  1891;  O.  F.  Fritssche  and  C.  L.  W.  Grimm. 
Kuregefaeetee  exegetiechee  Handbuch  zu  den  Apokryphen. 
Leipsic,  1851-60;  H.  J.  von  Holtzmann,  Die  apokry- 
phiechen Butcher,  ib.  1869;  E.  Reuss,  La  Bible,  Ancien  Tee- 
tament, vi.  vii.  Paris.  1878-79;  E.  C.  Bisaell.  Apocrypha 
of  the  Old  Teetament,  New  York.  1880,  addition  to  the 
Eng.  transl.  of  Lange's  commentary;  The  Old  Teetament. 
Authorized  Vereion,  with  Brief  Commentary,  Apocryphal 
Booke,  London,  S.P.C.K..  1881;  H.  Waoe.  Holy  BibU.  tpith 
.  .  .  Commentary,  Apocrypha,  2  vols.,  London,  1888,  in 
the  Speaker**  Commentary. 

On  the  individual  books:  The  Apocryphal  Esra;  the 
text  and  notes  by  Bensly  and  James  in  TS,  iii,  2,  Cam- 
bridge, 1895;  R.  L.  Bensly,  Mieeing  Fragment  of  the 
Fourth  Book  of  Bara,  London,  1875;  DB,  s.  v.  Eadraa,  i 
(1898),  758-766;  R.  Basset,  Lea  Apocryphee  fthiopiene 
iraduitee  en  fran^aia,  Paris.  1899;  H.  Gunkel.  Der  Prophet 
Ezra,  Tabingen.  1900;  EB,  s.  v.  Ezra,  the  Greek,  ii,  1488-94; 
JE.  s.  V.  Eadraa,  v,  219-222. 

Apocryphal  Esther:  A.  Scholts.  Kommentar  itber  dae 
Buck  Bather  mit  .  .  .  ZuaOtzen  und  Qber  Suaanna,  WOra- 


925 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Apocrypha 


burg.  1892.  also  Die  Namen  im  Buche  Either,  in  TQ,  1890. 
pp.  209-264;  Jacob,  Da»  Buck  Esther  bet  den  LXX,  in 
ZATW,  X  (1890).  241-298;  JE,  v,  237-241. 

Apociyphal  additions  to  Daniel:  O.  Bardenhewer.  Bxh- 
Hathe  Studien,  ii.  2-3,  pp.  155-204.  Freiburg,  1897;  vi, 
3-4.  ib.  1901;  Wiederholt.  in  TQ,  1869.  287  sqq.,377sqq.. 
1871.  373  sqq..  1872.  554  sqq.;  Brill,  in  JahrbOcher  fUr 
iUditcheOeachichteufidlAtUrtUur,  iii  (1877).  1-69.  viii  (1887). 
22  sqq.;  A.  Scholx,  see  above  under  Esther:  EB,  i,  1013- 
1015;  DB,  i.  267-268.  iv.  630-632.  764-766;  W.  H.  Daub- 
ney,  The  Three  AddUione  to  Daniel;  il  iS^udy,  Cambridge, 
1906. 

Prayer  of  Manasseh:  E.  Nestle,  SeptuaoirUaetudient  iii, 
4,  p.  6  sqq..  and  iv.  Stuttgart,  1899. 

Baruch:  J.  J.  Kneucker,  Dae  Buck  Banuh,  Leipsic, 
1879  (the  best  book  on  the  subject);  H.  A.  C.  H&vemick, 
De  libro  Baruchi  .  .  .  eommeniariue  criticue,  Kdnigsberg. 
1843;  F.  H.  Reusch,  Erkl&runo  dee  Buchee  Baruch,  Frei- 
burg. 1853;  Grfttx.  in  Monateechrift  fOr  Geechichie  und 
Wieeeruehaft  dee  Jtulentume,  1887,  pp.  38&-401;  DB,  i, 
251-254;  EB,  i.  492-494;  JE,  ii,  556-557. 

Epistle  of  Jeremiah:  DB,   ii,   578-579;  EB,  ii,  2395. 

Tobit:  Semiiie  Studiee  in  Memory  of  A.  KohtU,  ed.  by 
O.  A.  Kohut,  264-338.  Beriin.  1897;  F.  H.  Reusch.  Dae 
Bueh  Tobiae,  Freiburg,  1857;  A.  Neubauer,  Tobit,  a 
Chaldee  Text,  Oxford,  1878;  A.  Scholx,  Commentar  turn 
Buehe  Tobiae,  WOrzburg,  1889;  M.  Rosenmann.  Studien 
turn  Buehe  Tobit,  Berlin.  1894;  F.  C.  Conybeare,  J.  R. 
Harris,  and  L.  Lewis,  Story  of  Ahikar  from  the  Syriac, 
Arabic  .  .  .  Vereione,  London,  1898;  E.  Cosquin.  Le 
Litre  de  Tobie  et  Vhietoire  du  Ahikar,  in  Revue  Bibliqtie, 
Jan.,  1899;  DB,  iv,  786-789;  JE,  xii,  171-172. 

Judith:  A.  Scholx,  Dae  Buck  Judith,  eine  Prophetic, 
WOrxburg,  1885;  idem,  Commentar  tum  Buche  Judith,  ib. 
1887;  Vigouroux,  Dictionnaire  de  la  Bible,  iii,  1822-33;  JE, 
vii.  388-390. 

The  Books  of  Blaccabees:  K.  F.  Keil,  CommerUar,  Leip- 
sic, 1875  (still  the  best);  C.  Bertheau,  De  eecundo  libro 
AfaccabcBorum,  G6ttingen,  1829  (quite  useful);  H.  Ewald, 
Oeechichte,  iv.  602  sqq..  G^ttingen.  1864;  H.  Graetx.  Ge- 
echichie der  Juden,  iii,  613-615.  671-684.  Leipsic.  1884; 
A.  Schlatten,  J  aeon  von  Cyrene,  Munich,  1891;  G.  A. 
Deissmann,  Bibeletudien,  pp.  258  sqq.,  Blarburg.  1895,  Eng. 
transl..  pp.  341-345,  Edinburgh,  1901;  H.  Willrich,  Juden 
und  Griechen  vor  der  makkab&iechen  Erhebung,  pp.  64-65, 
Gdttingen,  1895;  W.  Fairweather  and  J.  S.  Black,  in 
Cambridge  Bible  for  Schoole,  Cambridge,  1897;  Abrahams, 
in  JQR,  1896,  pp.  39-58.  1897.  pp.  39  sqq.;  A.  BQchler. 
Die  Tobiaden  und  die  Oniaden  im  II  MakkabQerbuchct 
Vienna,  1899;  B.  Niese,  KHUk  der  beiden  MakkabHer- 
bOcher,  BerUn,  1900;  DB,  iii,  187-196;  EB,  iii,  2857-81; 
Stujrs.  De  Maccabaorum  librie,  Amsterdam,  1904;  JE, 
viii,  239  sqq. 

Ecclesiasticus:  C.  Seligmann.  D<u  Buch  der  Weieheit  dee 
Jeeue  Sirach,  Breslau,  1883;  A.  Astier.  Introduction  au 
livre  de  V EccUeiaetique,  Strasburg,  1861;  T.  K.  Cheyne. 
Jch  and  Solomon,  or  the  Wiedom  of  the  Old  Teetament, 
London.  1887;  E.  Hatch.  Eeeayein  Biblical  Greek,  pp.  246- 
282,  ib.  1889  (text-critical);  H.  Bois,  Eeeai  eur  lee  originee 
de  la  philoeophie  Judio-Alexandrine,  pp.  160-210,  313-372, 
Paris,  1890;  D.  S.  Margoliouth,  The  Place  of  Ecdeeiaeticue 
in  Hebrew  Literature,  Oxford.  1890;  E.  Nestle.  Marginalien 
und  Materialien,  pp.  48-59,  Tfibingen,  1893;  I.  Levi, 
L'EodUiaetique,  ou  la  Sageeee  de  Jieue,  file  de  Sira,  Paris, 
1898;  H.  Herkenne,  De  veterie  Latince  eccleeiaeOci  capiti- 
bue,  i-xliii,  Leipsic,  1899  (important  for  the  text); 
also  in  Bardenhewer's  BMieche  Studien,  vi,  1,  2,  pp. 
129-14,  1901;  N.  Peters,  ib.  iii,  3.  1895;  EB,  i.  1164- 
1179,  iv,  4640-51;  DB,  iv.  539-551;  JE,  xi.  388-397. 
On  the  recently  discovered  Hebrew  text  consult:  Fac- 
eimUee  of  the  Fragmente  recovered  of  the  Book  of 
Ecclue.  in  Hebrew,  Oxford,  1901  (a  complete  edition); 
A.  E.  Cowley  and  A.  Neubauer,  Original  Hebrew  of  a  Por- 
tion of  Ecdeeiaeticue,  Oxford,  1897  (text  and  discussion); 
A.  Schlatter,  Dae  neugefundene  h^rrAieche  Stack  dee  Sirach, 
Gtttersloh.  1897;  R.  Smend.  Dae  h^Aieche  Fragment  .  .  . 
dee  Jeeue  Sirach,  Berlin,  1897;  F.  E.  Kdnig,  Die  Origi- 
nalitat  dee  neulich  enideckten  Sirach  Textee,  Freiburg,  1899; 
D.  S.  Blargoliouth,  Origin  of  the  **  Origined  Hebrew  "  of 
Ecclue.,  London,  1899  (combats  originality  of  the  Hebrew 
text);  S.  Schechter  and  C.  Taylor.  The  Wiedom  of  Ben 
Sira  .  .  .  from  Heb.  MSS.  in  the  Cairo  Genitah  Collec- 
tion, Cambridge.  1899  (chiefly  textual);  H.  L.  Strack.Z>te 
SprHehe  Jeeue  dee  Sohnee  Sirach,  Leipsic,  1903;  I.  Levi. 
The  Hebrew  Text  of  the  Book  of  Ecdeeiaeticue,  with  Notee 
1—16 


and  Oloeeary,  Leyden,  1904;  most  of  the  literature  on 
the  new  text  appeared  in  periodicals  of  the  year  1900; 
cf.  Theologiedter  Jahreeberieht  for  1900  (gives  51  titles). 
Wisdom  of  Sotomon:  W.  J.  Deane,  Book  of  Wiedom, 
London.  1881;  E.  Pfleiderer,  Die  Philoeophie  dee  HeraklU 
von  Epheeue,  Berlin,  1886;  J.  Drummond,  Philo  Judaue, 
i,  177-229,  London,  1888;  P.  Menxel.  Der  griechieehe  Ein^ 
fluee  auf  .  .  .  Weieheit  ScUomoe,  Halle,  1889;  H.  Bois, 
Eeeai  eur  lee  originee  de  la  philoeophie  Judio-Alexandrine, 
pp.  201-307,  373-412,  Paris,  1890;  DB,  iv.  928-931;  BB, 
iv.  5336-49;  JE,  xii,  538-540. 

B.  New  Testament  Apocrypha:  The  relation  be- 
tween the  canonical  and  the  apocryphal  writings 
of  the  New  Testament  is  quite  different  from  that 
between  the  same  classes  of  books  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament. The  Old  Testament  Apocrypha  aim  simply 
at  a  continuation  of  sacred  history  and  strive  to 
accomplish  their  purpose  in  a  legitimate  manner 
though  without  divine  authority.  The  apocryphal 
writings  connected  with  the  New  Testament,  on 
the  contrary,  aim  to  introduce  spurious  sources 
among  the  genuine.  They  are  writings  which 
by  name  and  contents  pretend  to  be  canonical, 
though  the  Church,  because  of  their  dubious  origin 
and  contents,  has  not  given  them  a  place  in  the  canon. 
Like  the  canonical  books  of  the  New  Testament, 
they  may  be  divided  into  four  'classes:  I.  Gospels; 
II.  Acts  of  the  Apostles;  III.  Epistles  of  the 
Apostles;  IV.  Apocalypses. 

These  writings  are  of  very  imequal  value.  The 
apocryphal  Acts  seem  to  have  had  the  most  influ- 
ence in  the  Church;  for  they,  more  than  the  Gos- 
pels, were  looked  upon  as  "  the  source  and  mother 
of  all  heresy."  Of  course,  not  all  of  these  writings 
were  composed  directly  for  heretical  purposes. 
Many  of  them,  no  doubt,  had  more  innocent  mo- 
tives, such  as  mere  "  pious  fraud."  But  from 
their  first  appearance  a  suspicion  of  heresy  dung 
to  them  all  and  contributed  much  to  put  the  whole 
literature  under  ban. 

When  the  canon  of  the  New  Testament  was  fixed 
and  the  apocryphal  books  thereby  became  out- 
lawed, they  ceased  to  be  read;  and  in  the  Middle 
Ages,  even  their  names  were  forgotten.  Never- 
theless, although  the  books  themselves  were  deliv- 
ered over  to  contempt  and  oblivion,  it  was  not  so 
with  their  contents.  From  their  fables  sprang  sacred 
legends,  which  were  kept  alive  in  the  Church  dur- 
ing the  Middle  Ages  as  ''ecclesiastical  tradition," 
which  was  often  utilized  in  the  development  of  its 
dogma.  Indeed,  numerous  dogmas,  usages,  and 
traditions  hark  back  to  these  apocryphal  writings; 
and  it  was  consequently  of  as  much  moment  to  the 
Protestant  Church  to  subject  this  whole  literature 
to  a  thorough  investigation  as  it  was  to  the  Roman 
Church  to  keep  the  whole  matter  in  convenient 
obscurity.  The  careful  study  of  these  writings  in 
modem  times  has  proved  of  great  value,  revealing 
a  wealth  of  material  usable  for  the  elucidation  of 
archeological  and  dogmatic  problems.  Study  of 
them  has  become  a  distinct  department  of  the  theo- 
logical curriculum. 

I.  Apocryphal  Gospels:  Of  the  many  apoc- 
ryphal Gospels  (J.  A.  Fabricius,  in  his  Codex  apo- 
cryphta  Novi  TestamerUi,  2  vols.,  Hamburg,  1703, 
reckons  over  fifty),  some  have  come  down  entire, 
others  only  in  fragments;  and  of  a  few  only  the 
names  are  known.    The  method  employed  in  these 


Apoonrpha 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


926 


compositions  is  always  the  same,  whether  the  author 
intended  simply  to  collect  and  arrange  what  was 
floating  in  the  general  tradition  or  intended  to 
produce  a  definite  dogmatic  effect.  He  rarely 
relied  on  his  own  invention;  but  generally  elab- 
orated what  was  hinted  at  in  the  canonical  Gospels, 
transformed  words  of  Jesus  into  deeds,  described 
the  fulfilment  of  an  Old  Testament  prophecy  in 
a  slavishly  literal  manner,  or  represented  Jesus  as 
working  marvels  closely  resembling  but  surpassing 
Old  Testament  miracles.  The  work  done,  the 
author  took  care  to  conceal  his  own  name,  and 
inscribed  his  book  with  the  name  of  some  apostle 
or  disciple,  in  order  to  give  it  authority.  In  the 
following  list  those  Gospels  are  first  mentioned 
the  texts  of  which  have  been  preserved. 

1.  The  Prot6vang>eliain  of  James:  This  was 
ascribed  to  James,  the  brother  of  the  Lord;  in 
the  index  of  Gelasius  and  Hormisdas  it  is  called  the 
"  Gospel  of  James  the  Less  [Younger]."  It  has 
twenty-five  chapters,  and  covers  the  period  from 
the  announcement  of  the  birth  of  Mary  to  the 
murder  of  the  innocents.  It  is  very  old,  perhaps 
of  the  second  century,  was  widely  circulated,  and 
shows  traces  of  Ebionitic  origin.  The  text  is  given 
by  Tischendorf  (Evangelia  Apocrypha,  2d  ed., 
Leipeic,  1876;  Eng.  transl.  by  A.  Walker,  ANF, 
viii,  361-367),  also  by  Conybeare  from  an  Arme- 
nian manuscript  {AJT,  i,  1897,  pp.  424  sqq.). 

2.  The  Gtospel  of  Pseudo-Matthew,  or  Book  of 
the  Origin  of  the  Blessed  Mary  and  the  Infancy  of 
the  Savior:  This  begins  with  the  announcement 
of  the  birth  of  Mary,  and  closes  with  the  youth  of 
Jesus,  and  is  contained  in  forty-two  chapters. 
It  seems  to  be  of  Latin  origin,  and  to  have  been 
drawn  from  the  Protevangelium  of  James  and  the 
Gospel  of  Thomas  (Eng.  transl.,  ANF,  viii,  368- 
383). 

8.  The  Gtospel  of  the  Nativity  of  Mary:  This 
contains  in  ten  chapters  the  history  of  Mary  before 
the  birth  of  Jesus.  It  covers  therefore  neariy  the 
same  ground  as  the  Gospel  of  Pseudo-Matthew, 
but  is  a  little  later  in  date  (Eng.  transl.,  A^/^, 
viii,  384^87). 

4.  The  History  of  Joseph  the  Oarpenter:  This 
contains  in  thirty-two  chapters  a  biography  of 
Joseph,  and  gives  an  elaborate  description  of  his 
death.  It  was  evidently  written  in  glorification 
of  Joseph,  and  was  intended  for  recital  on  the  day 
of  his  festival.  It  probably  belongs  to  the  fourth 
century;  and,  as  Joseph  was  a  favorite  of  the  Mono- 
physite  Copts,  Coptic  (and  not  Arabic)  was  most 
likely  the  language  of  the  original  (Eng.  transl., 
ANF^ym,  388^94). 

6.  The  Gospel  of  Thomas:  This,  next  to  the 
Protevangelium  of  James,  was  the  oldest  and  most 
popular  of  the  Apocryphal  Gospels.  It  was  in  use 
as  early  as  the  middle  of  the  second  century,  among 
the  Gnostics  with  whom  it  originated,  especially 
among  those  who  held  Docetic  views  of  the  person 
of  Christ.  It  is  extant  in  two  Greek  recensions, 
in  a  Latin  and  in  a  Syriac  version;  all  of  which 
have  somewhat  expanded  titles.  The  two  Greek 
recensions  and  the  Latin  version  are  given  by 
Tischendorf  (pp.  140-180);  English  translation  of 
the  three  by  Walker  (ANF,  viu,  395-404). 


6.  The  Arabic  Gospel  of  the  Infleaicy:  This 
comprises  in  fifty-five  cliapters  the  period  from 
the  birth  of  Jesus  to  his  twelfth  year,  and  consists 
mostly  of  stories  dealing  with  the  residence  in 
Egypt.  The  first  nine  chapters  follow  very  closely 
the  Protevangelium  of  James;  the  last  twenty 
chapters  follow  the  Gospel  of  Thomas;  the  part 
between  seems  to  rest  on  some  national  tradition, 
which  explains  the  favor  it  found  among  the  Arabs, 
as  well  as  the  drcimistance  that  several  of  its 
details  were  incorporated  into  the  Koran.  The 
whole  work  has  an  Oriental  character,  and  shows 
contact  with  magic  and  demonology  and  with 
Zoroastrian  ideas.  No  more  definite  date  for  its 
composition  can  be  fixed  than  that  it  antedated 
the  Koran.  The  Arabic  text  is  probably  a  trans- 
lation from  the  Syriac;  and  no  manuscript  is  earlier 
than  the  thirteenth  century.  Tischendorf  pub- 
lished a  revised  Latin  translation;  English  version 
by  Walker  {ANF,  viii,  405-415). 

7.  The  Gtospel  of  Nioodemus:  This  consists  of 
two  separate  works,  the  Deeds  [or  Ada]  of  Pilate 
and  The  Descent  of  Christ  to  the  Underworld,  which 
were  united  at  an  early  date,  and  the  whole  did  not 
receive  the  title  "  Gospel  of  Nicodemus "  until 
after  the  time  of  Chariemagne.  The  former  of 
these  two  works  is  of  some  importance  for  the 
explanation  and  further  elucidation  of  the  canonical 
Gospels  (cf.  Lipsius,  Die  Pilatusakten,  2  ed.,  Kiel, 
1886),  while  the  latter  is  of  very  little  interest. 
The  former  contains  a  detailed  account  of  the  trial 
of  Jesus  before  Pilate,  and  of  the  action  of  the 
Sanhedrin  subsequent  to  his  death,  which  was 
intended  to  furnish  proof  of  the  resurrection  and 
ascension.  The  latter  contains  an  account  by  two 
men,  Carinus  and  Leucius,  who  had  been  raised 
from  the  dead.  The  text  of  the  Gospel  of  Nico- 
demus is  given  by  J.  C.  Thilo  (Codex  apocryphus 
Novi  TestamenH,  Leipsic,  1832),  who  furnishes  a 
list  of  translations  into  English,  French,  Italian, 
and  German,  and  by  Tischendorf;  EngUsh  trans- 
lation by  Walker  (AATF,  viii,  410-458). 

In  most  of  the  manuscripts  containing  these 
two  works  and  in  close  connection  with  them 
occur  other  writings;  namely:  (a)  An  Epistle  of 
Pilate  to  the  emperor,  containing  a  report  on  the 
resurrection  of  Christ,  (b)  An  Epistle  of  Pontius 
Pilate,  another  letter,  in  which  he  excuses  the  in- 
justice of  his  decision  by  the  impossibility  of  resist- 
ing the  prevailing  excitement.  It  was  widely 
diffused  in  early  times,  (c)  The  Report  of  Pilate 
on  the  trial,  execution,  death,  and  resurrection 
of  Jesus,  (d)  The  Judgment  of  Pilate,  a  report  of 
the  examination  of  Pilate  before  the  emperor, 
his  condenmation  and  execution.  Others  which 
deserve  nothing  more  than  mention  of  their  titles 
are:  (e)  The  Death  of  Pilate;  (f)  The  Narrative  of 
Joseph  of  Arimathea;  (g)  The  Avenging  of  the 
Savior;  (h)  The  Reply  of  Tiberius  to  PilaU  (Eng. 
transls.,  ANF,  viii,  459-476). 

8-87.  Apocnrphal  Gospels  Preserved  only  in 
Fragments  or  Known  only  by  Name:  Besides 
the  Gospels  mentioned  above  there  were  others, 
of  which  there  remain  only  a  few  fragments 
or  only  the  names:  (8)  The  Gospel  aooordinff  to 
the  Bffyptians:  Quoted  by  Gement  of  Rome  and 


997 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Apocrypha 


dement  of  Alexandria,  and  mentioned  by  Origen, 
Epiphanius,  and  Jerome.  It  was  used  by  the 
EIncratiteB  and  Sabelllans  [and  composed  either  at 
Antioch  (Zahn)  or  in  Egypt  (Hamack)  in  the 
middle  of  the  second  century].  (9)  The  Btemal 
Oospel:  The  work  of  a  fiiinorite  of  the  thirteenth 
century,  based  upon  Rev.  xiv,  6.  It  was  con- 
demned by  Pope  Alexander  IV.  It  is  mentioned 
here  solely  because  of  its  name  and  is  not  prop- 
erly reckoned  among  the  apocryphal  Gospels 
(see  Joachim  or  Fiorx).  (10)  The  Gtospel  of 
Andrew:  Perhaps  the  same  as  the  Acts  of 
Andrew  (see  below  II,  6).  (ID  The  Gospel  of 
Apelles;  Possibly  a  mutilated  version  of  a  canon- 
ical Gospel  like  that  of  Marcion  (cf.  A.  Hamack, 
De  ApeUia  gnasi  monorchia,  Leipsic,  1874,  p.  75). 
(18)  The  Gospel  of  the  TwelTe  Apostles:  Jerome 
identified  this  with  what  he  calls  the  Gospel  among 
the  Hebrews.  (18)  The  Gospel  of  Bamabas. 
(14)  The  Gospel  of  Bartholomew:  On  the  tradition 
that  Bartholomew  brought  the  Hebrew  Gospel  of 
Matthew  to  India,  where  it  was  found  by  PantflBnus, 
ef.  Fabricius,  i,  341.  (16)  The  Gospel  of  BasiUdes. 
(16)  The  Gospel  of  Oerinthus:  Mentioned  by 
Epiphanius  {Hcer.,  li,  7);  perhaps  a  mutilated 
version  of  the  Gospel  according  to  Matthew,  similar 
to  that  used  by  the  Carpocratians.  (17)  The  Gos- 
pel of  the  Bblonites:  Epiphanius  (Hcer.,  xxx,  13, 
16,  21)  has  preserved  fragments  of  this  Gospel  which 
he  says  was  a  mutilated  Gospel  of  Matthew  called 
by  the  Ebionites  The  Hebrew  Gospel.  It  is  not 
identical  with  the  Gospel  of  the  Nasarenes.  ( 18)  The 
Gospel  of  Bre:  Mentioned  by  Epiphanius  as  in 
use  among  certain  Gnostics  {Hobt.,  xxvi,  2, 3,  and  5). 
[Preuschen  prints  the  extracts  quoted  by  Epipha- 
nius as  a  fragment  of  an  Ophite  Gospd  (ArUile" 
gomena,  Giessen,  1901,  p.  80).  Jesus  is  repre- 
sented as  saying  in  a  voice  of  thunder:  "  I  am 
thou,  and  thou  art  I,  and  wherever  thou  art  there 
am  I,  and  in  all  things  I  am  sown.  And  from 
whencesoever  thou  gatherest  me,  in  gathering  me 
thou  gatherest  thyself."  Cf.  J.  H.  Ropes,  Die 
SprHche  Jesu,  Leipsic,  1896,  p.  56.]  (19)  The  Gos- 
pel aocordinff  to  the  Hebrews:  According  to  the 
testimony  of  Jerome,  this  book  was  identical  with 
the  Gospel  of  the  Twelve  Apostles  and  the  Gospel 
of  the  Nazarenes,  and  was  written  in  Aramaic  in 
Hebrew  characters,  used  among  the  Nazarenes, 
and  translated  by  himself  into  Greek  and  Latin.  (20) 
The  Gospel  of  James  the  Blder :  Said  to  have  been 
discovered  in  1595  in  Spain,  where,  according  to 
tradition,  James  labored.  (21)  John's  Account  of 
the  Departure  of  Xmry:  It  exists  in  GreeJc,  in 
two  Latin  versions  (all  three  translated  into 
English  by  Walker,  ANF,  viii,  587-598), 
also  in  Syriac,  Sahidic,  and  Arabic  versions. 
(22)  The  Gospel  of  Judas  Isoariot:  Accord- 
ing to  Irenseus,  Epiphanius,  and  Theodoret,  used 
among  the  Cainites,  a  Gnostic  sect.  (28)  The  Gos- 
pel of  I«euoius.  (24)  The  Gospel  of  Luoian  and 
Hesyohius:  Mentioned  as  forgeries  by  the  Decre- 
tum  Gelasii  (VI,  xiv,  15).  Jerome  (''  Prologue  to 
the  Gospels")  believes  that  they  were  only  the 
first  recensions  of  the  Gospel  text,  though  he  also 
charges  the  two  men  with  unauthorized  tampering 
with  the  text.    Ludan  was  a  presbyter  at  Antioch; 


Hesychius  was  a  bishop  in  Egypt  toward  the  end 
of  the  third  oentiuy.  (26)  The  Gtospelsof  theXan- 
ioheans:  These  were  four  in  number,  (a)  The  Gos- 
pel of  Thomas,  a  disciple  of  Manes  (this  Gospel  must 
be  distinguished  from  the  other  Gospel  of  Thomas, 
see  5  above);  (&)  The  Living  Gospel;  (c)  The  Gospd 
of  PhUip;  (d)TheGosp€lofAbdas.  (26)  The  Gospel 
of  Xarcion :  Marcion  (q  .v .) ,  the  founder  of  the  famous 
anti-Jewish  sect  known  as  Marcionites,  admitted 
only  Pauline  writings  into  his  canon.  He  lived  in 
the  first  half  of  the  second  century.  The  passages 
in  which  Paul  speaks  of  his  Gospel  (Rom.  ii,  16; 
Gal.  i,  8;  II  Tim.  ii,  9)  obvioueiy  suggested  the 
attribution  to  him  of  a  special  Gospel.  Marcion 
regarded  the  Cjospel  of  Luke  as  Paul's,  but  he  ob- 
tained this  Gk)spel  only  by  eliminating  from  Luke 
all  Jewish  elements,  as  is  attested  by  Irenaeus, 
Origen,  and  Tertullian.  The  latter  two  quote  the 
corrupted  passages.  (27)  The  Questions,  Greater 
andl^esser,  of  Mary:  Two  works  of  obscene  con- 
tents, used  by  some  Gnostics,  according  to  Epipha- 
nius (HoBT.,  xxvi,  8).  (28)  The  Apocnrphal  Gospel 
of  Matthew.  (29)  The  Narrative  of  the  Iieffal 
Priesthood  of  Ohrist.  (80)  The  Gospel  of  Perfec- 
tion: Used  by  the  Basilidians  and  other  Gnostics, 
not  the  same  as  the  Gospel  of  Philip  or  the  Gospel  of 
Eve  (cf.  Fabricius,  i,  373;  ii,  550).  (81)  The  Gospel 
of  Peter:  Mentioned  by  Origen,  Eusebius,  and  Je- 
rome, and  used  by  the  congregation  at  Rhossus  in 
Gilicia  toward  the  end  of  the  second  centiuy. 
Serapion,  bishop  of  Antioch,  found  it  there  (c. 
191  A.D.)  and  after  examination  condemned  it 
(Eusebius,  Hist,  ecc/.,  vi,  12).  An  important  frag- 
ment of  the  Gospel  of  Peter  was  discovered  in 
1886  in  a  grave,  supposed  to  be  that  of  a 
monk,  in  an  ancient  cemetery  at  Akhmim,  the 
ancient  Panopolis  in  Upper  Egypt.  It  was  pub- 
lished in  1892  (Memoirs  of  the  French  Archeo- 
logical  Mission  at  Cairo,  IX,  i).  The  Gospel  of 
Peter  was  edited  by  Hamack  (2d  ed.,  1893), 
Zahn  (1893),  Von  Schubert  (1893),  and  Von 
Gebhardt  (1893).  [For  English  translation  cf. 
ANF,  ix,  7-8.  It  has  been  the  subject  of  numer- 
ous able  articles  in  the  theological  journals  since 
its  publication  in  1892.]  (82)  The  Gospel  of  Philip: 
Mentioned  and  quoted  by  Epiphanius  {Hcer,,  xxvi, 
13)  as  being  in  use  among  the  Gnostics.  Possibly 
it  is  the  same  as  was  in  use  among  the  Manicheana 
(see  above  25,  c).  (88)  The  Gospel  of  the  Simonites, 
or,  as  it  was  also  called  by  themselves.  The  Book  of 
the  Four  Comers  and  Hinges  of  the  World:  Men- 
tioned in  the  Arabic  Preface  to  the  Council  of  Niccsa^ 
(84)  The  Gospel  aocording*  to  the  Syrians:  Possi- 
bly identical  with  the  Gospel  according  to  the  He-' 
breu)s,  (85)  The  Gospel  of  Tatian:  Mentioned  by 
Epiphanius  (Jiar.,  XL VI,  i,  47,  4)  as  being  used 
by  the  Encratites  and  by  Catholic  Christians  in 
Syria.  Being  a  compilation  from  the  four  Gospels, 
it  was  called  also  ''  The  Diatessaron  ";  see  Har- 
mony OF  THE  Gospels;  Tatian.  (86)  The  Gospel 
of  ThaddsBus:  Mentioned  in  the  Gelasian  Decree. 
The  name  may  have  been  intended  for  that  of  the 
apostle  Judas  Thaddteus,  or  for  that  of  one  ot  the 
Seventy  who,  according  to  tradition,  was  sent  to 
King  Abgar  of  Edessa  (see  Abgar;  and  cf.  Euse- 
bius, Hist,  eccl.,  i,  iii).  (87)  The  Gospel  of  Valen- 


Apoorypl^a 
ApoUlnaris  of 


Z«aodioeft 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


228 


tinus:  Usually  identified  with  the  Gospel  of  Truth 
on  the  authority  of  Irenojus,  who  says  that  the 
Ooapel  of  Truth  was  used  by  the  Valentinians,  and 
that  it  was  very  dissonant  from  the  canonical 
Gospels. 

n.  Apocryphal  Acts  of  the  Apostles:  This  class 
of  writings  originated  through  the  operation  of  the 
same  causes  that  produced  the  apocryphal  Gospels, 
though  the  heretical  tendency  in  the  Acts  is  gener- 
ally more  prominent.  For  this  reason  they  were  as 
much  feared  in  the  early  Church  as  the  apocryphal 
Gospels;  and  it  appears  from  references  in  Eusebius, 
Epiphanius,  and  Augustine  that  they  had  great 
influence.  Since  they  were  often  worked  over  for 
dogmatic  purposes,  criticism  has  to  inquire  into  the 
antiquity  and  originality  of  the  existing  codices. 
Among  those  who  manufactured  apocryphal  Acts 
one  Lucius  (or  Leucius)  Charinus,  a  Manichean, 
is  especially  mentioned.  His  collection  is  said  to 
have  comprised  the  Acts  of  Peter,  John,  Andrew, 
Thomas,  and  Paul.  Of  these  a  few  fragments  only 
are  preserved  in  the  original  form,  which  were  after- 
ward revised  to  accord  with  catholic  dogma;  in 
an  enlarged  form  the  collection  became  known  as 
the  Acts  of  the  Twelve  Apostles,  which,  according 
to  Photius,  was  used  by  the  Manichean  Agapios. 
It  must  not  be  overlooked  that  some  of  these  revised 
Acts  are  of  a  very  high  antiquity;  thus  the  Acts  of 
Peter  were  in  use  in  the  second  century  and  the 
Jovxneys  of  Thomas  in  the  third  century  A  col- 
lection entitled  the  Aots  of  the  Holy  Apostles  is 
mentioned  by  Greek  chroniclers  from  the  sixth 
century.  Toward  the  end  of  the  sixth  century 
a  Latin  collection  became  known,  ascribed  to 
Abdias  (q.v.),  the  supposed  bishop  of  Babylon. 
In  its  original  form  the  collection  comprised  the 
"passions"  of  all  the  twelve  apostles  (including 
Paul  instead  of  Matthias),  in  its  revised  form  the 
"  virtues  "  or  "  miracles  "  of  Peter,  Paul,  John, 
Andrew,  and  Thomas,  and  the  "  passions "  of 
Matthew,  Bartholomew,  Philip,  the  two  Jameses, 
both  Simons,  and  Jude,  of  the  older  collection.  A 
third  collection  was  in  use  in  the  Coptic  Church, 
and  is  extant  in  the  Ethiopic  language  as  the  Con- 
test of  the  Apostles  [best  edition  by  E.  A.W.  Budge, 
The  Contendings  of  the  Apostles,  2  vols.,  London, 
189^1901].  There  are  also  numerous  Syriac 
recensions. 

The  most  notable  of  these  apocryphal  Acts  are 
(1)  Acts  of  Peter  and  Paul,  the  oldest  testimony 
for  which  is  Eusebius,  with  possibly  Clement  of 
Alexandria;  (8)  Acts  of  Paul  and  Thecla,  known  to 
Tertullian,  ascribed  to  a  presbyter  in  Asia,  and  be- 
longing  to  the  first   half   of   the  second  century; 

( 3)  Aots  of  Barnabas,  Told  by  John  Kark,  which  has 
another  title  in  some  Greek  manuscripts.  Journeys 
and  Martyrdom  of  the  Holy  Barnabas  the  Apostle; 

(4)  Acts  of  Philip,  possessing  high  antiquity  and 
having  been  much  used  in  the  literature  of  both 
branches  of  the  early  Church;  (6)  Aots  of  Philip 
in  Ghreece,  later  than  the  last-mentioned;  (6)  Acts  of 
Andrew,  a  very  eariy  composition;  (7)  Aots  of  An- 
drew and  Matthew  in  the  City  of  the  Anthropoph- 
agi, much  used  by  the  Gnostics  and  Manicheans;  (8) 
Aots  and  Martyrdom  of  Matthew,  to  be  connected 
with  the  last-named  as  its  continuation;  (9)  AoU 


of  Thomas,  also  a  work  of  high  antiquity:  (10)  Con- 
summation of  Thomas,  the  completion  of  the  story 
begun  in  the  foregoing  Acts  of  Thomas;  (11)  Mar- 
tirrdom  of  Bartholomew;  (12)  Acts  of  Thaddens 
(the  Syriac  reads  "of  Addas  "),  built  upon  the  very 
old  tradition  of  the  exchange  of  letters  between 
Abgar(q.v.)of  Edessa  and  Christ;  (13)  Acts  of  John, 
likewise  very  old,  and  esteemed  highly  by  Gnostics 
and  Manicheans;  the  "  History  of  Prochor  "  mentions 
the  Acts  of  John,  but  (14)  a  History  of  John  (in 
Syriac),  and  (16)  Passion  of  John  have  no  con- 
nection with  Prochor;  while  (16)  On  the  Life  of 
John  adds  nothing  to  the  last  three.  Besides  the 
foregoing,  there  are  many  fragments  of  Acts,  which 
do  not  call  for  mention.  English  translations  of 
these  apocryphal  Acts  will  be  found  in  ANF,  viii, 
477-564. 

m.  Apocryphal  Epistles:  Besides  the  fictitious 
correspondence  between  Christ  and  Abgar  (see 
Abgar),  other  alleged  writings  of  Christ  are  known 
which  belong  to  the  realm  of  mythology  (collected 
by  Fabricias,  i,  303-321;  iii,  439,  511-512).  There 
are  letters  from  the  Virgin  Mary  to  Ignatius,  and 
letters  to  Mary  which  are  of  a  very  late  date  (given 
in  Fabricius,  i,  834,  844,  851).  Two  letters  of 
Peter  to  James  are  also  known.  From  Col.  iv,  16 
it  is  learned  that  Paul  wrote  a  letter  to  the  Laod- 
iceans  which  is  lost;  it  is  not  to  be  wondered  at 
that  this  lost  letter  soon  found  an  apocryphal 
substitute,  which  was  in  circulation  in  Jerome's 
time  (De  vir,  ill.,  v),  and  was  published  in  many 
languages  (cf.  Zahn,  Kanon,  ii,  566  sqq.,  584-585; 
Zahn  treats  also  [ii,  612  sqq.]  of  the  spurious  cor- 
respondence between  Paul  and  Seneca).  Since  in 
I  Cor.  V,  9,  Paul  speaks  of  an  earlier  letter  to  the 
Church  of  Corinth  (which  has  been  lost),  care  was 
taken  to  substitute  another  letter  to  the  Corin- 
thians in  place  of  the  lost  one.  A  Latin  text 
recently  discovered  was  published  and  discussed 
by  Carridre  and  Berger  {La  Correspondance  apo- 
cryphe  de  St.  Paul  et  des  Corinthiens,  Paris,  1891); 
cf.  A.  Hamack  (TLZ,  1892,  2  sqq.),T.  Zahn  (TLB, 
1892,  185  sqq.,  193  sqq.),  Bratke  (TLZ,  1892, 
585  sqq.). 

IV.  Apocryphal  Apocalypses:  Although  the  names 
of  a  considerable  number  of  apocryphal  apoca- 
lypses are  known,  the  texts  or  fragments  of  texts 
of  only  a  few  are  extant  (collected  by  Tischendorf , 
Apocalypses  Apocrypha,  Leipsic,  1866),  viz.:  (1) 
Apooalypse  of  John:  Differed  from  the  canonical 
book  of  the  same  name.  (2)  Apooalypse  of  Peter: 
Mentioned  in  the  Miuratorian  Canon  and  by  Clement 
of  Alexandria,  Methodius,  Eusebius,  and  others. 
A  fragment  of  this  apocalypse  was  recently  dis- 
covered together  with  the  Gospel  of  Peter  (see  I 
[31]  above),  and  published  at  Paris  in  1892  (cf. 
ANF,  ix,  141  sqq.).  (8)  Ascension  of  Paul:  Is 
based  on  II  Cor.  xii,  2-4,  where  Paul  tells  of  being 
caught  up  into  heaven.  (4)  Apooalypse  of  Paul: 
Spoken  of  by  Augustine  and  Sozomen  (cf.  ANF, 
viii,  149  sqq.).  (6)  Apooalypse  of  Bartholomew: 
Extant  only  in  fragments  in  a  Coptic  manuscript 
in  the  Paris  library.  (6)  Apooalypse  of  Kary: 
Exists  only  in  fragments  of  late  manuscripts. 
(7)  Apooalypse  of  Thomas:  Mentioned  in  the 
Decretum  Oelasii.    (8)  Apooalypse    of    Stephen: 


999 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Apoonrpha 
Apollinaris  of  Laodioeft 


Based  on  Acts  vii,  55:  said  to  have  been  in  use 
among  the  Bianicheans.  For  English  translations, 
consult  ANF,  viii,  575-586;  ix,  141-174. 

(Rudolf  Hofmann.) 

Bxbuoorapht:  Golleotions  of  Apocrypha:  J.  A.  FabriduB. 
CotUx  ApoervphuB  Novi  Te§lamerUi,  2  Yola.,  Hamburg, 
1703,  vol.  iii,  1743;  J.  C.  Thilo,  CotUx  Apocryphut  Novi 
TettamenH,  Leipne,  1832;  W.  Giles,  Codex  Apocn/phiu 
Nom  TeBtamenH,  2  yola.,  London,  1852;  W.  Wright,  Conr- 
tribuHana  to  the  Apocryjphal  Literature  of  Aa  New  TeetO' 
meni  .  .  .  from  Svrian  M8S.,  ib.  1866;  M.  Bonnet.  Sup- 
pUmerUum  eodieie  apocryphi,  2  yola.,  Paris,  1883-06  (of 
great  value);  M.  R.  James,  Apocrypha  Anecdota  .  .  . 
T^Urfssn  Apocryphal  Booke  and  FraomerUe,  in  TS,  ii.  3, 
and  V,  1,  Cambridge,  1803-97;  E.  Nestle.  Nan  Teeta- 
menti  Oraei  SuppUmentum,  Berlin,  1806;  ANF,  viii-ix; 
Apocryphal  New  Teatament,  London,  Boston,  and  New 
York,  n.  d.  (out  of  print);  E.  Hennecke,  NeuieatamenUidie 
Ap(^Bryphen  .  .  .  tn  deutedur  Ueberaettuno  und  mil  Ein^ 
leilunoen^  Tfibingen,  1004. 

Collections  of  Gospels:  C.  Tischendorf,  Evantfdia  Apo- 
erypha^  Leipsie,  1876;  G.  Brunet,  Lea  6vanffilea  apocryphea, 
Paris,  1863;  B.  H.  Cowper,  Apocryphal  Ooapela  and  Doe- 
menia  ReUUino  to  Chriat,  London.  1870;  Jos.  Variot.  Dea 
JSvanffHea  apoeryphaa,  Paris,  1878;  A.  Resch,  Auaaerkano- 
niadia  PearalleUexte  su  den  Bvangelien^  3  vols.,  Leipsie, 
1802-07;  E.  Preuschen,  AniUeoomena.  Die  Reata  der  aua- 
aarkanoniaehen  Evanoelien,  Giessen,  1001. 

Collections  of  Apocryphal  Acts:  C.  Tischendorf.  Acta 
Apoatohrum  Apocrypha,  revised  ed.  by  Lipsius  and  Bon- 
net, 3  vols..  Leipsie.  1801,  1808,  1003  (essential  for  texts); 
R.  A.  Lipsius,  Die  Apocryphen  Apoatelgeadiichten  und 
Apoatdtagenden,  4  vols.,  Brunswick,  1883-00  (exceedingly 
important);  W.  Wright.  Apocryphal  Acta  of  the  Apoatlea 
from  Syriac  MSS.,  London.  1871;  A.  8.  Lewis,  Mytho- 
loQieal  Acta  of  (ha  Apoatlea  from  an  Arabic  MS.,  ib.  1004. 

Apocalypses:  C.  Tischendorf,  Apocalypaea  apocrypha, 
Leipsie  1866. 

Treatises  covering  the  subject:  A.  Hamack,  Oeachiehte 
der  oUthriaAiehen  Litterahar,  Leipsie,  1803  (exhaustive); 
J.  Pons,  Redterchaa  aur  lea  apocryphea  du  nouveau  Teata- 
mani,  Montauban,  1860;  R.  Hofmann,  Daa  Leben  Jeau 
naeh  dan  Apokryphen,  ib.  1861;  M.  Nicolas,  £tudea  aur  lea 
ivangilea  apocryphea,  Paris,  1866;  8.  Baring-Gould,  Loat 
and  HoaHle  Goapela,  London,  1874;  B.  F.  Westcott,  Intro- 
duction to  the  Study  of  the  Goapela,  ib.  1888;  T.  Zahn.  Oe- 
adii^ta  daa  netUeatamenUuAen  Kanona,  2  vols.,  Leipsie, 
1888-02  (from  the  conservative  standpoint);  W.  E. 
Barnes,  Canonical  and  Uncanonieal  Ooapela,  ib.  1803  (clear 
and  useful);  G.  KrOger,  Oeachichte  der  altcfuriatlichen  Li^ 
teratur  in  den  eraten  drei  Jahrhunderten,  Freiburg,  1806, 
Eng.  transl..  New  York.  1807. 

On  individual  (jospels:  W.  Wright.  Bvangelium  Thomce, 
London,  1876;  R.  Reinsch.  Die  Paeudo-Evangelien  von 
Jaau  und  Maria'a  Kindheit  in  der  romaniachen  und  ger- 
maniathenUiUtalbuir^  Halle,  1870;  R.  A.  Lipsius,  Die  edea- 
temscAe  Abgar-Sage,  Brunswick,  1880;  F.  Robinson,  Cop- 
He  Apocryphal  Ooapela,  in  TS,  iv,  2,  CJambridge.  1806; 
F.  C.  Conybeare,  Protavangdium  of  Jamea,  in  AJT,  i 
(1807).  424  sqq.;  Ragg.  Italian  Veraion  of  tha  Loat  Apoc- 
ryphal Ooapel  of  Bamabaa,  Oxford.  1006.  On  the  <3ospel 
of  the  Hebrews:  E.  B.  Nicholson,  Ooapel  According  to  tha 
Hebrawa,  London,  1807;  R.  Handmann,  Daa  HebrOer- 
Bvanifdium,  Leipsie.  1888;  G.  8almon,  Hiatorieal  Intro- 
dudion  to  f^  Study  of  tha  New  Teatament,  pp.  161-170. 
London,  1804.  On  the  Logia  Jesu:  B.  P.  Grenfell  and 
A.  8.  Hunt,  Logia  Jeau,  Sayinga  of  our  Lord,  London, 
1807;  A.  Hamack,  Ueber  die  jUngat  entdackien  Spmeha 
Jeau,  Freiburg,  1807;  W.  Lock  and  W.  8anday.  Two  Lec- 
turaa  on  tha  Sayinga  of  Jeaua,  London,  1807;  C.  Bruston, 
Laa  Parolaa  da  JSaua  rioemmant  dicouvertea  .  .  .  et  re- 
marquaa  aur  le  taxta  .  ,  .  da  v£vangile  da  Pierre,  Paris, 
1808;  A.  Jacoby,  Bin  neuea  Bvangdienfragment,  8tras- 
burg.  1000;  J.  H.  Ropes,  Die  SprUehe  Jeau,  Leipsie.  1806. 

The  Peter  Fragments  were  issued,  translated,  or  dis- 
cussed by:  J.  R.  Harris,  London,  1802;  J.  A.  Robinson 
and  M.  R.  James,  ib.  1802;  O.  Von  Oebhardt,  Leipsie, 
1803;  A.  Hamack,  ib.  1803;  A.  Lods,  in  three  works, 
Paris,  1802.  1803.  1806;  A.  Sabatier.  ib.  1803;  H.  von 
Schubert,  two  works.  Berlin.  1803,  Eng.  transl.  of  one, 
Edinburgh,  1803;  D.  VOlter.  Tfibingen.  1803;  T.  Zahn. 
Leipsie,  1803;  and  C.  Bruston,  see  above  imder  Logia 
Jera. 


Apocrsrphal  Acts:  8.  C.  llalan,  Tha  ConftieU  of  tha  Holy 
Apoatlea,  London,  1871;  R.  A.  Lipsius,  Die  Quellandar 
Petruaaage,  Kiel,  1872;  C.  8chlau,  Die  Aden  dea  Paulua 
und  der  Theda,  Leipsie,  1877;  T.  Zahn,  Acta  Johannia, 
Erlangen.  1880;  M.  Bonnet,  Ada  Thoma,  Leipsie,  1883; 
A.  E.  Medlycott.  India  and  the  Apoatle  Thomaa.  Critical 
Analyaia  of  Acta  Thoma,  London,  1006.  On  the  Acts  of 
Pilate:  R.  A.  Lipsius.  Pilatuaakten,  Kiel.  1886;  C.  Tisch- 
endorf, Pilati  circa  Chriatum  judicio  quid  lucia  in  AcHa 
Pilati,  Leipsie,  1866;  G^.  Sluter.  Ada  Pilati,  8helby- 
ville.  Ind..  1870;  W.  O.  Clough.  Oeata  Pilati,  Indianapolis. 
1880;  J.  R.  Harris.  Homeric  Centonaa  and  the  Acta  of 
Pilata,  London.  1880. 

Other  works:  W.  F.  Rinck.  Daa  Sendachreiban  dar 
Korinther  an  den  Apoatd  Paulua,  Heidelberg,  1823  (argues 
for  genuineness),  answered  by  G.  Ullmann,  Uebardondrii- 
ten  Brief  Pauli  an  die  Korinther,  ib.  1823;  E.  Dulaurier, 
Fragment  daa  RivUationa  apocryphea  de  St  Bar^kMhny, 
Paris,  1836;  A.  Hamack,  De  Apellia  Onoai  Monorchia, 
Leipsie,  1874. 

APOLLINARIS,  a-pel'Oi-n^'ris  (APOLLINARI- 
XTS),  CLAUDIUS :  Bishop  of  Hierapolis  in  Phrygia. 
He  was  a  contemporary  of  Melito,  and  flourished 
in  the  reign  of  Marcus  Aurelius  (161-180),  occu- 
pying a  prominent  position  as  an  apologist  and  an 
opponent  of  Montanism,  which  took  its  rise  in 
the  ecclesiastical  province  to  which  he  belonged. 
He  was  a  prolific  writer,  but  of  his  numerous 
works,  still  much  read  in  the  time  of  Eusebius, 
only  a  few,  and  of  these  little  more  than  the  titles, 
are  known.  Eusebius  {Hist,  ecd.,  iv,  27)  mentions 
an  apology  addressed  to  the  emperor;  since  the 
story  of  the  "  thundering  legion "  (q.v.)  seems  to 
have  been  told  in  this,  it  can  not  have  been  written 
before  171,  though  Eusebius,  in  his  Chronicorif 
assigns  it  to  170.  The  same  historian  mentions 
an  apology  against  the  Greeks  in  five  books,  two 
books  "  Concerning  Truth,''  and  a  letter  against  the 
Montanists,  which  is  also  referred  to  by  Serapion, 
bishop  of  Antioch,  in  his  letter  to  Caricus  and 
Pontius.  This,  according  to  Eusebius,  was  written 
later  than  the  apologetic  works  mentioned  above, 
and  contained  a  report  of  the  proceedings  of  a  synod 
held  against  the  Montanists,  with  a  list  of  signa- 
tures of  the  members  of  the  synod.  Photius  also 
names  a  treatise  "On  Piety."  The  Chronicon 
Paschcde  (ed.  Dindorf,  i,  13)  preserves  two  frag- 
ments of  a  work  on  the  Passover,  all  that  has  been 
preserved  of  the  work  of  Apollinaris;  these  have 
been  questioned,  but  without  good  reason.  Two 
books  against  the  Jews  and  one  against  the  Seve- 
rians  have  been  erroneously  attributed  to  him.  In 
the  catenae  numerous  fragments  are  found  with  the 
name  of  Apollinaris  attached  to  them,  which  have 
never  been  carefully  examined;  but  it  is  probable 
that  most,  if  not  aU,  belong  to  the  younger  Apol- 
linaris of  Laodicea.  (A.  Harnack.) 
Bibliooraphy:  Fabricius-Harles,  Bibliotheca  Grceca,  vii 
(1801).  160-162;  ANF,  viii.  772-773;  Hamack,  LUteratur, 
i,  243-246;  idem,  TU,  i  (1882).  232-230. 

APOLLINARIS    OF    LAODICEA:      The  name 

of  two  men,  father  and  son,  known  to  Church 
history.  Apollinaris  the  Elder  was  an  Alexandrian, 
taught  grammar  at  Berytus,  and  then  at  Laodicea 
in  Syria,  and  was  made  a  presbyter  at  the  latter 
place.  What  Socrates  (Hist,  ecd.y  ii,  46)  says 
of  his  literary  activity  belongs  probably  to  the 
son  (cf.  Sozomen,  Hist,  ecd.,  v,  18).  Apollinaris 
the  Yoimger  was  bom  presumably  about  310, 
and  was  likewise  a  teacher  of  rhetoric.  About 
346  he  became  acquainted  with  Athanasius;  and 


ApoUinaris  of  L«odio6A 
Apollonius  of  Tyana 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


230 


they  remained  warm  friends,  notwithstanding  theo- 
logical differences.    Athanasius  calls  him  a  bishop 

in  362;  and,  as  he  was  at  first  an  en- 
Life,       ergetic  representative  of  Homoousian- 

ism  in  Syria,  he  was  presumably 
the  Homoonsian  antibishop  of  Pelagius  of  Laod- 
icea,  who  belonged  to  the  right  wing  of  the  middle 
party.  When  he  proclaimed  his  peculiar  views 
openly  can  not  be  stated  with  certainty.  The 
synod  at  Alexandria  in  362  seems  to  declare  against 
them,  and  he  was  considered  a  heretic  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  seventies.  Roman  synods  in  377  and 
382  and  one  at  Antioch  in  378  testified  against  his 
doctrine.  The  second  ecimienical  council  (Con- 
stantinople, 381)  condemned  the  Apollinarians  as 
the  last  heretics  who  issued  from  the  Trinitarian 
controversy,  and  the  emperor  Theodosius  set  the 
great  seal  upon  this  condemnation  in  388.  Apol- 
linaris  was  dead  when  Jerome  wrote  his  Viri 
iUtutrea  in  392. 

Great  as  is  the  confusion  concerning  the  life  of 
the  man,  it  is  still  greater  as  regards  his  literary 
activity,  which  is  the  more  to  be  regretted,  as 
Apollinaris  was  evidently  one  of  the  most  prominent 
ecclesiastical  writers  of  the  fourth  centiuy.  This 
may  be  seen  from  the  high  esteem  in  which  he  was 
held  during  his  lifetime  by  friend  and  foe  and  from 
the  expressions  of  later  writers.  According  to 
Philostorgius  (H%8t  ecd.,  viii.  11;  cf.  xii.  15), 
Athanasius  as  a  theologian  was  a  child  when  com- 
pared with  Apollinaris;  and  as  concerns  **  ex- 
perience "  (e.g.,  knowledge  of  Hebrew)  he  would 
give  the  preference  to  the  Laodicean  above  Gregory 

and   Basil.     Apollinaris   was  famous 
WritingB.    not  only  as  a  theological  author  but 

also  as  a  poet.  As  a  new  Homer  he 
treated  the  Old  Testament  history  from  the  Oea- 
tion  to  Saul  in  twenty-four  books,  wrote  come- 
dies after  the  pattern  of  Menander,  tragedies  in  the 
style  of  Euripides,  and  odes  after  Pindaric  models. 
There  is  extant  only  a  **  Paraphrase  upon  the  Psal- 
ter," which  fails  to  exhibit  the  poetic  genius  ascribed 
to  the  author.  Of  his  exegetical  efforts  there  have 
been  preserved  only  fragments  on  Proverbs,  Eze- 
kiel,  Isaiah,  and  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans;  the 
exegesis  is  sober,  sensible,  and  avoids  allegory. 
As  Christian  apologist  Apollinaris  is  said  to  have 
surpassed  his  predecessors  in  his  thirty  books 
against  Porphyry  (Philostorgius,  viii.  4;  Jerome, 
De  vir,  ill,,  civ.;  idem,  Epiat.,  sdviii.  13,  Ixx.  3; 
Vincent  of  Lerins,  Commonitorium,  id.);  he  wrote  a 
work, "  On  Truth,''  against  Julian  and  the  philosophy 
of  the  time,  and  opposed  the  Arians  in  a  work 
against  Eunomius  of  Cyzicus;  he  wrote  also  against 
Marcellus  of  Ancyra.  All  these  writings  seem  to 
have  been  lost.  It  is  also  impossible  to  form  a 
correct  estimate  of  his  dogmatic  writings.  AU 
that  has  been  directly  transmitted  are  seven  larger 
and  some  short  fragments  from  an  **  Exposition  of 
the  Divine  Incarnation  in  the  Likeness  of  Man  "  (in 
the  rejoinder  of  Gregory  of  Nyssa  to  Apollinaris). 
But  it  is  known  that  the  Apollinarians  and  Mono- 
physites  circulated  some  of  the  productions  of 
Apollinaris  under  the  names  of  Gregory  Thauma- 
turgus,  Athanasius,  and  Julius  of  Rome  to  deceive 
innocent  readers  as  to  their  true  origin  and  nature. 


and  (}aspari  has  proved  that  the  "  Sectional  Confes- 
sion of  Faith,"  ascribed  to  Thaumaturgus,  belongs 
to  Apollinaris.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the 
treatise  "On  the  Incarnation  of  the  Word  of  God," 
ascribed  to  Athanasius,  and  of  the  alleged  epistles 
of  Felix  of  Alexandria  and  Julius  of  Rome  to 
Dionysius  of  Alexandria.  Attempts  (especially 
of  Drftseke)  to  ascribe  other  works  to  Apollinaris 
have  been  unsuccessful. 

The  tendency  of  the  Athanasian  doctrine  of 
redemption  to  the  deification  of  humanity,  little 
as  Athanasius  himself  doubted  that  the  Logos 
had  assimied  the  perfect  humanity,  was  not  fitted 
for  reviving  interest  in  the  human  personality  of 
the  Redeemer.  Thus  it  is  not  strange  that  so 
zealous  a  champion  of  the  homoousios  as  Apol- 
linaris, with  his  logical  and  dialectic  training, 
started  with  doubts  upon  this  point.  Perfect 
God  and  perfect  man  is,  according  to  his  opinion, 
a  monstrosity,  contradicting  all  laws  of  reason. 
In  this  way  would  originate  a  "  man- 
His  Chris-   god,"  a  "  horse-deer,"  a  "  goat-stag," 

tology.  — fabulous  beings  like  the  Minotaur. 
This  proves  true  not  only  logically, 
but  also  on  comparing  the  notion  of  the  perfect 
man  with  the  demands  to  be  made  upon  the  Re- 
deemer in  the  interest  of  redemption.  Supposing 
him  to  be  perfect  man,  how  could  Christ  be  without 
sin?  If,  as  the  apostle  knew,  man  consists  of 
spirit  (mind),  soul,  and  body,  the  human  mind 
can  not  be  adjudicated  to  Christ,  for  this  is  change- 
able; but  the  Redeemer  has  an  unchanging  mind. 
Since  he  can  not  be  composed  of  four  parts,  he  has 
indeed  assumed  a  human  body  and  a  humaa  soul, 
but  not  a  human  spirit.  The  logo8  homoousioB 
rather  takes  its  place.  Thus  originated  the  fiia  ^>aic 
Toi)  ^€ov  Myov  otoapKufikvti  (not  ataapnufitvov),  in  which 
the  flesh  is  deified  and  which  as  a  whole  becomes 
an  object  of  adoration.  The  consequence  is  obvious, 
that  all  passive  conditions  [the  susceptibility 
to  suffering]  of  the  historical  Jesus  are  referred 
to  the  Logos  and  consequently  to  the  Deity  it- 
self, though  Apollinaris  and  some  of  his  adherents 
recoiled  from  it.  The  ApoUinarian  Christology, 
which  made  great  advances  to  the  consciousness 
of  the  believers,  which  in  the  first  line  is  always 
directed  to  the  divine  in  Christ,  and  which  seemed 
to  lead  away  farthest  from  the  generally  detested 
thought  of  the  "  mere  man  "  (Paul  of  Samosata), 
has  exercised  great  influence  on  the  further  develop- 
ment of  the  Christological  doctrine  in  the  Eastern 
Church.  With  a  certain  right,  one  can  even  say 
with  Hamack  {DogmengeschichJte,  p.  314)  that  the 
view  of  Apollinaris,  when  compared  with  the  pre- 
suppositions and  aims  of  the  Greek  conception  of 
Christianity  as  religion,  is  perfect;  but  one  can  only 
do  so  by  regarding  the  extremest  consequences  as 
the  correct  expression  of  what  is  intended.  On 
the  further  development  of  Apollinarianism  see 
the  articles  treating  of  the  Christological  contro- 
versies of  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries. 

G.  KrCoer. 

That  Apollinaris,  side  by  side  with  Paul  of 
Samosata  and  Arius,  should  have  come  to  be 
regarded  as  an  archheretic,  nay  as  in  a  certain 
sense  the  archheretic,  is  thoroughly  intelligible.    All 


981 


REUGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Apollinaris  of  Laodioea 
Apolloniiis  of  Tyana 


three  with  their  theories  came  in  violent  conflict 
with  essential  postulates  of  the  Christian  piety  of 
the  Church;  Paul  destroyed  the  complete  Deity, 
Apollinaris  the  complete  humanity,  Arius  both. 
The  pious  Christian  consciousness  required  in  the 
person   of   Christ   ideal    humanity   and   absolute 
Deity  and  was  content  to  regard  the  manner  of 
the  union  of  the  two  as  a  mystery,  i.e.,  as  tran- 
scending the  comprehension  of  the  human  mind. 
Yet  in  so  far  as  it  tended  to  set  aside  the  conception 
of  Christ  as  a  "  mere  man  "  (Paul  of  Samosata), 
the  theory  of  Apollinaris  was  for  the  time  accept- 
able to  many.  A.  H.  N. 
fiiBUOoRAPHT:    The   belt  oolleotion    of  the  writioge   of 
ApoUinaris  and  his  pupils  ia  that  by  H.  Lietimann,  Apol- 
KnariavanLaodieeaund  §eine8dwUe,TU,L,Tilhingfin,  1004. 
Of.  alflo  I.  Flemming  and  H.  Lietimann,  ApolUnaruelu 
Sckriften  (Syriae).  in  the  Abhandlunoen  der   k&niolidien 
OM§ll§ehaft  der  Wittenachaften  zu  06Uino€n,ro\.  rii. ,  Berlin, 
1904.    Apollinaris'  paraphrase  of  the  Psalms  is  in  MPO, 
xxxiii.;  the  remains  of  his  dogmatie  works  are  in  TU, 
vii.  3, 4,  Leipsic,  1892;  of  his  ezegeticsl  writings,  in  A.  Mai, 
Nova  patrum  InbliotKeca,  vii.  2,  pp.  76-80,  82-91, 128-130; 
in  A.  Ludwich,  Probe  einer  hriHadien  Attaifobe,  KOnigsberg, 
1880-81;  The  Sectional  Confeeaion  of  Faith  is  in  ANF,  vi. 
40-47;  of.  C.  P.  Caspari,  AUe  und  neue  Quellen,  Chris- 
tiania,  1879. 

On  the  name:  T.  Zahn.  Foreehunoen  mr  OeediiAte  dee 
Kanone,  r.  99-109,  Leipsio,  1893.  For  life:  J.  Drftseke, 
ApolHnarie  von  Laodicea,  aein  Leben  und  aeine  Sduiften, 
in  TU,  vii.  3,  4,  ib.  1892.  On  his  writings:  A.  Ludwich, 
in  Hermee,  xiii.  (1878)  336-360.  and  in  ZWT,  xxad.  (1888) 
477-487,  xxxii.  (1889)  108-120.  On  his  theology:  A. 
Domer,  Die  Lehre  von  der  Pereon  Chrieti,  L  976-1036, 
Stuttgart,  1846;  A.  Hamaok,  Lehrbudi  der  Doomenge- 
ediichte,  ii.  309-321,  Freiburg,  1896;  J.  Schwane,  Doo- 
menoeeehiehte  der  patriaHedien  Zeit,  pp.  277-283,  ib.  1896; 
G.  Voisin,  L'ApoUinarieme,  Paris,  1901.  On  literary  and 
theological  problems:  C.  W.  F.  Walch,  Bntuntrf  einer  voU- 
eUlndiifenHistoriederKetxereien,  iu.  119-229,  Leipsio,  1766. 

APOLLONIA,  a"pol-l6'nl-a,  SAINT:  A  martyr 
of  Alexandria,  according  to  a  letter  from  Dio- 
nysius,  bishop  of  Alexandria,  to  Fabian  of  Antioch, 
preserved  by  Eusebius  {Hist,  ecd.y  vi.  41),  and  giving 
an  account  of  a  persecution  of  the  Alexandrian 
Christians  in  the  winter  of  24S-249.  This  perse- 
cution was  the  work  of  the  populace,  stirred  up 
by  the  celebration  of  the  one-thousandth  anni- 
versary of  the  founding  of  Rome,  but  was  connived 
at  by  the  authorities.  As  victims  of  this  outburst 
Dionysius  names  Metras,  Quinta,  Sarapion,  and 
Apollonia,  whom  he  calls  in  Greek  parihenon  pres- 
butirif  probably  signifying  a  deaconess.  Because 
in  her  martyrdom  all  her  teeth  were  knocked  out, 
she  is  popularly  regarded  in  Roman  Catholic 
countries  as  a  patroness  against  toothache.  Her 
festival  falls  on  Feb.  9.  A.  Hauck. 

fixBLiooRAPHT:  K.  J.  Neumaun,  Der  rUmieehe  Stoat,  i.  331, 

Leipsic,  1890. 

APOLLOlflUS,  ap''el-10'ni-us:  1.  A  Roman 
martyr  under  Commodus.  Eusebius  {Hist,  ecd,, 
V.  21)  states  that  he  was  renowned  for  his  learning 
and  wisdom;  he  was  accused  by  an  "  instrument 
of  the  devil "  at  a  time  when  the  government 
did  not  favor  religious  persecution,  and  conse- 
quently the  accuser  suffered  the  death  penalty; 
the  judge,  Perenms,  wished  to  save  Apollonius, 
allowed  him  to  make  an  eloquent  defense  before  the 
senate,  but  was  ultimately  compelled  by  the  law 
to  condemn  the  Christian  to  death  by  beheading. 
Jerome  expands  these  notices  (De  vir,  ill,,  xlii.. 


liii.;  Epist,  ixx.,  ad  Magnum).  As  the  downfall 
of  Perennis  took  place  in  185,  the  martyrdom  must 
be  dated  between  181  and  that  year,  probably  in 

184.  N.  BONWETBCH. 

Bibuoobapht:  (1)  Apoloov  and  Aeie  of  ApoUoniuet  ed.  and 
transl.  from  the  Armenian  by  F.  G.  Conybeare,  London, 
1894  (of.  The  Guardian,  June  21,  1893);  Greek  transL 
of  the  same  in  Analecta  BoUandiana,  xiv.  (1896)  284- 
294,  and  of.  xxili.  (1899)  60,  and  E.  T.  Klette,  Der  Proeeee 
und  die  Acta  S.  ApoUonii,  in  TU,  xv.  2,  Leipsio,  1897; 
O.  von  (jebhardt,  Ada  martyrum  eeleda,  pp.  44  sqq.,  Ber- 
lin, 1902.  Also  A.  Hamaok,  in  SUsungriteriehte  der  Ber- 
hner  Akademie,  1893.  pp.  721-746,  and  in  TLZ,  xx.  (1896) 
690  sqq.;  Seeberg.  NKZ,  iv.  (1893)  836  sqq.;  E.  G.  Hardy, 
Chrietianity  and  Ute  Roman  Empire,  London,  1894;  Bfax, 
Prins  von  Saohsen,  Der  Keilige  Mdrtyrer  ApoUoniue  von 
Rom,  Mains,  1903;  O.  Bardenhewer,  Oeechickte  der  alt- 
kirchliehen  lAUeratur,  voL  ii.,  Freiburg,  1903. 

9.  Author  of  a  work  against  the  Montanists,  of 
which  Eusebius  gives  a  fragment  (Hist,  eccl.,y.  18). 
It  was  written  forty  years  after  the  appearance  of 
Montanus  and  shows  that  the  deliverances  of  the 
new  prophets  were  false  and  that  the  conduct  of 
the  Montanist  authorities  was  opposed  to  the 
manner  of  true  prophets.  According  to  Jerome 
(De  vir,  iU,,  1.,  liii.),  Tertullian  added  to  his  six 
books  De  ecstasi,  a  seventh  against  the  charges  of 
Apollonius;  but  he  is  mistaken  (De  vir.  tU.,  xl.)  in 
ascribing  to  Apollonius  what  is  related  by  Eusebius 
in  Hist,  ecd.f  v.  16.  The  designation  of  Apollonius 
as  "leader  of  the  Ephesians,"  in  Protdestinaius, 
xxvi.  is  a  fiction.  N.  Bonwetbch. 

Bibxjogbapht:  N.  Bonwetsoh.  Oee^ie/Ue  dee  Montaniemue, 
pp.  30.  49,  Erlangen,  1881;  G.  Voigt,  Eine  anHmonlO' 
nieUeehe  Urkunde,  Leipsio,  1891;  T.  Zahn,  ForscAuivsn 
eur  Oeedtiehte  dee  neuieetamentliehen  Kanone,  pp.  21  sqq., 
Leipsic,  1893. 

APOLLONIUS  OF  TYANA:  Neo-Pythagorean 
philosopher,  elevated  by  non-Christians  to  a  place 
by  the  side  of  Christ;  b.  at  Tyana  in  Cappadocia, 
the  modem  Kiz-Hissar  (80  m.  n.w.  of  Tarsus); 
d.  at  Ephesus,  probably,  98  a.d.  He  was  educated 
at  Ephesus  and  at  Tarsus,  but,  disgusted  by  the 
immorality  of  the  latter  city,  he  went  to  ^giesB 
(the  modem  Ayas,  on  the  Gulf  of  Iskanderun,  50 
m.  s.e.  of  Adana).  In  its  temple  of  i£sculapiu8 
he  studied  medicine  and  philosophy,  and  became 
an  ardent  and  lifelong  adherent  of  Pythagoras.' 
He  observed  the  five  years  of  absolute  silence 
enjoined  by  the  Pythagoreans,  and  then  started 
on  his  memorable  and  extensive  travels,  which 
took  him  into  all  parts  of  the  known  world,  made 
him  acquainted  with  many  prominent  persons, 
and  gave  him  a  great  reputation  for  wisdom.  He 
seems  to  have  exerted  a  virtuous  example  and  to 
have  been  a  religious  reformer.  Falling  under  the 
suspicion  of  Domitian,  he  went  to  Rome  for  his 
trial  and  was  acquitted  after  he  had  endured  a 
brief  imprisonment  (94  a.d.).  The  last  ten  years 
of  his  life  were  passed  in  Greece,  where  he  had  many 
disciples. 

The  importance  of  Apollonius  as  a  religious 
reformer  was  more  and  more  magnified,  and  shortly 
after  his  death  statues  and  even  temples  were 
erected  in  his  honor  by  emperors,  and  he  was 
worshiped  as  a  god.  Among  his  prominent  ad- 
mirers was  the  talented  and  learned  Julia  Domna, 
wife  of  the  emperor  Severus,  who  requested  one 
of  her  literary  men,  Flavins  Philostratus,  to  write 


ApolloniuB  of  Tyana 
ApoloffeticB 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


232 


for  her  a  biography  of  Apollonius  and  for  this  pur- 
poee  supplied  him  with  data,  including  the  travel- 
journal  of  his  companion,  the  Assyrian  Damis, 
and  a  collection  of  his  letters.  On  the  basis  of 
these,  with  large  additions  of  legendary  matter 
and  notices  of  every  description,  the  book  was 
prepared;  but  it  was  not  published  till  after  the 
death  of  the  empress  (217).  It  bears  every  evi- 
dence of  being  a  historical  novel,  and  its  miraculous 
details  are  not  deserving  of  analysis;  but  non- 
Christians  ever  since  have  pretended  to  find  in 
Apollonius  a  pagan  Christ,  and  in  the  stories  told 
about  him,  counterparts  of  those  related  of  Christ 
and  his  apostles. 

The  earliest  person  named  who  made  this  use  of 
Philostratus's    novel    is    Hierocles,    governor    of 
Bithynia  during  the  Diocletian  persecution  (303), 
who  wrote  a  work  against  the  Christians  in  which 
he  instituted   a   comparison   between   Apollonius 
and  Christ.    This  stirred  up  the  church  historian 
Eusebius,  to  write  a  refutation,  in  which  he  shows 
how  unreliable  as  a  source  the  romance  of  Philo- 
stratus  is.     The  deist  Charles  Blount  (see  Deism) 
and  Voltaire  revived  this  use  of  Philostratus  in  the 
interest  of  their  paganism,  while  in  the  nineteenth 
century  Ferdinand  Christian  Baur  called  attention 
afresh  to  Philostratus's  work  and  elaborated  the 
thesis   that   Philostratus  had  purposely  modeled 
his  narrative  on    that  of    the  Gospels.     Edward 
2^11er  followed  liim  in  this  advocacy,  the  Frenchman 
Albert  R^villc  also.     But  there  is  no  evidence  that 
Philostratus  had  any  knowledge  of  the  Gospels 
and  the  Acts,  and  the  life  of  the  Apostle  Paul  is 
a  much  closer  parallel  to  Apollonius  than  that  of 
Christ,  who  was  no  peripatetic  philosopher. 
Biblioorapht:  Souroea:  C.  L.   Kayner's  cd.  of  Fl.  Philo- 
atroti  Opera,  2    vola.,  Leipsic,  1871,  contains  also    ApoU 
lanii  Epiatola  and  Eusebius  adv.  Hierodem;  the  latter  in 
alao  in  MPG,  iv.;  Eng.  transl.  of  first  two  books  of  Philo- 
rtimtufl.   by  G.  Blount,  London,  1080.  and  of  all  by  £. 
Berwick,  1809;  French  transl.  by  J.  F.  Salvemini  de  Cas- 
tillon,  Paris,  1774,  and  by  A.  Chassang.  1862.  ii-ith  tranal. 
of  the  letters  of  Apollonius;  Germ,  transl.  by  £.  Baltser. 
Consult  also:  E.  Mailer,  IFar  ApoUonlue  .  .  .  ein  Weiaer, 
.    .    .  BetrUger,  .  .  .  SehipOrmer    und  Fanaiiker,  Breslau, 
1861;  A.  lUville,  Apollonius  of  Tyana,  London,  1866;  J. 
H.    Newman,    in    Historical  Sketches,   ii.,   London,    1872 
(noteworthy);  O.  de  B.  Priaulx,  Indian  Travds  of  Apol- 
lonius, ib.  1873;  F.  C.  Baur,  Apollonius  von  Tyana  und 
Christus,  in  Drei  Abhandlungen,  I>eipsic,  1876;  C.  Mdncke- 
berg.  Apollonius  von  Tyana,  Hamburg,  1877;  C.  H.  Pet- 
tersch,  Apollonius  von  Tyana,  Rcichenberg,   1879;  G.  L. 
Nielsen,  Apollonius  fra  Tyana,  Copenhagen,  1879;  J.  Jes- 
sen,  ApoUonius  .  ,  .  und  sein  Biopraph,  Hamburg,  1885; 
D.  M.  Tredwell,  Sketch  of  the  Life  of  Apollonius  of  Tyana, 
New  York,  1886;  K.  S.  Guthrie.  The  Gospel  of  ApoUonius 
of  Tyana,  Medford.  1900;  G.  R.  S.  Mead.  Apollonius  of 
Tyana,  London,  1901;  T.  Whittakcr,  in  Ths  Monist,  xiii. 
(1903)  161-217. 

APOLLOS,  a-pol'o8  (probably  a  contraction  from 
Apollonius):  A  man  eminent  in  New  Testament 
history.  His  special  gifts  in  presenting  Christian 
doctrine  made  him  an  important  person  in  the 
congregation  at  Corinth,  and  his  name  came  to  be 
attached  to  a  faction  there  (I  Cor.  i.  12),  but  there 
18  no  indication  that  he  favored  or  approved  an 
overestimation  of  his  person.  Nor  can  it  be  said 
that  Paul  objected  to  his  work  of  presenting  the 
way  of  salvation;  on  the  contrary  he  thinks  Apollos 
a  valuable  helper  in  carrying  on  his  work  in  the 
important  Corinthian  congregation  (I  Cor.  iii.  6, 


iv.  6,  xvi.  12).  In  harmony  with  Paul's  notices 
are  the  statements  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles 
(xviii.  24-28)  that  Apollos  was  a  highly  educated 
Alexandrian  Jew,  who  came  to  Ephesus  (probably 
in  54  A.D.),  was  instructed  in  the  gospel  there  by 
Aquila  and  Priscilla,  and  afterward  settled  in 
Achaia,  where,  by  the  grace  of  God  he  show^ed 
himself  useful  to  the  Church.  The  rest  of  this 
notice  to  the  effect  that  he  came  to  Ephesus  as  a 
disciple  of  the  Lord  and  preached  Jesus  in  the 
synagogues,  when  he  knew  only  of  John's  bap- 
tism, is  odd. 

It  is  difficult  to  get  a  correct  idea  of  his  religious 
standpoint;  but  it  probably  was  that  of  the  so- 
called  disciples  of  John,  of  whom  mention  is  made  in 
Acts  xix.  1-7.  Taken  all  in  all,  it  may  be  said  that 
Apollos  was  a  zealous  missionary,  who,  while  con- 
fessing Jesus,  did  not  have  the  full  New  Testament 
revelation,  and  stood  in  danger  of  becoming  an- 
tagonistic to  the  apostolic  message  to  all  the  world; 
he  became,  however,  an  adherent  of  the  Pauline 
doctrine,  and  the  author  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles 
thought  this  fact  of  sufficient  importance  to  be 
included  in  his  history.  In  the  Epistle  to  Titus 
(iii.  13)  Apollos  is  mentioned,  with  Zenas,  as  bearer 
of  the  letter  to  Crete.  The  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews 
(q.v.)  has  often  been  ascribed  to  Apollos,  beginning 
with  Luther,  and  he  has  been  suggested  as  the  au- 
thor of  the  fourth  Gospel  ([Tobler],Z>ie  Evangelien- 
frage,  Zurich,  1858).  (K.  Schmidt.) 

Biblioorapht:  E.  Renan.  St.  Paul,  pp.  240.  372  flq<|.,  Paris, 
1869;  Conybeare  and  Howson,  JSt.  Paul,  ii.,  chap.  xiv.. 
London.  1888;  C.  von  Weiis&ckpr,  The  Apostolic  Age,  2 
vols.,  London.  1894-95;  A.  C.  McGiffert,  HisL  of  Chris- 
tianity in  the  Apostolic  Age,  New  York.  1897;  W.  Balden- 
sperger,  Der  Prolog  des  vierten  Evangeliums,  pp.  93-99* 
Freiburg,  1898. 

APOLOGETICS. 

Significanoe  of  the  Term  ($1). 

Place  Among  the  Theological  Disciplines  ({  2). 

Source  of  Divergent  Views  (S3). 

The  True  Task  of  Apologetics  (}  4). 

Division  of  Apologetics  (S  5). 

The  Conception  of  Theology  as  a  Science  ({  6). 

The  Five  Subdivisions  of  Apologetics  ($7). 

The  Value  of  Apologetics  (S  8)- 

Relation  of  Apologetics  to  Christian  Faith  ({f  9). 

The  Earliest  Apologetics  ({  10). 

The  Later  Apologetics  ({  11). 

Since  Planck  (1794)  and  Schleiermacher  (1811), 
"  apologetics  "  has  been  the  accepted  name  of  one 
of  the  theological  disciplines  or  departments  of  theo- 
logical science.     The  term  is  derived  from  the  Greek 
apologeisthai,  which  embodies  as  its  central  notion 
the  idea  of  ''  defense."     In  its  present  application, 
however,   it  has  somewhat  shifted   its   meaning, 
and   we   speak   accordingly    of    apologetics    and 
apologies  in  contrast  with  each  other.    The  relation 
between  these  two  is  not  that  of  theory  and  practise 
(so,  e.g.,  Dtisterdieck),  nor  yet  that  of  genus  and 
species  (so,  e.g.,  KObel).    That  is  to  say,  apolo- 
getics is  not  a  formal  science  in  which  the  principles 
exemplified  in  apologies  are  investi- 
I.  Signifi-    gated,  as  the  principles  of  sermonizing 
cance  of    are   investigated   in   homiletics.     Nor 
the  Term,  is  it  merely  the  sum  of  all  existing  or 
all  possible  apologies,  or  their    quin- 
tessence, or  their  scientific  exhibition,  as  dogmatics 
is  the  scientific  statement  of  dogmas.  Apologies  are 


233 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


ApolloniuB  of  Tyana 
ApoloffeticB 


defeoBes  of  Chrifitianity,  in  its  entirety,  in  its  essence, 
or  in  some  one  or  other  of  its  elements  or  presuppo- 
sitions, as  against  either  all  assailants,  actuid  or 
conceivable,  or  some  particular  fonn  or  instance  of 
attack;  though,  of  course,  as  good  defenses  they  may 
rise  above  mere  defenses  and  become  vindications. 
Apologetics  imdertakes  not  the  defense,  not  even 
the  vindication,  but  the  establishment,  not,  strictly 
speaking,  of  Christianity,  but  rather  of  that  knowl- 
edge of  God  which  Christianity  professes  to  embody 
and  seeks  to  make  efficient  in  the  world,  and  which 
it  is  the  business  of  theology  scientifically  to  expli- 
cate. It  may,  of  course,  enter  into  defense  and 
vindication  when  in  the  prosecution  of  its  task 
it  meets  with  opposing  points  of  view  and  requires 
to  establish  its  own  standpoint  or  conclusions. 
Apologies  may,  therefore,  be  embraced  in  apolo- 
getics, and  form  ancillary  portions  of  its  structure, 
as  they  may  also  do  in  the  case  of  every  other 
theological  discipline.  It  is,  moreover,  inevitable 
that  this  or  that  element  or  aspect  of  apologetics 
will  be  more  or  less  emphasized  and  cultivated,  as 
the  need  of  it  is  from  time  to  time  more  or  less  felt. 
But  apologetics  does  not  derive  its  contents  or 
take  its  form  or  borrow  its  value  from  the  pre- 
vailing opposition;  but  preserves  through  all  vary- 
ing drcimistances  its  essential  character  as  a  posi- 
tive and  constructive  science  which  has  to  do  with 
opposition  only — like  any  other  constructive  sci- 
ence— as  the  refutation  of  opposing  views  becomes 
from  time  to  time  incident  to  construction.  So 
little  is  defense  or  vindication  of  the  essence  of 
apologetics  that  there  would  be  the  same  reason 
for  its  existence  and  the  same  necessity  for  its  work, 
were  there  no  opposition  in  the  world  to  be  encoun- 
tered and  no  contradiction  to  be  overcome.  It 
finds  its  deepest  ground,  in  other  words,  not  in  the 
accidents  which  accompany  the  efforts  of  true 
religion  to  plant,  sustain,  and  propagate  itself  in 
this  world;  not  even  in  that  most  pervasive  and 
most  portentous  of  all  these  accidents,  the  accident 
of  sin;  but  in  the  fundamental  needs  of  the  human 
spirit.  If  it  is  incumbent  on  the  believer  to  be  able 
to  give  a  reason  for  the  faith  that  is  in  him,  it  is 
impossible  for  him  to  be  a  believer  without  a  reason 
for  the  faith  that  is  in  him;  and  it  is  the  task  of 
apologetics  to  bring  this  reason  clearly  out  in  his 
consciousness,  and  make  its  validity  plain.  It  is, 
in  other  words,  the  function  of  apologetics  to  inves- 
tigate, explicate,  and  establish  the  grounds  on  which 
a  theology — a  science,  or  systematized  knowledge 
of  God — is  possible;  and  on  the  basis  of  which 
every  science  which  has  God  for  its  object  must 
rest,  if  it  be  a  true  science  with  claims  to  a  place 
within  the  circle  of  the  sciences.  It  necessarily 
takes  its  place,  therefore,  at  the  head  of  the  depart- 
ments of  theological  science  and  finds  its  task  in 
the  establishment  of  the  validity  of  that  knowl- 
edge of  God  which  forms  the  subject-matter  of  these 
departments;  that  we  may  then  proceed  through 
the  succeeding  departments  of  exegetical,  historical, 
systematic,  and  practical  theology,  to  explicate, 
appreciate,  systematize,  and  propagate  it  in  the 
world. 

It  must  be  admitted  that  considerable  confusion 
has  reigned  with  respect  to  the  conception  and 


function  of  apologetics,  and  its  place  among  the 
theological  disciplines.  Nearly  every  writer  has 
a  definition  of  his  own,  and  describes  the  task  of 
the  discipline  in  a  fashion  more  or  less  peculiar  to 
himself;  and  there  is  scarcely  a  comer  in  the  theo- 
logical encyclopedia  into  which  it  has  not  been 
thrust.  Planck  gave  it  a  place  among  the  exegetical 
disciplines;  others  contend  that  its  essence  is  his- 
toric^; most  wish  to  assign  it  either  to  systematic 

or  practical  theology.     Ndsselt  denies 
3.  Place      it  all  right  of  existence;  Palmer  con- 
Among  the    f esses  inability   to  classify  it;  Rftbi- 
Theological   ger  casts  it  formally  out  of  the  en- 
Disciplines,    cyclopedia,  but  reintroduces  it  under 

the  different  name  of  ''  theory  of 
religion."  Tholuck  proposed  that  it  should  be 
apportioned  through  the  several  departments; 
and  Cave  actually  distributes  its  material  through 
three  separate  departments.  Much  of  this  con- 
fusion is  due  to  a  persistent  confusion  of  apologetics 
with  apologies.  If  apologetics  is  the  theory  of 
apology,  and  its  function  is  to  teach  men  how  to 
defend  Christianity,  its  place  is,  of  course,  along- 
side of  homiletics,  catechetics,  and  poimenics  in 
practical  theology.  If  it  is  simply,  by  way  of 
eminence,  the  apology  of  Christianity,  the  system- 
atically organized  vindication  of  Christianity  in 
all  its  elements  and  details,  against  all  opposition — 
or  in  its  essential  core  against  the  only  destructive 
opposition — ^it  of  course  presupposes  the  complete 
development  of  Christianity  through  the  exegetical, 
historical,  and  systematic  disciplines,  and  must 
take  its  place  either  as  the  culminating  department 
of  systematic  theology,  or  as  the  intellectualistic 
side  of  practical  theology,  or  as  an  independent 
discipline  between  the  two.  In  this  case  it  can  be 
only  artificially  separated  from  polemic  theology  and 
other  similar  disciplines — if  the  analysis  is  pushed 
so  far  as  to  create  these,  as  is  done  by  F.  Duilh^ 
de  Saint-Projet  who  distinguishes  between  apol- 
ogetical,  controversial,  and  polemic  theology,  di- 
rected respectively  against  unbelievers,  heretics,  and 
fellow  believers,  and  by  A.  Kuyper  who  distin- 
guishes between  polemics,  elenchtics,  and  apolo- 
getics, opposing  respectively  heterodoxy,  paganism, 
and  false  philosophy.  It  will  not  be  strange,  then, 
if,  though  separated  from  these  kindred  disciplines 
it,  or  some  of  it,  should  be  again  imited  with  them, 
or  some  of  them,  to  form  a  larger  whole  to  which  is 
given  the  same  encyclopedic  position.  This  is  done 
for  example  by  Kuyper  who  joins  polemics,  elench- 
tics, and  apologetics  together  to  form  his  "anti- 
thetic dogmatological  "  group  of  disciplines;  and 
by  F.  L.  Patton  who,  after  having  distributed  the 
material  of  apologetics  into  the  two  separate 
disciplines  of  rational  or  philosophical  theology, 
to  which  as  a  thetic  discipline  a  place  is  given  at  the 
outset  of  the  system,  and  apologetics,  joins  the  lat- 
ter with  polemics  to  constitute  the  antithetical  dis- 
ciplines, while  systematic  theology  succeeds  both 
as  part  of  the  synthetic  disciplines. 

Much  of  the  diversity  in  question  is  due  also, 
however,  to  varying  views  of  the  thing  which 
apologetics  imdertakes  to  establish;  whether  it  be, 
for  example,  the  truth  of  the  Christian  religion,  or 
the  validity  of  that  knowledge  of  God  which  theology 


ApoloffeticB 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


234 


preeents  insysteinatked  fonn.  And  more  of  it  still  is 
due  to  profoundly  difiering  conceptions  of  the  nature 
and  sud^ject-matter  of  that  "  theology/'  a  depart- 
ment of  which  apologetics  is.  If  we 
3.  Source  of  think  of  apologetics  as  undertaking  the 
Divergent  defense  or  the  vindication  or  even  the 
Views,  justification  of  the  '*  Christian  relig- 
ion/' that  is  one  thing;  if  we  think 
of  it  as  undertaking  the  establishment  of  the  va^ 
lidity  of  that  knowl^ge  of  Ck)d,  which  "  theology  " 
systematizes,  that  may  be  a  very  different  thing. 
And  even  if  agreement  exists  upon  the  latter  con- 
ception, there  remain  the  deeply  cutting  diver- 
gences which  beset  the  definition  of  "  theology " 
itself.  Shall  it  be  defined  as  the  "  science  of  faith  "  ? 
or  as  the  "  science  of  religion  "  ?  or  as  the  "  science 
of  the  Christian  religion"?  or  as  the  "science  of 
God  "7  In  other  words,  shall  it  be  regarded  as  a 
branch  of  psychology,  or  as  a  branch  of  history,  or 
as  a  branch  of  sdence?  Manifestly  those  who  differ 
thus  widely  as  to  what  theology  is^  can  not  be  ex- 
pected to  agree  as  to  the  nature  and  function  of 
any  one  of  its  disciplines.  If  "  theology  "  is  the 
science  of  faith  or  of  religion,  its  subject-matter  is 
the  subjective  experiences  of  the  human  heart; 
and  the  function  of  apologetics  is  to  inquire  whether 
thciie  subjective  experiences  have  any  objective 
validity.  Of  course,  therefore,  it  follows  upon  the 
systematic  elucidation  of  these  subjective  expe- 
riences and  constitutes  the  culminating  discipline 
of  "theology/'  Similarly,  if  "theology"  is  the 
science  of  the  Christian  religion,  it  investigates  the 
purely  historical  question  of  what  those  who  are 
called  Christians  believe;  and  of  course  the  function 
of  apologetics  is  to  follow  this  investigation  with 
an  inquiry  whether  Christians  are  justified  in 
believing  these  things.  But  if  theology  is  the 
science  of  God,  it  deals  not  with  a  mass 
of  subjective  experiences,  nor  with  a  section 
of  the  history  of  thought,  but  with  a  body 
of  objective  facts;  and  it  is  absiml  to  say 
that  these  facts  must  be  assumed  and  developed 
unto  their  utmost  implications  before  we  stop 
to  ask  whether  they  are  facts.  So  soon  as  it  is 
agreed  that  theology  is  a  scientific  discipline  and 
has  as  its  subject-matter  the  knowledge  of  God, 
we  must  recognise  that  it  must  begin  by  estab- 
lishing the  reality  as  objective  facts  of  the  data 
upon  which  it  is  based.  One  may  indeed  call  the 
department  of  theology  to  which  this  task  is  com- 
mitted by  any  name  which  appears  to  him  appro- 
priate: it  may  be  called  "general  theology,"  or 
"  fundamental  theology,"  or  "  prindpial  theology," 
or  "  philosophical  theology/'  or  "  rational  the- 
ology," or  "natural  theology,"  or  any  other  of 
the  innumerable  names  which  have  been  used  to 
describe  it.  Apologetics  is  the  name  which  most  nat- 
urally suggests  itself,  and  it  is  the  name  which,  with 
more  or  less  accuracy  of  view  as  to  the  nature  and 
compass  of  the  discipline,  has  been  consecrated 
to  this  purpose  by  a  large  number  of  writers  from 
Schleiermacher  down  (e.g..  Pelt,  Twesten,  Baum- 
stark,  Swets,  Ottiger,  Knoll,  MaLisoneuve).  It 
powerfully  commends  itself  as  plainly  indicating 
the  nature  of  the  discipline,  while  equally  applicable 
to  it  whatever  may  be  the  scope  of  the  theology 


which  it  imdertakes  to  plant  on  a  secure  basis. 
Whether  this  theology  recognises  no  other  knowl- 
edge of  God  than  that  given  in  the  constitution 
and  course  of  nature,  or  derives  its  data  from  the 
full  revelation  of  God  as  documented  in  the  Chris- 
tian scriptures,  apologetics  offers  itself  with  equal 
readiness  to  designate  the  discipline  by  which  the 
validity  of  the  knowledge  of  God  set  forth  is  estab- 
lished. It  need  imply  no  more  than  natural  the- 
ology requires  for  its  basis;  when  the  theology 
which  it  serves  is,  however,  the  complete  theology 
of  the  Christian  revelation,  it  guards  its  unity  and 
protects  from  the  fatally  dualistic  conception  which 
sets  natural  and  revealed  theology  over  against 
each  other  as  separable  entities,  each  with  its  own 
separate  presuppositions  requiring  establishment — 
by  which  apologetics  would  be  split  into  two  quite 
diverse  disciplines,  given  very  different  places  in 
the  theological  encyclopedia. 

It  will  already  have  appeared  how  far  apologetics 
may  be  defined,  in  accordance  with  a  very  preva- 
lent custom  (e.g..  Sack,  Lechler,  Ebrard,  Ktibel, 
Lemme)  as  "  the  science  which  establishes  the 
truth  of  Christianity  as  the  absolute  religion." 

Apologetics   certainly   does   establish 

4.  The  True  the  truth  of  Christianity  as  the  abso- 

Task  of     lute   religion.    But   the   question   of 

Apologetics,  importance  here  is  how  it  does  this. 

It  certainly  is  not  the  business  of 
apologetics  to  take  up  each  tenet  of  Christianity 
in  turn  and  seek  to  establish  its  truth  by  a  direct 
appeal  to  reason.  Any  attempt  to  do  this,  no  mat- 
ter on  what  philosophical  basis  the  work  of  demon- 
stration be  begun  or  by  what  methods  it  be  pursued, 
would  transfer  us  at  once  into  the  atmosphere 
and  betray  us  into  the  devious  devices  of  the  old 
vulgar  rationalism,  the  primary  fault  of  which  was 
that  it  asked  for  a  direct  rational  demonstration 
of  the  truth  of  each  Christian  teaching  in  turn. 
The  business  of  apologetics  is  to  establish  the  truth 
of  Christianity  as  the  absolute  religion  directly 
only  as  a  whole,  and  in  its  details  only  indirectly. 
That  is  to  say,  we  are  not  to  begin  by  developing 
Christianity  into  all  its  details,  and  only  after  this 
task  has  been  perfonned,  tardily  ask  whether  there 
is  any  truth  in  all  this.  We  are  to  begin  by  estab- 
lishing the  truth  of  Christianity  as  a  whole,  and  only 
then  proceed  to  explicate  it  into  its  details,  each  of 
which,  if  soundly  explicated,  has  its  truth  guaran- 
teed by  its  place  as  a  detail  in  an  entity  already 
established  in  its  entirety.  Thus  we  are  deliv- 
ered from  what  is  perhaps  the  most  distracting 
question  which  has  vexed  the  whole  history  of  the 
discipline.  In  establishing  the  truth  of  Chris- 
tianity, it  has  been  perennially  asked,  are  we  to 
deal  with  all  its  details  (e.g.,  H.  B.  Smith),  or 
merely  with  the  essence  of  Christianity  (e.g.,  KQbel). 
The  true  answer  is,  neither.  Apologetics  does  not 
presuppose  either  the  development  of  Christianity 
into  its  details,  or  the  extraction  from  it  of  its 
essence.  The  details  of  Christianity  are  all  con- 
tained in  Christianity:  the  minimum  of  Christianity 
is  just  Christianity  itself.  What  apologetics  under- 
takes to  establish  is  just  this  Christianity  itself — 
including  all  its  "details"  and  involving  its  "es- 
sence"— in    its    imexplicated   and   uncompressed 


886 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Apoloffetios 


entirety,  as  the  absolute  religion.  It  has  for  its 
object  the  laying  of  the  foundations  on  which  the 
temple  of  theology  is  built,  and  by  which  the  whole 
structure  of  theology  is  determined.  It  is  the  de- 
partment of  theology  which  establishes  the  con- 
stitutive and  regulative  principles  of  theology  as 
a  science;  and  m  establishing  these  it  establishes 
all  the  details  which  are  derived  from  them  by  the 
succeeding  departments,  in  their  sound  explica- 
tion and  systematization.  Thus  it  establishes  the 
whole,  though  it  establishes  the  whole  in  the  mass, 
so  to  speak,  and  not  in  its  details,  but  yet  in  its 
entirety  and  not  in  some  sin^e  element  deemed  by 
us  its  core,  its  essence,  or  its  minimum  expression. 
The  subject-matter  of  apologetics  being  deter- 
mined, its  distribution  into  its  parts  becomes  very 
much  a  matter  of  course.  Having  defined  apolo- 
getics as  the  proof  of  the  truth  of  the  Christian 
religion,  many  writers  naturally  confine  it  to  what 
is  commonly  known  somewhat  loosely  as  the 
"evidences  of  Christianity."  Others,  defining  it 
as  "  fundamental  theology,"  equally  naturally 
confine  it  to  the  primary  principles  of  religion  in 
general.  Others  more  justly  combine  the  two 
conceptions  and  thus  obtain  at  least  two  main 
divisions.  Thus  Hermann  Schultz  makes  it  prove 
"  the  right  of  the  religious  conception 
5.  Division  of  the  world,  as  over  against  the  tend- 
of  Apolo-  encies  to  the  denial  of  religion,  and 
getics.  the  right  of  Christianity  as  the  abso- 
lutely perfect  manifestation  of  religion, 
as  over  against  the  opponents  of  its  permanent 
significance."  He  then  divides  it  into  two  great 
sections  with  a  third  interposed  between  them: 
the  first,  "  the  apology  of  the  religious  concep- 
tion of  the  world; "  the  last,  "  the  apology  of 
Christianity;  "  while  between  the  two  stands  "  the 
philosophy  of  religion,  religion  in  its  historical 
manifestation."  Somewhat  less  satisfactorily,  be- 
cause with  a  less  firm  hold  upon  the  idea  of  the 
discipline,  Henry  B.  Smith,  viewing  apologetics 
as  "  historico-philoeophical  dogmatics,"  charged 
with  the  defense  of  ''  the  whole  contents  and  sub- 
stance of  the  Christian  faith,"  divided  the  material 
to  much  the  same  effect  into  what  he  calls  funda- 
mental, historical,  and  philosophical  apologetics. 
The  first  of  these  undertakes  to  demonstrate  the 
being  and  nature  of  God;  the  second,  the  divine 
origin  and  authority  of  Christianity;  and  the  third, 
somewhat  lamely  as  a  conclusion  to  so  high  an  argu- 
ment, the  superiority  of  Christianity  to  all  other 
systems.  Quite  similarly  Francis  R.  Beattie  divi- 
ded into  (1)  fundamental  or  philosophical  apolo- 
getics, which  deals  with  the  problem  of  God  and 
religion;  (2)  Christian  or  historical  apologetics, 
which  deals  with  the  problem  of  revelation  and  the 
Scriptures;  and  (3)  applied  or  practical  apolo- 
getics, which  deals  with  the  practical  efficiency 
of  ChriFtianity  in  the  world.  The  fundamental 
truth  of  these  schematizations  lies  in  the  perception 
that  the  subject-matter  of  apologetics  embraces 
the  two  great  facts  of  God  and  Christianity.  There 
is  some  failure  in  unity  of  conception,  however, 
arising  apparently  from  a  deficient  grasp  of  the 
peculiarity  of  apologetics  as  a  department  of  theo- 
logical science,  and  a  consequent  inability  to  permit 


it  as  such  to  determine  its  own  contents  and  the 
natural  order  of  its  constituent  parts. 

If  theology  be  a  science  at  all,  there  is  involved 
in  that  fact,  as  in  the  case  of  all  other  sdencee,  at 
least  these  three  things:  the  reality  of  its  sub- 
ject-matter, the  capacity  of  the  human  mind  to 
receive  into  itself  and  rationally  to  reflect  this 
subject-matter,  the  existence  of  media  of  commu- 
nication between  the  subject-matter  and  the  per- 
cipient and  understanding  mind.  There  could  be 
no  psychology  were  there  not  a  mind  to  be  inves- 
tigated, a  mind  to  investigate,  and  a  self-con- 
sciousness by  means  of  which  the  mind 
6.  The  Con-  as  an  object  can  be  brought  under 
ception  of  the  inspection  of  the  mind  as  subject. 
Theology  as  There  could  be  no  astronomy  were 
a  Science,  there  nc  heavenly  bodies  to  be  inves- 
tigated, no  mind  capable  of  com- 
prehending the  laws  of  their  existence  and  move- 
ments, or  no  means  of  observing  their  structure 
and  motion.  Similariy  there  can  be  no  theology, 
conceived  according  to  its  very  name  as  the  science 
of  God,  unless  there  is  a  God  to  form  its  subject- 
matter,  a  capacity  in  the  human  mind  to  apprehend 
and  so  far  to  comprehend  God,  and  some  media  by 
which  God  is  made  known  to  man.  That  a  the- 
ology, as  the  fldenoe  of  God,  may  exist,  therefore, 
it  must  begin  by  establishing  the  existence  of  God, 
the  capacity  of  the  human  mind  to  know  him,  and 
the  accessibility  of  knowledge  concerning  him. 
In  other  words,  the  very  idea  of  theology  as  the 
science  of  God  gives  these  three  great  topics  which 
must  be  dealt  with  in  its  fundamental  department, 
by  which  the  foundations  for  the  whole  structure 
are  laid, — God,  religion,  revelation.  With  these 
three  facts  established,  a  theology  as  the  science  of 
God  becomes  possible;  with  them,  therefore,  an 
apologetic  might  be  complete.  But  that,  only 
provided  that  in  these  three  topics  all  the  under- 
lying presuppositions  of  the  science  of  God  actually 
built  up  in  our  theology  are  established;  for  ex- 
ample, provided  that  all  the  accessible  sources  and 
means  of  knowing  God  are  exhausted.  No  science 
can  arbitrarily  limit  the  data  lying  within  its  sphd^ 
to  which  it  will  attend.  On  pain  of  ceasing  to  be 
the  science  it  professes  to  be,  it  must  exhaust  the- 
means  of  information  open  to  it,  and  reduce  to  a 
unitary  system  the  entire  body  of  knowledge  in 
its  sphere.  No  science  can  represent  itself  as 
astronomy,  for  example,  which  arbitrarily  con- 
fines itself  to  the  information  concerning  the  heav- 
enly bodies  obtainable  by  the  unaided  eye,  or  which 
discards,  without  sound  groimd  duly  adduced, 
the  aid  of,  say,  the  spectroscope.  In  the  presence  of 
Christianity  in  the  world  making  claim  to  present 
a  revelation  of  God  adapted  to  the  condition  and 
needs  of  sinners,  and  documented  in  Scriptures, 
theology  can  not  proceed  a  step  imtil  it  has  exam- 
ined this  claim;  and  if  the  claim  be  substantiated, 
this  substantiation  must  form  a  part  of  the  funda- 
mental department  of  theology  in  which  are  laid 
the  foundations  for  the  systematization  of  the  knowl- 
edge of  God.  In  that  case,  two  new  topics  are 
added  to  the  subject-matter  with  which  apologetics 
must  constructively  deal,  Christianity — and  the 
Bible.    It  thus  lies  in  the  very  nature  of  apolo- 


Apoloffetios 


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286 


getioB  as  the  fundamental  department  of  theology, 
conceived  as  the  science  of  God,  that  it  should  find 
its  task  in  establishing  the  existence  of  a  God  who 
18  capable  of  being  known  by  man  and  who  has 
made  himself  known,  not  only  in  nature  but  in 
revelations  of  his  grace  to  lost  sinners,  docimiented 
in  the  Christian  Scriptures.  When  apologetics 
has  placed  these  great  facts  in  our  hands— <]rod, 
religion,  revelation,  Christianity,  the  Bible — and 
not  till  then  are  we  prepared  to  go  on  and  explicate 
the  knowledge  of  God  thus  brought  to  us,  trace  the 
history  of  its  workings  in  the  world,  systematize 
it,  and  propagate  it  in  the  world. 

The  primary  subdivisions  of  apologetics  are  there- 
fore five,  unless  for  convenience  of  treatment  it  is  pre- 
ferred to  sink  the  third  into  its  most  closely  related 
fellow.  (1)  The  first,  which  may  perhaps  be  called 
philosophical  apologetics,  imdertakes  the  establish- 
ment of  the  being  of  God,  as  a  personal  spirit,  the 
Creator,  preserver,  and  governor  of  all  things.  To 
it  belongs  the  great  problem  of  theism, 
7*  The  Five  with  the  involved  discussion  of  the 
Subdivisions  an titheistic  theories.  (2)  The  second, 
of  Apolo-  which  may  perhaps  be  called  psycho- 
getics.  logical  apologetics,  undertakes  the 
establishment  of  the  religious  nature 
of  man  and  the  validity  of  his  religious  sense.  It 
involves  the  discussion  alike  of  the  psychology, 
the  philosophy,  and  the  phenomenology  of  religion, 
and  therefore  includes  what  is  loosely  called  "  com- 
parative religion  "  or  the  "  history  of  religions." 
(3)  To  the  third  falls  the  establishment  of  the 
reidity  of  the  supernatural  factor  in  history,  with 
the  involved  determination  of  the  actual  relations 
in  which  God  stands  to  his  world,  and  the  method 
of  his  government  of  his  rational  creatures,  and 
especially  his  mode  of  making  himself  known  to 
them.  It  issues  in  the  establishment  of  the  fact 
of  revelation  as  the  condition  of  all  knowledge  of 
God,  who  as  a  personal  Spirit  can  be  known  only  so 
far  as  he  expresses  himself;  so  that  theology  differs 
from  all  other  sciences  in  that  in  it  the  object  is  not 
at  the  disposal  of  the  subject,  but  vice  versa.  (4)  The 
fourth,  which  may  be  called  historical  apologetics, 
undertakes  to  establish  the  divine  origin  of  Chris- 
tianity as  the  religion  of  revelation  in  the  special 
sense  of  that  word.  It  discusses  all  the  topics 
which  naturally  fall  under  the  popular  caption  of 
the  "  evidences  of  Christianity."  (5)  The  fifth, 
which  may  be  called  bibliological  apologetics, 
imdertakes  to  establish  the  trustworthiness  of  the 
Christian  Scriptures  as  the  documentation  of  the 
revelation  of  God  for  the  redemption  of  sinners. 
It  is  engaged  especially  with  such  topics  as  the 
divine  origin  of  the  Scriptures;  the  methods  of  the 
divine  operation  in  their  origination;  their  place 
in  the  series  of  redemptive  acts  of  God,  and  in  the 
process  of  revelation;  the  nature,  mode,  and  effect 
of  inspiration;  and  the  like. 

The  estimate  which  is  put  upon  apologetics 
by  scholars  naturally  varies  with  the  conception 
which  is  entertained  of  its  nature  and  function. 
In  the  wake  of  the  subjectivism  introduced  by 
Schleiermacher,  it  has  become  very  common  to 
speak  of  such  an  apologetic  as  has  just  been  out- 
lined with  no  little  scorn.    It  is  an  evil  inheritance. 


we  are  told,  from  the  old  supranaturalismus  vul- 
garis, which  **  took  its  standpoint  not  in  the  Scrip- 
tures but  above  the  Scriptures,  and 
8.  The  imagined  it  could,  with  formal  con- 
Value  of  ceptions,  develop  a  ''ground  for  the 
Apologetics,  divine  authority  of  Christianity " 
(Heubner),  and  therefore  offered 
proofs  for  the  divine  origin  of  Christianity,  the 
necessity  of  revelation,  and  the  credibility  of  the 
Scriptures  "  (Lemme).  To  recognize  that  we  can 
take  our  standpoint  in  the  Scriptures  only  after 
we  have  Scriptures,  authenticated  as  such,  to  take 
our  standpoint  in,  is,  it  seems,  an  outworn  preju- 
dice. The  subjective  experience  of  faith  is  con- 
ceived to  be  the  ultimate  fact;  and  the  only  legiti- 
mate apologetic,  just  the  self-justification  of  this 
faith  itself.  For  faith,  it  seems,  after  Kant,  can 
no  longer  be  looked  upon  as  a  matter  of  reasoning 
and  does  not  rest  on  rational  grounds,  but  is  an 
affair  of  the  heart,  and  manifests  itself  most  power- 
fully when  it  has  no  reason  out  of  itself  (Brune- 
tidre).  If  repetition  had  probative  force,  it  would 
long  ago  have  been  established  that  faith,  religion, 
theology,  lie  wholly  outside  of  the  realm  of  reason, 
proof,  and  demonstration. 

It  is,  however,  from  the  point  of  view  of  ration- 
alism and  mysticism  that  the  value  of  apologetics 
is  most  decried.  Wherever  rationalistic  precon- 
ceptions have  penetrated,  there,  of  course,  the 
validity  of  the  apologetic  proofs  has  been  in  more 
or  less  of  their  extent  questioned.  Wherever 
mystical  sentiment  has  seeped  in,  there  the  validity 
of  apologetics  has  been  with  more  or  less  emphasis 
doubted.  At  the  present  moment,  the  rationalistic 
tendency  is  most  active,  perhaps,  in  the  form  given 
it  by  Albrecht  Ritschl.  In  this  form  it  strikes  at 
the  very  roots  of  apologetics,  by  the  distinction 
it  erects  between  theoretical  and  religious  knowl- 
edge. Religious  knowledge  is  not  the  knowledge 
of  fact,  but  a  perception  of  utility;  and  therefore 
positive  religion,  while  it  may  be  historically  con- 
ditioned, has  no  theoretical  basis,  and  is  accoixiingly 
not  the  object  of  rational  proof.  In  significant 
parallelism  with  this,  the  mystical  tendency  is 
manifesting  itself  at  the  present  day  most  distinctly 
in  a  wide-spread  inclination  to  set  aside  apologetics 
in  favor  of  the  "  witness  of  the  Spirit."  The  con- 
victions of  the  Christian  man,  we  are  told,  are  not 
the  product  of  reason  addressed  to  the  intellect, 
but  the  immediate  creation  of  the  Holy  Spirit  in 
the  heart.  Therefore,  it  is  intimated,  we  may 
do  very  well  without  these  reasons,  if  indeed  they 
are  not  positively  noxious,  because  tending  to  sub- 
stitute a  barren  intellectualism  for  a  vital  faith. 
It  seems  to  be  forgotten  that  though  faith  be  amoral 
act  and  the  gift  of  God,  it  is  yet  formally  conviction 
passing  into  confidence;  and  that  all  forms  of  con- 
victions must  rest  on  evidence  as  their  ground,  and 
it  is  not  faith  but  reason  which  investigates  the 
nature  and  validity  of  this  groimd.  "  He  who 
believes,"  says  Thomas  Aquinas,  in  words  which 
have  become  current  as  an  axiom,  "  would  not 
believe  unless  he  saw  that  what  he  believes  is 
worthy  of  belief."  Though  faith  is  the  gift  of  God, 
it  does  not  in  the  least  follow  that  the  faith  which 
God  gives  is  an  irrational  faith,  that  is,  a  faith 


987 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Apoloffetios 


without  cognizable  ground  in  right  reason.  We 
believe  in  .Christ  because  it  is  rational  to  believe 
in  him,  not  even  though  it  be  irrational.  Of  course 
mere  reasoning  can  not  make  a  Christian;  but  that 
is  not  because  faith  is  not  the  result  of  evidence,  but 
because  a  dead  soul  can  not  respond  to  evidence. 
The  action  of  the  Holy  Spirit  in  giving  faith  is 
not  apart  from  evidence,  but  along  with  evidence; 
and  in  the  first  instance  consists  in  preparing  the 
soul  for  the  reception  of  the  evidence. 

This  is  not  to  argue  that  it  is  by  apologetics  that 
men  are  made  Christians,  but  that  apologetics 
supplies  to  Christian  men  the  systematically 
organized  basis  on  which  the  faith  of  Christian 
men  must  rest.  All  that  apologetics  explicates  in 
the  forms  of  systematic  proof  is  implicit  in  every 
act  of  Christian  faith.    Whenever  a  sinner  accepts 

Jesus  Christ  as    his  savior,  there  is 

9.  Relation  implicated  in  that  act  a  living  con- 

of  Apolo-    viction  that  there  is  a  God,  knowable 

getics  to    to  man,  who  has  made  himself  known 

Christian    in  a  revelation  of  himself  for  redemp- 

Faith.       tion  in  Jesus  Christ,  as  is  set  down  in 

the  Scriptures.  It  is  not  necessary 
for  his  act  of  faith  that  all  the  grounds  of  this  con- 
viction should  be  drawn  into  full  consciousness  and 
given  the  explicit  assent  of  his  understanding,  though 
it  is  necessary  for  his  faith  that  sufficient  ground 
for  his  conviction  be  actively  present  and  working 
in  his  spirit.  But  it  is  necessary  for  the  vindication 
of  his  faith  to  reason  in  the  form  of  scientific 
judgment,  that  the  grounds  on  which  it  rests  be 
explicated  and  established.  Theology  as  a  science, 
though  it  includes  in  its  culminating  discipline,  that 
of  practical  theology,  an  exposition  of  how  that 
knowledge  of  God  with  which  it  deals  objectively 
may  best  be  made  the  subjective  possession  of  man, 
is  not  itself  the  instrument  of  propaganda;  what  it 
undertakes  to  do  is  systematically  to  set  forth  this 
knowledge  of  God  as  the  object  of  rational  con- 
templation. And  as  it  has  to  set  it  forth  as  knowl- 
edge, it  must  of  course  begin  by  establishing  its 
right  to  rank  as  such.  Did  it  not  do  so,  the  whole 
of  its  work  would  hang  in  the  air,  and  theology 
would  present  the  odd  spectacle  among  the  sciences 
of  claiming  a  place  among  a  series  of  systems  of 
knowledge  for  an  elaboration  of  pure  assiunptions. 
Seeing  that  it  thus  supplies  an  insistent  need  of 
the  human  spirit,  the  world  has,  of  course,  never 
been  without  its  apologetics.  Whenever  men 
have  thought  at  all  they  have  thought  about  God 
and  the  supernatural  order;  and  whenever  they 
have  thought  of  God  and  the  supernatural  order, 
there  has  been  present  to  their  minds  a  variety  of 
more  or  less  solid  reasons  for  beUeving  in  their 
reality.  The  enucleation  of  these  reasons  into  a 
systematically  organized  body  of  proofs  waited  of 

course  upon  advancing  culture.     But 

10.  The     the    advent   of    apologetics    did    not 

Earliest     wait  for  the  advent  of  Christianity; 

Apologetics,  nor   are    traces   of    this    department 

of  thought  discoverable  only  in  the 
regions  lit  up  by  special  revelation.  The  philo- 
sophical systems  of  antiquity,  especially  those 
which  derive  from  Plato,  are  far  from  empty  of 
apologetical    elements;  and    when    in    the    later 


stages  of  its  development,  classical  philosophy 
became  peculiarly  religious,  express  apologetical 
material  became  almost  predominant.  With  the 
coming  of  Christianity  into  the  world,  however, 
as  the  contents  of  the  theology  to  be  stated  became 
richer,  so  the  efforts  to  substantiate  it  became 
more  fertile  in  apologetical  elements.  We  must 
not  confuse  the  apologies  of  the  early  Christian 
ages  with  formal  apologetics.  Like  the  sermons  of 
the  day,  they  contributed  to  apologetics  without 
being  it.  The  apologetic  material  developed  by 
what  one  may  call  the  more  philosophical  of  the 
apologists  (Aristides,  Athenagoras,  Tatian,  The- 
ophilus,  Hermias,  Tertullian)  was  already  con- 
siderable; it  was  largely  supplemented  by  the  theo- 
logical labors  of  their  successors.  In  the  first 
instance  Christianity,  plunged  into  a  polytheistic 
environment  and  called  upon  to  contend  with 
systems  of  thought  grounded  in  pantheistic  or 
dualistic  assumptions,  required  to  establish  its 
theistic  standpoint;  and  as  over  against  the  bitter- 
ness of  the  Jews  and  the  mockery  of  the  heathen 
(e.g.,  Tacitus,  Fronto,  Crescens,  Lucian),  to  evince 
its  own  divine  origin  as  a  gift  of  grace  to  sinful  man. 
Along  with  Tertullian,  the  great  Alexandrians, 
Clement  and  Origen,  are  the  richest  depositaries 
of  the  apologetic  thought  of  the  first  period.  The 
greatest  apologists  of  the  patristic  age  were,  how- 
ever, Euscbius  of  Csesarea  and  Augustine.  The 
former  was  the  most  learned  and  the  latter  the  most 
profound  of  all  the  defenders  of  Christianity  among 
the  Fathers.  And  Augustine,  in  particular,  not 
merely  in  his  "  City  of  God  "  but  in  his  controversial 
writings,  accumulated  a  vast  mass  of  apologetical 
material  which  is  far  from  having  lost  its  signifi- 
cance even  yet. 

It  was  not,  however,  until  the  scholastic  age  that 
apologetics  came  to  its  rights  as  a  constructive 
science.  The  whole  theological  activity  of  the 
Middle  Ages  was  so  far  ancillary  to  apologetics, 
that  its  primary  effort  was  the  justification  of  faith 
to  reason.  It  was  not  only  rich  in  apologists 
(Agobard,  Abelard,  Raymund  Martini),  but  every 
theologian  was  in  a  sense  an  apologist.    Anselm  at 

its  beginning,  Aquinas  at  its  culmina- 

II.  The     tion,  are   types  of  the  whole  series; 

Later       t3rpes  in  which  all  its  excellencies  are 

Apologetics,  summed  up.    The  Renaissance  with 

its  repristination  of  heathenism,  nat- 
urally called  out  a  series  of  new  apologists  (Savo- 
narola, Marsilius  Ficinus,  Ludovicus  Vives)  but  the 
Reformation  forced  polemics  into  the  foreground 
and  drove  apologetics  out  of  sight,  although,  of 
course,  the  great  theologians  of  the  Reformation  era 
brought  their  rich  contribution  to  the  accumulating 
apologetical  material.  When,  in  the  exhaustion  of 
the  seventeenth  century,  irreligion  began  to  spread 
among  the  people  and  indifferentism  ripening 
into  naturalism  among  the  leaders  of  thought, 
the  stream  of  apologetical  thought  was  once  more 
started  flowing,  to  swell  into  a  great  flood  as  the 
prevalent  unbelief  intensified  and  spread.  With 
a  forerunner  in  Philippe  de  Momay  (1581),  Hugo 
Grotius  (1627)  became  the  typical  apologist  of  the 
earlier  portion  of  this  period,  while  its  middle 
portion  was  illimiinated  by  the  genius  of  Pascal 


Apoloffetios 
Apostle 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


238 


(d.  1662)  and  the  unexampled  richn^is  of  apiologet- 
ical  labor  in  ita  later  ye^ra  culm  mated  in  Butler's 
great  Analogy  (1736)  and  PaJey'a  plain  but  powerful 
argumentation.  As  the  assault  against  CbriBtianity 
sliifted  its  basis  from  the  Engliih  deism  of  the  early 
half  of  the  eighteenth  century  through  the  Gennan 
rationalism  of  its  Later  half,  the  idealism  wtiich 
dominated  the  Erst  half  of  the  nineteenth  century^ 
and  thence  to  the  materialism  of  its  later  years, 
period  after  period  waa  marked  in  the  history  of 
Apology,  and  the  particular  elementa  of  apologetics 
which  were  especially  cultivated  changed  with  the 
changing  thought.  But  no  epoch  won  marked  in 
the  iuBiary  of  apologetica  itsMslf^  until  under  the 
guidance  of  Schleiermacher's  attempt  to  trace  the 
organism  of  the  departments  of  thcolo^^  K.  H. 
8ack  essayed  to  set  forth  a  scientifically  organized 
"Christian  Apologetics"  (Hamburg,  1829;  2d  ed,, 
1841),  Since  then  an  unbroken  series  of  scientific 
eyatems  of  apologetics  has  flowed  from  the  presa. 
These  differ  from  one  another  in  almost  every 
ooQceivable  way;  in  thetr  conception  of  the  naturCj 
task,  compass,  and  encyclopedic  place  of  the  aci- 
ence;  in  their  methods  of  dealing  with  its  material  j 
in  their  conception  of  Christianity  itself;  and  of 
religion  and  of  God  and  of  the  nature  of  the  evidence 
on  which  belief  in  one  or  the  other  must  rest. 
But  they  agree  in  the  fundamental  point  that 
apologetics  is  conceived  by  all  atike  as  a  special 
department  of  theological  science,  capable  of  and 
demanding  separate  treatment.  In  this  sens© 
apologetics  has  come  at  last;  in  the  fast  two- thirds 
of  the  nineteenth  century,  to  its  rights.  The  sig- 
nificant names  in  its  development  are  such  as,  per- 
haps, among  the  Germans,  Sack,  Steudel,  Delitzsch, 
Ebrard,  Baumstark,  T6lle,  Krata,  Ktibel,  Steude, 
Franckf  Kaftan^  Vogel,  ScbuHs,  Kahler;  to  whom 
may  be  added  such  Romanists  as  Drey,  Dieringer, 
Staudenmeyer,  Hettinger,  Schane,  and  such  Eng- 
lifih-epeaking  writers  as  Hetherington,  H.  B,  Smith, 
Bruce,   Rishell,  and  Beattle. 

BENJAMIN  B.  WaRFIKLD. 

BiBUOaSArifT:  Liats  of  ltt«rature  will  be  found  in  F.  R. 
Bcmttle'i  Apoloo€tia.  Ri^hmntidiH,  16€3;  in  A.  Orvb.  in^ 
trvdut^ion  to  TkiMihgy,  Edinburgh.  1S96;  in  G.  R.  Croolu 
and  J.  F.  Hur«t,  The&iogieal  Encpclop^ia  and  Tht^loffji* 
pp,  434-437.  New  York.  1894;  ia  P.  Schaff,  Tkfoloffieai 
Pr&piidtuHc.  Lb,  1S93.  Connuli  F.  L.  Patton,  in  FHnatDn 
Tkfologinil  Repigw,  ti.  110  wtq,;  Pn^^rian  and  Re- 
formed  Rtview.  yik  (1890)«  pp.  243  sqq.  On  the  hiittory  of 
apologetioa  &ad  apologetic  method r  H.  E*  T*achinner, 
OMcAicAte  dfT  Apolofftiik,  Leipaio,  1805;  0.  H.  vas  Sea- 
disn^  GetchkMg  dwf  ApoloQetik.  2vuk.,  Styttgnrt.  1846;  K. 
Werner,  GeMchi^Uederapoioff9Si§ehffnund  potemi9chen  Litirra- 
fur.  g  vo!9:,  Schaffhausen,  1861-67  (Rotiiaa  Catholic);  W. 
Haaa.  GeMekichte  der  Verlktidigune  det  ChfiMtentum*. 
FrankisnberK,  IggS  (popttlar).  For  early  Christian  apoU 
OSie>  ootiBult  ANF  and  NPNF,  Am.  ed..  New  York, 
1884-1  flOO;  for  diicusaioiM  of  theae,  F.  Watson.  Ths 
Anif-Nicenv  Apotoi^et,  their  Character  and  Value, 
Cvnhnd^,  1870  (Hulwan  eaaay);  W.  J.  BoltoD, 
BvidmncfM  of  Chn*Uanity  at  Kchi^Ued  in  iha  .  ,  . 
ApotogiMtM  dawn,  to  Auffuttine,  London,  1863;  F.  R. 
WjfBne.  The  Literature  cf  the  Sec&nd  Ceniwry.  Londoo, 
1801  {popular  but  aeholarly);  A.  Sejti,  Ajjohffie  dee 
Chri$tentv^me  bei  den  OHechen  dee  iVu  und  V,  Jahrhundtr- 
ten^  WdrsEburif,  ISSS.  On  Bpedal  phae«s  in  the  history  of 
apoJogetica:  L.  N^ackn,  Die  FrndcTik^F  in  der  Reliffi^n,  oder 
die  ReprAMntanttn  der  reliffi&een  AufkiJb^rxc  in  England. 
Fmnkrrich  und  Deut^hland,  3  to|«,»  Bern.  18S3-fi6;  A,  8. 
Famr.  Critimt  RieioTy  of  Free  Thtntohl,  Lotidoi^  1863; 
U  R.  Haseabaoh^  Ga^nan  RiUitmali^m  in  ite  Riee,  Proff- 


fatc,  awl  Dedinet^   Edinburgh.  1805;  A.  Viffui^,  Hietoire  dm 

I'apologrti/ive  dans  V^liee  reformrt  frafifaiae^  Geneva,  1853; 
ti.  B.  8m!tb,  Apoiooffi^e.  New  York  1882  (appendix 
contains    dki^tchc<(    of     German    apologetic    works);     J« 

F.  Hunt.  niMloTM  of  Rationalixm.  ib,  1802;  A.  H. 
Huiiin^a,  Some  Recent  Phaeee  of  Et-viencei  of  Ckrie^ 
Uanitif,  in  Presbiftgrian,  and  Reformed  Reviev^  Yii* 
<18Q6>  34  Kiq.  Apologetical  Uierature:  F.  R.  Beattte, 
Apak^ffetice,  or  the  Rafiontd  Vindication  of  Chriwtian- 
itUt  L,  Richmond,  1003  (to  b«  completed  in  3  yolia.); 
W>  M.  UetheringtoD,  Apotogetice  of  the  Chrietian  Fai^, 
Edinbufgh,  1807;  J.  H.  A.  Ebtard*  Apohffetik,  Gaiersbh, 
ISSO  (Eng.  tranaL,  Apoloffelict,  or  the  Seietitifie  VindieO" 
tion  of  Chrittuxnity,  2  voJb,,  Edinburgh,  1886-87);  A. 
Mair.  Studiee  in  the  Chrietian  Evidence*,  Edinburgh,  1883; 

G.  F.  Wright,  L&gic  of  Chrietian  Evidencee,  AndoTer,  1884; 
F«  K.  E.  Franks  Syetem  der  chTiMtlichen  Gewiteheit,  Erlan- 
sen,  1884,  Enf.  traaaL,  ChrUtian  Certainty,  Edinburgh, 
1866s  F.  Bobant,  Apoloffte  dee  ChrUterUumM^  3  Tola,, 
Freiburi.  1887-88.  Eng.  traonl.,  Chrietian  Apology*  New 
York,  LS§4  (Roman  Cathuhc):  L,  F.  Steama,  Tfie  Evi- 
dent of  Chrietian  Experience,  New  York,  1891  (the  beat 
book  on  ihe  mhject);  A.  fi.  Bruce,  ApotooeticM.  or  ChriM- 
Oanity  defeneivety  ttated,  Edinburgh,  1802;  H.  Waoe, 
Btwtentt*  Manimt  of  the  Evidenccg  of  Christianity,  London, 
1892;  J.  Kaftan,  Wahtheit  der  chHttlichen  Retif^n.  Biele- 
feld. 1888,  En«.  tranal,.  2  voh..  Edinburgh.  1894;  €.  W. 
Riahel],  Foundatione  of  the  Chrietian  Faith,  New  Y^ork, 
1899:  W.  Devivier.  Court  d'apohgHique  chritienne,  Fkxia, 
1889,  Eng.  tran-4..  CLrietian  apotogetice.  2  vo]a.,  N«irYork» 
1903;  A,  Hamack,  What  ie  Chrittianity  T  London.  1901;  J. 
T.  B«rgen,  Evidenoee  of  Cfv^tianity.  Holland.  Mich.,  1W2; 
A.  M.  Randolph,  Reason^  Faith,  and  Authority  in  Chrit^ 
tianity.  New  York,  lOOTj;  the  Boyle  and  BampCon  lec- 
ture perjea  deat  «xclu«ive]y  with  auhjeeta  in  apologetic; 
me  also  under  AoNOATioaiM;  AMTrraiKiTAmiAMiBM,  Mid 
Atheism. 

APORTAFUS,  ap"ar-ta'nirfl,  GEORG  (Juiieiif 
or  JiirjcUp  van  der  DarCf  DaerCf  or  Dure):  Early 
follower  of  Luther  in  Ea^t  Friesland;  b.  at  ZwoUe; 
d.  in  the  autumn  of  1530.  He  w&s  brought  up  in 
ZwoUe  by  the  Brethren  of  the  Conunoa  Life,  and 
became  teacher  in  their  school  In  ISIH  Count 
Ediard  of  East  Friaaland  called  him  to  Emdea 
to  educate  hb  sona.  With  the  support  of  the  c^unt, 
ha  began  to  preach  Lulher^s  doctrines  at  Norden 
in  1519,  was  excluded  from  the  pulpit  in  conae- 
quence^  and  then  preached  in  the  open  air  till  the 
importunity  of  the  people  brought  him  back  as 
chief  pastor.  In  1529  he  held  a  disputation  at 
Olderium,  presided  over  by  the  influential  Lnrich 
of  Domum,  and  induced  many  to  adopt  Luther's 
teaohingH,  L.  Schtjlzb, 

APOSTASY  (Gk.  AprntwHa,  *' Revolt  *'):  Accord- 
ing to  the  teaching  of  the  earlier  ages,  apostasy 
might  be  either  txpostasia  perfidim,  inobedimtuE, 
or  irregularitaiis  (i.e,^  revolt  againa  the  faith*  au- 
thority, or  the  rules).  The  two  latter  classes  often 
ran  into  each  other,  and  have  been  reduced  by 
later  theologians  to  two  distinct  though  still  related 
kinds  of  deaertion,  namely,  apo^tmia  a  monachaiu 
and  a  ckricatu,  which  of  course  occur  only  in  non- 
Protestant  churches,  while  the  apostasia  a  fide  or 
perfidim  is  contemplated  in  Protestant  church  law 
also*  Apoataaia  a  moTUu:haiu,  the  abandonment  of 
the  monastic  life,  takes  place  when  a  member  of 
a  religiouB  order  leaves  it  and  returns  to  the  world, 
whether  as  a  cleric  or  as  a  layman,  Tvathout  per* 
mission  of  the  proper  authority.  Aponiasia  a 
ckricatu,  the  abandonment  of  orders,  is  in  like 
manner  the  unauthorised  return  to  the  world  of 
a  person  in  holy  ordeni^  the  minor  orders  which 
require  no  irrevocable  self-dedication  do  not  come 
under  the  same  head.     As  early  aa  the  Cbuncil  of 


939 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


^iar*" 


Chaloedon  (451)  such  offenders  were  excommu- 
nicated; and  later  ecclesiastical  law  maintains  this 
position  even  more  strongly,  requiring  the  offender's 
diocesan  to  arrest  and  imprison  him,  if  a  cleric, 
or,  if  a  monk,  to  deliver  him  to  the  authorities  of 
his  order,  to  be  punished  according  to  its  own  laws. 
In  non-CathoHc  countries  both  classes  of  apostates 
may  commonly  be  forgiven  on  condition  of  volun- 
tary return  to  obedience;  and  the  bishops  possess 
various  faculties  for  the  purpose.  Neither  of  these 
forms  of  apostasy  is  punished  by  the  State. 

Apogtaaia  a  fide  is  the  deliberate  denial,  expressed 
by  outward  acts,  of  the  Christian  faith,  whether 
connected  or  not  with  the  adoption  of  a  non-Chris- 
tian religion.  This  is  allied  to  heresy,  of  which, 
in  fact,  it  forms  a  higher  degree.  The  passages 
of  Scripture  on  which  the  treatment  of  this  form 
of  apostasy  is  based  are  Heb.  iii.  12,  vi.  4-9,  x. 
ie-29;  II  Pet.  ii.  15-21;  II  John  9-11;  Luke  xii. 
9.  During  the  epoch  of  persecution  such  apostasy 
was  of  course  far  commoner  than  in  later  times; 
but  the  primitive  Church  made  a  distinction,  call- 
ing apostates  only  those  who  had  abandon^  the 
faith  of  their  own  free  will,  distinguishing  them 
from  those  who  had  yielded  to  violence  or  seduction. 
According  to  the  various  manners  of  denying 
Christ,  they  were  classified  as  libeUatici,  aacrifi- 
caHftraditares,  etc.  (see  Lapsed).  All  were  by  the 
very  nature  of  the  case  excommunicated,  and  at 
first  some  churches  felt  bound,  in  accordance  with 
the  passages  cited  above,  to  refuse  absolution  alto- 
gether or  withhold  it  until  the  hour  of  death. 
Afterward  this  severity  decreased,  and  apostates, 
like  other  excommunicated  persons,  were  restored 
to  communion  on  fitting  penance.  Among  later 
enactments,  the  decree  of  Boniface  VIII.  (1294- 
1303)  prescribing  the  same  procedure  for  apostates 
to  Judaism  as  for  heretics  has  been  of  special 
influence  not  only  in  ecclesiastical,  but  in  civil 
legislation. 

Under  the  first  Christian  emperors,  the  Roman 
state  considered  apostasy  as  a  civil  crime,  to  be 
punished  by  confiscation  of  goods,  inability  to 
make  wills  or  serve  as  a  witness,  and  infamy. 
During  the  Middle  Ages  the  Empire  had  no  occasion 
to  adopt  special  legislation  against  apostasy,  but 
was  tontent  to  adhere  to  the  ecclesiastical  view  of 
it  as  a  qualified  heresy.  Since  in  the  countries 
for  which  the  Protestant  legal  codes  were  designed 
apostasy  to  Judaism  or  idolatry  was  not  looked  for, 
they  make  no  mention  of  such  a  crime.  It  is,  how- 
ever, in  the  very  nature  of  a  State  Church,  that  it 
can  not  tolerate  desertion  of  its  communion,  but 
must  mark  its  sense  of  the  evil  by  such  means  as 
are  in  its  power.  Nowadays,  of  course,  the  aid  of 
the  State  can  no  longer  be  called  in  to  punish  such 
offenders.  (E.  Frisdbero.) 

Bibliocbapvt:  G.  M.  Amthor.  D0  ap^ttana,  Coburg,  1833; 
E.  PUtmer,  QutttUonM  d€  jun  eriminum  Romano,  Mar- 
burg. 1842;  N.  MOnohen.  Dai  katumi$dk€  OeriekUver- 
fakron  und  StrafndU,  ii.  367,  Cologne.  1806. 

APOSTLB  ("One  Sent  [of  God]"):  A  name 
applied  in  the  Old  Testament  to  the  chosen  organs 
of  the  divine  revelation  (Num.  xvi.  28;  Isa.  vi.  8; 
Jer.  xxvi.  5).  In  the  New  Testament  it  is  used  not 
only  in  a  special  sense  for  Jesus  himself,  but  also 


for  John  the  Baptist  (John  i.  6)  and  for  those  whom 
Jesus  sent  forth  (cf.  Luke  xi.  49  with  Matt,  xxiii. 
34,  37).  It  would  seem  that  the  name  was  chosen 
by  Jesus  himself  for  the  Twelve,  since 
The  it  came  so  early  into  use  as  a  definite 
Twelve,  term  for  a  definite  body  of  men,  and 
then  for  others  who  held  or  claimed 
a  similar  position  (Acts  xiv.  4,  14;  II  Cor.  xi.  5, 
xii.  11;  I  Thess.  ii.  6;  Rev.  ii.  2).  The  trainmg  of 
the  Twelve  shows  that  they  had  a  future  mission, 
which  was  fully  opened  to  them  by  the  appearance 
and  teaching  of  the  risen  Christ  (Acts  i.  2-11); 
they  are  to  be  witnesses  to  him,  and  especially  to 
his  resurrection,  before  all  peoples.  Their  number, 
corresponding  to  that  of  the  twelve  tribes,  shows 
that  they  are  destined  primarily  to  work  among 
the  children  of  Israel,  to  whom,  accordingly,  they 
make  their  first  appeal  in  Jerusalem.  By  degrees 
they  collect  around  them  a  distinct  community, 
in  which  they  hold  the  position  of  appointed 
leaders  (Acts  ii.  42,  iv.  35,  v.  1-2,  vi.  1-2),  and 
after  persecution  begins  to  spread  the  Gospel 
throughout  Palestine  and  its  neighborhood,  they 
remain  mostly  in  Jerusalem,  thence  exercising  super- 
vision over  the  Church  of  the  Circumcision  (Acts 
viii.  14,  ix.  32-43),  and  providing  for  the  perform- 
ance of  some  of  their  internal  duties  by  the  choice 
of  deacons  and  the  formation  of  the  college  of  pres- 
byters imder  James. 

The  original  apostles  are  still  occupied  with  the 
Jews  when  their  number  receives  an  addition;  the 
manner  of  Saul's  conversion  shows  that  he  is  des- 
tined to  a  similar  work,  but  especially  among  the 
Gentiles  (Acts  ix.  1-31;  Gal.  i.  11-24).  This  in- 
volves, despite  Paul's  consciousness 
PauL  of  equal  authority  and  independence, 
no  breach  with  the  earlier  organization. 
His  ministry,  begun  by  a  miracle,  develops  itself 
in  perfect  continuity  and  in  unity  with  that  of  the 
older  apostles.  His  very  conversion  and  caU  do 
not  take  place  without  the  intervention  of  a  mem- 
ber of  the  existing  community  (Acts  ix.  10-18, 
xxii.  12-16);  only  after  an  unsuccessful  attempt 
to  work  among  the  Jews  does  he  turn  to  the  Gen- 
tiles (Acts  ix.  20-31,  xxii.  17-21),  and  even  then 
he  enters  the  work  already  founded  from  Jerusalem 
as  an  auxiliary  of  Barnabas,  who  is  sent  thence 
(Acts  xi.  25);  he  is  sent  out  only  with  Barnabas 
by  the  combined  Jewish  and  Gentile  community, 
with  his  attention  directed  first  to  the  conversion 
of  the  Jews  (Acts  xiii.),  and  only  the  stubborn 
opposition  of  the  synagogues  causes  him  to  decide 
in  favor  of  the  direct  mission  to  the  Grentiles 
(verse  46).  He  is,  however,  fully  recognized  at  the 
Apostolic  Council  at  Jerusalem  (q.v.)  by  the  older 
apostles  and  the  representatives  of  Jewish  Chris- 
tianity as  an  independent  apostle  to  the  Grentiles; 
and  no  opposition  from  Jewish  Christians  in  Galatia 
or  at  Corinth  makes  them  recede  from  this  atti- 
tude. In  all  his  far-reaching  activity  as  head  of 
the  Gentile  Church,  he  never  forgets  the  welfare 
and  the  future  of  his  own  countrymen  (Rom.  xi. 
13-14);  nor  is  there  any  division  between  the 
Gentile  Church  and  the  older  apostles,  to  his  unity 
with  whom  Paul  constantly  appeals  in  teaching 
his  converts  (I  Cor.  xv.  3;  Eph.  ii.  20,  iii.  5). 


Apostle 
Apostles'  Creed 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


240 


The  work  of  the  Twelve  was  by  no  means  con- 
fined to  the  Circumcision.    At  the  end  of  the  Paul- 
ine period   Peter  was  still,   both  in 
Later  Use    person    and    by    letters,    exercising 
of  the       apostolic  influence  among  the  Gen- 
Term.      tUes,  and   after   Paul's   death,   John 
took  the  place  of  leader  among  them. 
Yet  the  special  relation  of  the  Twelve  to  the  work 
among  the  twelve  tribes  is  emphasized  by  the  prom- 
ise for  the  future  in  Matt.  xix.  28.    Though  the 
word  "  apostle  "  is  used  in  the  New  Testament  in  a 
wider  sense,  properly  it  is  limited  to  the  first  and 
highest  oflice  in  the  Church,  distinct  from  all  other 
offices  (I  Cor.  xii.  28;  Eph.  iv.  11),  to  be  filled  only 
by  those  personally  chosen  by  the  Lord;  and  after 
their  death  no  others  filled  exactly  the  same  place. 
[The  word  was  used  also  in  the  early  Church  as  a 
convenient  term  by  which  to  refer  to  the  epistolary 
literature  of  the  New  Testament  (see  Evanoel- 
iarium).    It  has  been  employed  to  designate  the 
first  or   the   principal  missionary  to  a  people,  as 
Columba,  Augustine  of  Canterbiuy,  and  others.     It 
is  used  also  in  some  modem  Churches  as  the  title  of 
high  dignitaries,  as  among  the  Mormons.] 

(K.  Schmidt.) 
Bibuoorapht:  J.  B.  Lightfoot,  OalaHant,  EbccurauB  on 
Th€  Na$ne  and  Office  of  an  ApoaUe,  London,  1887  (opened 
up  new  views  on  the  subject,  and  should  be  supplemented 
by  A.  Harnack  in  TU,  ii.  1.  pp.  03-118,  Leipdc.  1884); 
C.  Weisa&cker,  ApottoltBchea  Zeitalter,  pp.  684-500.  Tu- 
bingen, 1001,  Eng.  transl.  of  earlier  ed.,  2  vols.,  Edin- 
burgh, 1804;  J.  F.  A.  Hort,  Ths  CfiriaHan  EceUHa,  Lon- 
don, 1807  (contains  important  contributions);  £.  Haupt, 
Zum  Ver§tdndni9§  dee  ApoatolaU,  Halle.  1806;  A.  V.  Q. 
Allen,  C/iriatian  InsiUuHona,  consult  Index.  New  York, 
1807;  A  C.  McGiffert.  H%$i.  of  ChriaHanUy  in  the  Apoetolie 
Age,  New  York.  1807;  A.  Hamaok,  Mieeion  und  Atubrei- 
fwng  dee  Chrietentume,  book  iii.,  chap.  1,  S  1,  Berlin,  1002, 
Eng.,  transl.,  Ezpaneion  of  Cfurietianity,  New  York,  1004; 
DB,  L  126;  EB,  I  264  sqq. 

APOSTLES'    CREED. 

The  First  E^cumenical  Creeds  ({  1). 

Present  Form  not  Earlier  than  Fifth  Century  (f  2). 

Earliest  Appearance  ({  3). 

Legend  of  its  Origin  ({  4). 

Greek  Text  of  the  Roman  Symbol  ({  6). 

Earliest  Appearance  of  the  Legend  of  its  Origin  ($6). 

Age  of  the  Roman  Symbol  ({  7). 

Comparison  of  Western  Symbols  ({  8). 

Assumption  of  an  Asia  Minor  Original  of  the  Roman 

Symbol  ({  0). 
Summary  ({  10). 

The  Old  Roman  Symbol  Displaced  ($11). 
InterpreUtion  of  the  Symbol  ({  12). 
Clauses  not  Found  in  the  Old  Roman  Symbol  (f  13). 

The  Apostles'  Creed  or  Apostolicum  (i.e.,  apos- 

tolicum  symbolum)  is  the  briefest  of  the  so-called 

ecumenical    creeds  (see   Symboucs).     With    the 

Nicsno-Constantinopolitan  and  Athanasian  creeds, 

for  more  than  five  centuries  preceding 

X.  The      the  Protestant  Reformation  it  was  in 

First        use  in  the  West  and  enjoyed  especial 

Ecumenical  authority  (cf.  E.  Kdllner,  SymboUk, 

Creeds.      Hamburg,  1857,  p.  5).    The  Eastern 

Church  has  never  traced  any  symbol 

to   the   apostles,  or    designated  any  as  apostolic 

in  the  strict  sense  of  the   word;    and  here  and 

there  in   the  West    the    Nicsno-Constantinopol- 

itan  creed  has  been  called  apostolic  (cf.  Caspari, 

i.  242,  note  45;  ii.  115,  note  88;  iii.  12,  note  22). 

The  three  chief  branches  of   the  Church  in  the 


West,  however,  have  the  so  called  symbolum  apos- 
tolicum in  essentially  the  same  form  {texius 
receptua). 

Apart  from  details  the  textus  receptus  can  be 
traced  with  some  degree  of  certainty  to  the  begin- 
ning of  the  sixth  or  the  end  of  the 
2.  Present   fifth   century.     On   the   other   hand, 
Form  not   it  can  be  proved  that  before  that  time 
Earlier      this  form  of  the  symbol  was  nowhere 
than  Fifth  used  officially  in  any  Church  whether 
Century,    among  the  interrogationes  de  fide  or 
the    traditio    and    redditio    symboli ; 
nor  can  any  traces  of  it  be  discovered  before  the 
middle  of  the  fifth  century.    Since  it  by  no  means 
came  to  the  West  from  the  East,  and  in  the  Western 
provincial  Churches  symbob  were  in  use  which 
differ  greatly  from  the  iextxis  receptus  of  the  Apos- 
tolicum, it  follows  that  the  latter  could  hardly  have 
existed  before  the  middle  of  the   fifth  century, 
and   most   likely   originated    about    500. 

In  its  present  form  the  Apostolicum  is  first 
found  in  a  sermon  of  Csesarius  of  Aries  (d.  542; 
Pseudo- Augustine,  244;  cf.  Kattenbusch,  i.  164 
sqq.),  with  which  may  be  compared  SermOf  240, 
241  (texts  in  Hahn,  §§  47-49),  and  the  symbol  in 
the  Missale  Gallicanum  vetus  (Hahn, 

3.  Earliest   §  36).    The    immediate    predecessor 
Appear-     of    Csesarius'    and,    consequently,   of 

ance.  our  "  apostles'  creed  "  is  most  likely 
the  symbol  of  Faustus  of  Riez  of 
about  460  (Hahn,  §  38;  Kattenbusch,  pp.  158 
sqq.),  but  its  reconstruction  is  difficult.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  stage  succeeding  that  of  the  old 
Roman  symbol  (see  below)  in  the  direction  of  our 
Apostolicum  is  represented  by  the  highly  interesting 
symbol  discovered  by  Bratke  in  the  Bern  Codex 
n.  645  ssec.  vii.  (SK,  Ixviii.,  1895, 153  sqq.),  which 
is  to  be  regarded  as  a  Gallican,  or  rather  Gallico- 
British,  symbol  belonging  to  the  fourth  century. 
It  differs  from  the  ancient  Roman  symbol  only 
by  the  additions  of  passus,  descendit  ad  inferos, 
catholieamt  and  viiam  cetemam.  These  four  ad- 
ditions all  tend  in  the  direction  of  our  Apostoli- 
cum and  at  the  same  time  prove  that  they  are  the 
four  older  additions,  while  conceptuSy  etc.,  and 
communionem  sanctorum  are  the  later  ones  (but 
creaJtorem  ccdi  et  terra  and  mortuus  are  also  older). 
Two  considerations  are  against  a  Roman  origin 
of  the  Apostolicum:  (1)  It  is  not  found  in  Rome 
imtil  the  Middle  Ages,  i.e.,  many  centuries  after 
its  attestation  by  Cssarius  of  Aries;  (2)  From  the 
end  of  the  fifth,  or  the  beginning  of  the  sixth  cen- 
tury imtil  the  tenth  the  NicsBno-Constantinopolitan 
creed  in  Greek  was  used  in  Rome  in  the  traditio 
symboli,  and  not  the  Apostolicum  (Caspari,  iii.  201- 
202,  226;  ii.  114-115,  note  88);  a  shorter  symbol 
was  also  in  use  in  Rome  (see  below),  but  it  was  not 
identical  with  the  Apostolicum.  With  the  spread 
of  the  textus  receptus  in  western  Europe 

4.  Legend  during  the  sixth  century,  the  legend 
of  its       of   its   wondrous   origin   also   spread 

Origin,      (cf.  Hahn,  §  46)9).    The  fact  that  such 

a    late    symbol   is    called    from  the 

very  beginning  "  the  Apostolic,"  still  more,  that, 

as  concerns  its   origin,  it    is   traced    back   to  a 

"  bringing  together  "  (Gk.  symboli,  Lat.   colUUio) 


Ml 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Apostle 
Apostles'  Oreed 


because  each  of  the  twelve  apostles  in  a  meeting 
before  their  separation  is  said  to  have  contributed 
a  sentence  to  it,  supposes  that  the  history  of 
the  symbol  did  not  conunence  with  the  end  of  the 
fifth  century,  but  that  the  textua  receptua  was 
preceded  by  another  form,  the  attributes  of  which 
were  transferred  to  the  new  text  and  supplanted 
it.  This  supposition  which  the  very  simple  con- 
tents and  the  brief,  precise  form  of  the  symbol 
suggest,  is  also  sufficiently  confirmed  by  history. 

By  the  investigations  of  Ussher,  and  more  es- 
pecially by  those  of  Caspari,  it  has  become  evident 
that  between  250  and  460  a  symbol 

$•  Greek    was  used  in  the  religious  service  of 

Text  of  the  the  Roman  Church,  which  was  highly 

Roman     esteemed,  and  to  which  no  additions 

SymboL  were  permitted;  as  early  as  the  fourth 
century  this  symbol  was  held  to  be 
derived  directly  from  the  twelve  apostles  in  the 
form  in  which  it  was  used,  and  it  was  supposed  to 
have  been  brought  to  Rome  by  Peter.  This  sym- 
bol, the  older,  shorter  Roman  (in  distinction  from 
the  Apostolicum,  which  is  sometimes  called  the 
later,  longer  Roman,  because  it  owes  its  general 
authority  in  the  West  to  Rome),  is  completely 
extant  in  a  number  of  texts  (Hahn,  §§  14-20; 
Caspari,  ii.  48;  iii.  4,  5,  28-203).  In  its  original 
Greek  text  it  runs  thus: 

IIurrfVM  «i«  ^thv  varipa  iravTOffpdropa*  cat  cif  Xpurrhr  'Iifaovr 

(rhv)  inhtf  avrov  rhv  lAOFoycK^,  rw  Kvpiotf  if|AWF,  rhv  ytvmi^tyTa 

CK  svcvfuiToc  aylov  cat   Mapiai  r^«  wap^vov,  rbv  iwi   Homiov 

IliAarov  OTavp*»iMrra  koX  ra^cyra,   rfi   rpcrp  iffi^pf  avaaraiVTa  iic 

{tmv)  vtKpitv^  avafidvra  «i«  rov«  ovpayovf ,  xa&i^iityotf  iv  ic^if  rov 

irarpbf  o^cf  ipxtrcu  xpitfcu  ^wrrof  kox  vtKpovf    icot  «if  wywiia 

iyiOVf  ayiav  iKKK-qaiaVf  a^caif  aiiapriitv^  vopicbf  avaorcurtr. 

"  I  believe  in   God  the  Father  Almighty  and   in  Christ 

Jesus,  his  only-begotten  Son,  our  Lord,  bom  of  the  Holy 

Ghost  and  of  Mary,  the  Virgin,  who  was  crucified  under 

Pontius  Pilate  and  buried;  on  the  third  day  he  rose  from 

the  dead,  ascended  into  heaven,  sitteth  on  the  right  hand 

of  the  Father  from  whence  he  shall  come  to  judge  the 

quick  and  the  dead;  and  in  the  Holy  Ghost,  the  holy 

church,  the  remission  of  sins,  the  resurrection  of  the  flesh." 

The  legend  that  this  symbol  was  composed  by  the 
apostles,    appears    as    early    as    the 

6.  Earliest  Explanatio  symboli  of  Ambrose.    The 
Appearance  fact  that    the  writer  was  aware   of 

of  the  Leg-  its  being  divided  into  twelve  articles, 

end  of  its  perhaps  indicates  that  the  legend 
Origin,  that  each  apostle  had  contributed 
one  of  them  was  already  known. 
But  Rufinus,  who  wrote  later,  knows  only  of  a 
conunon  composition  of  the  Roman  symbol  by  the 
apostles  soon  after  Pentecost  and  before  the  sep- 
aration. This  legend  he  refers  to  a  tradUio  nui- 
jorum.  It  doubtless  existed  as  early  as  the  beginning 
of  the  fourth  century.  Both  Ambrose  and  Rufinus 
testify  that  the  wording  of  this  symbol  was  most 
scrupulously  preserved  in  the  Roman  Church. 
The  apostolic  origin  of  this  symbol  is  also  at- 
tested by  Jerome,  by  the  Roman  bishops  Celestine 
I.  (422-431),  Sixtus  III.  (431-440),  and  Leo  I. 
(440-461),  by  Vigilius  of  Thapsus,  and  in  the 
Sacramentarium  Gelasianum  (cf.  Caspari,  ii.  108- 
109,  note  78,  iii.  94-95;  Hahn,  §  46,  note  163). 

The  fact  that  Augustine  in  his  eight  expositions  of 
the  creed  follows  the  Roman  symbol,  leaves  no  doubt 
that  in  the  fourth  century  and  in  the  first  half  of  the 
I.— 16 


fifth  the  Roman  Church  made  extensive  use  in  the 
redditio  of  a  symbol  identical  with  the  one  mentioned 
above,  and  allowed  of  absolutely  no  additions  to  it. 
Ambrose  was  certainly  not  the  only  one  to  protest 
against  many  antiheretical  additions.  The  epistle 
of  Marcellus  to  Julius  shows  that  between  the  years 
330  and  340  this  symbol  was  the  official  one  in  use 
in  Rome;  but  other  testimonies  like  Novatian's 
tractate  De  trinitaU  (Hahn,  §  7)  and 

7.  Age  of  the  fragments  from  the  epistles  and 
the  Roman  writings  of  Bishop  Dionysius  of  Rome 

Symbol,  point  with  certainty  to  the  middle 
of  the  third  century.  That  the 
shorter  Roman  symbol  as  represented  in  the  Epistle 
of  Marcellus  and  in  the  Paalterium  Mihdstani 
(Hahn,  §16;  Caspari,  iii.  161-203),  was  ab-eady 
the  predominant  one  in  the  Roman  Church  about 
the  year  250,  can  by  no  means  be  doubted.  But 
here  a  series  of  questions  arises,  the  answers  to 
which  involve  very  complicated  investigations 
and  combinations:  (1)  How  is  the  shorter  Roman 
symbol  related  to  the  Western  symbols  which 
were  used,  between  250  and  500  (or  800),  in  the 
religious  services  of  the  provincial  churches 
until  they  were  superseded  by  the  (Gallican) 
Symbolum  apostolicum  and  the  Nicseno-(}onstanti- 
nopolitan  creed?  (2)  How  is  the  shorter  Roman 
symbol  related  to  the  longer  (i.e.,  the  Apostolicum 
as  it  is  now  known)  from  the  time  of  Csesarius, 
and  why  was  it  displaced  by  the  latter?  (3) 
When  and  where  did  the  shorter  symbol  orig- 
inate? (4)  How  is  the  shorter  Roman  symbol 
related  to  the  Eastern,  pre-Constantinopolitan 
symbob?  (5)  How  is  the  shorter  Roman  symbol 
related  to  the  different  forms  of  the  rule  of  faith 
which  are  known  from  the  first  three  centuries? 
These  five  questions  can  be  separated  only  in 
abatracto.  A  definite  and  separate  answer  to  each 
of  them  is  impossible.  In  what  follows  they  will 
be  discussed  together  and  only  a  general  answer 
attempted. 

In  surveying  the  very  numerous  provincial  and 

private  confessions  which  remain  from  the  Western 

Church,  belonging  to  the  period  from 

8.  Com-  the  fourth  to  the  sixth  (seventh) 
parisonof    century  (cf.   Hahn,   20-45;    Caspari, 

Western     ii.,     iii.;  Kattenbusch,    59-215,     392 

Symbols,  sqq.),  six  important  observations  may 
be  made:  (1)  In  the  choice  and  ar- 
rangement of  the  single  parts  the  confessions  all 
exhibit  the  same  fundamental  type  as  the  shorter 
Roman  symbol.  (2)  The  shorter  a  Western 
symbol  is,  the  more  closely  it  approaches  the 
shorter  Roman  symbol.  The  shortest  symbob 
of  the  provincial  Churches  of  the  West  are  almost, 
if  not  altogether,  identical  with  it.  (3)  The  later 
a  Western  symbol  is,  the  more  does  it  deviate 
by  additions  (hardly  ever  by  omissions)  from  the 
shorter  Roman.  These  additions  are  not  of  a 
directly  polemical  nature,  but  are  to  be  regarded 
as  completions  and  extensions  held  to  be  necessary 
in  the  interest  of  elucidation.  Such  additions 
by  no  means  alter  the  fundamental  character 
of  the  symbol,  since  they  are  not  of  a  specula- 
tive dogmatic  nature.  (4)  The  majority  of  the 
additions  which    the    Western   symbob    exhibit 


Apostles*  Creed 
Apostolic  Brethren 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


242 


may  be  regarded  as  a  kind  of  intermediate  step 
between  the  shorter  and  longer  Roman  symbols. 
This  consideration,  however,  is  not  so  important 
as  the  fact  that  during  the  third  and  fourth  cen- 
turies the  great  provincial  Churches  of  the 
West  produced  different  types.  Four  such  types 
can  be  readily  distinguished,  the  Italian,  African, 
Gallican  (including  the  Irish),  and  Spanish.  As 
for  the  Gallican  type,  which  is  seen  in  our  Apos- 
tolicum,  it  is  characterized  by  such  historical  ad- 
ditions as  are  to  be  found  in  Oriental  forms  of  faith 
or  symbols  (viz.,  **  maker  of  heaven  and  earth,'' 
"suffered,"  "died,"  "descended  into  heU"; 
"  catholic  ").  In  its  final  form  the  Gallican  type 
is  not  in  every  respect  the  richest  or  the  longest 
of  the  Western  symbols,  but  it  is  so  as  to  its  his- 
torical contents.  In  this  important  respect  the 
final  form  of  the  Gallican  type  has  completely 
preserved  the  distinguishing  features  of  the  old 
Roman  symbol.  It  exhibits  the  same  brief  and 
severe  style,  and,  nevertheless,  also  preserves  all 
the  significant  historical  features  which  became 
attached  to  the  Symbolum  Romanum  in  the  course 
of  its  history.  The  Gallican  Apoatolicum  also 
exhibits  the  same  classical  elaboration  and  ecu- 
menical tendency  as  its  Roman  copy.  (5)  The 
less  any  Church  was  influenced  by  the  Roman,  the 
more  did  its^  symbol  differ  from  the  shorter  Roman. 
The  symbols  of  the  Gallican  Church  differ  relatively 
much  from  it.  (6)  In  reducing  all  Western  symbols 
to  one  archetype,  without  reguxi  to  the  differences, 
the  shorter  Roman  symbol  is  obtained  without 
difficulty.  From  these  observations  it  may  be 
Inferred  with  certainty  (a)  that  the  shorter  Roman 
symbol  was  the  source  of  all  Western  confes- 
sions of  faith;  (b)  that  the  longer  Roman  symbol 
practically  proceeded  from  the  other,  though  not 
at  Rome,  and  as  a  result  received  fdso  the  same 
attributes,  which  originally  belonged  to  the  shorter 
symbol. 

The  supposition  is  also  justified  that  the  shorter 
Roman  symbol  must  have  already  existed  before 
the  middle  of  the  third  century,  otherwise  the  facts 
that  all  Western  Churches  originally  used  this  very 
symbol,  and  that,  e.g.,  the  African  Church  had 
already  developed  before  the  year  250  its  special 
type  on  the  basis  of  the  Symbolum  vetua  Romanum 
can  not  be  explained  (cf.  Cyprian  in  Hahn,  §{28, 
29).  The  Roman  symbol  must  therefore  have 
originated  at  least  about  the  year  300;  and  this  can 
be  proved  from  the  writings  of  Tertullian,  as  well 
as  from  a  comparison  of  the  shorter  Roman  symbol 
with  the  Extern  symbols,  which  are  rich  in  ad- 
ditions, introductions,  dogmatic  remarks,  etc., 
besides  omissions.  The  Nicseno-Constantinopolitan 
creed  made  an  end  to  this  fluctuating  state  of  the 
confession,  and  from  about  430  superseded  the  other 
Elastem  confessions,  and  to  this  day  the  Constan- 
tinopolitan  creed  has  remained  the  symbol  of  the 
Byzantine  Church. 

Considering  the  state  of  affairs  which  existed 
in  the  East  till  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century,  it  is 
difficult  to  characterize  the  fundamental  type  of 
the  Eastern  symbob.  But,  in  spite  of  the  many 
deviations,  there  exists  a  certain  affinity  with  the 
shorter  Roman  symbol,  the  acceptance  of  which 


was  hindered  by  (1)  the  circumstance  that  the 

Christological  section  of  the  Roman  symbol  came 

into  conflict  with  a  Christological   type  already 

established;  (2)  by  the  desire  to  give 

9.  Assump-  fuller   expression    to    the    "  higher  " 
tion  of  an  Christology    in    the    creed.    It    was 

Asia  Minor  not  till  the  time  of  the  Arian  con- 
Original  of  troversy  that  fixed  symbob  in  the 
the  Roman  East  began  to  be  forme4.  From  an 
SymboL  examination  of  the  Rules  of  Faith, 
and  the  fragments  of  those  rules  and 
formula-like  sentences  which  are  now  familiar  as 
belonging  to  the  Eastern  half  of  the  Church  from 
the  middle  of  the  first  to  the  middle  of  the  third 
century,  scholars  like  Caspari,  Zahn,  Loofs,  and 
others  have  inferred  that  there  must  have  existed 
an  Eastern  symbol  or,  to  be  more  precise,  a  symbol 
from  Asia  Minor,  to  which  the  old  Roman  symbol 
was  related  as  daughter  or  sbter.  The  assumption 
rests  principally,  if  not  exclusively,  on  what  is 
found  in  Clement  of  Alexandria,  Irenieus,  Justin, 
and  Ignatius;  and  the  inference  drawn  therefrom 
is  that  in  the  East  there  existed  in  the  second  cen- 
tury a  fixed  symbol,  or,  rather,  many  symbob, 
related  to  the  Roman  symbol  but  indepefident  of 
it.  At  best  the  Roman  symbol  b  contemporaneous 
with  the  Ariatic  or  Syrian;  more  probably  it  b 
later.  Hamack,  who  formerly  shared  thb  view, 
b  now  of  opinion  that  the  fact  that  single  sen- 
tences seem  to  be  echoes  of  the  symbol,  or  tally  with 
it,  offers  no  guaranty  that  they  themselves  derive 
from  one  symbol.  Before  any  symbol  exbted 
God  was  "  almighty  ";  Jesus  Christ  was  called  "  the 
only-begotten  son,  our  Lord  ";  he  was  proclaimed 
as  "  begotten  by  the  Holy  Ghost,  bom  of  the  Virgin 
Mary,"  as  having  "  suffered  under  Pontius  Pilate," 
and  as  coming  to  "  judge  the  quick  and  the  dead." 
Without  following  the  argument  in  refutation  of  the 
testimonies  derived  from  early  Fathers  in  detail, 
it  can  be  stated  that,  while  the  exbtence  of  a  primi- 
tive typical  Eastern  form  up  to  a  certain  point 
b  admitted,  nevertheless  it  is  insbted  that  the  great 
feat  of  forming  the  symbol,  and  of  therewith  laying 
the  foundation  of  all  ecclesiastical  symbob,  remains 
the  glory  of  the  community  at  Rome.  To  thb 
Roman  symbol  which  b  unhesitatingly  to  be  traced 
back  to  about  the  middle  of  the  second  century, 
no  doubt  Tertullian  refers  {Hcer.,  xxxvi.).  Had  a 
symbol  been  establbhed  in  Rome  at  the  time  of 
the  fierce  struggle  with  Gnosticism  and  Marcioni- 
tism  (about  145-190),  it  would  have  run  differently. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  b  not  advisable  to  go  back 
too  far  beyond  the  middle  of  the  second  century. 

To  sum  up:    The  symbol  originated  in  Rome 

about  the  middle  of  the  second  century.    It  was 

based   upon   the   baptismal   formula 

10.  Sum-   and   on   confessional   formulas   of   a 
maiy.      siunmarizing  character  (such  as  may 

be  identified  from  the  New  Testament 
and  from  Ignatius,  Justin,  and  IrensBUs),  which 
had  been  generaUy  handed  down,  including  Eastern 
formulas  (Asia  Minor,  Syria),  and  was  largely  under 
the  influence  of  the  New  Testament  writings.  In 
Rome  itself  the  symbol  was  never  altered.  It 
made  its  way  into  the  Western  provinces  from  the 
end  of  the  second  century  onward,  without  claiming 


243 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Apostles*  OreeCi 
Apostolio  Brethren 


to  have  been,  in  the  strictest  sense,  composed  by 
the  apostles.  Thi6  accounts  for  the  different 
modifications  in  those  provinces  (whereas  at  Rome 
it  was  designated  as  apostolic  in  the  strict  sense 
of  the  word  sometime  between  250  and  350). 
Among  these  modifications,  those  became  histor- 
ically the  most  important  which  were  derived  from 
the  primitive  confessional  formulas  or  maihima 
(i.e.,  substance  of  instruction)  of  the  East;  namely, 
"  creator  of  heaven  and  earth,"  "  suffered,"  "  died," 
"  descended  into  hell,"  **  life  everlasting,"  besides 
the  catholicam — these  are  just  the  modifications 
traceable  in  the  Galilean  symbols  which  issue 
in  our  Apostolicimi — ^in  addition,  the  conceptua, 
which  is  obscure  in  its  origin  and  otherwise  of  little 
importance,  and,  most  perplexing  of  all,  the  com- 
mtmionem  sanctorum .  In  this  connection  may  rightly 
be  borne  in  mind  the  particularly  close  relations 
existing  between  southern  Gaul  and  the  East. 

That  the  Roman  Church  after  the  beginning  of 

the  sixth  century  gradually  allowed  itself  to  be 

separated  from  and  finally  robbed  of 

II.  The  Old  the  symbol  which  it  had  previously 
Roman     guarded  so  faithfully,  is  a  phenomenon 

Symbol  Dis-  not  yet  fully  explained,  although  Cas- 
placed.  pari  (ii.  114  sqq.;  iii.  201  sqq.,  230 
sqq.)  has  made  some  very  important 
contributions  toward  a  solution  of  the  problem. 
What  is  most  decisive  is  the  fact  that  it  was  not 
the  longer  (Gallican)  daughter  recension  which 
displaced  the  mother,  but  that  at  Rome  from  the 
beginning  of  the  sixth  century  the  Nic»no-Con- 
stantinopolitan  symbol  took  the  place  of  the  shorter 
symbol  in  the  tradUio  and  redditio  symbolif  whereas 
in  the  baptismal  questions  the  old  Roman  symbol 
still  remained  in  use.  The  displacement  of  the 
old  Roman  symbol  by  the  (Jonstantinopolitan 
becomes  very  intelligible,  when  one  considers  the 
conditions  of  the  time.  The  rule  of  the  Ostro- 
goths in  Italy  brought  the  Church  of  Rome  in 
dangerous  proximity  to  Arianism,  and,  in  order  to 
emphasize  its  attitude  with  respect  to  this  heresy, 
the  Church  felt  compelled  to  adopt  a  more  ex- 
plicit, so  to  speak  polemically  formed,  symbol. 
Then,  again,  when  this  necessity  ceased  to  press 
on  the  Church,  and  a  return  to  a  simpler  creed 
became  possible,  the  old  symbol  had  grown  dim 
in  memory;  while  the  new  Roman,  which  was 
in  fact  the  Gallican,  the  Symbolum  Apostolicum, 
recommended  itself  by  its  more  complete  form. 
The  differences  were  overlooked,  or  else  not  re- 
garded as  considerable;  and  the  legend  which 
had  invested  the  old  symbol  with  a  halo  of  glory 
awoke  again  around  the  new  one,  and  again  and 
for  a  long  time  became  a  power  in  the  Church, 
till  it  was  exploded  in  the  age  of  the  Renaissance 
and  the  Reformation. 

In  interpreting  the  apostolic  symbol  historically, 

it  must  be  remembered  that  those  portions  of  the 

same  which  belonged  to  the  old  Ro- 

la.  Inter-  man  confession  must  be  explained 
pretation  of  from  the  theology  of  the  later  apos- 
the  Symbol,  tolic  and  postapostolic  ages  (not 
simply,  as  some  claim,  "according  to 
the  New  Testament  ").  This  explanation  must 
take  into    consideration   that   the  symbol   is  an 


elaborated  baptismal  formula  and  that  in  its  prim- 
itive form  it  must  therefore  not  be  regarded  as  an 
expression  of  intrachurch  polemics,  but  rather  as 
a  Christian  confession,  composed  for  the  purpose  of 
instructing  in  Christianity  as  distinguished  from 
Judaism  and  heathenism.  In  the  course  of  his- 
tory the  theological  explanation  of  the  symbol 
on  the  whole  keeps  pace  with  the  general  develop- 
ment of  dogmatics  and  theology.  But  the  dis- 
tinction between  theological  rules  of  faith  and  a 
confession  serving  for  Christian  instruction  remains 
in  the  consciousness  of  the  West,  and  is  charac- 
teristically reflected  in  the  Explanationes  symboli. 

As  concerns  the  expressions  of  the    apostolic 
symbol  which  are  not  in  the  old  Roman,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  ascertain  when,  where,  and 
13.  Clauses  under    what    conditions    they    first 
not  Found  appear.    Of  most  of  them  it  may  be 
in  the  Old   said  that  they  are  a  natural  expli- 
Roman      cation  of  the  ancient  symbol,   that 
SymboL     they  do  not  alter  its  character,  that 
they  contain  only  the  common  faith 
of  the  Church — even  of  the  Church  of  the  second 
centuiy — ^and  that  at  the  end  of  the  second  century 
they  were  known  in  the  West,  though  they  had  not 
yet  found  a  stable  place  in  any  of  the  provincial 
symbols.    Two  only  of  the  additions  can  not  be  so 
regarded,  namely  the  phrases  descendit  ad  inferos, 
in  the  second  article,  and  sanctorum  communianem 
in  the  third.    But  both  additions,  on  account  of 
their  dubious  meaning,   must  be  allowed  to  be 
failures.    Even  in  modem  times  they  are  explained 
quite  differently  by  different  parties  in  the  Church 
(cf.  Kattenbusch,  i.  1  sqq.).       (A.  Harnack.) 
Bibliography:  The  general  works,  A.  Hahn,  Bibltothdt  der 
Symbole,  3d  ed.  by  G.  L.  Hahn.  Breslau.  1897;  C.  P.  Cao- 
pari,  UngedruckU,  uvbeacMete,  und  wenig  heachieie  QuMen 
sur  Oeachichte  dea  Tauf&ymboU  und  der  Olaubenaregd,  3 
vols.,  Christiania,  1866-75;  J.  R.  Lumby,  Hwtcry  of  tK$ 
Creeds,  London,  1880;  Schaff.  Creeds,  i.  14-23,  ii.  45-56.  Par- 
ticularlyontbe  Apostles'  Creed  are:  J.  Pearson,  ExposiHon 
of  the  Creed,  London.  1659,  and  constantly  reprinted  (th« 
English  classic  on  the  subject);  M.  Nicolas,  Le  Symbols  des 
A^tres,  Paris,  1867;  J.  Baron,  The  Greek  Origin  of  the 
Apostles'  Creed,  London,  1885;  L.  de  Grenade,  Le  Sym- 
bole  des  Apdtres,  Paris,  1890;  A.  Harnack,  Das  aposto- 
lische  OlaiU)ena)ekenntnis,  Berlin,  1896;  idem.  The  Apos- 
tles*   Creed,   transl.   of   Apostolisches   Symbolum    in    tb« 
Protestantische     Realencyklopiidie,  Leipsic.   1896,   by    8. 
Means,  ed.  T.  B.  Saundera,  London,  1901;  S.  Bftumer, 
Dm    apostolische    Olaubensbekenntnis,    Mains,    1893;  C. 
Blume,    Das   apostolische   Olavbensbekenntnis,    Freiburg, 
1893;  J.  Haussleitor,  Zur  Vorgeschichte  des  aposlolischen 
Olaubensbekenntnises,  Munich,  1893;  T.  Zahn.  Das  apoe- 
tolisehe  Symbolum,  Leipsic,   1893;  F.   Kattenbusch,  Das 
apostolische   Symbolum,    2   vols.,    ib.    1894-1900;  H.    B 
Swete,   The  Apostles'  Creed  and   Primitive  Christianity, 
Cambridge,    1894;   C.    M.    Schneider,    D<u    apostolisdu 
Qlaubensbekenntnis,  Ratisbon,  1901;  A.  C.  McGiffert,  The 
Apostles'  Creed,  its  Oriffin,  its  Purpose,  and  its  Historical 
Interpretation,  New  York,  1902;  W.  R.  Richards,  Apostles* 
Creed  in    Modern    Worship,  ib.  1906;   H.   C.   Beeching. 
Apostles'  Creed,  London,  1906;  and  see  under  Stmboucs. 
APOSTLES,    TEACHING    OF    THE    TWELVE. 
See  DiDACHB. 

APOSTLESHIP  OF  PRATER.  See  Confra- 
ternities, Religious;  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus, 
Devotion  to. 

APOSTOLIC  BRETHREN:  A  sect  founded  in 
northern  Italy  in  the  latter  half  of  the  thirteenth 
century  by  Gherardo  Segarelli,  a  native  of  Alzano 
in  the  territory  of  Parma.    He  was  ol  low  birtn 


Apostolic  Brethren 
Apostolic  Ckmstitiitions 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


244 


and  without  education,  applied  for  membership 
in  the  Franciscan  order  at  Parma,  and  was  rejected. 
Ultimately  he  resolved  to  devote  himself  to  the 
restoration  of  what  he  conceived  to  be  the  apos- 
tolic manner  of  life.  About  1260  he  assumed  a 
costume  patterned  after  representations  which 
he  had  seen  of  the  apostles,  sold  his  house,  scattered 
the  price  in  the  market-place,  and  went  out  to  preach 
repentance  as  a  mendicant  brother.  He  found 
disciples,  and  the  new  order  of  penitents  spread 
throughout  Lombardy  and  beyond  it.  At  first 
the  Franciscans  and  other  churchmen  only 
scoffed  at  Segarelli's  eccentric  ways;  but  about 
1280  the  Bishop  of  Parma  threw  him  into  prison, 
then  kept  him  awhile  in  his  palace  as  a  source  of 
amusement,  and  in  1286  banished  him  from  the 
diocese.  All  new  mendicant  orders  without  papal 
sanction  having  been  prohibited  by  the  Council  of 
Lyons  in  1274,  Honorius  IV.  issued  a  severe  rep- 
robation of  the  Apostolic  Brethren  in  1286,  and 
Nicholas  IV.  renewed  it  in  1290.  A  time  of  perse- 
cution followed.  At  Parma  in  1294  four  mem- 
bers of  the  sect  were  biumed,  and  Segarelli  was 
condemned  to  perpetual  imprisonment.  Six  years 
later  he  was  made  to  confess  a  relapse  into  heresies 
which  he  had  abjured,  and  was  burned  in  Parma 
July  18,  1300.  A  man  of  much  greater  gifts  now 
took  the  lead  of  the  sect.  This  was  Dolcino  (q.v.), 
the  son  of  a  priest  in  the  diocese  of  Novara,  and  a 
member  of  the  order  since  1291,  an  eloquent, 
enthusiastic  utterer  of  apocalyptic  prophecies. 
At  tlic  head  of  a  fanatical  horde,  who  were  in  daily 
expectation  of  seeing  the  judgment  of  God  on  the 
Church,  he  maintained  in  the  mountainous  dis- 
tricts of  Novara  and  Vercelli  a  guerrilla  warfare 
against  the  crusaders  who  had  been  summoned  to 
put  him  down.  Cold  and  hunger  were  still  more 
dangerous  enemies;  and  finally  the  remnant  of 
his  forces  were  captured  by  the  bishop  of  Vercelli — 
about  150  persons  in  all,  including  Dolcino  himself 
and  his  "  spiritual  sister,"  Margareta,  both  of  whom, 
refusing  to  recant,  were  burned  at  the  stake  June  1, 
1307.  This  was  really  the  end  of  the  sect's  history, 
xt  IS  true  that  even  later  than  the  middle  of  the 
century  traces  of  their  activity  are  found,  especially 
in  northern  Italy,  Spain,  and  France;  but  these 
are  only  isolated  survivals. 

The  ideal  which  the  Apostolic  Brethren  strove 
to  realize  was  a  life  of  supposed  perfect  sanctity, 
in  complete  poverty,  with  no  fixed  domicil,  no 
care  for  the  morrow,  and  no  vows.  It  was  a  pro- 
test against  the  invasion  of  the  Church  by  the  spirit 
of  worldliness,  as  well  as  against  the  manner  in 
which  the  other  orders  kept  their  vows,  particu- 
larly that  of  poverty.  In  itself  the  project  might 
have  seemed  harmless  enough,  not  differing  greatly 
from  the  way  in  which  other  founders  had  begun. 
When  the  order  was  prohibited,  however,  the 
refusal  to  submit  to  ecclesiastical  authority  stamped 
its  members  as  heretics.  Persecution  embittered 
their  opposition;  the  Church,  in  their  eyes,  had 
fallen  completely  away  from  apostolic  holiness, 
and  become  Babylon  the  Great,  the  persecutor  of 
the  saints.  Their  apocalyptic  utterances  and  ex- 
pectations are  a  link  with  the  Joachimites  (see 
Joachim   op   Fiore);  in  fact,  parallels  to  their 


teaching,  mostly  founded  on  literal  interpretations 
of  Scripture  texts,  may  be  found  in  many  heretical 
bodies.  They  forbade  the  taking  of  oaths,  appar- 
ently permitting  perjury  in  case  of  need,  and  re- 
jected capital  punishment;  their  close  intercourse 
with  their  *'  apostolic  sisters  "  gave  rise  to  serious 
accusations  against  their  morals,  though  they  them- 
selves boasted  of  their  purity,  and  considered  the 
conquest  of  temptation  so  close  at  hand  as  especially 
meritorious.  (Hugo  Sachsse.) 

Bibuoorapht:  J.  L.  Mosheim,  Vertuch  einer  unparteiuchen 
KeUergMchichte,  1 193-400.  Helmstadt.  1746;  Helyot.  Ordrea 
monattique;  iv.  54  sqq.,  8  vols.;  L.  Ferraris.  Prompla 
biUiotheea  canoniea,  juridiea  morcUiSt  .  .  .  vi.  634.  7  vols.. 
Rome.  1844-55;  H.  C.  Lea.  History  of  the  InquuUiont  vL 
103  sqq.,  New  York.  1887. 

APOSTOLIC  CHURCH  DIRECTORY:  A  work 
of  Egyptian  origin,  probably  of  the  third  century. 
It  appears  in  early  times  to  have  had  no  fixed 
title,  although  it  was  generally  received  as  apos- 
tolic. The  title  given  above  is  a  translation  of  that 
(ApostoliacheKirchenardnung)  used  for  it  by  Bickell, 
its  first  modem  editor.  It  professes  to  have  been 
delivered  word  for  word  by  the  apostles,  whose 
names  are  given  as  John,  Matthew,  Peter,  Andrew, 
Philip,  Simon,  James,  Nathanael,  Thomas,  Cephas 
(I),  Bartholomew,  and  Jude,  the  brother  of  James. 
John  is  represented  as  the  first  to  speak  and,  after 
the  apostles,  Mary  and  Martha  also  say  something. 
The  precepts  given  by  the  apostles  fall  into  two 
sections,  one  dealing  with  the  moral  and  the  other 
with  the  ecclesiastical  law  (chaps,  i.-xiv.,  and  xvi.- 
XXX.).  The  first  part  is  almost  a  literal  trans- 
cription of  the  Didache  (i.-iv.  8),  the  observations 
at  the  close  of  it  are  borrowed  from  the  Epistle  of 
Barnabas  (xxi.  2-4,  xix.  11).  The  precepts  relating 
to  ecclesiastical  organization  deal  with  the  choice 
of  bishops  and  with  presbyters,  lectors,  deacons, 
widows,  lay  people,  and  deaconesses.  The  canon 
referring  to  deacons  occurs  twice,  in  chaps,  xx.  and 
xxii.,  one  being  apparently  a  later  insertion. 

The  work  was  evidently  written  for  a  very  small 
community.  It  imposes  on  the  clergy  limitations 
in  regard  to  marriage  which  go  far  for  that  period. 
The  section  on  deaconesses  is  interesting,  in  regard 
to  both  the  foundation  and  the  regulations  of  the 
institution.  A  wider  field  of  activity  is  assigned  to 
the  lector  than  one  is  accustomed  to;  but  no  minor 
orders  in  the  later  sense  are  known,  nor  is  there  any 
approach  to  metropolitan  organization.  These 
primitive  traits  induced  Hamack  to  attempt  to 
distinguish  two  sources  belonging  to  the  second 
century,  represented  by  chaps,  xvi.-xxi.,  and  xxii.- 
xxviii.;  but  this  is  imnecessary,  as  primitive  cus- 
toms persisted  for  a  long  time  in  certain  parts  of 
the  Chiurch.  H.  Acheub. 

Bibuoorapht:  Editions  from  the  Greek:  J.  W.  Bickell. 
OeechichU  de*  KirchenrecKU,  i.  87-97.  107-132.  178  sqq.. 
Giessen.  1843;  P.  de  Lagarde.  in  C.  C.  J.  Bunaen.  Chria- 
iianity  attd  Mankind,  vi.  449-460.  London.  1854;  A.  HU- 
genfeld,  Novum  Teatamentutn  extra  eanonem  receptum, 
fmrt  iv..  pp.  93-106.  Leipsic.  1884;  A.  Uarnack.  in  TU, 
ii.  2.  pp.  225-237,  and  ii.  5.  pp.  7-31.  ib.  1886.  Editions 
from  the  Coptic:  H.  TatUm.  The  ApoetoUcal  Conetiiu- 
tione  or  Canone  of  the  Apoetlee  in  Coptic  with  an  Eng, 
7*ranel.,  London,  1848;  P.  de  Lagarde.  JEgyptiaoa,  pp. 
239-248.  Gottingen.  1883;  U.  Bouriant.  RecueU  de  tro' 
vaux,  V.  202-261.  Paris.  1883;  consult  also  Hamack, 
LtUeratur,  pp.  451  sqq.  and  cf.  TU,  vi.  4,  pp.  39  sqq.. 
Leipsic,  1891. 


M6 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Apostolic  Brethren 
Apostolic  Ooastitutions 


APOSTOLIC  CONSTITUTIONS  AND   CANONS. 


Origin  and  History  ({  1). 
The  Constitutions,  Books 
L-vi.  (J  2). 


Books  yii.  and  viii.  ({  3). 
The  Canons  (i  4). 


Apostolic  Constitutions  and  Canons  is  the 
name  applied  to  an  ancient  collection  of  ecclesi- 
astical precepts.  The  Constitutions  profess  to  be 
regulations  for  the  organization  of  the  Church 
put  forth  by  the  apostles  themselves  and  published 
to  the  faithful  by  Clement  of  Rome.  In  reality 
they  are  of  Syrian  origin,  and  were  composed  by  a 
cleric  from  older  sources  in  the  latter  half  of  the 
fourth  century.  They  consist  of  eight  books. 
The  eighty-five  Canons  have  the  form  of  synodal 
decisions,  and  proceeded  from  the 
X.  Origin  same  source  not  much  later.  The  fate 
and  of  the  two  collections,  so  nearly  allied 
History,  in  their  origin,  has  been  different. 
The  Constitutions  can  never  have 
been  received  outside  of  a  narrow  circle.  They 
were  considered  spurious  even  in  an  extremely 
uncritical  age,  and  thus  never  came  as  a  whole  into 
any  of  the  great  collections  of  ecclesiastical  law 
in  the  East,  though  a  part  of  the  eighth  book  is  fre- 
quently met  with  in  these.  They  were  unknown 
in  the  West  until  the  sixteenth  century,  at  which 
time  neither  Baronius  nor  Bellarmine  made  any 
attempt  to  vindicate  their  authenticity,  though 
Anglican  theologians  took  a  great  interest  in  them 
and  frequently  upheld  their  apostolic  origin.  The 
Canons,  on  the  other  hand,  were  generally  received 
ajs  genuine,  included  in  many  collections  of  Church 
law,  and  translated  into  several  Oriental  languages; 
to  this  day  they  stand  at  the  beginning  of  the  ca- 
nonical system  of  the  Eastern  Church.  The  first 
fifty  were  made  known  to  the  West  by  Dionysius 
Exiguus  (d.  before  544),  from  whom  they  passed 
into  a  number  of  Latin  collections,  e.g.,  the  pseudo- 
Isidorian  Decretals,  the  Decretum  Graiiani,  and  the 
Decretals  of  Gregory  IX. 

The  criticism  of  the  Constitutions  was  placed 
upon  secure  foundations  for  the  first  time  when 
their  sources  were  definitely  assigned — the  first 
six  books  (by  Lagarde)  to  the  Didascalia,  the 
seventh  to  the  Didache,  and  the  eighth  to  the 
writings  of  Hippolytus  of  Rome. 
2.  The  Con-  The  first  of  these  sources  is  a  con- 
stitutions, stitution  of  the  third  century,  written 
Books  L-vi.  by  a  bishop  of  Coele-Syria  and  at- 
tributed by  him  to  the  twelve  apostles. 
Its  unique  value  lies  in  the  fact  that  it  gives  a 
picture  down  to  the  minutest  details,  of  the  life 
of  a  Christian  community  of  the  third  century. 
The  daily  life  of  the  individual  and  the  family, 
the  public  worship,  the  wide  practical  charity  and 
the  strict  moral  discipline,  the  relation  of  the 
Church  to  the  State  and  to  the  surrounding  world, 
in  science,  art,  and  literature — all  this  is  vividly 
depicted  in  the  DidascdUa,  It  throws  a  great  deal 
of  light  on  the  origin  of  the  order  of  deaconesses. 
Some  things  are  peculiar;  thus  the  New  Testament 
canon  includes,  besides  the  four  canonical  Gospels, 
that  of  Peter  and  probably  that  according  to  the 
Hebrews,  and  some  apocryphal  Ada  in  addition 
to  the  canonical  Acts.  Striking  characteristics 
are  the  friendly  tone  toward  the  Jews,  in  contrast 


with  a  hostile  feeling  toward  the  Jewish  ChristianB; 
apparently  the  author  was  at  the  head  of  a  com- 
munity of  Gentile  Christians,  and  found  that  a 
neighboring  Jewish-Christian  community  had  a 
greater  influence  upon  his  flock  than  he  approved. 
Ascetic  directions  in  regard  to  mastery  over  the 
flesh  are  entirely  wanting. 

The  first  thirty-two  chapters  of  the  seventh  book 
of  the  Constitutions  are  a  mere  recasting  of  the 
Didache,  Noteworthy  liturgical  prayers  (xxxiii.- 
xxxviii.)  and  directions  as  to  baptism  (xxxix.- 
xlv.)  follow;  the  baptismal  creed  in  chapter  xli. 
played  a  not  unimportant  part  in  the  councils 
of  the  fourth  century.  The  eighth  book  is  a  com- 
pilation from  various  sources.    Chapters  i.  and  ii. 

contain   an   independent   treatise   on 

3.  Books     the    charismata,    which,    since    Hip- 

vii.  and  viiL  polytus  is  known  to  have  written  on 

this  subject,  is  supposed  with  great 
probability  to  be  hiB.  With  chap  iv.  begins  a 
liturgical  directory  which  is  ascribed  directly  to 
the  apostles;  chaps,  v.-xv.  form  the  well-known 
"  Clementine "  liturgy.  Achelis  has  tried  to 
demonstrate  that  the  source  of  this  part  is  the  Egyp- 
tian church  directory,  which  in  its  turn  is  derived 
from  the  Canones  Hippolyti  (preserved  in  an  Arabic 
version).  If  this  theory  is  correct,  this  part  of  the 
eighth  book  also  would  be  ultimately  due  to  Hip- 
polytus. The  Egyptian  directory  was  a  Greek  work 
of  the  third  century,  which  is  preserved  only  in  the 
Oriental  versions.  In  opposition  to  Achelis,  Funk, 
of  Tubingen,  maintained  that  the  Apostolic  Con- 
stitutions were  the  original  work,  the  Egyptian 
directory  derived  from  them,  and  the  Canones 
Hippolyti  from  that  again.  The  compiler  of  the 
Constitutions  acted  as  an  editor  in  dealing  with  his 
sources,  attempting  by  revision  and  addition  to 
fuse  the  various  sources  into  a  serviceable  whole. 
He  was  an  inhabitant  of  Syria,  possibly  a  neighbor 
of  the  earlier  author  of  the  Didascalia.  A  connec- 
tion can  be  traced  between  him  and  the  pseudo- 
Ignatius,  the  Syrian  forger  who  made  twelve 
letters  out  of  the  seven  genuine  ones  of  Ignatius; 
certainly  allied  in  time  and  thought  with  this  man, 
he  may  have  been  identical  with  him.  His  date 
has  been  variously  given,  from  c.  350  to  c.  400,  and 
can  probably  never  be  accurately  determined,  as 
the  Constitutions  have  clearly  been  retouched  later, 
especially  the  eighth  book,  which  was  the  most 
used; 

The  Apostolic  Canons  grew  up  in  the  same  sur- 
roundings, probably  with  the  view  of  covering  the 
lack  of  authenticity  of  the  Constitutions  by  a  new 
forgery.  Their  numbering  varies;  the  division 
into  eighty-five  seems  to  be  the  oldest.    Outside 

of  the  Constitutions,  their  sources 
4.  The  are  the  decrees  of  the  Dedication 
Canons.    Synod  of  Antioch  in  341  and  other 

councils.  Canon  Ixxxv.  is  the  inter- 
esting Bible  canon  of  both  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments, which  omits  the  Apocalypse,  but  includes 
the  two  Clementine  epistles  and  the  Constitutions 
as  Scripture. 

Information  as  to  other  Oriental  writings  more 
or  less  connected  with  the  Constitutions  and  their 
sources  may  be  foimd  in  W.  Riedcl,  Die  Kirchen' 


Apostolio  Oonstitiitions 
Apostolio  Oounoll 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


246 


rechUguellen  dea  Patriarchats  Alexandrien  (Leipsic, 
1900),  which  treats  among  others  the  Thirty  Tra- 
ditiofu  of  the  Apostles,  the  Arabic  Didascalia,  and 
A  version  of  this,  the  Ethiopic  Didaacalia — a  com- 
paratively late  work  which  has  nothing  to  do  with 
the  Syriac  Didaacaliaf  but  is  probably  related  to 
the  Teetamentum  Jesu  Chriati.  An  Oriental  corpus, 
the  Clementina,  consists  of  the  Testamentum,  the 
Apostolic  and  Egyptian  directories,  an  extract  from 
the  Constitutions,  and  the  Apostolic  Canons.  It 
is  divided  into  eight  books  by  the  Arabic  and  Syriac 
copyists.  The  title  and  introduction  are  taken  from 
the  Constitutions,  to  which  the  Clementina  was 
intended  as  a  supplement.  H.  Acheus. 

Biblioobapht:  Editions:  The  CoiiBtitutions  are  in  Cote- 
lerius-CIericuB,  Sandorutn  patrum  .  .  .  opera,  i.  190-482, 
Amsterdam,  1724  (reproduced  in  MPO,  i.);  W.  Oltsen, 
Conatitutionea  apoatolic<B,  Schwerin,  1853;  P.  de  Lagarde. 
ConutihMonM  apoaiolorum,  Leipsic,  1862,  and  in  C.  C.  J. 
Bunsen,  Analecta  Anie-NiccBna,  ii..  London,  1854  (the 
first  critical  ed.).  The  Canons  are  included  in  most 
council  collections,  in  the  Corpus  /urts  civUiB  and  Corpu$ 
piri»  carumiei.  For  the  Ss^ac  consult:  P.  de  Lagarde, 
Didaacalia  apoatolorum  ayriacet  Leipsic,  1854;  M.  D.  Gib- 
son, in  Horm  Semitica,  i.-ii.,  London,  1903  (with  Eng. 
transl.,  from  recently  discovered  MSS.)>  From  the  Latin: 
£.  Hanler,  DidaacalicB  apoatolorutn  fragmenia  Varonanaia 
LaHna,  Leipsic,  19(X);  H.  Achelis  and  J.  Flemming,  in  TU, 
new  ser.,  x.  2,  ib.  1904,  cf.  H.  Achelis,  in  TU,  vi.  4,  ib.  1891. 
and  in  ZKO,  xv.  (1894)  1  sqq.  The  Eng.  transl.  of  Whis- 
ton  is  given  with  notes  in  ANF,  vii.  391-605  (reproduced 
from  the  second  volume  of  his  PrimiHva  Chriatianity). 
Consult  also  F.  X.  Funk,  Dia  apoatoliadien  KonatUutionan, 
Rottenburg,  1891;  W.  Riedei,  in  Rdmiaeha  Quartalachrift, 
xiv.  (19(X))  3  sqq.;  J.  Lejrpoldt.  Saidiaeha  Auaaikoa  ana 
dam  aehlan  Bucha  dar  apoatoliachan  KonaHtutionan,  in  TU, 
new  ser..  xi  1,  Leipsic.  1904;  G.  Homer.  Tha  Statidea  of 
Uia  Apoatlaa;  ar^  Canonaa  acdaaiaaUci,  ad.  with  Tranal.  from 
Ethiopic  and  Arabic  MSS.  .  .  .  London,  1905;  D.  L. 
O'Leary,  Apoatolical  ConatUutiona,  ib.  1906.  The  discus- 
sions upon  the  Didacha  and  the  Apoatolical  Church  Di- 
radory  involve  the  Corutitutiona  and  Canona. 

APOSTOLIC   COUNCIL  AT  JERUSALEM. 

New  Testament  Statements  and  Allusions  ($1). 

Luke  the  Author  of  the  Accotmt  in  Acts  ({  2). 

Occasion  for  the  Council  (S3). 

The  Outcome.     Four  Prohibitions  ({  4). 

Alleged  Contradiction   between  Acts  and  Galatians  ii. 

(J  5). 
Later  History  of  the  Decision  of  the  Council  (S  6). 

The  Apostolic  Council  is  the  common  designation 
of  the  meeting  described  in  Acts  xv.  It  took  place 
in  51  or  52  a.d.,  between  the  missionary  journey 
of  Paul  and  Barnabas  and  that  of  Paul  alone,  and 
marks  a  distinct  stage  in  the  proclamation  of  the 
apostles'  message  to  the  Grentile  world;  viz.,  the 

recognition  of  the  right  of  the  Gentiles 
X.  New  Tea-  to  a  place  in  the  Christian  commu- 
tament  nity,  without  subjection  to  the  Mo- 
Statements  saic  law.  Interest  in  Luke's  report 
and  Allu-  of  the  proceedings  is  increased  by 
sions.        the    fact    that    Paul    himself    refers 

to  the  Council  in  Gal.  ii.  1-10  from 
a  controversial  standpoint.  The  comparison  of 
the  two  accounts  has  led  some  recent  theolo- 
gians to  assert  tnat  the  account  in  Acts  is 
essentially  different  from  that  of  Paul,  and 
that  the  author  of  Acts  has  made  the  facts  fit  the 
views  which  he  takes  of  the  whole  period  (see 
below,  §  5).  In  earlier  time  this  council  was  the 
special  point  used  as  a  fulcrum  for  the  attempt 
of  the  Tubingen  school  to  overthrow  the  received 


tradition  as  to  the  history  and  literature  of  the 
time.  Although  the  objections  of  Baur,  especially 
as  to  the  irreconcilability  of  Acts  xv.  and  Gal.  ii., 
have  few  extreme  representatives  nowadays,  yet 
their  results  are  seen  in  recent  attempts  to  deny 
the  unity  of  the  Acts,  regarding  the  book  as  a  com- 
posite of  various  sources,  which  do  not  always  agree 
in  material  and  in  tendency. 

In  the  following  treatment  of  the  Apostolic 
Council  the  Book  of  Acts  is  assumed  to  be  the  work 
of  Luke  of  Antioch,  the  companion  of  Paul,  who 
(xvi.  10  sqq.)  narrates  in  the  first  person;  and  the 
events  detailed  in  chap.  xv.  are  believed  to  be 
given  partly  from  his  own  knowledge,  partly  from 
the  t^timony  of  the  participants.  There  is  no 
a  priori  reason  to  suppose  that  for 

2.  Luke  the  chap,  xv.,  or  generally  for  any  part  of 
Author      the   Antiochian-Pauline  period,  Luke 

of  the  was  working  over  written  authorities; 
Account  he  undoubtedly  had  seen  the  Jerusalem 
in  Acts,  letter  (verses  23-29),  but  probably 
gives  it  here  freely  from  memory. 
For  a  long  time  Paul's  most  trusted  coadjutor,  he 
would  naturally  enter  intelligently  into  the  Pauline 
attitude;  and  this  is  precisely  what  is  found  in  his 
presentation  of  Paul's  labors.  His  standpoint 
is  that  found  in  the  Pauline  theodicy  of  Rom.  ix.- 
xi.,  which  excludes  any  tendency  contrary  to  his- 
tory, and  allows  the  writer  to  consider  historical 
facts  in  a  perfectly  objective  manner.  One  may 
thus  expect  with  confidence  to  find  Luke's  report 
of  the  Council  historically  accurate.  Of  this  ac- 
curacy Paul's  expressions  must  of  course  serve  as 
a  criterion;  since,  however,  Paul  ib  not,  like  Luke, 
writing  from  the  standpoint  of  general  history, 
but  to  enforce  a  special  point  of  dispute,  Luke's 
account  must  be  taken  as  the  basis  of  any  later 
treatment  professing  to  be  historical. 

It  is  learned  from  Luke's  account  that  some  time 
after  Paul  and  Barnabas  had  returned  to  Antioch 
from  their  missionary  journey,  there  app>eared 
certain  Jewish  Christians  who  taught  the  hitherto 
unheard-of  doctrine  that  converts  from  heathen- 
ism could  not  be  saved  without  circumcision,  thus 
denying  the  equality  prevailing  for  some  ten  years 
(or  since  Acts  xi.  20)  between  the  circumcised  and 
uncircumcised  members  of  the  Church  of  Antioch. 
This  caused  great  disturbance  among 

3.  Occasion  the  Gentile  Christians,  whose  liberty 
for  the  was  threatened,  and  Paul  and  Bama- 
CounciL      bas    opposed   it    strongly   and    were 

deputed  to  lay  the  question  before 
the  apostles  and  elders  in  Jerusalem.  This  mission 
implies  no  doubt  in  their  minds  of  their  own  posi- 
tion, which  had  been  approved  all  along;  but  they 
wished  to  be  positively  assured  that  they  were  in 
harmony  with  the  source  of  their  Christianity, 
for  the  quieting  of  their  own  minds  and  the  sup- 
pression of  further  attacks  from  the  Judaizing  party. 
Luke  gives  with  care  the  serious  discussion  which 
led  up  to  the  decision.  The  Jerusalem  oonmiunity 
at  firat  received  the  tidings  of  Gentile  conversions 
not  with  unqualified  joy;  some  Pharisaic  mem- 
bers of  the  Church  put  forward  a  definite  demand 
that  the  Gentile  Christians  should  be  bound  to  the 
observance  of  the  Mosaic  law.    It  is  to  be  noticed, 


M7 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Apostolic  OonstitatioD>« 
Apostolio  Oonnoll 


however,  that  this  demand  was  not  put  forward, 
as  at  Antioch,  on  the  theory  that  they  could  not 
otherwise  be  saved.  The  practical  demand  was 
the  same,  and  was  so  strongly  pressed  that  the 
decision  was  postponed  to  another  meeting,  in 
which  again  a  long  discussion  took  place  without 
result.  Since  the  extreme  thesis  of  the  disturbers 
at  Antioch  was  not  put  forward  here,  there  must 
have  been  other  weighty  grounds  which  induced 
no  inconsiderable  portion  of  the  Church  to  press 
for  the  subjection  of  the  Gentiles  to  the  Mosaic 
law — apparently  based  on  the  idea  that  the  law 
was  God's  ordinance  for  the  lives  of  men  far  more 
universally  than  merely  among  the  Jews. 

It  was  Peter,  the  head  of  the  Church  of  the  Cir- 
cimicision,  who  silenced  this  party  by  the  un- 
equivocal declaration  of  the  principle  of  salvation 
by  grace  alone  through  faith,  lie  ap- 
4.  The  pealed,  as  to  something  the}"  all  knew. 
Outcome,  to  the  fact  that  God  had  long  before 
Four  Pro-  proclaimed  salvation  by  his  ministry 
hibitions.  to  Cornelius  and  his  household;  he  de- 
clared that  the  people  of  God  in  Israel 
had  not  been  able  to  bear  the  law  as  a  means  of 
salvation,  but  were  equally  dependent  with  the  Gen- 
tiles upon  divine  grace,  showing  that  this  fun- 
damental principle  would  be  endangered  if  they 
insisted  upon  the  observance  of  the  law.  This 
argument  reduced  the  opposition  to  silence;  no 
one  was  willing  to  attack  the  truth  that  salva- 
tion was  to  be  obtained  without  the  law 
through  faith.  The  time  was  now  ripe  for 
Barnabas  and  Paul  to  show  how  God  had  at- 
tested their  ministry  by  signs  and  wonders, 
which  proved  also  their  apostolic  independ- 
ence (cf.  II  Cor.  xii.  12).  The  final  verdict 
was  rendered  by  James,  showing  that  the  prophets 
had  foreshadowed  the  upbuilding  of  a  Church 
without  the  law,  and  proposing  instead  of  its 
enforcement  to  emphasize  four  prohibitions, 
which  are  connected  with  the  rules  laid  down 
in  Lev.  xvii.  and  xviii.  equally  for  the  chil- 
dren of  Israel  and  for  the  strangers  sojourning 
among  them,  as  also  with  those  imposed  by  later 
Jewish  tradition  on  the  ''  proselytes  of  the  gate"; 
they  are  possibly  nothing  but  these  rules  in  the 
form  in  which  they  were  observed  among  prose- 
lytes in  the  apostolic  times,  in  the  districts  here 
affected  (Syria  and  Cilicia).  They  are  derived 
originally  from  the  Mosaic  law,  and  forbid  what 
to  the  Jewish  ethical  consciousness  was  highly 
offensive.  Neither  of  these  points  is  made,  how- 
ever, but  they  are  forbidden  as  things  in 
themselves  morally  reprehensible — their  prohi- 
bition is  necessary  in  order  to  separate  Gentile 
morality  from  Gentile  immorality  and  super- 
stition. By  the  word  "  fornication  "  (Gk.  pomeia) 
is  signified  the  unrestricted  sexual  intercourse 
which  was  practically  tolerated  in  the  heathen 
world.  The  words  "  to  abstain  from  meats  offered 
to  idob  "  refer  to  both  private  and  public  meals 
on  the  flesh  of  the  victims  of  sacrifices,  which 
connected  the  social  life  of  the  people  with  pagan 
worship.  The  prohibition  of  "  blood  "  and  "  things 
strangled,"  while  not  so  easily  understood,  may 
be  taken  to  stamp  with  disapproval  the  habits  in 


regard  to  food  which  prevailed  among  barbarous 
tribes,  but  were  rejected  by  the  more  civilized 
Greeks  and  Romans,  though  they  must  have  been 
known  among  the  populations  to  whom  the  first 
recipients  of  the  letter  belonged.  In  a  word,  the 
whole  purpose  of  the  decree  was  to  mark  off  by  a 
sharp  line  of  division  the  life  of  the  Gentile  Chris- 
tians from  that  of  the  heathen  around  them. 

The  account  in  the  Acts  has  been  assailed  by 

numerous  critics  as  a  more  or  less  consciously 

biased  presentation  of  the  real  story, 

5.  Alleged   as    it    may  be  taken    from  Gal.  ii. 

Contradic-  The    accusations    are    mainly    these: 
tion  be-     the  account  in   Acts  minimizes  the 

tween  Acts  fundamental  opposition  which  existed 
and  GaL  iL  between  Paul  and  the  Jerusalem 
Church  by  ascribing  to  the  latter  a 
Pauline  standpoint  which  it  had  not;  the  account 
gives  as  a  result  of  the  Council  a  limitation  of  the 
Gentiles'  liberty  and  equal  title  to  which  Paul  could 
never  have  consented;  in  defiance  of  history, 
it  attributes  to  Paul  a  position  of  subordination  to 
the  Jerusalem  apostles.  The  first  point  scarcely 
needs  further  discussion  after  what  has  been  said. 
The  Pauline  expressions  in  Gal.  ii.  must  be  taken 
in  connection  with  the  explanatory  preface  in 
chap.  i.  His  Galatian  opponents  asserted  that  his 
preaching  to  the  Gentiles  needed  correction 
and  completion,  supporting  this  by  the  statement 
that  he  had  formerly  suborcQnated  himself 
to  the  Twelve.  He  appeals  to  the  superhu- 
man origin  of  his  mission  and  the  fact  that  he 
had  sought  no  confirmation  of  his  gospel  from 
men,  not  even  from  the  Twelve  (Gal.  i.  11-20). 
But  with  verse  21  another  point  of  view  begins; 
the  remaining  verses  are  written  to  demonstrate 
that  no  relation  existed  between  him  and  the 
Palestinian  Christianity,  the  older  apostles,  which 
would  give  his  opponents  any  right  to  appeal  to 
them  against  him.  When  in  Gal.  ii.  1  he  mentions 
going  up  to  Jerusalem  fourteen  years  later,  it  is  in 
order  to  demonstrate  that  after  so  long  a  time  the 
original  concord  remains  undisturbed.  The  situa- 
tion is  thus  exactly  that  described  in  Acts  xv. 
What  Paul  designates  "  that  gospel  which  I  preach 
among  the  Gentiles  "  is  the  very  thing  opposed  by 
the  disturbers  and  brought  up  in  Jerusalem.  In 
both  cases  uncertainty  exists  as  to  the  position 
of  Jerusalem  toward  it,  and  certainty  is  sought. 
In  both  Paul  appears  with  Barnabas;  and  if  he 
mentions  that  he  took  with  him  Titus,  who  was 
uncircumcised  (meaning  thereby  to  test  the  attitude 
of  the  Jerusalem  Church  toward  Gentile  Christians), 
Luke  also  relates  that  certain  of  the  Gentile  con- 
verts from  Antioch  were  sent  with  him.  Paul  is 
stating  facts  to  repel  a  personal  attack  on  himself; 
Luke  mentions  the  matter  in  its  bearing  on  the  his- 
tory of  the  Church  as  a  whole.  Thus  there  was  no 
need  to  mention  in  the  Acts  the  revelation  which 
(in  addition  to  the  desire  of  the  conununity)  de- 
cided Paul's  journey,  while  Paul  speaks  of  it  appar- 
ently to  emphasize  the  importance  of  the  proceeding. 
That  Paul  omits  any  notice  of  the  decree  is  not 
surprising  when  one  considers  that  its  purpose  was 
not  in  any  way  to  limit  the  freedom  of  the  Gentiles 
from  the  law,  and  that  he  had  no  motive  to  enter 


Apostolio  Oooncil 
Appellants 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


848 


on  the  subject  here.  On  the  other  hand,  he  does 
narrate  something  which  Luke  omits,  in  verses 
&-10.  Certain  prominent  leaders,  especially  the 
three  **  pillars/'  recognizing  the  grace  given  to 
him,  explicitly  agreed  that  he  and  Barnabas 
should  go  to  the  heathen,  and  they  to  the 
circumcision.  By  this  he  means  to  confirm  what 
must  have  been  denied  in  Galatia — that  his  inde- 
pendent position  involved  no  breach  with  Jerusa- 
lem, but  had  been  distinctly  sanctioned  by  the 
leaders  of  the  Church  there.  Luke  might  have 
been  expected  to  mention  this  less  public  discussion 
and  agreement,  of  which  he  must  have  known, 
and,  as  a  matter  of  fact.  Acts  xv.  4, 12, 26  may  be 
taken  to  refer  indirectly  to  it;  not  to  mention  that, 
according  to  hi6  narrative  alone,  it  would  seem 
likely  that  the  leaders  had  had  their  minds  settled 
as  to  the  position  of  Paul  and  Barnabas,  and  in 
some  such  way  as  Qal.  ii.  describes.  The  same 
process  of  intelligent  comparison  will  also  show 
that  the  account  of  the  conflict  at  Antioch  in  Gal. 
ii.  11  sqq.  is  by  no  means  (as  has  been  frequently 
asserted)  irreconcilable  with  the  narrative  of  the  Acts. 

A  word  must  be  said  about  the  later  history  of 
the  decree.  Originally  it  was  addressed  to  that  part 
of  the  Gentile  Christians  who  had  been  in  relation 
with  Jerusalem.  On  his  own  motion  Paul  extended 
it  to  other  Gentile  communities  already  existing. 
Neither  his  own  writings  nor  the  Acts 

6.  Later      show  that  he  enforced  it  upon  commu- 

History  of    nities  formed  later  as  a  decree  of  the 

the  Decision  Jerusalem  Council:    but  in  regard  at 

of  the       least  to  the  first  two  points,  the  manner 

CottnciL  in  which  they  are  referred  to  in  I  Cor. 
v.,  vi.,  viii.-x.  and  in  Rev.  ii.  shows 
that  the  prohibition  was  held  to  be  of  universal 
obligation  among  the  Gentile  Churches;  and  in  the 
second  century  they  played  an  important  part  in 
connection  with  the  Gnostic  controversy.  Singu- 
larly enough,  no  trace  of  the  other  two  prohibitions 
is  foimd  either  in  apostolic  or  in  subapostolic 
times;  if  the  view  of  them  given  above  is  correct, 
this  would  be  explained  by  the  fact  that  there  was 
no  need  to  enforce  them  in  the  civilized  Hellenic 
world.  Later  passages  in  Tertullian  (Apol.,  ix.), 
Minucius  Felix  {Octaviua,  xii.),  and  the  Clementine 
HamHiea  (vii.  4,  8)  and  Recognitions  (iv.  36),  point 
to  an  avoiding  of  blood  even  in  cooked  meats, 
which  must  have  been  based  on  a  misunderstanding 
of  the  decree.  (K.  Schmidt.) 

Bibuggbapht:  The  subject  is  treated  in  the  appropriate 
■eotions  in  works  on  the  Apostolic  Age,  in  commentaries 
on  the  Acts,  and  in  works  on  the  Apostles  Peter  and 
Paul;  of  especial  value  are:  J.  B.  Lightloot,  Oalaiiantt 
pp.  283-355,  London,  1866;  O.  Pfleiderer.  Der  Paulinia- 
mu»,  pp.  278  sqq.,  500  sqq.,  Leipdc,  1873.  Eng.  transl. 
London.  1877;  C.  von  Weiss&cker,  Dob  ApotteteoncU,  in 
JahrbUdur  fQr  deutsche  Theotoffie,  1873.  pp.  191-246;  T. 
Keim,  Aum  dem  VrehrtBtenium,  pp.  64-80.  Zurich,  1870; 
F.  W  Farrar,  Paid,  chaps,  xxi.-xxiii..  London,  1883;  idem, 
Barly  Day  of  Chrittianiiy,  i.  204-207.  ib.  1882;  J.  0. 
8ommer,  Dtu  ApotteitUkret,  2  parts,  Kdnigsberg,  1888-80; 
W.  F.  Slater.  Faith  and  Life  of  the  Early  Church,  London, 
1802  (exceedingly  valuable). 

APOSTOLIC  FATHERS:  A  common  designa- 
tion for  those  writers  of  the  ancient  Church  who 
were  scholars  of  apostles,  or  supposed  to  be  such; 
vii.9  Barnabas,  Hennas,  Clement  of  Rome,  Igna- 


tius,   Polycarp,    Papias,   and   the   author  of   the 

epistle  to  Diognetus  (qq.v.). 

Biblxooeapbt:  The  first  eollcction  of  the  writings  of  these 
Fathers  was  by  J.  B.  Cotelerius,  Paris.  1672  (reedited 
with  notes  by  J.  Clericus.  Antwerp,  1608,  2d  ed.,  Amster- 
dam, 1724).  Other  editions  are  by  L.  T.  Ittig.  Leipsic, 
1600;  J.  L.  Frey,  Basel,  1742;  R.  Russell.  London.  1746; 
W.  Jaoobson.  Oxford.  1838:  C.  J.  Hefele,  Tflbingen,  1855; 
E.  de  Muralto,  Bamaba  tt  Clementit  epiatolce,  voL  i., 
Zurich.  1847;  A.  R.  M.  Dressel.  Leipsic,  1863;  A.  Hilgen- 
feld.  ib.  1876-81;  O.  von  Gebhardt.  A.  Hamack,  and  T. 
Zahn,  ib.  1804;  F.  X.  Funk,  TObingen,  1001;  J.  B.  Light- 
foot.  London.  1860-00  (than  which  there  is  nothing  finer). 
Eng.  translations  are  by  W.  Wake,  London.  1603  (rev. 
ed.,  Oxford,  1861);  in  vol.  i.  of  AN F,  Edinburgh,  1867, 
American  ed.,  Bu£Falo,  1887;  C.  H  Hoole,  London,  1872; 
and  J.  B.  Lightfoot,  in  ed.  mentioned  above.  Germ, 
transl.  by  H.  Schols,  Gatersloh,  1865,  and  by  J.  C.  Mayer 
ia  Bibliothek  der  KtrchenvHter,  80  vols.,  Kempten,  1860-88. 
Consult  A.  Hamack.  Litieratur  (exhaustive);  J.  Donaldson, 
Critical  Hiatory  of  Chrutian  Literature  and  Doctrine,  London, 
1804;  J.  Nirsehl,  Lehrbuch  der  Patrologie  und  Patriatik,  3 
vols..  Mains,  18S1  -85;  J.  Alxog.  Grundriaeder  Patrologieoder 
der  OJUren  chriMichen  Literaturgeachichte,  Freiburg,  1 888;  O. 
Zdckler,  Oeechichiedertheohoiachen  Litteratur,  Gotha.  1800; 
C.  T.  Cruttwell,  Literary  Hiatory  of  Early  Chnatianity,  2 
vols..  London,  1803;  Q.  KrOger,  Geachichte  der  aUchrial- 
liehen  Litteratur,  Freiburg,  1805,  Eng.  transl..  New  York, 
1807  (altogether  the  handiest  book,  and  useful  because 
of  its  notices  of  the  literature  on  the  separate  subjects). 

APOSTOLIC  KING:  An  honorary  title  of  the 
kings  of  Hungary,  said  to  have  been  given  originally 
to  Stephen,  the  first  Christian  king  of  that  country, 
by  Pope  Sylvester  II.  (99^1003),  on  account  of  his 
religious  zeal.  It  was  renewed  and  confirmed  to 
Maria  Theresa,  for  the  Austro-Hungarian  royal  fam- 
ily, by  a  brief  of  Clement  XIII.,  Aug.  19,  1758. 

APOSTOLIC  MEN50NITES.    See  Mennonites. 

APOSTOLIC  SUCCESSION:  According  to  the 
theory  of  supporters  of  the  episcopal  form  of  church 
polity,  the  uninterrupted  succession,  from  the 
apostles  to  the  present  day,  of  bishops  and  priests 
set  apart  by  the  laying  on  of  hands.  The  Greek, 
Roman  Catholic,  and  Anglican  Churches  maintain 
that  this  succession  is  essential  to  the  validity  of 
sacramental  ministrations,  and  allow  no  one  not 
thus  ordained  to  minister  in  their  churches.  The 
last-named  body  asserts  its  possession  by  all  three; 
the  Roman  Catholic  concedes  it  to  the  Greek  but 
not  to  the  Anglican;  while  the  Greeks  regard  its 
possession  by  either  of  the  other  two  as  at  best  ex- 
ceedingly doubtful.  See  EpiscoPAnr  \  Ordination  ; 
Polity. 

Bibuoorapht:  A.  W.  Haddan.  Apoaiolieal  Sueeeeaion  in 
the  Church  of  England,  Ix>ndon,  1860;  £.  McCrady,  Apoa- 
icdieal  Succeaaion  and  the  Problem  of  Unity,  Sewanee,  1005. 

APOSTOLICI  (called  by  themselves  Apotactid, 
"  Renuntiants "):  A  heretical  sect  of  the  third 
and  fourth  centuries  which  renounced  private 
property  and  marriage.  They  existed  in  Asia 
Minor  and  are  mentioned  by  Epiphanius  {Hoer,,  Ixi.). 
They  accepted  as  Scripture  the  apocryphal  Acts 
of  Andrew  and  of  Thomas. 

APPEALS  TO  THE  POPE:  Appeals  from  lower 
officials  or  courts,  which,  considered  as  an  ordinary 
process  of  law,  with  effect  of  suspension  and  devo- 
lution, may  be  based  upon  the  pope's  capacity  of 
bishop  and  metropolitan,  or  upon  his  supposed 
primacy  over  the  entire  Catholic  world.  Those 
of  the  former  class  have  nothing  peculiar  about 
them.    As  concerns  the  latter  class,  the  third  and 


M9 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Apostolic  Oonnoll 
Appellants 


fourth  canonBof  the  Council  of  Sardica  (343)  do  not  t 
as  asserted  by  Roman  Catholic  canonists,  recognize 
such  an  appellate  jurisdiction;  and  no  such  juris- 
diction existed  earlier.  The  council  indeed  lays 
down  the  law  that  in  case  of  the  deposition  of  a 
bishop  the  matter  may  be  referred  to  the  pope, 
who  may  either  decline  to  act  (in  which  case  the 
deposition  holds  good),  or  may  order  an  investiga- 
tion by  neighboring  bishops  and  certain  specially 
appointed  priests.  But,  apart  from  the  fact  that 
the  Council  of  Sardica  is  not  recognized  as  ecu- 
menical, and  that  its  decrees  were  long  ago  known 
to  have  been  interpolated  to  bring  them  into  har- 
mony with  the  Nicene  canons,  every  true  appeal 
presupposes  a  review  of  the  formalities  and  a  de- 
cision on  the  validity  of  the  grounds  for  the  lower 
court's  sentence,  neither  of  which  is  mentioned 
in  the  Sardican  canons.  The  claim  by  the  Roman 
See  of  a  supreme  judicial  power  was  only  made 
possible  by  the  victory  of  the  orthodox  party,  always 
represented  by  Rome,  over  Arianism,  and  the  im- 
perial decision  (380)  that  the  faith  of  the  Roman 
pontiff  was  the  standard,  and  that  he  should  have 
precedence  over  all  other  bishops.  This  claim  was 
first  made  by  Innocent  I.  (402-417)  in  his  letter 
to  Victricius  of  Rouen;  attempts  to  enforce  it 
met  with  the  determined  opposition  of  the  primates, 
and  failed  until  a  firm  foundation  for  them  was 
laid  under  Leo  I.  by  a  law  of  the  emperor  Valen- 
tinian  III.  in  445. 

The  Roman  view  is  set  forth  in  more  than  one 
passage  of  the  pseudo-Isidorian  decretab.  These 
assert  that,  in  conformity  with  the  decrees  of  Sar- 
dica, bishops  may  appeal  to  Rome  in  all  causes, 
and  that  the  more  serious  ones  must  be  decided  by 
the  Roman  See,  not  by  the  bishops;  and  then  that 
not  only  in  such  cases,  but  in  all,  and  by  any 
injured  person,  appeal  may  be  made  to  the  pope. 
These  claims  were  in  accord  with  the  ideas  of  the 
twelfth  century,  and  gave  definite  form  to  the  con- 
current jurisdiction  of  the  pope,  by  which  he  might 
either  immediately  or  through  his  legates  decide 
or  call  up  questions  otherwise  belonging  to  the 
ordinary.  This  is  not  the  same  thing  as  the  appel- 
late jurisdiction;  but  the  conceptions  belonging 
to  the  latter  are  touched  by  the  assertion  that  in 
cases  where  failure  of  justice  occurs  in  the  secular 
courts,  recourse  may  be  had  from  any  tribunal 
to  the  Church,  that  is,  eventually  to  the  curia. 
Although  Alexander  III.  (1159-81)  had  admitted 
that  appeals  from  civil  tribunals,  while  customary, 
were  not  in  accordance  with  strict  legal  principles, 
Innocent  III.  (1198-1216)  affirmed  the  principle 
that  the  Church  had  the  right  to  take  measures 
against  any  sin,  and  thus  against  denial  of  justice 
by  secular  courts.  A  reaction  against  the  abuse 
of  appeals  to  Rome  was  evidenced  in  Germany  by 
the  "  Golden  Bull  "  [issued  by  the  emperor  Charles 
IV.  in  1356;  for  text  cf.  O.  Hamack,  Daa  Kurfur- 
gten-KoUegium,  Giessen,  1883],  which  forbade 
them  to  be  made  from  secular  tribunals;  by  the 
Concordat  of  Constance  (1418);  and  by  the  thirty- 
first  session  of  the  Council  of  Basel,  to  which  corre- 
sponds the  twentynsixth  section  of  the  Pragmatic 
Sanction  of  1439.  The  Concordat  established  the 
principle  that  appeals  should  be  decided  not  in 


Rome,  but  by  judices  in  partibus  ;  and  this  provision 
was  repeated  in  the  latter  two  docimients,  which 
also  forbade  appeals  per  aaUum  and  before  the  de- 
finitive sentence  of  the  lower  tribunal.  The  Council 
of  Trent  (sessions  13,  chaps.  1-3,  and  24,  chap.  20 
[held  in  1551  and  1563])  decreed  that  only  causa 
majores  should  be  taken  to  Rome,  the  others  being  de- 
cided by /tidicessj/TkMia^es,  papal  delegates  so  called 
because  their  nomination  was  left  to  the  diocesan 
and  provincial  synods.  When  it  appeared  that 
these  bodies  did  not  act  successfully.  Pope  Benedict 
XIV.  (1740-58)  transferred  the  nomination  to 
bishops  and  chapters  (judices  prosynodales)  by  the 
constitution  Qvamvis  pcUemcB  of  1741.  At  present 
the  bishops  receive  faculties  enabling  them  to 
delegate  these  nominees  in  the  pope's  name  for  a 
certain  nimiber  of  years.  Appeals  which  do  go  to 
Rome  are  referred  to  two  congregations,  that  of 
the  council  and  that  of  bishops  and  regulars. 

In  modem  times,  even  earlier  than  the  period 
of  the  emperor  Joseph  II.  (1765-90),  both  Catholic 
and  Protestant  governments  have  either  abolished 
these  appeals  or  very  strictly  limited  them;  but 
these  limitations  are  considered  by  the  curia  as  only 
de  facto;  not  de  jure,  and  the  extensive  medieval 
claims  are  still  upheld  in  theory. 

(E.  Friedbero.) 
Biblioorapht:  For  Golden  Bull  in  Eng.  consult:  Hen- 
derson, Document*,  pp.  220-221 ;  Thatcher  and  MoNeal, 
Source  Book,  pp.  283  aqq.  (cf.  pp.  329-332  on  the  gen- 
eral subject  of  appeals).  On  appeals:  0.  Phillips.  Ktr- 
chenrecht,y.  215  sqq.,  Ratisbon.  1857;  P.  Hinsohius.  JlCtr- 
dienrecht,  v.  773  sqq.,  v.  281,  Berlin.  1888-05. 

APPEL,  THEODORE:  German  Reformed  clergy- 
man; b.  atEaston,  Pa.,  Apr.  30, 1823.  He  was  educa- 
ted at  Marshall  College,  Mercersburg,  Pa.(B.A.,  1842), 
and  at  the  German  Reformed  Semmary  in  the  same 
town  (1845).  He  was  tutor  in  Greek  in  Marshall 
College  in  1842-45,  and  pastor  of  German  Reformed 
churches  atCavetown,  Md.  (1845-51),  and  Mercers- 
burg,  Pa.  (1851-53).  He  also  held  the  professor- 
ship of  mathematics  at  Marshall  College  from  1851 
to  1853,  and  was  professor  of  mathematics,  physics, 
and  astronomy  at  Franklin  and  Marshall  College 
from  1853  to  1877,  while  from  1878  to  1886  he  was 
superintendent  of  home  missions  in  the  Reformed 
Church.  He  is  secretary  of  the  Board  of  Visitors 
of  the  Reformed  Theological  Seminary  and  holds 
a  similar  office  on  the  Board  of  Home  and  Foreign 
Missions  of  the  Reformed  Church.  From  1878  to 
1886  he  edited  the  Reformed  Missionary  Herald 
and  from  1889  to  1893  the  Reformed  Church  Mes- 
senger. He  retired  from  active  life  in  1897.  In 
theology  he  adheres  to  the  Mercersburg  type  of 
doctrine  of  the  German  Reformed  Church.  In  ad- 
dition to  nimierous  contributions  to  periodicals, 
he  has  written  College  Recollections  (Reading,  Pa., 
1886);  The  Beginnings  of  the  Theological  Seminary 
of  the  Reformed  Church  (Philadelphia,  1886);  and 
The  Life  and  Work  of  Rev.  John  W  Nevin  (1889). 
He  has  likewise  edited  Nevin's  lectures  on  the  his- 
tory of  the  English  language  (Lancaster,  Pa.,  1895). 

APPELLANTS:  The  name  of  that  party,  which, 
in  the  controversy  between  the  Jansenists  and  the 
Jesuits,  rejected  the  bull  UnigenUuSy  and  appealed 
to  a  general  council.  See  Jansen,  Cornbuus, 
Jansenism. 


Appleton 
Aatiileian  Creed 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


250 


APPLETON,  JESSE:  American  Congregation- 
alist;  b.  at  New  Ipswich,  N.  H.,  Nov.  17,  1772; 
d.  at  Brunswick,  Me.,  Nov.  12,  1819.  He  was 
graduated  at  Dartmouth  1792;  ordained  minister 
at  Hampton,  N.  H.,  Feb.,  1797;  chosen  second 
president  of  Bowdoin  College,  1807.  During  the 
greater  part  of  his  term  he  acted  as  professor  of 
philosophy  and  rhetoric  and  was  pastor  of  the  Con- 
gregational Church  at  Brunswick.  His  theo- 
logical lectures  and  academic  addresses,  and  a 
selection  from  his  sermons,  with  memoir,  were 
published  at  Andover  (2  vols.,  1836). 

APPONIUS,  ap-p6'ni-us:  The  author  of  an 
exposition  of  the  Song  of  Solomon.  He  names 
himself  in  his  preface,  addressed  to  the  presbyter 
Armenius,  but  neither  the  time  nor  the  place  of 
his  activity  can  be  determined  with  certainty. 
An  approximation  to  his  date  may  be  reached  by 
means  of  the  facts  that  he  mentions  Macedonius, 
Photinus,  and  Bonosus  among  heretics,  and  that 
Bede  (d.  735)  quotes  him,  which  places  him  be- 
tween the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century  and  the 
middle  of  the  seventh — probably  nearer  the  be- 
ginning than  the  end  of  this  period,  since  he  does 
not  mention  Nestorius  and  Eutyches  among  his 
heretics.  Mai  identified  Armenius  with  the  per- 
sonage of  that  name  associated  with  Agnellus,  and 
accordingly  fixed  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century 
as  Apponius's  date.  His  insistence  on  the  position 
of  Peter  as  vicar  of  Christ  has  been  thought  to 
point  to  Rome  or  its  vicinity  as  the  place  of  his 
residence.  His  interpretation  of  the  Canticles 
is  entirely  mystical  and  spiritual,  regarding  it  as 
an  exposition  of  the  relations  of  God  with  his 
Church.  (A.  Hauck.) 

Bibuoorapht:  Books  i.-vi.  of  Apponius's  work  are  in  the 
Bibliotheca  fnaxima  patrum  LttifdunentiBt  xiv.  08  M]q., 
1677,  and  in  the  Biblioiheca  patrum,  of  De  la  Eigne,  i.  763 
■qq.,  Paris,  1689;  books  vii.,  viii.,  and  the  first  half  of  ix., 
in  Bfai,  SpicUegium  Romanum,  v.  1  sqq.;  the  complete 
work  is  edited  by  H.  Bottina  and  I.  Biartins,  Rome,  1843. 

APPROBATION  OF  BOOKS.      See  Censorship. 

APSE  (APSIS):  The  semicircular  or  semioctag- 
onal  enclosure  with  which  the  choir  of  the  old^r 
Christian  churches  generally  terminates.  The 
ground-plan  of  this  enclosure  is  an  arc,  on  the  chord 
of  which  the  altar  is  raised,  while  the  bishop's 
throne  is  placed  in  the  center,  against  the  wall, 
with  rows  of  benches  for  the  clergy  on  both  sides, 
sometimes  one  row  above  the  other  (apsides  gror 
data).  In  the  Rocban  basilica,  or  hall  of  justice, 
which  in  numerous  cases  was  actually  turned  into 
a  Christian  church  with  very  slight  modifications, 
while  its  ground-plan  formed  the  starting-point 
for  all  Christian  church  architecture,  the  exterior 
form  of  the  building  was  perfectly  rectangular, 
and  the  apse,  with  its  seats  for  the  magistrate  and 
the  officers  of  the  court,  was  formed  internally. 

There  are  still  churches  extant  on  this  plan,  and 
they  are  the  oldest;  such  as  the  Sta.  Croce  in  Ge- 
rusalemme  in  Rome,  and  several  others  in  Africa 
and  Asia  Minor,  all  of  the  third  century.  In 
churches  of  the  fifth  century,  such  as  Sant'  Apolli- 
nare  in  Classe  at  Ravenna,  etc.,  the  apse  has  gener- 
ally become  visible  also  in  the  exterior  form ;  and 
not  only  the  choir,  but  also  the  aisles,  terminate 


in  apses.  In  St.  Sophia  in  Constantinople,  and  in 
churches  built  after  that  model,  the  transepts  are 
provided  with  apses;  and,  in  some  few  cases  in 
Germany,  such  as  the  Church  of  Reichenau  on  the 
Lake  of  Constance,  the  choir  has  apses  at  both 
ends.    See  Archttscture,  Ecclesiastical. 

AQUARn,  Q-cw^'ri-oi  ("Water  People"):  The 
name  given  by  Philastrius  (/few.,  Ixxvii.;  cf.  Au- 
gustine, Hcer.f  Ixiv.;  ProBdestinaius,  bdv.)  to  cer- 
tain Christians  who  used  water  instead  of  wine 
in  the  Lord's  Supper  (q.v.).  G.  KrCger. 

AQUAVIVA,  Q"cwa-vi'va,  CLAUDIO:  Fifth  gen- 
eral of  the  Jesuits;  b.  at  Naples  Sept.  14,  1543; 
d.  at  Rome  Jan.  31,  1615.  He  studied  at  Rome, 
joined  the  order  in  1567,  and  was  chosen  its  general 
in  1581.  He  showed  himself  a  highly  capable  ruler 
in  the  midst  of  difficulties  both  within  the  order 
and  without.  The  Spanish  Jesuits  organized  a  re- 
volt against  him  and  had  the  support  of  the 
Inquisition,  King  Philip  II.,  and  Pope  Clement 
VIII.,  but  he  ultimately  established  himself  all  the 
firmer  from  the  very  attacks  which  were  intended 
to  overthrow  him.  In  the  dispute  between  the 
Dominicans  and  the  Jesuits  following  the  publica- 
tion of  Molina's  book  on  free  will  (see  Molina)  he 
supported  the  latter  skilfully  and  successfully.  It 
was  imder  Aquaviva's  leadership  that  the  order 
reached  its  assured  position  in  the  world.  He 
wrote  IndustruB  pro  superioribus  ad  curandos  ani- 
mcB  morbos  (Florence,  1600),  and  compiled  the 
oldest  Ratio  studiorum  (Rome,  1586)  and  the  Direc- 
torium  exercitiorum  sancti  Ignalii  (1591).  His  let- 
ters addressed  to  the  members  of  the  order  are  in 
the  EpistoUs  prcgpositorum  generalium  sodetatis 
Jesu,  Antwerp,  1635,  and  have  been  printed  in 
other  editions. 

AQUILA,  ac'wi-la:  1.  Translator  of  the  Old 
Testament  into  Greek;  see  Bible  Versions,  A, 
L,2,  §   1. 

2.  A  Jewish  Christian  from  Pontus,  who  was 
intimately  connected  with  Paul,  and  is  always 
mentioned  in  connection  with  his  wife,  Prisca  (so 
in  Paul  according  to  the  best  readings)  or  Priscilla 
(Luke),  whose  name  is  usually  put  first.  When 
the  first  epistle  to  the  Corinthians  was  written  the 
pair  lived  at  Ephesus  (I  Cor.  xvi.  19),  and  their 
house  was  a  meeting-place  for  the  congregation 
there.  It  may  be  inferred  that  they  were  well 
known  to  the  Corinthians,  probably  from  a  resi- 
dence at  Corinth,  and  this  is  confirmed  by  the  Acts, 
according  to  which  Aquila  and  Priscilla,  being  driven 
from  Rome  by  the  order  of  Claudius,  settled  at 
Corinth  shortly  before  Paul's  arrival  there  (xviii.  1-3). 
If  this  expulsion  is  connected  with  disturbances 
among  the  Roman  Jews  due  to  Christianity,  it  is 
not  impossible  that  the  pair  were  already  Chris- 
tians, and  this  view  is  favored  by  the  fact  that  Paul 
stayed  with  them.  From  Corinth  they  went  to 
Ephesus  with  Paul  (Acts  xviii.  18),  and  here  Apol- 
los  was  instructed  in  Christianity  by  them  (xviii. 
26).  From  Rom.  xvi.  3-5  they  seem  to  have  been 
in  Rome  when  that  epistle  was  written;  but  this 
passage  is  thought  by  some  to  be  out  of  place  and 
properly  to  belong  to  an  epistle  directed  to  the 
EphesiaoB;  II  Tim.  iv.  19  'puts  them  again  at 


201 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Appleton 
Aanileian  Creed 


EpheauH,  According  to  later  tradition,  Aquila  be- 
came bishop  of  Heraclea ;  according  to  another  tra* 
dition,  he  suffered  martyrdom  with  his  wUe  (cf, 
ASB,  July  8).  (P.  EwALU.) 

AQUaA  (ABLER)  KASPAR:  Lutheran;  b.  at 
Augsburg  Aug.  7,  1488;  d.  at  Saalfeld  (65  m.  s.w. 
of  LeipRic),  Thiamgia,  Nov.  12,  1560.  He  studied 
at  Leipaic  (1510)  and,  after  15! 3,  at  Wittenberg. 
In  1515-16  he  appears  to  have  been  chaplain  to 
Prans  von  Sickingen  during  his  campaigns  against 
Worms  and  Metss;  from  1517  to  1521  he  ofBciated 
aa  pastor  at  Jengen,  near  Augsburgi  where,  influ- 
enced by  the  writings  of  LutherT  he  became  an 
adherent  of  the  Reformation.  In  Jan,,  1521,  he 
went  to  Wittenberg  to  obtain  hie  m aster ^s  degree. 
During  the  next  two  years  (1523-23)  he  was  again 
with  Sickingen;  then  he  returned  to  his  home,  and 
was  imprisoned  at  DilUngen  by  the  biahop  of  Augs- 
burg (Sept.j  1523).  He  was  soon  liberatetij  however, 
and  went  to  Wittenberg,  where  he  rendered  Luther 
valuable  aid  in  the  translation  of  the  Old  Testament. 
Through  Luther's  influence  he  became  minister  at 
Saalfeld  ( 1527)  and  was  present  at  the  Diet  of  Augs- 
burg in  1530,  In  1548  he  published  a  virulent  attack 
against  hla  former  friend,  Agricola^  because  of  the 
latter's  support  of  the  Interim  of  1548.  The  em- 
peror set  a  price  on  his  head  and  Aquila  sought 
refuge  with  the  counts  of  Henneberg.  In  1550  he 
became  dean  of  the  Collegiate  Institute  at  Schmal- 
kald  but  returned  two  years  later  to  Saalfeld. 

(G.  Kawerau*) 
BiaLia>onAPHY:  Hi^  life  in  given  by  J,  Aveoariui.   Kunt 

ujid  Tod  Caspari  Aquila,  hp\[tmc*    1737    (Mpecl&lly   rich); 
F.    Oenaler,    Vita,  .7eD&.  IIJ16:    P.  Both,  Aua§lrttrB»  Aefor- 

AQthXEIA,  a"ewi-l^'ya,  PATRIARCHATE  AITD 
SYKODS :  Aquileia,  or  Aglar,  a  town  at  the  north 
end  of  the  Adriatic  (45  m.  e.n.e.  of  Venice),  was 
originally  a  Roman  oiitpost  against  the  Celts  and 
Istriana  and  was  a  place  of  commercial  importance 
as  early  as  the  reign  of  Augustus.  Tradition  as- 
cribes the  foimding  of  its  church  to  Mark  the 
Evangelist,  who  is  eaid  to  have  come  from  Rome 
and  consecrated  St.  Hermagoras  (alleged  to  have 
died  as  a  martyr)  as  its  first  bishop.  Somewhat 
lesa  legendary  1%  the  tradition  that  its  bishop,  He- 
lama  or  Hilarius,  suffered  martyrdom  there  about 
285.  Its  bishop,  Valerianus  (369-3S8),  the  fellow 
combatant  of  Ambrose  against  the  Arians,  appeal^  as 
metropolitan,  and  presided  at  the  first  Aquileian  pro- 
vincial council  (381),  which  waa  attended  by  thirty- 
two  bishops  from  Upper  Italy,  Gaul,  and  Africa; 
it  excommunicated  and  deposed  the  Illyric  bishop 
Palladius  who  leaned  toward  Arianism-  When 
the  Lombards  invaded  Upper  Italy,  the  metro- 
politan Paul  transferred  his  seat  from  Aquileia  to  the 
isle  of  Grado  {5fiB).  The  Aquileian  metropolitans 
residing  there  refused  to  acknowledge  the  fifth  ecu- 
menical council  of  553,  convened  by  Justinian  I., 
and  remained  in  this  schismatic  opposition  nearly 
150  years.  An  effort  of  Gregory  the  Great  to  bring 
them  back  to  the  Roman  Church  failed,  ernce  the 
eynod  convened  by  the  metropolitan  Severus  (586- 
607)  at  Grado  (c.  600)  still  refused  to  acknowledge 
th«  council.    The  sueceasor  of  Severus,  Candidianus 


(died  c.  612),  accepted  the  catholic  orthodox  tradi- 
tion, but  the  schism  continued,  nevertheless. 
Under  the  protection  of  the  Lombards  a  number 
of  schismatic  antibishops  were  created,  who  re- 
sumed their  seat  in  Aquileia  and  took  the  title  of 
Patriarch,  and  the  bishops  of  Grado  soon  followed 
their  escample.  The  controveray  did  not  cease 
when  in  698  the  Aqufleian  Patriarch  Peter  (induced 
by  Sergius  I.  of  Rome)  abjured  his  schism.  On 
the  contrary,  both  patriarchates,  that  of  Aquileia 
and  that  of  Grado,  maintained  themselves  side  by 
side  tiU  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century.  Re- 
pea  tc^d  efforts  of  the  popes  (such  as  that  of  Leo  IX. 
by  the  bulla  circumscriptiimiB  of  1053)  to  effect  a 
reconcihation  were  unsuccessful.  When  Nicolaua 
V,  in  1451  abohshed  the  patriarchate  of  Grado, 
and  established  one  for  Venice,  the  incumbents  of 
the  Aquileian  see  were  placed  in  a  difficult  position; 
both  Venice  and  Austria,  to  whose  territory 
Aquileia  belonged,  as  well  as  Udine  and  Cividale, 
where  the  Aquileians  had  commonly  resided  since 
the  early  Middle  Ages,  obtained  the  right  of  appoint- 
ment. The  difficulties  were  finally  adjusted  300 
years  later  by  Benedict  XIV.,  who  abohshed  the 
Aquileian  patriarchate  by  the  bull  injunctum  (1751) 
and  founded  in  its  place  two  archbishoprics,  one  at 
Udine  for  Venetian  Friuli  to  be  filled  by  Venice, 
and  the  other  at  G6rz  for  Austrian  Friuli  to  be  fiUed 
by  Vienna.  Several  (*ynods  more  or  lesa  note- 
worthy were  called  by  the  Aquileian  patriarchs 
during  the  Middle  Ages,  One  at  Friuli  (Forum 
Julii)  m  796  under  Paulinus  (787-802),  the  friend 
of  Alcuin  and  theological  counselor  of  Charlemagne, 
declared  against  the  Greek  dogma  of  the  procession 
of  the  Holy  Spirit.  There  were  several  in  the  four- 
teenth century  (1305,  1311,  1339,  etc.).  The  last 
of  importance  met  in  Ovidale  in  1400  at  the  call  of 
Gregory  XlL  in  opposition  to  the  reform -council 
at  Pisa.  O.  ZdcKLKuf. 

BtBLiooaAmr:  B.  M.  de  RubelB^  MtmumBnia  ecde^a:  Aquiitj- 
enn§,  Stnubure,  1 740;  G.  Foat^iLim,  lli&torvi  liUerana 
AquU^itnnM^  Eomflr  1742;  Hefel«,  ConctiiensifH^ichU,  ii. 
uid  vi.;  P.  B.  Game,  Series  epiteoporMm  efdetim  aitholitm^ 
pp.  772  Bqq.,  701  flqq,,  RcgeriBburitt  IS 73;  Meifr4sr>  Daa  Ctm- 
cilium  von  Cividale,  in  /fwioriicA**  Jahrbtidi  rfcr  GUrrvi 
GtmdUchafi,  ^iv.  320  aqq.,  Munich.  18£>3. 

AQUILEIAH  CREED:  The  creed  of  the  Church 
of  Aquileia  a^  given  by  the  Aquileian  Rufinua  (Ex~ 
pQ&Uio  »ymboli  apostohrum,  MFLf  xxi.)  forma  « 
parallel  to  the  older,  shorter  Roman  baptismal 
formula  with  three  interesting  variants:  (1)  At 
the  end  of  the  first  article  it  adds  to  Deo  Patre  om- 
nipotente  the  wonlH  invimbili  et  impassibili  (prob- 
ably   as    explanation    against     Patripassianiam); 

(2)  In  the  second  article,  between  the  words  ae- 
puUua  and  ieriia  die  r^surrexU  it  puts  a  reference  to 
Christ's  descent  into  Hades  (I  Pet,  iii.  19;  Eph,  iv* 
9)  by  the  words  d^scendU  ad  infema — the  oldest 
catholic  orthodox  confession  of  this  article  of  faith, 
since  the  synod  at  Sirmium  in  358  and  Nic^a  369 
which   mention   the   same   fact   were   semi-Arian; 

(3)  In  article  iii.  it  inserts  huju*%  before  camu 
res  urrecfwjnem,  thus  emphasising  the  identity  of  the 
resurrection 'body  with  the  eartldy  body  of  man. 
The  creed  of  the  ancient  churches  of  Friuli  pub- 
lished by  B.  M.  de  Eubeis  (Dissertatio  de  lilnrgiciaj 
Venice.   1754)  from  a  scndMum  c&iechumenoruiA 


Aqnlnas 
Arabia 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


252 


Forojuliense  of  the  sixth  century  (cf.  the  text  in 
Hahn,  43-44)  differs  from  that  of  Rufinus,  and  the 
three  characteristic  formulas  of  the  latter  men- 
tioned above,  are  wanting.  One  of  these  formulas 
at  least,  the  descendU  ad  infema  is  also  found  in  the 
parallel  text  transmitted  by  Venantius  Fortimatus 
(ExposUio  symbolic  xi.  1),  which  must  be  regarded 
as  an  excerpt  from  the  text  of  Rufinus  (Hahn,  45- 
46).  The  Explanaiio  aymboli  of  Bishop  Nicetas  (or 
Niceta),  which  has  often  been  regarded  as  a  paral- 
lel text  to  the  Aquileian  confession,  has  nothing  to 
do  with  it,  since  the  bishop  in  question  had  his  see 
not  at  Romatiana  (or  Portus  Romatianus)  near 
Aquileia,  but  at  Remesiana  in  Dacia  (see  Nicetas 
OF  Remesiana).  O.  ZdcKLERf. 

Bibuooraphy:  A.  Hahn,  Bibliothek  der  Symbole  und  Olau- 
benareffeln  der  alten  Kirche,  Breslau,  1897;  F.  Kattenbusch, 
Daa  apostoliache  Symbol,  i.  102-132.  Leipsic,  1894;  Schaff, 
Creeds,  ii.  49-50  (gives  sources  and  the  text  with  notes). 

AQUINAS.    See  Thouas  Aquinas. 

ARABU. 

I.  Use  of  the  Name.  III.  History. 

II.  Geography  and  Topogra-  IV.  Religion. 

phy. 

L  Use  of  the  Name :  The  root-meaning  of  the 
Semitic  word  is  "  dry  "  or  "  sterile  ";  as  a  noun  it 
means  "  desert."  (1)  Old  Testament  Usage.  The 
term  occurs  first  as  a  place  name,  Jer.  xxv.  24  (Isa. 
xiii.  20,  where  it  is  equivalent  to  "  nomad,"  is 
exilic  or  later).  In  earlier  passages  it  is  simply 
"desert."  Ezekiel  (xxvii.  21)  and  the  Chronicler 
(II  Chron.  xvii.  11;  xxi.  16;  xxii.  1;  xxvi.  7;  Neh. 
ii.  19;  iv.  7;  vi.  1)  use  it  as  a  national  appellative. 
In  the  early  parts  of  the  Bible  the  Arabs  are  called 
Amalekites,  Ishmaelites,  Midianites,  the  Me*onim 
(=Min£eans,  see  III.  below),  and  the  like.  (2) 
New  Testament  Usage.  In  Acts  ii.  11  the  use  cor- 
responds to  that  of  late  passages  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. The  Arabia  of  Paul's  retirement  (Gal.  i. 
17),  usually  taken  as  the  Syrian  desert,  is  rather 
the  Sinaitic  peninsula  (cf.  Gal.  iv.  25).  (3)  As- 
syrian Usage.  The  inscriptions  later  thim  the  ninth 
century  b.c.  contain  frequent  allusions  to  Arabs, 
but  generally  mean  only  those  of  the  Syrian  desert. 
With  these  contact  was  frequent.  Tiglath  Pileser 
III.  invaded  the  peninsula,  as  did  Esarhaddon.  In 
earlier  times  the  country  was  known  to  Babylo- 
nians as  Magan,  and  is  often  mentioned.  (4)  The 
Arabic  Usage.  According  to  Ndldeke  (EncycUypcBdia 
Biblica,  i.  21  A)  the  term  •*  Arab  "  was  in  early  (pre- 
Christian?)  use  by  the  Arabs  themselves  as  a  gen- 
eral term  denoting  the  inhabitants  of  the  peninsula. 
It  was  so  employed  during  Mohammed's  lifetime, 
though  several  passages  in  the  Koran  apply  the  term 
to  nomads  as  distinct  from  inhabitants  of  towns. 
(5)  Greek  Usage  employs  the  word  inexactly  of  the 
nomads  of  the  Syrian  desert,  but  Herodotus  (ii.  11; 
iii.  107-113;  iv.  39)  means  by  "Arabia"  the  pen- 
insula. (6)  In  the  following  discussion  "Arabia" 
will  mean  only  the  peninsula  south  of  a  line  drawn 
from  the  head  of  the  Persian  Gulf  to  the  south- 
east extremity  of  the  Mediterranean,  thus  ex- 
cluding the  region  commonly  known  as  the  Syrian 
desert. 

n.  Geography  and  Topography :  Only  the  edges 
of  the  peninsula  have  been  explored  by  Europeans. 


(For  a  history  of  exploration,  cf.  the  chapter  by 
Hommel  in  Hilprecht,  Exploraiions  in  Bible  Lands^ 
Philadelphia,  1903,  691-752;  D.  G.  Hogarth,  The 
Penetration  of  Arabia^  London,  1904.)  For  infor- 
mation about  the  central  regions  dependence  must 
be  placed  upon  Arab  geographers;  "  mostly  unex- 
plored "  is  Hommers  significant  phrase  (Hilprecht, 
697).  (1)  Physical  Features,  The  shape  is  that 
of  a  thick-legged  boot,  with  the  toe  toward  the  east. 
The  peninsula  is  about  1,400  miles  in  length  by 
from  600  to  1,200  in  width.  It  consists  of  a  narrow 
belt  of  fertile  sea-plain  around  the  east,  south,  and 
west  sides,  terminated  by  a  chain  of  mountains, 
practically  continuous,  rising  abruptly  to  a  height 
of  4,000  to  10,000  feet,  through  which  passes  give 
access  to  a  central  plateau,  which  in  its  highest 
parts  is  8,000  feet  above  the  sea.  Arabia  has  no 
river  system,  only  a  system  of  wadies  or  valleys. 
In  these,  during  the  dry  season,  the  waters  sink 
below  the  surface  to  be  foimd  only  by  digging;  and 
the  waters  of  the  interior,  collected  temporarily  in 
the  wadies,  lose  themselves  in  the  sand.  (2)  Cli- 
mate. Lying  as  Arabia  does  between  12®  40'  and 
32°  n.  lat.,  its  prevailing  temperature  is  high,  not- 
withstanding its  elevation.  The  interior  is  also 
very  dry,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  mountains  in- 
tercept the  moisture  from  the  sea.  Different  parts 
of  the  coast  region  have  a  rainy  season  which  dif- 
fers curiously  in  time;  Yemen  (the  southwestern 
comer)  has  its  rains  between  June  and  September. 
Oman  (the  southeastern  projection),  between  Feb- 
ruary and  April,  and  Hadramaut  (the  southern 
coast  district),  between  April  and  September. 
(3)  The  fringing  sea-plain  possesses  great  fertility, 
though  generally  untilled.  The  most  of  the  interior 
plateau  is  desert,  either  of  sand  or  of  gravel  and 
stone.  But  there  are  areas  of  surprising  fertility, 
some  of  considerable  extent,  as  ia  involved  in  the 
existence  of  the  kingdoms  owning  sway  over  settled 
populations  (see  III.  below).  A  smaller  area  is 
imder  cultivation  now  than  in  early  times  owing 
to  the  decay  of  works  of  irrigation.  (4)  Fauna 
and  Flora.  The  animal  life  as  conditioned  by  the 
climate  includes  of  course  the  camel;  the  lion, 
leopard,  wolf,  fox,  hyena,  and  jackal  are  the  beasts 
of  prey  and  carrion;  the  antelope,  gazelle,  ibex, 
and  hare  are  the  game  animals;  the  jerboa  repre- 
sents the  rodents;  and  the  marmot  and  ostrich  are 
natives.  The  qualities  of  the  Arab  horse  (not  a 
native)  will  be  at  once  recalled.  The  flora  is  char- 
acterized by  the  date-palm,  fig-tree,  aromatic  herbs, 
and  the  coffee-berry.  (5)  Inhabitants.  The  state- 
ment has  generally  passed  muster  that  the  inhab- 
itants of  the  peninsula  are  the  purest  type  of  Semites. 
The  isolation  of  the  coimtry  makes  this  a  priori 
reasonable.  The  mental  ch^ucteristics  of  the  race 
are  depth  and  strength  of  emotion,  consequent 
warmth  of  feeling  and  brilliancy  of  expression, 
philosophical  shallowness  and  metaphysical  inepti- 
tude, imagination  of  great  power,  a  tremendous 
fixedness  of  will  leading  to  fanatical  intensity,  and 
temperance  in  all  but  sexual  relations.  (6 )  Commerce, 
The  products  of  Arabia  have  been  remarkable 
for  concentration  rather  than  for  bulk.  Incense, 
spices,  aromatic  herbs,  essences,  gold,  emeralds, 
agate,   and  onyx  have  been  the  staples  of  its 


MS 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Aquinas 
Arabia 


trade.     Before  1000  B.C.,  the  Arabs  were  the  com^ 
mon  carriers  of  Eastern  trade. 

nL  History:  The  function  of  Arabia  in  world- 
history  has  been  to  serve  as  the  cradle,  if  not  the 
birth-place,  of  the  Semitic  race.  For  this  it  was 
well  fitted,  isolated  as  it  is  by  three  seas  and  a 
trackless  desert.  At  almost  regular  intervals  it 
has  sent  forth  hordes  of  Semites  in  waves  of  migra- 
tion to  become  makers  of  history.  The  first  of 
these  made  the  initial  conquest  of  the  pre-Semitic 
civilization  of  the  lower  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  and 
is  represented  by  the  great  names  of  Sargon  I.  and 
his  son  Naram-Sin,  about  3800  b.c.  It  was  possi- 
bly the  second  wave  which  gave  to  Babylonia  the 
Arabic  dynasty  which  began  to  rule  about  2400  B.C., 
represented  best  by  the  renowed  Hammurabi  (q.v.; 
possibly  the  Amraphel  of  Gen.  xiv.),  the  codifier 
of  Babylonian  law.  The  third  wave  was  the  Ara- 
mean  migration,  assigned  to  about  the  seventeenth 
pre-Christian  century,  of  which  the  Hebrews  were  an 
offshoot.  The  Nabatceans  (fifth  to  third  centuries 
B.C.)  were  the  foiulh,  and  the  Mohammedan  exo- 
dus made  the  last  of  this  remarkable  series  of  mi- 
grations. It  looks  as  though  Arabia's  function  had 
been  to  nourish  her  sons  for  a  millennium  and  then 
to  send  them  forth  to  conquer  an  empire.  The 
general  conception  that  Arabia  was  wholly  a  coun- 
try of  nomads  is  not  true.  Recent  exploration,  par- 
tial though  it  is,  has  proved  that  not  only  are  there 
regions  of  thickly  settled  populations  and  numerous 
wdl-built  cities  in  the  present,  but  that  there  were 
several  kingdoms  of  considerable  importance  at 
least  as  early  as  1000  b.c.  Three  of  the  most  noted 
are  the  Minsean,  Sabean,  and  Hadramautic,  situ- 
ated in  the  south,  but  on  the  plateau;  and  those  of 
Meluhha,  Gush,  and  Mizri  in  the  north,  southeast 
from  the  Edomitic  territory.  The  last  two  are  re- 
ferred to  in  the  Old  Testament,  but  are  there  con- 
fused with  Ethiopia  and  Egypt,  since  the  Hebrew 
name  of  the  former  is  Gush  and  of  the  latter  Miz- 
raim.  The  investigations  of  Doughty,  Hal^vy,  and 
Glaser,  to  mention  only  these  among  a  host  of  au- 
thorities, and  the  inscriptions  now  in  the  hands  of 
scholars,  render  incontrovertible  the  existence  of  a 
Bfimean  realm  as  early  as  Solomon's  time,  and  make 
it  probable  that  this  kingdom  was  subdued  by  a 
sovereign  of  the  Sabean  power  (the  Sheba  of 
Scripture),  which  latter  continued  down  to  500  b.c. 
or  later.  About  the  Christian  era  the  Himyaritic 
or  Ethiopian  kingdom  ruled  in  southern  Arabia. 
While  there  are  traces  of  Minsean  and  Sabean  domi- 
nation in  northern  Arabia,  it  is  unlikely  that  the 
peninsula  was  unified  govemmentally  before  Mo- 
hammed's day.  In  spite  of  what  has  been  said  of 
the  kingdoms  of  Arabia,  the  general  idea  that  the 
Arab  ia  a  nomad  is  nearly  correct.  Tribal  life  is  to 
him  the  normal  one.  Mohammed's  miracle,  there- 
fore, was  not,  as  he  claimed,  the  Koran,  but  a  united 
Arabia.  Before  him,  Arabia  was  one  great  battle- 
ground of  the  tribes.  The  occupations  of  the  peo- 
ple were  commerce  and  pasturage;  their  pastimes 
were  the  feast,  the  chase,  or  the  pursuit  of  venge- 
ance in  the  blood-feud  or  of  war  for  plvmder  or 
^ory.  A  striking  feature  was  the  month  of  truce 
during  which  feud  and  war  were  suspended  that 
the  tribes  might  in  peace  revisit  and  worship  at 


the  shrines  of  their  tribal  deities.     For  the  rest  of 
the  year,  fighting  was  legal  and  normal. 

IV.  Religion:  When  Mohammed  chose  Allah 
as  his  god,  he  took  one  whose  name  wss  already 
common  property  throughout  the  country.  The 
three  goddesses  who  were  daughters  of  AUah  (cf. 
Wellhausen,  Reste  arabiachen  Hevdenthums^  Berlin, 
1897,  24  sqq.)  and  were  widely  worshiped,  testify 
to  this  fact.  But  the  Koran  testifies  to  the  domi- 
nance of  idolatry;  the  Kaaba  was  a  home  of  idols. 
W.  R.  Smith  has  demonstrated  the  existence  of  ani- 
mism, with  the  consequent  or  accompanying  to- 
temism,  as  native  and  persistent  among  Arabs. 
Stone-worship,  the  cults  of  local  gods,  the  bloody 
and  the  mystic  sacrifice,  especially  the  primitive 
sacrifice  in  which  god  and  worshipers  were  clan- 
brothers  and  commensals,  are  proved  facts  for  this 
region.  All  of  which  is  to  say  that  the  gods  of 
Arabia  were  many.  Yet  the  civilization  of  cities 
implies  the  supereminence  of  some  gods  with  a 
prestige  which  lifted  them  above  the  horde  of  little 
deities.  These  greater  gods  were  heaven-gods,  a 
consequence  of  the  clear  atmosphere  and  brilliant 
skies.  Examples  of  these  are  Athtar,  a  male  deity, 
the  evening  or  morning  star  (north-Semitic,  Ishtar, 
female),  and  Wadd,  the  moon-god,  known  also  as 
Amm  and  regnant  over  love.  Sun-deities  of  different 
names  were  numerous  and  were  often  feminine. 
But  underlying  the  cult  of  these  more  prominent 
gods  was  that  of  the  local  divinities,  the  more  cher- 
ished favorites  of  the  tribes  and  clans.  Sometimes 
the  images  or  symbols  of  tribal  gods  were  collected 
in  some  shrine  which  then  became  the  goal  of  pil- 
grimage,— the  case  of  the  Kaaba  at  Mecca.  The 
"  Black  Stone  "  in  the  Kaaba,  the  only  official 
relic  of  ancient  Arabia,  is  pronoimced  meteoric.  It 
is  a  remainder  of  a  once  dominant  fetishism. 

Owing  to  the  difficulties  offered  by  the  physical 
character  of  the  country  and  the  rigid  Mohammed- 
anism of  the  people  Arabia  is  not  a  promising  field 
for  Christian  missionary  enterprise.  A  few  sporadic 
attempts  have  been  made,  however,  in  some  of  the 
coast  towns,  where  foreign  influence  most  readily 
finds  entrance.  There  is  a  Roman  Catholic  vicar 
apostolic  for  Arabia  with  residence  at  Aden. 

Geo.  W.  Gilmore. 

Biblioorapht:  For  the  geography  r^sum^s  of  the  resulto 
of  travelers  are  found  in  the  chapter  of  Hommel  and  the 
work  by  Hogarth  mentioned  in  the  text.  For  a  view  of 
the  facts  gleaned  from  native  sources  consult  R.  Ritter, 
Erdkunde  von  Atx^nen,  8th  double  volume  or  xii.-xiii.  of 
his  collected  works,  Berlin,  1846-47;  A.  Sprenger,  Die 
alte  Geographie  Arabiena,  Bern,  1875;  E.  Glaser,  Skizze 
der  OeachuJUe  und  Geographie  Arabiena,  2  vols.,  Berlin. 
1890.  For  reports  of  travels,  J.  L.  Burckhardt.  Travels 
in  Arabia,  2  vols.,  London,  1829  (a  classic);  C.  Niebuhr, 
Reisebeechreibung  nach  Arabien,  2  vob..  Copenhagen. 
1774-78,  French  ed.,  Amsterdam.  1776-80;  T.  R.  WeU- 
sted.  Travels  in  Arabia,  London.  1838;  W.  G.  Palgrave, 
Narrative  of  a  Year's  Journey  thrgugh  Central  and  Eastern 
Arabia,  2  vols.,  London,  1862-63;  A.  Zehme,  Arabien  und 
dieAraber  seit  hunderl  Jahren,  Halle.  1875;  C.  M.  Doughty. 
Travels  in  Arabia  Deserta,  2  vols.,  Cambridge,  1888;  E. 
Nolde,  Reise  nach  Innerarabien,  Brunswick,  1895;  R.  E. 
Brunnowand  A.  von  Domasxewski,  Dte  Provincia  Arabia^ 
vols,  i.-ii.,  Strasburg,  1904-06, 80  mks.  per  vol.  For  history 
C.  de  Perceval,  Essat  sur  Vhistoirr) des  Arabes  avant  Vlslor' 
tnisme,  Paris,  1847-49;  Ahmed  Khan  Bahadur,  The  Histor- 
ical Geography  of  Arabia,  1840  (deals  with  the  history 
and  geography  of  pre-Jslamic  times);  L.  A.  Sedillot,  HiS' 
ioire  gfnirale  des  Arabes,  Paris,  1876;  E.  Glaser.  Die  Abes- 


Arabians 
Aram 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


254 


aiiatr  in  Arabia  vnd  difrica^  Munich.  1SS9;  H.  WinekJeT. 
AttorieniatUcfit  ForMckunfftn.  2d  wtk^,  L  2,  Leipaic.  1808. 
For  inscripvi«iis  and  tlw  iauRuaap-  Oseandert  in  S£BAiti\ 
ii».  (m«6).  158^ 29S*  iLt.  (ISea)  1^05-287;  h\  Hommcl. 
SOdamtn^chfChreMUmuitinii.  Mimich.  IB^^:  idem,  ZDMG, 
liii.  (I&99),  pt.  I:  J,  HaJ^vy,  in  JA^  wrbsfl,  si*,  Furthe 
pvopte:  J.  L.  Burckhariit  N&Um  on  ike  Bedouiiui  and  Wa- 
kubie*^  2  vols,,  Londctn.  1831:  S,  M.  Zwemer,  Arabia  ihe 
CTodk  i>f  Itiam^  Ne«r  Yi>rk,  1 900  IdeaLi  dao  with  mi^ioD- 
ftry  work).  For  the  religion;  Ahmed  Kbati  Bahadur*  u.n,: 
Smith,  ffff^.  of  Stm:  idem.  JCtmAtp;  J,  WeUhauMti, 
Retle  arabiaphen  //cvjenfunu*  Berlin,  1807:  G.  A.  Btuiion, 
;1  Sketch  of  Semitic  Orioin*,  New  York*  1902;  D*  NielMn, 
Dit  altarabixclie  M&ndrettgimit  Slrasbunii  1Q04, 

AltABIAIfS  {Lat*  j1  rafeurt)*  A  name  given  by 
Augustine  {Haer.,  Uxxiii.)  to  sectaries  in  Arabia, 
mentioned  by  Eusebius  [HtsL  e^cL,  vi  37),  whosaya 
that  they  held  that  the  human  soul  dies  with  the 
body  and  wiU  riae  with  it  on  the  Day  of  Reaurrection , 
Origen  combated  this  opinion  at  an  Arabian  synod 
about  246-  Consult  Walch,  Historiii  der  Ketxerekn, 
ii  167-171;  K  R.  Redepenning,  Ongtnea,  u.  (Bonn, 
1846)  105  sqq  G,  KrCoeh. 

ARABIC  GOSPEL  OF  THE  IHFAHCY.  See 
Apocrypha,  B,  L,  6* 

AKAKIH.     Bee  Talmud. 

ARAH,     rram*    ARAMEAB5,    ar"a-mi'anz,    AND 
THE  ARAMAIC  LANGUAGE- 

The  Name.     Old  T^istament  Lliagp  {%  1), 
OHein  of  the  ArameAns  ii  2). 
Religiot}  KiBh 

Eit«nt  of  Arame^n  Bettlem^ntn  (J  51. 

Aciivity  and  KntcrpTise  of  the  AranireiLiu  (|  6)* 

The  Ammennft  of  MesHjpotamia  ( j  7 J. 

Their  Plfli»  iu  Biblical  BMory  (J  S>. 

Olies  and  Stntca  in  Southern  Syria  {f  9). 

The  Ariun*aQi  of  DanuiNriTUJ  nnd  larjiel  TBf  10)* 

Spread  of  Aramesci  Itiflueuee  m  Later  Timet  (f  1 1  )< 

Aram  is  the  Old  Te'itament  designation  for  the 
Semitic  Arameana  or  Syrians  settled  in  Syria  and 
MeBopotarnia,  north  to  the  Taurus  and  east  to  the 
Tigris;  but,  as  these  peoples  never  formed  a  polit- 
ical  unit,  the  name  ia  used  only  ^^dth  reference  to 
some  patticular  tfibe  region,  or  Btate.  Thus  the 
Old  Testament  distinguishca.  (1)  Aram  Naharatm, 
*Aram  of  the  two  rivers/' i.e  ,  the  Euphrates  and 
Tigris  (or  Klmburj  Gen.  xxiv  10;  DeuL  xxiii.  4, 
Judges  iii  H;  Pb.  Ix.  title);  in  the  Amarna  Tablets 
Cqv,)  it  is  called  Na'nnm  {ZA,  vi„  1891,  p,  258); 
in  Egyptian  inficriptions,  Nahrina  (W  Max  MQller, 
Aaien  und  Europa,  Leipsic,  1893.  pp,  249  aqq.). 
The  Pentateuch  priest-code  reads  Fadan  {Faddan)- 
Aram  (Gen,  xxv  20;  xxviii.  2,  5-7; 
I.  The  xxxi  18;  xxxiii.  IS;  xintv  9,  26; 
name.  Old  xlvi.  15),  ''  fields  of  Aram/'— a  name 
Testament  w  hich  may  be  preserved  in  the  Tell  Fed- 
Usage,  dan  of  Arabic  geographers  (see  below, 
§  7) ,  (2)  Aram  Dammesekf  named  from 
ita  chief  city;  Damascus,  often  called  simply  Aram 
because  it  waa  the  people  beat  known,  and  of  most 
im[>ort.ance  to  Israel  (II  Sam.  viii.  5-6;  laa.  vii. 
8;  xvu*  3;  Araos  i,  5)  (3)  Aram  Zobah,  at  the 
time  of  Saul  and  David  the  most  powerful  realm 
in  Syria  (I  Sam  xiv.  47;  II  Sam,  viiL  3;  x  6,  8; 
Pe.  Ix  title;  1  Chron  xviii,  3;  II  Chron.  viii.  3). 
Schrader  (KAT,  135)  idenli5es  Zobah  with  the 
Sub  It  of  the  inscriptions,  which  he  puta  south  of 
Damaacus;  Halivy  identifii^  it  with  the  later  Cbal- 


cia  on  the  slopes  of  Ix^banon,  (4)  Aram  Beth-Ee- 
kob  (II  Sam*  x.  6),  a  city  not  far  from  Dan  (Judges 
xviii.  28)  in  the  upper  part  of  the  lowlands  of  Lake 
Huleh,  watered  by  the  Ij*ddan,  the  middle  source 
of  the  Jordan,  (5)  i4ram  Maachah  (I  Chron,  xix, 
6),  and  (6)  Geah-ur  in  Aram  (11  Sam,  xv,  8),  inde- 
pendent kingdoms  in  the  time  of  David,  (See  be- 
low, I  9.) 

In  the  list  of  nations  in  Gen,  %.,  four  descendants 
of  Aram  are  mentioned:  Uz,  Hul,  Gether,  and 
Mash  (verae  23).  The  first  name  ia  also  found  in 
Gen.  xxii.  21  among  the  descendants  of  Nahor,  and 
in  xxxvi,  28  and  1  Chron,  i.  42  among  the  Horites. 
In  Jer,  xxv.  20  "  the  kings  of  the  land  of  Us  "  are 
mentioned  among  those  to  whom  Yah  web  give« 
the  wine-cup  of  his  wrath,  they  are  followed  by  the 
Pliilifi tines  and  the  latter  by  Edoro,  Finally  in 
Lam,  iv.  21  the  daughter  of  Edom  is  mentioned  as 
dwelling  in  the  land  of  Uz,  i.e.,  having  pOiWiejssion 
of  the  same,  A  comparison  of  these  passages,  in- 
cluding Job  L  1-3^  shows  that  the  Uzite-^  aa  an 
Aramaic  tribe  must  be  looked  for  in  the  llauran. 
Hul  without  doubt  is  the  inhabitants  of  the  Hideh 
low-country,  mentioned  above.  Gether  can  not  be 
identified.  Mash,  for  which  the  Chronicler  (i,  17) 
reads  Meahech  (cf.  Ps.  cxx.  5),  has  been  connected 
since  Bochart  wth  Mt.  Ma^ius  (cf.  Strabo,  xi.,  p. 
541),  now  Tur  Abdin,  north  of  Nisibis,  When 
Aram  ia  made  a  descendant  of  Kemuel  (Gen,  xxii. 
21 )  and  a  grandson  of  Nahor,  a  younger  branch  of 
the  Aramaic  people  is  probably  meant. 

As  to  the  original  home  of    the  Aram  cans,  the 

prophecy  of  Amos  (ix    7)  states  that  they  were 

brought  from  Kir  anrl  should  go  back 

2.  Origin  thither  in  captivity  (i,  5).  The  loca- 
of  the  tion  of  Kir  is  uncertain;  some  identify 
Arameans.  it  with  Cyrrhestica,  between  the  Oron- 
tes  and  Euphrates;  othei^  think  it 
means  South  Babylonia.  The  name  has  not  as  yet 
been  found  in  inscriptiona  Moses  of  Chorene  (HisL 
armen . ^  i , ,  p - 1 2 )  menti ons  Aram  among  t he  ancestors 
of  the  Armenian  people ;  but  Aram  has  as  little  to  do 
with  Armenia  as  with  Homer's  Eremboi  or  Arimoi, 
The  name  may  signify  *'  elevation,"  "  highland." 
In  the  cuneiform  inacriptiona  it  appears  as  ^rumu 
and  Arirmi ,  the  "  land  of  the  Khatti  "  alao  com- 
prises the  Arameans.  Schrader  thinks  that  the 
Khatti  were  the  Western  and  Southern  Arameans, 
the  Arumu  the  Eastern  and  Northern*  The  Greeks 
called  the  Arameans  Syrians,  which  is  an  abbrevia- 
tion of  Assyrians.  Those  Greeks  who  were  settled 
along  the  southern  coast  of  the  Black  Sea  fir^t  ap- 
plied the  name  to  their  Cappadocian  neighbors, 
who  were  Assyrian  subjects-  Thence  it  was  ex- 
tended to  the  whole  population  of  the  Assyrian  Em- 
pire, and  thus  it  became  synonymous  with  Aramea. 
Afterward  the  Christian  Arameans  adopted  the 
name  Syrian,  because  among  the  Jews  Aramean 
meant  heathen. 

The  religion  of  the  Arameans  was  polytheistic 
(Judges  X  6;  II  Chron.  xxviii.  23)  and  like  all  cults 
of  Nearer  Asia  was  symbolic  nature- 
3,  Religion,  worship.  Owing  to  the  dispersion  of 
the  Arameans,  an  Aramean  pantheon 
is  not  known,  but  only  individual  gods.  Further- 
more, at  a  very  early  period,  Babylonian,  Arabian, 


250 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Arabians 
Aram 


and  probably  other  deities  were  adopted  by  the 
Arameans;  the  Syrian  god  Tammuz  (Ezek.  viii. 
14)  is  of  Assyrian  origin. 

The  Aramaic  language  belongs  to  the  northern 
division  of  the  Semitic  family;  it  includes  an  East- 
em  and  a  Western  branch.  To  the  latter  belongs 
the  so-called  Biblical  Aramaic  (Jer.  z.  2;  Dan.  ii. 
4-vii.  28;  Ezra  iv.-8,  vi.  18;  vii.  12-26;  cf.  Gen. 
xxxi.  47),  which  since  the  time  of  Jerome  (ad  Dan,, 
ii.  4)  has  been  erroneously  called  "  Chaldaic."  Ac- 
cording to  II  Kings  xviii.  26,  Aramaic  was  under- 
stood in  Jerusalem  in  the  time  of  the  kings,  though 
not  by  the  conunon  people.  At  an  early 
4*  The      time  it  was  the  lingua  franca  of  Nearer 

Aramaic  Asia,  and  occupied  a  position  similar 
Language,  to  that  of  the  English  or  French  lan- 
guages of  to-day.  About  the  middle 
of  the  second  century  B.C.,  the  Aramaic  had  be- 
come the  vernacular  in  Syria,  Palestine,  and  the 
neighboring  countries.  To  the  Western  Aramaic 
belongs  also  a  great  part  of  Jewish  literature  (Tar- 
gums,  Palestinian  Gemara,  etc.),  the  Samaritan, 
the  idiom  of  the  so-called  Nabatsean  inscriptions  of 
the  Sinaitic  peninsula,  the  PaJmyrene  inscriptions, 
etc.  The  most  important  branch  of  the  Eastern 
Aramaic  is  the  so-called  Syriac,  usually  designated 
as  the  **  Edessene  language ";  its  literature  is 
almost  exclusively  Christian,  and  spread  even  into 
Persia.  The  division  of  these  Syriac-speaking 
Christians  into  Nestorians  and  Monophysites  re- 
sulted in  the  cultivation  of  an  East  Syriao  (Nestori- 
an,  Persian)  and  West  Syriac  (Jacobitic,  Roman) 
dialect.  The  oldest  Syriac  document  still  extant 
is  the  translation  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments 
which  probably  belongs  to  the  end  of  the  second 
Christian  century.  (See  Bible  Versions,  A,  IIL) 
To  the  Eastern  Aramaic  belongs  also  the  language 
of  the  Babylonian  Talmud,  a  Jewish  transforma- 
tion of  the  Syriac;  the  Mandaean  (called  also  Sabian), 
the  dialects  in  which  the  holy  writings  of  the  Man- 
dseans  (q.v.)  are  written;  and  certain  dialects,  still 
spoken  about  Tur  Abdin  on  the  upper  Tigris,  in 
certain  parts  east  and  north  of  Mosul,  in  the  neigh- 
boring mountains  of  Kurdistan,  and  on  the  West- 
em  side  of  Lake  Urumiah.  The  Western  Aramaic 
dialects  are  more  closely  allied  to  the  Hebrew  than 
the  Eastern  Aramaic,  and  not  only  strongly  influ- 
enced the  Hebrew,  but  finally  displaced  it.  Just 
when  this  took  place  can  not  be  determined,  but  at 
the  time  of  Jesus  the  vernacular  in  Palestine  was 
exclusively  Aramaic.    Also  see  Mesopotamia. 

W.  VoLCKt. 

The  Arameans  were  the  most  widely  distributed 
of  the  Semitic  families  in  their  permanent  settle- 
ments  in   pre-Christian    times.     Till 
5.  Extent    the  end  of    the  seventh  century  b.c. 
of  Arame-  they    were     foimd     as    seminomads 
an  Settle-  with  enormous    herds  of    cattle    on 
ments.      both  sides  of  the  lower  Tigris    east 
of    Babylonia.      As    shepherds     and 
aa    traders    they    moved    west  and    north    from 
time  immemorial  along    the    course    of    the  Eu- 
phrates as  far  as  the  mountains,  also     crossing 
the  river  into  Syria  in  occasional  bands.     After 
the  downfall  of  the  Egyptian  and  Hittite  regimes 
in    Syria     they    occupied  that  region  in    large 


numbers   in  the  twelfth  century    b.c.,    and   soon 
became   there   the    controlling  power,  a   position 
which,  as  far  as  race  and  language  were  concerned, 
they  maintained  till  many  centuries  after  the  Chns- 
tian  era.  They  thus  extended  from  the  western  bor- 
der of  Elam,  as  far  as  the  Mediterranean;  anywhere 
in  this  immense  area  the  Arameans  were  at  home. 
They  had   the    instinct  and  the  habit  of  travel 
and  trade.     Even  as  shepherds  they  were  not  like 
the  Bedouin  Arabs,  for  they  kept  their  flocks  and 
herds  mainly  for  sale  in  the  markets 
6.  Activity  of  the  cities,  near  which  they  were 
and  Enter-  usually  found.    As  traders  they  were 
prise  of  the  for  land  traffic  what  the  Phenicians 
Arameans.  were  on  the  sea.    The  range  of  their 
activity  and   enterprise   is  indicated 
by  the  fact  that  in  the  eighth  century  b.c.  Aramaic 
inscriptions  were  written  in  Assyria  east  of  the 
middle  Tigris,  and  in  the   extreme    northwest  of 
Syria;  that  Aramaic  was  then  imderstood  in  Pales- 
tine (II  Kings  xviii.  26);  and  that  soon  thereafter 
the  Semitic  alphabet,   with  Aramaic  endings  to 
the   names   of   the   letters,   was  introduced   into 
Greece  from  Asia  Minor.     The  Arameans  were,  in 
fact,  the  successors  of  the  old  Babylonians  in  the 
control  of  the  business  and  commerce  of  western 
Asia,  and  it  was  from  their  system  of  writing 
(not  from  the  Phenician)  that  the  later  alphabets 
of  most  of  the  civilized  world  were  derived. 

For  Biblical  history  the  most  important  Ara- 
mean  settlements  were  those  about  the    middle 
Euphrates  in   upper  Mesopotamia,  and   those  in 
southern  Syria  and  northern  Palestine  which  are 
usually  represented   in  modem    versions   by  the 
name  "Syrian."     The  former  region 
7.  The       was  Aramean  from  very  early  times, 
Arameans    even  when  under  Babylonian  control 
of  Meso-    in  the  fourth  and  third  millenniums 
potamia.    b.c.    The  center  of  the  community 
was  Charran   (Haran),  on  the  river 
Balich,  one  of  the  greatest  trading  cities  of  the 
ancient  East.     It  was  a  seat  of  the  worship  of  the 
moon-god,    corresponding    to    Ur    on    the    lower 
Euphrates.     Hence  the  clan  of  Terah,  to  which 
Abraham  belonged,  when  on  its  western  migration 
from   Ur  halted  at   Charran    and   settled    in   its 
neighborhood,  between  that  city  and  the  Euphrates. 
This  district  is   the  Paddan-Aram  of  P,  which  is 
shown  by  Gen.  xxxi.  21  to  have  been  east  of  the 
Euphrates.  Aram  Naharaim,  used  by  other  writers 
for  the  same  region,  does  not  mean  "  Aram  of  the 
two  rivers "   (Euphrates  and  Tigris),  but  merely 
"  Aram   of   the   rivers,"   and   therefore   does   not 
include  Mesopotamia  in  the  wider  sense  as  the 
Septuagint     translates    it.     Probably     the     right 
reading  is  Naharim  ("  rivers  "),  in  accordance  with 
the  Amama  form  Na*rima, 
This  region  was  the  ancestral  home  of  Israel, 
as  is  indicated  in  the  traditions  of  Re- 
8.  Their    becca  and  Laban,  of  Leah  and  Rachel. 
Place  in    as  well   as  in  the  saying  "  a  wander- 
Biblical      ing  Aramean  was  thy  father"  (Deut. 
History,     xxvi.   5,    R.  V.,  margin).     After  the 
establishment    of   Israel  in    Palestine 
and  of.  the  southern   Arameans    in    the    interve- 
ning Syrian  territory,  little  is  heard  from  the  sa- 


Aram. 
Aroani 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


256 


ered  writers  of  the  Mesopotamian  Arameans.  Ac- 
cording to  Judges  iii.  8, 10  a  king,  Cushan-rishathaim, 
overran  the  whole  western  country  including  the 
land  of  Israel,  which  he  held  for  eight  years.  An- 
other brief  notice  is  to  the  effect  that  Hadarezer 
king  of  the  Arameans  of  Zobah,  had  the  assistance 
of  troops  from  beyond  the  river  against  King  David 
(II  Sam.  X.  16). 

Much  more  important  for  Israel  was  the  group 

of  oommimities  on  the  northeast  of  Palestine,  of 

which  the  most  famous  was  Damascus,  the  greatest 

city  and  state  ever  controlled  by  the 

g.  Cities  Arameans.  Damascus,  however,  as 
and  States  a  city,  was  much  older  than  the 
in  Southern  Aramean  immigration  of  the  twelfth 
Syria.  and  eleventh  centuries  b.c,  and  was 
doubtless  an  Amorite  trading-post 
in  the  old  days  of  Babylonian  supremacy.  Indeed, 
it  is  doubtless  true  that  the  Arameans  occupied 
Amorite  settlements,  just  as  the  contemporary 
Israelites  occupied  those  of  the  Canaanites.  These 
**  Syrian  "  states,  southwest  of  Damascus,  and  on 
the  lower  slopes  of  Hermon,  are  first  heard  of  in 
connection  with  the  wars  of  David  about  980  b.c. 
(n  Sam.  viii.  and  x.),  the  passage  referring  to  the 
wars  of  Saul  (I  Sam.  xiv.  47)  being  based  on  a 
confused  reminiscence  of  later  conditions.  To 
Zobah  (at  first  the  most  powerful  state),  Geshur, 
and  Beth-Rehob  on  the  east  of  the  upper  Jordan 
must  be  added  Tob  (Judges  xi.  3,  5;  II  Sam.  x. 
6,  8);  and  to  Maachah  on  the  west  must  be  added 
Hamath,  to  be  distinguished  from  **  Hamath  the 
Great "  (Amos  vi.  2),  the  more  famous  city  on 
the  Orontes  in  Middle  Syria.  This  Hamath  lay 
northwest  of  the  city  of  Dan,  and  beside  it  ran  the 
road  leading  west  and  north  to  the  valley  of 
the  Litany  and  Orontes  (Gcelesyria).  Hence  the 
"  entering  in  of  Hamath ''  marked  the  northern 
boundary  of  Israel,  as  did  also  the  neighboring 
dty  of  Dan.  All  of  these  cities  and  petty  states 
were  long  debatable  ground  between  Damascus 
and  northern  Israel.  They  lay,  however,  within 
the  natural  domain  of  Damascus,  and  ultimately 
became  Syrian. 

Israel's  relations  with  the  kingdom  of  Damascus 
did  much  to  determine  its  destiny.  After  Damas- 
cus and  the  sister  states  had  been 

10.  The  made  tributary  to  David,  a  new 
Arameans  regime  in   Damascus  put  that   city 

of  Damaa-  at  the  head  of  the  Syrian  Arameans 

cus  and  in  the  days  of  Solomon  (c.  945  b.c), 
Israd.  and  threw  off  the  yoke  of  Israel  (I 
Kings  xi.  23  sqq.).  The  next  step  was 
the  annexation  of  northern  Naphtali  (already, 
as  above  stated,  in  large  part  Aramean),  in  the 
reign  of  Baasha,  by  Benhadad  I.  (about  890  B.C.). 
This  was  the  beginning  of  a  war  which  lasted  a 
century,  and  which  would  certainly  have  resulted 
in  the  ruin  of  Israel,  if  it  had  not  been  for  the 
repeated  attacks  made  upon  Damascus  by  the 
great  Assyrian  power.  Israel  suffered  most  from 
Benhadad  IL  and  Hazael  of  Damascus.  Only 
once  is  a  truce  mentioned  between  the  two  countries 
(I  Kings  XX.  34;  xxii.  1),  which  lasted  over  two 
years  (855-853  B.C.)  and  was  favored  by  an  ex- 
ceptional combination  of  the  western  states  against 


an  Assyrian  invasion  under  Shalmaneser  II.,  so 
that  in  854  b.c.  Benhadad  and  Ahab  were  found 
fighting  side  by  side  in  defense  of  the  West-land. 
The  war,  when  resumed,  was  for  a  time  disastrous 
to  the  Hebrews,  so  that  in  the  reigns  of  Jehu  an  i 
Jehoahaz,  Hazael  of  Damascus  and  his  successor 
held  not  only  northern  but  probably  also  southern 
Israel  in  subjection.  At  length  in  the  reign  of 
Joash  of  Israel  in  797  b.c.  Damascus  was  taken  by 
Adad-nirari  III.,  of  Assyria,  and  Aramean  domina- 
tion came  to  an  end.  Damascus,  however,  re- 
tained its  independence,  which  it  held  till  it  was 
converted  into  a  Roman  province  after  the  capture 
of  the  city  by  Tiglath-Pileser  III.  in  732  b.c. 

Damascus,  however,  still  retained  its  commercial 
importance  and  remained  the  business  and  social 
center  of  Aramean  influence  in  southern  Syria, 
which  increased  with  the  extinction  of  the  small 
western  nationalities.  Indeed,  the  unifying  process 
through  which  the  whole  of  western 
XX.  Spread  Asia  passed  under  the  domination  of 
of  Ara-  Assyria,  the  later  Babylonian,  and 
mean  Influ-  the  Persian  empires,  was  materially 
ence  in  hastened  by  the  trade  and  commerce 
Later  Times,  of  the  ubiquitous  Arameans.  Pales- 
tine itself  gradually  became  Ara- 
mean in  speech,  if  not  materially  so  in  population. 
The  prevalence  of  the  Aramaic  language  for  many 
centuries  after  the  Arameans  had  ceased  to  have 
any  great  political  importance  is  the  most  striking 
proof  of  the  manifold  activity  of  the  people.  Orig- 
inally one  of  the  three  great  north  Semitic  dialects, 
along  with  the  Babylonian  (Assyrian)  and  Canaan- 
itic  (Hebrew),  it  had  practically  displaced  the  other 
two  as  a  living  speech  by  the  second  century  b.c. 
Thus  it  happens  that  not  only  were  considerable 
portions  of  two  Old  Testament  books  written 
in  Aramaic  but  also  all  of  these  books  had  to  be 
popularly  explained  in  Aramaic  and  translated  into 
that  language,  in  the  form  of  the  Targums,  before  and 
after  the  Christian  era.  Moreover,  the  language 
of  the  later  Old  Testament  books  generally  is  more 
or  less  colored  by  Aramaic,  and  Jesus  and  his 
disciples  spoke  an  Aramaic  dialect  (Matt,  xxvii.  46, 
and  elsewhere).  But  the  cliief  literary  use  of 
Aramaic  came  after  the  close  of  the  canon,  Edessa 
(modem  Orfa)  in  upper  Mesopotamia  having 
succeeded  to  much  of  the  business  and  importance 
of  the  neighboring  Charran  which  remained  pagan. 
A  great  Christian  school  was  foimded  there  in  the 
second  century,  and  this  became  the  center  of  the 
vast  "  Syriac  "  literature. 

J.  F.  McCURDY. 

Bibugorapht:  For  history,  etc.,  eonsult  C.  von  Lcngerke, 
Kenaan,  i.  218  sqq.,  Kdnigsberg.  1844;  C.  Ritter,  Erd- 
kunde,  parts  x.  and  xvi..  Berlin,  1843,  1852;  T.  NOldekc. 
Namen  und  WohnaiUe  der  Aram&er,  in  Airland,  xi.  (1867), 
DOS.  33-34,  also  'Airo^piof,  Zvpiof,  Svpoc,  in  Hennea,  v. 
(1871)  443-468,  and  Di«  Namen  der  aramAi«c?ien  Nation 
und  Spraehe,  in  ZDMG,  xxv.  (1871)  113-131.  For  the 
people,  A.  Featherman,  Social  HUtory  of  the  Race*  of  Man- 
kindt  ii.,  London,  1881;  H.  Spenoer,  DeeeripHve  Sociolooy, 
T.  Atiatic  Raou,  London,  1876.  For  the  reUgion.  F.  B&th- 
cen,  BeitrUge  sur  aemitUchen  Relioioneoeachichte,  Berlin. 
1888,  and  NOldeke's  review  of  the  same  in  ZDMG,  xlii. 
(1888)  470-487.  For  the  Aramaic  language,  E.  Renan, 
Hiaioire  g^niraU  et  eyathne  compart  dee  languea  aimitiquea. 
Pans.  1863;  T.  NOldeke,  Die  eemitiechen  Spraehen,  pp.  31- 
47,  Leipeie,  1880;  idem,  Oramfnatik  der  neu-ayriichen  Spro" 


257 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Axmm 
Aroani 


ehe  am  VrmiorSee  und  in  Kxtrdialan,  Leipsic,  1868;  idem, 
KungefoMBUtvrUdieQramrnaiik,  LeiiMlo.  1808;  8.  D.  Lussa- 
to.  Blemenh  oratnmaticali  del  Caldeo  Hbltco  e  del  diaUUo  ial- 
mvdieo  babUonete,  Padua,  1866,  Eds.  tranaL  by  G.  Goldam- 
mer.  New  York,  1877;  E.  Kautssoh,  Grammatik  det  btb- 
Utdun  Arttm&ieehen,  Leipsic,  1884;  J.  I^vy,  Chalddxechee 
Wihrterbtidi  €ber  die  Tarffumim  und  einen  groeeen  Theil 
dm  rabbiniedien  Sehriftthume,  2  voIb.,  Leipsic,  1867-68; 
C.  Brockelmann,  Lexicon  Syriacum,  Berlin,  1895;  R. 
Pasme  Smith  and  J  Payne  Smith  (Mrs.  Blargoliouth),  Com- 
pendioue  Syriae  Dieiionary,  Oxlordt  1903;  A.  Meyer,  Jeau 
MvMenprache,  Freiburg,  1896.  For  the  Aramaic  and  Naba- 
tffian  inscriptions,  CIS^  i.  and  ii.  For  the  important 
inscriptions  of  Senjirli  in  northern  Syria,  D.  H.  MQller, 
Die  alien  eemitiachen  Inachriften  von  Sendechirli^  Vienna. 
1893;  Atugrabunoen  in  Sendechvrli,  in  MitlheUungen  dee 
k&niglicKen  Mueeume,  Berlin,  1893  sqq.  On  the  extent  of 
the  Aramean  settlements  and  their  possessions  in  north- 
ern Palestine  consult:  Schrader.  KAT,  pp.  28-29,  36, 
182,  232,  239;  and  H.  Winckler.  Orientaliecha  Forachun- 
gen,  yoL  iii.,  part  3,  Leipsic,  1906. 

ARATOR,  a-rd'-ter:  Christian  poet  of  the  middle 
of  the  sixth  century.  He  was  a  Ligurian  of  noble 
family,  and  was  educated  by  the  archbishop  Lauren- 
tius  at  Milan;  the  poet  Ennodius  was  his  friend, 
and  the  latter's  nephew  Parthenius  was  Arator's  fel- 
low student  at  Ravenna.  He  chose  a  diplomatic 
career  and  for  a  time  acted  as  comes  domesticorum, 
and  afterward  as  cornea  privaiorum  of  the  Ostro- 
gothic  king  Athalaric.  He  then  entered  the  priest- 
hood and  was  made  subdeacon  at  Rome  by  Pope 
Vigilius,  to  whom  he  dedicated  his  epico-didactio 
poem,  De  adibiia  apostolorum  libri  ii.  (read  in  public 
in  544)  In  1076  and  1250  hexameters  he  describes 
the  deeds  of  the  apostles  to  the  martyrdom  of  Peter 
and  Paul,  taking  the  Acts  of  Luke  as  a  basis.  He 
treats  his  subject  with  some  poetical  skill  and  with 
rich  allegorical  expositions,  which  are  often  in  bad 
taste.  He  aims  to  show  the  superiority  of  Peter  to 
Paul,  and  the  work  contains  traces  of  Mariolatry, 
hagiolatry,  and  relic-worship.  An  epistle  of  Ara- 
tor's  to  Vigilius,  a  second  to  an  abbot  Florianus, 
and  a  third  to  his  early  friend  Parthenius  are  also 
extant.  His  main  work  was  much  read  in  the 
Middle  Ages,  and  exists  in  many  manuscripts  of 
the  tenth  and  eleventh  centuries.  It  and  the  let- 
ters are  in  MPL,  Ixviii.  46-252,  and  there  is  an  edi- 
tion by  A.  Hilbner,  Neisse,  1850. 

K.  Leimbach. 

Bibuoorapht:  K.  Leimbach,  U^>er  den  Dichier  Arator^  in 
TSK,  xlvi.  (1873)  225  sqq.,  and  the  works  on  Latin 
literature. 

ARCADIUS,  ar-k6'-di-us,  FLAVIUS:  Eastern 
Roman  emperor  383-^08;  b.  in  Spain,  about  377; 
d.  at  Constantinople  May  1,  408.  He  was  the 
elder  son  of  the  emperor  Theodosius  and  the  em- 
press ^lia  Flavilla,  and  was  educated  in  secular 
sciences  at  Constantinople  by  the  sophist  Themis- 
tius,  and  by  Arsenius,  an  ascetic,  in  the  Christian 
religion.  In  383  his  father  conferred  upon  him  the 
title  of  Augustus,  and  in  384  he  was  noade  consul. 
When  in  3M  Theodosius  went  to  the  West  to  over- 
throw the  usurper  Eugenius,  the  government  was 
left  in  care  of  Arcadius,  with  the  assistance  of  the 
minister  Rufinus.  By  the  unexpected  death  of  the 
emperor,  Jan.  17,  395,  at  Milan,  Arcadius  became 
emperor  of  the  East.  By  nature  good-hearted  and 
yielding,  also  without  energy  and  narrow-minded, 
he  became  the  weak  tool  of  those  who  knew  how 
to  obtain  his  favor,  above  all  of  Rufinus,  a  cunning 
I.-17 


and  unprincipled  Gaul,  and,  after  his  murder,  of  the 
eunuch  Eutropius,  who  covered  his  selfish  atrocities 
with  the  name  of  the  lawful  ruler,  and  finally  till 
his  fall  (399)  united  all  power  in  himself.  Arcadius 
was  also  influenced  by  his  wife  Eudocia,  the  beau- 
tiful daughter  of  Bauto,  a  Frank.  Under  him  the 
Byzantine  empire  assumed  that  oriental  character, 
which  it  subsequently  retained.  His  piety  was 
sincere,  and  he  worshiped  the  relics  of  saints  and 
martyrs  devoutly.  Even  before  he  was  sole  regent 
he  interdicted  the  public  worsliip,  instruction,  and 
organization  of  the  heretics  {Cod,  Theod.,  XVL  v. 
24;  a.  394),  and  in  the  following  year  withdrew  all 
former  privileges  (XVI.  v.  25).  Investigations  had 
to  be  inade  for  heretics  in  the  imperial  chancery, 
and  among  the  court-officials  (XVI.  v.  29).  Closely 
connected  with  this  was  his  procedure  against  poly- 
theism. In  397  he  ordered  that  the  material  from 
temples  in  Syria  should  be  used  for  the  repair  or 
construction  of  public  roads,  bridges,  aqueducts,  and 
walls  (XV.  i.  36),  and  in  399  he  issued  an  order  to 
the  prefect  of  the  East  to  destroy  all  rural  sanctu- 
aries. In  all  this  Chrysostom  was  his  hearty  supn 
porter.  The  most  important  result  was  probably 
the  destruction  of  the  Mameion  and  of  seven  other 
temples  in  Gaza  in  401  (cf.  the  interesting  ac- 
count in  Marcus's  life  of  Porphyrins,  bishop  of 
Gaza,  and  J.  Dr&seke,  Geaammelte  pcUristtsche 
Unterstichungen,  Leipsic,  1889,  pp.  208  sqq.).  Yet 
it  can  not  be  said  that  Hellenism  suffered  much 
under  Arcadius;  compared  with  the  policy  of  Theo- 
dosius, there  was  even  a  certain  relaxation  (cf .  V. 
Schultze,  Geachichte  dea  UrUergangea  dea  griechiach- 
romiachen  Heidentumaf  i.,  Jena,  1887,  353  sqq., 
ii.,  1892,  passim).  Toward  the  Jews  Arcadius  was 
surprisingly  friendly,  and  it  has  been  suspected 
that  they  secured  the  favor  of  Eutropius  by  money. 
They  had  a  jurisdiction  of  their  own  similar  to  that 
of  the  bishops,  and  the  right  of  sanctuary  analogous 
to  the  ecclesiastical  (Cod.  Theod.,  II.  i.  10;  IX.  xlv 
2;  cf.  Grsetz,  Geachichte  der  Juden,  iv.  387  sqq.). 
Seditions  from  within,  and  inroads  of  the  barba- 
rians from  without,  made  the  rule  of  the  weak  em- 
peror a  sad  chapter  of  Byzantine  history,  which, 
however,  must  not  be  judged  wholly  according  to 
the  unfriendly  or  hostile  heathen  sources  (especially 
Eunapius  and  Zosimus)  Quite  a  number  of  re- 
forms were  decreed  during  his  government  which 
is  abo  not  lacking  in  other  good  measures. 

Victor  Schdltze. 

Biblioorapht:  The  sourcea  are  in  the  writings  of  Zosimus. 
PhilostorgiuB.  Socrates.  Sosomen.  and  Chrysostom;  con- 
sult further  Gibbon,  Decline  and  Fall,  chap,  xxxi ;  8.  R. 
Bievers,  Stvdien  tur  Geachichte  der  rSmiachen  Kaiaer,  335 
sqq.,  Berlin,  1870;  F.  W.  Unger.  Qitellen  tur  bytanti- 
niachenKunatgeachichUs,  vol.  i.,  Vienna,  1878;  A.  Guldenpeo  • 
ning,  Oeachichle  dea  oatrdmiachen  Reichea  unter  den  Kax- 
aem  Arcadiiia  und  Theodoaiua  II..  Halle,  1885;  A.  Puecb, 
St.  Jean  Chryaoatome  et  lea  mature  de  aon  tempa.  Paris.  1891; 
C.  W.  C.  Oman,  Story  of  the  Byzantine  Empire.  London. 
1892. 

ARCANI  DISCIPLINA  ("Instruction  in  the 
[Sacred]  Secret,"  i.e.,  initiation  [into  the  mystery): 
A  term  first  applied  by  Dallaus  and  G.  T.  Meier 
to  the  practise  of  maintaining  a  studied  reticence 
(fidea  ailerUii)  concerning  the  form  and  character 
of  introduction  into  the  Church,  as  if  this  were 


Aroani 
Archbishop 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


208 


something  ftnaJogous  to  initiation  into  the  mys- 
teries of  the  heathen  world.  The  practise  is  espe- 
cially observed  in  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries. 
Baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper,  with  the  baptismal 
formula  and  the  Lord's  Prayer,  in  so  far  as  these 
had  an  essential  part  in  the  introduction,  were  made 
the  center  of  the  supposed  mysteries.  In  accord- 
ance with  this  idea,  after  the  sermon,  to  which  all 
could  listen,  at  the  beginning  of  the  so  called  miasa 
fiddium,  the  deacon  warned  all  uninitiated  away 
from  divine  service  with  the  words:  "  Let  no  one 
of  the  catechumens,  let  no  one  of  the  hearers, 
let  no  one  of  the  unbelievers,  let  no  one  of  the 
heterodox,  l>e  present''  {ApoBtoUc  Constitutiana, 
viii.  12). 

The  areani  disciplina  became  a  subject  of  con- 
fessional polemics  through  the  attempt  of  the 
Jesuit  Emanuel  von  Schelstrate  to  prove  that  it 
was  instituted  by  Jesus  and  followed  by  the  apos- 
tles; and  that  for  this  reason  the  Roman  doctrine 
of  the  sacraments  (especially  transubstantiation), 
the  veneration  of  images  and  saints,  and  other 
teachings  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  do  not 
appear  in  the  early  Church.     In  reply 

Various     Tentzel  proved  conclusively  that  until 

Theories,  toward  the  year  200  the  Church  knew 
of  no  mysteries  to  be  kept  secret. 
Nevertheless,  Roman  Catholic  scholars  with  few 
exceptions  (e.g.,  Batiffol)  have  endeavored  to  de- 
fend Schelstrate's  position.  Justin's  detailed  ex- 
position of  the  act  of  baptism  and  the  celebration 
of  the  eucharist,  however  {Apol.,  i.  61,  66,  67),  is 
decisive.  The  exclusion  of  the  unbaptized  was  an 
inner  necessity  (cf  Didache,  ix.  5)  and  does  not 
imply  a  mysterious  character  of  the  cult;  the 
secrecy  also  concerned  not  the  dogma  directly,  but 
the  symbols  and  performance. 

Thus  far  Protestants  are  agreed,  but  not  concern- 
ing the  nature  and  origin  of  the  disciplina.  Casau- 
bon  assigned  its  beginnings  to  the  influence  of  the 
heathen  mysteries  and  a  borrowing  of  their  forms 
for  purposes  of  instruction,  and  scholars  inmiedi- 
ately  following  him  accepted  his  views.  From- 
mann  sought  the  root  in  an  imitation  of  the  Jew- 
ish practise  with  regard  to  proselytes.  Rothe 
called  attention  to  a  connection  with  the  catechu- 
menate  of  the  early  Church,  and  Credner  to  a  rela- 
tion with  the  twofold  division  of  the  cult  resulting 
from  the  dogmatic-mystic  conception  of  the  Lord's 
Supper.  T.  Hamack  recognized  in  the  discipline 
a  systematic  transformation  of  the  divine  service 
into  a  form  of  mystery, — a  phenomenon  which 
has  a  parallel  in  the  fact  that  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  to-day  finds  the  secret  of  its  power  in  the 
mystic-theurgic  act  of  its  priests  (cf.  Bonwetsch). 
Zezschwitz  maintained,  more  in  accord  with  the 
views  of  Rothe,  that  the  cult  acquired  an  exclusive 
character  and  the  fides  silentii  arose  in  the  Church 
from  prudential  motives  because  of  persecution; 
when  persecution  ceased,  the  sermon  sufficed  for 
the  needs  of  the  catechumens  (audientes)  and  full 
knowledge  of  the  higher  Christian  secrets,  as  well 
as  participation  in  the  vital  part  of  the  service,  was 
reserved  for  a  final  grade  of  maturity  (attained 
only  by  the  competerUes);  references  to  these  mat- 
ters naturally  ceased.    It  may  confidently  be  as- 


serted, however,  that  the  areani  disciplina  was  not 
founded  in  the  external  condition  of  the  Church  or 
in  pedagogic  considerations,  but  was  a  real,  though 
unconscious,  assimilation  to  the  ruling  ideas  of  the 
mysteries.  The  notion  that  communion  with  God 
was  possible  only  by  assimilation  to  God  in 
a  future  state  of  incorruption  through  the 
medium  of  sacred  acts,  led  as  naturally  to  the 
formation  of  a  hierarchy,  differing  from  the 
laity  and  bringing  divine  essence  into  it  by 
sacred  acts,  as  to  a  transformation  of  the  divine 
service  into  a  celebration  of  mysteries  which  were 
supposed  to  include  the  divine  in  s3anbols  and 
symbolic  acts.  Anrich  is  correct,  therefore,  in  desig- 
nating the  disciplina  as  an  analogy  within  the  Church 
of  the  system  of  efficacious  initiations  among  the 
Gnostics  and  the  natural  outcome  of  the  theology 
of  a  Clement  and  an  Origen,  influenced  by  the  Greek 
mysteries  (against  this  view,  however,  cf.  Batiffol). 

Zahn  (p.  326)  has  demonstrated  that  the  begin- 
nings of  the  areani  disciplina  can  not  be  traced 
earlier  than  the  third  century.  When 
Not  Irenseus  (Hcer.y  HI.  iv.  1-2)  demands 
Earlier  than  that  the  baptismal  confession  be  trans- 
the  Third    mitted  orally  it  is  only  to  the  end  that. 

Century,  being  written  in  the  memory,  it  may 
become  an  inner  possession.  Tertul- 
lian  {Apol.f  vii.;  Ad  nat.fi.  7)  speaks  of  a  fides  silentii 
with  reference  to  the  Christian  mysteries,  but  from 
the  standpoint  of  an  opponent.  Hippolytus  {Ad 
Dan.,  i.  16,  18)  speaks  of  baptism  without  pointing 
out  the  duty  of  sUence.  Phrases  like  "  the  initiated 
know  "  in  Origen  do  not  establish  the  existence  of 
the  disciplina f  since  it  can  not  be  proven  that  Origen 
represented  general  usage.  In  Contra  Celsum,  iii. 
69-61,  he  has  no  cultic  acts  in  view;  when  he  re- 
marks {Levit.  horn.,  9,  10;  ix.  364,  ed.  Lommatsch), 
"  He  who  is  imbued  with  the  mysteries  knows  the 
flesh  and  the  blood  of  the  Word  of  God,"  he  is  think- 
ing of  the  mysteries  of  the  gnosis  (Anrich,  129,  n. 
2).  His  reference  to  the  anxiety  lest  some  of  the 
consecrated  bread  should  be  dropped  {Exod.  horn., 
xiii.  3;  ix.  156)  is  a  warning  against  the  inatten- 
tive hearing  of  the  Word;  and  his  reference  (Lev. 
horn.,  xiii.  3;  ix.  403)  to  ecclesiastica  mysteria  proves 
nothing.  Methodius  does  not  apply  Matt.  vii.  6  to 
sacred  acts  (Photius,  Bibl.,  cod.  235),  nor  are  such 
acts  "  the  orgies  of  our  mysteries,  the  mystic  rites 
of  those  who  are  initiated  "  {Sympos.,  vi.  6). 

In  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries  the  areani  dis- 
ciplina was  in  its  bloom;  the  frequent  occurrence 
in  the  sermon  of  "  the  initiated  know,"  "  the  initi- 
ated," is  characteristic,  and  the  transference  of  the 
phraseology  of  the  mysteries  into  the  Church  is  evi- 
dent. "  To  initiate  "  (Gk.  myeisthai)  and  "  to  in- 
struct "  (katScheisthai)  become  interchangeable 
terms.  Baptism  is  called  "  the  seal  of  the  mystic 
perfection  "  and  "  a  mystic  purification  (katharmos) 
and  lustration  (katharsion) ";  the  Lord's  Supper 
is  "  the  mystery  ";  its  elements  are  "  symbols." 
"  To  be  initiated  "  {mystagdgeisthai)  signifies  to  be 
competent  to  partake  of  the  sacran^nts,  and  to  be- 
tray the  mysteries  is  expressed  by  the  correspond- 
ing exorcheisthai. 

It  is  characteristic  of  the  disciplina  that  the  im- 
mediate object  of  the  mystery  was  not  the  dogma 


259 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Aroanl 
Archbishop 


and  sacramental  gift,  but  the  elements  and  the  rit- 
ual performance.  In  Theodoret's  dialogue  Incon- 
fu8U8  (iv,  125,  ed.  Schultze),  the  orthodox  shrinks 

from  openly  naming  bread  and  cup 

The  Im-      lest  ''  some  one  uninitiated  be  pres- 

mediate  Ob-  ent/'  and  vaguely  calls  the  body  and 

ject  of  the    blood  of  the  Lord  a  gift.    The  desire 

Disciplina.    was,  of  course,  to  withhold  even  from 

the  eyes  of  the  initiated  the  act  and 
the  "  mystic  symbols  ";  hence  the  exclusion  of  the 
unbaptized  from  the  misaa  fidelium  and  the  watch 
at  the  door  by  the  ostiaries.  Baptism  and  the 
Lord's  Supper  were  the  real  object  of  the  diaciplina. 
To  keep  people  in  actual  ignorance  was,  of  course, 
impossible,  but  the  silence  observed  produced  the 
impression  of  a  mystery.  The  Lord's  Prayer  at  the 
Supper  held  the  same  position  as  the  confession  in 
baptism;  the  character  of  secret  objects  was  given 
to  both  (cf.  Sozomen,  Hist,  eccl.,  i.  20;  Ambrose, 
De  Cain  et  Abel,  I.  ix.  37).  The  opposite  to  the 
confession  of  the  neophyte  was  the  renunciation, 
which  was  also  kept  secret.  Everything  which 
preceded  and  followed  baptism  necessarily  partook 
of  the  secrecy.  The  eucharist  as  the  cliniax  of.  the 
whole  mystagogy  is  the  mystery  par  excellence. 
Dogmas  were  mysteries  (Basil,  De  spir,  sane.,  xxvii. 
66)  only  in  so  far  as  the  Church  generally  claimed 
to  possess  wonderful  mysteries,  especially  the  dogma 
of  the  Trinity  on  account  of  its  relation  to  the  bap- 
tismal symbol;  but  no  secrecy  of  the  dogma  was 
intended.  With  the  disappearance  of  the  catechu- 
menate  the  arcani  disciplina  ceased,  although  in 
the  Greek  liturgy  the  formula  for  dismissing  the  cate- 
chumens remained;  but  the  cult  of  the  Greek 
Church  now  actually  assumed  the  character  of  a 
mystico-aliegorical  drama,  a  mystery  of  the  heathen 
kind,  though  of  a  higher  type.    N.  Bonwetsch. 

Bibliography:  I.  Casaubon,  De  rebu»  aacria  et  ecdenaa- 
fiew.  Geneva,  1654;  G.  T.  Meier,  De  reeondita  veteria  eccU- 
9ia  theoloQia,  Helmstedt.  1670;  £.  von  Schebtrate.  An^ 
Hquitaa  iUuttnUa  circa  concilia  generalia  et  provincialia 
and  Commentatio  de  a.  ArUiodieno  concUio^  Antwerp,  1678, 
1681;  W.  £.  Tentzel.  Exercitaiionea  aelectcB,  ii.,  Leipsic, 
1602,  contains  Tentsel's  Duaertatio  de  diaciplina  arcani, 
1683;  Schelstrate's  Diaaertatio  apologetiea  de  diaciplina 
arcani  contra  diaputationem  E.  Tentzelii,  1685;  and  Tent- 
sel's  reply,  Animadveraionea;  G.  C.  L.  T.  Frommann.  De 
diaciplina  arcani^  Jena,  1833;  R.  Rothe,  De  diaciplinca 
arcani  origine,  Heidelberg,  1841;  K.  A.  Credner.  in  the 
Jenaer  allgemeine  Litteraturzeitung,  653  sqq.,  1844;  T. 
Hamack,  Der  chriatliche  Oemeindegotteadienat  im  apoato- 
liaehen  und  aWcaiholiachen  Zeitalter,  pp.  1-66,  Erlangen, 
1854;  G.  von  Zezschwitx,  Syatem  der  Katechetik,  i.  154-200. 
Leipsic,  1863;  N.  Bonwetsch,  Weaen,  Entatehung,  und 
Fortgang  der  Arkanrdiaciplin,  in  ZHT,  xliii.  (1873)  203- 
200;  T.  Zahn,  Olaubenaregel  and  Taufbekenninia  in  der 
alten  Kirche.in  ZKW,  i.  (1880)  315  sqq.;  E.  Bratke,  Die 
SieUung  dea  Clemena  Alexandrinua  mm  antiken  Mj/aterien- 
weaen,  in  TSK,  U.  (1887)  647-708;  E.  Hatch.  The  Infiw 
enee  of  Oreek  Ideaa  and  Uaagea  upon  the  Chriattan  Church, 
chap.  X.,  London,  1800;  H.  Holtzmann,  Die  Katecheae 
der  aUen  Kirche,  in  Theologiache  Abhandlungen  Weizadcker 
getndmet,  pp.  66-76,  Freiburg,  1802;  G.  Anrich,  Daa  antike 
Myaterienweaen  in  aeinem  Einfluaa  auf  daa  Chriatentum, 
Gdttingen,  1804;  G.  Wobbermin,  Religionageachiehiliehe 
Studien  zur  Frage  der  Beeinfluaaung  dea  Urchriatentuma 
dureh  daa  antike  Myaterienweaen,  Berlin,  1806;  P.  Batif- 
fol,  Studea  d'fuaioire  et  de  thSologie  poaitive,  Paris,  1002; 
H.  Gravel,  Die  Arkandiaciplin,  part  i.,  MOnster,  1002. 

ARCHBISHOP:  A  bishop  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
and  some  parts  of  the  Anglican  Church,  who  has 
not  only  the  charge  of  his  own  diocese  like  any 


other  bishop,  but  also  certain  rights  of  oversight 
and  precedence  over  several  other  bishops  whose 
dioceses  are  included  in  his  province.  In  the  third 
century,  by  analogy  with  the  political  divisions  oi 
the  Empire  (see  Eparchy),  there  grew  up  an  organ- 
ization of  several  bishoprics  under  the  leadership 
of  a  metropolitan,  the  bishop  of  the  provincial 
capital;  it  was  his  place  to  conduct  episcopal  elec- 
tions, to  confirm  the  choice  and  to  consecrate  the 
one  chosen,  and  to  convoke  the  bishops  of  his 
province  in  an  annual  synod.  In  concert  with 
them,  he  regulated  the  affairs  of  the  province,  and 
the  synod  formed  a  court  of  appeal  from  the  deci- 
sions of  individual  bishops,  as  well  as  one  of  first 
instance  for  charges  brought  against  them.  In  the 
following  centuries  the  metropolitan  system  was 
adopted  by  the  Christian  countries  of  the  West  as 
well.  In  the  Merovingian  period,  however,  the 
joint  power  claimed  by  the  princes  in  filling  episco- 
pal sees  and  the  importance  attained  by  national 
councils  robbed  the  position  of  the  metropolitans 
of  much  of  its  independence;  nor  were  they  able  to 
recover  it  in  the  Carolingian  era,  between  the  domi- 
nation assumed  by  Charlemagne  and  the  papal 
claims  to  an  immediate  decision  in  weighty  matters, 
for  which  the  pseudo-Isidorian  decretals  had  fur- 
nished a  basis.  The  rights  of  a  metropolitan  were 
accordingly  limited  in  the  thirteenth  century  legal 
compilations  of  the  Corpus  Juris  Canonici  to  the 
following  particulars:  (1)  The  confirmation  of 
episcopal  elections  and  consecration  of  bishops  in 
his  province;  (2)  calling  and  presiding  over  pro- 
vincial councils;  (3)  general  oversight  of  his  suf- 
fragans, visitation  of  their  dioceses,  and  imposition 
of  censures  and  penalties  on  them,  though  not  of 
deposition;  (4)  hearing  of  appeals  from  episcopal 
courts;  and  (5)  the  so-called  Jus  devolviionis 
(q.v.).  The  first  of  these  he  lost  in  the  fifteenth 
century,  when  confirmation  and  consecration  of 
bishops  were  reserved  to  the  pope.  The  Council 
of  Trent  confirmed  the  second,  but  limited  the 
third  by  requiring  the  assent  of  the  provincial  coun- 
cil. At  the  same  time,  however,  he  was  charged 
with  the  erection,  maintenance,  and  direction  of 
seminaries  in  the  dioceses  of  his  suffragans,  and 
with  the  enforcement  of  their  obligation  of  resi- 
dence. An  archbishop  has  the  title  of  "  Most  Rev- 
erend," and  ranks  inmiediately  after  patriarchs. 
He  wears  the  pallium  (q.v.)  as  a  special  symbol  of 
his  jurisdiction,  and  a  particular  kind  of  cross  (crux 
erecta  or  ffestatoria)  is  carried  before  him  within  his 
own  province.  The  title  apxitiriaicowo^  is  fre- 
quently applied  in  the  fourth  century  to  the  metro- 
politan of  Alexandria,  but  after  the  development 
of  the  great  patriarchates  it  came  to  denote  other 
bishops  of  large  cities  who  were  vmdistinguishable 
in  rank  from  metropolitans;  and  the  titles  have 
been  practioally  synonymous  in  the  West — though 
there  are  a  few  Roman  Catholic  archbishops  (such 
as  those  of  Amalfi,  Lucca,  and  Udine)  who  are  not 
metropolitans,  and  in  the  case  of  titular  arch- 
bishops (see  Bishop,  Titular)  it  follows  from  the 
nature  of  their  office  that  there  is  no  metropolitan 
jurisdiction.  In  the  Anglican  communion,  the 
title  of  archbishop  was  for  a  long  time  confined  to 
the  metropolitans  of  England  and  Ireland,  owing 


Arohdall 
Arohaoloffy 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


260 


to  legal  difficulties  in  the  way  of  its  use  in  the 
colonial  churches;  but  of  late  years  there  has  been 
an  increasing  tendency  to  its  use,  and  the  proposal 
has  even  been  made  to  establish  archbishops  with 
metropolitan  jurisdiction  in  the  Episcopal  Church 
of  the  United  States.  In  the  evangelical  churches 
of  Germany  the  dignity  of  an  archbishop  has  been 
conferred  only  in  individual  instances  on  general 
superintendents,  as  by  Frederick  William  III.  on 
Borowski  at  K5nigsberg  in  1829  (see  Borowbki, 
LuDWio  Ernest  von).  (P.  HiNscHiust.) 

Bibuogbapht;  Bingham,  Oriointt,  booka  i.,  iv.,  xyii.;  C.  W. 
Augusti.  DenkwUrdiokeUenatLs  der chritUiehen  ArdiOoiooie, 
Leipsio  1820;  A.  J.  Binterim,  DenkipiirdiokeUen  der  <^tri$t^ 
katholiachenKirchcV.  i.  405  sqq..  Mains.  1839;  A.  Nioolo- 
vius.  Die  biaehdftiche  WUrdein  Prtuuena  evanoelitcher  Kvr- 
ehe,  KOnigsberg,  1834;  £.  LAning,  OeMchichU  de9  deuUtehen 
KirehenreehU,  i.  362.  ii.  107.  Strasburg,  1878;  J.  Blast. 
Abhandlungen  aber  die  rediUiche  SteUung  der  ErzbiechOfe 
in  der  kalholischenKircKe,  FT^bvrg,  1878;  Hauek.  KD,  iii. 
16  sqq. 

ARCHDALL,  MERVYN:  Anglican  bishop  of  Kil- 
laloe,  Ireland;  b.  Feb.  16,  1833.  He  was  ed- 
ucated at  Trinity  College,  Dublin  (B.A.,  1856), 
and  was  successively  curate  of  Templecrone  (1856- 
57).  Trinity  Church,  Dublin  (1857-62),  Lislee 
(1862-63),  vicar  of  Templebready  (1863-72),  and 
rector  of  St.  Luke's,  Cork  (1872-94).  He  was 
archdeacon  of  Cork  from  1878  to  1894,  canon  of 
St.  Patrick's  Cathedral,  Cork,  in  1891,  and  exam- 
ining chaplain  to  bishops  Meade  and  Gregg  of  Cork 
from  1872  to  1894.  He  was  dean  of  (>)rk  from 
the  latter  year  until  1897,  when  he  was  consecrated 
bishop  of  Killaloe. 

ARCHDEACON  and  ARCHPRIEST:  Officials 
who  are  mentioned  very  early  as  heads  of  the  lower 
or  ministering  clergy  and  of  the  other  priests.  Both 
are  assistants  and  sometimes  representatives  of  the 
bishop,  the  archpriest  more  in  liturgical  functions, 
the  archdeacon  in  those  of  church  government. 
In  the  early  history  of  the  dioceses  of  northern  and 
western  Europe,  which  were  originally  much  larger 
than  the  older  ones  of  the  East  and  South,  we  find 
a  number  of  archpriests  whose  functions  are  dif- 
ferent from  those  indicated.  The  diocese  is  di- 
vided into  parishes  (much  larger  than  the  modem 
parishes),  frequently  following  political  divisions 
in  their  boundaries.  The  inhabitants  of  a  parish, 
considered  as  a  single  community,  have  one  church, 
often  on  the  site  of  a  heathen  temple,  set  apart  for 
the  principal  ecclesiastical  fimctions.  This  is  the 
church  for  Sunday  service,  baptism,  funerals,  and 
the  payment  of  church  taxes.  Through  the  sur- 
rounding country  are  scattered  other  smaller 
churches  used  for  less  important  functions,  and 
served  by  clergy  who  are  representatives  of  the 
parish  priest.  With  the  increase  in  the  number  of 
principal  or  "  baptismal  "  churches,  the  importance 
of  the  archpriests  diminished.  From  the  ninth 
century  their  place  was  taken  by  rural  deans,  who 
had  the  oversight  of  more  than  one  archpresbyter- 
ate,  and,  as  they  were  generally  taken  from  among 
the  archpriests,  frequently  retained  that  title.  The 
archdeacons  did  not  hold  everywhere  the  same  rela- 
tion to  the  archpriests.  Under  Leo  the  Great  (440- 
461)  they  appear  in  charge  of  church  property  and 
Jurisdiction  in  the  dioceses.    By  the  ninth  century, 


priests  began  to  be  named  to  this  office,  and  finally 
none  but  priests  held  it,  who  were  placed  over  the 
archpriests.  About  the  same  time  in  France, 
somewhat  later  in  Germany,  the  custom  arose  of 
dividing  the  dioceses  into  several  of  these  archdea- 
conries. With  the  development  of  the  cathedral 
chapters,  it  became  usual  for  the  head  of  the  chap- 
ter to  be  archdeacon,  or,  if  there  were  several  arch- 
deacons in  the  diocese,  the  office  was  held  also  by 
canons  or  other  heads  of  collegiate  bodies.  The 
power  of  the  archdeacon  gradually  increased;  by 
the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century  he  is 
already  known  as  judex  ordinarius,  and  has  an  in- 
dependent right  to  make  canonical  visitations,  to 
decide  many  cases  (especially  matrimonial),  to 
examine  candidates  for  ordination,  and  to  install 
beneficed  clergy.  The  bishops  found  it  necessary 
to  repress  the  presumption  of  the  archdeacons,  and 
in  some  cases  (as  at  Tours  1239,  Li^ge  1287,  Mainz 
1310)  they  obtained  legislation  in  councils  against 
further  growth  of  these  powers;  in  other  cases  they 
set  up  officials  of  their  own  to  exercise  the  jurisdic- 
tion which  the  archdeacons  either  had  or  claimed. 
Among  these  latter  are  the  officiales  foranei,  ^ith  a 
concurrent  jurisdiction,  and  above  both,  for  the 
exercise  of  appellate  jurisdiction  and  of  the  rights 
reserved  to  the  bishops,  the  officiales  principales 
and  vicars-general.  Since  neither  the  archdeacons 
nor  the  archpriests  gave  ready  submission  to  these 
new  officials,  a  great  number  of  local  differences  of 
usage  grew  up,  which  were  first  reduced  to  some 
sort  of  uniformity  by  the  Council  of  Trent  in  the 
flixteenth  century.  By  it  the  archdeacons  were 
finally  deprived  of  all  criminal  and  matrimonial 
jurisdiction,  and  their  right  to  hold  visitations 
made  dependent  on  the  bishop's  permission.  Since 
that  time  they  have  declined  in  importance  or 
disappeared  entirely  in  many  dioceses,  and  their 
functions  are  nowadays  discharged  usually  by  the 
vicar-general  and  his  assistants.  At  Rome  the  arch- 
deacon developed  into  the  cardinal-camerlingo  and 
the  cathedral-archpriest  into  the  cardinal-vicar, 
while  in  the  other  dioceses  their  place  has  been  fre- 
quently taken  by  coadjutor  or  assistant  bishops. 

(E.  Friedberg.) 
In  the  Church  of  England  the  archidiaconal 
office  has  been  retained  in  vigor.  There  are  seventy- 
one  archdeacons  in  all,  each  diocese  having  a 
plurality.  They  are  members  of  the  cathedral 
chapters  and  often  hold  separate  benefices.*  Ap- 
pointed by  the  bishop,  the  archdeacon  assists  the 
bishop  in  visitation  and  in  looking  after  the  tem- 
poralities of  the  parishes  entrusted  to  his  care.  He 
has  the  privilege  and  duty  of  holding  court  from 
time  to  time  and  from  place  to  place  for  the  trial 
of  minor  ecclesiastical  causes  both  disciplinary 
and  financial.  A.  H.  N. 

Bibuoorapht:  J.  Q.  Pertsch,  Vom  Ureprung  der  Arehdia- 
konet  Hildesheim,  1743;  Kranold.  Dm  apoetoliedte  AUer 
der  Ardidiacanalurtirdet  Wittenbenc.  1768;  A.  J.  Binterim. 
DenktffOrdiokeiten  der  chriat4Mtholi8chen  Kxrche,  I.  i.  38&- 
434.  Bfainx.  1825;  DCA,  i.  135-138;  A.  Schr6der.  Die 
Ettttoiekeluno  dee  Archidiakonatet  Augsburg,  1800;  and  the 
worka  on  oanon  law. 


ARCHELAUS,   dr^'ke-l^'us. 
HIS  Familt. 


See     Herod    and 


261 


REUGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


ArchdaU 
Aroheoloffy 


ARCHEOLOGY,  BIBLICAL:  The  term  arche- 
ology has  become  current  through  the  work  of 
Joeephus  bearing  that  name  (Gk.  Archaiologia  ; 
Lat.  AntiquUaUa), — a  presentation  of  Hebrew  and 
Jewish  history  from  the  Creation  to  the  time  of 
Nero.  Before  Josephus,  Dionysius  of  Halicamas- 
sus  (i.  4;  iv.  1)  and  others  applied  the  name  to  an- 
cient histories  and  mythologies.  Biblical  arche- 
ology in  this  sense  should  treat  Biblical  history  in 
all  its  relations.  The  term  is  now  restricted,  how- 
ever, to  a  certain  section  of  Biblical 
Meaning  history,  and  means  the  scientific  de- 
and  Scope,  scription  of  the  relations,  institutions, 
and  customs  of  the  civil  and  religious 
life  of  Israel  in  Bible  times.  The  science  is  thus 
distinguished  from  Biblical  history  in  the  common 
sense,  from  Biblical  theology,  and  from  Christian 
archeology  and  church  history.  It  would  be  more 
exact  to  speak  of  Hebrew-Jewish  archeology  based 
on  Biblical  sources;  but  the  old  name  is  too  firmly 
established  to  be  superseded. 

The  science  is  one  of  the  most  important  helps 
to  the  understanding  of  the  Old  Testament  and 
such  parts  of  the  New  as  have  a  Jewish  background; 
it  acquaints  both  the  scholar  and  the  Bible-reader 
with  the  conditions  which  must  be  known  if  the 
events  recorded  and  the  religious  views  set  forth 
are  to  be  rightly  appreciated.  But  its  aim  can 
only  be  attained  when  sought  in  the  right  way. 
The  method  must  be  historical  and  the 
Aim,  study  must  begin  with  a  critical  ex- 
Method,  amination  of  the  sources;  the  customs 
and  SuIk-  and  institutions  described  can  not  be 
divisions,  considered  isolated  phenomena,  but 
must  be  treated  as  parts  of  the  organic 
whole  of  world  history;  their  historical  develop- 
ment must  be  traced.  It  may  here  be  remarked 
that  in  the  present  state  of  knowledge  of  the  his- 
tory of  Hebrew  literature  many  points  of  arche- 
ology do  not  admit  of  a  final  decision.  A  topical 
arrangement  on  the  whole  seems  preferable  to  an 
attempt  to  present  the  matter  chronologically.  The 
most  natiu^  subdivision  draws  the  line  between 
religious  and  secular  things.  The  former  division 
will  include  the  holy  places  (the  ark  of  the  cove- 
nant, the  tabernacle,  high  places,  the  temple,  syna- 
gogues), holy  actions  (sacrifice,  prayer,  vows, 
oracles,  purification),  holy  seasons  (Sabbath,  new 
moon,  festivals),  and  holy  persons  (priests,  Levites, 
seers,  prophets,  Naadrites,  hierodules,  etc.).  The 
latter  head  subdivides  into  things  of  public  and 
private  life,  and  includes  arts  and  sciences,  weights, 
measures,  divisions  of  time,  and  the  like.  A  de- 
scription of  land  and  people  forms  a  fitting  intro- 
duction. 

Of  the  sources  of  Biblical  archeology,  the  most 
important  are,  of  course,  monuments,  inscriptions, 
and  coins.  As  to  monuments,  Palestine  is  well 
known  to  be  poorer  than  most  other  lands  of  civi- 
lised antiquity.  The  most  important  now  known 
are  certain  remains  of  buildings,  walls,  and  aque- 
ducts in  Jerusalem.  Here  and  there  graves  have 
been  opened  which  throw  some  light  upon  burial 
customs.  Pottery  and  weights  may  be  mentioned 
here,  though  specimens  are  few.  The  triumphal 
arch  of  Titus  in  Rome  has  sculptures  of  articles  of 


temple  furniture,  and  various  Assyrian,  Egyptian, 
and  Phenician  monuments  and  sculptures  illus- 
trate Israelitic  architecture   (temples, 

Sources,  palaces,  altars,  etc.),  explain  Israelitic 
customs  (dress,  war,  etc.),  or  furnish 
pictures  of  Israelitic  things  or  persons.  Inscriptions 
relating  to  Hebrew  and  Jewish  history  are  also  sur- 
prisingly few.  The  only  important  ones  thus  far 
found  are  the  Moabite  Stone,  the  Siloam  inscrip- 
tion (qq.v.),  and  the  tablet  on  the  temple  of  Herod. 
Certain  Phenician  inscriptions  (such  as  the  sar- 
cophagus inscription  of  Eshmunezer  and  the  votive 
tablet  of  Massilia),  and  some  Greek  and  Latin  in- 
scriptions from  Palestine  touch  upon  Jewish  his- 
tory. The  Assyrian  and  Egyptian  inscriptions  and 
those  of  Nearer  Asia  in  genersd,  as  well  as  all  monu- 
ments of  these  peoples,  now  and  then  furnish  mate- 
rial of  more  or  less  importance  (see  Inscriptions). 
Such  coins  as  we  have  belong  to  Maccabean  and 
later  times.  The  written  sources  are:  (1)  The 
books  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  and  the  Old 
Testament  apocrypha;  (2)  the  writings  of  Jose- 
phus,  especially  the  Bellum  Judaicum,  the  ArUiqui- 
tcUeSf  and  the  Contra  Apionem,  which  are  not  alto- 
gether free  from  partisanship;  (3)  Philo's  great 
allegorical  commentary  on  the  Pentateuch,  which 
likewise  has  an  apologetic  tendency  and  betrays  the 
fact  that  the  author  did  not  know  Hebrew;  (4)  the 
rabbinic  writings,  Midrash,  Targums,  and  Talmud, 
which  are  obscure  and  in  their  present  form  are 
hardly  older  than  the  second  Christian  century. 
Lastly,  owing  to  the  tenacity  with  which  nomad 
Bedouins  hold  to  their  customs  and  religious  con- 
ceptions for  centuries,  the  accounts  of  travelers  in 
Palestine  and  neighboring  lands  from  the  Middle 
Ages  to  the  present  time,  as  well  as  the  descriptions 
of  pre-Islamic  Arabia,  furnish  an  important  source 
and  one  which  has  only  lately  begun  to  receive  the 
attention  which  it  deserves.  (R.  Kittel.) 

The  definition  given  above  may  be  better  appre- 
ciated if  certain  distinctions  are  pointed  out  and 
explained:  (1)  The  distinction  between  Biblical 
history  and  Biblical  archeology.  The  archeology 
of  a  country  or  a  people  is  an  essential  preparation 
for  the  intelligent  study  of  its  history. 

Certain     But  archeology  also  includes  a  related 

Distinc-  branch  of  historical  study,  namely 
tions.  the  history  and  antiquities  of  the 
related  peoples,  and  neither  the  begin- 
nings nor  progress  of  Hebrew  history  can  be  under- 
stood without  a  good  knowledge  of  the  older  and 
of  .the  contemporary  Semites  out  of  whom  Israel 
grew,  by  whom  its  fortunes  were  determined,  and 
whose  genius  influenced  vitally  its  religious  and 
social  character.  For  example,  in  the  first  order 
of  value  for  Biblical  study  must  be  placed  the  his- 
tory and  religion  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria,  and  the 
religious  and  social  institutions  of  the  ancient 
Arabians  and  Arameans.  (2)  The  distinction 
between  the  relevant  and  the  irrelevant  in  the 
history  and  antiquities  of  the  related  or  neighboring 
peoples.  Here  the  vaguest  notions  are  encouraged 
by  a  loose  application  of  the  term  archeology. 
For  example,  Egypt  is  constantly  looked  to  for 
illustration  of  the  Bible  and  for  confirmation 
of  its  records,  and  a  large  part  of  the  material  pub- 


.roheoloffy 
rohimandrit 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


269 


lished  by  the  Society  of  Biblical  Archeology,  and 
the  greater  portion  of  many  separate  works  upon 
the  same  theme  are  devoted  to  Egyptian  research, 
which  has  yielded  very  little  for  the  understanding 
of  Biblical  history,  and  virtually  nothing  for  the 
illustration  of  the  religious  and  social  life  of  the 
Hebrews.     The    reason    therefor    lies    partly   in 
the  unique  and  unsympathetic  character  of  Egyptian 
culture,  partly  in  the  fact  that  Egypt  had  very  sel- 
dom any  controlling  influence  on  Palestine  during 
the  formative  period  of  Israel,  and  partly  in  the 
circumstance  that  the  Egyptian  records  are  not  so 
businesslike  and  accurate  as,  for  example,  those  of 
Assyria  and  Babylonia,  which  form  an  indispensable 
supplement  to  Biblical  history.     (3)  The  distinction 
between   ancient   and   modem   conditions.    It   is 
a  common  error  to  suppose  that  the  study  of  Bible 
lands  and  the  manners  and  customs  of  their  present 
habitants   furnish   Biblical   archeology   accurately 
reproduced.    As  a  matter  of  fact  such  a  study  is 
informing  only  along  the  line  of  external   resem- 
blance.   The  outward  life  of  the  Semitic  peoples 
has  remained  in  many  respects  like  its  ancient  past 
because  of  a  similarity  of  occupation  and  the  slow 
march  of  civilization.    Occasional  Bible  texts  here 
and  there  are  illumined  by  a  reference  to  modem 
customs.    But  there  is  a  world-wide  difference  in 
the  Nearer  East,  as  elsewhere,  between  the  life  and 
spirit  of  the  past  and  the  present.     The  Bible 
itself,  regarded  in  the  light  of  its  own  political, 
social,  and  religious  atmosphere,  is  the  great  hand- 
book of  Biblical  archeology,  whose  primary  ele- 
ments, moreover,  are  not  so  much  facts  as  conditions 
and  principles,  such   as   the   inseparable  relation 
between  God  and  his  people,  between  the  people 
and  the  land,  and  between  God  and  the  land;   the 
inunediate  and  direct  action  of  the  Deity  in  all 
events   and   in   all   phenomena;     the   unity    and 
actual  identity  of  what  are  called  the  sacred  and 
the  secular,  of  religion  and  life,  or  of  religion  and 
morals;    the  solidarity  of  the  conmiunity  as  the 
basis  of  the  State  and  the  ground  of  the  respon- 
sibility of  the  individual;  and  a  world-consciousness 
without  abstract  ideas  and  to  which  even  God  him- 
self was  the  most  concrete  of  realities.     J.  F.  M. 
BtBUOORAPBT*.  Of  works  on   Biblical  archeology  or  useful 
as  touroee,  the  more  important  of  ancient  time  are:  Euee- 
bius,  "  On  the  Names  of  Places  in  the  Holy  Scripture," 
commonly  called  the  Ononuutieon,  translated  into  Latin 
by  Jerome,  with  title,  De  §itu  et  nominilnM  locorum  He- 
fifoteorum,  both  in  P.  de  Lacarde,  OnonuuUca  scura,  Gdt- 
iinfen,  1870,  1887;  Epiphanius.  "  On  Weiishts  and  Meas- 
ures,*' ed.Lagarde.^ymmtcto.ii.  149-216,  G<)ttingen,  1880. 
More  modem  works:  C.  Sigonius,  De  rejpubliea  Htbraioa^ 
Bologna,  1682;  B.  Arias  Montanus,  ArUiquiialee  Judaicae, 
Leyden,  1503;  T.  Godwin,  Moeee  ei  Aaron,  Oxford.  1616; 
ed.    J.  H.  Hottinger.  Frankfort,  1710;  P.  Cun«us.  De 
r^publiea  Hebraiea,  Lyons,  1617:  J.  Spencer,  De  legtbu* 
Hebrmorum  ritualibue,  Cambridge,  1686;  rev.  ed.  by  L. 
Chappelow,   1727.  by  C.   M.   Pfaff,  TQbingen,   1732;  J. 
LumI,  Die  aUen  fodiadien  HeiUothitmert  OotteedieneUt  und 
Otwohnheiten,  Hamburg,  1605;  M.  Lesrdekker,  De  repub- 
Uea  HebrtBorum,  Amsterdam,   1704;  A.   Reland,  Palae- 
Una  ear  vumummtiie  vetenbue  i^/tisAiola,   Utrecht,   1714; 
A.  Q.  WAhner,  AnHquHatee  Ehraorvm,  Gdttingen,  1743; 
J.  D.    Michaelis,  Moeaieekee  Recht,  Frankfort.   1771-75. 
Biekl.  1777.  Eng   transl.,  London.  1814;  H.  E.  Wamek- 
ros,  Entwtarf  der  hsbrdiedien  AUerthamer,  Weimar,  1782, 
1704,  1832.     Most  of  the  works  which  had  appeared  at 
Iha  time  were  collected  by  B.  Ugolino  in  his  Theeaurue 
mmUquiiahifn  eacrarum,  34  toIs.,  Venice,  1744-60.     From 
Ikis  time  on  there  are  numerous  works,  such  as  those  of 


G.  L.  Baor,  OoUetdienetUdke  Verfaaauno,  Leipsic.  1805: 
J.  Jahn,  Vienna,  1817-25,  Eng.  transl.,  Andover.  1827; 
W.  M.  L.  de  Wette,  4th  ed.  by  F.  J.  R&biger.  Leipsic. 
1864;  J.  H.  Pareau,  Utrecht,  1817;  J.  M.  A.  Schols.  Bonn. 
1834;  E.  W.  Hengstenbeig,  Biicher  Moee'e  und  jEgjfP^en, 
Berlin,  1841.  Eng.  transl.  by  R.  D.  C.  Bobbins,  Andover. 
1843;  C.  von  Lengerke,  Kenaan,  KOnigsberg.  1844;  H. 
Ewald,  Appendix  to  toI.  ii.  of  Oeechichte  dee  Volkee  Israeli 
Qfittingen,  1848.  1866.  Eng.  transl.  by  H.  S.  SoUy.  Lon- 
don. 1876:  J.  L.  SaalschQts.  Moeaiechee  Recht,  Berlin. 
1853;  idem.  ArchAologie.  Kdnigsberg.  1855-56;  K.  F.  Keil. 
Frankfort.  1858-50.  1875.  Eng.  trantd..  Edinburgh.  1887- 
88;  D.B.von  Haneberg.  Munich.  1869;  H.  J.  Van  Lenncp. 
Bible  Lande;  their  modem  Cuetome  and  Mannere  tUuetra- 
tive  of  Scripture,  New  York.  1875.  The  latest  works  are 
E.  C.  Bissell.  BibluxU  AnHquiiiee,  PhUadelphia.  1888  (con- 
servative); E.  Babelun.  Manual  of  Oriental  AnOquitiee 
.  .  .  Cheddaa,  Aeeyria.  Persia,  Syria,  Judaa,  Phcenvdat 
and  Carthage,  London.  1880,  new  ed.,  1006  (valuable  for 
purposes  of  comparison) ;  J.  T.  de  Visser.  Hebreeuwed»e 
il re^ooJoffie,  2  vols.,  Utrecht.  1801-08;  J.  Bensinger, //e- 
brdieehe  ArclUlologie,  Freiburg.  1804  (an  excellent  hand- 
book); W.  Nowack,  Hebr&ieehe  ArchAologie,  Freiburg. 
1804  (goes  well  with  Bensinger);  C.  Clermont-Ganneau. 
Recueil  d§e  monumenta  inSdite  ou  peu  connue,  art,  ardU- 
ologie,  epigraphte,  3  vols.,  Paris,  1807-1000;  Recent  Re- 
eearth  in  Bible  Lande,  ed.  H.  V.  Hilprecht.  Philadelphia, 
1808;  T.  Nicol,  Recent  Archaolooy  and  the  Bible,  London, 
1800;  a  useful  book  is  H.  V.  Hilprecht.  Explordtione  in 
Bible  Lande,  Philadelphia.  1003;  the  various  histories  of 
Israel  by  Welihausen,  Stade.  Kittel.  and  others  are  also 
important.  For  Arabian  Antiquities  see  under  Arabia, 
and  for  Egypt  and  Asia  Minor  see  those  articles.  For 
the  medieval  itineraries  and  modem  works  of  travel,  con- 
sult R.  Rdhricht,  Bibliotheca  geographioa  PalaeHnoB,  Ber- 
lin, 1800;  a  useful  bibliography  will  be  found  in  J.  F. 
Hurst,  Literature  of  Theology,  118-130.  New  York,  1806. 

ARCHEOLOGY,  CHRISTIAN:  The  science  which 
investigates  and  exhibits  the  ecclesiastical  and 
religious  forms  of  life  and  conditions  of  the 
Chxistian  community  for  the  period  terminating 
with  the  Middle  Ages.     It  may  be  divided  into: 

(1 )  Law  and  government,  including  such  topics  as 
constitution,  the  clergy,  monasticism,  discipline* 
church  law,  synods,  relations  to  the  State,  etc.; 

(2)  worship — the  various  forms  of  divine  service, 
festivab,  such  acts  as  baptism,  confirmation,  the 
marriage  ceremony,  burial,  consecrations  (of 
churches,  altars,  bells,  holy  water,  etc.),  benedic- 
tions and  maledictions,  exorcism,  etc.;  (3)  art — 
architecture,  painting,  sculpture,  church  furniture, 
burial  arrangements,  etc.;  (4)  private  and  public 
life — the  giving  of  names,  marriage,  position  of 
women,  prayer,  education,  slavery,  occupations, 
corporations  and  societies,  amusements,  pilgrim- 
ages, superstitions,  benevolent  institutions,  etc. 
Church  music  and  books  are  better  treated,  it  would 
seem,  under  the  head  of  worship  than  of  art.  The 
sources  of  Christian  archeology  are  the  same  as  for 
church  history.  One  of  the  most  important  and 
the  last  to  receive  the  attention  it  deserves  is  fur- 
nished by  monumental  remains. 

The  history  of  the  science  begins  with  the  first 
work  of  Protestantism  on  church  history,  the  '*  Mag- 
deburg Centuries"  (1559-74;  see  Magdeburg  Cen- 
turies), which,  however,  makes  no  distinction 
between  archeology  and  history;  the  same  is  true 
of  the  work  of  the  Roman  Catholic  scholar,  C!eesar 
Baronius  (cf.  the  epitome  of  Baronius's  Annates 
by  C.  Schulting,  Cologne,  1601).  As  an  independ- 
ent science  Christian  archeology  may  be  said  to 
have  originated  with  Joseph  Bingham's  massive 
work,  Originea  ecdesiaaticcBf  or  the  Antiquities  of  the 
Christian  Church  (10  vob.,  London,  1708-22;  see 


268 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Aroheoloff7 
Aroliizixaiiarit6 


Bingham,  Joseph).  A  number  of  monographs  fol- 
lowed during  the  eighteenth  century,  and  during 
the  nineteenth  the  study  was  pursued  with  new 
vigor.  C.  W.  Augusti's  DenkunirdigkeUen  aua  der 
ehriaaichen  Archdologie  (12  vols.,  Leipsic,  1817-31), 
Lehrbuch  der  chriatlichen  AUerthUmer  fur  akade- 
miache  Vorlesimgtn  (1819),  and  Handbuch  der  chriat- 
lichen ArehOologie  (3  vols.,  1835-37;  cf.  J.  E.  Riddle, 
A  Manual  of  Christian  ArUiquUieSt  Compiled  from 
the  Works  of  Augusti  and  Other  Sources,  London, 
1839,  1843;  L.  Coleman,  The  AntiquUies  of  the 
Christian  Churchy  Translated  and  Compiled  from  the 
Works  of  Augusti,  with  Numerous  Additions  from 
Rheinwald,  Siegel,  and  Others,  Andover,  1841),  were 
works  of  value.  A.  J.  Binterim  in  his  Vorziiglichste 
Denkumrdigkeiten  der  kristkaiholischen  Kirche  (7 
vols.,  Mainz,  1825-37)  purposely  ignored  Protestant 
researches  and  contributed  little  to  the  subject. 
Other  works  worthy  of  mention  are  G.  F.  H.  Rhein- 
wald, XircWic/i*  A  rcMo/ojrie  (Berlin,  1830);  H.E.F. 
Guericke,  Lehrbuch  der  christlich-kirchlichen  Alter- 
thumer  (Leipsic,  1847,  Berlin,  1859;  Eng.  transl., 
London,  1851);  V.  Schultze,  ArchOologie  der  christ- 
lichen  Kirche,  in  Zdckler's  Handbuch  der  theologi- 
schen  Wissenschaften,  ii.  (Munich,  1889).  Lexical 
work6  are:  W.  Smith  and  S.Cheetham,  Dictionary 
of  Christian  AntiquUies  (2  vob.,  London,  1875-80); 
F.  X.  Kraus,  Real-Encyklop&die  der  christlichen 
AUerthUmer  {2  vols.,  Freiburg,  1880-86);  Orazio 
Mamecchi,  Elements  d'Arch^logie  chritienne  (3 
vols.,  Rome  and  Paris,  1890) ;  F.  Cabrol,  Diction- 
noire  d'archiologie  chritienne  et  de  lUurgie  (Paris, 
1903  sqq.).  A  useful  and  readable  book  is  Walter 
Lowrie's  Monuments  of  the  Early  Church  (New 
York,  1901).  For  works  on  Christian  art,  see 
Art  and  Church.  Victor  Schultzb. 

Bibuoorapht:  F.  Piper,  Einleitung  in  die  monumerUale 
ThMiogU,  Gotha,  1867;  F.  X.  Kraus.  Ueber  Begriff,  Urn- 
fang,  OMdiichU  der  ehrietlichen  ArchAologie,  Freiburg, 
1879. 

ARCHES,  COURT  OF:  The  court  of  appeal 
of  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury.  Its  name  comes 
from  the  original  place  of  the  court  in  the  vestry  of 
the  Church  of  St.  Mary  of  the  Arches,  which  was 
in  the  crypt.  The  judge  was  originally  called  the 
Official  Principal  of  the  Arches  Court,  but  now  is 
called  the  Dean  of  the  Arches,  because  the  fimctions 
of  dean  and  principal  have  been  united.  The  dean 
once  was  set  over  thirteen  churches  in  London, 
which  were  exempt  from  the  bishop  of  London's 
jurisdiction,  but  now  he  has  no  such  authority  as 
the  ehurches  are  no  longer  exempt.  The  office  is 
only  titular  and  the  court  itself  has  no  regular 
place  of  meeting  but  sits  in  the  library  of  Lambeth 
Palace  or  in  the  church  house.  The  court  is  rarely 
convened.  The  judge  is  the  only  ecclesiastical 
judge  authorized  to  sentence  clergymen  of  the 
Church  of  England  to  deprivation.  Appeals  from 
the  decision  of  the  court  are  heard  by  the  judicial 
committee  of  the  Privy  Council.  The  present 
judge  (1906)  is  Sir  Arthur  Charles,  appointed  by 
the  archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  1899  and  holding 
a  life  office. 

ARCHEVTTES,  dr'ke-vaits:  The  name  of  a 
people  mentioned  only  in  Eara  iv.  9,  possibly  one 
of  the  tribes  settled  by  the  Assyrians  in  Samaria 
(n  Kings  xvii.  24).      While  it  is  possible-  that 


the  name  was  an  official  designation,  it  is  better 
taken  as  meaning  "inhabitants  of  Erech"  (see 
Apharsachites). 

ARCmCAPELLAIfUS,  (lr'1d-ka-pel1&-nxjB  (also 
called  capellanus  sacri  paUUii,  and  by  Hincmar  of 
Reims  apocrisiariu^):  The  title  of  the  principal 
ecclesiastical  dignitary  at  the  court  of  the  Prank- 
ish sovereigns,  who  not  only  presided  over  the  other 
court  chaplains  but  also  had  the  oversight  of  the 
court  school,  and  from  the  reign  of  Louis  le  D^bon- 
naire  (814-840)  adjudicated  all  matters  of  justice 
at  court  which  affected  ecclesiastics.  It  was  thus 
a  very  influential  position.  In  856  the  archicapel- 
lanus  was  put  at  the  head  of  the  court  chancery, 
which  had  been  managed  under  the  Merovingian 
line  by  a  secular  commission  and  under  the  Caro- 
lingians  by  a  canceUarius.  The  combined  func- 
tions were  entrusted  to  Archbishop  Liudhard  of 
Blainz  in  870,  and  the  title  archicancellarius  became 
commonly  applied  to  the  office,  which  under  the 
Ottos  was  definitely  attached  to  the  see  of  Maine. 
But  from  1044  the  archbishop  only  bore  the  latter 
title,  while  that  of  archicapellanus  once  more  desig- 
nated a  strictly  court  functionary,  whose  place  was 
taken  after  the  thirteenth  century  by  the  almoner 
(q.v.).  (£.  Friedbero.) 

Biblioorapht:  A.  J.  Binterim,  DenkwHrdigkeiUn  der  ehriet- 

katholiecKen  Kirche,  I   ii.  83  sqq..  Mains.  1825;  O.  Waiti. 

Deutaehe  Verfaeeungeoeechichte,  iii.  616  sqq.,  iv.  416,  Kiel, 

1860-«1. 

ARCHIEREUS,  (ir''ki-&r'e-us :  A  common 
designation  in  the  Greek  Orthodox  Church  for  the 
higher  clergy  in  distinction  from  the  other  from 
presbyter  down. 

ARCHIMANDRITE,  Or^ld-man' droit  (Gk.  ar- 
chimandrUis,  "  ruler  of  the  fold,"  'nandra,  '*  fold," 
being  applied  to  a  monastic  association  as  con- 
sisting of  the  sheep  of  Christ):  A  name  given  to 
the  head  of  a  larger  monastic  community,  either 
the  abbot  of  a  single  monastery  or,  more  in  accord 
with  the  meaning  of  the  word,  the  general  abbot 
of  several  monasteries  belonging  to  one  congre- 
gation. The  title  was  in  general  use  in  the  East 
as  early  as  the  fifth  century.  In  the  West  it  is 
foimd  in  the  rules  of  Isidore  of  Seville  (vi.)  and 
Columban  (vii.),  of  the  latter  part  of  the  same 
century.  From  the  tenth  century  it  served  as  a 
general  designation  of  prelates,  even  of  archbishops. 
In  1094  Roger  of  Sicily  put  all  Basilian  monks  of 
Sicily  and  Calabria  under  an  archimandrite,  who 
was  later  superseded  by  a  secular  prelate.  By 
a  brief  of  Urban  VIII.,  Feb.  23,  1635,  the  archi- 
mandrite of  Messina  was  granted  quasiepiscopal 
jurisdiction,  the  use  of  the  pontificals,  and  other 
privileges.  The  abbots  of  the  Greek  Uniate 
Churches  in  Poland,  Galicia,  Transylvania,  Hun- 
gary, Slavonia,  and  Venice  also  have  the  title 
**  archimandrite."  In  the  Russian  Church  the 
archimandrites  enjoy  high  honor  and  wear  marks 
of  respect  which  elsewhere  belong  only  to  bishops — 
infulse,  staves,  crosses,  and  the  like.  They  are 
gene?ally  under  the  diocesan  bishop,  though  many 
had  become  immediately  subject  to  the  patriarch 
of  Constantinople  or  the  Russian  metropolitan 
previous  to  the  formation  of  the  Holy  Synod. 
Consult  Du  Cange  and,  for  a  most  exhaustive 
treatment,  ACL,  s.v. 


Arohitaotare 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


264 


ARCHTTECTURE,   ECCLESIASTICAL. 


L  Qtanenl  TraatmeDt. 

lint  Plaees  of  Christian  Worship 

Firat  Special  Buildings  (§  2). 

Changes  Demanded  by  Altered  Cii^ 
eumstanoes  of  Christians  (§  3). 

Origin  of  the  Christian  Basilica  (fi  4) 

First  Step  toward  a  Church  Build- 
ing (§  5). 

SMond  Step  (i  6). 

Chareh-BuUding  Activity  after  313 
(»7) 

Basilica  Style  Reproduced  (f  8). 

Change  to  Circular  Buildings  (§  9). 

liemorial  Churches  (§  10). 


Basilica    the  Accepted    Tjrpe    of 

Western  Medieval  Churches  (§1 1  )- 
Combination  of  Basilica  and  Domed 

Styles  a  12). 
The  Romanesque  Basilica  (§  13). 
Variations  in  the    Details   of  the 

Romanesque  Basilica  (§  14). 
The  Vaulted  Church  (§  15). 
DiCFerences    between   the    Ancient 

and  Romanesque  Basilica  (§  16). 
French  Eksclesiastical  Development 

(*  17). 
Introduction  of  the  Gothic  Style 

(*  18). 


Its  Adoption  in  France  and  Ger- 
many (§  10). 

No  Present  Single  Predominant 
Type  (§  20). 

II.  English  Ecclesiastical  Architecture. 

Romanesque  Architecture  (§  1 ). 
Introduction  of  Gothic  (fi  2). 
Three  Periods  (§  3). 
Characteristics  of  English  Gothic 

(§4). 
The  Smaller  English  Churches  (f  5). 
Renaissance  Architecture  (f  6). 
Modern  English  Architecture  (§  7). 

III.  Ecclesiastical       Architecture       in 

America. 


I.  General  Treatment:  Christian  architecture, 
as  a  separate  and  independent  thing,  exists  no 
more  than  a  Christian  state.  The  conception  of 
a  state  is  not  altered  by  the  fact  that  its  citizens 
happen  to  be  Christians;  nor  does  architecture 
receive  its  essential  form  from  being  used  for  Chris- 
tian or  non-Christian  purposes.  Some  of  the 
problems  of  architecture  were  altered  with  the  ad- 
vent of  Christianity ,  as  it  had  now  to  build  churches 
instead  of  temples,  one  of  the  most  important 
tasks  ever  laid  upon  architecture,  and  in  fact  for 
many  centuries  almost  the  only  important  one. 
The  first  question  to  be  considered  is  the  origin  of 
this  problem,  the  origin,  that  is,  of  specially  de- 
signed church  buildings. 

The  oldest  documents  referring  to  Christian  wor- 
ship show  that  the  faithful  assembled  in  the  house  of 
some  member  of  the  Church.     At  Je- 
X.  The      rusalem  they  met  from  house  to  house 
First       (Acts  ii.  46);  at  Troas  in  an  upper 
Places  of    room  (Acts  xx.  7-8);  Paul  designated 
Christian    Gains  as  the  host  of  the  whole  church 
Worship,   of  Corinth  (Rom.  xvi.  23),  implying 
that  when  they  came  together  as    a 
church,  they  met  in   his  house.    The  mention  of 
upper  rooms  does  not  prove  that  such  were  the 
4>nly  parts  of  the  houses  in  which  these  gatherings 
took  place;  and  we  must   remember  that   these 
houses   were    usually  the  small   houses  of    poor 
people,  constructed  in   the  usual  manner  of  the 
Greco-Roman  world.    Since  the  rooms  were  gen- 
erally small,  there  would  be  no  place  for  the  as- 
sembly as  soon  as  it  got  beyond  a  small  number, 
except  in  the  atrium  or  court-yard;  the  contention 
that  divine  worship  could   not   have  been  held 
there,  because  the  sacred  mysteries  would  have 
been  exposed  to  profane  eyes,  can  not  be  upheld, 
as  the  arcani  disciplina  (q.v.)  is   of  later  growth. 
This  domestic  worship  was  in  harmony  with  the 
spirit  of  early  Christianity,  full  as  it  was  of  ideas 
of  one  family  of  brethren.     A  Christian  house  was 
the  ideal  place  for  it.    The  primitive  Church,  there- 
fore, lacked  not  only  the  means  but  the  motive  to 
erect  any  special  building  for  divine  worship;  it  had 
no  temples,  and  expressly  rejected  the  idea  of  build- 
ing them  (cf.,  e.g.,  Minucius   Felix,  Octavius,  x., 
xxxii.). 

Nevertheless,  it  was  not  long  before  special  build- 
ings were  erected  for  worship,  and  considered  holy. 
To  understand  the  change,  it  is  necessary  to  try 
to  fix  the  date  at  which  this  took  place.     Un- 


questionably special  places  existed  in  Alexandria  in 
the  time  of  Origen  (cf.  his  **  On  Prayer,"  xxxi.  5, 
Berlin  ed.,  p.  398);  but  the  date  may 
2.  The  be  put  further  back  by  observation 
First  of  the  popular  use  of  the  term  ekkUsia. 
Special  In  classical  Greek  meaning  an  assem- 
BuildingB.  bly  of  citizens,  it  came  in  Christian 
use  to  denote,  first  the  gathering  of 
the  believers,  then  the  Christian  community 
either  local  or  universal,  and  finally  the  meet- 
ing-place. This  last  use  is  common  by  the  be- 
ginning of  the  fourth  century;  it  is  found  in 
Eusebius  and  in  his  Latin  contemporary  Lac- 
tantius  (De  mart,  persec,,  xii.,  p.  186,  ed.  Brandt 
and  Laubmann).  But  still  earlier,  Clement  of 
Alexandria  (Strom.f  vii.  5,  p.  846,  ed.  Potter), 
Hippolytus  (/n  Dan,,  i.  20,  p.  32),  and  Tertullian 
(De  idoLf  p.  36),  shortly  beifore  or  shortly  after  the 
year  200,  all  apply  the  word  to  a  distinctly  recog- 
nised place  of  worship.  The  two  latter  also  call  it 
"  the  house  of  God."  The  Greek  term  kyriakan 
(Eng.  "  church  "),with  its  Latin  equivalent  dominu 
cum,  appears  somewhat  later.  But  by  about  200 
there  were  at  least  two  recognized  names  for  a  Chris- 
tian place  of  worship,  and  the  existence  of  a  name 
demonstrates  the  prior  existence  of  the  thing. 
Whether  these  buildings  belonged  to  the  commu- 
nity or  to  individual  Christians  can  scarcely  be  an- 
swered with  certainty  for  the  third  century;  the 
theory  of  corporate  ownership  is  doubtful  at  the 
beginning  of  this  period,  though  it  becomes  demon- 
strable toward  the  close.  The  edict  of  Constantine 
and  Licinius,  given  in  Eusebius,  Hist,  eccl,,  x.  5,  in 
313  assumes  a  generally  recognized  corporate  pos- 
session of  many  Christian  meeting-places. 

Between  the  spring  of  58,  when  Gains  was  re- 
ceiving the  church  of  Corinth  in  his  house,  and  the 
time  about  200,  when  a  Christian  goes 
3.  Changes  into  a  special  *'  house  of  God,"  Chris- 
Demanded  tianity  had  ceased  to  be  the  close 
by  Altered  brotherhood  which  it  was  at  first;  it 
Circum-     had  developed  a  complicated  organiza- 
stances  of  tion,  with  a  marked  distinction  be- 
Christians.  tween  clergy  and  laity;  the  concep- 
tions of  priest  and  sacrifice  had  won 
a  place.    And  as  the  body  changed,  so  did  its  wor- 
ship; the  place  which  had  sufificed  for  the  simple, 
informal  gatherings  of  the  first  Christians  was  no 
longer  adequate. 

The  next  question,  as  to  the    form  ot    these 
earliest    distinct   churches,    is   one   which    it    is 


266 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Arohitectnre 


impossible  to  answer  certainly  from  direct  tradi- 
tion.   But  it  can  not  be  avoided,  becaiise  on  it 
depends  another,  as  to  the  origin  of  the  Christian 
basilica,    than   which   there  is   none 

4.  Origin    more  important  in  the  whole  range  of 
of  the      ecclesiastical    archeology.     The    ba- 

Christian  silica  has  an  influence  on  the  develop- 
Basilica,  ment  of  church  architecture  to  the 
present  day,  and  this  development  is 
unintelligible  without  an  attempt  to  arrive  at  a 
theory  of  the  origin  of  this  structural  form.  Its 
definition  is  not  matter  of  controversy;  it  is  an  ob- 
long building,  divided  by  rows  of  pillars  into  three 
(or  sometimes  five)  aisles,  the  central  one  the  high- 
est and  covered  with  a  flat  roof,  with  a  projecting 
addition,  generally  semicircular,  more  rarely 
square,  at  one  end.  When,  however,  it  is  asked 
how  such  a  building  came  to  be  constructed  for 
Christian  worship,  there  is  no  such  possibility  bf 
agreement.  It  has  been  held  to  have  originated 
from  the  forensic  basilica  or  the  so  called  private 
basilica;  from  the  Roman  dwelling-house  or  the 
cella  cimUerialis;  and  from  the  demands  of  Chris- 
tian worship  by  a  new  creation.  The  limits  of  an 
article  like  the  present  preclude  minute  examina- 
tion of  these  various  theories;  but  obvious  objec- 
tions lie  against  all  of  them,  as  they  are  expressed 
by  their  defenders.  The  most  certain  fact  in  this 
whole  discussion  is  that  when  the  Church  was  estab- 
lished under  Constantine,  it  did  not  need  to  go  in 
search  of  a  form  for  its  buildings;  the  form  already 
existed,  substantially  the  same  in  all  parts  of  the 
empire.  It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  we  are 
forced  to  consider  the  form  foimd  in  the  beginning 
of  the  fourth  century  as  the  product  of  a  long 
course  of  development.  From  what  has  been  said, 
it  follows  that  this  development  took  place  approxi- 
mately from  180  to  300.  Eusebius  {Hist,  eccl.,  viii. 
1,  5)  indicates  that  before  260  the  churches  were 
what  we  might  call  small  oratories,  but  increased  in 
size  after  that  date — though  this  increase  must  not 
be  exaggerated;  the  facts  that  the  famous  church 
of  Nicomedia  could  be  razed  to  the  ground  in  a  few 
hours  (Lactantius,  De  mort.  persec.,  xii.,  p.  187; 
Athanasius,  Apol.  ad  Const.,  xv.,  ed.  Maur,  i.  I,  p. 
241),  and  that  the  churches  of  Treves  and  Aquileia 
needed  to  be  replaced  by  larger  buildings  as  early  as 
336,  show  that  it  was  only  relative.  Thus,  though 
the  hypothesis  of  a  development  from  the  private 
house  of  the  earliest  age  is  attractive,  it  does  not 
lead  directly  to  the  basilican  form,  which  in  its 
essence  requires  a  considerable  size;  a  basilica  for 
one  or  even  two  hundred  people  could  not  have  been 
constructed.  What  we  need,  and  what  these  various 
theories  do  not  provide,  is  an  intermediate  stage. 

A  direct  prescription  as  to  church-building  is 

found  for  the  first  time  in  a  fourth  century  passage 

incorporated  with  the  Apostolic  Con- 

5.  First      stitutions   (II.  Ivii.  3),  which  shows 
Step  to-     what  was  then  regarded  as  essential. 

ward  a      This  was  very  little;  it  is  limited  to  a 

Church     marking  of   the   distinction  between 

Building,    clergy  and  laity,  and  a  special  place 

for     the     bishop.     Accordingly,     the 

place  set  apart  for  the  clergy  was  a  more  or  less 

fixed  dimension;  its  form  might  vary — it  might  be 


made  either  by  the  cutting  off  of  one  end,  or  by  the 
addition  of  a  semicircular  or  oblong  space,  in  the 
middle  of  which  was  the  bishop's  seat.  That  the 
semicircular  or  apsidal  form  finally  prevailed  is 
due  partly  to  acoustic  considerations — ^the  bishop 
preached  from  his  throne — and  partly  to  the  es- 
thetic motive  which  made  this  form  a  popular  one 
in  the  architecture  of  the  imperial  period.  The 
space  assigned  to  the  laity,  as  long  as  they  were 
comparatively  few  in  number,  could  only  be  a 
simple  oblong,  the  form  which  appears  as  normal 
in  the  Apostolic  Constitutions.  This  general  type, 
of  a  simple  oblong  room  with  an  apse  at  one  end, 
may  safely  be  taken  as  that  of  the  churches  which 
after  260  were  demolished  or  abandoned.  None  of 
them  is  preserved;  but  churches  like  Santa  Balbina 
in  Rome  and  that  of  Hidra  in  Africa  show  that  this 
form  did  not  at  once  disappear  even  when  the  ba- 
silica became  the  recognized  type.  The  Hidra 
church  is  particularly  instructive;  it  is  square  and 
small — ^if  the  measurements  given  by  Kraus  are 
correct,  the  sides  are  only  about  20  feet,  with  a  cor- 
responding apsidal  presbyterium.  This  is  the  church 
for  not  more  than  100  people  which  we  need  for  our 
intermediate  stage. 

The  development  from  thb  to  the  basilica  falls 
probably  in  the  period  between  260  and  303,  which 
was  marked  by  great  activity  in  build- 
6.  Second  ing.  The  motive  of  the  change  was 
Step.  the  need  for  more  space;  the  problem 
was,  how  to  attain  this  end  without 
upsetting  the  recognized  plan  of  an  oblong  audi- 
torium with  an  added  apse  for  the  clergy.  The 
proportional  lengthening  of  the  main  hall  could  not 
go  far,  as  the  extension  of  the  width  was  limited. 
The  only  thing  to  do  was  to  break  up  the  width, 
and  thus  came  a  division  of  aisles.  The  final  solu- 
tion, that  of  a  wide  central  division  with  narrower 
side  aisles,  docs  not  seem  to  have  been  reached  at 
once;  the  basilica  at  Hidra  shows  the  singular 
arrangement  of  side  aisles  wider  than  the  middle 
section.  A  period  of  experiment  must  have  come 
first;  but,  given  the  division,  both  esthetic  and 
practical  considerations  inevitably  suggested  the 
plan  finally  adopted.  The  middle  section  being 
the  main  division,  its  raising  to  a  greater  height 
followed,  for  purposes  of  lighting,  especially  since 
other  biuldings  must  have  frequently  stood  on  each 
side  of  the  church.  This  arrangement  was  not  new; 
it  has  been  found,  for  example,  in  the  temples  of 
Hierapolis  and  Samothrace:  and  thus  it  is  not  sur- 
prising that  the  same  or  a  similar  solution  of  the 
problem  was  found  simultaneously  in  different 
places — though  it  probably  required  some  time  for 
this  solution  to  be  universally  recognized  as  the 
best,  as  it  was  in  the  fourth  century.  The  desig- 
nation of  churches  as  basilicas  must  have  begun  in 
the  third  century,  since  it  is  already  a  familiar  term 
at  the  beginning  of  the  fourth.  This  transition 
was  the  easier  because  the  original  meaning  of  the 
word  had  been  practically  superseded  by  what  was 
nearly  the  sense  of  our  word  "  hall." 

With  the  reign  of  Constantine  begins  the  build- 
ing of  large  and  splendid  churches,  through  his  en- 
couragement and  the  activity  of  the  bishops,  first 
in  the  East,  later  in  Rome  and  the  West.  The  earli- 


Arohiteotnre 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


266 


est  was  the  church  at  Tyre  under  Licinius;  then 
follow,  under  Constantine,  the  buildings  at  Jeru- 
salem, Bethlehem,  Mamre,  Constanti- 

7.  Church-  nople,  Nicomedia,  Heliopolis,  and  per- 
Building  haps  St.  Peter's  in  Rome.  None  of 
Activity     these  remains ;  the  oldest  large  basilicas 

after  313.  extant,  Santa  Maria  Maggiore  in  Rome 
and  the  churches  of  Ravenna,  belong 
to  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries.  Thus  we  are  depend- 
ent on  the  descriptions  of  the  lost  buildings,  the 
first  of  which  is  the  unfortunately  too  rhetorical 
account  given  by  Eusebius  {Hist,  ecd.,  x.  4)  of  the 
church  at  Tyre.  According  to  this  picture,  it  cor- 
responded in  essential  details  to  the  type  of  basilica 
found  in  Africa  and  the  West;  but  we  learn  from 
the  latter  not  to  suppose  that  everything  described 
by  Eusebius  was  uniformly  present. 

Though  the  adoption  of  the  basilican  style  did  not 
exclude  creative  freedom  on  the  part  of  the  archi- 
tect, no  further  development  of  the 

8.  Basilica  idea  ever  took  place  in  the  Roman 
Style  Re-  empire.  Here,  as  in  other  things,  we 
produced,  see  the  powerless  despair  which  con- 
tented itself  with  endless  reproduc- 
tions of  an  accepted  type,  and  reproductions  which 
were  successively  poorer.  The  basilican  style  in 
itself,  however,  was  capable  of  development  to  a 
marked  degree.  Among  the  artistic  creations  of 
the  ancient  world,  it  was  the  one  which  was  des- 
tined to  have  the  greatest  future.  It  is  conceived 
wholly  in  the  ancient  spirit,  as  is  shown  particularly 
in  the  feeling  for  space  which  regulated  its  dimen- 
sions. The  relation  of  height  to  length  and  breadth 
shows  that  the  beauty  of  the  buil^g  was  sought 
in  broad,  dignified  extent.  That  it  grew  up  in  an 
era  of  decaying  art  is  evident  on  the  face  of  it. 
Only  in  the  rows  of  columns  which  divide  the  aisles 
is  constructive  necessity  made  to  minister  to  beauty; 
nowhere  in  the  rest  of  the  building  is  there  any  at- 
tempt to  please.  There  is  nothing  more  depressing 
in  the  history  of  architecture  than  the  straight 
brick  walls,  only  broken  here  and  there  by  a  few 
small  windows,  that  enclose  it.  Decoration  of  a 
sumptuous  kind  partly  makes  us  forget  this  poverty; 
but  the  decoration  is  purely  arbitrary,  extraneous, 
not  required  by  the  nature  of  the  plan. 

The   basilica,   then,   was   the   normal   type   of 

churches  built  to  hold  congregations  assembled  for 

worship.     But  these  were  not  the  only  ecclesiastical 

buildings  thought  of  after  the  fourth 

9.  Change  century.  Special  ritual  observances 
to  Circular  or  the  desire  to  display  princely  pomp 
Buildings,   brought  about  the  use  of  the  circular 

structure,  which  became  the  normal 
one  for  b^tisteries  and  memorial  chapels.  As  to 
the  former,  when  we  remember  that  adult  baptism 
was  frequent,  that  immersion  was  customary,  and 
that  the  observance  of  regular  seasons  for  baptism 
made  the  nimiber  of  candidates  large,  we  see  that 
a  comparatively  large  pool  was  required;  and  the 
building  constructed  to  enclose  it  naturally  allowed 
for  placing  it  in  the  center,  and  so  could  be  only 
circular.  The  building  of  memorial  churches  was 
begun  by  Constantine  with  that  of  the  Holy  Sepul- 
cher  at  Jerusalem,  and  again  the  circular  or  polygo- 
nal form  was  prescribed  by  its  relation  to  the  sacred  I 


object  or  the  tomb  which  they  were  intended  to 
enshrine.  The  simple  structiure  might  be  enriched 
by  a  number  of  small  chapels  or  niches,  or  sur- 
rounded by  a  corridor;  a  cupola  or  dome  necessa- 
rily covered  it.  Here  it  was  not  so  much  the  work- 
ing out  of  a  new  form  as  the  adaptation  of  one 
already  existing;  even  when  the  chapels  were  pro- 
longed so  as  to  make  the  ground-plan  into  a  Greek 
cross,  it  was  scarcely  a  new  form.  Examples  are 
the  Lateran  baptistery  and  the  two  at  Ravenna, 
the  tombs  of  Galla  Placidia  and  Theodoric  at  Ra- 
venna, and  the  church  of  Santa  Costanza  in  Rome. 
When  an  attempt  was  made  to  use  these  biuld- 
ings  for  general  purposes  of  worship,  a  new  problem 
arose  in  the  laying  out  of  the  approved  places  for 
clergy  and  people.  Churches  of  this  type  were  used 
in  the  East  for  congregational  purposes  as  early 
as  Constantine 's  reign;  according  to 
10.  Me-  Eusebius's  description  (Vito  Const.,  iii. 
morial  50,  p.  207 ),  that  which  the  emperor  built 
Churches,  at  Antioch  was  apparently  an  octag- 
onal building  surmounted  by  a  cupola, 
and  so  was  the  one  put  up  by  the  father  of  Gregory 
Nazianzen  in  his  see  city(Orcrf.,xviii.  39,  MPG,  xxxv. 
1037),  while  Gregory  of  Nyssa  (Epist,,  xxv.,  MPG, 
xlvi.  1093)  describes  a  similar  one.  But  we  know 
nothing  of  the  interior  arrangements  of  these. 
Later  (not  before  the  second  half  of  the  fifth  cen- 
tury) comes  the  puzzling  church  of  Santo  Stefano 
Rotondo  on  the  Celian  Hill,  whose  size  proves 
that  it  was  meant  for  public  worship.  This,  the 
ugliest  building  of  the  kind  ever  constructed,  only 
shows  how  far  the  Roman  architect  was  from 
understanding  his  task;  he  built  a  church  as  he 
would  have  biult  a  memorial  chapel,  without  real- 
izing the  total  difference  in  requirements.  Yet,  in 
spite  of  all  the  difficulties  presented  by  this  form, 
especially  by  the  absence  of  perspective  when  the 
altar  was  placed  in  the  middle,  a  certain  number 
of  churches  were  biult  with  which  no  basilica  can 
compare  in  beauty — really  the  highest  achieve- 
ments of  the  older  ecclesiastical  architecture.  The 
best  of  these  is  San  Vitale  at  Ravenna  (early  sixth 
century ) .  Here  one  of  the  eight  chapels  is  removed, 
and  a  longer  apse  put  in  its  place,  which  gives  a  cer- 
tain effect  of  length — though  only  by  a  disturbance 
of  the  harmony  of  the  original  plan.  Much  more 
admirable  is  the  solution  found  in  the  church  of 
Sts.  Sergius  and  Bacchus,  and,  more  completely, 
in  St.  Sophia,  both  in  Constantinople.  But  here 
the  essence  of  this  central  form  of  structiure  is  not 
only  disturbed,  as  in  San  Vitale — ^it  is  absolutely 
abandoned.  In  the  Greek  and  Russian  churches 
the  domed  church  became  the  accepted  type, 
after  the  model  of  St.  Sophia.  The  ground- 
plan  of  the  latter  was  not  commonly  followed, 
the  cruciform  being  preferred;  and  thus,  when 
each  arm  of  the  cross  was  surmounted  with  its 
cupola,  as  well  as  the  central  space,  they  became 
simply  a  number  of  similar  connecting  rooms,  and 
the  main  attraction  of  the  type,  its  impressive 
unity,  was  lost. 

The  new  peoples  who  were  to  carry  on  the  work 
of  civilization  during  the  Middle  Ages  inherited  in 
the  basilica  a  type  capable  of  great  development, 
though  not,  as  it  came  to  them,  much  developed. 


267 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Architeotore 


It  was  the  only  type  which  had  great  influence 

on  medieval  architecture.    The  men  of  the  Middle 

Ages  were  by  no  means  blind  to  the 

11.  Basilica  attractions  of  the  style  which  we  call 

the         the  Byzantine;  but  the  attempts  made 

Accepted     in  that  style,  as  by  Charlemagne  at 

Type  of      Aachen  in  imitation  of  San  Vitale,  and 

Western     by  others  after  the  Church  of  the  Holy 

Medieval     Sepulcher  had  aroused  the  admiration 

Churches,   of  the  crusaders,  were  only  sporadic; 

they  did   not   determine   the  future 

progress  of  ecclesiastical  architecture,   which  has 

the  basilica  for  its  true  starting-point. 

It  is  worth  while  to  examine  the  attitude  of  the 
different  modem  nations  toward  this  inheritance  of 
the  past.  In  Rome  building  activity  was  never  at  a 
standstill,  though  a  large  part  of  it  was  mere  restora- 
tion. But  for  six  centuries  after  Gregory  the  Great 
(d.  604),  people  did  not  conceive  the  idea  that  they 
could  buUd  otherwise  than  as  their  fathers  had 
built.  The  new  churches  of  the  twelfth  and  early 
thirteenth  centuries,  Santa  Maria  in  Trastevere 
and  San  Lorenzo  fuori  le  Mura,  simply  reproduce 
the  scheme  of  the  basilica;  yet  when  Honorius  III. 
(1216-27)  began  the  latter,  Gothic  churches  had 
been  building  in  France  for  more  than  fifty  years. 
Rome,  then,  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  history  of 
medieval  church  architectiu^.  The  rest  of  Italy 
was  not  qviite  so  unfruitful.  Tuscany  is  far  from 
poor  in  admirable  medieval  buildings.  These  are 
partly  in  the  old  line  of  development — San  Miniato 
at  Florence,  for  all  its  attractive  features,  shows  no 
trace  of  new  constructive  ideas — and  partly  carry 
it  fiurther.  This  is  especially  the  case  with  the 
cathedral  of  Pisa,  which  is  not  only  the  most  suc- 
cessful example  of  what  Tuscan  artists  could  do  in 
the  handling  of  large  masses  and  in  richness  of  deco- 
ration, but  carries  the  basilican  prin- 

12.  Combi-  ciple  a   distinct    step  fiurther.     It  is 
nation  of    enlarged   into    a    frankly    cruciform 

Basilica  and  shape,  and  carries  the  principal  fea- 
Domed  ture  of  the  Byzantine  style,  the 
Styles,  dome.  But,  however  celebrated  are 
the  beauties  of  this  cathedral,  one  can 
not  deny  that  the  combination  of  these  two  widely 
different  forms  is  less  successful  here  than  in  San 
Vitale  and  St.  Sophia.  There  is  an  especially 
irreconcilable  antagonism  between  the  dome  and 
the  flat  roof  of  the  nave.  The  cathedral  of  Pisa 
does  not  unfold  the  possibilities  latent  in  the  ba- 
silican type — ^it  merely  attaches  to  this  type  a 
foreign  element.  In  the  north  of  Italy  a  more  de- 
cisive forward  step  was  taken,  when  its  architects 
boldly  faced  the  problem  of  the  vaulting  of  the 
basilica.  The  answer  was  not  found  at  once.  In 
Sant'  Ambrogio  at  Milan  the  execution  of  the  vault- 
ing is  at  the  expense  of  the  lighting  of  the  nave,  and 
the  church  is  gloomy  in  spite  of  Italian  sims.  San 
Michele  at  Pavia  and  the  cathedral  of  Parma  were 
the  first  to  succeed  in  obviating  this  defect. 

But  the  progress  of  wide  development  of  the  ba- 
silican scheme  is  not  connected  with  the  Lombard 
churches;  it  goes  on  across  the  Alps,  where  from 
the  Prankish  period  its  course  is  uninterrupted.  Its 
first  effort  was  the  so  called  Romanesque  basilica, 
though  the  name  is  modem  and  not  very  satisfactory. 


The  development  of  this  second  important  type  is 
not  as  obscure  as  that  of  the  original  basilica  but 
here,  too,  difficulties  abound.  The 
13.  The  Ro-  weakest  feature  of  the  old  basilica  was 
manesque  the  arrangement  of  the  transverse  sec- 
Basilica,  tion;  and  it  was  here  that  the  inno- 
vators took  up  the  task.  Cmciform 
basilicas  had  been  built  in  the  Prankish  kingdom 
even  before  Charlemagne;  and  the  emphasis  laid 
upon  this  shape  leads  us  to  think  that  symbolic 
more  than  artistic  considerations  determined  its 
adoption.  Yet  the  esthetic  gain  was  considerable. 
It  led  to  the  lengthening  of  the  choir  or  chancel 
into  a  harmonious  proportion  to  the  total  length  of 
the  ehurch.  The  raising  of  the  choir  above  the 
level  of  the  nave  has  been  thought  to  have  orig- 
inated in  the  increasing  veneration  of  relics;  altars 
had  long  been  erected  over  the  graves  of  the  mar- 
tyrs, but  now  the  narrow  crjrpts  of  the  earlier 
period  gave  place  to  larger  chapels,  with  the  result 
indicated.  Possibly  the  same  motive  led  to  the 
addition  of  a  second  apse  at  the  western  end  of  the 
church,  which  was,  in  any  case,  a  step  toward  con- 
necting the  church  and  the  tower.  Towers  had  not 
been  a  part  of  the  original  basilica,  except  in  some 
cases  in  Syria.  At  the  very  beginning  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  without,  it  would  seem,  any  influence  from 
the  East,  the  oldest  towers  begin  to  appear  in  Italy 
— unlovely  erections  in  the  shape  of  a  cylinder  or 
a  parallelepiped,  which  display  the  inability  of 
the  period  to  construct  an  architectural  work  di- 
vided into  well-related  parts.  No  attempt  was  made 
to  connect  them  with  the  church.  In  the  Prankish 
kingdom  the  constmction  of  towers  is  at  least  as 
old  as  in  Italy — in  any  case  pre-Carolingian ;  but  here 
we  meet  with  attempts  to  break  up  the  unwieldy 
mass  and  to  place  it  in  relation  to  the  church.  An- 
other change  was  in  the  supports  of  the  roof.  The 
old  colmnns  were  replaced  by  heavier  pillars,  ca- 
pable of  bearing  a  greater  weight;  and  this  was  again 
a  step  in  advance.  The  use  of  colmnns  in  the  ba- 
silicas was  a  degradation  of  this  fine  element  of 
classical  architectiure,  which  was  not  designed  to 
support  the  lofty  walls  of  the  nave  of  the  Christian 
chmt^h.  The  architects  of  the  fourth  and  fifth 
centuries  were  insensible  to  the  discordance  be- 
tween their  form  and  their  use;  but  whether  or  not 
the  German  innovators  felt  it,  they  removed  it. 
The  tendency  to  go  beyond  tradition  thus  showed 
itself  in  the  most  various  ways  in  the  Prankish  em- 
pire; how  far  it  had  gone  by  the  first  half  of  the  ninth 
century  may  be  seen  in  the  plans  of  St.  Gall.  The 
final  result  was  the  Romanesque  basilica  which  dom- 
inated all  the  Christian  countries  north  of  the  Alps. 
Though,  however,  there  is  this  general  agreement 
in  type,  each  country  developed  along  its  own  lines. 
The  most  instructive  illustrations  may 
14.  Varia-  be  taken  from  Prance  and  Germany, 
tions  in  the  In  the  latter  country  the  plan  of  the 
Detail  of  old  basilica  was  preserved  in  these 
the  Roman-  particulars:  The  threefold  division  of 
esque  the  congregation's  part,  the  raising 
BasUica.  and  direct  lighting  of  the  nave,  the 
flat  roof,  and  the  termination  of  the 
whole  building  in  an  apse  or  choir.  Pour  main 
features  were  new.    The  first  is  the  preference  for 


Arohiteotnre 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


268 


the  cruciform  structure,  from  which  sprang  the 
establishment  of  fixed  proportions  for  the  whole 
church;  the  square  formed  by  the  intersection  of 
the  two  arms  of  the  cross  was  taken  as  the  unit, 
to  be  repeated  once  on  each  of  three  sides,  and 
twice  or  three  times  on  the  other.  The  second 
new  feature  is  the  connection  of  the  tower  or 
towers  with  the  church,  so  that  under  various 
arrangements,  with  one,  two,  or  more  towers, 
the  aim  was  always  to  present  them  as  an 
integral  part  of  the  building.  The  third  point  is 
that  the  attention  was  no  longer  concentrated  on 
the  interior;  by  the  development  of  facades  and 
doorways,  by  the  breaking  up  and  diversifying  of 
the  wall-surface,  the  exterior  of  the  church  took  on 
a  new  character  of  imposing  beauty.  Fourthly, 
the  individual  elements  of  the  whole  were  freely 
worked  over  and  transformed.  The  old  models 
were  not  cast  aside — the  acanthus  capital  was  imi- 
tated for  a  long  time — but  new  forms,  appropriate 
both  to  the  material  and  to  the  special  end  in  view, 
were  boldly  created.  Outside,  however,  of  these 
general  characteristics,  there  was  the  greatest  free- 
dom in  design.  In  one  place  an  apse  was  added  on 
the  eastern  side  of  each  transept,  forming  a  termina- 
tion to  the  side  aisles.  In  another,  the  side  aisles 
were  carried  out  beyond  the  transept,  and  then 
terminated  each  by  an  apse.  In  a  third,  these 
aisles  were  curved  around  the  main  apse,  and  re- 
lieved by  smaller  apsidal  formations  projecting  from 
the  curve.  Here  the  semicircular  apse  was  em- 
ployed; there  the  polygonal  shape  was  preferred, 
or  the  old  rectangular  preserved.  The  same  free- 
dom is  found  in  the  supports;  sometimes  colmnns 
still  uphold  the  roof  of  the  nave,  sometimes  pillars, 
or  an  alternation  of  both.  The  presence  or  absence 
of  galleries  afforded  scope  for  infinite  variety.  This 
is  what  gives  the  Romanesque  basilica  not  the  least 
of  its  charms.  No  ctyle  excludes  mere  slavish  copy- 
ing of  models  more  than  this;  none  offered  greater 
opportunities  to  the  artistic  imagination. 

And  yet  the  flat-roofed  basilica  was  only  a  prep- 
aration for  a  still  higher  form — the  vaulted  church. 
It  was  probably  less  artistic  dissatis- 
15.  The     faction  with  the  flat  roof  that  brought 
Vaulted     about  the  change  than  a  desire  to  se- 
Church.     cure  protection  against  fire  by  sub- 
stituting stone  vaulting  for  a  wooden 
roof.     Medieval   histories  are  full  of  accounts  of 
devastating  conflagrations  in  the  principal  churches. 
The  change  was  made  gradually;  after  architects 
had  tried  their  hands  at  vaulting  the  side  aisles, 
they  came  in  1097  to  carry  a  vault  over  the  broad 
nave  of  the  cathedral  of  Spires.     Cross-vaulting 
was  here  employed,  thus  distributing  the  weight  of 
the  vault  among  four  supporting  pillars.    The  ex- 
ample was  soon  followed  in  Mainz  and  Worms,  in 
the  abbey  church  of  Laach,  and  elsewhere;  and 
the  advantages  of  this  style  were  speedily  recognized. 
Besides  the  new  possibility  of  reaching  a  strictly 
symmetrical  disposition  of  the  ground-plan,  other 
changes  came  in.    The  great  Romanesque  churches 
were  usually  monastic  or  collegiate,  and  thus  served 
not  only  for  the  worship  of  the  laity  in  general  but 
also  for  the  daily  offices  of  canons  or  monks.    Con- 
sequently, in  opposition  to  the  natural  arrangement 


of  the  building,  the  choir  was  cut  off  from  the  nave 
by  a  high  stone  screen  in  many  of  these  churches, 
and  served  for  the  offices,  a  special  altar  for  the 
worship  of  the  laity  being  often  erected  at  the  east 
end  of  the  nave.  The  rood-screen  sometimes  bore 
a  lofty  platform  for  reading  the  Scriptures  to  the 
congregation  assembled  in  the  nave,  the  lectorium. 
The  connection  of  the  monastic  or  collegiate  build- 
ings with  the  church  led  to  the  laying  out  of  clois- 
ters, around  a  rectangular  court,  one  side  of  which 
was  frequently  formed  by  the  church. 

If  the  Romanesque  basilica  in  its  final  form  is 

compared  with  the  ancient,  a  notable  difference 

will  be  observed.    The  idea  of  length 

16.  Differ-  prevailed  in  the  earlier  conception; 
ences  be-  the  eye  was  led  on  entering  at  once  to 
tween  the   the  aJtar  and  the  preahyterium  behind 

Ancient     it.    The  later  style  did  not  abandon 
and  Ro-     the  idea  of  length,  but  modified  it 
manesque  greatly;  the  disposition  of  all  spaces 
Basilica,    is  conditioned    by   the   principle    of 
grouping.    The  place  for  the  congre- 
gation is  not  a   single  imbroken  space  like  the 
central  division  of  the  old  basilica,  but  a  group 
of  small  rectangular  spaces;    the  eye  does  not  go 
directly,  but  by  a  succession  of  steps,  to  the  altar. 
So  the  small  apses  were  grouped  about  the  main 
apse,  the  side  aisles  about  the  nave,  the  place  for 
the  congregation  with  the  place  for  the  clergy. 
The  same   idea   of  grouping  prevails  equally  in 
the  exterior.    It  is   upon   this  quality  that  the 
picturesque  character  of  the  Romanesque  basilica 
and  its  real  superiority  over  the  ancient  rests,  for 
art  requires  rhythm  rather  than  mere  uniformity. 
If  we  turn  to  France,  the  story  is  different  in  a 
number  of  particulars.     Instead  of  the  gradual, 
almost  logical  development    of  Ger- 

17.  French  many,  we  see  there  a  bewildering  rich- 
Ecclesias-   ness  of  forms  and  motives.    The  tend- 

tical  Devel-  ency  there  also  was  from  the  flat  roof 
opment  to  the  vaulted;  not  only  the  date  of 
the  change,  however,  varies  in  difffer- 
ent  parts  of  France — this  was  so  also  in  Germany 
— but  the  final  result  also  differs  in  different  places. 
In  the  south,  to  render  vaulting  possible,  they 
abandoned  the  path  followed  since  the  third  cen- 
tury, and  went  back  to  the  single  hall,  covering  it 
with  barrel- vaulting  (cathedral  of  Orange),  and 
went  from  that  to  a  cruciform  plan  (Montmajour); 
or  they  retained  the  threefold  division,  but  gave 
up  the  raising  of  the  central  section,  making  three 
barrel-vaulted  sections  of  nearly  equal  height  (St. 
Biartin  d'Ainay  at  Lyons,  nave  of  St.  Nazaire,  Car- 
cassonne). Besides  barrel- vaulting  the  cupola 
was  frequently  employed,  without,  however,  adopt- 
ing the  groimd-plan  of  the  centralized  structures; 
in  some  places  a  long  nave  was  covered  with  a  suc- 
cession of  equal  cupolas  (Cahors,  Angoul^e).  The 
north,  however,  held  firmly  to  the  basilica.  As  in 
Germany,  the  way  to  vaulting  was  prepared  by  the 
strengthening  of  the  supports;  coliunns  gave  way 
to  round  or  square  pillars.  Cross-vaulting  was 
frequently  used,  but  not  as  exclusively  as  in  Ger- 
many; the  half-barrel  was  especially  used  in  Bur- 
gundy (Cluny,  Paray-le-Monial,  Autim).  Barrel- 
vaulting  really  answered  more  nearly  to  the  original 


269 


REUGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Arohiteotore 


plan,  adapted  as  it  is  to  the  preservation  of  the  im- 
pression of  length.  But  since  the  ground-plan  was 
generally  similar  to  the  German,  the  result  was  not 
altogether  harmonious. 

After  the  twelfth  century,  the  predominance  of 
the  Romanesque  basilica  was  first  endangered  and 
then  altogether  broken  down  by  the 
i8.  Intro-  introduction  of  the  Gothic  style.  This 
doction  of  name  again,  invented  by  the  ignorant 
the  Gothic  vanity  of  the  Italians,  is  admittedly 
Style.  imsatisfactory,  but  there  is  no  accepted 
substitute  for  it.  The  origin  of  the 
Gothic  style  may  be  traced  in  the  simplest  way  to 
the  effort  to  find  the  best  manner  of  forming 
the  cross-vaulting;  but  its  universal  acceptance 
throughout  so  large  a  part  of  Europe  shows  that  it 
must  have  provided  what  the  age  was  unconsciously 
seeking.  The  north  of  France  is  its  birthplace. 
The  preliminary  steps  were  taken  at  Saint-Denis 
under  Abbot  Suger  (1140-44);  here  first  the  walls 
lost  all  significance  as  supporting  elements,  and 
were  only  retained  to  enclose  the  space.  This  is 
really  the  essential  point  of  the  Gothic  style — so  to 
construct  the  vaulting,  and  so  to  support  the  super- 
structure by  buttresses  as  to  render  the  roof  inde- 
pendent of  the  walls,  and  also,  by  the  use  of  pointed 
arches,  of  the  rectangular  floor-space.  Free  dis- 
position of  space  was  won,  but  little  use  was  made 
of  it.  The  relation  of  the  middle  to  the  side  aisles 
remained  the  same  as  in  the  Romanesque;  so  did 
the  enrichment  of  the  choir  by  radiating  chapels,  and 
the  greater  height  of  the  nave.  But  while  the  main 
features  of  both  ground-plan  and  elevation  were 
still  the  same,  all  the  individual  parts  were  new  and 
harmonious  with  each  other.  The  introduction  of 
the  pointed  arch  in  the  vaulting  led  to  its  adoption 
for  all  arches.  It  has  been  said  that  in  this  style 
the  vertical  principle  reached  its  extreme  develop- 
ment; but  this  is  misleading.  The  Gothic  cathe- 
dral is  essentially  a  structure  of  length,  as  much  as 
the  churches  that  went  before  it.  The  choir  which 
terminates  it  is  as  much  as  ever  the  principal  mem- 
ber, to  which  the  arches  of  the  nave  lead  the  eye. 
The  fact  that  in  the  fagades  of  the  French  cathe- 
drals the  vertical  lines  are  everywhere  broken  by 
horizontal  elements  can  not  be  taken  as  an  incon- 
sistency— these  most  perfect  specimens  of  Gothic 
art  are  not  likely  to  have  violated  a  Gothic  princi- 
ple. All  we  can  say  is  that  the  development  of 
height  which  was  present  in  the  Romanesque  is 
continued  in  the  Gothic.  This  bold  soaring  into  the 
air  was  taken  as  symbolic  of  spiritual  aspiration; 
it  was  a  logical  consequence  which  fitted  the  age  of 
the  schoolmen.  Growing  wealth  and  luxury  also 
found  their  satisfaction  in  the  increased  beauty  of 
the  design. 

The  enthusiastic  approval  of  the  new  style  showed 

itself  first  in  France.    Simultaneously  with  Saint- 

Dems  the  rebuilding  of  the  cathedral 

A  A*  i*"      ^^   ^^   ^^   begun;  that    of   Notre 

Adoption    D^j^g  ^  p^ris  followed  in  1163,  that 

^  an?*^*    ^^  Reims  in  1210,  and  a  few  years 

Qennanj*   ^^^  that  of  Amiens.    In  less  than  a 

century  the  most  perfect  works  of  the 

new  style  were  completed  or  under  way.    From 

France  it  passed  almost  inunediately  across  the 


Channel,  though  in  England  it  took  on  a  distinct 
character  by  the  infusion  of  Norman  elements.  In 
Germany  there  was  a  period  of  transition.  Cer- 
tain elements  were  gradually  introduced,  as  in  the 
nave  of  Bamberg  and  the  choir  of  Magde- 
burg. Its  complete  victory  dates  from  the 
beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century;  by  the  mid- 
dle of  that  century  was  begun  the  cathedral 
of  Cologne,  of  which  it  must  at  least  be  said  that 
it  carries  out  Gothic  principles  with  an  imsurpassed 
logical  fulness.  But  this  very  completeness  was  a 
reason  why  the  ambitious  architects  of  those  ages 
were  unwilling  to  rest  in  it.  Numerous  variations 
were  afterward  introduced,  many  of  which  really 
led  away  from  Gothic  principles  while  they  retained 
Gothic  features.  By  the  suppression  of  the  tri- 
forium  the  wall  regained  its  place;  the  abandon- 
ment of  side  aisles  in  other  places,  the  construction 
of  a  single  large  hall,  even  sometimes  with  a  flat 
roof,  vindicated  once  more  the  claims  of  breadth 
as  against  height,  in  a  way  which  seems  to  appeal 
to  modem  feeling,  if  one  may  judge  from  the  praise 
bestowed  upon  these  buildings  of  really  very  vary- 
ing artistic  value. 

Italy  never  did  more  than  play  with  the  Gothic 
style.  Unlike  the  northern  architects,  who  looked 
upon  it  as  a  solution  of  a  problem  which  had 
long  puzzled  them,  the  Italians  merely  imported  it 
as  a  foreign  fashion,  partly  under  the  influence  of 
the  mendicant  orders.  It  opened  new  possibilities 
to  the  fancy  of  Italian  architects,  but  they  never 
made  it  their  own. 

After  the  downfall  of  Gothic  predominance,  there 
is  no  longer  any  unity  of  development.  The  tend- 
encies of  the  Renaissance  led  away 

20.  No       from  Romanesque  and  Gothic,  rather 

Present  in  the  direction  of  the  early  basilica; 
Single  Pre-  and  one  of  its  great  services  to  eccle- 
dominant  siastical  architecture  is  its  conquest  of 
Type.  the  domed  or  circular  church,  dis- 
played most  fully  in  St.  Peter's  at 
Rome.  But  the  artists  of  this  period  also  succeeded 
in  using  this  form  for  parochial  and  smaller  churches. 
It  was  one  of  the  weakest  points  about  Gothic  that 
it  was  incapable  of  producing  a  masterpiece  on  a 
small  scale.  Here  the  Renaissance  masters  ex- 
celled it;  in  the  Badia  at  Florence,  San  Giovanni 
delle  Monache  at  Pistoia,  and  especially  the  Ma- 
donna di  San  Biagio  at  Montepulciano  they  gave 
evidence  that  greatness  of  line  was  possible  with 
moderate  dimensions.  This  was  a  distinct  gain; 
but  the  further  development  is  not  pleasant  to 
record,  either  on  the  Catholic  or  the  Protestant 
side.  The  former,  after  the  Counterreformation, 
is  characterized  by  display,  by  a  struggle  after 
magnificence,  and  a  loss  of  feeling  for  the  beauty  of 
simplicity  and  quiet  grandeur.  The  development 
of  general  art  in  the  baroco  and  rococo  styles  cor- 
responded to  this  weakness,  and  produced  the 
eighteenth  century  barbarities  of  vidgar  ostentation. 
Modem  styles  have  also  had  their  influence  on 
Protestant  church-building,  but  no  one  form  has 
attained  a  recognized  mastery.       (A.  Hauck.) 

IL  English  Ecclesiastical  Architecture:  Some  able 
attempts  have  been  made  in  recent  years  to  limit 
the  term  "  Gothic  "  to  buildings  of  the  highest  and 


Arohiteotore 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


270 


most  developed  t3rpe,  churches,  in  short,  erected 
within  the  narrow  confines  of  the  Royal  Domain 
of  France.  The  contention  is  perhaps  one  of  terms 
rather  than  of  facts.  At  least  it  is  certain  that  if 
the  highest  type  of  Gothic  is  that  of  the  Royal 
Domain — which  is  unquestionably  true — the  art 
had  a  very  wide  distribution  throughout  Europe. 
This  was  brought  about  partly  by  the  bands  of 
traveling  craftsmen,  who  journeyed  from  city  to 
city,  from  country  to  coimtry,  and  by  the  natural 
desire  to  build  in  the  new  style,  which  was  copied 
wherever  its  beauties  and  structural  qualities  were 
known. 

But  while  it  is  not  difficult  to  trace  the  new  style 
to  its  point  of  origin  in  the  Royal  Domain,  it  speedily 
lost  its  essentially  French  characteristics  in  taking 
root  in  new  soil.  The  Gothic  of  the  various  coun- 
tries of  Europe  exhibits  distinctive  characteristics 
of  its  own,  which  not  only  differentiate  it  from  the 
Gothic  of  the  Royal  Domain,  but  give  it  a  charac- 
ter and  feeling,  almost  a  form  thoroughly  national 
and  individual.  Of  few  countries  is  this  more 
clearly  the  case  than  England,  whose  Gothic  mon- 
uments are  among  the  most  splendid  in  Europe 
and  exhibit  some  of  the  most  remarkable  manifes- 
tations of  this  beautiful  style. 

Normandy  Romanesque  appeared  in  England 
before  the  Conquest.    It  began  with  the  commence- 
ment  of  Westminster  Abbey  by  Ed- 
I.  Roman-  ward  the  Confessor  in  1065.    For  the 
esque  Archi- next  hundred  years  the  building  art 
lecture,      of  EIngland  was  a  development  of  the 
art  of  Normandy,  but  richer,  more 
complete,  more  varied,  and  with  a  much  more  nu- 
merous series  of  monuments.    Most  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  churches  were  rebuilt  completely,  and  many 
wholly  new  churches  and  foimdations  erected,  many 
of  them  of  great  size. 

A  new  epoch  in  English  architecture  was  occa- 
sioned by  the  introduction  of  the  Cistercian  Order 
about  1140.  Between  1125  and  the  end  of  the 
twelfth  century  more  than  a  himdred  Cistercian 
abbeys  were  founded  in  England.  Until  about 
1175  the  larger  share  of  the  work  was  done  by  the 
monks  and  canons  regular;  at  that  date  the  secu- 
lar canons  became  the  leaders  in  building,  and  the 
English  Gothic  monuments  were  chiefly  built  by 
them.  Hence  the  larger  number  of  English  Ro- 
manesque churches  was  due  to  the 
2.  Intro-  regular  orders,  while  the  Gothic 
duction  of  churches  are  chiefly  the  work  of  the 
Gothic,  secular  canons.  Yet  England  saw  no 
such  wholesale  destruction  of  Roman- 
esque monuments  as  happened  in  France.  There, 
many  great  Romanesque  churches  were  completely 
rebuilt  in  the  newer  Gothic.  In  England,  on  the 
contrary,  many  extensive  Romanesque  parts  were 
retained  to  which  Gothic  additions  were  made  at 
various  periods.  The  great  churches  of  England, 
therefore,  offer  very  much  more  variety  in  style 
than  the  great  churches  of  France.  And  this  is  as 
true  of  the  smaller  churches  as  of  the  larger.  An- 
other interesting  fact  concerning  English  churches 
is  that  most  of  the  greatest  churches  have  either 
always  been  cathedral  churches  or  are  now  cathe- 
drals.   A  number  of  EngUsh  bishops  had  their 


seats  in  monks'  churches,  while  many  other  monas- 
tic churches  became  cathedrab  in  the  time  of  Henry 
VIII.  or  were  made  so  later.  The  English  cathe- 
drals, therefore,  comprise  nearly  all  of  the  largest 
medieval  churches  remaining  in  England. 

The  classification  of  EngUsh  Gothic  monuments 
by  periods  has  been  a  subject  of  much  study.     The 
determinating    feature    is    the    window   tracery, 
always  an  essential  and  characteristic  element.     In 
a  general  way  three  leading  periods  may  be  dis- 
tinguished: Early  EngUsh  or  Lancet, 
3.  Three     from  1175  or  1180  to  1280,  indicated 
Periods,     by  simplicity,  dignity,  and  purity  of 
design;  Decorated  or  Geometric,  from 
1280  to  1380,  characterized  by  decorative  richness 
and  greater  lightness  of  construction;  Perpendicu- 
lar, from   1380  into  the  sixteenth  century,   dis- 
tinguished by  fan-vaulting,  four-centered  arches, 
and  tracery  in  which  vertical  and  horizontal  lines 
strongly  predominate. 

Apart  from  the  special  features  Indicated  by  this 
classification,  English  Gothic  had  certain  other  gen- 
eral characteristics  aU  of  which  helped  materially 
in  producing  a  characteristic  style  of  building. 
Compared  with  the  churches  of  France  those  of 
England  were  low  and  long.  While  the  French 
builders  deUghted  in  structural  experiments,  and  in 
the  cathedral  of  Beauvais  attempted  a  Ughtness  and 
deUcacy  of  construction  which  was  never  surpassed 
in  Europe,  those  of  England  avoided  such  danger- 
ous efforts.  Their  use  of  the  flying  buttress,  a  lead- 
ing and  typical  featiure  of  French 
4»  Charac-  Gothic,  was  of  the  sUghtest.  But 
teristics  of  while  they  did  not,  because  of  this, 
English  build  high  vaults,  they  displayed  in 
Gothic,  their  vaulting  a  much  greater  variety 
and  richness  than  did  the  French, 
whose  vaults  are,  in  a  measure,  of  uniform  charac- 
ter. The  splendid  English  vaults  are,  in  truth,  one 
of  the  most  notable  characteristics  of  English  Gothic 
architectiure.  The  earUest  English  efforts  at  dec- 
orative vaulting  are  the  ribbed  vaults,  with  many 
ribs  rising  from  a  common  point  of  origin,  present- 
ing many  small  faces  easily  filled  in.  The  next 
stage  shows  minor  ribs,  called  hemes,  connecting 
the  main  ribs  and  forming  star-shaped  and  other 
patterns.  The  final  type,  and  the  most  complex 
and  the  most  beautiful,  was  the  fan-vault,  in  which 
the  ribs  are  multiplied  indefinitely;  the  vaults  are 
elaborately  paneled,  and  often  suppUed  with  pend- 
ants decorated  with  ribs.  The  structural  signifi- 
cance of  the  vault  is  almost  lost  sight  of  in  these 
enrichments,  and  the  fan-vaulting  is  a  splendid 
stone  ceiUng  rather  than  a  structural  roof-covering 
as  is  the  case  with  the  purer  earUer  vaults  or  the 
more  logical  vaults  of  France. 

The  English  builders  of  the  medieval  period  ap- 
pear to  have  always  had  a  special  predilection 
toward  enriched  and  decorative  ceilings.  The 
most  beautiful,  even  if  the  least  structural  form  of 
stone  roofing,  was  reached  in  their  fan-vaults. 
Their  wooden  ceiUngs  were  equally  notable.  Many 
English  open-timbered  ceiUngs,  with  decorated 
trusses  and  paneled  surfaces,  are  works  of  extraor- 
dinary beauty  and  thoroughly  characteristic  of 
early  and  late  EngUsh  Gothic. 


d71 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDU 


Arohiteotore 


While  the  history  of  English  Gothic  architecture 
is  largely  written  in  its  cathedrals,  the  great  churches 
are  very  far  from  completing  the  record  of  English 
medieval  building.    The  English  parish  church  is 
a  thoroughly  interesting  and  highly  characteristic 
form  of  building,  often  very  mixed  as  to  styles  and 
dates,  most  generally  small  and  low  in  proportions, 
but  almost  always  beautiful  in  design 
5.  The      and  charmingly  environed.    Some  few 
Smaller    of  them  are  churches  of  great  size,  but 
English    the  larger  number  are  of  modest  pro- 
Churches,  portions.  The  royal  and  college  chapels 
also  constitute  an  important  group  of 
typical  English  churches.    The  royal  chapels  at 
Windsor  and  Westminster,  King's  College  Chapel 
at  Cambridge,  and  Merton  College  Chapel  at  Oxford 
are  among  the  most  notable  achievements  of  Eng- 
lish Gothic  architecture.    Nor  should  the  lesser 
monuments,    the    chapels    within    churches,    the 
screens  and  tombs,  be  neglected  by  the  student  of 
English  medieval    architecture,  for  the  architec- 
tural and  sculptured  parts  of  these  minor  struc- 
tures often  exhibit  an  exquisite  delicacy  of  design 
and  remarkable  command  of  decorative  forms. 

Of  churches  built  in  the  Renaissance  style  Eng- 
land has  but  few.    The  most  notable  is  St.  Paul's 
Cathedral  in  London.    This  great   and   splendid 
church  is  the  masterpiece  of  Sir  Christopher  Wren. 
It  was  begun  in  1675  and  the  upper- 

6.  Renais-  most  stone  was  placed  on  the  lantern 
sanceAr-   of  the  dome  in  1710.    The  dome  is 

chitecture.  one  of  the  most  impressive  in  Europe 
and  ranks  among  the  greatest  domes 
of  the  world.  Wren's  churches  in  the  city  of  Lon- 
don are  an  important  group  of  English  churches. 
Designed  in  a  characterized  rendering  of  the  classic 
style,  they  constitute  the  last  original  contribution 
to  English  church  architecture. 

Modem  English  church  architecture  is  almost 

wholly  a  restudy  of  the  architecture  of  the  past. 

Up  to  within  the  last  quarter  of  the  nineteenth 

century  this  study,  while  often  zealously  made, 

was  without  real  understanding  of  the 

7.  Modem  nature  of  either  Romanesque  or  Goth- 
English  At-  ic  architecture.  Gothic  models  were 
chitecture.  copied  with  avidity,  and  the  designers 

imagined  that  in  copying  Gothic  forms, 
they  were  doing  all  that  was  necessary  to  obtain  a 
genuinely  Gothic  building.  But  the  spirit,  the 
feeling,  the  truth  of  the  older  art  was  forgotten  or 
ignored  in  the  new.  Even  the  old  forms  were  un- 
intelligently  used  and  the  spirit  was  completely 
wanting. 

Toward  the  close  of  the  nineteenth  century,  how- 
ever, a  group  of  London  architects  attacked  the 
problem  of  church-building  in  a  new  way.  The  old 
forms  were  restudied  and  used  as  the  old  builders 
might  have  used  them.  A  new  spirit  of  reverence 
in  church  architecture  was  developed,  and  a  num- 
ber of  notable  churches  built  which  illustrated  a 
genuine  mastery  of  Gothic  forms  and  uses  that 
make  the  best  of  recent  English  churches  struc- 
tures truly  worthy  of  attention. 

m.  Ecclesiastical  Architecture  in  America:  Eccle- 
siastical architecture  in  America  is  much  more  a  re- 
productive architecture  than  in  any  other  country. 


Alone  of  all  the  great  countries  of  modem  times 
the  United  States  has  no  historic  architecture  of 
its  own.  Great  Britain  and  the  Continent  abound 
in  historic  examples  of  building  of  every  sort,  but 
America  has  nothing  that  is  old  save  what  it  itself 
has  created.  The  earliest  architecture  of  America 
was  necessarily  purely  constructive,  that  is  to  say, 
without  artistic  intent  or  purpose.  As  the  colonies 
developed,  more  attention  was  given  to  the  building 
of  churches  and  meeting-houses,  and  some  of  the 
structures  erected  in  this  period  have  genuine  in- 
terest and  real  merit.  But  colonial  architecture 
was  but  the  copying  of  English  forms,  in  most 
cases  by  untrained  men  who  hardly  imderstood 
what  they  were  copying.  The  interest  which 
attaches  to  these  buOdings,  which  were  confined 
to  New  England,  the  eastern,  and  some  of  the  south- 
em  States,  is  often  very  real,  but  they  offer  little 
material  for  the  modem  architect,  who,  even  at  his 
best,  is  scarcely  more  than  a  copier  or  a  modifier. 

The  later  history  of  church  architecture  in 
America  affords  little  occasion  for  congratulation. 
Being  without  historic  models  of  their  own,  Ameri- 
can architects  have  been  forced  to  use  the  models 
of  Europe  as  a  basis  for  their  church  designs.  For 
many  years  this  translation  of  architectural  mate- 
rials was  accomplished  with  little  credit  to  all  con- 
cerned. As  in  England,  American  architects  copied 
forms  without  understanding  their  meaning,  with 
results  little  removed  from  the  commonplace.  In 
the  last  few  years  a  more  enlightened  conception 
of  the  meaning  and  purpose  of  church  architecture 
has  taken  root  among  American  architects,  and 
some  few  churches  have  been  built  worthy  of  our 
time  and  the  purpose  to  which  Christian  structures 
are  dedicated.  Barr  Ferreb. 

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272 


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Decline  of  Modem  Architecture  in  England,  London.  1893; 
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voU.,  New  York,  1890-97;  M.  E.  L.  Addis,  CathedraUand 
Abbeya  of  Preabyterian  Scotland,  Philadelphia,   1901. 

Ireland:  G.  Petrie,  Ecclesiastical  Architecture  in  Ireland 
Anterior  to  the  Norman  Invasion,  Dublin,  1845  (rich  in 
illustrations);  R.  R.  Bras,  Eccleaiaatical  Ardixtecture  of 
Ireland,  Dublin,  1874;  M.  Stokes,  Early  Chriatian  Archi- 
tecture in  Ireland,  London,  1878. 

France:  E.  E.  Viollet-le-Duc,  Dictionnaire  raiaonni  de 
I'archxtecture  frangaiae,  ut  sup.;  H.  A.  Revoil,  Architecture 
romane  du  midt  de  la  France,  3  vols.,  Paris,  1873;  J.  F. 
Hunnewell.  Hiatorical  Monumenta  of  France,  Boston, 
1884;  C.  Enlart,  Monumenta  religieux  de  I* architecture 
romane  el  de  tranaition  dana  la  rigion  picarde,  Paris, 
1896;  A.  St.  Paul,  Hiatoire  mcnumentale  de  la  France, 
Paris.  1895;  F.  Miltoun,  Cathedrala  of  France,  2  vols., 
Boston,  1903-04. 

Germany:  W.  Lflbke.  Eccleaiaatical  Art  in  Germany, 
Edinburgh.  1870;  H.  Otto.  HandbuchderkirehlichenKunat- 
architektur  dea  deutachen  MittelaUera,  2  vols.,  Leipsic,  1883- 
85;  Th.  Kutschmann.  Romaneaque  Architecture  and  Oma- 
mentik  tn  Germany,  New  York,  1901. 

Italy:  Waring  and  McQuoid,  Ezamplea  of  ArdiUeetural 
Art  in  Italy  and  Spain,  London,  1850;  E.  A.  Freeman, 
Historical  and  Architectural  Sketches,  London,  1876,  chiefly 
on  Italy:  O.  Nothes,  Die  Baukunat  dea  MiUelaltera  tn 
Italian,  Jena,  1884;  J.  Ruskin.  ExampUa  of  the  Architec- 
ture of  Venice,  London,  1887  and  often;  W.  J.  Anderson, 
Architecture  of  the  Renaissance  in  Italy,  New  York  1901: 
C.  A.  Cummings,  History  of  Architecture  in  Italy  from 
Conatanttne  to  .  .the  Renaiaaance,  Boston.  1901;  C 
Salvatore,  Italian  Architecture  During  the  Fourteenth  to  the 
Sixteenth  Century,  Boston.  1904;  C.  H.  Moore,  Character 
of  Renaiaaance  Architecture,  London,  1906. 

Other  lands:  Owen  Jones,  Plana  .  .  .  of  the  Alhambra, 
2  vob..  London,  1842-45,  100  plates;  C.  Rudy.  The  Ca- 
thedrals of  Northern  Spam,  London.  1906;  A.  F  Calvert, 
Alhan^a:  Mohammedan  Architecture,  ib.  1906;  A.  Heales, 
Chturcheaof  Gottland,  London.  1890;  idem.  Architecture  of  the 
Churchea  of  Denmark,  ib.  1892;  M.  Schuyler,  American  Ar- 
chitecture, New  York.  1892. 

Gothic  architecture:  J.  K.  Colling,  Detaila  of  Gothic 
Architecture,  2  vols.,  London,  1852-56,  republished  New 
York,  1900  (from  measurements  of  twelfth  to  fourteenth 
century  examples,  190  lithographs);  Gothic  Ornament,  3 
vols..  London,  1855;  G.  E.  Street,  Gothic  Architecture  in 
Spain  aiui  in  Italy,  2  vols.,  London.  1869-74;  M.  H. 
Bloxam.  Principlea  of  Gothic  Eccleaiaatical  Architecture,  i  , 
ii.,  London,  1882;  L.  Cxonse,  L'Art  gothique,  Paris,  1890; 
E.  Corroyer,  L' Architecture  gothique,  Paris,  1892,  Eng. 
transl.,  London.  1893;  C.  Englart.  Originea  franqaiaea  de 
I'archtteeture  gothique  en  Italie,  Paris.  1894;  C.  H.  Moore, 
Development  and  Chctmcter  of  Gothic  Ardiitecture,  London, 
1899. 

ARCHITECTURE,    HEBREW:    Before    David 
and  Solomon  the  Israelites  had  no  architecture 


The  present  village  of  Siloah  {Siliodn)  on  the  Mount 
of  Olives  furnishes  a  type  of  their  oldest  houses 
and  towns;  it  lies  on  the  steep  hillside,  and  the 
houses  are  not  detached  but  half  caves,  the  slope 
of  the  land  making  it  possible  to  utilize  the  natural 
rock  for  one  or  more  walls.  Because  their  subjects 
did  not  know  how  to  build  houses  David  and  Solo- 
mon had  to  import  Phenician  workmen  for  their 
palaces.  This  was  probably  the  beginning  of  Hebrew 
architecture.  It  is  not  probable  that  a  Jeroboam  II. 
did  not  adorn  his  capital  with  a  palace  and  temple. 
In  Jerusalem,  however,  Solomon's  structures  seem 
to  have  been  the  first  and  last  of  any  size  (but  cf . 
Jer.  xxii.  14),  and  his  operations  were  too  great  for 
the  financial  resources  of  his  land  (I  Kings  ix.  10- 
23).  The  prophet  Amos  (v.  11)  looks  upon  the 
building  of  houses  of  hewn  stone  by  the  rich  of 
Israel  as  something  new  and  reprehensible  (cf.  Isa. 
ix.  10).  After  the  Exile  the  Temple  was  rebuilt 
with  help  from  Phenicia  (Ezra  iii.  7),  but  the  new 
structure  fell  far  short  of  Solomon's  in  splendor  and 
impressiveness.  The  community  was  too  poor  for 
great  secular  buildings.  Not  until  the  days  of 
Hellenism  was  there  any  building  activity,  and  then 
the  Greco-Roman  style  dominated.  It  is  there- 
fore correct  to  say  that  architecture  as  an  art  never 
existed  among  the  Hebrews;  whenever  their  build- 
ing was  more  than  a  mere  mechanical  trade  they 
had  foreign  help. 

Accordingly  it  is  impossible  to  speak  of  a  Hebrew 
architectural  style  or  school.  Nevertheless,  Hebrew 
building  had  certain  characteristics,  imposed  first 
of  all  by  natural  conditions.  Wood  in  Palestine 
was  and  is  scarce  and  expensive  (the  beams  for 
Solomon's  temple  had  to  be  imported  from 
Lebanon,  I  Kings  v.  6-10),  and  the  most  available 
material  was  the  easily  worked  limestone  in  the 
moimtains,  and  clay  in  the  lowlands.  The  house, 
developed  from  the  cave,  consisted  generally  of  but 
one  room;  it  was  low  and  had  few  windows  or  doors. 
The  clay  houses  were  roofed  by  means  of  a  few  un- 
hewn tree  trunks,  branches,  and  brush,  over  which 
a  layer  of  earth  was  placed  and  the  whole  covered 
with  a  mixture  of  clay  and  straw.  The  stone  houses 
had  domed  roofs;  the  earliest  were  made  by  placing 
stones  on  the  comers  and  others  upon  thece  until 
the  space  was  covered.  But  the  Hebrews  early 
learned  to  construct  arches,  probably  from  the 
Babylonians  or  Phenicians. 

Solomon's  temple  was  a  stone  building,  wood 
being  used  only  for  decoration  and  the  roof.  Its 
massive  walls,  the  absence  of  pillars  (the  two 
columns  at  the  entrance  bore  no  weight),  and  the 
use  of  great  squared  stones  (I  Kings  v.  17-18;  vii. 
9-12)  are  characteristic,  and  show  that  wooden 
structures  did  not  furnish  the  pattern.  The  Syr- 
ians and  Phenicians  attained  great  skiU  in  build- 
ing with  squared  stones;  a  noteworthy  feature  is 
a  smoothly  chiseled  or  sunken  border  from  two  to 
four  inches  wide  about  the  outer  face  of  each  stone. 
In  Solomon's  palaces  wood  was  more  freely  used; 
the  "  house  of  the  forest  of  Lebanon  "  (I  Kings 
vii.  2-5)  has  its  name  from  the  fact.  Here  foreign 
models  were  evidently  followed,  which  are  naturally 
to  be  sought  in  the  land  from  which  the  wood  was 
brought.  I.  Bbneingbr. 


278 


REUGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Arohitootnre 
Arohives 


Biblioqrapht:  Perrot  and  Chipies,  HUtoire  de  Vart  dan» 
VanHquiti,  iv.,  JudSe,  Syrie,  etc..  176-218.  Paris.  1887. 
Eng.transl.,  2  vols.,  London.  1800;  idem,  Le  Temple  deJl- 
ruaaiem  ti  la  maUon  du  Boie-Liban,  Paris,  1889;  C.  C.  W. 
F.  B&hr,  Der  mUomowiache  Tempel  mii  Beeehreibuna  teinM 
VerMkUniBeee  su  heaiger  Arthitektur,  CarlBnihe.  1848;  If. 
de  Vogu^.  U  Temple  de  JinmUem,  Paris.  1864;  J.  Fer- 
gusson.  The  Temple  of  the  Jewe  and  o&er  BuUdinge  in  Ae 
Harem  Area  at  JerueaUm,  London,  1879;  F.  O.  Paine, 
8olomon*e  Temple  and  Capiial,  London,  1886;  T.  Fried- 
rieh,  Tempd  und  PaUut  Salomons,  Innsbruck.  1887; 
idem,  Die  vorderaeiaHeeAe  HoUiekUmik,  1891;  E.  C. 
Robins.  The  Temple  of  Solomon,  London,  1887;  O.  Wolff. 
Der  Tempd  von  Jeruealem  und  eeine  Maaeee,  Gras,  1887; 
Beniinger,  ArdkOoloffie;  Nowaek,  ArdiOoloQie,  i.  251-259; 
DB.  i.  142-144;  SohOrer.  Oeeehiehte,  i.  892,  Eng.  transl., 
I.  i.  437-438. 


ARCHIVES,  ECCLESIASTICAL. 


II 


Europe. 
Germany  (§1). 
France  (§  2). 
Holland  ({  3). 
Switaerland,  Scandinavia, 

and  England  ({  4). 
The  Papal  Archives  (§  5). 
America. 
Baptists  (§  1). 
Congregationaltsts  (S  2). 


Morar 


Lutherans  (§  3). 
Methodists     and 

▼ians  (§  4). 
Presbyterians  (§  5). 
The  Protestant  Episcopal 

Church  (S  6). 
Hie  Reformed  Churches, 

Duteh     and     German 

(§7). 


L  Europe:  The  great  value  and  also  the  extreme 
importance  of  ecclesiastieal  records,  for  histor- 
ical inquiry  as  well  as  in  the  daily  life  of  the  min- 
ister and  other  church  officials,  in  former  times  were 
not  properly  perceived  and  appreciated.  Works  on 
canon  law  have  usually  little  to  say  on  the  subject. 
Within  the  last  few  decades,  however,  the  repre- 
sentatives of  historical  theology  have  pointed  out 
the  duty  of  the  Church  to  attend  to  a  careful  ad- 
ministration and  preservation  of  its  archival  treas- 
ures. A  number  of  provincial  synods 
I.  Germany,  in  Germany,  including  the  Austrian 
general  synod,  have  passed  important 
resolutions  in  that  direction,  and  the  later  ecclesi- 
astical legislation  has  provided  for  reorganization 
of  the  ecclesiastical  archives  and  registry.  The 
archival  system  of  the  Moravian  Brethren  is  excel- 
lent. In  188&-89  a  fire-proof  building  was  erected 
for  the  archives  at  Hermhut  (cf.  A.Glitsch,  Versw^ 
einer  Oeschichte  der  historischen  Sammhmgen  der 
BrUder-Unitat,  Hermhut,  1891).  The  archives  col- 
lected in  Ck>blenz  in  consequence  of  a  resolution 
passed  by  the  eighth  Rhenish  provincial  synod  in 
1853  are  arranged  in  a  model  way.  The  interest 
in  the  same  has  steadily  grown,  and  since  the  pub- 
lication of  a  catalogue,  they  have  been  constantly 
consulted.  Those  Reformed  Dutchmen,  who  as 
fugitives  from  Spanish  persecution  fled  from  the 
Netheriands  to  the  countries  of  the  Rhine,  brought 
thither  their  Presbyterian  church-order  and  syn- 
odical  institutions,  and  taught  Germany  to  take 
care  of  its  ecclesiastical  archives. 

The  first  national  synod  of  the  Reformed  Church 
of  France  held  at  Paris  in  1559  enjoined  that  in 
every  ohiutsh  all  important  matters 
2.  France,  relating  to  religion  should  be  regis- 
tered, that  the  material  should  be  col- 
lected by  a  pastor  at  each  district  synod,  and  that 
the  material  gathered  by  each  provincial  synod  was 
to  be  brought  to  the  general  synod.    Since  that 
time  ecclesiastical  archives,  especially  in  those  parts 
where  the  oldest  constitution  after  Calvin's  idea 
I.-18 


had  been  adopted,  have  been  carefully  kept.  The 
SociiU  pour  Vhistoire  du  Protestantisme  fran^ais 
(founded  in  1852)  has  contributed  largely  toward 
their  preservation  and  revision. 

In  Holland,  the  Walloon  general  synod  appointed 
in  1878  a  Commiasion  de  Vhistoire  et  de  la  btblio' 
ihkquedeeigliees  Wailonee,  which  pub- 
3*  Holland,  lishes  bulletins  containing  an  account 
of  its  work.  The  Dutch  Reformed 
Church  has  adopted  some  good  rules,  and  its  ar- 
chives are  in  the  Willem's  Church  in  the  Hague; 
a  catalogue  is  published. 

[The  archives  of  the  Classis  of  Amsterdam, 
which  had  charge  of  about  twenty  colonies  in 
different  parts  of  the  world,  are  kept  in  the  Con- 
sistory Room  of  the  Oude  Kerch,  There  are  here 
about  100  volumes  in  manuscript,  and  twenty-five 
portfolios  of  letters  from  the  different  colonies. 
The  letters  of  the  classis  to  the  colonies  are  recorded 
in  a  succession  of  volumes,  numbered  xx.-xxxii. 
(For  a  full  accoimt  of  these  archives,  cf.  Ecde- 
siastical  Records  of  the  State  of  New  York^  6  vols., 
printed  at  the  expense  of  the  State  of  New  York, 
1901-06,  vol.  i.,  pp.  18-24.)  In  the  same  room 
are  found  complete  sets  of  the  minutes  of  the  Synod 
of  North  Holland,  in  many  manuscript  volimies; 
also  minutes  of  many  of  the  other  provincial  synods, 
more  or  less  complete  (Ecclesiastical  Records,  i. 
24-25).  The  minuteei  of  the  General  Synod  of 
Holland  are  found  at  100  Java  Street,  in  The  Hague. 
Here  also  are  the  original  minutes  of  the  Synod  of 
Dort,  1618-19;  the  reports  on  the  translation  of 
the  Bible,  1637;  and  the  minutes  of  most  of  the 
provincial  synods  of  Holland.  Consult  Ecde- 
siastical  Records,  i.  26-27,  which  give  many  ref- 
erences; also  Catalogues  van  het  Oud  Synodaal 
Archief,  prepared  by  H.  Q.  Janssen,  minister  at  St. 
Anna  ter  Muiden;  with  the  indexes  of  the  Old 
Provincial  Ecclesiastical  Archives,  published  by 
the  General  Synod  of  the  Netherlands  Reformed 
Church,  1878,  p.  198.  This  gives  a  list  of  all  the 
books  and  papers  in  these  archives  of  the  General 
Synod.] 

In    Switzerland    the    different     cantons    look 
after   their    archives     more    or    less    independ- 
ently  (cf.    Inventur    der    Sckweiur 

4*  Swit-      Archiv,  herausgegeben   auf  Veranlas' 

zerland,      sung    der    aUgemeinen    geschichtsfor- 

Scandinavia,  schenden  Gesetischaft  derSchweiz,  Bern, 

and  1895  sqq.).  In  Scandinavian  countries 

England,  the  ecclesiastical  archives  are  not  sep- 
arated from  those  of  the  State,  but  of 
late  special  attention  has  been  paid  to  the  former. 
In  England  the  Reports  of  the  Historical  Manu- 
scripts Commission  (appointed  in  1869)  contain 
much  that  is  derived  from  the  archives  of  the  Estab^ 
lished  Church.  The  Huguenot  Society  of  London 
(founded  1885)  issues  valuable  publications,  and 
the  General  Assembly  of  Scotland  also  pays  atten- 
tion to  archival  matters. 

After    the     Magdeburg    Centuries 
5.  The  Papal  proved   that  the  so  calleid   Isidorian 

Archives,    decretals    were   forgeries,      he  papal 

archives    became  almost  inaccessible 

for  scientific  research  imtil  Pope  Leo  XIII.  opened 

them   to   scholars  of  all  nations,  and  appointed 


Archives 
Aroimboldi 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HEZROG 


974 


a  historical  commiBsion  to  edit  and  publish  them. 
The  subarchivists,  however,  may  deny  access  to 
works  of  a  familiar  character  or  those  which  it 
does  not  seem  opportune  to  publish. 

T.  O.  Radlach. 

IL  America:  The  American  Baptist  Historical 
Society  has  its  headquarters  in  Philadelphia  with 
the  American  Baptist  Publication 
I.  Bap-  Society  and  is  gathering  much  valuable 
tists.  material.  The  Samuel  Colgate  Col- 
lection of  Baptist  documents  in  con- 
nection with  Colgate  University,  Hamilton,  N.  Y., 
is  large  and,  supported  by  a  good  endowment,  is 
likely  to  grow.  Several  of  the  States  have  their 
own  Baptist  Historical  Societies  and  are  collecting 
documents.  There  is  a  good  deal  of  material  on 
Texas  Baptist  history  in  the  library  of  Baylor 
University  at  Waco,  and  the  librarian  is  seeking 
to  enlarge  the  collection.  Most  of  the  State  Bap- 
tist colleges  and  the  Southern  Baptist  Theological 
Seminary  at  Louisville,  Ky.,  have  collections  of 
greater  or  less  importance.  Regents  Park  Baptist 
College,  London,  probably  has  more  material  on 
En^h  Baptist  history  than  any  other  one  insti- 
tution. A  collection  is  also  being  made  at  the 
Baptist  Church  House,  Southampton  Row,  London. 
The  Mennonite  library  at  Amsterdam  is  said  to  be 
nch  in  materials  relating  to  the  Mennonites  and 
other  antipedobaptists. 

The  polity  of  the  Congregationalists  makes  each 

congregation  a  law  imto  itself  and  the  archives  are 

kept  in   the   congregations.    In  this 

a.  Con-  way  much  valuable  material  has  never ' 
gregation-  found  its  way  into  print  or  even  into 
alists.  general  knowledge.  The  Congrega- 
tional Library  was  founded  in  Boston 
in  1853  to  be  a  repository  of  such  material,  and 
much  has  been  gathered  there.  Other  valuable 
repositories  are  Yale  University  library,  which  has 
Henry  Martyn  Dexter's  collection;  the  Massachu- 
setts Historical  Society  and  the  Prince  Library  in 
Boston;  and  the  library  of  the  American  Anti- 
quarian Society  at  Worcester.  The  various  state 
bodies  and  the  National  Assemblies  held  at  Albany, 
N.  Y.,  in  1852,  in  Boston  in  1865,  and  triennially 
since  -1871,  publish  their  minutes.  Since  1854 
a  Year  Book  (Boston:  Congregational  Publishing 
Society)  has  been  published,  which  gives  statis- 
tics and  a  list  of  ministers,  etc. 

Among  the  Lutherans  the  Historical  Society  of 

the  General  Synod  has  its  collection  of  documents 

in  the  library  of  the  Gettysburg  (Pa.) 

3.  Lu-     Theological    Seminary;    there    is    an 

therans.  archivarius  of  the  General  Council 
and  the  archives  are  in  the  Krauth 
library,  Mount  Airy,  Philadelphia,  By  resolution 
of  the  Synod  of  Pennsylvania  all  congregations 
are  requested  to  have  their  history  written  up  to 
date  and  copies  deposited  in  the  synodical  archives: 
also  biographical  sketches  of  all  deceased  clerical 
members.  Valuable  material  is  preserved  in 
Amsterdam;  at  the  Gloria  Dei  Church,  Phila- 
delphia; Old  Swedes'  Church,  Wilmington,  Dela- 
ware; and  m  St.  Matthew's  German  Church,  New 
York  City.  The  great  source  of  information  rela- 
ting to  the  early  Lutheran  history  in  Pennsylvania 


is  the  so  called  Hallesche  Nachrichien,  or  more 
exactly  Nuchrichten  von  den  vereinigten  deutschen 
evangeliachrlxUheranischen  Gemeinden  in  Nard 
America,  absonderlich  in  Pennsylvanien  (2  vols., 
Halle,  1750-87;  new  ed.  by  Mann,  Schmucker,  and 
Germann,  vol.  i.,  Allentown,  1886). 

The  archives  of  the  various  branches  of  Methodists 

are  to  be  sought  in  the  published  journals  of  the 

General  Conferences  and  minutes  of 

4.  Method-  the  Annual  Conferences,  also   in  the 
Ists  and     written  minutes  of  the  minor  bodies. 

Moravians.  Collections  are  in  the  libraries  of  the 
denominational     publishing     houses. 
The  archives  of  the  Moravian  Church  are  at  Beth- 
lehem, Pa.,  and  embrace  the  minutes  of  various 
synods,  conferences,  etc. 

The  constitution  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in 
the  United  States  requires  each  one  of  the  church 
courts,  in  their  regular  gradation  (viz.,  the  church 
session,  presbytery,  synod,  and  general  assembly) 
to  keep  fair  and  full  records  of  its  proceedings. 
Further,  the  church  session,  composed  of  the  pastor 
and  the  ruling  elders  of  a  particular 

5.  Presby-  congregation,   is  required  to  submit 
terians.     its  records  to  the  next  higher  judica- 
tory, the  presbytery;  the  presbytery 

submits  its  records  to  the  synod;  and  each  synod 
submits  its  records  to  the  general  assembly.  This 
system  secures  a  proper  record  in  the  first  place; 
then  corrects  errors,  both  as  to  fact  and  law;  and 
also  introduces  uniformity  of  both  record  and  action 
into  all  church  procedure.  The  first  Presbyterian 
congregations  in  America  were  founded  early  in  the 
seventeenth  century  and  the  written  records  of 
some  of  them  go  back  into  that  century.  The  first 
presbjrtery  was  formed  in  Philadelphia  in  1706 
and  its  manuscript  records  are  in  existence  with 
the  exception  of  the  first  page.  The  General 
Synod  was  established  in  1717,  and  its  manuscript 
records  are  complete.  The  first  general  assembly 
met  in  1789,  and  its  records  are  likewise  intact. 
Many  of  the  records  of  the  presbyteries  and  synods 
are  published  regularly  in  printed  form  from  year  to 
year,  and  the  minutes  of  the  proceedings  of  the  general 
assembly  have  been  published  from  1789  to  the 
present  time.  The  complete  records  of  the  General 
Presbjrtery,  General  Synod,  and  General  Assembly 
from  1706  to  1869  have  been  reprinted  in  eleven 
volumes,  edited  by  Rev.  Dr.  Wm.  H.  Roberts, 
stated  clerk  of  the  General  Assembly.  The  volumes 
from  1870  to  date  are  issued  separately.  The 
Presbyterian  Historical  Society,  located  in  the 
Witherspoon  Building,  Philadelphia,  renders  in- 
valuable service  to  all  Presbyterian  and  Reformed 
Churches  in  the  United  States  by  providing  proper  ac- 
commodations for  historical  records  oi  aU  descrip- 
tion. 

In  the  matter  of  the  preservation  of  its  archives^ 

the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  has  always  been 

careful,  having  had  for  a  number  of 

6.  The      years  a  joint  commission  on  archives, 

Protestant  consisting   of  prominent  members  of 

Episcopal   both  houses  of  the  General  Convention 

Churdi.    In  addition,  there  is  a  historiographer, 

a  custodian   of   the   standard    Bible 

and  of  the  standard  prayer-book,  and,  further,  a 


275 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


ArohiTes 
Arolmboldi 


reconler  of  ofdjiiations.  Reports  from  these 
eeveral  officials  are  siibinitted  and  published 
trieaniaUy^  and  efforts  are  made  from  time  to  time 
to  add  to  the  alneady  valiiablt*  eoltection  of  archives 
sucli  material  as  may  appear  bo  be  worthy  of 
preservation. 

The  Reformed  Church  in  America  (Dutch  Re- 
formed Church)  has  a  special  fire-proof  room  aet 
apart  for  Its  archives  in  the  Sage  Library  at  New 
Brunswick  J  N.  J*     Here  are  deposited 

7-  The  Re-  all  the  minutes  of  the  coetus*  1737-71; 

formed      of  the  old  provisional  synods,  1771-99; 

Churches  J  of  the  general  synod,  1794  to  present 

Dutch  and  time;  of  the  four  partieuJar  synodii 
German,  except  the  volumes  yet  la  use;  of 
many  of  the  classes,  all  having  been 
invited  to  deposit  their  rec^jrds  here;  and  of  many 
o(  the  churchen;  also,  in  part,  of  the  benevolent 
boards.  Here  also  are  to  be  found  the  original 
documents  and  letters,  or  transcripts  of  the  same 
(about  2,000  pages),  secured  by  the  histonan^  J. 
Romeyn  Brodhead,  in  MoiLand  in  1841-43;  also 
transcripts  of  the  minutes  of  the  Claasia  of  Amster- 
dam, and  of  the  Synod  of  North  Holland,  bo  far  as 
these  relate  to  America;  and  transcripts  of  the 
Gorrefipondencc  between  these  HoUand  botiies  and 
the  churches  and  early  ecclesiastical  bodied  in 
America,  secured  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  E.  T.  Cbrwin, 
IB  Holland,  in  1897-98,  bound  in  fifteen  volumes, 
and  amounting  to  about  4^000  pages.  A  large  part 
of  this  material  has  been  printed  at  the  expense  of 
the  State  of  New  York^  in  the  six  volumes  styled 
EccUsiaglic^  R€f^rd»  of  the  State  of  New  Ycfrk 
(1901-^),  Consult  the  article  Amsmdam  Corre- 
spondence in  the  Papers  of  the  American  SodHy  of 
Church  HuL,  viii,  (1897),  pp.  81-107;  the  intro- 
duction to  Ecclesiastical  Records  of  New  Ycrkf 
vol.  i.,  pp.  5^8;  the  Jmirnal  of  ike  Presbifterian 
Hisiarimi  Society ^  vol.  i..  No,  2  (Dec,  1901),  pp. 
151-188;  Digest  of  ConstUulional  and  Synodical 
Legidaiimi  of  ike  Reformed  Church  in  America 
(1906)i  article!  Ardnves^  Amsterdam  Corre$pond- 
ence.  General  Synod f  Synodtcul  Archives,  etc.  The 
Reformed  Church  in  the  United  States  (German 
Reformed  Church)  has  preserved  in  the  library 
of  the  Historical  Society  of  Lancaster,  Pa.,  tran- 
scripts of  original  documents,  embracing  corre- 
spondence with  Holland,  The  various  synods  and 
clashes  have  also  their  manuscript  minutes.  Many 
official  documents  have  been  published  by  the 
several  States. 

BiBLJOfiAAPaT;  For  list  of  early  workj^  coiutult  the  article 
*'  Arcbivwesen,  kirehUchea  "  ia  Hauck-Herzoir,  HS^  h  785, 
GeDflml  worka;  C.  Holt  linger,  KakdtixmuM  dmr  Rt&ittra- 
tur  und  Archivkunde.  Leip«ic.  18S3;  F.  FrJMth,  Anieihino 
ruT  Einrtehtung  und  Fuhrvng  dtr  QtTntinde-Ri^ri'traturen, 
Stuttgartt  ISS5:  K,  A,  H.  liurkbarilt.  Mandbu^h  itnd  Ad- 
dran^mch  der  deuti^^n  Archive.  Leipsii?,  1S87:  H.  Bre»- 
laui  Urkuruieni^rt.i..  ch&p.  v.,  Die  Archive,  Leipdc,  ISSS^ 
F  von  LatMsr.  Ardiivkunde,  Pfuterbom.  ISOO;  F.  von  He|- 
fflrt.  StaaUkhw  Arckivweten^  VieoDa,  189^;  the  Artki'- 
va^  ZtittehrifU  vola.  i.-adii.,  ed.  F.  tod  Ltiher,  Muziicb, 
1876--89.  new  serica  ed,  L.  von  Rockmeer,  1880  »qq.  For 
the  EvangelJcftl  Church  o(  Getmatiy,  E.  W\  KQhtiert, 
/VoJttudw  Winke  tup  Einrvhtunff  ein^t  Pfarrrtffieiratur, 
HftDover,  18S3-94:  A.  Klug».  Dom  Kirthenarchip,  Bar- 
men*  189fi.  For  the  p»p»l  archives:  P.  Hmnchiuft,  Daa 
Kirckemreeht.  i.  432  eqq.,  Berlin,  lBm\  L.  P,  Gachard, 
Let  Archive*  du  Valuxin,  Bruaaaia,  ia74:  Q.  B.  de  .Roam. 


D£  oriffine,  Auicrria,  iadicQma.  Bcrirtii  et  b^bl^othf€tt  igdit 
apoatidictit  Home,  18S6;  B.  LOwenfeld,  GftehicAtr  dm 
ptipttlichen  Arehipt  bu  turn  Jakre  fSt7  B.tid  Zur  ufuetten 
GtMchirA^  dem  p^p^ttithfn  Archiva,  ia  Hifttariochen  Taitchrn- 
bufJi,  eii.  W.  Maui^nhrecher,  filh  aer.  5-6,  Leipnic.  1880- 
S7;  A.  Pieper,  H&mitche  Ardkive,  ia  tlie  RSmmthe  Quartat- 
tehrift.  i.,  Rome,  1887;  Von  Pflngk-Hiirtung,  Vebw  Ar« 
€hive  und  ReffUierder  Pdpile,  in  ZKO,  jcii.,  Guthiv,  1S90 

ARCHOZTTICI  (dr-con'ti-aai  or  -b\).  See  Gnos- 
ticism. 

ARCHPRESBYTER.     See  Archdeacon. 

ARCIMBOLDI,  flr'^cbim-bordl,  GIOVAOTl  AH- 
GELO:  Archbishop  of  Milan  1550-55;  d,  at  Miion 
Apr.  6,  1555.  He  belonged  to  an  old  and  famous 
family  in  Milan,  where  his  father  waa  senator  and 
councilor  and  bis  uncle  archbishop.  Before  reach- 
ing his  thirtieth  year,  he  was  apostolic  protonotary 
and  referendary  to  Leo  X.,  who  employed  him  in 
various  gnaocial  mattert!  connected  with  the  btiUd- 
ing  of  St,  Peter's,  and  on  Dec.  2,  1514,  named  bim 
commiasary-general  of  the  indulgence  for  a  large 
part  of  Germany  and  for  Scandinavia,  with  the 
rank  and  powers  of  a  legate  a  laiere.  Another  doc- 
ument of  September,  1516,  entrusted  bim  with  the 
functions  of  a  political  peacemaker  In  Sweden.  He 
spent  some  time  in  North  Germany,  especially  at 
Liibeck  and  Hamburg,  and  made  full  use  of  bia 
powers j  which  included  various  means  of  raising 
money  by  the  sale  of  titles  and  privileges.  He 
then  went  throiigh  the  diocese  of  Rat^eburg  to 
Holstein,  and  came  in  1516  or  1517  to  Copenhagen, 
In  return  for  a  payment  of  1 100  Rhenish  florins, 
King  Christian  granted  him  license  to  proclaim  his 
indulgences  in  Denmark,  He  reached  Sweden  in 
March,  151S,  having  promised  Christian  to  work 
for  him  and  his  policy  of  union  between  the  three 
Scandinavian  kingdoms.  Sten  Sture  the  younger, 
then  viceroy,  as  leader  of  the  national  party,  was 
striving  for  the  complete  independence  of  Sweden, 
and  at  this  time  was  especially  involved  in  a  struggle 
with  the  prelates  of  the  union  party ^  he  had  forced, 
sword  in  hand,  the  resignation  of  the  ambitioue 
and  stubborn  archbishop  Gustav  TroUe.  At  the 
end  of  the  year,  Arcimboldi  w^aa  in  Stockholm  and 
UpsaJa^  and  Sten  Sture  spared  no  pains  to  win 
over  the  clever  and  power 'jJ  legate,  and  fully  suc- 
ceeded. At  the  assembly  of  Arboga  in  December, 
1518,  the  appointed  peacemaker  confirmed  the 
canonically  imjust  sentence  of  the  Swedish  Diet 
against  Gustav  TroUe,  induced  probably  by  the 
rich  presenta  be  received  and  by  the  hope  of  gain- 
ing the  metropolitan  dignity.  Meantime  he  took 
in  large  sums  of  money  from  all  Sweden  and  Nor- 
way in  return  for  his  indulgences.  But  Christian 
XL  was  naturally  little  pleased  %ith  the  behavior 
of  the  legate;  besides  complaining  to  the  pope,  be 
seized  his  treasures,  imprisoned  his  brother  An- 
tonio, and  threatened  to  do  the  same  to  him.  Ar- 
cimboldi  saved  himself  by  flight  t€  Lund,  then  in 
Danish  territory,  whence  he  passed  through  Sweden 
again  and  so  back  to  Limbeck,  where  the  diffcrenct 
io  hia  reception  showed  the  approach  of  the  Refor- 
mation, and  where  be  found  aSIxed  to  the  church' 
doors  a  bull  obtained  from  the  pope  by  Christian^ 
excoramumcating  Sten  Sture  and  all  who  had 
aided  him  in  the  deposition  of  Trolle.  He  returned 
to  Rome  and  auceeeded  in  changing  the  pope's 


Areopttns 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


276 


views,  which  was  the  easier  as  Christian  had  shown 
an  inclination  toward  the  Reformation,  and  had 
also  (1520)  aroused  the  horror  of  Europe  by  be- 
heading a  large  number  of  Swedish  nobles  in  order 
to  strengthen  his  position.  Arcimboldi  was  not, 
however,  fully  restored  to  favor  for  some  years.  In 
return  for  the  influence  of  his  family,  exerted  to 
win  Biilan  for  Charles  V.,  he  was  made  bishop  of 
Novara  in  1525,  and  archbishop  of  Milan  in  1550. 
(Hbrman  LundbtrOm.) 

Biblioorapht:  B.  Zimmemuum,  I>e  J.  A,  Areimboldo,  Up- 
Mla.  1761;  J.  M.  SehrOck.  ChriHliehe  KirehenoeukU^U 
mUderRtformoHon,  ii.  11.  Leipwc,  1805;  F.  L.  G.  Raumer. 
GMcAicAle  BuropoM  •eit  dem  Ends  de%  fUnfMehtUen  Jahrhun- 
dmi»,  ii.  103.  Leipwc.  1833;  J.  Weidlinc.  8ehwedi9chs  Ge- 
•chidiU  im  ZeUaUtr  der  Reformation,  Qotha.  1882;  K. 
Hamann.  Ein  Ahlaubrief  Arcimboldi  au»  dem  Jahre  1616, 
Hamburg.  1884;  and  literature  on  the  Reformation  in 
Sweden. 

AREOPAGUS  (Gk.  Areioa  Pagos, "  Biars's  Hill "), 
See  Grebcb,  I. 

ARETAS,  Ar'e-tas  (later  Gk.  form  Arethas,  on 
coins  and  inscriptions  Charethath):  The  name  of  four 
princes  of  the  Nabatasan  kingdom  in  the  s.  and  e.  of 
Palestine,  whose  capital  was  Petra.  In  the  Bible 
(according  to  correct  readings)  only  two  of  them 
are  named — in  II  Mace.  v.  8,  the  earliest  of  the 
name  whom  we  know,  or  Aretas  I.,  with  whom  in 
169  B.C.  the  high  priest  Jason  sought  refuge  from 
Antiochus  Epiphanes;  and  the  one  who  is  probably 
to  be  designated  Aretas  IV.,  mentioned  in  II  Cor. 
xi.  32.  According  to  Josephus  (An/.,  xviii.  5)  his 
daughter  was  the  first  wife  of  Herod  Antipas,  who 
was  put  away  to  make  room  for  Herodias  (Matt, 
xiv.  3  and  parallels).  This  divorce  caused  enmity 
between  him  and  Herod,  and  disputes  over  bound- 
aries brought  on  a  war,  in  which  Aretas  was  vic- 
torious (c.  36  A.D.).  At  the  command  of  Tiberius, 
the  proconsul  of  Syria,  Vitellius,  took  the  field 
against  him;  but  while  the  expedition  was  on  its 
way  toward  Petra,  it  was  recalled  by  the  news  of 
Tiberius's  death  (Mar.  16,  37).  It  is  difficult  to 
determine  how  a  "governor"  (Gk.  ethnarchia) 
under  Aretas  came  to  have  power  at  Damascus 
about  the  same  time,  as  mentioned  in  II  Cor.  xi. 
It  is  unlikely  that,  as  Marquardt  and  Mommsen 
conjecture,  the  city  had  belonged  to  the  Nabat®an 
territory  since  the  days  of  Aretas  III.  More  prob- 
able is  the  widely  held  view  that  Aretas  IV.  took 
forcible  possession  of  it  temporarily  before,  during, 
or  after  the  expedition  of  Vitellius,  at  least  during 
the  winter  of  36-37.  Another  theory  is  that 
Caligula,  who  (unlike  his  predecessors)  was  un- 
friendly to  Herod,  conceded  to  Herod's  opponent 
the  sovereignty  of  the  city  which  had  once  belonged 
to  the  Nabatsean  princes.  Zahn  has  sought  to 
solve  the  problem  in  a  surprising  way  by  trjring 
to  show  that  this  "  governor  "  or  ethnarch  of  King 
Aretas  was  a  Bedouin  chief  subject  to  him  (cf. 
Schttrer,  in  TSK,  Ixxii.,  1899,  pp.  95  sqq.),  who  had 
no  authority  in  Damascus,  but  watched  the  gates 
of  the  city,  from  the  outside.  Another  difficulty 
is  offered  by  the  fact  that  Luke  (Acts  ix.  23-25) 
attributes  the  peril  of  Paul  at  Damascus  not  to  the 
ethnarch  under  Aretas,  but  to  the  Jews.  It  is 
possible,  however,  that  the  Jews  caused  the  eth- 
narch's  action  and  also  watched  the  gates  them- 


selves, but  the  simplest  explanation  is  that  Luke 
mentions  them  merely  as  the  original  instigators. 
In  any  case  the  notices  give  no  certain  date  for 
Pauline  chronology;  but  the  event  can  be  approxi- 
mately fixed  in  the  winter  of  36-37.  if  the  hypothe- 
sis of  forcible  occupation  be  correct,  or  after  March, 
37,  if  that  of  investiture  by  Caligula  is  preferred. 
But  Zahn  has  made  clear  that  an  earlier  date  is 
not  impossible.  (P.  Ewald.) 

BiBUOORArar:  SchOrer.  GeeehidUe,  i.  726-744,  Enc.  tranaL. 
I.  i.  346-362  (oontains  history  of  the  Nabatsan  kings  and 
a  very  full  bibliography) ;  K.  Wieaeler.  Ckronolooie  dee 
apoetoliachen  ZeiidUer,  142-143, 167-176.  G^ttingen.  1848; 
Qutschmid.  in  J.  Euting.  NahaUkiethe  Inethriften,  Berlin, 
1886;  Conybeare  and  Howson.  Paul^  i.,  ehap.  iii.,  appen- 
dix, London.  1888;  C.  Clemen,  Chronolooie der  patdiniacken 
Briefe,  i  22.  Halle.  1893;  T.  Zahn.  in  NKZ,  1904.  39  aqq. 

ARETHAS:  Archbishop  of  Caesarea;  b.  at 
PatrsB  about  860.  In  the  light  of  recent  investigar 
tions  and  discoveries  he  appears  as  a  vigorous  eccle- 
siastical ruler  in  the  Byzantine  empire,  and  as  a 
powerful  promoter  of  learning,  who  took  up  and 
carried  on  the  traditions  of  the  school  of  Photius. 
The  period  of  his  life  was  one  of  great  interest  in 
scholarship  and  in  the  collection  of  the  surviving 
treasures  of  antiquity.  He  became  archbishop  of 
CflBsarea  imder  the  Emperor  Leo  VI.  (d.  912),  and 
as  such  was  next  in  rank  to  the  patriarch  of  Con- 
stantinople. He  must  have  lived  to  a  good  old 
age,  as  we  have  a  manuscript  letter  of  his  to  the 
emperor  Romanus  (d.  944).  In  his  episcopal  capac- 
ity, he  was  a  defender  of  orthodoxy  as  it  was  under- 
stood by  Photius.  He  despised  both  the  Nestorians 
and  the  "  insane  "  Eutychians,  whom  he  classed 
with  the  Manicheans;  he  rejected  Tatian's  doc- 
trine of  the  Logos  as  equally  heretical  with  the 
Arian.  The  tendency  to  the  veneration  of  relics 
and  of  the  Virgin  Biary  appears  here  and  there  in 
his  works.  Both  these  and  his  actions  display  a 
passionate  temperament,  with  an  unswerving  st^ul- 
fastness  when  he  has  once  taken  a  side.  Leo  VI. 
came  into  conflict  with  the  canon  law  by  his  deci- 
sion to  marry  for  the  fourth  time,  probably  induced 
by  the  desire  for  a  male  heir.  The  story  of  this  con- 
flict (904-907)  unfolds  a  remarkable  picture  of  By- 
zantine politics,  as  conditioned  by  the  mutual  re- 
lations of  Church  and  State.  While  the  Saracens 
were  threatening  the  frontier  of  the  empire,  Leo 
labored  diligently  to  gain  the  consent  of  the  patri- 
arch Nicholas  to  his  fourth  marriage;  but  Nicholas 
was  reluctant  to  give  it,  and  appealed  to  the  dis- 
approval of  Arethas  in  support  of  Ms  action  in  re- 
fusing to  admit  the  emperor  to  the  Church.  When 
the  patriarch  showed  a  more  conciliatory  temper, 
Arethas  refused  to  follow  him,  and  was  banished 
after  the  downfall  of  Nicholas.  He  won  the  latter's 
successor,  Euthymius,  to  his  way  of  thinking,  and 
adhered  to  his  support  when  Nicholas  was  restored 
after  the  death  of  Leo.  Euthymius,  after  an  out- 
ward reconciliation  with  his  competitor,  retired  to 
a  life  of  asceticism,  dying  in  917.  The  hatred  of 
his  enemies  pursued  him  even -to  the  grave;  but 
three  years  later  Arethas  was  able  to  show  his  con- 
stancy by  accomplishing  the  reverential  translation 
of  his  remains.  These  data  for  the  biography  of 
Arethas  are  illustrated  by  a  number  of  letters  and 
occasional  writings  collected  in  the  unpublished 


277 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Areopaariui 
AzvenUna 


Moscow  Codex  315  (called  302  by  Matthsei).  These 
show  that  he  held  a  position  of  great  influence  in 
relation  not  only  to  the  emperors  but  to  all  the 
principal  political,  military,  and  ecclesiastical  lead- 
ers. That  his  life  was  full  of  controversy  appears 
from  the  number  of  his  polemical  writings,  directed 
sometimes  to  his  own  vindication  from  personal 
charges,  but  more  often  against  the  Iconoclasts, 
the  Armenian  Monophysites,  the  Jews,  or  the  "  bab- 
blings "  of  Lucian  and  Julian.  Especially  note- 
worthy is  tha^  against  his  former  pupil  Nicetas  of 
Paphlagonia.  But  his  interests  were  by  no  means 
exclusively  ecclesiastical,  as  is  shown  by  a  number 
of  beautifully  written  manuscripts  which  he  had 
prepared  for  his  library,  and  himself  completed  by 
introductions,  notes,  and  appendices.  The  most 
valuable  contain  works  of  Euclid,  Aristides,  Plato, 
Lucian,  and  Marcus  Aurelius,  as  well  as  a  collection 
of  Christian  apologists  down  to  Eusebius,  which  in 
many  cases  supplies  the  primary  text  The  notes 
vary  in  value,  but  show  a  wide  knowledge  of  Greek 
and  Alexandrian  literature,  and  contain  many  re- 
marks of  historical,  antiquarian,  and  lexicographic 
importance.  The  principal  work  of  Arethas's  own 
composition  is  his  commentary  on  the  Apocalypse, 
written  probably  after  913,  and  based  upon  the 
earlier  commentary  of  Andrew  of  Csesarea.  It  is 
not,  however,  a  mere  compilation,  but  contains  a 
large  amount  of  new  observations  and  quotations 
from  other  sources,  increasing  it,  for  the  early 
chapters,  to  more  than  double  the  length  found  in 
Andrew.  The  exegetical  standpoint  is  the  same; 
Arethas  takes  it  for  granted  that  the  Apocalypse  con- 
tains revelations  from  the  world  beyond,  and  finds 
in  each  prominent  word  the  possibility  of  mani- 
fold references  to  past  and  future  history,  though 
holding  firmly  that  these  interpretations  must  be 
justified  by  the  rest  of  Scripture  and  by  pure  Chris- 
tian thought.  The  text  of  his  conunentary  is  in 
MPG,  cvi.  487-786,  and  in  Cramer,  Catena  Orm- 
earum  patrum  in  Novum  Testamentunif  viii.  (Ox- 
ford, 1844),  pp.  176-582.  Few  of  his  other  works 
have  been  published.  (G.  Heinrici.) 

Bibuoorapht:  J.  C.  T.  Otto,  Dm  Pattardien  Oennadiut 
.  .  .  Confenion  .  .  .  ndfi  Bxcwn  Hber  Ar^htW  ZeUalter, 
Vienna.  1864;  Rettig,  in  T8K,  iv.  (1881)  755-756;  C.  de 
Boor,  Vita  Euthymiit  Anekdoton  Mur  Chuchichte  Leo§  dM 
Weiaen,  chaps,  xii.,  xv.,  xri.,  xviii.,  xx.,  Berlin,  1888; 
Krumbacher,  OesehuJUe,  pp.  2S^2M. 

ARETIUS,  a-r6'-shl-tjs  (Gredzed  from  Martt), 
BENEDICTUS:  Scientist  and  theologian;  b.  at 
B&tterkinden,  in  the  canton  of  Bern,  Switzerland, 
1505;  d.  at  Bern  March  22,  1574.  He  studied  at 
Strasburg  and  at  Marburg,  where  he  became  pro- 
fessor of  logic;  was  called  to  Bern  as  school-teacher, 
1548,  and  became  professor  of  theology,  1564.  His 
chief  work,  TheologicB  prohlemata  (Bern,  1573), 
was  a  compendium  of  the  knowledge  of  the  time 
and  was  highly  valued.  His  Examen  theologicum 
(1557)  ran  through  six  editions  in  fourteen  years. 
His  works  also  include  a  commentary  on  the  New 
Testament  (1580  and  1616)  and  on  the  Pentateuch 
(1602;  2d  ed.,  with  commentary  on  the  Psalms 
added,  1618),  a  commentary  on  Pindar  (1587),  a 
description  of  the  flora  of  two  moimtains  of  the 
Bernese  Oberland,  Stockhoixi  and  Niesen  (Straa- 


burg,  1561),  a  Hebrew  method  for  schools  (Basel, 
1561),  and  a  defense  of  the  execution  (in  1566)  of 
the  Antitrinitarian  Valentin  Gentilis  (Geneva, 
1567). 

Bibuoorapht:  J.  H.  Graf,  OMchiehU  der  Mathematik  und 
der  Naturvriatenadufften  in  Bemiachen  Landen,  i.  25-29, 
Bern.  1888. 

ARGENTINA:  A  South  American  republic, 
boimded  on  the  north  by  Bolivia  and  Paraguay,  on 
the  east  by  Paraguay,  Brazil,  Uruguay,  and  the 
Atlantic  Ocean,  on  the  south  by  the  Atlantic,  and 
on  the  west  by  the  Andes,  which  separate  it  from 
Chile.  It  is  divided  into  fourteen  provinces  and 
nine  territories  (gobemaciones),  and  has  an  area  of 
1,125,100  square  miles  and  a  population  of  about 
4,200,000.  The  capital  is  Buenos  Ayres  (perma- 
nently foimded,  1580).  The  republic  had  its  origin 
in  a  struggle  against  Spain  which  broke  out  in  1810 
and  was  an  outcome  of  the  Napoleonic  interference 
in  the  mother  country.  The  constitutive  assembly 
was  replaced  in  1818  by  a  constitution,  although  the 
war  with  Spain  did  not  end  until  1824.  This  con- 
stitution, as  amended  in  1860,  provides  for  a  con- 
gress of  two  chambers,  the  Senate  and  the  Deputies, 
and  each  province  has  also  an  elected  assembly  for 
its  own  government. 

The  constitution  declares  the  state  religion  to  be 
Roman  Catholic  and  requires  the  president  or  his 
substitute  to  be  of  that  faith,  but  establishes  the 
right  of  governmental  exequatur  for  all  papal  man- 
dates, and  grants  other  creeds  the  free  exercise  of 
their  religion.  The  hierarchic  organization  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  naturally  began  soon  after 
the  Spanish  conquest,  but  did  not  receive  its  pres- 
ent form  until  1865.  The  archbishop  of  Buenos 
Ayres,  which  was  an  episcopal  see  as  early  as  1582, 
has  the  capital  imder  his  control,  which  contains 
nearly  800,000  inhabitants.  The  suffragan  bishop- 
rics are  those  of  Paraguay  (founded  1547),  Cor- 
doba (1570),  Salta  (1806),  San  Juan  de  Cuyo  (1834), 
Parana  (1859),  La  Plata  (1897),  Santa  F^  (1897), 
and  Tucuman  (1897).  Cordoba,  the  first  city  of 
the  country  to  have  a  cathedral,  is  also  the  richest 
in  religious  buildings. 

In  1884  a  Vicar- Apostolic  of  Carmen  de  Pata- 
gones  was  appointed  with  jurisdiction  over  south- 
em  Argentina  and  northern  Patagonia.  He  draws 
his  priests  from  the  Salesians,  as  does  also  the  apos- 
tolic prefecture  for  southern  Patagonia,  erected 
in  1883.  Throughout  Patagonia  an  active  mission- 
ary propaganda  is  carried  on  among  the  aborigines, 
of  whom  some  30,000  are  estimated  to  be  unbap- 
tized. 

Although  almost  half  the  inhabitants  of  Argentina 
are  either  immigrants  or  the  children  of  immigrants, 
and  come  from  the  most  varied  countries  of  Europe, 
the  great  majority  of  these  newcomers  belong  to 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  on  account  of  the 
predominance  of  Italians  (about  500,000),  Span- 
iards (about  200,000),  and  Roman  Catholic  Swiss. 
For  decades  the  latter  have  flocked  in  great  num- 
bers to  northern  Argentina.  The  relatively  small 
number  of  Protestants  in  the  republic  is  estimated 
at  about  33,000.  Of  these  between  23,000  and 
24,000  belong  to  the  Genoan  qmod  of  Lft  Plata, 


Arianism 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


d78 


which  &lso  includes  the  Evangelicals  of  Paraguay 
and  Uruguay.  To  them  must  be  added  a  group  of 
congregations  of  the  Swiss  Reformed,  the  Anglican 
Church  (with  a  number  of  places  of  worship  in 
Buenos  Ayres),  and  North  American  Presbyterians, 
who  are  most  numerous  in  the  capital,  as  well  as  in 
Rosario  and  Bahia  Blanca. 

Education  is  under  the  control  of  the  State  by  a 
law  of  1868,  and  the  number  of  public  schools, 
which  has  steadily  increased,  is  now  3,400,  in  addi- 


tion to  parochial  schools.  The  high  schools  con- 
sist of  sixteen  "  lyceums,''  and  there  are  likewise 
two  universities,  of  which  that  at  Cordoba  is  the 
more  distinguished. 

WiLHELM  GrOBTZ. 

Biblxoorapht:  T.  A.  Turner,  Arffentina  and  the  Arffentincat 
New  York,  1892;  Comte  A.  de  Gubernatis.  L' Argentina, 
Florence,  1898;  Annuario  de  la  direceidn  general  de  estadia- 
Hca,  Buenos  Ayrea,  1899;  C.  Wiener,  La  Ripublique  Ar- 
genHne,  Paria,  1899;  EncyclopcBdia  Briiannioa,  Supple 
ment,  8.V. 


I.  History. 

Origin  of  the  Heresy  ({  1). 

1.  From  318  to  the  Council  of  Nicsa, 

326. 
Outbreak  of  the  Controversy  ({  2). 

2.  The  Goundl  of  NicsMt,  325. 
The  Nioene  Creed  ({  3). 
Acceptance  of  the  Creed  ({  4). 


ARIANISH. 

3.  From    the  Council  of  Niciea,  325, 

to    the     Council    of   Constanti- 
nople, 381. 

Arian  Bieaction.    Athanasius  ({  5). 

Various  Synods  and  Parties  ({  6). 

Vindication  of  Orthodoxy  (§  7). 

4.  The  Final  Triumph  of  the  Nioene 

Orthodoxy  tmder  Theodosius  the 
Great,  381. 


The  Cotmdl  of  Constantinople,  381 

(J  8). 
The  Later  Arianism  ({  9). 
5.  Arianism  among  the  Barbarians. 
II.  The  Creed  of  Arianism. 
The  Arian  Teaching  ({  1). 
Arguments  of  the  Arians  (I  2). 
Refutation  of  Arianism  ({  3). 


Arianism  is  a  heresy,  named  from  its  most  promi- 
nent representative,  Arius,  a  presbyter  of  Alexandria 
(d.  336;  see  Arius).  It  denied  that  the  Son  was  of  the 
same  substance  (Gk.  homoouaios)  with  the  Father 
and  reduced  him  to  the  rank  of  a  creature,  though 
preexistent  before  the  world.  No  Christological  her- 
esy of  ancient  Christianity  was  more  widely  accepted 
or  tenacious.  During  a  part  of  the  fourth  century 
it  was  the  ruling  creed  in  the  Eastern  Church,  though 
there  were  constant  and  vigorous  protests  by  the 
orthodox  party.  It  was  also  the  form  of  Christian- 
ity to  which  most  of  the  barbarian  Teutonic  races 
were  at  first  converted. 

L  History:  The  roots  of  the  Arian  conflict 
lie  deep  in  the  differences  of  the  ante-Nicene  doc- 
trine of  the  Logos,  especially  in  the  contradictory 
elements  of  Origen's  Christology,  which  was  claimed 
by  both  parties.  Origen  attributed  to  Christ  eter- 
nity and  other  divine  attributes,  which  lead  to  the 
Nicene  doctrine  of  the  identity  of  substance,  but, 
on  the  other  hand,  in  his  zeal  for  the  personal  dis- 
tinctions in  the  Godhead,  he  taught  with  equal 
emphasis  a  separate  essence  and  the 

I.  Origin  subordination  of  the  Son  to  the  Father, 
of  the       calling  him  "  a  secondary  God,"  while 

Heresy,  the  Father  is  ''  t^  God  ";  the  Logos 
was  a  creature  and  occupies  a  position 
between  the  nature  of  the  unbegotten  (Gk.  agen- 
nH08)  God  and  the  nature  of  all  begotten  things 
{Contra  Celsum,  iii.  34).  He  taught  the  eternal 
generation  of  the  Son  from  the  will  of  the  Father, 
but  represented  it  as  the  communication  of  a  sec- 
ondary divine  substance.  In  the  East  these  differ- 
ent representations  were  discussed  and  found  ad- 
vocates, and  a  synod  at  Antioch  (268)  rejected  the 
doctrine  of  identity  of  substance.  Through  the 
Antiochian  School  the  doctrine  of  the  subordination 
of  the  Son  was  worked  out.  Lucian,  the  teacher 
of  Arius  (see  Lucian  the  Martyr)  and  of  Eusebius 
of  Nicomedia,  exercised  a  controlling  influence  on 
the  views  of  Arius;  Hamack  (History  of  Dogma,  iv. 
3)  calls  him  "  the  Arius  before  Arius."  The  first 
opponent  of  Arius  was  Alexander,  bishop  of  Alex- 
andria, and  the  greatest  doctrinal  opponent  of  the 
Arian  Christology  was  Athanasius. 


1.  From  818  to  the  Conncil  of  NicsMi,  825:  The 
origin  of  the  controversy  is  involved  in  some  ob- 
scurity, and  the  accounts  are  not  easy  to  reconcile. 
The  earliest  date  for  the  clash  of  views  is  318.  The 
Christological  question  had  become  a  burning  one 
in  Egypt.  Alexander  both  in  church  and  presby- 
terial  gatherings  had  taken  it  up  and  refuted  false 
views,  as  Arius  afterward  reminded  him  (Epi- 
phanius,  Epist,  Arii  ad  Alex,).  According  to  Socrates 
(i.  5),  Alexander  gave  the  first  im- 
2.  Outbreak  pulse  to  the  controversy  by  insisting, 
of  the  Con-  in  a  meeting  of  presbyters  and  other 
troversy.  clergy,  on  the  eternity  of  the  Son; 
whereupon  Arius  openly  opposed,  and 
charged  him  with  Sabellianism.  He  reasoned 
thus:  "  If  the  Father  begat  the  Son,  he  must  be 
older  than  the  Son,  and  there  was  a  time  when  the 
Son  was  not;  from  this  it  further  follows  that  the 
Son  has  his  subsistence  (Gk.  hypostasia)  from  noth- 
ing." The  accounts  of  Sozomen  (i.  15)  and  Epi- 
phanius  differ  in  dating  the  conflict  from  discussions 
among  the  presbyters  and  laymen,  and  Sozomen 
represents  Alexander  as  at  first  taking  no  decided 
position  between  the  two  opinions.  In  320  or  321 
Alexander  convened  a  synod  of  about  a  hundred 
Egyptian  and  Lybian  bishops  at  Alexandria,  which 
exconununicated  Arius  and  his  followers.  Arius 
found  powerful  friends  in  Eusebius  of  Nicomedia, 
Eusebius  of  Csesarea,  Paulinus  of  Tyre,  Gregory  of 
Berytus,  Aetius  of  Lydda,  and  other  bishops  who 
either  shared  his  view,  or  at  least  considered  it  inno- 
cent. He  took  refuge  with  Eusebius  at  Nicomedia, 
which  had  been  the  imperial  residence  since  Dio- 
cletian, and  spread  his  views  in  a  half-poetic  work, 
TJudia  C'  The  Banquet "),  of  which  Athanasius  has 
preserved  fragments.  Alexander  defended  him- 
self and  warned  against  Arius  in  a  letter  which  he 
sent  to  many  bishops  (Epiphanius,  box.  4,  says  70; 
Socrates  gives  the  letter,  i.  6).  Arius  made  ap- 
peal to  Eusebius  of  CsBsarea  and  others  to  secure 
his  reinstatement  as  presbyter,  and  a  Palestinian 
synod  went  so  far  as  to  authorize  him  to  labor  in 
Alexandria,  subject  to  the  authority  of  the  bishop, 
Alexander.  In  a  short  time  the  whole  Elastem 
Church  became  a  metaphysical  battle-field.    The 


279 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Arlaalsm 


attention  of  the  Emperor  Constantine  was  called 
to  the  controversy,  and  in  a  letter  to  Alexander  and 
Arius  he  pronounced  it  a  mere  logomachy,  a  wrangle 
over  things  incomprehensible;  he  also  sent  Hosius 
of  Cordova  to  Egypt  to  mediate  between  the  con- 
tending parties  (Socrates,  i.  7,  gives  the  letter,  as 
does  also  Eusebius,  Vita  Const.,  ii.).  From  political 
considerations,  however,  at  the  suggestion  of  cer- 
tain bishops,  he  called  the  first  ecumenical  council 
of  the  Church,  to  settle  the  Arian  controversy  to- 
gether with  the  question  of  the  time  of  celebrating 
Easter  and  the  Meletian  schism  in  Egypt. 

2.  The  Council  of  Niona,  826:  The  council  met 
at  Nicsea  in  Bithynia.  It  consisted  of  three  hun- 
dred and  eighteen  bishops  (about  one-sixth  of  all 
the  bishops  of  the  Greco-Roman  Empire),  resulted 
in  the  formal  condemnation  of  Arius,  and  the  adop- 
tion of  the  "  Nicene  Creed,"  which  aflfirms  in  \m- 
equivocal  terms  the  doctrine  of  the  eternal  deity  of 
Christ  in  these  words:  "  [We  believe] 
3.  The  in  one  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  the  only  Son 
Nicene  of  God,  begotten  of  the  Father,  Light 
Creed,  of  Light,  very  God  of  very  God,  be- 
gotten, not  made,  being  of  one  sub- 
stance with  the  Father,  by  whom  all  things  were 
made;  who  for  us  men,  and  for  our  salvation,  came 
down  and  was  incarnate,  and  was  made  man;  he 
suffered,  and  the  third  day  he  rose  again,  and  as- 
cended into  heaven;  from  thence  he  cometh  to 
judge  the  qviick  and  the  dead."  To  the  original 
Nicene  Creed  is  added  the  following  anathema: 
"And  those  who  say  there  was  a  time  when  he 
[the  Son]  was  not;  and  he  was  made  out  of  noth- 
ing, or  out  of  another  substance  or  thing,  or  the 
Son  of  God  is  created,  or  changeable,  or  alterable; 
— they  are  condenmed  by  the  holy  catholic  and 
apostolic  Church."  This  anathema  was  omitted  in 
that  form  of  the  Nicene  Creed  which  is  usually, 
though  incorrectly,  traced  to  the  Constantinopolitan 
Synod  of  381,  and  which  after  the  Council  of  Chal- 
cedon,  in  451,  entirely  superseded  the  Nicene  Oeed 
of  325,  in  its  primitive  form.     (See  below,  §  8.) 

It  is  possible  that  Alexander  and  Hosius  had 
come  to  an  imderstanding,  before  the  coimcil  met, 
concerning  the  use  of  the  term  fiomoouaios  (Socrates, 
i.  7,  says  they  discussed  the  ousta  and  hypostasis); 
Hamack  positively  takes  this  position,  Loofs  hesi- 
tates.   The  creed  was  signed  by  nearly  all  the 
bishops,  Hosius  at  the  head,  even  by 
4.  Accept-  Eusebius  of  Csesarea,  who,  before  and 
ance  of  the  afterward,  occupied  a  middle  position 
Creed.      between  Athanasius  and  Arius.    This 
is  the  first  instance  of  such  signing  of 
a  doctrinal  symbol.    Eusebius  of  Nicomedia  and 
Theognis  of  Nictea  signed  the  creed,  but  not  the 
condemnatory  formula  appended,  and  for  this  they 
were  deposed,  and  banished  for  a  short  time.    Two 
Egyptian  bishops — ^Theonas  and  Secundus — per- 
sistently refused  to  sign,  and  were  banished,  with 
Arius,  to  lUyria.    This  is  the  first  example  of  the 
civil  punishment  of  heresy,  and  op>ened  the  long 
and  dark  era  of  persecution  for  all  departures  from 
the  catholic  or  orthodox  faith.    The  books  of  Arius 
were  burnt,  and  his  followers  branded  as  enemies 
of  Christianity.    The  Nicene  Creed  has  outlived  all 
the  subsequent  storms,  and,  in  the  improved  form 


recognized  at  Constantinople  in  381,  it  remains  to 
this  day  the  most  generally  received  creed  of  Chris- 
tendom; and,  if  the  later  Latin  insertion,  the  fUioque, 
be  omitted,  a  bond  of  union  between  the  Greek,  the 
Roman,  and  the  orthodox  Protestant  Churches. 

8.  From  the  Council  of  NicsBa,  826,  to  the  Coun- 
cil of  Constantinople,  881 :  Not  long  after  the 
Nicene  Council  an  Arian  and  semi- Arian  reaction 
took  place,  and  acquired  for  a  time  the  ascendency 
in  the  empire.  Arianism  now  entered  the  stage  of 
its  political  power.  This  was  a  period  of  the  great- 
est excitement  in  Church  and  State:  Council  was 
held  against  council;  creed  was  set  up  against 
creed;  anathema  was  hurled  against  anathema. 
"  The  highways,"  says  the  impartial  heathen  his- 
torian, Ammianus  Marcellinus, ''  were  covered  with 
galloping  bishops."  The  chiutjhes,  the  theaters, 
the  hippodromes,  the  feasts,  the  mar- 
5.  Arian  kets,  the  streets,  the  baths,  and  the 
Reaction,  shops  of  Constantinople  and  other 
Athana-  large  cities  were  filled  with  dogmatic 
sius.  disputes.  In  intolerance  and  violence 
the  Arians  even  exceeded  the  ortho- 
dox. The  interference  of  emperors  and  their  courts 
only  poured  oil  on  the  flames,  and  heightened  the 
bitterness  of  contest  by  adding  confiscation  and 
exile  to  the  spiritual  punishment  of  synodical  ex- 
communication. The  imflinching  leader  of  the 
orthodox  party  was  Athanasius  (q.v.),  a  pure  and 
sublime  character,  who  had  figured  at  the  Council 
of  Nictea  as  a  youthful  archdeacon,  in  company 
with  Alexander,  whom  he  succeeded  as  bishop 
(326);  but  he  was  again  and  again  deposed  by  im- 
perial despotism,  and  spent  twenty  years  in  exile. 
He  sacrificed  everjrthing  to  his  conviction,  and  had 
the  courage  to  face  the  empire  in  arms  (hence  the 
motto:  Athanasius  contra  mundum).  He  was  a 
man  of  one  idea  and  one  passion, — the  eternal 
divinity  of  Christ, — which  he  considered  the  cor- 
ner-stone of  the  Christian  system.  The  politico- 
ecclesiastical  leader  of  the  Arian  party  was  Euse- 
bius of  Nicomedia  who,  probably  owing  to  the 
influence  of  the  Emperor  Constantine  (Socrates,  i. 
25  etc.),  was  recalled  from  exile  and  baptized  Con- 
stantine on  his  death-bed.  Constantine  was  turned 
favorably  to  Arius,  accepted  a  confession  he  pre- 
pared, recalled  him  from  exile,  and  ordered  him  to 
be  solemnly  restored  to  the  communion  of  the  cath- 
olic Church  at  Constantinople;  he  even  demanded 
his  restoration  in  Alexandria  by  Athanasius;  but, 
on  the  day  preceding  his  intended  restoration,  the 
heretic  suddenly  died  (336).  In  the  year  following, 
Constantine  himself  died,  and  his  son  Constantine 
II.  recalled  Athanasius  from  his  first  exile.  In  the 
West  the  Nicene  statement  found  universal  accept- 
ance. But  in  the  East,  where  Constantius,  the 
second  son  of  Constantine  the  Great,  ruled,  opposi- 
tion to  the  Nicene  formula  was  well-nigh  universal, 
and  was  maintained  with  fanatical  zeal  by  the 
court  and  by  Eusebius  of  Nicomedia,  who  was 
transferred  to  Constantinople  in  338.  Athanasius 
was  attacked  on  personal  charges  with  great  vehe- 
mence by  the  Eusebians,  who  sought  to  supersede 
the  doctrine  of  the  homoousia  by  indirect  methods. 
He  was  banished  to  Gaul  in  335.  Eustathiua  of 
Antioch,  a  supporter  of  Athanasius,  had  been  do- 


ArlaaUm 


THE  NEW  SCHAEFnHEKZOG 


880 


posed  at  a  synod  at  Antiochin  330  (Socrates,  i.  23), 
the  charge  being  that  he  advocated  Sabellianism. 
Idarcellus  of  Ancyra,  another  vigorous  defender  of 
the  Nicene  s3rnibol|  was  also  deposed  at  a  synod  in 
Constantinople.  Arius's  death  occurred  a  little  later, 
but  the  work  of  punishing  his  opponents  went  on. 
Athanasius  was  deposed  a  second  time  (339),  and 
took  refuge  with  Jiilius  of  Rome,  who,  with  the  great 
body  of  the  Western  Church,  believed  him  a  martyr. 
It  is  tmnecessary  to  follow  the  varsring  fortunes 
of  the  two  parties,  and  the  history  of  councils,  which 
neutralised  one  another,  without  materially  advan- 
cing the  points  in  dispute.  The  most  important 
are  the  synod  of  Antioch,  341  (q.v.),  which  set  forth 
an  orthodox  creed,  but  deposed  Athanasius;  the 
orthodox  synod  of  Sardica,  which  declared  Atha- 
nasius and  Marcellus  orthodox,  and  the  Arian  coun- 
ter-flynod   of  Philippopolis,   343;  the 

6.  Various  synods  of  Sirmium,  351,  which  pro- 
Synods  and  tested  against  Athajiasius's  reinstate- 

PirtieB.  ment  at  Alexandria;  Aries,  353;  Milan, 
355,  which  condemned  Athanasius  in 
obedience  to  Constantine;  the  second  synod  at 
Sirmium,  357;  the  third,  358;  at  Antioch,  358;  at 
Aneyra,  358;  at  Constantinople,  360;  at  Alexan- 
dria, 362.  Aided  by  Constantius,  Arianism,  under 
the  modified  form  represented  by  the  term  homai- 
au8%08  ("  similar  in  essence,"  as  distinct  from  the 
Nioene  homoousioa  and  the  strictly  Arian  hetero- 
ousios),  gained  the  power  in  the  empire;  and  even 
the  papal  chair  in  Rome  was  for  a  while  desecrated 
by  heresy  during  the  Arian  interregnum  of  Felix 
II.  But  the  death  of  Constantius  in  361,  the  in- 
di£Ference  of  his  successor,  the  Emperor  Julian,  to 
all  theological  disputes  (the  exiled  bishops  were  at 
liberty  to  return  to  their  sees,  though  he  afterward 
banished  Athanasius),  the  toleration  of  Jovian  (d. 
364),  and  especially  the  internal  dissensions  of  the 
Arians,  prepared  the  way  for  a  new  triumph  of  or- 
thodoxy. The  Eusebians,  or  semi-Arians,  taught 
that  the  Son  was  similar  in  substance  (hamoiousios) 
to  the  Father;  while  the  Aetians  (from  Aetius,  a 
deacon  of  Antioch  who  revived  Arianism)  and  the 
Etmomians  (from  Eunomius,  Bishop  of  C^zicus  in 
Mysia)  taught  that  he  was  of  a  different  substance 
(heUroau9io9)f  and  unlike  (anomoios)  the  Father  in 
everything  as  also  in  substance  (hence  the  names 
Heteroousiasts  and  Anomoians  or  Anomoeans).  A 
number  of  compromising  synods  and  creeds  under- 
took to  heal  these  dissensions,  but  without  perma- 
nent effect. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  defenders  of  the  Nicene 
Creed,  Athanasius,  and,  after  his  death  in  373,  the 
three  Cappadocian  bishops, — Basil  the  Great, 
Gregory  of  Nazianxus,  and  Gregory  of  Nyssa, — 
triumphantly  vindicated  the  catholic  doctrine 
against  all  the  arguments  of  the  opposition.  The 
Cappadocians  made  the  homoauaias  the  starting- 
point  of  their  discussions,  as  is  apparent  from  the 
correspondence  of  Basil  with  Apolli- 

7.  Vindica-  naris.    Damasus,  the  Roman  bishop, 
tion  of  Or-  true  to  the  general  policy  of  his  pred- 

thodozy.    ecessors  and   of   Julius  in  particular, 
had  Arianism  condemned  at  two  Ro- 
man synods,  369,  377.    When  Gregory  ot  Nasiansus 
was  called  to  Constantinople  in  379,  there  was  but 


one  smaU  congregation  in  the  city  which  had  not 
become  Arian;  but  his  able  and  doquent  sennons 
on  the  deity  of  Christ,  which  won  him  the  title  of 
"  the  Theologian,"  contributed  powerfully  to  the 
resurrection  of  the  catholic  faith.  The  rising  in- 
fluence of  monasticism,  especially  in  Egypt  and 
Syria,  was  bound  up  with  the  cause  of  Athanasius 
and  the  Cappadocians;  and  the  more  conservative 
portion  of  the  semi-Arians  gradually  approached 
the  orthodox  in  spite  of  the  persecutions  of  the  vio- 
lent Arian  emperor,  Valens. 

4.  The  Final  Triumph  of  the  Kioene  Orthodoxy 
under  Theodositui  the  Great,  881 :  Theodoeius  was 
a  Spaniard  by  birth,  and  reared  in  the  Nicene  faith. 
On  entering  Constantinople  he  removed  the  Arians 
from  the  charge  of  the  churches  and  substituted 
the  orthodox  party.  During  his  reign  (379-395)  he 
completed  externally  the  spiritual  and 
8.  The  intellectual  victory  of  orthodoxy  al- 
Council  of  ready  achieved.  He  convened  the 
Constant!-  second  ecumenical  cotmcil  at  Con- 
nople,  381.  stantinople  in  381,  which  consisted  of 
only  one  hundred  and  fifty  bishops, 
and  was  presided  over  successively  by  Meletius, 
Gregory  of  Nazianzus,  and  Nectarius  of  Constanti- 
nople. The  council  condemned  the  Pneumatoma- 
chian  heresy  (which  denied  the  divinity  of  the  Holy 
Spirit),  the  Sabellians,  Etmomians,  Apollinarians, 
etc.,  and  virtually  completed  the  orthodox  dogma 
of  the  Holy  Trinity.  The  Nicene  Creed  now  in 
common  use  (with  the  exception  of  the  Latin  clause 
fUioque,  which  is  of  much  later  date  and  rejected 
by  the  Greek  Church)  can  not  be  traced  to  this 
synod  of  Constantinople,  but  existed  at  an  earlier 
date;  it  is  found  in  the  Ancaratua  of  Epiphanius 
(373),  and  derived  by  him  from  a  still  older  source, 
namdy,  the  baptismal  creed  of  the  Church  of  Jeru- 
salem. It  is  not  in  the  original  acts  of  the  Coimcil 
of  Constantinople,  but  was  afterward  incorporated 
in  them  and  may  have  been  approved  by  the  Coim- 
dl.  Dr.  Hort  derives  it  mainly  from  Cyril  of  Jeru- 
salem, about  362-364  (cf .  hjBDissertationa  and  see  the 
article  Constantinopoutan  Creed).  The  emperor 
gave  legal  effect  to  the  doctrinal  decisions  and  discip- 
linary canons,  and  in  July,  381,  he  enacted  a  law 
that  all  church  property  should  be  given  up  to  those 
who  believed  in  the  equal  divinity  of  the  Father, 
the  Son,  and  the  Holy  Spirit.  Bishops  like  Ambrose 
of  Milan  supported  the  emperor  and  did  much  to 
bring  the  Nicene  doctrine  into  complete  acceptance. 
After  Theodosius,  Arianism  ceased  to  exist  as  an 
organised  moving  force  in  theology  and  church  his- 
tory; but  it  reappeared  from  time  to 
9.  The  La-  time  as  an  isolated  theological  opinion, 
ter  Arian-  especially  in  England.  Emlyn,  Whis- 
ism.  ton,  Whitby,  Samuel  Clarke,  Lardner, 
and  many  who  are  ranked  among  So- 
cinians  and  Unitarians,  held  Arian  sentiments;  but 
liilton  and  Isaac  Newton,  thou^  approaching  the 
Arian  view  on  the  relation  of  the  Son  to  the  Father, 
differed  widely  from  Arianism  in  spirit  and  aim. 

6.  Arianism  amonsr  the  Barbariana:  The  church 
legislation  of  Theodosius  was  confined,  of  course, 
to  the  limits  of  the  Roman  Empire.  Beyond  it, 
among  the  barbarians  of  the  West,  who  had  received 
Christianity  in  the  form  of  Arianism  during  the 


881 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


ArianiBxn 


reign  of  the  Emperor  Valens,  it  maintained  itself 
for  two  centuries  longer,  though  more  as  a  matter 
of  accident  than  choice  and  conviction.  The  Ostro- 
goths remained  Arians  till  553;  the  Visigoths,  till 
the  Synod  of  Toledo  in  589;  the  Suevi  in  Spain,  tiU 
560;  the  Vandals,  who  conquered  North  Africa  in 
429,  and  furiously  persecuted  the  catholics,  till  530, 
when  they  were  expelled  by  Belisarius;  the  Bur- 
gundians,  till  their  incorporation  in  the  Frank  Em- 
pire in  534;  the  Lombards  in  Italy,  till  the  middle 
of  the  seventh  century.  Alaric,  the  first  conqueror 
of  Rome,  Genseric,  the  conqueror  of  North  Africa, 
Theodoric  the  Great,  King  of  Italy,  were  Arians; 
and  the  first  Teutonic  translation  of  the  Scriptures 
of  which  important  fragments  remain  came  from 
the  Arian  or  semi-Arian  missionary  Ulfilas. 

n.  The  Creed  of  Arianism:  The  Father  alone  is 
God;  he  alone  is  unbegotten,  eternal,  wise,  good, 
unchangeable.  He  is  separated  by  an  infinite 
chasm  from  man.  God  can  not  communicate  his 
essence.  The  Son  of  God  is  preexistent,  "  before 
time  and  before  the  world,"  and  "before  all  crea- 
tures." He  is  a  middle  being  between  God  and  the 
world,  the  perfect  image  of  the  Father, 

I.  The  the  executor  of  his  thoughts,  yea,  even 
Arian  the  Creator  of  the  world.  In  a  second- 
Teaching,  ary  or  metaphorical  sense  he  may  be 
called  "  God."  But,  on  the  other  hand, 
Christ  is  himself  a  "  creature," — the  first  creature  of 
God,  through  whom  the  Father  called  other  creatures 
into  existence.  He  is  "  made,"  not  of  "  the  es- 
sence "  of  the  Father,  but  "  out  of  nothing,"  by 
"  the  will  "  of  the  Father,  before  all  conceivable 
time,  yet  in  time.  He  is  not  eternal,  and  there 
"  was  a  time  when  he  was  not."  Neither  was  he 
unchangeable  by  creation,  but  subject  to  the  vicis- 
situdes of  a  created  being.  By  following  the  good 
iminterruptedly,  he  became  unchangeable.  With 
the  limitation  of  Christ's  duration  is  necessarily 
connected  a  limitation  of  his  power,  wisdom,  and 
knowledge.  It  was  expressly  asserted  by  the 
Arians  that  the  Son  does  not  perfectly  know  the 
Father,  and  therefore  can  not  perfectly  reveal  him. 
He  is  essentially  different  from  the  Father  (hetero- 
ou8io8y  in  opposition  to  the  orthodox  formula,  homO' 
ausioSf  "  coequal,"  and  the  semi-Arian  homoiounoB, 
"  similar  in  essence ").  Aetius  and  Eunomius 
afterward  more  strongly  expressed  this  by  calling 
him  unlike  the  Father  (anomoios).  As  to  the  hu- 
manity of  Christ,  Arius  ascribed  to  him  only  a 
hiunan  body  with  an  animal  soul,  not  a  rational 
soul.  He  anticipated  Apollinaris  of  Laodicea  (q.v. ), 
who  substituted  the  divine  Logos  for  the  human 
reason,  but  from  the  opposite  motive, — to  save  the 
unity  of  the  divine  personality  of  Christ. 

The  subsequent  development  of  Arianism  by 
Aetius  and  Etmomius  brought  out  no  new  features, 
except  many  inconsistencies  and  contradictions. 
The  controversy  degenerated  into  a  heartless  and 
barren  metaphysical  war.  The  eighteen  or  more 
creeds  which  Arianism  and  semi- Arianism  produced 
between  the  first  and  the  second  ecumenical  coun- 
cils (325-381)  are  leaves  without  blossoms,  and 
branches  without  fruit. 

The  Arians  supported  their  doctrine  from  those 
passages  of  the  Bible  which  seem  to  place  Christ 


on  a  par  with  the  creature  (Prov.  viii.  22-25;  Acts 
ii.  36;  Col.  i.  15),  or  which  ascribe  to  the  incar- 
nate Christ  (not  the  preexistent  Logos) 
2.  Argu-  in  his  state  of  humiliation  lack  of 
mentsof  the  knowledge,  weariness,  sorrow,  and 
Arians.  other  changing  affections  and  states 
of  mind  (Luke  ii.  52;  Mark  xiii.  32; 
Heb.  V.  8,  9;  John  xii.  27,  28;  Matt.  xxvi.  39), 
or  which  teach  some  kind  of  subordination  of  the 
Son  to  the  Father  (especially  John  xiv.  28:  "  The 
Father  is  greater  than  I,"  which  refers,  not  to  the 
essential  nature,  but  to  the  state  of  humiliation). 
Arius  was  forced  to  admit,  in  his  first  letter  to 
Eusebius  of  Nicomedia,  that  Christ  was  called  God 
(even  "  the  full,  only-begotten  God/'  according 
to  the  famous  disputed  reading  for  "  only-begotten 
Son"  in  John  i.  18.  Cf.  Hort's  first  dissertation). 
But  he  reduced  this  expression  to  the  idea  of  a 
subordinate,  secondary,  created  divinity.  The 
dogmatic  and  philosophical  arguments  were  chiefly 
negative  and  rationalistic,  amounting  to  this: 
The  Nicene  view  of  the  essential  deity  of  Christ  is 
unreasonable,  inconsistent  with  monotheism,  with 
the  dignity  and  absoluteness  of  the  Father,  and 
of  necessity  leads  to  Sabellianism,  or  the  Gnostic 
dreams  of  emanation. 

On  the  other  hand,  Arianism  was  refuted  by 
Scriptural  passages,  which  teach  directly  or  indi- 
rectly the  divinity  of  Christ,  and  his 
3.  Refuta-    essential  equality    with    the    Father, 
tion  of       The  conception  of  a  created  Creator, 
Arianism.    who  existed  before  the  world,  and  yet 
himself   began   to   exist,   was  shown 
to    be    self-contradictory    and    untenable.    There 
can  be  no  middle  being  between  Creator  and  crea- 
ture; no  time  before  the  world,  as  time  is  itself  a 
part  of  the  world,  or  the  form  under  which  it  exists 
successively;  nor  can  the  unchangeableness  of  the 
Father,  on  which  Arius  laid  great  stress,  be  main- 
tained, except  on  the  ground  of  the  eternity  of  his 
Fatherhood,  which,  of  coiirse,  implies  the  eternity 
of  the  Sonship.     Athanasius  charges  Arianism  with 
duaUsm,  and  even  polytheism,  and  with  destroying 
the  whole  doctrine  of  salvation.     For  if  the  Son 
is  a  creature,  man  still  remains  separated,  as  before, 
from  God:  no  creature  can  redeem  other  creatures, 
and  unite  them  with  God.     If  Christ  is  not  divine, 
much  less  can  we  be  partakers  of  the  divine  nature, 
and  in  any  real  sense  children  of  God. 

(PmUP  SCHAFF  t)  D.  S.  SCHAFF. 

Biblioorapht:  Sources  (1)  on  the  orthodox  ride*  the  ehureh 
hifltoriee  of  Rufinus,  Socrates,  Sosomen,  and  Theodoret. 
and  most  of  the  Fathers  of  the  fourth  century,  espedally 
the  dogmatic  and  polemic  works  of  Athanasius  (Qraiionet 
contra  ArianoB,  etcOt  Basil  (Adv.  Eunomium),  Gregory  of 
Nasiansus  (QrationeM  theotogica),  Gregory  of  Nyssa  (Con' 
tra  Eunomium),  Epiphanius  (Ancorolus).  Hilary  (De  Crtni- 
tale).  Ambrose  (De  fide),  Augustine  (De  triniiaU  and  Conin 
Maximum  Arianum).  (2)  On  the  Arian  side,  the  frag- 
ments of  the  Thalia,  and  epistles  of  Arius  to  Eusebius  of 
Nicomedia  and  Alexander  of  Alexandria,  preserved  in 
Athanasius,  Epiphanius,  Socrates,  and  Theodoret;  the 
fragments  of  the  church  history  of  Pbilostorgius;  Euse- 
bius, Vila  Conatantini;  Fraomenta  Arianorum,  in  Mai, 
Nova  coUecHo,  iii..  Rome.  1828.  For  the  synodical  trans- 
actions. Mansi.  ConcUia,  vols,  ii.-iii.  Later  literature:  L. 
Maimbourg.  Hiatoin  de  VArianitme,  Paris.  1675;  G.  BuU, 
Dtfonaio  fidei  Nicance,  Oxford,  1703,  Eng.  transl.,  1861; 
C.  W.  F.  Waloh,  Fotts<Andt0«HislorMdsr/Cstosr«M».  volfl. 


Arias    . 
Aristotle 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


882 


ii.-iii.,  11  voUk,  LetfsaiCt  1762sqq.;  F.  C.  Bour*  Die t^rtMiUche 
L^t  von  der  Dreieiniffkeii  nnd  M^nachwerdur^  GoUeft 
i.  30fl-825,  TQbingeti.  1841:  J.  A.  Mobler,  Aiharta- 
riuM  dtr  Qrotw^  books  ii,-vi*,  Mainj,  1S44;  J.  A.  Donier, 
Mniw%rJceluno»oestJiichle  dtt  Lehrs  von  dcr  Pert&n  ChriMti, 
I  773-lOSO.  ^tuiteftrt.  ]&d4,  Ea^,  tratuJ.,  Edinburgh, 
1S51;  E.  K^jviUout,  Le  C&neOt  de  NicM,  Pam,  lS6i:  H. 
Vojgt,  Die  Lthn  des  Atkananxi$i  Bremen,  ISOl;  Neim- 
der»  Chruiuin  Church,  ii.  403-473;  F,  Bdb ringer,  Atha- 
nanus  u^  Ariu*.  Leipsic,  1874;  W,  KoMing,  (rf»thichte der 
ananiscken  HdrttiiR  bia  tttr  Enttteheidutiff  in  NicH^.  2 
vola.*  CGtereJoh,  1874-83;  F.  J.  A.  Hort,  Two  DUwrto- 
|»ait«  4?it  ^oi^ii^  #a^  «Dd  on  the  "^CanaianiiTuipoiiian** 
Creed  and  other  EasUm  CnadM  of  tht  Foioik  Century, 
C&Cnbridge,  1876;  J.  H.  NcwmaD,  The  Arians  of 
the  F/^urOk  Centurif^  London*  1876;  A.  P.  StanJ^y,  Ths 
Cd'uncii  and  Creed  of  ConAtanHTViple  in  CAriifian  in- 
■«i(ulun«,  London,  1881^  SchAfI,  Christum  Chutth/m.  616- 
649;  H.  M,  GwjLtkia,  StudUs^  ^f  AnAnCam,  Cambridge » 
new  ed.,  1000,  earlier  ed.,  populariied  in  Thi  Ariojt  Con- 
lrd«er«y,  London,  I  SOU  A.  von  Guiiicluiiid,  KUnne  Sdirif- 
ien»  u.  427-440,  Leipde,  iStK)  Ivaluabl©  for  chronology!: 
O.  8«eck,  in  ZKG,  xvii.  <1806)  1-71;  K,  Ktlnetle,  Einv 
B'^fuithtk  drr  Sj/mbois  und  ihtolofftMchr-n  Traciaie  zur 
Bek&mplunQ  den  PrincillianitmuM  und  weatgothiMth^n  Ari- 
^m^mua,  Miunx,  19CKI;  R.  Eainy,  Tha  Andeni  Caiho- 
h£  Chureh.  323-367,  London,  1002;  W.  Bright,  The 
Aon  of  tht  Fathers,  L  53-24S.  l^ndon*  1903.  Consult  also 
Gibbon,  Decline  and  Fail.  vhnp.  xxi.,  Hefeti?*  Conciiien' 
ffeachidiU,  i.-JL,  rI»&  in  En£.  iranitl.,  the  hiBtories  of  Chris- 
llAU  doctrine,  aubh  as  Uarnack,  Eag*  transl.,  iv,,  Loofs, 
Fuher,  m^ad  Beeburg,  and  J.  Chryetal,  AuthGritaiive  Chris- 
l^niiy,  voL  i.,  Jericy  City,  1S9L 

AMAS,  a"ri'a^,  BENEDICTUS  (Called  Hon- 
tanus):  SpartiBb  ecbokr;  b.  probably  at  Fregcnal 
de  la  Sierra  ('215  m.  s.w.of  Madrid),  Eatremadura, 
Spaiiij  Nov.  12,  1527;  d.  at  Seville  July  6,  1598. 
He  studied  in  Seville  and  Alcala  atid  became  es- 
pecially proficieBt  in  languages;  became  a  priest 
of  the  knightly  order  of  St.  I  ago  and  accompanied 
Bishop  Martin  Perez  Ajala  of  Segovia  to  the  Council 
of  Trent.  Kiag  Philip  IL  called  him  from  a  Ufe 
of  scholastic  retirement  at  Aracena  near  Seville 
and  sent  him  to  Belgium  in  1568  to  superintend 
the  preparation  of  the  Antwerp  Polyglot  (Bee  Bl- 
BUB,  Polyglot,  1 1.),  and  when  the  work  was  com- 
pleted (1572)  he  went  to  Rome  to  present  it  to  the 
pope.  On  his  return  to  Spain  the  king  rewarded 
him  with  a  peiiflion  and  several  remunerative 
appointments,  euch  as  court  chaplain  and  librarian 
at  the  EscoriaL  He  was  blamed  for  preferring 
the  Hebrew  text  to  the  Vulgate  and  for  introducing 
the  Targunm  into  the  Polyglot,  The  Jesuits,  to 
whom  he  was  opposed,  were  particularly  active 
with  charges  against  him,  but  he  succeeded  in 
clearing  himself  at  Rome,  Besides  the  AppatatuB 
to  the  Antwerp  Polyglot  (containing  dissertations 
I>«  Hebraicis  idioiismig,  De  arc^no  sermone,  etc), 
be  wrote  commentaries  on  many  of  the  books  of 
the  Bible,  Antiquiiaium  Jmlaiearum  libri  ix.  (Ley- 
den,  1593),  Liber  gmeralioni^  et  regcnen^ionia 
Adam  (Antwerp,  1593),  translated  into  Latin 
Benjamin  of  Tudela^s  travels  (1575),  and  wrote 
Latin  poems, 

BtBUoaRAPHT:  Mtmorijud^lafmlaeademia  da  iahistorta^ 
▼n.  1-199,  Madrid,  1S32, 

AIOBO,  a"ri'bo:  Bishop  of  Freising  764-714. 
Iff  as  is  probabte»  he  ia  the  boy  whose  story  he  tells 
in  the  VUaCorbimuni,  xxxlv.,  he  was  born  at  Mais 
near  Meran,  and  educated  by  Bishop  Erembert 
of  Freising.  His  signature  appears  first  as  witness 
to  a  documeot  of  748.     Under  Bishop  Joseph  he 


was  ordained  and  filled  the  office  of  notary,  soon 
after^'ard  of  arehpriest,  and  later  of  abbot  of 
Schamits.  After  Joseph's  death  (Jan*  17,  764), 
he  was  raised  to  the  bishopric  of  Freising,  whose 
possessions  he  increased  considerably.  The  oppo- 
sition of  Tasailo,  duke  of  Bavaria,  to  Frankiah 
rule  made  trouble  for  bim;  he  took  the  Frankish 
side,  and  appjears  to  have  been  deprived  of  his 
bishopric  by  Tassilo,  since  in  782  Abbot  .4tto  of 
Schledorf  was  in  charge  of  the  diocese,  while  Aribo 
did  not  die  until  May  4,  7S4,  He  wrote  two  biog- 
raphies^ one  of  St.  C^rbinian,  whose  relics  he  trans- 
lated to  Freising,  probably  in  768  (not  fuUy  coni- 
pleted;  afterward  retouched  by  the  monk  Hrotroc), 
and  one  of  Emmeram,  abbot  and  bishop  of  Regens- 
burg.  The  former  in  its  original  form,  ed.  S.  Rie«- 
ler,  was  published  at  Munich  in  1SS8;  as  completed, 
in  C.  Meichelbeck,  Hiatoria  FrisingensiSr  i.  (Aug^s- 
burg,  1724),  and  in  ASB,  Sept.,  iii.  281-296;  the 
latter  is  in  Analectu  BoUandiana ,  vm.  (1889)  220- 
255,  and  in  MGH,  ^cnpe.  Tcr.  Merm.,  iv.  (1902) ,  pp. 
452-524,  and  ASB,  Sept.,  vL    474-486, 

(A.  Hauck.) 

BiBLiaaKArnT:  Hettberg,  KD,  li.  25S-2&0;  Wattenbach* 
DOQ,  I  im.  171;  Kauck.  KD,  ii.  387. 

ARISTEAS,  ar^'is-tt'osr  The  name  assumed  by 
the  author  of  a  letter  professing  to  give  the  history 
of  the  translation  into  Greek  of  the  Hebrew  Penta- 
teuch for  Ptolemy  IL  Philadelphus.  The  letter 
states  thatr  at  the  suggestion  of  Demetrius  Pha- 
lereuB,  Ptolemy  sent  Aristeas  to  the  high  priest 
Elcazar  to  obtain  experienced  men  to  render  the 
Hebrew  Law  into  Greek  for  the  hbrary  at  Alex- 
andria. Eleaxar  choee  seventy-two  men,  six  from 
each  of  the  tribes,  who  went  to  Egypt,  were  received 
with  great  honor,  completed  their  task,  and  were 
sent  back  with  presents  for  themselves  and  the 
high  priest.  There  is  a  legend  that  five  were 
Samaritans  and  that  their  copies  were  preserved. 

This  narrative  was  for  centuries  the  account 
accepted  by  Jews  and  Christians  of  the  origin  of  the 
Septua^at,  It  appears  in  Aristobulus  (as  quoted 
by  Eusebius,  Prmparatio  evangtlica,  jriii.  12), 
Philo  {VUa  MosiB^  ii.),  Josephus  (Ant.^  XIL  ii.  2 
»qq.),  Justin  Martyr,  Irenffius,  Clement  of  Alex- 
andria, TertuiUan,  and  so  on  down  to  Whiston. 
The  letter  has  been  shown  to  be  unhistorical,  e.g., 
Demetrius  Plialereus  was  banished  from  Alexandria 
at  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  Ptolemy  Phila- 
delphus. Its  purpose  was  the  glorification  of  the 
Hebrew  raee,  religion,  and  hterature.  Its  state- 
ments are  entirely  discredited  by  modem  criticism, 
and  its  author  is  entirely  unknown. 

BjRLiooHAPEfT:  The  tetC«r  was  printed  with  a  {lumber  of 
editions  of  the  Dtblo,  e.g.,  that  ol  J.  Andrean,  1471;  w«« 
IraniPlated  into  Eiij^liAh  by  J.  Done,  London,  1633,  waa 
edited  in  Greek  with  EngliAh  translation,  London,  1715; 
it  ia  appended  to  Swete's  Intrtidiutuin  to  tha  S^phnngifU, 
London,  1002;  &nd  waa  trmnfllated  with  DrOtea  by  H.  St. 
J.  Thjiclteray,  London,  1804.  H.  Hody  wrote  in  16SS, 
Covttra  Hitt^giriam  AriHem  de  LXX  IntmTiretibut  DitserM- 
(io,  and  followed  it  in  ITCWS  with  hi*  great  De  bibliorum 
teiUbuM  oriffinolibuM,  whieh  oompletely  demolished  tbe 
letter  aa  a  foundation  for  hintory.  C.  Hayes  vunly  aV 
tempted  a  dp-hnm  in  I73@,  Ckmault  also;  E,  Nestle, 
Septua^iTitantudien,  vol.  ii.,  Ulm,  18&6:  J.  E.  H.  ThomaoD^  in 
PEF,  Quju^rly  {Jtatanwnt,  p.  B2.  Jan..  1903  (on  lb* 
legend  wkich  iadude»  Samaritiuui  among  lh«  Seventy). 


288 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Ariaa 
AristoUe 


ARISTIDES,  ar^'is-toi'diz,  MARCIAinJS:  An 
Athenian  philosopher,  who,  according  to  Eusebius 
(Hist.  eccl. ,  iv.  3),  wrote  a  popular  Christian  apology. 
Little  was  known  of  the  work  till  1891,  when  Harris 
and  Robinson  published  a  complete  Syriac  version 
and  proved  at  the  same  time  that  the  greater  part 
of  the  apology  is  contained  in  the  legend  of  Bar- 
laam  and  Josaphat  (q.v.)»  extant  in  many  Greek 
manuscripts  and  numerous  translations.  Since  that 
time  much  attention  has  been  paid  to  the  work. 
It  is  addressed  to  Antoninus  Pius  and  has  points  of 
contact  with  the  Kerygma  of  Peter,  the  Shepherd 
of  Hermas,  the  Didache,  and  Justin,  but  more 
especially  with  the  letter  to  Diognetus.  After 
speaking  of  the  true  idea  of  God  (chap,  i.),  it  takes 
up  the  origin  of  the  nations  which  followed  error 
and  those  which  followed  the  truth.  The  barba- 
rians are  treated  in  chapters  iii.-vii.,  the  errors  of 
the  Hellenes  in  viii.-xiii.  with  an  excursus  on  the 
Egyptians  (xii.),  chapter  xiv.  is  devoted  to  the 
Jews,  and  xv.-xvii.  speak  of  the  Christians,  es- 
pecially of  their  life  and  customs,  in  an  attractive 
and  instructive  manner.  Through  the  apology 
the  name  Aristides  obtained  a  certain  literary 
popularity  among  the  Armenians.  A  homily 
"  On  the  Call  of  the  Thief  and  the  Answer  of  the 
Crucified  "  (Luke  xxiii.  42-43)  and  a  fragment  of 
a  letter  "To  All  Philosophers  "  are  ascribed  to 
him.  Other  names  from  old  Christian  litera- 
ture besides  that  of  Aristides  were  applied  to 
literary  frauds  in  Armenia  from  the  fifth  to 
the  seventh  century  (cf.  F.  C.  Conybeare,  in 
The  Guardian,  July  18,  1894). 

(A.   Harnack.) 

Bibliography:  The  Greek  and  Syriac  texta  (the  latter  from 
a  manuBcript  of  Mount  Sinai),  with  introduction  and 
translation,  were  published  by  J.  R.  Harris  and  J.  A. 
Robinson  in  TS,  i.,  Cambridge.  1891;  there  is  a  transla- 
tion by  D.  M.  Kay  in  ANF,  ix.  259-279;  the  Armenian 
text  was  published  by  the  Mechitarists  at  Venice  in  1878. 
Consult  Harnack,  Litteratur,  i.  96,  1893;  J.  R.  Harris.  The 
newly  recovered  Apology  of  Arutidea,  ita  Doctrine  and 
Ethics,  liondon.  1891;  M.  Picard,  L'Apologie  d'Ariatide, 
Paris,  1892;  R  Raabe,  in  TU,  ix..  1892;  P.  Pape.  in  TU, 
xii.,  1894;  R.  Seeberg,  Der  Apologei  Ariatidea,  Erlangen, 
1894;  J.  A.  Robinson,  ilpofo^o/  i4rMtufe«,  Edinburgh, 
1896;  Kriiger.  History,  where  a  bibliography  of  the  prin- 
cipal contributions  to  periodical  literature  up  to  1897 
is  given. 

ARISTO  OF  PELLA:  Reputed  author  of  a 
"  Dialogue  between  Jason  and  Papiscus  concerning 
Christ."  The  work  was  known  to  Celsus,  and 
Origen  {Contra  Celsumf  iv.  52)  defends  it  against  his 
contemptuous  opinion  without  naming  the  author. 
Maximus  Confessor  in  his  scholia  to  the  "  Mystic 
Theology  "  of  Dionysius  the  Areopagite  (chap,  i., 
p.  17,  ed.  Corderius)  ascribes  it  to  Aristo  of  Pella, 
and  Eusebius  (Hist,  eccl.,  iv.  6)  quotes  from  Aristo 
(without  naming  the  work)  concerning  the  war  of 
Bar-Kokba.  Citations  in  Jerome  show  that  the 
author  used  the  Bible-version  of  Aquila.  A  letter, 
wrongly  attributed  to  Cyprian  (Opera^  iii.  11^120, 
ed.  Hartel),  states  that  a  certain  Celsus  made  a 
Latin  translation  of  the  Dialogue,  probably  in  the 
fifth  century,  and  tells  that  Jason  was  a  Jewish 
Christian  and  Papiscus  an  Alexandrian  Jew  and 
that  the  former  converted  the  latter.  The  work 
was  probably  written  between  140  and  170  and  was 


used  by  Tertullian  and  Cyprian,  and  made  the 
basis  of  other  works  of  a  similar  character. 

(A.  Harnack.) 

Biblioorapht:  A.  C.  McGiffert.  Dialogue  between  a  Chris- 
Han  and  a  Jew,  New  York.  1889;  Harnack,  Litteratur,  i. 
92-95;  KrOger,  Hiatory,  104-105;  SohOrer,  QeschicMa, 
i.  63-05,  Eng.  transl..  I.  i.  69-72. 

ARISTOBULUS,  ar"i8-to-biQ'lus:  1.  The  name  of 
several  notable  persons  in  the  last  period  of  Jewish 
history,  belonging  to  the  Hasmonean  and  Hero- 
dian  families.  See  Hasmoneanb;  Herod  and  his 
Family. 

2.  A  Jewish  Alexandrian  writer  of  the  time  of 
Ptolemy  VI.  Philometor,  according  to  Clement 
of  Alexandria  (StromaUif  II.  xv.  72;  xxii.  50;  V. 
xiv.  97;  VI.  iii.  32),  Origen  (Contra  CeUum,  iv.  17), 
Anatolius  (in  Eusebius,  Hist,  ecd.f  vii.  32),  and 
Eusebius  (Prcep.  evan.,  vii.  14;  viii.  10;  xiii.  12; 
Chron.,  ed.  Schoene,  ii.  124-125).  In  II  Mace.  i. 
10  an  Aristobulus  is  mentioned  as  teacher  of  one  of 
the  Ptolemies  and  the  most  influential  member 
of  the  Jewish  Alexandrian  diaspora,  and  a  letter  is 
addressed  to  him  written  under  Philometor.  Clem- 
ent and  Eusebius  identify  the  author  quoted  by 
them  with  the  one  mentioned  here.  Accordingly 
Aristobulus  flourished  aboui  170-150  B.C.  Clement 
(V.  xiv.  97)  states  that  he  wrote  ''  abundant  books 
to  show  that  the  peripatetic  philosophy  was  derived 
from  the  law  of  Moses  and  from  the  other  prophets," 
and  Eusebius  (Chron.)  that  he  wrote  expositions  of 
the  writings  of  Moses,  which  he  dedicated  to  Philo- 
metor. Fragments  are  found  in  Eusebius  (ProBp., 
viii.  10  and  xiii.  12;  cf .  Hist  ecd,,  VII.  xxxii.  16-19). 
They  express  two  of  the  fundamental  thoughts 
of  the  Alexandrian  Jewish  apologists, — that  the 
heathen  writers  derived  their  wisdom  from  the 
writings  of  Moses,  and  that  the  anthropomorphisms 
of  the  Old  Testament  must  not  be  taJcen  literally. 
It  is  questionable,  however,  whether  this  Aristobulus 
is  a  historical  person.  Hody,  Willrich,  and  others 
have  brought  forward  weighty  reasons  for  thinking 
him  a  Jewish  fiction.  Whether  the  instructor  of 
Philometor  was  first  invented  and  afterward  the 
apologist  or  vice  versa  must  be  left  undecided. 

(W.  B0U88BT.) 

Biblioorapht:  H.  Willrich,  Juden  und  Oriechen  vor  der 
makkabdiaehen  Erhebung,  Gdttingen.  1895;  M.  Joel.  Blieke 
in  die  ReHgumageachiehte  tu  Anfang  dee  sweUen  Jahr- 
hunderts,  79-100.  Breslau.  1880;  Elter,  De  Arietobtdo 
Judao,  Bonn,  1894-95  (of  value);  SchHrer,  Geschichie,  iii. 
384-392.  1898.  Eng.  transl..  II.  iii.  237-243  (very  full  in 
its  list  of  books,  for  which  the  article  in  KL  is  also  worth 
•onsulting). 

ARISTOTLE,  ar'is-tot-l:  Greek  philosopher; 
b.  at  Stagira,  in  Thrace,  384  B.C.;  d.  at  Chalcis, 
on  the  island  of  Eubcea,  322  B.C.  At  the  age  of 
seventeen  he  became  a  scholar  of  Plato  in  Athens 
and  remained  with  him  twenty  years;  after  Plato's 
death  (347  b.c.)  he  went  to  the  court  of  Hermias, 
at  Atameus  in  Mysia;  in  343  b.c.  he  was  summoned 
by  King  Philip  of  Macedon  to  become  teacher  of 
his  son  Alexander.  After  the  latter  became  king, 
Aristotle  opened  a  school  in  Athens  (probably  in 
334  B.C.)  near  the  temple  of  Apollo  Lykeios  (whence 
it  was  called  the  Lyceum,  while  from  his  habit  of 
giving  instruction  while  walking  back  and  forth 
the  school  has  been  called  peripatetic,  from  Gk. 


Aristotle 

Ark  of  the  Ooyenfmt 


THE    NEW    SCHAFF-HERZOG 


884 


/ 


peripateo).  After  Alexander's  death  the  anti-Bfaee- 
donian  party  in  Athens  forced  him  to  retire  to 
ChaldB. 

The  philosophy  of  Aristotle  is  a  strongly  pro- 
nounced dualism;  matter  and  form,  God  and  the 
world,  are  distinet  though  inseparable  existences. 
The  harmony  of  this  duality  is  an  equally  pro- 
nounced pantheism;  God  is  an  act  rather  than  a 
will,  a  process  and  not  a  person.  But  the  dualism 
of  Aristotle  is  not  materialistic;  the  form,  God, 
is  the  principal  constituent,  and  his  pantheism 
is  absolutely  monotheistic,  directly  opposed  to 
every  form  of  polytheism.  Therefore  it  may  be 
inferred  that  he  would  win  sympathy  in  the  Chris- 
tian Church;  and  while  some  of  the  Fathers  attack 
him  vehemently  (as  Irensus)  and  others  (as  Justin 
Martyr)  pass  him  by  in  silence,  there  are  those 
among  them  (as  Clement  of  Alexandria)  who  con- 
sider him  a  precursor  of  Christ,  holding  the  truth 
in  80  far  as  it  could  be  held  before  Christ  came. 
Then,  when  the  dialectical  elaboration  of  the 
Christian  dogmas  began,  his  great  labors  on  logic 
were  by  no  means  neglected.  The  heretics  used 
them  in  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries,  and  the 
catholics  followed  the  example  in  the  sixth  and 
seventh. 

In  the  Latin  Church  Aristotle  was  introduced 
by  Bo^thius  and  Cassiodorus.  His  study  received 
a  powerful  impulse  from  the  Jewish  and  Arabic 
doctors,  who  translated  his  works  into  Syriac  and 
Arabic;  and  the  anxiety  which  the  Roman  Church 
felt  with  respect  to  his  metaphysical  works,  and 
which  led  to  their  condemnation  and  exclusion 
from  the  universities,  disappeared  after  the  time 
of  Albertus  Magnus  and  Thomas  Aquinas.  The 
Renaissance,  which  brought  the  works  of  Aristotle 
to  the  West  in  the  original  Greek  text,  developed 
an  Aristotelian  and  a  Platonic  school;  but  when 
the  Renaissance  grew  into  the  Reformation,  and 
the  splendid  edifice  which  had  been  built  up  on 
Plato  and  Aristotle — the  medieval  scholasticism — 
tumbled  down,  Aristotle  lost  at  once  his  influence 
on  Christian  theology  (see  Scholasticism;  also 
Albertus  Magnus;  THoiiAS  Aquinas).  At  pres- 
ent, however,  he  is  an  increasing  force  in  theology. 
His  "  Metaphysics  "  is  the  inspiration  of  all  who 
seek  for  the  ultimate  meaning  of  reality — matter, 
form,  efficient  cause,  final  cause  or  end,  and  God. 
His  "  Ethics  "  and  "  Politics  *  remain  the  most 
original  and  stimulating  source  for  the  study  of 
those  personal  and  social  virtues  which  Christianity 
has  to  train.  His  principle  of  attention  to  the 
individual  and  the  concrete,  his  minute  and  un- 
wearied investigation  of  phenomena,  his  analytic 
insight  to  which  these  disclose  their  secret,  pro- 
foundly affect  the  spirit  and  method  of  ethical 
and  religious  thinkers  who  study  his  works. 

Biblioorapht:  Aristotle's  works  were  very  numerous  and 
are  imperfectly  preserved.  The  standard  complete  edi- 
tion is  by  Inmianuel  Bekker,  5  vols.,  Berlin,  1831-71; 
single  works  have  been  published  by  many  editors.  There 
is  an  English  translation  by  different  hands  in  Bohn's 
"  Classical  Library,"  7  vols.;  of  English  books  devoted 
to  separate  works  the  following  may  be  mentioned:  The 
ComtUutUm  of  Atheiu,  by  T.  J.  Dynes.  London.  1891; 
F.  G.  Kenyon.  London.  1891;  E.  Poste,  London,  1891- 
92;  J.  E.  Sandsrs,  London.  1893.  The  Pwudioloov,  by  E. 
Wallaoe,  London.  1882;  W.  A.  Hammond.  London,  1902. 


The  ffties.  by  F.  H.  Peters,  London,  1881;  A.  Grant, 
London,  1885;  I.  Bywater.  Oxford.  1892;  J.  E.  C.  Well- 
don.  London,  1892;  F.  Harvey,  Oxford.  1897;  and  St.  J. 
Stock.  Oxford.  1897.  The  Poetics,  by  8.  H.  Butcher, 
London.  1903.  and  H.  Morley.  London,  1901.  The  PoUr 
fies,  by  W.  E.  BoUand.  with  introductory  essays  by  An- 
drew Lang.  London.  1877;  B.  Jowett.  Oxford.  1885;  J. 
E.  C.  Welldon,  London.  1888;  J.  E.  Sandys.  London. 
1893;  W.  L.  Newman.  1902.  The  Rhetoric,  by  J.  E. 
Sandys.  Cambridge,  1877.  Youik  and  Old  Age,  Lif€  and 
Death,  by  W.  Ogle,  London,  1897.  The  Poelerior  Awa- 
lytica  by  E.  Poste,  Oxford,  1850;  E.  S.  Bouchier,  London, 
1901.  The  Parte  of  AnitnaU,  by  W.  Ogle.  London,  1882. 
On  the  general  subject,  valuable  works  are:  G.  H.  Lewes, 
Ariitotle,  London,  1864;  G.  Grote.  ArietoOe,  2  vols..  Lon- 
don, 1879.  An  edition  of  the  ancient  commentators  is  in 
course  of  publication  by  the  Berlin  Academy  (1882  sqq.). 
For  bibliography,  consult  M.  Schwab.  Bibliograjpkie 
d*ArietoU,  Paris,  1896;  J.  M.  Baldwin.  Dietionary  of 
PhUoeophy  and  Peycholooy,  vol.  iii.,  part  1,  pp.  75-99  (in- 
dispensable); for  special  lexicon,  M.  Kappes,  Arietotelee 
Lexicon,  ErkUtrung  der  philoeophieehen  termini  tethnici  dee 
Arietotdee,  Paderbom,  1894;  the  histories  of  philosophy 
should  be  consulted  for  the  system  and  influence  of  Ar^ 
istotle. 

ARIUS,  Q-roi'us  or  6'ri-ns:  One  of  the  most 
famous  of  heretics;  b.  in  Libya  (according  to  others, 
in  Alexandria)  about  256;  d.  at  Constantinople 
336.  He  was  educated  by  Lucian,  presbyter  in 
Antioch  (see  Lucian  the  Martyr),  and  became 
presbyter  in  Alexandria.  The  bishop  of  that  city, 
Alexander,  took  exception  to  his  views  concerning 
the  eternal  deity  of  Christ  and  his  equality  with  the 
Father  and  thus,  about  318,  began  the  great  con- 
troversy which  bears  the  name  of  Arius.  He  is  de- 
scribed as  a  tall,  lean  man,  with  a  downcast  brow, 
austere  habits,  considerable  learning,  and  a  smooth, 
winning  address,  but  quarrelsome  disposition.  The 
silence  of  his  enemies  conclusively  proves  that  his 
general  moral  character  was  irreproachable.  His  op- 
ponents said  that  he  cherished  a  personal  grudge 
against  Alexander,  because  he  was  not  himself 
elected  bishop;  but  the  subordination  views  which 
he  had  imbibed  in  the  Antiochian  school  are  suffi- 
cient to  explain  the  direction  of  his  development  and 
the  course  of  his  life.  Condemned  by  a  synod  at 
Alexandria  in  320  or  321,  he  left  the  city,  but  was 
kindly  received  both  by  Eusebius  of  Csesarea  and 
Eusebius  of  Nicomedia,  and  it  was  evident  that 
not  a  few  of  the  Asiatic  churches  favored  his  ideas. 
A  reconciliation  was  brou^t  about  between  him 
and  Alexander;  but  hardly  had  he  returned  to 
Alexandria  before  the  strife  broke  out  again,  and 
with  still  greater  violence.  In  spite  of  his  many 
and  powerful  friends,  Arius  was  defeated  at  the 
Council  of  Nic»a  (325),  and  banished  to  lUyria. 
Soon,  however,  a  reaction  in  his  favor  set  in.  The 
Eusebian  party  espoused  his  cause  more  openly, 
and  through  Constantia,  the  sister  of  the  emperor, 
he  got  access  to  the  court.  He  was  formally  re- 
called from  banishment;  and  all  the  chiefs  of  the 
Eusebians  were  assembled  in  Constantinople  to 
receive  him  back  into  the  bosom  of  the  Church, 
when  he  suddenly  died  the  day  before  the  solem- 
nity at  the  age  of  over  eighty  years,  at  a  time  and 
in  a  manner  that  seemed  to  the  orthodox  to  be  a 
direct  interposition  of  Providence,  and  a  con- 
demnation of  his  doctrine;  while  his  friends  attrib- 
uted his  death  to  poison.  Athanasius  relates  the 
fact  in  a  letter  to  Serapion  (De  marts  Arii)  on  the 
authority  of  a  priest,  Macarius  of  Constantinople. 


885 


REUGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Aristotle 

Ark  of  the  Oovmaat 


Epiphanius  {HoBr,,  Ixviii.  7)  compares  his  death 
to  that  of  Judas  the  traitor.  Socrates  (Hist,  eccl., 
i.  38)  and  Sozomen  (Hist,  eccl.,  ii.  30)  give  minute 
accounts  with  disgusting  details.  Anus's  prin- 
cipal woric,  called  Thalia  (''  the  Banquet  *'),  which 
he  wrote  during  his  stay  with  Eusebius  at  Nico- 
media,  was  a  defense  of  his  doctrine  in  an  enter- 
taining popular  form,  half  poetry,  half  prose;  with 
the  exception  of  a  few  fragments  in  the  tracts  of 
Athanasius,  it  is  lost.  A  letter  to  Eusebius  of 
Nicomedia,  and  one  to  Alexander  of  Alexandria, 
are  extant  (cf.  Fabricius-Harles,  viii.,  Hambiu^, 
1802,  p.  309).  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  ah 
knowledge  of  Anus  is  derived  from  the  accounts  of 
[/  his  enemies  and  opponents,  written  during  the 
course  of  an  exceedingly  bitter  controversy.  See 
Arianibm;  Athanasiub;  and  consult  the  works 
there  mentioned. 

ARK  OF  THE  COVENAIIT. 

Deseription  (§  1).  The  Second  Temple  (|  5). 

Meaning     of      Kapportlh  Chsrseterof  the  Aceounts 

(§  2).  in  Exodus  (§  6). 

Chests  Used  in  Other  Cults  The    First    Period  of  the 

(§  3).  Ark's  History  (§  7). 

Contents  of  the  Ark  (|  4).  The  Seoond  Period  (|  8). 

According  to  the  Pentateuchal  narrative,  the 
ark  of  the  covenant  was  the  receptacle  of  the 
tables  of  the  law  (called  "  tables  of  the  cove- 
nant," Deut.  ix.  9,  11,  15;  "  tables  of  the  testi- 
mony," Ex.  xxxi.  18,  xxxii.  15,  xxxiv.  29),  attest- 
ing the  divine  wiU,  the  fotmdation  of  the  community 
between  God  and  Israel.  It  is  so  called  in  Num.  x. 
33,  xiv.  44;  Deut.  x.  8.  (cf.  Heb.  ix.  4);  in  Ex. 
XXV.  22,  xxvi.  33-34  "  ark  of  the  testunony  "  is 
found.    According  to  the  description  of  Ex.  xxv. 

10-22,   xxvi.   3a-34,  xxxvii.  1-9,  xl. 

X.  Descrip-  20-21,  it   was    a    chest    of   shittim 

tion.        (acacia)  wood,  standing  on  four  feet, 

two  cubits  and  a  half  (three  feet 
nine  inches)  long,  a  cubit  and  a  half  (two  feet 
three  inches)  wide  and  high;  it  was  oveiiaid  with 
gold  inside  and  out,  decorated  with  a  golden  crown 
(rim  or  molding),  and  had  a  gold  ring  at  each  of 
the  four  comers  above  the  feet,  through  which 
passed  staves  overlaid  with  gold  that  the  ark  might 
be  carried;  these  staves  were  never  to  be  removed. 
The  cover  was  a  massive  golden  plate,  at  the  end 
of  which  figures  of  cherubim  were  placed,  facing 
each  other  and  looking  toward  the  cover,  while 
their  outspread  wings  extended  over  the  latter. 
The  place  of  the  ark  was  at  the  rear  of  the  Holy  of 
Holies  of  the  tabernacle. 

These  cherubic  figures  direct  the  thought  to 
Yahweh  as  enthroned  over  the  ark  (Ps.  hax.  1; 
Jer.  iii.  16-17).  As  it  contained  the  tables  of  stone 
upon  which  were  written  the  ten  commandments, 
God  was  enthroned  over  that  which  was  binding 
upon  the  people  to  which  nothing  could  be  added 

and  from  which  nothing  could  be  taken 

2.  Meaning  away.    The  Hebrew   word   kapporeth 

of  Kappo-    is  best  taken  in  the  sense  of  "  cover," 

reth.        not  as  "  expiatory  vessel,"  as  is  often 

done  after  the  Septuagint,  which 
translates  it  by  hilaatirian  (Vulg.  propitiatarium). 
Passages  like  Lev.  xvi.  14-15;  I  Chron.  xxviii.  11, 


do  not  necessarily  require  the  latter  interpretation. 
For  when  on  the  great  day  of  atonement,  according 
to  the  first  passage,  the  high  priest  sprinkled  the 
blood  of  atonement  upon  the  first  part  of  the 
kapporethf  he  did  it  because  it  bore  the  throne  of 
God,  to  which  the  blood  was  to  be  brought  near; 
and  in  the  same  manner  the  designation  of  the 
Holy  of  Holies  as  heth  ha-kapporeih  in  the  passage 
in  Chronicles,  can  be  rejected  as  unsuitable  to  tMs 
interpretation  only  by  those  who  overlook  that  the 
kapporeth  is  not  to  be  thought  of  without  the 
cherubim  which  bear  the  presence  of  God,  which 
presence  it  is  which  makes  the  place  of  the  ark  the 
Holy  of  Holies. 

With  the  chests  used  in  the  idol  worship  of  some 

nations  of  antiquity,  the  ark  of  the  covenant  had 

nothing  at  all  in  common.     For  those 

3.  Chests     chests    contained    either    images    of 

Used  in  gods  or  a  mysterious  symbolism  like 
Other  Cults,  the  mystic  chests  used  in  the  service 
of  the  mysteries  of  Dionysius,  Demeter, 
and  Venus.  In  the  strongest  contrast  to  the 
heathen  mystery,  that  which  the  ark  contained 
was  known  and  revealed  to  all  the  world;  but  it 
was  also  known  to  every  one  that  it  was  as  holy  as 
the  Word  of  God,  spoken  to  Israel,  and  the  proto-. 
document  of  the  fundamental  conditions  of  the 
communion-relation  existing  between  him  and  his 
chosen  people. 

According  to  the  explicit  statement  in  I  Kings 
viii.  9,  a  passage  which  precludes  the  idea  that 
Solomon  made  any  change  in  the  old  Mosaic 
sanctuary,  there  was  nothing  in  the  ark  save  the 
two  tables  of  stone.  When  the 
4.  Contents  author  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews 
of  the  Ark.  (ix.  4)  says  that  in  the  ark  of  the 
covenant  were  the  golden  pot  that 
had  manna  (Ex.  xvi.  33)  and  Aaron's  rod  that 
budded  (Num.  xvii.  10),  he  follows  a  tradition 
which  proceeded  from  an  inaccurate  conception  of 
these  passages.  For  when  Aaron  is  commanded 
(Ex.  xvi.  33)  to  put  the  pot  with  manna  "  before 
Yahweh,"  and  when  Moses  is  told  (Num.  xvii.  10) 
to  bring  Aaron's  rod  again  ''  before  the  testimony," 
it  does  not  follow  that  these  things  were  kept  inside 
of  the  ark.  A  comparison  with  other  passages 
where  similar  expressions  are  used  does  not  lead 
to  the  inference  that  the  pot  of  manna  and  the  rod 
were  kept  in  the  Holy  of  Holies,  but  rather  that 
they  were  in  the  sanctuary. 

At  the  destruction  of  Solomon's  temple  the  ark 

seems  to  have  been  burned;  at  least  the  second 

temple  had  an  empty  Holy  of  Holies. 

5.  The       According  to  the  Talmudic  treatise 

Second      Yoma    (536),  a   stone   three    fingers 

Temple,  above  the  ground  was  in  the  place  of 
the  ark,  on  which  the  high  priest 
put  his  censer  on  the  yeariy  day  of  atonement. 
It  is  this  stone  to  which,  according  to  some  ex- 
positors, Zech.  iii.  9  refers.  The  prophet  Jeremiah 
refers  to  a  time  of  which  he  says  (iii.  16-17)  "  in 
those  days,  said  the  Lord,  they  shall  say  no  more, 
the  ark  of  the  covenant  of  the  Lord,  neither  shall 
it  come  to  mind;  neither  shall  they  remember  it; 
neither  shall  they  visit  it;  neither  shall  that  be 
done  any  more.    At  that   time   they  shall  call 


Ark  of  the  Covenant 
Aries 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


886 


Jerusalem  the  throne  of  the  Lord."  This  utterance 
reminds  of  the  description  of  the  new  temple, 
which  Ezekiel  gives  in  the  last  chapters  of  his  book 
(xl.  sqq.)f  in  which  nothing  is  read  of  an  ark  of  the 
covenant,  where  the  living  cherubim  carrying  the 
glory  of  God  take  the  place  of  the  cherubim  of  the 
tabernacle  and  of  the  Solomonic  temple,  made  by 
the  hand  of  men, — a  reference  to  the  time  of  the 
true  dwelling  of  God  in  his  congregation  made 
perfect,  in  whose  heart  he  wrote  his  law  (Jer.  xxxi. 
33),  a  time  when  shall  be  fulfilled  what  the  ark  of 
the  covenant  of  the  Mosaic  legislature  together 
with  the  tabernacle  prophetically  prefigured  as 
"  a  shadow  of  the  good  things  to  come  "  (Heb.  x.  1). 

W.  VOLCKt. 

In  the  preprophetic  age,  "  the  ark  "  was  the 
most  important  symbol  of  the  Hebrew  religion, 
and  its  functions  belonged  almost  wholly  to  that 
period.  The  preceding  sketch  takes  for  granted 
that  the  descriptions  of  it  given  in 
6.  Charac-  Exodus  correspond  to  its  form,  con- 
ter  of  the  dition,  and  contents  as  it  actually 
Accounts  appeared  throughout  its  many  vicissi- 
in  Exodus,  tudes.  But  it  is  now  generally  ad- 
mitted that  they  are  an  idealization, 
like  the  accounts  in  the  same  priestly  code  of  the 
tabernacle  itself.  The  tradition,  however,  that 
the  ark  was  transported  from  Sinai  to  Palestine, 
and  was  moved  from  place  to  place  till  it  was 
finally  lodged  in  the  shrine  of  David  in  Jerusalem 
and  thence  naturally  transferred  to  the  temple 
of  Solomon,  is  doubtless^  based  on  fact. 

The  chief  significance  of  the  ark  in  the  history 
of  religion  is  that  it  represents  in  unique  fashion 
the  transition  stage  between  the  primitive  con- 
ceptions of  the  Deity  and  those  announced  by  the 
prophets.  The  advance  made  by  the  Mosaic 
revelation  upon  the  previous  beliefs  of  the  Hebrews 
is  signally  shown  in  its  representation 

7.  The       of  Yahweh  as  more  than  a  mere  local 

First        deity.    He  was,  indeed,  still  thought 

Period  of    of    as    inseparable    from    his    chosen 

the  Ark's    people;     but  wherever  they  went  he 

History,  might  go  with  thenu  He  did  not, 
it  is  true,  forsake  Sinai  at  once;  in 
great  emergencies  he  came  thence  in  his  full  power 
and  majesty  to  the  new  home  of  his  worshipers 
(Judges  V.  4  sqq.,  cf.  I  Kings  xix.  8  sqq.,  Deut. 
xxxiii.  2).  The  ark,  however,  was  to  be  a  con- 
stant and  unfailing  proof  that  he  was  among  them 
as  their  champion  and  protector.  This  is  the 
original  meaning  of  Ex.  xxxiii.  (cf.  R.  Smend, 
AlUestamentlicke  Religionsgeschichte,  Leipsic,  1893, 
pp.  42-43).  The  question  of  the  literal  accuracy 
of  the  statement  that  the  two  tablets  of  the  law 
were  placed  in  the  ark  at  Sinai  and  were  thence- 
forward kept  there  will  be  settled  according  to  the 
view  taken  by  each  inquirer  of  the  character  of 
the  Mosaic  teaching.  It  is  perhaps  easier  to  believe 
that  they  were  placed  there  at  first  than  to  suppose 
that  they  were  kept  there  during  the  whole  early 
history  of  Israel.  The  guardians  of  the  ark  were 
then  very  Uttle  concerned  about  the  command- 
ments of  Yahweh ;  what  they  wanted  was  to  have 
him  fight  their  battles;  they  cared  more  for  his 
nvmen  than  for  his  nomen.    Moreover,  it  is  not  said 


whether  the  version  of  the  decalogue  contained  in 
Ex.  XX.  (E)  or  that  of  xxxi  v.  (J)  was  the  one  that 
was  laid  in  the  ark.  So  long  as  both  versions  were 
in  vogue  neither  could  have  been  regarded  as  ex- 
clusively sacrosanct.  Possibly  some  sacred  stone 
was  first  placed  in  the  ark  as  a  talisman.  It  is 
noteworthy  that  the  place  in  the  Jordan  where  the 
ark  stood  when  the  waters  were  divided  was  marked 
by  a  heap  of  stones — ^a  sacred  memorial  (Josh, 
iii.-iv.).  The  first  period  in  the  history  of  the  aric 
came  to  an  end  with  its  capture  by  the  Philistines 
when  it  was  demonstrated  that  the  power  of  Yah- 
weh did  not  necessarily  accompany  those  who 
trusted  to  its  presence  for  victory  (I  Sam.  iv.). 
This  was  doubtless  a  wholesome  lesson;  but  the 
moral  of  it  was  weakened  in  later  times  by  the 
sacerdotalists  who  added  to  the  genuine  tradition 
stories  of  the  terrible  punishments  inflicted  both 
upon  the  Philistines  and  Hebrews  who  failed, 
though  unwittingly,  fully  to  appreciate  the  sanctity 
of  the  ark  (I  Sam.  v.,  vi.). 

In  the  next  period  the  ark,  instead  of  being  itself 
an  object  of  worship  and  an  instrument  of  blessing 
or  cursing,  became  a  sacred  relic  in  a  permanent 
sanctuary.  The  transition  stage  was  the  time 
between  its  return  from  the  Philistine 
8.  The  country  and  its  triumphal  trans- 
Second  portation  to  Jerusalem  (I  Sam.  vii. 
Period.  1-2;  II  Sam.  vi.  1-11).  The  circum- 
stances are  obscure.  But  this  much 
seems  plain:  That  there  was  no  fitting  sanctuary 
for  the  ark  now  that  Shiloh,  the  national  religious 
center,  had  been  destroyed;  that  the  ark  itself, 
having  ceased  to  be  a  beneficent  wonder-worker, 
was  kept  in  seclusion;  and  that  during  the  whole 
of  the  unsettled  reigns  of  Saul  and  of  David  in 
Hebron  it  was  never  regarded  or  appealed  to  as  a 
national  palladium,  not  even  in  the  most  anxious 
days  of  battle.  When  a  permanent  seat  of  worship 
and  of  central  government  had  been  provided  by 
David,  it  was  natural  that  the  most  venerable 
monument  of  the  national  religion  (cf.  Jer.  iii.  16) 
should  be  securely  housed  and  guarded.  But  it 
had  lost  its  practical  efficiency.  We  do  not  read 
of  its  being  again  taken  forth  with  the  army  (II  Sam. 
xi.  11  merely  implies  that  it  had  not  as  yet  a  fitting 
temple  of  its  own);  and  David  himself  in  his  utmost 
peril  refused  to  have  it  carried  with  him  when  he 
left  Jerusalem  before  Absalom  (II  Sam.  xv.  24  sqq.). 
With  its  removal  to  the  temple  of  Solomon  it 
disappears  from  the  record  of  Israel's  religion.  It 
was  superseded  by  the  living  word  of  Revelation. 

J.  F.  McCURDT. 

Biblioorapitt:  The  best  treatment  is  found  in  EB,  i. 
300-310.  with  that  in  DB,  i.  149-151  perhaps  next; 
J.  H.  Kurts.  BeHriiaetwr  Sumbolik  de»  tUUeMtttmerU' 
lidien  KuUub,  m  Zeilachrift  fUr  luiheriaetu  TheoLogie,  xii. 
(1861 )  27  aqq.;  idem.  Der  alUeaiamenaidie  OpferkuUua,  §§ 
11.  16.  LeipBic.  1862;  A.  Kdhler.  L^rbudi  der  Iribliaehen 
0€9chichU,  i.  308-369.  Erlangen.  1875;  Sehring.i>er  aUU§ta^ 
mentliche  Sprachgebrauch  in  Beireff  dea  Namena  der  .  .  . 
Bundeslade,  in  ZATW,  xi.  (1891)  114-115;  Couard,  Die 
reltgtdae  nahonale  Bedeutung  der  Lade,  in  ZATW,  xii., 
1892;  W.  H.  Koatera,  in  ThT,  xxvii..  1893  (brilliant); 
H.  Winckler.  Oeachichte  leraela,  i.  70-77.  Leipeie.  1896; 
R.  Kraetsachmar,  Die  Bundeevorelellung  im  Alien  T«tto- 
ment,  pp.  208-220,  Marburg.  1896;  C.  von  Schiek.  Die  Stifta- 
hiiUe  dee  Tempel  in  Jerusalem,  uni  der  TempelpUUe  der 
JeUUeU,  Berlin.  1896;  W.  Luis.  Die  Bundeelade,  Leipaio. 


287 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Ark  of  the  Oovenant 
Aries 


1001;  M.  Debelius,  Die  Lade  Jahves,  in  Forachungen 
ztir  Religion  und  LiUeratur  dee  AUen  und  Neuen  Tee- 
tamenU,  Leipsic.  1906.  On  other  arka,  C.  C.  W.  F 
B&hr.  Symbolik  der  Moe&iechen  StiftehlUte,  Heidelberg. 
1841;  Simpson,  Ark-ehrinee  of  Japan,  in  TSBA,  v.  660- 
664;  C.  J.  Ball,  in  TSBA,  xiv.  4. 

ARKITES,  Ork'aitz:  A  people  mentioned  in 
Gen.  X.  17  and  I  Chron.  i.  15  as  descendants  of 
Canaan.  Since  Josephus  (Ant.,  I.  vi.  2)  the  name 
has  been  connected  with  a  town  Area  (modem 
*Arka  and  Tell  'Arka),  at  the  foot  of  Lebanon, 
about  12  m.  n.  of  Tripoli.  It  is  mentioned  in 
Assyrian  inscriptions  and  in  the  Tell  el-Amama 
tablets  (Schrader,  42,  55,  194),  and  was  an  impor- 
tant place  in  late  Roman  times.  The  emperor 
Alexander  Severus  was  bom  there  in  a  temple 
dedicated  to  Alexander  the  Great,  and  from  this 
fact  the  town  was  called  Csesarea  Libani.  It  was 
an  important  fortress  during  the  crusades  and  a 
flourishing  commercial  town  in  the  twelfth 
century.  The  ruins  which  remain  belong  to 
Roman  times. 
Biblioorapht:  E.    Robinson,    Later    Biblical    Reeearchee, 

376-381.  Boston.  1866;  SchOrer.  Oeechichte,  i.  694.  note  36. 

Ens.  transl..  I.  ii.  201.  note  36. 

ARLES,  ari,  ARCHBISHOPRIC  OF:  An  an- 
cient see  in  southern  France  (44  m.  n.w.  of  Mar- 
seilles), whose  incumbents  from  the  early  part 
of  the  fifth  century  to  the  early  part  of  the  seventh, 
bore  the  title  of  primate,  descriptive  of  their  position 
as  representatives  of  the  Roman  curia  in  that 
country  and  first  among  the  bishops  of  the  Gallic 
Church.  The  gospel  was  brought  to  Aries  from 
Marseilles  about  the  beginning,  probably,  of  the 
third  century  and  the  first  mention  of  a  bishop  of 
Aries  occurs  about  255.  With  the  division  of  the 
empire  by  Diocletian  and  the  subsequent  rapid 
decline  of  Lyons,  Aries  rose  to  an  eminent  position 
as  a  commercial  and  administrative  center  and  a 
stronghold  of  Roman  civilization  in  Gaul.  Its 
bishops,  however,  were  formally  under  the  authority 
of  the  bishop  of  Vienne  as  metropolitan  till  about 
the  year  400  when  Aries  succeeded  Treves  as  the 
residence  of  the  prefect  of  Gaul,  becoming,  thereby, 
the  capital  of  the  Roman  power  in  western  Europe. 

The  metropolitan  rights  of  Vienne  were  thereupon 
brought  into  question,  and,  after  a  synod  at  Turin 
(401 )  had  failed  to  arrive  at  a  decision  in  the  matter, 
a  grant  of  extensive  privileges  was  obtained  in  the 
year  417  from  Pope  Zosimus  by  Patroclus,  bishop 
of  Aries  since  412.  The  territory  of  the  see  of 
Aries  was  increased  at  the  expense  of  Marseilles, 
and  upon  Patroclus  was  coniferred  the  title  of 
metropolitan  of  the  Viennois  with  authority  over 
the  episcopal  sees  of  Narbonne  and  Aix.  To  raise 
the  ecclesiastical  authority  of  Aries  to  a  degree 
commensurate  with  its  political  importance  the 
pope  conferred  upon  its  bishop  the  title  of  primate, 
and  with  it,  the  power  to  intervene  as  arbiter  in 
such  disputed  church  questions  as  were  not  reserved 
for  the  decision   of  the   bishop   of   Rome. 

The  primacy  of  Aries  had  some  justification  and 
much  of  the  authority  which  it  rapidly  gained 
from  a  legend  which  makes  its  appearance  about 
this  time  connecting  Aries  with  the  name  of  Trophi- 
mus  who,  sent  by  the  Apostle  Peter  to  preach  the 
gospel  in  Gaul,  was  reputed  to  have  made  that  city 


the  scene  of  his  first  labors.  Subsequently  the 
legendary  Trophimus  was  identified  with  the  person 
of  that  name  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament 
(Acts  XX.  4,  xxi.  29;  II  Tim.  iv  12).  As  a  result 
of  the  dispute  between  Hilary,  Bishop  of  Aries  from 
429  (see  Hilary,  St.,  of  Arles),  and  Pope  Leo  the 
Great,  the  primatial  dignity  was  abolished  in  445 
and  the  office  of  metropoUtan  was  transferred  to 
Vienne.  So  firmly  grounded,  however,  was  the 
authority  of  Aries  by  this  time  that  in  450  the  claims 
of  the  church  of  Trophimus  to  the  primacy  and 
the  vicariate  were  brought  before  the  pope  by 
nineteen  bishops  of  Gaul,  and  though  Leo  refused 
to  admit  the  validity  of  these  claims  he  receded  so 
far  from  his  position  as  to  divide  the  metropolitan 
dignity  between  Vienne  and  Aries.  Actually, 
Aries  retained  such  preeminence  as  to  make  it 
still  the  first  of  Gallic  episcopates.  The  incursion 
of  the  Visigoths  into  Provence  in  466  severed  all 
relations  between  Aries  and  Rome  for  nearly  thirty 
years,  but  the  rise  of  the  Arian  power  in  southern 
France  and  in  the  north  of  Italy,  led  to  a  reestab- 
lishment  of  the  Roman  connection,  in  defense  of 
the  threatened  cause  of  orthodoxy.  Upon  Csesarius, 
bishop  of  Aries,  was  conferred,  in  513,  the  pallium 
as  token  of  the  vicarial  office  (for  the  first  time  in 
the  history  of  the  Western  Church)  together  with 
the  right  of  exercising  pastoral  supervision  over 
the  churches  in  Gaul  and  Spain.  As  administrator 
and,  more  important  still,  as  a  formulator  of  eccle- 
siastical legislation  Ca;sarius  made  his  influence 
felt  throughout  the  country  and  traces  of  his  work 
were  to  be  found  in  Spain,  Ireland,  Italy,  and 
Germany  (see  C^ksarius  of  Arles).  But  with 
the  rise  of  the  national  Prankish  Church  and  the 
removal  of  the  political  center  of  the  kingdom 
to  the  north  the  authority  of  the  bishops  of  Aries 
rapidly  declined.  As  late  as  613  they  appear  in 
the  character  of  papal  vicars  but  their  importance 
soon  became  second  to  that  of  the  bishops  of  Lyons. 
In  794  the  number  of  sujffragans  under  the  authority 
of  the  Archbishop  of  Aries  was  eight;  in  1475  they 
numbered  only  four.  The  bishopric  was  abolished 
in  1802  but  the  title  of  primat  des  primala  des 
G aides  is  still  home  by  the  archbishop  of  Vienne. 
[Among  the  ninety-six  incumbents  of  the  see  the 
most  distinguished,  besides  those  already  mentioned, 
were  Vigilius  (588-610),  who  was  apostolic  vicar 
under  Gregory  the  Great  over  all  the  bishops  of 
Burgundy  and  Austrasia,  Cardinal  Peter  de  Foix 
(1450-62),  an  important  ecclesiastical  statesman, 
and  the  last  archbishop,  Jean  Marie  Dulan  (1775- 
92),  who  was  guillotined  at  the  age  of  eighty- 
seven  by  the  revolutionary  authorities.] 

(F.  Arnold.) 
Biblioorapht:  For  sources  consult  Epiatolce  ArdaUneee 
ffenuxna  and  Epietola  Vienneneee  epurice,  in  MOH,  Epiat., 
iii.  (1801)  1-109.  On  the  general  subject,  M.  Tricbaud, 
Hiatoire  de  la  §a%nU  igliae  d'Arlee,  4  vols..  Pans.  1858-65; 
£.  Ldning,  Geeehiehte  dee  detUechen  Kvrchenrechte,  i.  436-408. 
Strasburg,  1878;  J.  ljAug,Bn,0€echichUderromxechenKirche, 
i.  742-785,  Bonn,  1881;  W.  Gundlach.  Der  Strett  der  Bte- 
tamer  Arlee  und  Vienne,  Hanover,  1800;  D.  Bernard. 
La  Baexlique  primahale  de  St.  Trophxme  d* Arlee,  Paris, 
1803;  L.  Duchesne,  Faeiee  ipiecopaux  de  I'ancienne  Oaule, 
i.,  chap.  ii.  84-144,  Paris.  1804.- 

ARLES,  SYNODS  OF:      The  first  great  western 
synod  was  held  at  Aries,  in  the  presence  of  the  em- 


Aries 
Armenia 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


888 


pcror  Constantine,  who  called  it,  and  under  the 
presidency  of  Marinns,  the  bishop  of  the  place,  in 
314  (316?).  Thirty-three  bishops  were  present, 
representing  almost  all  the  western  provinces,  from 
Africa  to  Britain.  The  significance  of  the  synod  in 
regard  to  the  Donatist  controversy  will  be  treated 
tmder  Donatibm.  The  canons  are  principally  inter- 
esting as  showing  how  the  Church  endeavored  to 
adapt  itself  to  the  alteration  in  its  circumstances 
brought  about  by  the  recognition  of  Christianity. 
They  declare  that  the  acceptance  of  a  government 
office  is  no  reason  for  forsaking  the  fellowship  of 
the  Church,  and  that  those  who  refused  to  serve 
in  the  army  when  summoned  should  be  excom- 
mimicated,  while  they  refused  to  consider  chari- 
oteers and  actors  as  members  of  the  Church  unless 
they  renounced  their  professions.  The  principal 
enactments,  however,  related  to  clerical  and  lay 
discipline.  Important  regulations  as  to  ecclesias- 
tical usages  were  the  prescription  of  unanimity  in 
keeping  Easter,  the  forbidding  of  the  African  custom 
of  rebaptizing  heretics,  and  the  requirement  of  the 
presence  of  three  bishops  at  least  for  an  episcopal 
consecration.  Another  synod  was  held  at  Aries 
in  353  during  the  Arian  controversy;  it  is  not 
included  in  the  usual  enumeration.  What  is  called 
the  second  synod  was  held  in  the  fifth  century,  not 
before  443.  Its  56  canons  are  mostly  reaffirmar- 
tions  of  older  decrees.  It  is  called  in  question 
by  Duchesne  {Fastea  episcopatix,  Paris,  1894,  p. 
141).  The  next  synod,  in  451,  declared  its  ad- 
hesion to  the  "  Tome  of  St.  Leo  "  on  the  Incar- 
nation. What  is  usually  called  the  third,  a  few 
years  later,  decided  a  local  dispute  between  a 
bishop  and  an  abbot.  After  two  more  synods, 
in  463  and  about  475  (for  the  latter  see  Lu- 
ciDUs),  the  so  called  fourth  met  under  the 
presidency  of  Cscsarius  in  524,  and  was  largely 
concerned  with  means  for  increasing  the  number 
of  the  clergy.  The  fifth  was  held  in  554,  to  es- 
tablish more  firmly  the  episcopal  authority.  No 
others  worth  mentioning  occur  tmtil  the  reforming 


synod  of  813,  held  under  Charlemagne's  auspices 
and  expressing  his  views.  Another  was  held  in  1 234 
in  connection  with  the  crusade  against  the  Albi- 
genses.  (A.  Hauck.) 

Bibuoorapht:  The  acts  are  in  Manai,  Concilia,  the  canons 
of  1,  2,  4.  and  5  in  H.  P.  Bnins,  Canonea  apottolorum  et 
coneiliorum^  ii.,  Berlin,  1839;  of  4  and  5  in  MOH,  Con- 
eOia,  i.  (1893).  ii  (1904);  consult  Hefele.  ConeUier^ 
getchicfUe,  pasaim. 

ARUAGH,  BISHOPRIC  OF:  An  ancient  episco- 
pal see  in  Ireland,  traditionally  reputed  to  have  been 
foimded  by  St.  Patrick  about  445,  and  now  existing 
in  connection  with  both  the  Roman  Catholic  and  the 
Anglican  Churches.  It  had  exclusive  metropolitan 
jurisdiction  over  the  whole  of  Ireland  until  1152, 
when  a  national  council  at  Kells  provided  for  the 
elevation  of  three  other  sees,  those  of  Cashel, 
Dublin,  and  Tuam,  to  archiepiscopal  rank,  Armagh 
still  holding  the  primacy.  Of  the  earlier  arch- 
bishops the  most  famous  was  St.  Malachy  (d.  1148; 
see  Malachy  O'Morgair,  St.),  the  friend  of  St. 
Bernard  and  reformer  of  the  Irish  Church.  Ed- 
ward VI.,  in  the  course  of  his  efforts  to  establish 
Protestantism,  attempted  to  transfer  the  primacy 
to  Dublin,  and  the  Protestant  Archbishop  of  Dublin 
is  at  present  designated  as  "  primate  of  Ireland," 
while  his  colleague  of  Armagh  has  been  known  as 
**  primate  of  all  Ireland  "  since  the  beginning  of 
the  eighteenth  century.  The  Roman  Catholic 
succession  was  maintained  with  the  greatest  diffi- 
culty in  the  later  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  cen- 
turies; one  archbishop  was  assassinated,  another 
died  in  the  Tower  of  London,  and  a  third  (Plunket) 
was  executed  in  1681  on  the  charge  of  complicity 
in  the  "  Popish  Plot."  The  diocese  comprises 
Louth,  the  greater  part  of  Armagh  and  Tyrone, 
and  a  section  of  Deny.  The  Anglican  cHocese 
included  that  of  Clogher  from  1850  to  1886  when 
Clogher  was  restored  as  a  separate  jurisdiction. 
For  additional  details  on  the  earlier  history,  see 
Celtic  Church  in  Britain  and  Ireland. 


I.  History. 

The  Old  Armenian  Kingdom — to 

600  B.C.  (§  1). 
Indo-Germanic    Immigration — the 

Armenians  (§  2). 
The  Persian  Period,  226-642  (}  3). 
The  Califs  and  the  Inroads  of  the 
Turks— to  1381  (J  4).  III. 

II.  Literatwe. 

Armenia  is  a  country  situated  in  western 
Asia  between  the  Black  and  Caspian  Seas 
and  the  Taurus  and  Caucasus  Mountains. 
In  its  widest  extent  it  lay  between  37 
and  49**  east  longitude,  37**  3(y  and  41**  45'  north 
latitude.  The  Euphrates  divided  it  into  Great 
and  Little  Armenia,  respectively  east  and  west  of 
the  river.  It  is  a  lofty  mountain-land  with  ex- 
tensive plains,  including  the  head  waters  of  the 
Cyrus  (Kur)  and  Araxes  (Aras),  which  flow  north- 
ward to  the  Caspian  Sea,  as  well  as  of  the  Euphrates 
and  Tigris.  The  moimtains  are  well  wooded  and 
enclose  deep  and  fruitful  valleys.  The  winters 
are  severe  with  much  snow,  the  sununers  dry  and 


ARMENIA. 

Begins  in  the  Fourth  Century  (§  1). 

The  Armenian  Alphabet.  Transla- 
tions (§  2). 

Original  Armenian  Literature. 
Moses  of  Chorene  (§  3). 

The  Elighth  and  Succeeding  Cen- 
turies a  4). 

The  Armenian  Church. 
Legends  (§  1). 


Gregory  the  Illuminator  (|  2). 

History  to  600  (§  3). 

To  1166  (§  4). 

Negotiations  for  Union  with  Rome 

and   the   Greek  Church  (§  5). 
From  1600  (§  6). 
The  Armenian  Uniates  (}  7). 
The  Evangelical  Armenians  (§  8X 
Armenians  in  America  (|  9). 

hot.    The  native  geographers  regarded  their  land 
as  the  middle  of  the  world. 

L  History:  The  older  history  of  Armenia  is 
learned  from  Assyrian  accounts  and  native  cunei- 
form inscriptions.  The  Assyrians  caUed  the  coun- 
try Urartu  (see  Abstria),  corresponding  to  the 
Biblical  land  or  kingdom  of  Ararat  (II  Kings  xix. 
37;  Isa.  xxxvii.  38;  Jer.  Ii.  27).  The  native  name 
for  the  people  is  Chaldini  from  Chaldis,  their  chief 
god.  The  oldest  inhabitants  are  distinguished 
from  the  later  by  their  language,  which  is  allied  to 
the  Ural-Altaic  family.  Originally  living  east  of 
Lake  Van,  the  Urarteans  prised  to  the  south  and 
east  and  founded  a  kingdom  as  rivals  of  the  Aaqrr- 


889 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Aries 
AkXinenift 


ians.  Their  capital  was  the  well-fortified  garden- 
city  Van-Tuspa.  The  temple  of  the  national  god 
Chaldis  became  the  center  of  the  theo- 
I.  The  Old  cratically  organized  kingdom.  By 
Armenian  means  of  the  Menuas  canal  (at 
Slingdom —  present  the  Shamiram  Su),  King  Men- 
to  600  B.C.  uas  supplied  his  city  with  water.  Un- 
der his  son,  Argistis  I.,  against  whom 
Shalmaneser  III.  (783-773  b.c.)  had  to  fight  six 
times,  the  kingdom  reached  its  height,  but  Tig- 
lath-Pileser  soon  made  an  end  to  its  glory  and  in 
735  B.C.  the  capital  Tuspa  was  destroyed.  The 
weakened  kingdom,  nevertheless,  continued  in  con- 
stant enmity  with  the  Assyrians.  Thither  the 
sons  and  murderers  of  Sennacherib  fled  in  681.  B.C. 
In  the  course  of  time  better  relations  were  brought 
about  between  the  two  kingdoms,  and  till  640  b.c. 
ambassadors  of  the  king  of  Urartu  went  to  Nine- 
veh. The  prophet  Jeremiah  is  the  last  who  men- 
tions the  kingdom,  and  after  this  it  disappears  from 
history  (cf.  C.  F.  Lehmann,  Daa  vararmeniache 
Reich  von  Van,  in  the  Deutsche  Rundschau,  1894- 
95,  pp.  353-369;  also  articles  by  Lehmann  and 
W.  Belck  in  ZeUschrijt  jUr  Ethnologie,  xxiv., 
1892,  122-152,  ZeUschrift  fur  Assyriologie,  vii., 
1892,  255-267,  Verhandlungen  der  Berliner  GeseU- 
schaft  fur  Anthropohgie,  xxv.,  1893,  (61)-(82), 
and  following  years). 

The  advance  of  Indo-Germanic  tribes  in  the  sixth 
century  b.c.  added  greatly  to  the  population  of 
Armenia.    The  Persians  and  Greeks 
2.  Indo-    called  this  new  element  Armenians, 
Germanic    whereas   the  people  call   themselves 
Immigra-   Hayk,    (plural    of    Hay)    and    their 
tion.  The   cotmtry  Hayastanf  claiming  a  mythical 
Armenians.  Hayk  as  their  ancestor.    The  newly 
inunigrated  Indo-Germanic  tribes  ab- 
sorbed the  aborigines.    The  Armenians  were  at 
first  imder  Median,  afterward  tmder  Persian  sway. 
They  took  part  in  the  general  revolt  tmder  Darius 
I.  (after  521  B.C.),  but,  five  times  defeated,  they 
remained  quiet  under  the  Achsmenidse.    In  the 
time  of  Xenophon,  Armenia  was  divided  into  an 
eastern  and  western  satrapy.     It  reached  the  zenith 
of  its  power  under  Tigranes  I.  (about  90-55  B.C.), 
a  descendant  of  Artaxias.    He  extended  the  bounds 
of  his  kingdom,  and  took  the  title  of  King  of  Kings, 
but  in  66  b.c.  Armenia  was  reduced  to  its  old  limits. 
From  that  time  on  the  kingdom  leaned  either  toward 
the  Parthians  or  Romans,  till  it  became  a  Roman 
province  imder  Trajan  (114-117). 

The  overthrow  of  the  Parthian  Arsacids  and  the 
establishment  of  the  rule  of  the  Sassanidae  in  Persia 
in  226  was  of  great  importance  for 
3.  The  Per-  Armenia.     As   relatives    of    the    de- 
sian  Period,  throned  legitimate  heirs,  the  Arme- 
336-643.    nian  princes  were  the  sworn  enemies 
of   the   Persian   kings.    In   238   the 
Armenian  King  Chosrov  was  murdered  at  the  in- 
stigation of  the  Persians.    During  the  following 
disturbances  the  latter  succeeded  in  occupying  the 
country  temporarily  and  forcing  upon  it  the  hated 
Maatdaism,  tUl  in  261,  by  the  victory  of  Odenathus 
of   Palmyra,   the  coimtry  received  its   freedom. 
The  king's  son  Trdat  (Tiridates),  who  had  fled  to 
Roman  territory,  restored  the  kingdom  and  main- 
I.— 19 


tained  it  in  the  closest  connection  wth  Rome  and 
in  continual  struggle  with  the  Persians.  The  con- 
version of  the  king  and  people  to  Christianity 
necessitated  a  policy  friendly  to  Rome,  which 
came  to  an  end  by  the  tmhappy  issue  of  Julian's 
campaign  and  the  disgraceful  peace  of  Jovian,  363. 
The  Persians  occupied  Armenia  and  King  Arsaces 
(Arshak)  was  made  a  prisoner.  Valens,  perceiving 
the  great  mistake,  made  Arshak's  son  Pap  king 
(367-374).  But  the  nobility  and  priests  had  the 
upper  hand.  From  378  to  385  the  kingdom  was 
governed  by  the  clerically  inclined  Manuel  the 
Mamikonian.  In  387  Theodosius  the  Great  di- 
vided the  kingdom  with  the  Persians;  the  Romans 
received  a  piece  of  the  West  with  Garin  (Theo- 
dosiopolis),  but  four-fifths  of  Armenia  came  to 
Persia.  Till  428  nominal  Armenian  kings  ruled 
under  Persian  supremacy;  then  marzbans  ("  fron- 
tier-governors ")  were  appointed,  some  of  whom 
were  Armenians.  On  the  whole,  the  Persians 
showed  great  consideration  for  the  country.  Many 
revolts  favoring  the  Byzantines  were  unsuccessful, 
but  after  the  Emperor  Maurice  reinstalled  Chosrov 
Parvez  in  591,  the  latter  peacefully  ceded  almost 
all  Armenia  to  the  empire.  With  the  rise  of  the 
Mohammedan  power  it  fell  under  Arab  rule. 

The  first  century  of  the  califs  was  an  epoch  of 

national  and  literary  development,  and  Ashot  I., 

Bagratuni,   belonging  to  an   ancient 

4.  The  Armenian  dynasty,  succeeded  in  855 
Califs  and  in  becoming  the  prince  of  princes 
the  Inroads  and  in  obtaining  in  885  the  royal 
of  the  Turks  crown  from  the  calif.  The  new 
— ^to  138Z.  kingdom  comprised  not  only  Armenia, 
but  also  Albania  and  Iberia  (Georgia). 
In  913  it  became  free,  but  was  divided  into  petty 
kingdoms,  of  which  that  of  the  Artsrunians  of 
Vaspurakan  was  the  most  important.  Afraid 
of  the  aggressive  Seljuks,  Senekherim,  the  last 
Artsrunian,  ceded  his  kingdom  in  1021,  and  Gagik 
the  Bagratunian  in  1041,  to  the  Byzantines,  but 
they,  too,  could  not  withstand  the  great  danger. 
The  systematic  cruel  devastation  of  the  country 
by  the  hordes  of  the  Seljuks  gave  the  deathblow 
to  the  political  life  and  civilization  of  the  Arme- 
nians at  home.  During  these  campaigns  many 
Armenians  withdrew  to  the  Taurus  and  Cilicia. 
In  1080  a  certain  Rupen,  probably  a  Bagratide, 
founded  a  small  kingdom  and  a  new  dynasty 
(Rupenides).  His  brave  successors  conquered  all 
Cilicia.  With  Byzantium  they  were  not  on  friendly 
tenns,  but  their  relation  to  the  states  of  the  cru- 
saders was  close.  Levon  II.  was  crowned  king  in 
1198.  The  Rupenides  were  followed  in  1342  by 
the  Lusinians  of  Cyprus.  In  connection  with  the 
Mongols  and  the  West,  the  kingdom  tried  to  with- 
stand the  assault  of  the  Egjrptian  Mamelukes. 
But  in  1375  King  Levon  VI.  had  to  give  up  his 
last  fortress.  He  died  at  Paris  in  1381.  From 
that  time  on  the  Armenians  have  never  had  an 
independent  kingdom. 

n.  Literature:  An  Armenian  literature  comr 
mences  with  the  introduction  of  the  Armenian 
writing.  Until  the  fourth  century  they  wrote 
Syriac,  Greek,  or  Persian.  Armenian  works  aaid 
to  belong  to  this  early  time,  are  partly  translations, 


Arm«iila 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


290 


partly  later  forgeries.  The  orations  of  Gregory  the 
Illuminator  (Venice,  1838;  ed.  Ter  Mikelian, 
Vagharshabad,   1896;  Gennan,  by  J.  F.  Schmid, 

Regensburg,  1872)  belong  to  a  much 

z.  Begins    later    time.     To    his  contemporary, 

in   the       Zenop   Glak,    a   Syrian   bishop  and 

Fourth      afterward    abbot  of    the    monastery 

Century.     SurpGarabed  in  Taron,  a  history  of 

the  conversion  of  his  province  is 
ascribed,  said  to  have  been  originally  written  in 
Syriac.  It  is  extant  in  an  Armenian  transla- 
tion, "  History  of  Taron,"  and  is  continued  by 
Bishop  John  the  Mamikonian,  said  to  have  lived 
in  the  seventh  century.  Both  works  are  his- 
torically worthless,  legendary  writings  of  the 
eighth  and  ninth  centuries.  Under  the  name  of 
Agathangelos,  secretary  of  the  Armenian  king 
Trdat,  a  history  of  the  conversion  of  the  king  and 
the  introduction  of  Christianity  is  extant  in  Arme- 
nian and  in  Greek  translation.  It  consists  of 
independent  writings  relating  to  St.  Gregory, 
united  after  456  (cf.  A.  von  Gutschmid,  Kleine 
Schriften,  iii.,  Leipaic,  1892, 394  sqq.,  420).  Of  great 
value  is  the  historical  work  of  Faustus  of  Byzan- 
tium, containing  the  history  of  Armenia  from  317 
to  390  and  written  in  Greek.  Fragments  are 
extant  in  Procopius  (De  hello  Persico,  i.  5),  and  the 
entire  work — four  books — ^in  an  Armenian  trans- 
lation. 

The  founders  of  the  Armenian  national  literature 
are  the  catholicos  Sahag  (d.  439)  and  his  friend 

and  helper,  Mesrob  (d.  440),  the  in- 

3.  The  Ar-  ventor    of    the    Armenian   alphabet. 

menian     Till  their  time  there  existed  no  Arme- 

Alphabet.    nian  translation  of  the  Holy  Scrip- 

Translatioiis.  tures,    and    the    Bible    lessons    and 

prayers  were  read  either  in  Syriac 
or  Greek.  Mesrob 's  plan  for  a  special  alphabet 
for  the  Armenians  was  favored  by  Sahag  and  by 
King  Vramshapuh  (395-416).  With  the  help  of 
the  Greek  hermit  and  calligrapher  Rufinus,  the 
alphabet,  mostly  following  the  Greek,  was  pro- 
duced (cf.  H.  Htlbschmann,  C/e6er  Auasprache 
und  Umachreibung  de8  AUarmenischen,  in  ZDMO, 
XXX.,  1876,  53  sqq.;  V.  Gardthausen,  Ueber  dem 
griechischen  Uraprung  der  armeniachen  Schriftf 
ibid.  74  sqq.).  For  the  Iberians  and  Albanians, 
two  neighboring  nations  but  dependent  upon  Ar- 
menian culture,  Mesrob  also  invented  alphabets. 
The  Armenian  alphabet  was  first  applied  to  the 
translation  of  the  Bible.  But  as  all  Greek  books 
had  been  destroyed,  and  the  study  of  Greek  was 
interdicted  in  the  schools,  the  translation  was 
made  from  the  Syriac  version,  and  not  from  the 
original  text.  Men  were  sent,  however,  to  Con- 
stantinople to  study  the  Greek  language  and  ex- 
amine authentic  copies  of  the  Scriptures;  and  the 
result  of  these  exertions  was  a  truly  admirable 
translation,  produced  after  432  (see  Bible  Ver- 
sions, A,  VI.).  The  liturgical  books  for  the 
church  service,  the  church  history  of  Eusebius, 
and  the  Ufe  of  St.  Anthony  by  Athanasius,  were 
also  translated  into  Armenian.  Of  translations, 
the  Greek  text  of  which  has  perished,  the  following 
may  be  mentioned:  Certain  treatises  of  Philo; 
tue  chronicle  of  Eusebius;  the  apology  of  Aristides; 


homilies  of  Severianus  of  Gabala;  the  commen- 
taries of  Ephraem  Syrus  on  the  Bible;  and  certain 
writings  of  Basil  the  Great,  Chrysostom,  Cyril  of 
Jerusalem,  Athanasius,  and  others.  All  these 
works  belong  to  the  golden  period.  To  the  later 
school  of  translators  are  attributed  translations  of 
Plato's  works«  Aristotle's  categories,  and  Porphyry 's 
commentary  on  them,  Ignatius'  shorter  epistles, 
writings  of  Hippolytus,  Epiphanius,  Gregorius 
Thaumaturgus,  Euthalius,  and  others. 

The  original  literature  of  the  Armenians  is  almost 
exclusively  historical  and  theological.    To  Mesrob's 
pupil,  Eznik  of  Kulb,  is  due  a  work 
3.  Original  against  heretics,  and  Mesrob's  biog- 
Armenian   rapher,   Koriun,   wrote  an  authentic 
Literature,  record  of  the  beginnings  of  Armenian 
Moses  of    literature.     More  famous  is  Moses  of 
Chorene.    Chorene   (Moaea    Chorenenaia),  author 
of  a  history  of  Armenia  to  the  death  of 
Mesrob  (440),  the  only  native  source  for  the  pre- 
Christian    period    of    the    country.     It    probably 
originated  in  the  seventh  or  early  eighth  century 
and  was  first  published  at  Amsterdam,  1695,  and 
with  a  Latin  translation  by  W.  and  G.  Whiston, 
London,  1736;  the  best  edition  is  that  of  the  Mekh- 
itarists  (Venice,  1843)  in  the  complete  edition  of 
Moses's  works;  French  transl.,  in  Langlois,  ii.  45 
sqq.,  German  by  M.  Lauer  (Regensburg,  1869). 
To  Moses  is  also  ascribed  a  rhetoric  and  geography, 
edited  with  the  history  by  the  Whistons;  a  better 
recension  is  c^ered  by  A.  Soukry,  in  his  French  and 
Armenian  edition  (Venice,  1881 ;  cf .  von  Gutschmid, 
ut  sup.,  282  sqq.,  322  sqq.;  A.   Carridre,  Moiae  de 
Khoren  et  lea  g^ixdogiea  piuriarcalea,  Paris,  1891 ,  and 
NouveUea  aourcea  de  Moiae  de  X^oren, Vienna,  1893). 
One  of  the  most  eminent  of  Armenian  historians 
is  Eghishe  (Elisseus)  Vartabed,  author  of  a  history 
of  the  religious  war  of  the  Armenians  against  the 
Persians  under  Yezdigerd  II.,  439-451  (Eng.  transl., 
by  C.  F.  Neumann,  London,  1830).    His  junior 
contemporary,  Lazar  of  Parpi,  wrote  a  history  of 
Armenia    from    388    to    405.    John    Mandakuni, 
cathoUcos  480-487,  wrote  homilies  and  prayers.    To 
the  seventh  century  belongs  Bishop  Sebeos's  his- 
tory of  Heraclius.    Toward  the  end  of  the  century 
the  church  history  of  Socrates  was  translated  into 
Armenian,   and  an  orthodox  Armenian  wrote  in 
Greek  an  important  but  partial  sketch  of  Armenian 
church  history  from  Gregory  the  Bluminator  to 
his  own  time. 

To  the  eighth  century  belong  John  of  Odzun, 
sumamed   the   Philosopher,    and   Stephen,    arch- 
bishop of  Siunik,  who  translated  the 
4.  The      writings    of     Dionysius    Areopagita, 
Eighth  and  Cyril  of  Alexandria,  Nemesius,  Atha- 
Succeeding  nasius,  Gregory  of  Nyssa,  and  others; 
Centuries,  also  the  epistle  of  the  patriarch  Grer- 
manus    to    the    Armenians.    In    the 
same  century  Armenian  translations  were  made  of 
the    writings   of   Georgius    Pisida,    Hesychius   of 
Jerusalem,  Theodore  of  Ancyra,  Evagrius,  Antip- 
ater  of  Bostra,  Johannes  CUmacus,  and  Titus  of 
Crete.    Toward  the  end  of  the  century  I^evond 
(Leontius),  "  the  great  Vartabed,"  wrote  a  history 
of  the  Arabian  inroads  into  Armenia  and  the  wars 
with  the  Empire,  661-788 


291 


REUGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Armenia 


To  the  tenth  century  belong  two  historical  works, 
one  by  the  catholicos  John,  an  Armenian  history 
from  the  beginning  to  the  year  925;  the  other  by 
Thomas  Artsruni,  giving  the  history  of  the  Arts- 
runians  to  936.  In  the  same  century  lived  Chos- 
rov  the  Great,  who  wrote  an  exposition  of  the  Arme- 
nian breviary;  Mesrob  the  Priest,  the  biographer 
of  Nerses  the  Great  and  author  of  a  history  of  the 
Georgians  and  Armenians;  and  Gregory  of  Narek, 
a  celebrated  writer  of  hymns,  prayers,  homilies, 
etc.  Historians  include  Uchtanes,  Bishop  (of  Urha, 
i.e.,  Edessa?),  and  Moses  of  Kalankaituk.  To  the 
eleventh  century  belong  Stephen  Asolik  of  Taron, 
author  of  a  history  to  the  year  1004;  Aristakes 
of  Lazdiverd,  who  in  his  history  from  989  to  1071 
describes  the  catastrophe  of  Armenia  caused  by 
the  Seljuks;  and  Gregorios  Magistros  (1058),  whose 
letters  are  important  for  contemporary  history. 

Another  flourishing  period  is  the  twelfth  century 
imder  the  reign  of  the  dynasty  of  the  Rupenides. 
To  this  time  belong  Nerses  Klayetsi  or  Shnorhali, 
catholicos  1166-73,  who  wrote  poems  and  prayers, 
the  latter  translated  into  thirtynsix  languages; 
Ignatius,  author  of  a  commentary  on  Luke;  Sarkis 
Shnorhali,  who  wrote  on  the  catholic  epistles; 
Matthew  of  Edessa,  whose  history,  comprising  the 
period  from  952  to  1132,  and  continued  by  Gregory 
the  Priest  to  1162,  contains  many  interesting 
notices  concerning  the  crusades;  Samuel  of  Ani, 
author  of  a  chronicle  to  the  year  1179,  continued 
later  to  1664;  Nerses  of  Lambron,  Archbishop  of 
Tarsus,  whose  dogmatic  works  and  spiritual  ad- 
dresses are  published  with  the  dogmatic  letters 
of  Gregory  Tla,  catholicos  1173-80;  Michael  the 
Great,  patriarch  of  the  Syrians  1166-99,  who 
wrote  a  chronicle  to  the  year  1198;  and  Mekhitar 
Gosh  (d.  1213),  author  of  190  fables. 

The  thirteenth  century  was  also  rich  in  authors. 
Vartan  the  Great  wrote  a  chronicle  to  the  year  1268, 
and  an  exposition  of  Biblical  passages.  Giragos 
of  Gandzak  wrote  a  history  consisting  of  two  parts: 
one  comprising  the  older  Armenian  history  to  1165; 
the  other  contemporaneous,  treating  of  the  Mongols, 
Iberians,  and  the  author's  country,  Albania,  to  1265. 
His  contemporary,  the  monk  Maghakia  wrote  a 
history  of  the  Mongolian  inroads  to  1272.  Stephen 
Orbelian,  archbishop  of  Siunik  1287-1304,  wrote 
a  history  of  Siunik.  Sempad,  brother  of  King 
Hetum  I.  (1224-69),  composed  a  chronicle  to  1274, 
continued  to  1331.  Mekhitar  of  Ayrivank  wrote  a 
chronography  to  1289.  To  the  period  of  decay 
belong  Thomas  of  Metsop,  of  the  ^teenth  century, 
author  of  a  history  of  iWur  and  his  successors. 
To  the  seventeenth  centu]^  belongs  Arakel  of 
Tabriz,  author  of  a  histoi^from  1602  to  1661. 
With  the  eighteenth  century  conunences  the  literary 
activity  of  the  Mekhitarists  (q.v.)  and  an  entirely 
new  era,  animated  by  Western  science. 

nL  The  Armenian  Church:  Armenia  has  the 
glory  of  beine  the  first  land  which  made  Chris- 
tianity the  religion  of  the  country.  Later  legend 
places  the  first  preaching  of  Christian  doctrine  there 
in  the  apostolic  time  and  claims  for  the  land  the 
graves  of  the  four  apostles,  Bartholomew,  Thad- 
dffius  (Lebbseus),  Simon,  and  Judas.  The  most 
prominent  and  important  are  Bartholomew  and 


Thaddsus,  and  they  are  often  mentioned  alone. 

Sometimes  two  Thaddsei  are   distinguished — the 

apostle,    and    one    of    the    seventy. 

1.  Legends.  These  are  the  apostles  whose  activ- 

ity the  older  legend  has  placed  in  the 
East,  and  these  legends,  mostly  of  Greek  or  Syriac 
origin,  were  worked  over  and  enlarged  by  the 
Armenians  in  a  relatively  late  time;  the  product 
can  be  seen  in  the  historical  work  of  Moses  of 
Chorene.  The  Bartholomew  legend  is  evidently  the 
oldest;  Greek  testimonies  of  the  fifth  century 
know  of  his  death  by  martyrdom  in  Urbanopolis 
(Albanopolis,  Xerbanopolis,  etc.),  an  otherwise 
unknown  city  of  Great  Armenia.  But  the  im- 
portance of  Bartholomew  does  not  come  up  to  that 
of  Thaddsus.  The  legend  of  Abgar,  King  of  Edessa 
(see  Abgar),  of  his  correspondence  with  Jesus  and 
the  sending  of  Thaddseus  to  Edessa,  enjoyed  at  an 
early  period  great  popularity  in  Armenia.  The 
Armenian  form  of  the  legend  is  extant  in  a  trans- 
lation of  the  Doctrina  Addcei  (''  Labubna  of  Edessa, 
Abgar's  letter,  or  History  of  the  Conversion  of  the 
Edessenes,''  Armen.,  Venice  and  Jerusalem,  1868, 
French  by  Alishan,  Venice,  1868,  by  Emin  in  Lan- 
glois,  ii.  313  sqq.). 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  Christianity  was 
introduced  in  Armenia  very  early.     Before  Gregory 

the  Illuminator,  the  true  apostle  of 

2.  Gregory  Armenia,  Merujan,  the  bishop  of  the 
thelllumi-  Armenians,  wrote  a  letter  on  repent- 

nator.  ance  (Eusebius,  Hist,  eccl.,  VI.  xlvi.  2) 
to  Dionysius  of  Alexandria  (248-265). 
A  new  epoch  begins  with  Gregory.  According  to 
unreliable  tradition,  Anak,  a  scion  of  the  noble 
house  of  Suren  Pahlav,  the  murderer  of  King 
Chosrov  (d.  238),  was  his  father.  Like  many  other 
Armenian  princes  he  sought  refuge  on  Roman 
territory  during  the  Persian  occupation.  At 
Osesarea  he  received  a  Christian  and  Greek  edu- 
cation, which  was  of  the  utmost  importance  for  the 
entire  ecclesiastical  development  of  Armenia. 
When  the  Armenian  kingdom  was  retaken  and 
reorganized,  Gregory  was  one  of  the  most  zealous 
helpers  of  the  king.  But  with  the  restoration  of 
the  kingdom  was  also  connected  the  restittition 
of  the  national  religion,  which  had  been  supplanted 
by  Persian  fire-worship.  As  a  Christian,  Gregory 
refused  to  offer  chaplets  upon  the  altar  of  the  great 
goddess  Anahid  on  the  national  festival  arranged 
by  the  king,  and  professed  to  be  a  Christian.  The 
enraged  king  subjected  him  to  cruel  tortures; 
legend  speaks  of  his  confinement  in  a  pit  for  thir- 
teen years.  At  last  the  king  was  converted  by  a 
miracle  (Sozomen,  ii.  8),  and  then  the  Christianizing 
of  the  country  wajs  imdertaken  by  both.  At  the 
head  of  the  army,  Trdat  and  Gregory  marched  to 
the  ancient  capital  Artaxata;  the  temple  of  Anahid 
and  the  oracle  of  Tiur  with  its  school  of  priests 
were  destroyed  after  a  stout  resistance,  and  all  the 
temple  property  was  given  to  the  Christian  churches. 
In  the  same  manner  they  acted  in  West  Armenia. 
At  the  request  of  the  king,  Gregory,  accompanied 
by  a  retinue  of  Armenian  feudal  princes,  went  to 
Csesarea,  and  was  consecrated  primate  of  Armenia 
by  Leontius.  From  Cappadocia  Gregory  brought 
the  relics  of  John  the  Baptist  (Surp  Garabed)  and 


Armenia 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


808 


Athenogenes  (Atanagines),  who  were  now  made 
the  national  saints.  Gregory  then  went  south  and 
at  Ashtishat  in  the  country  of  Taron  destroyed 
the  most  celebrated  sanctuary  of  the  country, 
the  temple  of  Vahagn,  Anahid,  and  Astghik,  and 
in  its  place  the  splendid  Christ-Church,  "  the  first 
and  great  church,  the  mother  of  all  Armenian 
churches/'  was  erected.  From  Taron  Gregory 
went  to  the  province  of  Ararat,  where  stood  the 
famous  sanctuary  of  the  god  Vanatur  of  Bagavan. 
This,  too,  was  turned  into  a  church  of  St.  John  and 
St.  Athenogenes,  and  the  people  who  had  gathered 
there  from  the  northeast  were  baptized. 

Three  things  may  be  noticed  in  this  newly  con- 
stituted Armenian  Church.  First,  its  national 
character.  Gregory  preached  in  the  native  tongue; 
the  sons  of  the  former  idolatrous  priests  were 
educated  in  a  Christian  school,  which  formed  the 
seminary  for  future  bishops;  pupils  of  this  school 
gradually  occupied  the  twelve  episcopal  sees, 
established  by  Gregory.  The  second  feature  is 
the   compulsory   conversion,    and    the   third   the 

Judaic  character  of  the  church.    The 

3.  History     patriarchate   has   its   parallel   rather 

to  600.        in  the  Jewish   high-priesthood    than 

in  specific  Christian  distinctions;  like 
the  episcopate,  it  became  hereditary  in  some  fam- 
ilies. The  superior  clergy,  as  a  rule,  were  married. 
Gregory  was  followed  by  his  younger  son,  Aris- 
takes,  who  in  325  attended  the  Council  of  Nicsea; 
then  by  his  elder  son  Vrtanes,  who  made  his  elder 
son  Gregory  catholicos  of  the  Iberians  and  Alba- 
nians. Nerses,  great-grandson  of  Vrtanes,  ordained 
catholicos  at  the  urgent  wish  of  king  and  people, 
in  365  convened  a  synod  at  Ashtishat,  which 
regulated  marriages  between  relatives,  limited  the 
excessive  mourning  over  the  dead,  and  founded  the 
first  monasteries,  the  first  asylums  for  widows, 
orphans,  and  the  sick,  and  the  first  caravansaries 
for  travelers.  King  Arshag,  displeased  with  the 
order  of  things,  appointed  an  anticatholicos, 
but  when  Arshag  was  made  prisoner  by  the  Per- 
sians, Nerses  acted  as  regent  for  the  minor  king 
Pap  (367-374).  As  soon  as  the  latter  became  of  age 
he  abolished  many  things  introduced  by  Nerses, 
and  poisoned  him  before  374.  Basil  of  Csesarea 
anathematized  the  Armenian  kingdom  and  refused 
to  consecrate  a  new  catholicos.  But  King  Pap 
found  pliant  clerics  who  were  willing  to  receive 
ordination  from  native  bishops.  After  Nerses's 
death  Armenia  was  definitely  freed  from  all 
spiritual  connection  with  CsBsarea  and  made  eccle- 
siastically independent.  About  390  Sahag  the 
Great,  the  Parthian,  Nerses'  son,  was  made  ca- 
t  holicos.  His  government  forms  the  most  important 
turning-point  of  the  Armenian  Church.  Like  his 
father  he  promoted  monasticism;  he  opposed  the 
deposition  of  the  last  king  Ardashes  and  the  turn- 
ing of  Armenia  into  a  Persian  satrapy  (428).  But 
the  nobility  had  its  way  and  the  Persian  govern- 
ment, by  making  use  of  this  opposition,  deposed 
the  influential  Sahag  and  appointed  two  Syrians 
in  succession  as  catholicoi.  Through  the  efforts 
of  Sahag  and  Mesrob,  the  Syrian  language  was  now 
superseded  by  the  Armenian.  The  continued 
connection  with  Greece  preserved  the  Armenian 


Church  from  being  crippled  and  isolated.  At  the 
request  of  the  nobility,  Sahag  was  again  made  ca- 
tholicos before  he  died  (Sept.  15,  439).  He  was  the 
last  in  the  male  line  of  the  family  of  Gregory  the 
Illuminator.  The  family  estate  went  to  his  daugh- 
ter's sons,  the  Mamikonians,  whereas  the  dignity 
of  catholicos,  after  Greco-Oriental  custom,  was  now 
given  to  monks.  Sahag's  successor,  Joseph,  held 
a  synod  at  Sahapivan  to  remove  certain  abuses. 
The  Council  of  Chalcedon  (451),  which  later  Arme- 
nians condemned,  had  no  effect  upon  the  contem- 
poraries, because  King  Yezdigerd  II.  (438-457) 
endeavored  to  make  Mazdaism  the  ruling  religion 
in  Armenia.  The  princes  yielded  at  first,  but  soon 
the  people  revolted,  and  the  magi  and  their  temples 
had  to  suffer.  Vartan  the  Mamikonian  stood  at 
the  head,  but  the  Armenians  were  defeated  in  451 
and  many  of  the  nobles  and  clerics  were  deported 
to  Persia,  where  they  suffered  martyrdom  after 
many  years  of  imprisonment.  One  of  these  mar- 
tyrs was  Joseph  the  catholicos  (454).  The  per- 
secution ceased  in  484,  and  during  the  time  of  peace 
which  now  followed,  the  Armenians  were  wholly 
influenced  by  the  ruling  Greek-Oriental  theology, 
and  Zeno's  Henotikon  (482)  became  their  rule  of 
faith.  The  synod  at  Vagharshabad,  which  was 
convened  in  491  by  the  catholicos  Babken  and 
which  was  attended  not  only  by  the  Armenian 
bishops  but  also  by  the  Albanian  and  Iberian, 
solenmly  condemned  the  (^uncil  of  Chalcedon. 
This  synod  is  epoch-making  in  the  Armenian 
d^hurch.  From  now  on  the  Armenians,  as  well  as 
the  Syrians  and  Egyptians  accept  only  the  strict 
Monophysitic  doctrine  as  orthodox  (cf.  A.  Ter 
Mikelian,  Die  armenische  Kirche  in  ihren  Beziehr 
ungen  zur  hyzantiniachen,  Leipsic,  1892).  With 
the  Persian  government  the  clergy  had  thus  far 
lived  in  peace.  But  an  effort  to  erect  a  temple  of 
fire  in  the  capital  Duin  in  571  led  to  a  massacre 
of  the  magi  and  Persians.  The  Armenians  for  the 
time  being  attached  themselves  to  the  Romans. 
Many  priests  and  the  catholicos  fled  to  Constan- 
tinople, where  the  latter  died.  Armenia  remained 
under  Persian  sway. 

A  new  epoch  in  the  Armenian  Church  begins 
under  Emperor  Heraclius.    After  he  had  restored 

the  cross  to  Jerusalem  in  629,  he 
4.  To  1 166.  opened  negotiations  with  the  Mono- 

physites  of  Syria,  which  seemed  to 
favor  a  imion.  The  Armenian  catholicos  Ezr  also 
shared  in  them,  and  partook  with  the  emperor  in 
the  celebration  of  the  eucharist.  The  imion  lasted 
during  the  lifetime  of  Heraclius.  The  rise  of  Islam 
changed  the  cotmtry's  policy  toward  Rome.  The 
national  hatred  between  Armenians  and  Greeks 
became  most  violent.  The  Greek  soldiers  stationed 
in  Annenia  complained  that  they  were  treated  like 
infidels.  Nerses  III.,  Ezr's  successor,  had  been 
educated  in  Greece  and  secretly  favored  the  Chal- 
cedonian  Council  (i.e.,  the  Monothelite  doctrine), 
but  the  synod  at  Duin,  which  met  at  the  wish  of  the 
emperor  under  the  presidency  of  Nerses,  condenmed 
again  in  the  most  solemn  manner  the  Council  of 
Chalcedon.  But  when  in  652  the  emperor  Con- 
stantino appeared  at  Duin,  the  decisions  of  Chalce- 
don were  solemnly  proclaimed  on  Stmday  in  the 


808 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Armenia 


main  church;  the  catholicos  and  the  bishops  re- 
ceived the  sacrament  from  a  Greek  priest.  Jus- 
tinian II.  (689-690)  succeeded  in  making  a  new  union 
with  the  catholicos  Sahag  III.  (677-703)  and  his 
bishop,  whom  he  had  caUed  to  Constantinople; 
but  having  returned  to  their  homes,  they  repu- 
diated it.  Under  the  patriarchate  of  Elia  (703- 
713),  Nerses  Bakur,  catholicos  of  the  Albanians, 
and  Queen  Sparam  tried  to  introduce  the  Chalce- 
doman  belief  into  their  country.  But  the  Armenian 
catholicos  protested  against  them  to  the  calif 
Abd  al-Blalik  and  with  the  help  of  Arabian  soldiers 
the  two  leaders  were  taken  to  Damascus  bound  in 
chains  and  the  Albanian  orthodoxy  was  saved. 
During  the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries  imder  the  rule 
of  the  Bagratunians  the  Church  became  again 
influential.  Many  monasteries  were  built,  and 
many  theologians  and  famous  ascetics  are  men- 
tioned. Even  Monophysitic  coreligionists  from 
Colchis  and  the  Roman  empire  entered  the  Arme- 
nian monasteries.  But  this  growth  of  religious 
life  also  developed  hatred  of  the  Greeks.  In  vain 
was  the  correspondence  between  the  patriarch 
Photius  and  the  catholicos  Zakaria  (85^-876). 
The  very  friendly  letters  of  Nicolaus  Mysticus 
and  of  the  catholicos  John  the  Historian  (897- 
925),  touched  merely  upon  the  oppressed  condition 
of  the  Armenian  empire,  avoiding  all  theological 
questions.  Anania  (943-965),  however,  following 
the  counsel  of  ''  the  deep  thinkers  "  advised  to 
rebaptize  the  Greeks.  His  mild  successor,  Vahanik, 
being  suspected  of  heresy,  was  deposed.  An  efifort 
of  the  zealous  metropolitan  of  Sebastia  to  discuss 
again  the  question  of  the  two  natures,  was  frustrated 
by  the  catholicos  Khachik  (971-990)  in  a  long  letter 
still  extant  (Stephanus  Asolik,  iii.  21)  and  the  or- 
thodox Armenian  doctrine  was  defended  by  quota- 
tion from  the  Fathers.  £[hachik's  successor,  Sar- 
gis  (992-1019)  resided  at  Ani,  the  famous  residence 
of  the  Bagratimians,  where  Queen  Katramide, 
wife  of  Gagik  (989-1020)  had  built  a  splendid  cathe- 
dral. A  hard  time  began  for  the  Armenian  Church 
when  in  the  ninth  century  the  realm  was  annexed 
by  the  Byzantine  empire.  A  large  orthodox 
hierarchy  was  established  in  the  new  provinces. 
At  the  head  stood  a  metropolitan  with  the  title 
of  Keltzene,  Kortzene,  and  Taron,  besides  twenty- 
one  bishops.  Of  course,  they  were  shepherds  with- 
out sheep.  The  Greeks  continued  their  efiforts  to 
force  upon  the  Armenians  the  Chalcedonian  faith. 
The  opposition  was  much  strengthened  by  the 
ill-treatment  of  the  higher  clergy.  £[hachik  II. 
(1058-65)  was  kept  a  prisoner  at  Constantinople 
for  three  years.  The  revenues  of  the  catholicos 
decreased  to  such  a  degree  that  the  incumbent 
often  was  in  want.  But  with  Vahram,  the  son  of 
Krikor,  catholicos  1065-1105,  the  patriarchate 
became  again  hereditary,  as  in  the  beginning. 
Krikor 's  seven  successors  till  1202  were  his  relatives 
on  either  the  father's  or  mother's  side.  They  were 
called  Pahlavuni,  because  they  traced  back  their 
supposed  pedigree  to  Gregory  the  Illuminator  and 
the  Suren  Pahlav.  There  is  no  doubt  that  this 
family  rendered  great  services  to  the  Armenian 
Church  in  different  times.  Jealousy  and  self-inter- 
ests were  sometimes  the  cause  of  anticatholicoi. 


whose  number  at  times  was  four.  But  the  people 
only  considered  those  as  lawful  who  belonged  to 
Gregory's  house.  In  1147  Gregory  III.  Pahlavimi 
(1113-66)  bought  of  the  widow  of  Count  Jocelin 
of  Edessa  the  fortress  Hromkla,  which  remained 
the  residence  of  the  Armenian  catholicoi  till  1293. 
The  close  relation  between  the  Armenian  king- 
dom of  Cilicia  and  the  Latin  states  of  Syria  and 
Palestine,  soon  brought  the  Armenian  Church 
into  closer  contact  with  Rome.  At  first  the  Arme- 
nians welcomed  the  crusaders  as  enemies  of  the 
Greeks.  But  they  soon  changed  their  minds  when 
they  had  to  suffer  (as,  e.g.,  in  Edessa)  under  their 
rule.  Negotiations  for  a  union  were 
5.  Negotia-  soon  resumed.  From  political  mo- 
tions for  tives  the  kings  especially,  sometimes 
Union  with  also  the  catholicoi,  favored  these 
Rome  and  ineffectual  negotiations.  Levon  II., 
the  Greek  **  because  he  ascribed  his  greatness 
Church,  to  the  apostles  Peter  and  Paul  in 
Rome,"  wished  to  obtain  a  royal 
crown  from  Pope  Celestine  III.  and  Emperor  Henry 
VI.  Conrad  of  Wittelsbach,  Archbishop  of  Mainz, 
brought  the  crown  in  1198  with  three  papal  injunc- 
tions: (1)  To  celebrate  the  principal  festivals  on 
the  same  days  as  the  Roman  Church;  (2)  Con- 
tinual devotion  by  day  and  night;  (3)  To  fast  on 
Christmas-eve  and  Easter-eve.  The  king  pacified 
the  nobles  and  the  clergy  with  the  words*  "  Be 
not  disturbed,  I  will  play  the  hypocrite."  During 
the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries  a  small 
fraction  of  the  Armenian  nation  had  become 
definitely  united  with  Rome.  The  Vartabed  John 
of  Chemi  learned  the  Latin  language  from  the 
Dominican  Bartholomew  and  in  connection  with 
him  founded  a  special  branch  of  the  Dominicans, 
the  Unitores.  He  introduced  the  Latin  language 
into  the  service  of  the  Church,  declared  the  Armenian 
sacraments  invalid,  rebaptized  the  laymen,  and 
reordained  the  ministers  who  followed  him.  One 
of  his  adherents,  Nerses  Balienz,  bishop  of  Urmia, 
who  with  others  had  been  expelled  from  the  Church 
and  driven  from  Armenia,  in  order  to  revenge  him- 
self went  to  Avignon  and  calumniated  the  Arme- 
nian Church  before  the  pope,  charging  it  with  one 
hundred  and  seventeen  errors.  They  were  com- 
municated to  the  catholicos,  refuted  at  a  synod  in 
Sis  in  1342,  and  the  pope  was  satisfied  by  this 
thorough  refutation.  The  fanatical  action  of  the 
Unitores  generally  effected  the  very  opposite  result. 
With  the  Greeks,  too,  negotiations  concerning 
union  took  place.  Emperor  Manuel  Comnenus 
after  1165  corresponded  with  Nerses  IV.  Shnorhali 
(catholicos  1166-73).  This  correspondence  was 
continued  by  Nerses'  successor  Gregory  IV. 
(1173-80);  but  the  Synod  of  Hromkla  (1179) 
rejected  all  proposals  of  the  Greeks.  The  death  of 
Manuel  (1180)  and  of  the  catholicos  Gregoiy,  who 
was  disposed  toward  a  union,  made  an  end  to  all 
union  endeavors.  Another  effort  made  in  1196 
by  the  "  ecumenical "  council  at  Tarsus  in  the 
interest  of  King  Levon  II.  was  also  fruitless.  Dur- 
ing the  Persian  persecutions  the  Armenians  migra- 
ted to  the  West.  Rich  mercantile  colonies  existed, 
especially  in  Poland.  The  escaped  catholicos 
MeUdseth  died  at  Lembeig  in  1625,  after  having 


Armenia 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


294 


founded  a  bishopric  there  for  which  he  had  con- 
secrated Nikolaios.  At  the  instance  of  the  Jesuits 
the  latter  joined  the  union. 

With   the  seventeenth  century  a  new  period 

begins    for    the    Armenians.     From    Echmiadzin 

(Vagharshabad),  the  seat  of  the  ca- 

6.  From  tholicos,  clerics  were  sent  out  to  estab- 
i6oo.  lish  Armenian  printing  offices.  Such 
were  established  at  Lemberg  1616, 
at  Julfa  and  Leghorn  1640,  at  Amsterdam  1660 
(transferred  to  Marseilles  in  1672),  at  Constan- 
tinople 1677,  and  elsewhere.  Till  then  the  Arme- 
nians were  little  better  educated  than  the  Syrians 
or  Copts.  The  merit  of  making  them  acquainted 
with  European  culture  belongs  to  Mekhitar  and 
his  order,  the  Mekhitarists  (q.v.).  In  1828  Persian 
Armenia  came  under  Russian  sway,  and  again  a 
new  period  commenced  for  the  national  Church. 

The  national  Armenian  Church,  whose  adher- 
ents are  erroneously  called  Gregorians,  considers 
as  its  head  the  **  supreme  patriarch  and  catholicos 
of  all  Armenians,''  residing  at  Echmiadzin,  who  is 
elected  by  a  national  council  consisting  of  members 
of  all  Armenian  eparchies.  Connected  with  the 
patriarchal  see  is  a  theological-philosophical  acad- 
emy. An  incomplete  catalogue  of  the  library  at 
Echmiadzin  was  published  by  Brosset  (Catalogue 
de  la  biblioth^ue  d'Edschmiadzin  publU  par  M. 
Bro88ctf  St.  Petersburg,  1840).  Besides  the  su- 
preme patriarchate  there  are  two  lower  ones,  those 
of  Jerusalem  and  Constantinople. 

The  Armenians  who  are  united  with  the  Roman  Sec 

(the  so  called  Uniates  or  United  Armenians)  have 

maintained  themselves  since  the  times 

7.  The  Ar-  of  the  crusaders  and   the  Unitores, 

menian     and  gradually  increased  in  numbers. 

Uniates.  Seyeral  catholicoi  negotiated  with 
Rome,  but  the  clergy  and  people 
remained  anti-Roman.  When,  however,  the  order 
of  Mekhitarists  was  established,  a  catholicate  in 
connection  with  Rome  was  founded.  Abraham 
Attar-Muradian  in  1721  founded  in  the  Lebanon 
the  monastery  of  Kerem,  which  accepted  the  rule 
of  St.  Anthony  (see  Antonians,  1).  His  suc- 
cessors besides  their  own  names  take  also  that  of 
the  prince  of  the  apostles.  For  the  better  regula- 
tion of  the  affairs  of  the  Catholic  and  United  Arme- 
nians, Pius  IX.  issued,  July  12,  1867,  the  bull 
Reversurus.  But  a  great  portion  of  the  United, 
protected  by  the  Turkish  government,  did  not 
recognize  the  injunctions  of  the  bull,  and  in  1870 
they  renounced  the  Roman  See,  calling  themselves 
Oriental  Catholics.  The  most  prominent  men 
among  the  United  and  most  of  the  Venetian  Mekh- 
itarists sided  with  them.  On  May  20,  1870, 
Pope  Pius  IX.  suspended  many  priests,  and  when 
they  did  not  yield,  he  excommunicated  four  bishops 
and  forty- five  other  priests.  The  result  was  that 
the  separatists  now  formed  an  independent  organi- 
zation under  the  civil  patriarch  John  Kap>elian, 
who,  however,  submitted  to  Pope  Leo  XIII.  in 
1879.  In  1880  Anton  Hassun  was  made  the  first 
Armenian  cardinal.  He  died  at  Rome  in  1884. 
His  successor  as  patriarch  of  Cilicia  with  residence 
at  Constantinople  was  Stephen  Azarian,  sumamed 
Stephanus  Petrus  X.,  to  whom  the  pope  sent  an 


encyclical  in  1888,  in  which  the  preservation  of  the 
Armenian  language  and  liturgy  for  religious  pur- 
poses is  guaranteed  to  the  Armenians,  and  every- 
thing is  confirmed  which  Benedict  XIV.  enjoined 
concerning  their  own  and  other  Oriental  liturgies 
(cf.  D.  Vernier,  HiaUnre  du  patriarchat  AmUnien 
catholique,  Paris,  1890). 

According  to  Missionea  caiholicoB  cura  S.  Congre- 
gaiionia  de  propaganda  fide  deacripta  anno  1901, 
the  present  status  of  the  Armenians  united  with 
Rome  is  as  follows:  The  seat  of  the  Armenian 
patriarch  of  Cilicia  is  Constantinople.  The  dio- 
cese comprises  16,000  Catholic  Armenians;  13  con- 
gregations; 85  priests  (including  16  Mekhitar- 
ists of  Venice,  10  of  Vienna,  and  14  Antonians); 
5  boys'  and  7  girls'  schools;  2  colleges  besides  the 
seminary  of  the  patriarch  and  1  lyceum;  the  con- 
vent of  the  Mekhitarists  of  Venice  at  Kadikeuy,  of 
those  of  Vienna  at  Pancaldi,  of  the  Antonians  at 
Ortakeuy;  one  monastery  of  the  Sisters  of  the 
Immaculate  Conception.  To  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  patriarch  belong  also  15  bishoprics.  Ex- 
cluded from  this  supervision  are  the  dioceses  of 
Alexandria  in  Egypt,  Artuin  in  Russia,  and  Lem- 
berg in  Austria,  whose  archbishop  has  been  named 
since  1819  by  the  emperor  of  Austria.  The  United 
Armenians,  not  including  those  in  Hungary,  in 
Russia  outside  of  the  eparchy  of  Artuin,  and  in 
Persia,  number  about  100,000  according  to  the  lists 
of  the  propaganda.  (H.  Gelzeb.) 

The  evangelical  movement  among  Armenians 
had  its  origin  early  in  the  nineteenth  century  in 
several  attempts  to  revive  religion  in  the  Eastern 
Churches.  A  large  number  of  Armenians  in  Tur- 
key, inhabiting  Cilicia  and  central  and  southern 
Asia  Minor,  have  lost  their  own  language,  speaking 
Turkish,  but  writing  it  with  Armenian  letters. 
They  are  quite  imable  to  understand 
8.  The  the  Armenian  church  books.  In  1815 
Evangelical  two  Armenian  ecclesiastics  prepared 
Armenians,  a  version  of  the  New  Testament  in 
Turkish  for  these  people,  which  was 
afterward  printed  (1819)  at  St.  Petersburg.  About 
the  same  time  the  Church  Missionary  Society  of 
London  sent  a  mission  to  Malta  to  advance  the  cause 
of  religion  in  the  Greek  and  other  Oriental  Churches. 
This  mission  came  in  contact  with  Armenians  before 
its^bandonment  in  1830.  In  1823  the  Basel  Mission 
Institute  sent  two  of  its  graduates,  Mr.  Zaremba 
(who  was  a  Russian  count  by  birth)  and  Mr. 
Pfander  (afterward  renowned  as  a  missionary  to 
Mohammedans  in  India  and  in  Turkey).  These 
men,  driven  from  the  Caucasus  by  the  Czar  Nicholas 
I.,  left  a  strong  evangelical  Armenian  body,  which 
still  perseveres,  at  Shushi,  Shemakhi,  and  Baku. 
About  this  time  an  Armenian  scholar  of  Constanti- 
nople, acting  for  the  British  Bible  Society,  trans- 
lated the  New  Testament  into  modem,  or  colloquial 
Armenian,  the  ancient  and  ecclesiastical  language 
being  unintelligible  to  the  common  people.  This 
was  published  at  Paris  in  1823,  and  became  an- 
other of  the  influences  vaguely  at  work  for  reform. 

The  chief  advance  in  this  direction  came  through 
the  American  Board,  of  Boston,  Mass.,  which  sent 
missionaries  to  Tiu>key  in  1819  and  has  steadily 


295 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Armenia 


prosecuted  its  purpose  of  enlightening  the  members 
of  the  Oriental  Churches  up  to  this  time.  Turkey 
being  in  turmoil  at  this  time,  the  mission  printing- 
press  was  established  at  Malta;  explorations  were 
made  throughout  Syria,  Greece,  Egypt,  Asia  Minor, 
and  finally,  in  1830-31,  through  a  large  part  of 
Eastern  Turkey  besides  the  Caucasus  and  Persia. 
As  a  result,  stations  of  the  American  Board  were 
founded  among  the  Armenians  at  Smyrna  (1820), 
Constantinople  (1831),  Brousa,  and  Trebizond 
(1833).  The  printing  plant  for  Armenian,  Turkish, 
and  Greek  was  removed  from  Malta  to  Smyrna  in 
1835  and  there  Bible  work  was  pressed  forward. 
A  translation  of  the  Bible  into  modem  Armenian, 
by  Elias  Riggs,  was  published  in  1852,  and  the 
translation  of  the  Bible  into  Turkish  written  with 
Armenian  letters  by  William  Goodell  was  pub- 
lished in  1841 — the  first  translation  of  the  Old 
Testament  into  this  language.  These  two  trans- 
lations placed  the  Bible  within  reach  of  all  the 
Armenians  of  the  Turkish  empire.  In  1904  the 
circulation  of  the  Scriptures  among  Armenians  in 
Turkey  amounted  to  nearly  30,000  copies. 

The  purpose  of  the  American  Board  in  entering 
the  field  of  the  Armenian  Church  was  by  no  means 
hostile  to  it.  Not  the  Armenians  but  the  assiutmce 
of  the  Mohanmiedans  that  they  had  tested  Chris- 
tianity and  found  it  wanting  was  the  real  objec- 
tive. The  first  missionaries  at  Constantinople 
laid  their  plans  before  the  Armenian  patriarch, 
and  during  twelve  years  had  his  friendly  approval, 
especially  for  their  schools.  A  less  liberal  patri- 
arch punished  with  severe  persecution  from  1845 
to  1847  Armenians  who  had  adopted  the  idea  of 
individual  study  of  the  Bible.  Finally  the  British 
Government  interfered  in  behalf  of  religious  liberty, 
solemnly  proclaimed  by  the  Sultan  in  the  Hatti 
Sherif  of  1839.  All  Armenians  who  chose  to  escape 
the  pains  of  the  ban  by  declaring  themselves  Protes- 
tants were  protected  by  Tiu'kish  police  against  the 
rancor  of  the  patriarch;  and  in  1852-54  the  "  Prot- 
estant Community  "  as  it  is  officially  called,  or  the 
"  Evangelical  Conununity  "  as  it  is  called  by  its 
members,  was  formally  recognized,  with  a  layman 
as  its  representative  before  the  throne,  and  with  all 
the  rights  of  a  separate  religious  organization. 
Since  then  evangelical  Greeks,  Bulgarians,  Syrians, 
Jews,  etc.,  have  been  added  to  this  body. 

The  American  Board's  missions  among  the  Arme- 
nians have  extended  throughout  Asiatic  Turkey, 
to  the  Persian  frontier  on  the  east,  and  to  the 
Arabic-speaking  provinces  of  Syria  and  Mesopo- 
tamia on  the  south.  The  central  stations  number 
13  and  the  outstations  241,  with  161  missionaries 
(of  whom  63  are  unmarried  women)  and  956  native 
workers.  The  communicants  in  its  congregations 
(1905)  number  14,542,  and  the  adherents  50,738. 
It  should  be  noted,  however,  that  separate  statistics 
of  the  Armenians  in  these  congregations  are  not 
kept.  It  is  perhaps  safe  to  estimate  them  at  about 
seventy  per  cent  of  the  whole  number.  Educational 
work  is  extensive  and  efifective.  There  are  22,152 
scholars  of  all  grades  and  both  sexes  in  the  529 
primary  and  intermediate  schools,  the  six  colleges 
for  men  and  women,  and  the  four  theological 
seminaries,  which  receive  candidates  for  the  min- 


istry of  the  Old  Armenian  Church  as  well  as  those 
of  the  Evangelical  body.  Robert  College  at  Con- 
stantinople, founded  by  Christopher  Robert  of 
New  York  with  Cyrus  Hamlin  for  its  first  president, 
is  not  included  in  these  statistics.  It  is  not  con- 
nected with  the  mission,  nor  is  it  in  any  sense 
propagandist.  Yet  its  liberal  education  of  Arme- 
nians has  tended  to  strengthen  the  position  of 
the  Evangelical  Armenian  body.  A  publishing 
house  at  Constantinople,  removed  from  Smyrna 
in  1853,  and  with  iminterrupted  productiveness 
since  it  was  founded  in  Malta  in  1822,  issues  school 
books,  religious  books,  hynmaLs,  conunentaries, 
and  other  helps  to  the  study  of  the  Bible,  besides 
a  family  newspaper  that  appears  in  an  Armenian 
and  a  Turkish  edition. 

A  small  number  of  Armenians  have  joined  the 
evangelical  movement  through  the  mission  of  the 
(American)  Disciples  of  Christ.  Many,  whose 
statistics  are  not  separately  kept,  have  connected 
themselves  with  the  American  Presbyterian  mis- 
sions in  Persia.  Reckoning  all  these  together, 
and  adding  to  them  the  evangelical  Armenians  in 
the  Russian  Caucasus  and  in  the  territory  taken 
from  Turkey  in  the  war  of  1877-78,  the  total  number 
of  Evangelical  Armenians  may  be  estimated  in 
these  countries  at  about  80,000. 

BisNRT  Otib  Dwioht. 

Armenian  inunigration  to  the  United  States 
practically  commenced  in  1895  after  the  massacres 
of  that  time.  A  few  had  come  earlier  for  education, 
business,  or  manufacturing,  and  there  were  small 
communities  in  a  few  of  the  larger  cities.  After 
that  the  number  increased  rapidly.  The  census  of 
1900  makes  no  distinction  of  races  from  Turkey, 
though  the  later  immigration  reports  do.  It  thus 
follows  that  exact  figures  are  scarcely  obtcdnable. 
The  best  estimates  place  the  total  (1906)  at  not 
far  from  30,000,  of  whom  from  7,500  to  10,000  may 
be  considered  as  Protestants  or  Evangelicals,  the 
remainder  belonging  to  the  Gregorian 
9.  Armeni-    or    Orthodox    Church.    The    largest 

ans  in  single  community,  practically  a  colony, 
America,  is  at  Fresno,  Cal.,  where  at  least  4,000 
are  located.  The  other  centers  are 
New  York  City  (3,500^,000),  Boston  (2,500), 
Worcester,  Mass.  (1,200),  Providence.  R.  I.  a,200), 
and  Philadelphia  (500).  In  the  immediate  suburbs 
of  Boston  and  the  manufacturinjr  towns  of  Eastern 
Massachusetts  and  New  Hampshire,  in  Hartford, 
and  in  New  Jersey  there  are  a  number  of  commu- 
nities of  varying  size  and  changing  from  year  to 
year. 

The  Protestant  Armenians  have  organized 
churches  in  New  York  City,  Troy,  N.  Y.,  Worcester, 
Mass.,  Providence,  R.  I.,  and  Fresno,  Cal.,  besides 
a  number  of  missions,  or  places  where  services, 
more  or  less  regular,  are  held.  The  great  majority 
are  connected  with  the  Congregational  denomina^ 
tion,  but  there  are  Presbyterians.  The  Gregorians 
have  an  archbishop  at  Worcester,  and  vartabeds 
or  priests  at  New  York,  Worcester,  Providence, 
Boston,  and  Fresno.  These  visit  other  places  in 
their  vicinity  to  perform  rites  or  ceremonies  that 
may  be  desired.  They  have  church  buildings  at 
Worcester    and    Fresno.    The    attendance    upon 


Armenia 
Arminiufl 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


296 


church  services  is  said  to  be  on  the  whole  excellent 
in  those  communities  where  there  are  regular  organi- 
sations. It  is  to  be  noted  that  there  are  many 
small  communities  where  members  identify  them- 
selves with  the  local  churches. 

In  general  character  the  Armenians  in  the  United 
States  show  much  the  same  characteristics  as  in 
their  o\7n  country.  They  are  industrious,  frugal, 
peaceable.  They  retain  a  close  connection  with 
their  relatives  and  friends  in  the  home-land  as  is 
shown  by  the  sums  annually  remitted  to  them. 
With  the  exception  of  the  Fresno  colony,  chiefly 
agricultiutd,  they  are  for  the  most  part  traders, 
manufacturers,  or  laborers  in  the  large  factories. 
They  preserve  to  a  considerable  degree  their  dis- 
tinctive nationalism  and  were  the  conditions  in 
Turkey  to  change,  would  probably  return  in  large 
numbers.  Edwin  Munskll  Bliss. 

Bibuoobapht:  Deecriptive  and  geographical  works:  H. 
Hsrvemat  and  P.  MOller-SimoniB,  ReUUion  de9  munonM 
teunlifiquea  .  .  .  noiM  9ur  la  giographie  et  Vhiatoire  an- 
denne  de  VAmUnie  et  U9  inacripHona  du  bauin  de  Van, 
FlurU,  1892;  H.  F.  Toier,  Turkiah  Armenia  and  Eaatem 
Aaia  Minor,  London,  1881;  E.  Nogu^ras.  Arm6nie.  Q(o- 
graphie,  hiatoire,  reHgion,  maura,  litUrahtre,  Parit,  1807; 

.  H.  F.  B.  Lynch,  Armenian  Travela  and  Siud%eat  London, 
1001.  On  the  people:  A.  Megorovian,  6tude  ethnogra- 
phiqueet  juridique  aur  ta  famiUe  et  le  mariage  armhiient 
Paris,  1805;  J.  Craagh,  Armeniana,Koorda  and  Turka,  2yoU. , 
London.  1880;  J.  B.  Telfer,  Armenia  and  ita  PeopU,  Lon- 
don, 1801;  G.  H.  Filian,  Armenia  and  her  peopUt  New 
York,  1806.  On  the  language  and  literature:  F.  J.  B. 
Ananian.  Dictionary  of  Modem  Armenian  LancnMiaei  Venice. 
1800;  F.M.Bedrofl8ian,J?ni7.-iinn«nian  and  Armenian'Sng. 
Dictionary,  2  vols.,  London,  1876-70;  J.  H.  Petermann, 
Brevia  Kngua  Armenica  gramtnatiea,  Berlin,  1872;  K.  H. 
Gulian,  Elementary  Modem  Armenian  Orammar,  London, 
1002;  P.  Sukiaa  Somal,  Quadro  delte  opere  di  vari  autori 
anHcamenia  tradotti  in  Armeno,  Venice,  1825,  and  Quadro 
detla  atoria  letteraria  di  Armenia,  Venice,  1820;  C.  F. 
Neumann,  Verauch  einer  OeachidUe  der  armeniachen  Lit- 
teraiur,  Leipaic,  1836,  a  German  adaptation  of  the  prece- 
ding; M.  Patcanian,  Catalogue  de  la  litUraiure  annSnienne 
depuia  la  commencement  du  iv.  aikcle  juaque  vera  le  milieu  du 
xvO.,  in  MHangea  aaiatiquea,  iv.  1.,  St.  Petersburg,  1860;  F. 
Vky9,L*ArminiedurHienneet  aa  littSrature,  honrtdn,  1886. 

For  the  history  the  sources  accessible  in  European  lan- 
guages are:  M.  Chamohian,  Hiatory  of  Armenia  from  B.C. 
$M47  to  A.D.  1780,  tranalated  from  the  original  Armenian 
by  J.  Avdall,  vnth  continuation  to  date,  2  vols.,  Calcutta, 
1827;  J.  Saint-Martin,  Mimoirea  hiatoriquea  et  gSogra- 
j^iquea  aurVArm^ie,  2  vols.,  Paris,  1818-10;  M.  Brosset. 
Lea  Ruinea  d*Ani,  2  parts,  St.  Petersburg,  1860-61;  idem. 
Collection  d'hiatoriena  armhiiena,  2  vols.,  St.  Petersburg, 
1874-76;  V.  Langlois.  Collection  dea  hiatoriena  anciena  et 
modemea  de  VArmhtie,  2  vols.,  Paris,  1867-60;  E.  Du- 
laurier,  Le  Royaume  de  la  PetHe-Armhtie,  in  Recueil  dea 
hiatoriena  dea  croiaadea;  documenta  amUniena,  i.,  Paris, 
1860;  idem,  iitude  aur  Vorganiaation  politique,  religieuae,  et 
admintatrative  du  royaume  de  la  PetUe-Armhtie,  in  JA,  ser. 
T..  xvii.  (1861)  377  sqq.,  zviii.  (1861)  280  sqq.  Consult 
N.  T.  Gregor,  Hiat.  of  Armenia  from  Earlieat  Agea,  Lon- 
don, 1807  (a  handy  manual);  Nerses  Ter-Mikaelian,  Daa 
armeniat^  Hymnarium,  Leipsic.  1005  (a  hist,  of  the  de- 
velopment of  hsrmnology  in  the  Armenian  Church). 

For  the  native  religion  of  Armenia,  consult  H.  Gelser, 
Zur armeniachen  OoUerUhre,  in  the  Bertchte  der  kitnigliehen 
aO^aiachen  Oeaellaehaft  der  Wiaaenaehaften  zu  Leipaig,  phiL- 
hiaL  Claaae,  xlviii.  (1806)  00-148;  A.  Cani^re.  Lea  Huit 
Sanetuairea  de  I'AmUme  pasenne,  Paris,  1800.  The  works 
mentioned  in  the  text  have  all  been  printed,  either  by 
the  llekhitarists,  at  St.  Petersburg,  or  elsewhere;  some 
are  accessible  in  translation,  either  independently  or  in 
eoUeotive  works  like  those  of  Brosset  and  Langlois,  men- 
tioned above.  For  the  history  of  the  Armenian  Church, 
missions,  and  modem  religious  conditions  consult:  E.  Du- 
laurier,  Hiatoire,  dogmea,  traditione,  et  liturgie  de  Vigliae 
armimenne  orientate,  Paris,  1855;  8.  C.  Malan,  Life  and 
Timaa  of  St,  Oragory  the  lUumtnator,  London,  1868,  a 


transl.  from  the  Armenian;  idem.  The  Divine  Liturgy  of  Ae 
Orthodox  Armenian  Churdi  of  St.  Gregory,  ib.  1870. 
transl.  from,  the  Armenian;  idem,  Confeaaion  of  Faiffi  of 
the  Holy  Armenian  Church,  ib.  1872;  C.  H.  Wheeler,  Ten 
Yeara  on  the  Euphratea.  New  York,  1868;  R.  Anderson. 
Hiatory  of  the  Miaaiona  of  the  American  Board  to  the  Orien- 
tal Churchea,  2  vols..  Boston.  1870;  E.  F.  K.  Fortescue, 
The  Armenian  Church,  London,  1872;  F.  N^ve.  L'Ar- 
mime  chritienne,  Louvain.  1886;  D.  Vernier,  Hiatoire  du 
patriareat  arm^nien  oatholique,  Lyons,  1801;  F.  C.  Cony- 
beare,  Tfie  Armenian  Church,  in  Religioua  Syatema  of  the 
World,  London,  1803,  and  The  Key  of  Truth:  a  Manual 
of  the  Paulician  Church  of  Armenia.  Text  and  tranaL, 
London,  1808;  H.  Gelser,  Die  AnfAnge  der  armeniaehen 
Kirche,  in  the  Bertchte  derkHnigUch  aUchaiachen  GeaMadiafi 
der  Wiaaenaehaften  mu  Leipzig,  phiL-hiaL  Claaae,  xlvii. 
(1805)  100-174;  W.  St.  C.  Tisdall.  Converaion  of  Armenia 
to  the  Chriatian  Faith,  London.  1806;  Melodiea  of  Ae  Holy 
Apoatolic  Church  of  Armenia,  the  liturgy,  etc,  translated 
by  J.  B.  Melik-Belgar,  Calcutto,  1807;  E.  Lohmann,  Im 
Kloaler  au  Sia,  ein  Beitrag  au  der  Oeachichte  der  Beaidiun- 
gen  awiadien  dem  deutachen  Reiche  und  Armenien  im  Mil- 
telalter,  Striegau.  1001;  K.  Beth.  Die  orientaliache  Chria- 
tenheit  der  MittelmeerUinder.  Reiaeatudien  aur  Slatiatik  und 
Symbolik  der  .  .  .  armeniachen  .  .  .  Kirchen,  Berlin. 
1002;  A.  Hamack,  Die  Miaaion  und  Auabreitung  dea 
Chriatentuma  in  den  eraten  drei  Jahrhunderten,  Leipeio. 
1002,  Eng.  transl..  London,  1004,  passim;  8.  Weber,  Die 
katholia<he  Kirche  in  Armenien,  Freiburg,  1003  (the  most 
complete  account  of  Armenian  church  history  to  the  be- 
ginning of  the  sixth  century  from  the  Roman  Catholic 
standpoint);  E.  Ter-Bfinassiants,  Die  armenia<he  Kirche 
in  ihren  Beaiehungen  au  den  ayriachen  Kirchen  bia  aum 
Endedeadreixehnten  Jahrhunderta,  TU,  new  series,  xi.  4. 
The  recent  disturbances  in  Armenia  have  called  forth 
a  number  of  works  (some  of  them  to  be  used  with  caution), 
such  as  F.  D.  Greene,  Tfie  Armenian  Criaia  and  the  Rule 
of  the  Turk,  London.  1805;  G.  Godet.  Lea  Souffrancea  de 
VArminie,  Neuch&tel.  1806 (containing  a  list  of  churches, 
monasteries,  and  villages  destroyed,  and  names  of  minis- 
ters murdered);  J.  Lepsius,  Armertienund Europa,  Berlin, 
1806;  J.  R.  and  H.  B.  Harris,  Lettera  from  Armenia,  New 
York.  1807;  A.  Nasarbek.  Through  the  Storm,  Picture  of 
Life  in  Armenia,  New  York.  1800;  H.  O.  Dwight.  Con- 
atantinople  and  ita  Problema,  New  York,  1001. 

ARMnaUS,  JACOBUS  (Jakob  Hermants), 
AlTD  ARMnVIANISM:  A  Dutch  theologian  and  the 
theological  system  he  is  supposed  to  have  held.  Ar- 
minius  was  bom  at  Oudewater  (18  m.  e.n.e.  of  Rotter- 
dam) Oct.  10,  1500;  d.  at  Leyden  Oct.  19,  1609. 
After  his  father's  early  death  he  lived  with  Rudol- 
phus  Snellius,  professor  in  Marburg.  In  1576 
he  returned  home  and  studied  theology  at  Leyden 
under  Lambertus  Dameus.  Here  he  spent  six 
years,  till  he  was  enabled  by  the  burgomasters  of 
Amsterdam  to  continue  his  studies  at  Geneva  and 
Basel  under  Beza  and  Gryna^us.  He  lectured  on  the 
philosophy  of  Petrus  Ramus  and  the  Epistle  to  the 
Romans.  Being  recalled  by  the  government  of 
Amsterdam,  in  1588  he  was  appointed  preacher  of 
the  Reformed  congregation.  During  the  fifteen 
years  which  he  spent  here,  he  gained  the  general 
respect,  but  his  views  imderwent  a  change.  His 
exposition  of  Rom.  vii.  and  ix.,  and  his  utterances 
on  election  and  reprobation  gave  ofifense.  His 
learned  but  hot-headed  colleague,  Petrus  Plancius, 
in  particular  opposed  him.  Disputes  arose  in  the 
consistory,  which  for  the  time  being  were  stopped 
by  the  burgomasters. 

Arminius  was  suspected  of  heresy  because  he 
regarded  the  subscription  to  the  symbolical  books 
as  not  binding  and  was  ready  to  grant  to  the  State 
more  power  in  ecclesiastical  matters  than  the  strict 
Calvinists  would  admit.  When  two  of  the  profess- 
ors of  the    University  of  Leyden,    Junius   and 


297 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Armenia 
Armiiiiufl 


TrelcatiuSydied  (1602),  the  curators  called  Anninius; 
and  FranciscuB  Gomanis  (q.v.)»  the  only  surviving 
theological  professor,  protested,  but  he  became  rec- 
onciled after  an  interview  with  Anninius.  The  lat- 
ter entered  upon  his  duties  in  1603  with  an  address 
on  the  high-priestly  office  of  Christ,  and  was  made 
doctor  of  theology.  But  the  dogmatic  disputes 
were  renewed  when  Anninius  undertook  public 
lectures  on  predestination.  Gomarus  opposed  him 
and  publisbed  other  theses.  A  great  excitement 
ensued  in  the  university  and  the  students  were 
divided  into  two  parties.  The  ministers  in  Leyden 
and  other  places  took  part  in  the  controversy, 
which  became  general.  The  Calvinists  want^ 
the  matter  settled  by  a  general  synod,  but  the 
States  General  would  not  have  it.  Oldenbame- 
veldt,  the  Dutch  liberal  statesman,  in  1608  gave 
both  opponents  opportunity  to  defend  their  views 
before  the  supreme  coiul,  and  a  verdict  was  pro- 
nounced that  since  the  controversy  had  no  bearing 
upon  the  main  points  pertaining  to  salvation,  each 
should  bear  with  the  other.  But  Gomarus  would 
not  yield.  Even  the  States  of  Holland  tried  to 
bring  about  a  reconciliation  between  the  two,  and 
in  Aug.,  1609,  both  professors  and  four  ministers 
for  each  were  invited  to  imdertake  new  nego- 
tiations. The  deliberations  were  first  held  orally, 
afterward  continued  in  writing,  but  were  terminated 
in  October  by  the  death  of  Arminius. 

In  his  DisputaHonea,  which  were  partly  published 
during  his  lifetime,  partly  after  his  death,  and 
which  included  the  entire  department  of  theology, 
as  well  as  in  some  discourses  and  other  writings, 
Arminius  had  clearly  and  pointedly  defined  his 
position  and  expressed  his  conviction.  On  the 
whole  these  writings  are  a  fine  testimony  to  his 
learning  and  acumen.  The  doctrine  of  predes- 
tination belonged  to  the  fundamental  teachings  of 
the  Reformed  Church;  but  the  conception  of  it 
asserted  by  Calvin  and  his  adherents,  Arminius 
could  not  make  his  own.  He  would  not  follow  a 
doctrinal  development  which  made  God  the  author 
of  sin  and  of  the  condemnation  of  men.  He  taught 
conditional  predestination  and  attached  more 
importance  to  faith.  He  denied  neither  God's 
omnipotence  nor  his  free  grace,  but  he  thought  it 
his  duty  to  save  the  honor  of  God,  and  to  emphasize, 
on  the  basis  of  the  clear  expressions  of  the  Bible, 
the  free  will  of  man  as  well  as  the  truth  of  the  doc- 
trine of  sin.  In  these  things  he  was  more  on  the 
side  of  Luther  than  of  Calvin  and  Beza,  but  it  can 
not  be  denied  that  he  expressed  other  opinions 
which  were  violently  controverted  as  departures 
from  the  confession  and  catechism.  His  followers 
expressed  their  convictions  in  the  famous  five 
articles  which  they  laid  before  the  States  as  their 
justification.  Called  Remonstrants  from  these 
RemonatranticB,  they  always  refused  to  be  called 
Arminians.  See  Remonbtrantb.  For  the  Armin-  ' 
ianism  of  John  Wesley  and  the  Methodists,  see 
Methodists.  H.  C.  RoGOEf. 

Arminianism  in  its  later  development  has  entered 
widely  into  the  thought  of  the  Church,  both  on 
the  Continent,  in  Great  Britain,  and  in  America. 
It  was  welcomed  in  the  Lutheran  Church  as  a  relief 
from  the  teachings  of  Augustine  and  the  Reformed 


Churches.  In  Holland  it  became  allied  with  the 
more  liberal  tendencies, — Socinian,  rationalistic, 
universalistic, — thus  withdrawing  itself  from  the 
traditional  interpretation  of  Christianity.  The 
number  of  its  professed  adherents  in  that  country 
(most  of  them  in  Amsterdam)  is  not  large  (see 
Remonbtrantb).  In  England  also  it  developed 
a  strong  affinity  with  Socinianism  in  its  doctrine 
of  God  and  the  person  of  Christ,  and  with  Pelagian- 
ism  in  its  conception  of  human  nature.  About  the 
time  of  the  Restoration,  according  to  Hallam 
(Ldterary  History  of  Europe,  ii.,  London,  1855,  p.  131), 
the  Arminians  were  called  Latitude-men  or  Lati- 
tudinarians  (q.v.)  and  were  addicted  to  Greek 
philosophy  and  natural  religion.  During  the 
eighteenth  century  Arminianism  was  advocated 
by  many  of  the  leading  writers  of  Great  Britain, — 
Tillotson,  Jeremy  Taylor,  Chillingworth,  Burnet; 
by  Hoadly,  a  Socinian;  and  by  Whitby,  John 
Taylor;  and  Samuel  Clarke,  Arians.  With  many 
others  it  was  rather  a  repudiation  of  Calvinism 
than  a  definitely  formed  theory.  In  America 
Arminianism  showed  itself  now  as  an  advocacy 
of  freedom  of  thought  and  thus  of  toleration; 
now  as  emphasis  on  natural  human  duties 
rather  than  on  speculative  theology;  now  as 
silent,  now  as  outspoken  protest  against  the 
tenets  of  Calvinism.  Owing  to  the  writings  of 
Whitby,  John  Taylor,  and  Samuel  Clarke,  its 
influence  greatly  increased  in  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury. To  Jonathan  Edwards  its  menace  formed 
the  motive  for  his  greatest  work.  The  Freedom  of 
the  Will,  The  name  itself  was  made  to  cover  many 
things  for  which  Arminianism  proper  was  not 
responsible — rationalistic  tendencies  of  thought, 
depreciation  of  the  serious  nature  of  sin,  indifference 
to  vital  piety,  and  laxity  of  morals.  Arminianism 
became  more  a  condition  than  a  theory.  In  spite 
of  opposition,  however,  in  part  on  accoimt  of  its 
later  profound  spirit  through  Wesley,  and  in  part 
by  virtue  of  its  essential  truth,  it  has  thorou^y 
leavened  the  Christian  thought  of  America.  A 
sign  of  the  times  is,  that  theological  schoob  con- 
fessedly Arminian  educate  young  men  for  Churches 
which  are  traditionally  Calvinistic,  and  ministers 
holding  Arminian  views  are  received  by  such 
Churches  as  thoroughly  **  orthodox."      C.  A.  B. 

Bibuoorapht:  The  works  of  Arminius  were  published 
Frankfurt,  1631,  Eng.  transl.,  by  J.  and  W.  Nichols,  Lon- 
don, 182&-28;  the  latter  contains  life  by  Brandt  and  the 
oration  by  P.  Bertius;  best  Am.  ed.  of  the  works  and  lifet 
New  York,  1842;  the  life  is  published  separately,  London, 
1864.  On  the  original  doctrines.  The  Confe$9ion  of  FaUh 
of  Ihote  called  Armeniane,  ,  ,  ,  the  Dodrinee  of  t/ie  Ififtis- 
fers  .  .  .  known  by  the  name  of  Remoneirante,  tranaL  out 
of  the  Original,  London.  1684.  The  official  i4ete  are  in 
Acta  eynodi  naiionalie  DordredUi,  Dordrecht,  1620,  iFr. 
transl.,  1624,  and  in  J.  A.  Fabridus,  BMiotheoa  Oreeea, 
id,  723,  Hamburg,  1706;  the  Canon*  are  in  P.  Schaff, 
Creeie  of  Chrietendom,  iii.  660-697,  New  York.  1877;  the 
collection  of  minutes  ia  Acta  et  ecripta  eynodalia  Dordra- 
cena,  Harderwyok,  1620;  consult:  M.  Graf,  Beitrag  nor 
Oeediidae  der  Synode  von  DortreOU,  Basel,  1826.  On  the 
earlier  Arminianism,  G.  Brandt,  Hiatoria  reformatUmie 
Belgiea,  3  vols..  The  Hague.  1700,  Eng.  transl.,  4  vols., 
London,  1720;  J.  Nichols,  Calviniem  and  Arminianiam 
compared  in  ffteir  Principlee  and  Tendency,  2  vols.. 
London,  1824;  KL,  i.  1376-84.  On  later  phases,  W 
Cunningham,  Reformere  and  Theotogy  of  the  Reformation, 
Essay  vii.,  Edinburgh,  1862;  idem,  Hietorical  Theology, 
chap.  xxY.,  Edinburgh,  1862;  J.  L.  Girardeau.  Calvinitm 


Armitaffe 
Amdt 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


298 


CMi^  Eeanifdieal  Arminianiim  compared,  Columbia,  1890; 
G«  L  Curtust  Anmnyantum  in  Ifuiory^  Cincianftti.  l&H* 

AEMITAGE,  THOBiAS,  Baptist;  b  at  Ponte- 
fnict  (20  m.  s.s.w.  of  York),  Yorksliire,  England, 
Aug.  2,  1819;  d  at  Yonker?,  N.  Y,,  Jan.  20,  IS96 
He  became  a  Methodbt  preacher  at  the  age  or  six- 
teen; emigrated  to  America  in  1S3S;  joined  the 
Baptists  in  1S4S  and  was  paator  of  the  Fifth  Avenue 
Baptist  Cbureh,  New  York  (then  located  on  Norfolk 
Street  and  known  as  the  Norfolk  Street  Church), 
from  that  year  tillJan.  1,  1389,  Be  wa^  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  American  Bible  Union  (1850)  and 
jta  president  185d-75.  He  published  Preaching ^ 
iU  ideal  and  Inner  Life  (Philadelphia,  IBm);  A 
HtMiary  of  the  BapiisU  Traced  b^  their  VUat  Prin- 
cijdes  and  Fractices  from  the  Time  of  emr  Lord  and 
Savi&ur  Jtmts  Christ  to  the  Prejsent  (New  York^ 
J 887;  revised  and  enlarged  ed.,  1890), 

ARMY.     See  War, 

AHITAUD,  ar"n6',  HEIOII:    Waldeniian;   b.  at 

Embrun  {5S  m.  s.e  of  Grenoble),  Department  of 
Hautas  Alpcs,  France,  Sept.  30,  164 1;  d,  at  Hehcin- 
enberg  near  DUrrmena  (19  m,  n.w  by  w.  of  Stutt- 
gart)i  Warttemberg,  Sept,  8,  1721,  He  studied 
at  Baaelf  probably  visited  Holland,  and  continued 
hia  studies  at  Geneva;  became  paator  at  Maneille 
in  the  valley  of  St.  Martin,  1670,  and  later  at  an 
unknown  place  in  Dauphind;  fled  to  La  Torre, 
Piedmont,  probably  shortly  after  the  revocation 
of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  (October,  1685).  He  coun- 
seled reaiatance  to  the  persecution  of  the  Wal- 
densians  imdertaken  by  Victor  Amadeus  IL,  Duke  of 
Savoy,  at  the  instigation  of  Louia  XIV  of  France, 
&nd,  when  tbiB  f ailed,  with  the  remnant  of  hts 
people  (about  3,000  in  number)  took  refuge  in 
Switzerland,  There  he  woa  active  in  plotting  for 
a  return,  and  in  August,  1689,  he  led  about  900  of 
the  exiles  back  to  their  old  homes,  where  they 
maintained  themselves  against  the  French  and 
Savoyard  troops  until  political  conditiona  (the 
Influence  of  William  of  Orange  and  a  breach  with 
France)  led  the  Duke  to  withdraw  lus  opposition 
(1690).  In  the  ens^uing  war  with  France  he  ren- 
dered good  service  to  the  duke,  but  resumed  his 
spiritual  duties  in  1692.  In  1698,  on  the  renewal 
of  persecution  foil  owing  a  fresh  alliance  with  France, 
he  again  went  into  exile  in  Switzerland,  visited 
Germany,  Holland,  and  England  in  the  interest 
of  his  people,  and  in  1609  t*ettfed  in  Wtirt  tern  berg 
OS  pastor  of  the  Waldensians  living  in  and  aliout 
Darrmenz  He  wrote  Hisioire  de  ia  giorieitse 
r§f^ie  dm  Vaudois  dans  leur  v^Ues  (Caasel,  1710j 
later  eds.,  NeuehAtel,  1S45,  Geneva,  1879;  Eng. 
transi  by  H.  D  Acland,  London,  1S27), 

BiPMOattAPaY;  Foi  Hi*  Ufp  in  Oprroim  eonnuU  K.  H.  Klai* 
ber.  //enrt  Arnaud,  juich  dtn  Qurlttn,  ijtUtt|itiirt.  1^0;  In 
ItalisQ.  E  Comba,  Florence,  1889;  Fr.  e±  of  the  latler, 
^bridfied.  with  tb«  ftddllwa  qI  certain  lettefi,  Ls  Tour» 
1S8S. 

ARITAULD :  The  name  of  a  famous  French  fam- 
ily, known  eapecially  for  their  connection  with  Jan - 
ieniara  The  well-known  lawyer  Antolne  Amauld 
(1h560-1619)  foreshadowed  the  position  of  bin 
ehildren   by  defending    the   University   of    Paris 


against  the  Jesuits  in  1594.  Of  his  twenty  chil- 
dren, ten  died  young;  and  nine  of  the  others  de- 
voted themselves  to  religion.  The  moat  noteworthy 
are:  The  eldest,  Robert  Arnauld  (d'Andilly;  b.  in 
Paris  1588;  d,  there  Sept.  27,  1674),  who  held 
varioufl  positions  in  the  government  and  at  the 
court,  but  retired  in  1640  to  Port  Royal  and 
devoted  himself  to  church  history*  He  is  best 
known  by  hi»  translations  into  French,  especially 
of  Josephus  and  St.  Augustine's  '*  Confessions,'' 
and  the  Vies  des  saints  phre»  du  desert  (2  vols., 
Paris,  1647-53;  Eng.  transl,  2  vols.,  London, 
1757)  — Jacqueline  Marie  Arnauld  (known  in  re- 
lij^on  as  Marie  Ang^lique  de  Stc,  Madeleine;  b. 
in"  Paris  Sept.  8,  1591;  d.  Aug.  6,  1661)  entered 
the  abbey  of  Port  Royal  when  only  seven,  and 
became  abbess  at  eleven.  Aroused  to  fervent 
devotion  in  1609,  she  began  a  strict  reformation  of 
her  abbey  according  to  the  Ostereian  rule.  Sho 
resigned  the  position  of  abbess  in  1630  and  intro^ 
dueed  the  custom  of  triennial  elections.  From 
1626  to  1648  she  was  in  Paris,  at  the  new  bou^ 
known  as  Port-Royal  de  Paris. — Henri  Amauld 
(b.  in  Paris  1597;  d.  at  Angers  June  8,  1692) 
was  at  first  a  lawyer,  but  entered  the  priesthood, 
was  elected  bishop  of  Toul  but  declined  the  election 
since  it  had  oecaaioned  disputes,  and  became  bishop 
of  Angers  in  1649.  He  was  an  earnest  and  sealoua 
diocesan,  and  a  decided  Jansenist;  he  waa  one  of 
the  four  bishops  who  refused  to  subscribe  the  bull 
UnigenituSf  which  oondemned  the  AugitsHnux  of 
Jansen.  His  N^godatians  ii  la  tour  de  Rotne  et 
en  diffSrentes  c&urs  d^lUdie  was  publiBhtHl  after  his 
death  (5  vols,,  Paris,  1748).— Antoine  Aniauld 
(b.  in  Paris  Feb.  6,  1612;  d.  in  Brussels  Aug.  8, 
1694),  known  as  *'  the  great  Amauld,"  like  his 
brother  Henri,  studied  law  at  first,  but  entered  the 
8orbonne  in  1634,  taking  bis  doctor's  degree  and 
being  ordained  priest  in  164  L  In  1643  he  pub- 
lished his  work  Dt  la  friquenle  &mtmunion,  written 
under  St,  Cyran'a  infiuence  (see  Du  Veraier  de 
Hauranne,  Jean),  with  which  he  began  a  lifelong 
struggle  against  the  JesuiUt.  Its  cold  and  rigid 
severity  was  opposed  to  their  system,  and  they 
attacked  it  bitterly.  Amauld  carried  the  war  into 
the  enemy's  country  with  his  Thiologie  morale  des 
Ji^uiles  (n.p.,  1643),  and,  though  for  thirty  years 
from  1648  he  lived  in  retirement  at  Port  Royal, 
his  pen  was  never  idle.  He  defended  the  cause  of 
Jansen,  maintaining  in  his  two  famous  letters  to 
the  Due  de  Liancourt  (1655)  that  the  five  condemned 
propositions  were  not  fotmd  in  the  Augitstintts. 
The  Sorbonne  condemned  these  w^ritings^  and  in 
1656  expelled  luni,  with  sixty  other  doctors  who 
refused  to  submit  to  the  decision,  from  ita  fellow- 
sliip.  He  was  obliged  to  go  into  hiding  for  a  time, 
and,  with  Nicole,  was  sheltered  by  the  Ducbesa  de 
Longue%iIle.  But  he  waa  still,  as  he  had  been  since 
the  death  of  Saint  (pyran  (1643),  the  active  head  of 
the  Jansenist  party,  working  diligently  to  confirm 
the  nuns  of  Port  Royal  in  their  oppoaition  to  the 
papal  decrees,  supplying  Pascal  with  the  material 
for  his  ** Provincial  Letters,"  and  publishing  numer- 
ous pamphlets  and  treatise  against  the  Jesuita. 
When  the  "  Peace  of  Clement  IX,"  put  a  temporary 
end  to  the  strife*  Amauld  waa  able  to  turn  his 


299 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Armltage 
Amdt 


weapons  against  the  Protestants,  notably  in  the 
controversy  with  Claude  on  the  Lord's  Supper, 
which  produced  his  PerpHuit^  de  la  /ai  de  VSglise 
eathaliqtm  iouchani  V Eiichari»i4je  (Paris ^  1664).  He 
stilly  however,  continued  to  attack  the  Jesuits^ 
and  his  defense  of  the  ''  Gallidan  liberties  "  against 
the  king  in  the  controversy  over  the  Droit  de  r^gal^ 
(flee  Regale)  brought  him  into  sucb  disfavor  with 
the  government  that  in  1679  he  again  went  into 
biding  and  soon  after  left  France  for  Brussels, 
where  the  Spanish  governor  protected  him.  Here 
he  wrote  two  works  of  special  interest  to  EngUsh- 
Bpeaking  people,  the  Apologie  ptmr  les  caikoliqucs 
(2  vols.,  Li^ge,  1681-82),  a  defense  of  the  English 
Roman  Catholics  against  the  charge  of  conspiracy, 
especially  as  brought  by  Titus  Gates,  and  an  attack 
on  William  of  Orange  (1689).  Of  more  general 
interest  is  his  controversy  mth  Malebranche^  which 
produced  the  Traitt'  d^^  vraies  d  dm  fauss€»  idie^ 
(Cologne,  1683)  and  R/'ftexioTis  phiiosophiques  et 
th^ologiqut^  sur  U  noureau  sysihne  de  tu  nature  et 
de  la  grdce  du  Plre  Mal^rancfw  (3  vols.,  1685-86) 
During  this  jieriod  he  collaborated  with  Quesnel 
in  his  translation  of  the  New  Testament,  as  he  bod 
previously  with  Nicole  and  other  members  of  the 
Port  Royal  group  in  their  educational  works, 
especially  the  often-reprinted  '*  Logic.*'  He  was 
a  man  of  wide  learning,  acute  penetration,  eloquent 
style,  and  untiring  diligence]  but  unbendingly 
obstinate  and  eiet  in  his  own  ideas,  so  that  at  Port 
Royal  it  was  a  rule  never  to  contradict  himj  lest 
he  should  be  unduly  excited.  His  works  were 
publuiihed  at  Lausanne  {48  vols.,  1775-83). — 
Ang^que  (de  Saint  Jean)  Amauld,  daughter  of 
Roberi  (b.  in  Paris  Nov.  24, 1624;  d.  Jan.  29,  1QS4), 
entered  the  abbey  of  Port  Royal  in  her  nineteenth 
year  under  her  aunt^a  training;  became  subprioress 
in  1653  and  abbess  in  1678.  Her  firmtices  of  char- 
acter, and  undaunted  courage  made  her  the  principal 
eupport  of  the  nuns  during  the  long  and  grievous 
persecution  brought  upon  them  by  their  adherence 
to  Jansenist  opinions.  Of  several  works  which 
she  wrot«,  the  most  impwrtant  is  the  Mlmoires 
pourservir^  VhwtmTede  Fort  Royal  (3  vols.,  Utrecht, 
1742),— For  all  the  membere  of  the  Amauld  family 
see  J^uNsEN,  CORNELJUB,  Jansenjsm;  Port  Royal. 

ARJfDT,  Qmt,  AUGUSTIK!  German  Jesuit:  b,  at 
Berlin  June  22,  185L  He  was  educated  at  the 
universities  of  Bcriin  (1S72-74),  Breslau  (1875), 
and  Cracow  (1880-84),  He  was  professor  of  Ger- 
man at  the  Seminary  of  Vala,  France,  in  1878-SO, 
and  from  18Sh3  to  18S9  be  was  professor  of  theol- 
ogy at  Cracow,  while  since  the  latter  year  ho  has 
been  editor  of  the  Kaiholkch&r  S<mni^sbiait  fiir 
die  Didiest  Bre^lau.  He  liaa  written  Homer  und 
VirgU,  eine  ParaUele  (Leipsic,  1873);  />cr  Ujister- 
biichkeUsglaube  der  Allen  {Gilter^Xoh,  1873):  Bluten- 
$trams  aus  Lidher»  Werken  (Berlin,  1875);  Wo 
tjii  WahThtUf  (Freiburg,  1875);  Fenelans  asce- 
tische  Schrilten  (3  vols.,  Regenaburg,  1886  ^7)  j 
Der  heilige  Stanislana  Kmtka  (1888):  Oe  prcr- 
stantia  Soctttaii^  Jcsu  (Cracow,  1890);  De  rUuum 
reiaiione  furidica  (Rome,  1895);  De  l^ris  pro- 
hibUis  (Regensburg,  1S95);  Conftrensen  uber  dU 
Kon^Uiahnen  dcr  Umdinerinnen  (Breslau,    1897); 


Betitunden  fur  die  ewige  Anbetur^  (1897);  Biblta 
Sacra:  die  heiiige  Sehrifi  (Regensburg.  1898); 
Der  Ji^Uaeujmbeichlvater  (I9CM});  Handbii^hlein  der 
MamigkeUsbriiderMchafien  (BresJau,  1900);  Vor- 
schHften  vher  das  Verbot  der  Bucher  (Trier,  1900); 
Die  kirchtiehen  Re^htsbestimntungen  uber  die  Fraip- 
enkongregaiionen  (Mainz,  1901);  Navutnbiichiein 
der  grauen  Schiimkrn  (Brealau,  1901);  Kandi- 
daienbUchkin  der  grauen  Schwestem  (1901);  Jubi- 
laeujmbiichkin  (1901);  Die  vier  heitigen  Evan- 
gtlkn  (Regensburg,  1903);  Da&  Neue  Testament 
(1903);  and  Erlasse  und  Verordnungen  (1906) 
He  hojs  likewise  written  much  in  Polish,  and  is  the 
author  of  numerous   briefer   contributions, 

ARITDT,  Omt,  JOHAHIf:  German  mystic; 
b,  at  Edderitz,  near  B aliens tedt  (36  m,  s.w. 
of  Magdeburg),  Anhalt,  Dec,  27,  1555;  d.  at 
Celle  (23  m,  n,  of  Hanover),  Hanover,  May  11, 
1621.  He  studied  theolo^  at  Helmstedt, 
Wittenberg,  Strasburg,  and  Basel  and  in  1583 
became  pastor  at  Badebom  in  Anhalt.  He  was 
removed  in  1590  by  Duke  Jobann  Georg  because 
of  his  refusal  to  submit  to  the  duke's  order  pro- 
scribing the  use  of  images  and  the  practise  of 
exorcism.  Summoned  to  Quedlinburg  in  the 
same  year  Amdt  had  to  contend  with  the  malice 
of  a  faction  among  the  townspeople  with  whom 
his  aggressive  preaching  found  little  favor,  and 
in  1599  he  followed  a  call  to  Brunswick.  Here 
too,  after  some  yeans  of  quiet,  he  came  into 
conflict  with  his  colleagues,  largely  because  of 
the  general  opposition  aroused  by  the  appearance, 
in  1606,  of  the  finat  part  of  liia  Vom  wahren  Chrie- 
tefdhum.  In  1609  he  be<;ame  pastor  at  Eisleben, 
but  two  years  later  received  the  important  poet  of 
general  superintendent  at  Celle  and  in  tliis  position 
remained  tiU  his  death,  exercising  a  lasting  and 
beneficent  influence  on  the  constitution  of  the 
Lflneburg  church  system.  In  1609  appeared  three 
additional  books  of  the  Wahre  Chrietenihym  and 
in  1612  he  published  his  no  less  famous  Parodies* 
gdrtUin  oiler  chrisUichen  Tugendcn,  The  appear- 
ance of  the  Wahre  Chri^f^n^um  gave  rise  to  a  violent 
controversy.  Steeped  in  the  myHtJcism  of  the  Mid- 
dle Ages,  Amdt  asserted  the  insufEcJency  of  ortho- 
dox doctrine  toward  the  complete  attainment  of 
the  tme  Christian  life,  and  upheld  the  necessity  of 
a  moral  purification  made  possible  by  righteous 
living  and  by  bringing  the  soul  into  communion 
with  God,  Though  he  held  fast,  forroaUy,  to  the 
doctrine  of  the  Lutheran  Church,  he  nevertheless 
became  thus  the  great  precursor  of  Pietism  and  his 
is  the  greatest  name  in  the  history  of  German 
mysticism  after  Thomas  a  Kempis.  The  first 
book  of  the  Wahre  Christenihum  was  translated 
into  English  in  1546,  and  complete  translations 
were  made  by  A.  W  Boehm  in  1712  and  by  W» 
Jaques  in  1  SI  5.  An  American  edition  appeared 
at  Philadelphia  in  1842,  revised  in  1868.  The 
Garden  of  Paradise  appeared  in  English  in  1716. 

(H.  H6l8€Hi:k.) 

BrBUOoRAFWT:  F.  Amdt,  Johann  Arndi,  Berlin,  183S;  H.  L. 
Pertx,  i)e  Joanne  Arndt  ejviqut  lihriM,  H&cov«r.  1S52. 

AJUIDT,    JOHAITN    FRIEDRICH    WILHEIM: 

Gemaan  Lutheran;  b.   at  Berlin  June  24,    1802; 


Arno 
Arnold 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


800 


d.  there  May  8,  1881.  He  began  his  theological 
studies  at  the  University  of  Berlin  in  1820,  and  in 
1829  became  assistant  minister  to  the  bishop  of  the 
province  of  Saxony.  His  sermons  delivered  in  the 
cathedral  of  Magdeburg  attracted  large  audiences 
and  his  influence  was  especially  marked  among  the 
higher  classes  and  the  learned.  Called  to  Berlin 
in  1833  as  associate  pastor,  he  succeeded  to  the  office 
of  head  preacher  in  1840,  retiring  in  1875  because 
of  his  dissatisfaction  with  the  reorganization  of 
the  church  system  effected  two  years  previously. 
During  his  long  pastorate  at  Berlin,  Amdt  estab- 
lished his  reputation  as  one  of  the  most  eloquent 
pulpit  orators  of  his  time,  and  his  volumes  of  ser- 
mons, frequently  issued,  constituted  highly  im- 
portant contributions  to  German  homiletic  litera- 
ture. As  at  Magdeburg,  his  congregation  included 
persons  of  great  eminence,  among  them  such  theo- 
logians as  Neander  and  Hengstenberg.  Amdt's 
remarkable  power  in  the  pulpit  consisted  in  an 
exceptional  gift  for  psychological  analysis  and 
ehrewd  observation  and  an  extremely  forcible 
style.  He  did  not,  however,  escape  the  danger  of 
dogmatism,  and  doctrine  and  formulas  constituted 
for  him  an  important  part  of  the  Christian  life. 
His  thought  shows  little  development  throughout 
his  long  career  and  the  attitude  revealed  in  his 
earliest  works  is  the  same  found  in  his  later  sermons. 
Of  the  numerous  collections  of  these  mention  may 
be  made  of  Daa  chrisUiche  Leben  (Magdeburg,  1834); 
Predigten  aber  Davidis  Leben  (1836);  Das  Voter- 
unaer  (1837);  Die  Bergpredigt  Jeau  Chriati  (1838). 
He  also  wrote  Dae  Leben  Jeeu  Chrieti  (1850-55), 
and  Die  goUesdiensUichen  Handlungen  der  evan- 
gdiachen  Kirche  (1860).  (Hans  Kesbler.) 

ARNO  OF  REICHERSBERG:  A  younger 
brother  of  the  more  famous  Gerhoh  of  Reichers- 
berg;  d.  Jan.  30,  1175.  The  year  of  his  birth  is 
not  known.  He  received  his  education  from 
Gerhoh,  whose  "son  in  the  Lord"  he  caUs  himself. 
A  third  brother,  Ruodger,  was  dean  at  Augsburg, 
and  later  at  Neuburg.  After  Gerhoh's  death, 
Arno,  then  dean,  was  unanimously  chosen  provost 
of  the  collegiate  church  of  Reichersberg  on  the  Inn, 
in  the  diocese  of  Passau  (June  29,  1169).  He 
wrote  his  Scvium  canonicorum  (in  MPL,  cxciv. 
1489-1528)  imder  Eugenius  III.,  and  so  earlier 
than  1153.  It  was  called  out  by  the  jealousy 
existing  between  the  monks  and  the  canons,  which 
Arno  wholly  condemns,  pleading  for  fraternal 
unity  between  the  two  foundations  with  similar 
aims.  At  the  same  time  he  vigorously  defends  the 
canons'  rule  of  life,  considering  them  the  true 
imitators  of  Christ  and  the  apostles,  especially 
because,  unlike  the  monks,  they  occupy  themselves 
directly  with  the  service  of  their  neighbors.  He 
also  wrote  an  apologetic  treatise  (ed.  C.  Wdchert, 
Leipsic,  1888),  defending  the  teaching  of  Gerhoh 
against  Provost  Folmar  of  Triefenstein,  on  a  ques- 
tion of  Christology — whether  the  man  (homo) 
taken  into  God  at  the  Incarnation  is  truly  and 
strictly  the  Son  of  God.  Arno  vehemently  asserts 
the  affirmative,  maintaining  that  all  the  qualities 
of  the  Godhead  were  communicated  to  the  human 
nature,  though  veiled  during  the  earthly  life  of  Christ. 


As  a  corollary  he  condemns  the  prevailing  view 
of  a  local  heaven,  in  which  Christ  sits  in  bodily 
presence.  Underneath  his  polemic  against  Fol- 
mar there  is  another,  expressed  or  unexpressed, 
against  a  more  important  theologian,  Peter  Lom- 
bard; and  in  one  place  he  also  controverts  Hugo 
of  St.  Victor.  Among  other  contemporary  theo- 
logians, he  knows  Bernard  of  Clairvaux  and  Rupert 
of  Deutz.  (A.  Hauck.) 

Biblioobapht:  Wattenbaoh,  DCfQ,  u,  314.  note  3;  Hauok, 
KD,  iv.  444  sqq. 

ARNO  OF  SALZBURG:  Archbishop  of  Sals- 
burg  785-821.  He  seems  to  have  been  bom  in  the 
diocese  of  Freising,  where  his  name  occurs  in  the 
records  as  deacon  and  as  priest  down  to  776.  After 
782  he  is  found  as  abbot  at  St.  Amand  at  Elnon  in 
Hainault,  which  he  retained  even  after  his  conse- 
cration as  bishop  of  Salzburg,  June  10,  785.  He 
was  sent  to  Rome  in  787  to  implore  the  help  of  the 
pope  in  reconciling  Chariemagne  with  Tassilo, 
Duke  of  Bavaria,  but  failed,  and  Bavaria  lost  its 
independence  the  following  year.  Arno  gained  the 
confidence  of  the  new  ruler,  however,  and  Charle- 
magne confirmed  the  chiurch  of  Salzburg  in  its 
possessions  (790).  The  bishop  was  employed  as 
miseua  dominicua  in  Bavaria,  and  at  the  close  of 
the  war  with  the  Avars,  all  the  conquered  lands 
were  placed  under  the  spiritual  authority  of  Salz- 
burg. When  Pope  Leo  III.  was  driven  out  by  the 
kinsmen  of  his  predecessor,  Arno  was  charged  by 
Charlemagne  with  the  task  of  restoring  peace  and 
order  in  Rome,  and  explaining  to  the  pope  the  king's 
wishes  for  the  settlement  of  ecclesiastical  affairs 
in  the  eastern  part  of  his  realm  (797).  In  deference 
to  these  wishes,  Bavaria  was  included  ecclesias- 
tically as  well  as  civilly  in  the  Frankish  kingdom, 
and  Salzburg  was  raised  to  the  dignity  of  a  metro- 
politan see,  Arno  receiving  the  pallium  April  20, 
798.  He  visited  Rome  again  in  799  to  restore 
Leo  III.  once  more,  and  in  800  for  the  coronation 
of  Charlemagne.  He  was  miaeue  dominicus  in 
Bavaria  almost  continuously  from  802  to  806;  he 
appears  on  the  occasion  of  Charlemagne's  making 
his  will,  and  at  the  Coimcil  of  Mainz  in  813,  after 
which  he  seems  to  have  retired  from  public  life. 
He  was  a  friend  of  learning  and  art,  and  is  said  to 
have  had  more  than  150  books  copied. 

(A.  Hauck.) 

BXBLIOOBA.PBT:  Alcuiii's  letten  to  Arno  are  in  Jrnff^.  BRO, 
vi..  Aionutnenta  Afeuiniofui,  Berlin,  1873;  consult  also 
Rettberg.  KD.  ii.  200.  237,  558;  Wattenbaoh,  DOQ,  I 
(1904)  166.  172,  175  aqq.,  215,  ii.  505;  Hauck,  KD,  u. 
paaeim. 

ARNOBIUS,  Or-nd'bi-us:  A  teacher  of  rhetoric 
at  Sicca  in  proconsular  Africa  under  Diocletian. 
At  first  he  was  a  fierce  opponent  of  C^hristianity, 
but  he  was  converted  and  wrote  seven  books  adver- 
8tt8  nationea,  in  which  he  seeks  to  refute  the  charge 
of  his  contemporaries  that  Christianity  was  the 
cause  of  all  misery  in  the  world.  To  this  point 
he  devotes  books  i.  and  ii.  The  other  books  are 
a  polemic  against  heathenism,  showing  in  iii.,  iv., 
and  V.  the  folly  and  immorality  of  the  polytheistic 
mythology,  while  vi.  and  vii.  speak  of  the  heathen 
temple  and  sacrificial  servicei  When  the  woric 
was   composed   can  not  be  stated  exactly,  but 


801 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Amo 
Arnold 


probably  it  was  after  303.  Amobius  was  neither 
a  clear  thinker,  nor  a  skilful  writer  (cf.  Jerome, 
Episl.,  Iviii.  10).  Where  he  tries  to  pose  as  philoso- 
pher, he  betrays  no  deep  study.  His  ideas  con- 
flict not  seldom  with  Holy  Scripture.  Greek 
mythology  he  knows  only  from  the  "  Preceptor  " 
of  Clement  of  Alexandria,  and  Roman  mythology 
from  the  writings  of  Cornelius  Labeo,  whom  he 
sometimes  attacks.  He  had  only  a  superficial 
knowledge  of  Christianity.  His  naive  modalism 
is  merely  the  expression  of  a  very  superstitious 
sentiment,  and  his  notions  concerning  the  origin, 
nature,  and  continuance  of  the  soul  have  anything 
but  a  Christian-ecclesiastical  color.     G.  KrOqer. 

Biblzoorapht:  Arnobius's  work  ia  in  MPL,  iv.  and  was  ed. 
by  A.  Reifferacheid,  in  CSEL,  iv.,  1875;  Eng.  transl.  in 
ANF,  vi  40&-543.  BibUography  ia  in  ANF,  BibUog- 
raphy,  pp.  76-77.  Consult  DCB,  i.  167;  K.  B.  Franoke. 
Die  Ptydutloifie  und  Erk^nninialehn  de9  AmobiuM,  Leipsic, 
1878;  W.  Kahl,  in  Philoloffut,  supplementary  vol.  v.,  Cor- 
neliuM  Labeo,  717-807.  Gdttingen,  1880;  A.  Ebert,  Oe- 
BchidUe  dtr  LiUeratwr  cfes  MittelaUer§  im  Abendland,  i. 
64-72.  Leipsio.  1889;  A.  Rdhricht.  Die  Seetenlehre  dee  Amo- 
biue,  Hamburg.  1803;  idem.  De  ClemerUe  Alexandrino  Ar- 
nobii  in  irridendo  oeniilium  eultu  auciore,  Hamburg.  1803; 
C.  Stange.  De  Amobii  oraiione,  SaargemOnd.  1803; 
Sohamagl,  De  Amobii  majorie  laUniiate,  Gdrs.  1804-05; 
£.  F.  Schultse.  Dae  Uebel  in  der  WtU  nach  der  Lehre  dee 
Amobiue,  Jena,  1806;  KrOger.  Hietory,  304-306;  P.  Spin- 
dler.  De  Amobii  genere  dieendi,  Strasburg.  1001. 

ARNOBIUS  THE  YOUNGER:  Reputed  author 
of  certain  writings,  concerning  which  scholars 
are  not  agreed  except  that  they  belong  to  the 
fifth  century.  They  include:  (1)  Commeniarii  in 
psalmos,  which  are  usually  thought  to  be  the  work 
of  a  semi-Pelagian  Gaul,  though  they  may  have  been 
written  in  Rome;  (2)  Adnatationea  ad  qucBdam 
evangeliorum  loca,  which  seems  to  have  been  used 
in  the  supposed  gospel-commentary  of  Theophilus 
of  Antioch  (q.v.);  (3)  Amobii  catholici  et  Sera- 
piania  conflictua  de  Deo  trino  et  ttno ;  (4)  The  so 
called  Pradeatinaius,  which  may  have  been  the 
work  of  this  mysterious  Amobius  (sec   Prsdes- 

TINATUS).  G.  KrCOBB. 

Bzblzoobapht:  The  works  are  in  MPL,  liii  Consult  DCB, 
i  170;  T.  Zahn.  Foraehunoen  eur  QeechiefUe  dee  Ka- 
none,  u.  104-110.  ErUngen.  1883;  A.  Hamack,  in  TU, 
L  4,  162-163.  Leipsio.  1883;  8.  B&umer.  in  Der  KaOuAik, 
iL  (1887)  308-406;  A.  Engelbrecbt.  PatrietiediA  AnaUk- 
fen.  pp.  07-00.  Vienna.  1802;  B.  Grundl.  in  TQ,  badx.  (1807) 
655-668;  G.  Morin.  in  Revue  binSdicHne,  xz..  Bfaredsous, 
1003;  H.  von  Schubert,  in  TU,  new  ser.,  ix.  4.  Leipeic. 
1003. 

ARNOLD  OF  BRESCIA. 

Life  to  1 130  (i  1 ).  PoUtical  Activity  in  Rome  ({3). 

Banished  from  Italy  (}  2).     Condemnation  and  Death  (}  4). 

Arnold  of  Brescia,  church  reformer  of  the  twelfth 
century,  was  bom  at  Brescia,  but  the  year  is  not 
known;  he  was  executed  at  Rome  11 55.  At  an  early 
age  he  devoted  himself  to  the  priesthood.    Like 
many  young  Italians  of  his  time  he  studied  in 
France   and   became   a   pupil   of   Abelard.    His 
scientific  culture  is  particulariy  praised,  and  Abe- 
lard's  keen  criticism  of  tradition  helped  no  doubt 
to  loosen  the  bonds  which  connected 
z.  Life  to   Arnold    with    the     existing    church 
Z139.       authority.    Some  years  later  he  ap- 
pears again  in  his  native  city,  having 
meanwhile  been  ordained  priest.  The  Historia  ponti- 
ficalia  calls  him  canonicua  regiUaria  and  06609  apud 


Brixiam.  The  views  to  which  he  clung  to  his 
death  were  already  fixed  in  his  mind.  The  Church 
must  resign  worldly  power  and  worldly  possessions; 
priests,  having  worldly  possessions,  forfeit  salvation; 
their  necessary  support  they  must  obtain  from  the 
tithes,  and  the  laity,  who  withheld  from  the  priests 
what  belonged  to  them,  come  in  for  a  share  of  Ar- 
nold's criticism.  His  austere  asceticism  and  power- 
ful eloquence  gained  him  great  authority,  which 
rendered  his  opposition  formidable  to  Manfred, 
bishop  of  Brescia,  and  the  latter  accused  him  at  a 
synod  held  in  Rome  in  1139.  Arnold  was  banished 
from  Italy  and  had  to  vow  solemnly  not  to  return 
without  papal  permission. 

A  revolution  now  took  place  in   Brescia,  and 
the  "  evil-minded  consuls,  hypocritical  and  heret- 
ical men,"  were  expelled  from  the  city  by  the 
knighthood.    Arnold    meanwhile    had    gone    to 
France,    where   he   assisted    Abelard 

2.  Banished  against  Bernard  of  Clairvaux,  and  so 
from  Italy,   the  condemnation  passed  by  Innocent 

II.  in  1140  on  Abelard  concerned  him 
likewise;  they  were  to  be  separated  and  kept  in 
monastic  prisons.  Arnold,  however,  remained 
immolested  for  the  time  being,  because  of  a  con- 
flict between  the  king  and  the  curia.  Bernard 
was  at  first  against  the  king,  but  afterward  he 
acted  as  mediator,  and  thus  after  a  short  time 
Arnold  had  to  leave  France.  He  went  to  Zurich, 
where  he  soon  had  a  following.  A  letter  of  Ber- 
nard (cxcv.)  to  Bishop  Herman  of  Constance 
[written  1140]  caused  his  expulsion,  but  he  soon 
found  a  safe  refuge,  for  another  letter  of  Bernard's 
(cxcvi.)  to  Cardinal  Guido — probably  the  cardinal- 
deacon  Guido  who  was  active  as  papal  legate  in 
Bohemia  and  Moravia  between  1142  and  1145 — 
received  Arnold  into  his  retinue  and  honored  him 
with  his  society.  Arnold  returned  to  Italy  shortly 
after  the  death  of  Innocent  (1143),  and  Eugenius 
III.  (1145-53)  received  the  fugitive  again  into  the 
communion  of  the  Church  after  a  promise  to  do 
penance. 

Rome  was  at  that  time  the  theater  of  great 
struggles.  Toward  the  end  of  the  life  of  Innocent 
II.  the  oonmiunity  had  created  a  senate  and  ap- 
pointed a  patrician  in  place  of  the  city-prefect 
dependent  on  the  pope.  Eugenius  escaped  these 
unpleasant  relations  by  going  to  France,  and 
Arnold  developed  great  public  activity.  He 
attacked  the  cardinals,  and  even  the 

3.  Political  pope.  A  new  element  now  comes  out 
Activity  in   in    him    according    to    the    Hiatoria 

Rome,  pontificalia^  which  makes  him  say 
that  those  should  not  be  tolerated 
who  wish  to  enslave  Rome,  the  mistress  of  the 
world,  the  source  of  liberty.  He  took  up  the  idea 
of  reclaiming  for  Rome  her  ancient  powerful 
position  in  the  world.  He  entered  into  close 
relations  with  the  Roman  community  which  had 
become  a  republic  and  had  promised  to  protect 
him  against  every  one.  Eugenius  sought  to  get 
possession  of  Rome  by  force  of  arms,  and  in  their 
distress  the  Romans  looked  to  King  Conrad,  who, 
however,  had  no  thought  of  realizing  their  hopes, 
though  he  was  in  no  position  to  help  the  pope  in 
an  effective  manner.    An  agreement  was  made  in 


Arnold  of  Bresoia 
Arnold,  Thomas 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


802 


November,  1149^  accordiBg  to  wliicb  Rome  ac- 
knowledged the  supremacy  of  the  pope,  but  the 
government  of  the  city  reinained  in  the  handa  of 
the  senate.  Arnold  exercised  his  influence  as  before. 
When  Frederick  I.  became  ruler,  Eugenius  obtained 
his  promii^e  of  a  campaign  agaiiifit  Home,  But 
the  Amoldinta  also  applied  to  him  in  a  TMiting, 
the  strange  content-s  of  which  may  be  regarded  as 
an  echo  of  Arnold's  sermona.  It  declares  that 
clerio)  who  in  f^pite  of  the  gospel  and  the  canonical 
rules  claimed  for  themselves  the  right  of  confirming 
the  emperor  are  succe-ssom  of  Julian  the  Apostate; 
the  Donation  of  ^OotiBtantine  is  a  heretic^  fable, 
which  even  the  every -day  Roman  ridieulee;  as  the 
empire  belongs  to  the  Romans^  who  should  hinder 
them  from  electing  a  new  emperor?  It  is  possible 
that  such  eccentric  schemes  repelled  the  more  pru- 
dent elements.  At  the  elections  of  Nov,  1,  1152, 
the  Amoldists  seem  to  have  been  defeated,  for 
the  seoate  is  soon  found  in  negotiation  with  the 
pope,  and  he  was  enabled  to  make  his  entrance  in 
December*  A  little  later  Frederick  promised  to 
subdue  the  Roraana, 

When  Adrian  IV,  aBcended  the  papal  throne 
Dec.  5,  1154,  he  demanded  of  the  senate  the  expul- 
sion of  Arnold,  which  for  the  time  being  was  not 
heeded,  fiut  an  attack  made  upon  a  cardinal 
gave  opportunity,  shortly  before  Palm  Sunday, 
1155,    to   pronounce   an   interdict   on    Rome, — a 

hitherto  unheard-of  proceeding.    The 

4-  Condem-  depression  which  already  existed  in 

nation  and   the  city  was  enhanced  by  this  me^isure. 

Death,       and  on  Wednesday  the  senate  appeared 

before  the  pope  and  obtained  the 
removal  of  the  interdict  by  swearing  to  expel 
Arnold  and  liis  adhenmts.  Arnold's  fate  was  now 
decided.  Banmhcd  from  Romoj  he  found  indeed 
a  refuge  with  the  viscounts  of  Campagnatico,  but, 
urged  by  the  pope,  Frederick  induced  them  to 
band  him  over  to  Adrian.  The  city-prefect,  as 
Rome's  criminal  judge,  delivered  him  to  the  gal- 
lows, had  his  body  burned,  and  the  ashes  thrown 
into  the  Tiber.  He  died  lamented  even  by  men 
who,  like  Gerhoh  of  Reichersberg,  by  no  means 
agreed  with  him,  Tlie  great  cause  of  bis  deat  h  was 
no  doubt  his  opposition  to  the  worldly  power  of 
the  pope.  But  be  was  ahio  regarded  as  a  heretic. 
That  he  held  false  doctrines  regarding  baptism 
haa  not  been  substantiated;  but  he  declared  that 
the  sacraments  administered  by  priests  not  leading 
an  apostolic  life  were  invalid,  and  herein  one  could 
aee  a  rejection  of  the  oHicial  Church  and  hence  a 
heresy.  Tliat  Arnold  left  many  followers  is  evi- 
dent from  the  HisUsria  porUificalis,  and  in  the  great 
bull  of  excommunication  of  Lucius  II L  (1184), 
Amoldifltfl  are  mentioned.  Thenceforth  only  iso- 
lated  notices  conceniing  them  are  found;  th^ 
were  probably  lost  among  the  Waldensiana, 

S.  M.  DEirracH. 

BrsuooRAFffT!  Soureefl  we:  Otixj  of  Frcvdo^,  Dt  B€$ih  FH' 
dmci,  i.  27-28,  ii.  21,  in  MGH.  ScnpL,  xx.  (lSfl8)  350-401 
%j3d  «d.  O.  WftiU  in  Script,  rer.  Gmn..  Hrhotw.  ISgi; 
John  of  3aUi!bury«  Hitttjrui  ponHfiealia,  xxxi,,  in  MGH ^ 
ScripL,  XX.  (18118)  fil5-S45;  Gunther,  LiourinuM,  tij,,  in 
MPLm  cscjtii.;  Gfirboh  of  Heichemberc^,  Da  invMti^fotwne 
anHehriah^  xlii,  in  MPL^  cxciv,:  Bqbo,  VUa  Hodriam 
tV.t  in  J.  I^f.  WftttcriFb*  Pun^'/ifuni  Hcmanomm  nto,  ii. 


324-325*  LcM'pfl}«,  1S&2^  Qtsti^  MPw^r^t.  in  Italia  CPnb- 

Ue&tions  of  the  UcJttito  Siorioo  ItAEuM>)f  Rome,  1887* 
CoiuiiJt  also  F,  Odorici,  Btorig  Bremcmn^t  iv.,  Enencia* 
1858;  W.  von  Giesebreebt,  Arnold  Pan  Breatm,  Mutiidb, 
180i6;  idem,  OeMekicMe  der  deuUchen  /Cawrsnl,  iT^,  r., 
Bnia«wickp  1880-88;  G.  de  Ca«itrQ,  Arrwid  da  BrHda,  Lec- 
hprti,  1875;  W,  Bemharilj,  JohrbadxerdeM  denUchm  Btieh» 
unter  K&nrad  11 1. ^  htipeiti^  18S3:  V^.  Vacaudard,  Amauld 
de  Bracvtf  in  Bevue  ds9  queatiana  histitriqueM^  scxsr^.  (lfiS4> 
52-114;  A.  HftUdrath,  ArnoUi  van  Breacia,  Leipaic,  180L 

ARIf OLD,  CARL  FRAlfSXrOI:  German  Luther- 
an; b,  at  Wmiams&eld,  O.,  Mar,  10,  1853.  H© 
waa  educated  at  the  gynuiasium  at  Brtmen  and 
the  univermtie-s  of  Erlangen,  Leipdc,  and  K6nigs- 
berg  (Ph^D.j  18S2),  He  was  instructor  in  religion 
at  the  Wilhelms-Gyinnasium  in  Kdnigsberg  froni 
1878  to  1888,  when  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  church  history  in  the  Univemity  of  Breslau. 
Since  1898  he  has  also  been  ephorus  of  the 
Grfl^fliches  L^emtzky'echea  Johanneum.  In  theol- 
o^  he  is  an  advocate  of  positive  union.  He 
has  written  Studien  xur  Geschickie  der  plini- 
(miachsn  Chrisienverfolgung  (Koulgisberg,  1J^7); 
Dw  neroniscfw  Christ^mvrfQlgung  (Leijmic,  1888); 
Attrnvahl  aus  J,  G,  Hamamis  Brie  fen  und  Sckriften 
(Gotha,  1888);  CeesariuA  von  ArdcUe  und  die  gal- 
liaehe  Kirehe  eHner  Zeit  (Leipdc,  1894);  Fredigien 
dm  CtBswnaa  von  Arekde  in  deui^cher  Ueber$eU' 
ung  (189S);  Die  Vertreibung  der  Sahburger 
Protesiantcn  tind  ihre  Aufnahme  hei  den  Gtaubens^ 
genos^en  (1900);  Die  Au»roUung  des  PrMmiixn- 
ti»muB  in  Stdiburg  unter  Erzhisckof  Firmian  und 
seinen  Nachfolgcm  (1901);  Proiesi€miisches  Leben 
in  den  VereinigUn  St€KUen  (1903).  He  ^ted  the  fifth 
and  sixth  editions  of  H,  Weingarten's  ZmUafeln 
und  VdjerUkke  zut  KirchcngeschuMe  (1897,  1906). 

AIUIOLD,   0OT1TRIED:    Lutheran;   b.  at  An- 

naberg  (18  m.  s,  of  Cbcmnitss),  Saxony,  Sept.  5, 
1606;  d.  at  Perleberg  (75  m,  n,w.  of  Beiiin),  Priisjiia, 
May  30,  1714.  In  1(585  ho  began  the  study  of 
theology  at  Wittenberg  but  gave  himself  up  to 
independent  residing  in  early  church  hiatory. 
Through  the  influence  of  Spener,  then  court  preacher 
at  Dresden,  hcbeciime  tutor  in  a  noble  family  of  that 
city  in  1689,  and  later  obtained  a  similar  position 
at  CJnetllinburg.  There  be  became  identified 
with  the  most  prominent  exponents  of  mystic  ^id 
ieparatiat  teaching  and  in  1696  publiii^hed  IHc 
efBU  Idebe  (ed.  A.  C.  iJLmmert,  Stuttgart,  1844), 
a  eulogy  on  the  early  Christian  Church  in  which 
his  hoetility  to  dogma  and  eccl^iasticbnn  led  Mm 
to  exalt  the  virtues  of  the  primitive  Church  aa 
opposed  to  the  formulisim  of  later  orthodoxy.  In 
1697  he  became  profcaeor  of  history  at  Gieiaen,  but 
found  liimself  out  of  sympathy  with  the  practical 
nature  of  his  duties  and  returned  in  the  following 
year  to  QuedUnbutg.  In  1699--1700  he  published 
liis  Unparieiische  Kirchen-  und  KeUer-Hisiari^ 
(4  vols.  J  new  ed.,  Frankfort,  1729),  which  had  a 
marked  influence  on  church  history.  In  studying 
heretical  movements  Arnold  refused  to  accept  aa 
authority  the  evidence  of  hostile  contemporariee 
and  drew  upon  the  writingi  of  the  aectariea  them- 
selvea  for  his  materials.  In  view  of  his  conatitu- 
tionai  opposition  to  orthodox  doctrine  this  method 
naturally  led  to  his  assuming  a  position  extremely 
favorable  to  the  separatists  of  various  ag^  and 


803 


REUGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Arnold  of  Brescia 
Arnold,  Thonuui 


occaaioned  a  vigorous  controversy  wliich  plunged 
him  deeper  Btill  into  mysticism.  From  ttiis  period 
date  his  beautiful  religiouB  Mmga^  of  which  a  number 
have  found  a  place  in  the  evangelical  hymnal. 
In  1704  he  became  pastor  and  inspector  at  Werben, 
In  Frussia,  aod  from  that  time  may  be  dated  hia 
reconciliation  with  established  theology.  In  1707 
he  became  inspector  at  Perieberg,  bringing  to  the 
performance  of  hb  duties  the  utmost  devotion  and 
energy.  Besides  his  church  history,  his  writings 
niitnber  more  than  fifty^  among  them^  Gc^tAtlicha 
Qmtok  eines  evangelisehen  Lehrers  (Halle,  1704) 
and  Wahre  AbbUdung  de^  inwendigen  ChrUien- 
thumM  (Frankfort,  1709).  Hia  hymns  were  edited 
by  K.  C.  E.  Ehmann  (Stuttgart,  1856), 

(K  W.  DlBELIOB.) 
Bibuookai^t:  K  Dibeliui,  (M^ried  Ameld,  Berjfn,  J 873. 

ARllOLDp  MATTHEW;  Church  of  England; 
b.  at  Laleham,  near  Chertaey  (32  m.  w,s,w.  of 
London),  Dec.  24,  1822,  eldest  son  of  Thomas 
Arnold  (q.v.);  d.  in  Liverpool  Apr,  IS,  ISSS,  He 
studied  at  Wincheater  and  Rugby  schools,  and  at 
BaUiol  College,  Oxford,  and  became  fellow  of  Oriel 
1845*  In  1847  he  became  private  secretary  to 
the  Marquis  of  Lansdowne,  then  preeident  of  the 
council  and  acting  aa  minister  of  pul>lic  instruction; 
by  his  influence  was  appoint^ti  in  1 851  as  inspector 
of  schools,  and  held  the  po^sition  till  1886.  He  was 
professor  of  poetry  at  Oxford  1857-67,  He  wai*  a 
zealous  and  able  o^cial  and  \m  reporta  upon  conti- 
nental  schools,  which  he  %'isiled  frequent ly,  are 
valimble  in  educational  literature.  Hia  poetry 
is  of  hipfh  rank;  and  as  hterary  critic  he  was  un- 
rivaled in  hia  generation.  He  possessed  a  subtle 
mind,  a  keen  critical  spirit^  and  a  passionate  love 
of  truth,  which,  when  appUed  to  religious  problems, 
found  many  defects  in  the  current  theology  of  the 
time,  the  chief  being  a  dispa-iition  to  re^t  on  unprov- 
able assumptions  and  to  ignore  the  claims  of  reason » 
The  greatest  good  he  held  to  be  progress  toward 
perfection;  and  such  progreas  could  only  be  made 
by  ^  culture,'  which  meant  acquaintance  ^ith  the 
best  that  ha3  been  done  and  thought  in  the  world. 
He  declared  that 'conduct  is  tlu'ee-fourths  of  Ufe,' 
characteriKcd  reUgion  as  ^  morality  touched  with 
emotion/  originated  the  phrase*  the  enduring  power^ 
not  ourselves,  which  makes  for  righteousness,' 
and  believed  that  '  miracles  do  not  happen,*  His 
works  which  bear  on  religious  topics  are:  Culture 
and  Anarchy  (London,  1869);  St.  Puul  and  Protm- 
Mnlism  :  with  an  inirodticiion  on  Puriianism  and 
the  Church  of  England  (1 870) ;  Literature  and  Dogma, 
an  essay  toward  a  better  appreciation  of  the  Bible 
(1873);  God  and  the  B^le^  a  review  of  objedions 
to  '  Literature  and  Dogma '  (1S75);  La;si  Essays 
on  ChuTch  and  Religion  (1877),  He  also  edited, 
with  prefaces  and  notes,  the  two  sections  of  the 
Book  of  Isaiah,  A  Bibk-Reading  for  Schools,  the 
great  prophecy  of  Israer*  Restorati^m  [laaiah  xL- 
Ixvi.]  (1872;  new  ed.,  1875);  fsaiah  of  Jerusalem 
[Isaiah  i,-xxxix,l  (1883)*  A  complete  edition  of 
his  works  Ln  15  volumes  waa  issued  in  London 
and  New  York,  1903-04.  In  accordance  with  his 
wish  no  authorized  biography  has  been  pub- 
lished,   but  his  LeU&my    1848-8S  (collected  and 


arranged  by  G.  W.  E.  RusseU,  2  vols.,    London^ 
1895)  furnish  an  excellent  substitute- 

BiBt,ionRAPaTi  For  ljfe»  DNB^  Sapptement,  i.  70-75; 
G.  W.  E.  RusaiiU,  MoMheW  Amoiri,  London,  1904.  For 
hJA  inJItiienee  on  the  a,gfi,  J.  M«  Hobertsau,  Modem  Hu^ 
mani^Ut  Londlon,  1861 ;  W.  H.  HudjiOD«.  Studutt  in  Inierpre- 
tatian.  New  York,  1S&6;  J.  Fit4ih,  Thoma*  and  M&Wuna 
Att^oM  atvi  their  influents  on  Eneliih  Ediicatit^i^  London, 
1897;  O.  WKite,  Matthew  Arnoid  ami  the  JSpirii  of  the  Age, 
New  York,  ISOS;  G.  St&intHbory,  MoUhtw  AmoM.  Lon* 
don,  1896;  W.  H.  D&wson,  Matthew  Arnold  ond  hi^ 
BelaHan  to  the  Thought  af  mtr  Time,  New  York,  1904;  J, 
M.  Djxunp  Malthe^P  AmaM,  Nov  York,  1906  (on  the  le- 
iigioiiB  fude  of  ht»  philosophy  and  poetry)- 

ARHOLDp  MKOLAUS:  Reformed  theologian; 
b.  at  Lissa  (55  m.  n.n.w.  of  Breslau),  Poland,  Dee. 
17,  1618;  d.  at  Franeker,  Holland,  Oct.  15,  1Q80, 
He  studied  under  Amos  Comeniua,  at  Danzig 
(1635-41),  and  at  Franeker,  where  Maceovius  and 
Coceeius  were  his  teaehem.  After  visiting  the 
academies  of  Gromngen,  Leyden^  and  Utrecht, 
r  and  traveling  in  En  gland  ^  he  wa^  appointed  min- 
ister at  Beetgum,  neaj  Leeuwarden,  Frieeland,  in 
1645>  and  professor  of  theology  at  Franeker  in  1651 , 
He  edited  the  works  of  MaecoviitSr  and  published, 
against  Boeiniamstn,  Religijj  Sadntana  seu  cute- 
chesis  Racomana  major  pablitis  disputation'^us 
refuiaia  (Franeker,  1654);  Alkeismus  Socinianus 
(1659);  against  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  A ^^ 
giaAmesii  contra  Erbamannum  ;  against  the  prophe- 
eiea  of  Comenius  eonceming  the  millennium,  Dis^ 
curstis  theologicus  contra  Cojnenii  frwiensam  lucem 
in  tmebriit  (1660), 

AUNOLD,  THOMAS;  Master  of  Rugby  and 
*'  Broad  Church ''  leader;  b.  at  West  Cowe«,  Isle 
of  Wight,  June  13,  1795;  d.  at  Rugby  June  12, 
1842.  He  studied  at  Warminater  and  Winchester 
schools  and  Corpus  Chris ti  College,  Oxford,  becom- 
ing a  fellow  of  Oriel  in  1815,  He  was  ordained 
deacon  in  181S,  and  in  1S19  settled  at  Laleham, 
on  the  Thames  near  Staines,  where  he  undertook 
to  prepare  a  small  number  of  young  men  for  the 
universities.  In  1828  he  waa  ordained  priest  and 
appointed  head  master  of  Rugby;  in  1S41  he  waa 
made  rcgius  professor  of  modem  hiatory  at  Oxford, 
but  delivered  only  one  course  of  lectures.  He  ia 
best  known  as  one  of  the  greatest  of  EngUsh  school* 
teachers;  but  he  should  be  remembered  no  less  as 
a  keen-thinking  and  Bharp-sighted  leader  of  religious 
thought.  Like  Newman,  Keble,  and  others  of  the 
reactionary  High-church  party,  he  was  alarmed 
by  the  troubles  poUtical  and  otherwise,  which 
appeared  to  be  threatening  the  Church,  But  he 
sought  safety  by  advocating  that  its  doors  should 
be  opened  so  that  all  Engliah  Christians  could 
find  room  within  it.  Differences  of  doctrine,  con- 
stitution, and  ritual  he  maintained  were  minor 
matters  and  should  be  disregarded;  the  essential 
thing  in  Christianity  is  practical  godlincsSf  mani- 
festing itself  in  individual  and  social  Ufe,  Church 
and  State  alike  exist  to  help  realize  this  ideal  and 
each  needs  the  othejJ      His  views  were  expressed 

1  It  ia  Tho  t  aa  Arnold,  if  any  Dn«,  wbo  munt  b«  regAided 
M  the  pioneer  of  free  th^logy  in  Eaeland.  .  .  ,  Be  waa 
the  firflt  lo  »how  ta  hiA  countrymen  the  poeaihility,  and  to 
make  the  dem&nd,  that  the  Bible  should  be  reftfl  witb  hon- 
esi  hutnaa  eyes,  without  th^  tpei^taoleii  of  orthodox  dqgo 
matic  {HvmippDaitioiu,  and  that  it  can  at  thm  flune  tiioo  be 


Amoldl 

Art  and  Ohnroh 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


804 


in  two  palnphlets^  The  Principles  of  Church  Reform 

(London,  1833)  and  Fragment  4m  the  Church  (1&44); 

hifl  religiouii  writings  also  include  six  volumes  of 

Senmms.     Hia  historical  works  comprise  an  edition 

of  Thucydidea  (3  vols.,   1830-35);  the  History  of 

Rome   (3   vols.,    1838-43,    unfinished);  History  of 

the  Later  Uoman  Commonwealth    (2  vols.,  1845); 

Lectures  on  Modem  History  (Oxford,  1842). 

BiBuooRAPorr:  A*  "P*  Btimtey,  Lift  and  Con-mtjHyndencf  ^ 

Ttutmat   Arruild,   Utfiat    un&bridefid   td„    LobdoEkp    lOOl; 

Stanley  oollftctcd  aJao  hia  MUcdlaneout  Worki.  1S4S,  fl-nci 

his  Traif€liintf  Journal*,  1S52;  DNB,  ii.  113-117;  J.  Fitch, 

Tkomat  and  Matthew  Anrntd  and  thew  In^wance  on  Eng- 

tUk  Edvcatiiin,  London,  1897. 

ARHOLBI  (flr-nal'dl),  BARTHOLOMJEXJS  (Bar- 
fholomew  of  Usingen):  The  teacher  and  later 
the  opponent  of  Luther;  b.  at  Uaingea  (17  m. 
n.n.w.  of  Frankfort)  about  1454;  d.  at  WQrz- 
burg  Sept.  9,  1532.  He  entered  the  University 
of  Erfurt  probably  in  14S4,  and  was  made  master 
of  arts  in  1491.  As  teacher  of  philosophy  and  by 
his  widely  circulated  wntlngi;  he  won  the  high 
nteem  of  both  his  colleagues  and  tiis  pupik,  among 
whom  Luther  seems  to  have  been  specially  in  close 
relations  w4th  him.  When  nearly  fifty,  and  appar- 
ently in  part  owing  to  Luther'd  influence^  he  entered 
the  Augustinian  order,  and  later  became  professor 
of  theology  in  the  aiudium  genertde  of  the  order  at 
Erfurt,  He  was  oppo^d  to  the  later  exaggera- 
tions of  the  scholastic  methodi,  but  without  going 
as  far  in  this  direction  as  Luther,  in  whose  rejection 
of  philosophy  he  saw  one  of  the  soutt^es  of  what  he 
considered  the  reformer's  later  errors.  He  took  a 
decided  Btand  sgaiaet  the  Wittenberg  theses j 
after  he  had  been  deserted  by  his  brethren  of  the 
Erfurt  house  he  attacked  the  reforming  movement 
in  his  ftnat  controversial  treatise  (1522),  directed 
against  the  fiery  preaching  of  Cuelsamer  and 
Mochler.  This  was  foUowed  by  many  others  eov* 
eriog  the  whole  range  of  the  controversy,  and  be- 
coming more  and  more  bitter  as  his  old  pupils 
scorned  his  exhortations.  He  was  finally  obliged 
to  leave  Erfurt,  and  in  1526  ii  found  in  the  Augus- 
tinian house  at  Wilrzburg.  He  was  not  a  great 
theologian  nor  even  a  good  Latinist;  but  he  seems 
to  have  been  an  honorable  man  who  made  a  thor- 

r«ver«t  with  Christian  piety  *ncl  mwde  truly  productiire  in 
monJ  life.  Ha  wim  th«  first  who  tlared  to  leave  on  erne  eida 
tbfi  tffkdititiiia]  phrui^ology  of  the  llijih -church men  nnd 
the  EvnngeJiciJa,  and  to  look  upon  Christianity,  ni>t  as  a 
Mcnsd  treatufe  of  the  ChurchcA  and  tfae  sects,  but  &s  a  di- 
Tine  bene  Scent  power  for  evftfy  believer;  not  om  a  dead 
IwritAsa  from  the  past,  but  an  a  Uvinif  ppirituAl  power  for 
the  moral  advaiicciuent  of  individtialii  and  naticinB  in  the 
preaent.  *  .  .  He  showed  how  elnasical  juid  generiLl  histor- 
ical iludiee  may  be  pursued  in  the  liight  of  the  morfti  ideas 
of  Ghji^ti&nity,  And  how,  on  the  other  hand,  a  free  and  elear 
way  of  looking  at  things  may  be  obtained  by  mean«  of  wide 
hi^oricnJ  knowl^lHei  and  then  appUed  to  the  interpretation 
of  the  Bible  and  the  AolulJon  of  current  ecctc^KLou^tical  que^- 
tionji.  ThuJi  ho  began  to  pull  down  the  waJJ  of  sepamtion 
wbjch  had  eut  off  the  reileioits  hfe  of  hi4  fellow  councrymeni 
with  their  iectn  and  Churches  and  rieid  thealoviQil  formulaa 
And  usages,  from  the  general  life  nnd  purauitA  of  the  natian. 
It  ia  alio  dear  as  day  that,  if  lon^r  Ufe  had  been  granted 
to  him,  the  result  of  the  further  praseeution  of  his  histohcal 
etudjes  .  .  ,  would  have  been  further  in^i^ht  and  eotsf«ee 
to  apply  iiii  hi*torical  and  critical  prineipl^  to  the  Bible. 
At  all  eventa^  hift  work  was  subsequently  further  prosecuted 
in  thie  direction  by  his  friends  and  pupiLs. — Pfleiderar,  The 
Dev^opment  sf  Thte^oQy  in  Germany  tines  Kani  and  ii»  Prog- 
rwt  til  Gnat  Britain  nna  1&&  (London,  1890),  3e7-36& 


ough  study  of  his  opponents'  writings  and  learned 
to  fight  them  with  their  own  weapons.  At  WOrx- 
burg  he  was  of  great  assistance  to  bis  bishop, 
Conrad  von  ThUngen,  in  the  struggle  with  growing 
Protestantism,  appeared  with  him  at  the  Diet  of 
Augsburg,  and  was  among  the  theologians  to  whom 
the  refutation  of  the  Confession  was  committed. 

(T.   KOLDE.) 

Biei.iooRAPRT:  G.  Veesenmeyer,  KleiTit  Beitr&Q0  xur  Ge- 
Bchichu  de«  ReichMkifft  fu  Auff»bwg,  105  aqq..  Nurembef^* 
1880;  H.  Paul  us,  D&^  A  ugttttiner  Barihi^jmAvs  Aiywldi  e&n 
Utinaen^  in  Str^MbUrgcr  Theohgischt  Studwn^  L  3,  Freiburg, 
1893. 

ARirOLDISTS,     Sec  Arsold  of  Brescia. 

ARNOT,  WILLIAM:  Free  Chiirchp  Scotland ;b.  at 
Scone,  Perthshire,  Nov,  6,  1808;  d.  in  Edinburgh 
June  3,  1875.  He  st tidied  at  Glasgow,  and  in  1833 
became  pastor  of  St,  Peter's  Church  in  the  same 
city;  joined  the  Free  Church  movement  in  1843; 
in  1863  succeeded  Dr.  Rainy  as  minister  of  the 
Free  High  Church,  Edinburgh,  He  paid  three 
visits  to  America,  the  last  time  as  delegate  to  the 
meeting  of  the  Evangelical  Alliance  in  New  YoHc 
<1873).  His  chief  publications  were:  Life  of  James 
Hailey  (Edinburgh,  1842);  The  Race  for  Rkhes, 
and  some  of  the  Pits  ijdo  which  the  Runners  fall  : 
Six  Lectures  applying  the  Word  of  God  io  the  Tragic 
of  Man  (London,  1S51);  Laws  from  Hcamn  for 
Life  on  Earth  :  Illustrations  of  tlie  Book  of  Proverbs 
(2  vols.,  1837-58);  The  Parables  of  Our  Lord  (1864); 
Life  of  James  Hamilion  (1870), 

BiBLtoatiAPEiT:  DNE^  ii  110-120;  Autehioiruv^y^and  Men*- 
^hu  A*  Fleming  (his  daughter),  London,  1S77, 

ARNULF    OF    LISIEITX:       Bishop  of  Lisieux 

(90  m,  w.n,w.  of  Paris)  1141-77  (or  81);  d,  in  Paria 
Aug.  31,  1184.  He  was  bom  in  Normandy,  accom- 
panied Louis  VI L  of  France  to  the  Holy  Land  on 
the  Second  Crusade  in  1 147,  was  present  at  the 
coronation  of  Henry  IL  of  England  in  1154,  and 
later  tried  unsuccessfuUy  to  mediate  between 
Henry  and  Thomas  Becket;  he  upheld  the  cause 
of  Pope  Alexander  HI,  against  Victor  IV.  at  the 
Synod  of  Tours  in  1153,  and  spent  his  last  days  in 
retirement  in  the  abbey  of  St.  Victor  in  Paris. 
His  works  are  in  MPL,  cci,  1-200;  most  important 
are  his  letters  {Epistola  ad  Henrieum  IL,  regem 
Angliie^  Thomam  archiepiscopum,  et  alios),  which 
are  in  M  PL,  ut  sup.,  I7-I52p  and,  ed.  J.  A,  Giles, 
in  PEA, 

ARFULF,  SAINT,  OF  METZ;  Bishop  of  Meti; 
b.  about  580;  d,  July  18  of  an  unknoivn  year, 
according  to  Sigebert  of  Gembloux  (CAroti.,  MGH^ 
Script.,  vi„  1844,  p.  324)  640.  Heeariy  distinguished 
himself  in  deeds  of  arm**  and  affairs  of  state,  but 
later  devoted  himself  to  an  ecclesiastical  career, 
and  in  611  or  612  was  made  bishop  of  Meti,  In 
this  position  ho  exercised  considerable  influence 
on  the  government  of  the  Prankish  kingdom,  aa 
a  friend  of  Pepin  of  Landenj  and  enjoying  the  con- 
fidence of  the  Austrasian  magnates.  It  was  to  him 
more  than  to  any  other  that  CHothair  II,  of  Netia- 
tria  owed  his  attainment  of  the  dominion  of  Aus- 
trasia.  Amulf  had  been  married  as  a  yotmg  man, 
and  through  his  eon  Ansegis,  who  married  Pepin's 
daui^hter  Begga,  he  became  the  ancostor  of  the 


806 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Amoldl 

Art  and  Ohuroh 


Carolingian  bouse.      Amid  sJl    his  dignitieSf  he 

longed  for  the  peace  of  the  contemplative  Ufe; 
probably  in  627  he  fesign^d  hia  see  and  retired  into 
the  i^ildertieaa  of  the  VosgeSr  where  he  lived  as  a 
benuit  near  his  fiiend  Romarich,  the  founder  of  the 
abbey  of  RemiremoDt,  His  body  refltfl  in  the  church 
at  Metz  which  bears  his  name.       (A,  Haock.) 

BiBLioGnAPBT:  Vikithy  unkootrn  ftuthor, in  MGH,  ScnpL 
rer.  ^fcrtw.^  u.  (ISSS)  426-44Q;  and  by  another  author  in 
AT  PL,  xcv.  Consult  Rittberg.  KB,  L  488:  Fried  rich,  KD, 
a  236;  B^g^U  Hittinr«  tk  S.  Amout,  li&iAe-Duc,  1875; 
W&ttenbftcb,  DOQ,  I  144;  HAiuik,  KD,  L  127,  131«  295, 
31 6L 

ARROWSMITHj  JOHH:  Puritan  and  Presby- 
terian; b.  near  Newcai^tle^n-Tyne  Bdar*  29,  160G; 
d.  at  Cambridge  and  was  buried  Feb,  24j  1659,  He 
was  educated  at  Cambridge,  where  he  became 
fellow  of  St,  Catherine's  Hall  {1623).  He  was 
successively  incumbent  of  St,  Nicholas's  Chapel, 
King's  Lynn  (1631);  master  of  St.  John's  College, 
Cambridge  (1644);  rector  of  St.  Martin's,  Iron- 
monger Lane,  London  (1645),  and  member  of  the 
sixth  London  classis;  vieeH^bancellor  of  Cambridge 
University  (1647);  regius  professor  of  divinity 
there  (1651);  master  of  Trinity  College  (1653). 
He  sat  in  the  Westminster  Assembly  of  Divines 
(1643).  Robert  BaiUie  describes  him  as  '^  a  man 
with  a  glass  eye  in  place  of  that  which  was  put  out 
by  an  arrow,  a  learned  divine,  on  whom  the  Assem- 
bly put  the  writing  against  the  Antinomians.''  He 
was  on  the  committee  to  draw  up  a  coafession  of 
faith,  and  preached  thrice  before  Pariiament,  the 
sermons  being  published:  The  Covenant-Aven^ng 
Sword  Brandished  [Lev.  xxvi.  25]  (London,  1643, 
4to,  pp.  2S) ;  Engiand^s  Eben^ur  [I  Sam.  vii.  12] 
(1645,  4to,  pp,  34);  A  Great  Wimder  in  Heaven  ; 
or,  a  livelif  Piclure  of  the  MUUaTd  Church,  dravm 
by  aDivim  Penman  [Rev.  xii.  1,  2]  (1647,  4to,  pp. 
44).  While  at  Cambridge  he  published  Taciica 
sacrat  sive  de  mUUe  spirituali  ptignant^f  vincente, 
£l  triumphantedi^eri€Uw  (Cambridge,  1657,  4 to,  pp. 
363),  containing  also  three  Oroiumes  anti-Weige- 
Imnm,  After  his  death  there  were  published: 
ArmUla  catechstica^  A  Chain  of  Principles ;  or, 
an  orderly  C<mcaien€dion  of  Theahgical  Ap^wrisma 
and  ExercUotiona^  wherein  the  chief  Heads  of  Chris- 
tian Religion  are  asserted  and  improved  (Cambridge, 
1659,  4to,  pp.  490)^  an  unfinished  work  designed 
to  form  a  complete  body  of  divinity  in  thirty 
aphorisms,  only  six  of  which  were  completed, 
covering  for  the  most  part  the  ground  of  the  first 
twenty  questions  of  the  larger  Weatminflter  Cate- 
.  chism,  m  essentially  the  same  order;  also  ^tnv- 
&p£^oc-  or  God-Man  (London,  1660,  4to.pp.  311), 
an  exposition  of  the  Gospel  of  John  i.  1-18,  dis- 
cussing the  divinity  and  humanity  of  Christ,  and 
maintaining  the  Catholic  doctrine  against  all  here- 
sies.  C.  A.  Bai6G8. 

AHSEHIUS^  ar-fii'ni-us:  I*  Egyptian  monkj 
d.,  nearly  or  more  than  one  hundred  years  old,  at 
Troe  (Troja),  near  Memphis,  about  450.  He  was  a 
Roman  of  distinction,  served  as  tutor  to  the  sons  of 
the  emperor  Theododus,  and  retired  into  the  desert 
of  Se^tis  in  Egypt  under  Arcadius.  He  is  com- 
memorated in  the  Greek  Church  on  May  S  and  in 
the  Latin  on  July  19,  He  wrote  a  book  of  **  In- 
L— 20 


stmction  and  Esthortation  *'  for  his  monks,  and  an 
exposition  of  Luke  x.  25  (ed.  A.  Mai,  Cla^id 
auelores,  x.,  Rome,  1838,  553-557;  MPG,  Ixvi. 
1615^26).  G-  KnOOEB, 

BiBLiotiBAf HTJ  Vita,  ia  ASB,  July,  iv.  60&-^l;  DCS,  L 
172-1T4. 

2^  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  1255-67;  d, 
1273,  On  the  de^th  of  the  emperor  Theodore 
Lascaris  11,  in  1259,  Michael  Palseologus  usurped 
the  throne,  seized  upon  the  legitimate  heir,  John 
Lasesiis,  a  boy  of  six  or  seven  years,  and  deprived 
him  of  his  eyesight.  Arsenius  manfully  es^poused 
the  cause  of  the  young  prince  and  was  banished  to 
an  island  in  the  Propontis  in  consequence.  He  had 
followers  who  for  a  number  of  decudes  remained 
in  irreconcilable  opposition  and  formal  schism 
agsinst  the  government.  His  will,  in  which  he 
anathcmatijsed  the  emperor  and  his  helpers,  is  in 
MFG,  cxl.  947-958,  G,  KatGBR, 

BiBLiooftAi^T:  KL,  I  1447-50. 

ART  Airo    CHURCH, 

Art  m  the  Early  Chur^jh  (|  l>. 

The  Romanesque  aad  Meduval  Perjadla  (|  2). 

The  KunmaHanoe  (§3). 

Siac?  the  EeformaUon  (|  4). 

There  is  nothing  in  the  nature  of  Christianity 
which  excludes  art,  although  in  the  Apostolic  Age, 
under  the  prevalence  of  the  purely  religious  con- 
templation of  life  and  life's  problems,  the  knowl- 
edge and  cultivation  of  it  naturally  receded.  But 
when  Cluistianity  entered  into  the  world  of  Greco- 
Roman  culture,  it  soon  became  evident  that  it 
had  great  receptivity  for  art.  If  the  Church  al- 
lowed artisfric  decoration  in  the  solemn  resting- 
places  of  the  dead,  the  catacombs,  as  early  as  the 
end  of  the  first  century,  the  conclusion  ia  justified 
that  art  had  also  a  place  in  tiie  bouse  of  worship. 
Herein  the  fundamental  position  of  the  Church  is 
clearly  expressed ;  and  the  steady  growth  of  artistic 
activity  during  the  second  and  third  eenturiea 
indicates  not  only  a  tacit  permission,  but  even  an 
aetive  promotion  on  the  part  of  the  Church,  though 
no  definite  statement  to  that  effect  is  found. 
Nevertheless,  some  doubts  were  felt.  The  existing 
art  was  intimately  connected  with  the  cult  of  the 
gods  and  was  thus  defiled  by  heathen- 
I,  Art  in  ism.  With  tliis  in  mind,  and  knowing 
the  Early  that  Christian  artists  manufactured 
Church,  idols,  Tertullian  attributed  to  the 
devil  the  introduction  into  the  world 
of  artificers  of  statues  and  likenesses  {De  idoio- 
latria,  iii.).  But  herein  he  does  not  touch  upon 
the  fundamental  question,  having  in  mind  only 
art  stained  by  idolatry,  dement  of  Alexandria 
is  of  much  the  same  opinion,  yet  he  adds  "let  art 
receive  its  meed  of  praise,  but  let  it  not  deceive 
man  by  passing  itself  off  for  truth  ''  (Pr&lrepiikm, 
i  V. ).  The  j  udgment  of  both  Tertullian  and  Clement 
was  warp>ed  by  the  ascetic  ideal.  Again  the  Old 
Testament  prohibition  of  likenesses  of  living  thinp 
had  infiuence,  and  prevented  all  portraiture  of 
God  in  human  form  till  the  second  half  of  the  fourth 
centuiy.  The  Spanish  synod  at  Elvdra  about  313 
(see  Elvira,  SYNon  of)  declared  that  "  pictures 
ought  not  to  be  in  churches,  nor  that  which  w 
worshiped    and    adored  to  be  depicted    on   the 


Art  and  Ohnroh 
Arthur 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


806 


walls  "  (canon  xxxvi.).  The  same  considerations 
influenced  Eusebius  of  Ceesarea,  as  may  be  seen 
from  his  letter  to  the  empress  Ck)nstantia;  and, 
to  a  still  greater  degree,  Epiphanius,  who  tore  down 
a  ciu-tain  adorned  with  a  picture  in  a  Palestinian 
village  church,  because  it  was  contrary  to  Holy 
Writ  (Epi8t.  ad  Joh,  Hieros,,  ix.).  The  fear  that 
the  masses  just  emancipated  from  heathenism 
might  transfer  the  heathen  image-worship  to  the 
Christian  was  not  groundless.  But  the  general 
view  of  the  Church  was  not  expressed  by  these 
voices.  Men  esteemed  for  knowledge  and  the 
Christian  life  take  note  of  works  of  art  (Augustine, 
Gregory  of  Nyssa),  encourage  artists  (Basil  the 
Great),  or  express  pleasure  in  artistic  creations 
(Gregory  of  Nazianzus).  Still  more  explicit  is  the 
language  of  the  monuments  of  art.  From  the  time 
of  Constantino  ecclesiastical  architecture,  repre- 
sentative art,  and  the  minor  arts  made  rapid  prog- 
ress. Not  only  the  houses  of  worship  but  the  holy 
vessels,  vestments,  and  the  like  received  decoration. 
Even  an  ascetic  like  St.  Nilus  planned  a  magnificent 
church  (cf.  Augusti,  ii.  88  sqq.),  and  everywhere 
throughout  Christendom  bishops  were  eager  to 
build  (cf.  Schultze,  31  sqq.).  There  was  less 
reason  for  denying  the  admissibility  of  art,  since 
it  was  believed  that  more  than  one  picture  had 
originated  by  divine  miracle  (cf .  E.  von  DobschQtz, 
Chri8iu8bilder,  Leipsic,  1809)  and  even  the  evan- 
gelist Luke  was  regarded  as  a  painter  (cf.  T.  Zahn, 
EirUeUung  in  das  Neue  Testament,  ii.,  Leipsic,  1899, 
337). 

In  the  Carolingian  and  Romanesque  periods  the 
clergy  and  monks  were  the  creators  of  ecclesiastical 
art.    The  Benedictines  long  stood  at 
2.  The  Ro-  the  head.    The  Gothic  also  developed 
manesque   imder  church  influence,  although  in  it 
and  Medi-  the  lay  element  had  a  greater  part, 
eval        Art-loving    prelates    are    met    with 
Periods,     throughout  the  entire  medieval  period 
(cf.  Otte,   ii.  24-25).     In   the  Greek 
Church  of  the  Middle  Ages,  Churcli  and  art   are 
even  more  closely  connected,  and    the  influence 
of    the    Church    was  greater.     The    freedom    of 
art,  in  so  far  as  it  was  taken  into  the  ecclesiastical 
service,   was   more  limited,   but  the  current   as- 
sumption that  dead  formalism  and  conventionality 
ruled  in  the  Byzantine  Church  is  an  error.    There 
was    a    glorious  revival  in  the    ninth  century. 
The  iconoclastic   controversy  had   a   destructive 
influence,  but  its  outcome  is  proof  of  the  insep- 
arable connection  of  art  and  Church. 

The    Renaissance    brought    a    change.    As    it 
emphasized  the  rights  of  the  individual  and  called 
for  independence  and  personal  responsibility,  so 
it   delivered    art   from    ecclesiastical    domination 
and  tutelage.    Free  apprehension  of  nature  took 
the    place    of   the    former  more   or 
3.  The  Re-  less  conscious   dependence  on  tradi- 
naissance.  tion   (J.    Burckhardt,  Die  KvUur  der 
Renaissance  in  ItaHen,  Leipsic,  1885; 
idem,  Oeschichte  der  Renaissance  in  Italien,  Stutt- 
gart, 1890).    In  Michelangelo  this  freedom  comes 
out    the     grandest.    The    Church    itself,    carried 
away  by  the  powerful  stream  of  the  new  culture, 
was  first  moved  by  it  without  reflection,  but  its 


true  ideas  characterize  not  so  much  the  Renais- 
sance popes,  Julius  II.  and  Leo  X.,  as  an  Adrian 
VI.  Hence  the  disenchantment  which  soon  fol- 
lowed. 

With  the  restoration  of  Roman  Catholicism 
after  the  convulsions  of  the  Reformation,  com- 
mences the  renunciation  of  the  free  art  of  the 
Renaissance  and  a  return  to  the  ecclesiastical  ideals 
of  the  Middle  Ages.  Romanticism 
4.  Since  strengthened  this  impulse  by  similar 
the  Refor-  tendencies,  and  modem  ultramon- 
mation.  tane  Roman  Catholicism  carried  it 
out  to  the  utmost.  The  inability 
of  Roman  Catholic  ethics  to  appreciate  the  phe- 
nomena of  the  secular  life  influences  also  the  judg- 
ment of  the  Church  of  Rome  on  the  essence  and 
purpose  of  art.  It  regards  secular  art  as  on  a 
lower  level  than  ecclesiastical.  Protestantism, 
on  the  other  hand,  continues  the  conception  of  the 
Renaissance.  The  standards  of  valuation  of  a 
work  of  art  are  not  to  be  taken  from  dogmatics 
and  ethics,  but  from  the  character  of  art  itself. 
No  fundamental  difference  between  secular  and 
religious  art  is  recognized.  With  this  the  possibility 
of  an  unlimited,  free  relation  between  Church  and 
art  is  obtained.  The  two  branches  of  Protestant- 
ism are  here  in  perfect  agreement.  They  per- 
ceive in  art  something  which  is  permitted  to  the 
Christian  as  the  use  of  secular  culture  in  general. 
But  the  two  confessions  differ  in  that  the  Lutheran 
Church  not  only  opened  its  houses  of  worship  to 
art  but  asserted  for  it  therein  a  necessary  place; 
whereas  the  Reformed  Church,  stron^y  influenced 
in  its  ethics,  as  in  other  respects,  by  an  Old  Testa- 
ment legalistic  view,  excluded  art  as  much  as  pos- 
sible from  the  culture  and  reUgious  service  in  general. 
From  this  Protestantism  has  wrongly  been  suspected 
of  being  an  adversary  of  art.  But  this  rigor  has 
been  somewhat  weakened,  or  wholly  abandoned 
in  modem  times.  From  the  position  of  Protes- 
tantism toward  art  follows  its  perfect  independence 
of  the  ecclesiastical  tradition.  Much  as  it  demands 
a  religious  and  ecclesiastical  art,  it  abstains  from 
laying  down  canonical  enactments  with  reference 
to  its  development,  while  constantly  and  properly 
insisting  that  such  art  shall  be  really  promotive  of 
its  avowed  lofty  purpose.  Victor  Schultze. 

Biblxooraphy:  J.  C.  W.  AugUBti,  Beitr&oe  tvr  ckrutluhen 
KunMtoeBchichte,  2  vols.,  Leipsio,  1841-46;  A.  N.  Didron, 
ChritHan  Iconography;  or,  Ote  Hiatory  of  Chriatian  Art  m 
the  Middle  Aoea,  trand.  from  the  Fr.,  London,  1861; 
A.  Lenoir,  Architecture  monaeUque,  Paris,  1852;  C.  J. 
Hemans,  Hietory  of  Ancient  Chrietianity  and  Sacred  Art 
in  Italy,  Florence,  1866;  idem,  Hietory  of  Mediaval  Chrie- 
tianity and  Art  in  Italy,  vol.  i.,  Florence,  1869.  vol.  ii, 
London,  1872;  F.  Piper,  EinUitung  in  die  monumentale 
Theoloffie,  Gotha,  1867;  W.  LQbke.  Ecdeeiaetical  Art  in 
Qermany  during  the  Middle  Agee,  London.  1870;  R.  St. 
J.  Tyrwhitt,  Art  Teadiing  of  the  Primitive  Church,  London, 
1872;  H.  Otte.  Handbueh  der  kirdUiehen  KunMtarchOologie 
dee  deutedten  Mittelaltere,  2  vole.,  Leipeic,  1883-85;  A. 
Jameson,  Sacred  and  Legendary  ArU  2  vols.,  Boston,  1886; 
M.  Stokes.  Early  Chrietian  Art  in  Ireland,  London.  1888; 
J.  von  Schlosser,  Schriftqttellen  aur  Oeeehichte  der  karolin' 
giechen  Kunet,  Vienna.  1892;  idem,  Quelienhuch  tur  Kunet- 
geediu^Ue  dee  abendlAndiedien  MittelaUere,  Vienna,  1896; 
E.  L.  Cutts.  Early  Chrietian  AH,  London.  1893;  V.  Schultse. 
ArchtuAogie  der  altduietlichen  Kunet,  Munich.  1895;  F.  X. 
Kraus.  Oeethiehte  der  chrietlidten  Kunet,  2  vols..  Freiburg, 
1896-1900;  W.  Lowrie.  Monumente  of  Ote  Early  Churdi, 
New  York.  1901;  E.  M.  HurU.  The  Life  of  our  Lord  in 


807 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Art  and  Ohiiroh 
Arthur 


Art,  vfiik  tarn*  AatoutU  of  £h«  AtHsiic  Treatment  tif  the  Life 
of  St.  John  the  Baptiit.  Bdstuti.  ISmi  T.  Hemidoire,  Geniae 
d*  ia  cryploQfiipkie  apoatitiiQUe  et  dt  tarcMtecture  ritueltc, 
Paris,  1903:  A.  Miciiel*  HUt.  de  Van  depuv  lev  prtmittit 
iemp§  db-^twnt,  vqEil  L-iL,  New  York,  1006;  ikad  the  geu- 
tsra}  trorkM  on  Chjidtiaii  &rt  aad  archectlogy, 

ARTj  HEBREW:  The  ancient  Israelites  accom- 
plishad  practically  nothing  in  the  realm  of  art. 
They  lacked  tbe  necessary  natural  gifts,  construe t- 
ive  power,  and  creative  imagination.  In  the 
ancient  time^  when  images  of  god^  w^re  indispeii- 
eabla  to  worship^  their  native  iaeapacky  was  sup^ 
piemen  ted  by  no  outside  influefice,  and  the  old 
iRraeUtic  images  were  of  the  rudest  kind.  After 
contact  with  more  artistic  neighbors  had  given 
them  technical  ekill,  the  peculiar  hostility  of  their 
religion  to  representative  art  prevented  its  devel- 
opment. To  fluch  an  extent  was  this  hostility 
carried  that  ail  likenesses  of  hving  creatures, 
whether  hunxon  or  animal,  were  forbidden.  Such 
a  prohibition — which  survives  in  Islam  to-day — 
was  manifestly  possible  only  among  a  people  of  no 
artistic  tastes  or  powers;  it  is  inconceivable  among 
the  Greeks.  There  ia  no  mention  of  Israelii ic 
sculpture.  The  complete  silence  concerning  statues 
or  atone  oroamentaUon  of  any  kind  in  Solomon's 
buildings  indicates  that  nothing  of  the  sort  was 
found  there.  Stone  sarcophagi,  such  as  the  Fhe- 
nicians  and  Egyptians  made,  were  not  used.  The 
ma^ebhoihj  the  cultic  pillars  of  stc»ne,  make  the 
nearest  approach  to  statuary;  but  while  among 
other  nations  the  stone  pillars  developed  into  true 
stafcuea  of  gods,  among  the  Israelites  they  always 
remained  mere  pillars.  Such  an  expression  as 
"  goodly  images  "  in  Hos.  x.  1  probably  indicates 
that  sometimes,  as  among  other  Semitic  peoples, 
rude  forms  were  chiieled  on  the  pillars.  Wood 
carving  seems  to  have  been  practiied.  The  tera- 
phim  certainly  had  something  Uke  a  roan's  head 
(I  Sam,  xLx.  13).  There  were  two  cherubim  of 
olive  wood  in  Solomon *s  temple  (I  Kings  vi.  23), 
and  in  Ea&ekiers  time  the  temple  doors  and  walls 
were  adorned  with  carving  (Ezek.  xh.  17-26;  cf, 
also  the  later  additions  to  the  description  of  Solo- 
mon's temple,  I  Kings  vii.  IS,  29,  35).  Door- 
posta  and  the  wainscoting  of  houses  and  articles  of 
furniture,  such  a^  divans,  tablen,  and  chairs,  were 
thus  decorated  in  the  time  of  the  later  kingp.  But 
it  is  noteworthy  that  the  masterpiece  of  such  work, 
Solomon's  throne  (I  Kings  x.  18^20),  was  made  by 
Phenician  workmen.  Metal  work  also  developed 
under  Phenician  influence.  Solomon  had  to  send 
to  Tyre  for  an  artist  to  do  the  casting  necessary 
for  the  temple  (I  Kings  vii.  15-46).  The  art  of 
overlaying  with  metal  seems  to  have  been  better 
understood  and  to  date  from  an  earlier  time.  The 
ephod  may  have  been  made  of  wood  or  clay  over- 
laid with  gold  or  silver  (see  Ephod),  and  the  calves 
of  Dan  and  Bethel  (I  Kings  xii.  28-20)  were  doubt- 
less constructed  in  this  way.  A  knowledge  of  gem 
cutting  is  ascribed  to  the  time  of  the  Exodus 
(Ex.  xxviii.  21),  and  the  patriarchs  are  said  to 
have  had  seals  (Gen.  xxxviii,  IS), — which  proves 
at  least  that  the  art  was  familiar  and  old  when  the 
narratives  were  written.  There  is  mention  of  on 
iron  graving  tool  with  diamond  point  (Jer,  xvii.  1 ). 


israeUtic  seals  which  have  been  preserved  resemble 
the  Phenician  so  closely  that  they  can  be  distin- 
guished only  when  they  bear  a  distinctively  Israel- 
itic  name  (seeDR£aaA.Ni>ORNAME:NT|  Hebrew, 1 6). 
Hebrew  pottery  also  has  the  same  form  as  the 
Phenician;  some  of  the  specimens  which  have  been 
found  may  be  Phenician  work.  They  are  painted 
with  geometric  patterns  (see  HANniCBArrs,  He- 
brew), Manifestly  there  can  be  no  thought  of 
a  Hebrew  style  in  any  of  the  departments  described, 
distinct  from  that  prevailing  in  Phenicia  and  all 
Syria,  and  this  was  not  original,  but  borrowed  from 
Assyria  and  Egypt.  I,  Benzinoer. 

BiAuoo^Afftr:  Q.  Ferrot  &sd  C.  Chipies,  Hiatmre  dm  Vari 
daru  Vaniiq\t\li,  iv,,  Paiia,  IS87,  Efig,  tmn^l.^  Hittonf  of 
AH  in  Sardinia,  Judea,  ^vria.  and  Asia  Minor,  2  vols., 
London,  1S90;  Bemiinffer^  An^Oohgie,  240-271;  Nowaek, 
ArchdoLtffi*,  U  259-268. 

AHTAXEIOCES,  ar"tax-^rk'flli:  The  name  of 
a  Persian  king  mentioned  in  Nehemiah  and  Ezra, 
where,  however,  the  word  occurs  in  the  form  of 
Artachahaahta,  by  which  is  doubtless  meant  Artax* 
erxes  1.  Longimanus,  465-425  B.C.  In  the  Persian 
cuneiform  inscriptions  the  name  is  written  Artakh- 
shathra,  *'  righteous "  or  "  &ubhme  ruler,"  In 
Ezra  iv.  7^  Art>axerxes  Longimonus  is  meant,  not 
the  Pseudo-Smerdis ;  so  also  Essra  vii.  1,  11  wher^ 
following  Josephus  AnL^  XI.  v.  1,  Xerxes  has  been 
read.  In  the  twentieth  year  of  Artachahashta  or 
Artaxerxes,  that  is,  in  the  year  445-444  b,c.  Nehe- 
miahj  the  cup-bearer  of  the  king,  went  as  governor 
to  Jerusalem.    See    Peesia.         (B.  Lindner.) 

ARTEHOir  (a/ti-mBn)orAllTEMAS:  A  heretic 
of  the  tliird  century,  founder  of  a  amall  sect  called 
the  Artemonites.  Nothing  is  known  of  him  except 
what  may  be  gathered  from  brief  references  in 
Eusebius,  Epiphanius,  Theodoret^  and  Photius; 
it  seems  certain  that  he  shrank  from  applying  the 
name  God  to  Jesus,  and  he  is  probably  to  be  classed 
with  the  dyiiamistic  Monarchians  (see  Monarch- 
ianism);  he  was  living  at  Rome,  but  separated 
from  the  Church  and  without  influence,  about  270. 
Paul  of  Samosata  adopted  and  developed  his  views. 

ARTHUR,  WILLIAM:  Methodist;  b.  at  Kells 
(IS  m,  n.w,  of  Belfast),  (kiunty  Antrim,  Ireland, 
Feb.  3,  1819;  d,  at  Cannes,  France,  March  9,  190L 
He  began  to  preach  at  the  age  of  sixteen,  was 
accepted  as  a  candidate  for  the  ministry  by  the 
Irish  Conference  in  1837,  and  spent  the  next  two 
years  as  a  itudent  at  the  Theological  Institution 
at  Hoxton,  London.  In  1839  he  went  to  India, 
and  opened  a  new  mission  station  at  Gutti,  Mysore, 
but  returned  to  England  in  1841,  completely 
broken  down  in  health.  Hii  eyesight p  in  particu- 
lar,  was  much  impaired^  and  from  this  affliction  be 
never  fully  recovered.  He  was  stationed  at  Bou- 
logne, 1^6^  in  Paris,  1847^8-  preached  in  I/ondon, 
1840-50;  was  appointed  one  of  the  secretaries  of 
the  Wesley  an  fttiseionary  Society,  1851 ;  first  prin- 
cipal of  the  Belfast  Methodist  College,  1868;  honor- 
ary missionary  secretary,  1871.  In  1888  he  retired 
and  thenceforth  lived  chiefly  in  southern  France. 
In  1856  he  was  made  a  member  oi  the  legal  com- 
mittee of  his  Chureh,  and  from  that  time  on  was 
prominent   in    all    comiectional    committees   and 


Articles 
Ascetioiom 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


808 


conference  proceedings.  He  was  president  of  the 
Conference  in  1866.  During  the  Civil  War  in  Amer- 
ica he  championed  the  Union  cause  and  wrote  a 
series  of  able  articles  in  its  support  for  The  London 
Quarterly  Review — a  periodical  which  he  helped 
to  found  in  1853  and  to  which  he  contributed 
regularly  for  thirty  years.  His  books  are  numerous 
and  some  of  them  had  an  enormous  sale.  They 
include:  A  Mieaion  to  the  Mysore,  with  Scenes  and 
Facte  Illustrative  of  India,  its  People  and  its  Religion 
(London,  1847;  ed.,  with  introduction,  notes,  and 
appendix,  H.Haigh,  1902);  The  Successful  Merchant, 
Sketches  of  the  Life  of  Mr,  Samuel  Budgett  (1852); 
The  People's  Day,  an  Appeal  to  the  Right  Hon. 
Lord  Stanley  against  his  Advocacy  of  a  French  Sun- 
day (1855);  The  Tongue  of  Fire,  or  the  True  Power 
of  Christianity  (1856);  Italy  in  Transition,  Public 
Scenes  and  Private  Opinions  in  the  Spring  of  i860 
(1860);  The  Modem  Jove,  a  Review  of  the  Collected 
Speeches  of  Pio  Nona  (1873);  The  Life  of  Gideon 
Ousdey  (1876);  The  Pope, the  Kings, and  the  People 
(2  vols.,  1877;  ed.  W.  B.  Neatley,  1903);  On  the 
Difference  between  Physical  and  Moral  Law,  the 
Femley  lecture  for  1883  (1883);  Religion  without 
Ood  and  Ood  without  Religion,  a  criticism  of  the 
philosophical  systems  of  Frederic  Harrison,  Her- 
bert Spencer,  and  Sir  Fitzjames  Stephen  (3  parts, 
1885-87). 

Bzbuoorapht:  Consult  The  MethodUt  Recorder,  xlii,  11-16, 
London,  Mar.  14,  1901,  for  biographical  sketch. 

ARTICLES,  IRISH,  LAMBETH,  THIRTY-NINE, 
ETC.  See  Irish  Articles,  Lambeth  Articles. 
Thirty-nine  Articles,  etc. 

ARUNDEL,  ar'xm-dl,  THOMAS:  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury;  b.  at  Arundel  Castle  (55  m.  s.w.  of 
London),  Sussex,  1353;  d.  at  Canterbury  Feb.  19, 
1414.  He  was  the  third  son  of  the  Earl  of  Arundel, 
and  the  family  influence  secured  his  promotion  to 
the  bishopric  of  Ely  when  only  twenty-one;  he  was 
made  Archbishop  of  York  in  1388,  of  Canterbury 
in  1396,  this  being  the  first  instance  of  a  translation 
from  York  to  Canterbury.  He  was  active  in  the 
turbulent  times  of  Richard  II,  and  incurred  the 
resentment  of  the  king;  in  1397,  with  his  brother, 
the  Earl  of  Arundel,  he  was  impeached  of  high 
treason;  the  Earl  was  executed  and  the  Archbishop 
was  banished.  He  went  to  Rome,  but  the  Pope, 
Boniface  IX,  at  the  request  of  Richard,  trans- 
ferred him  to  St.  Andrews  which  in  effect  deprived 
him  of  a  see,  as  Scotland  adhered  to  the  rival  pope, 
Benedict  XIII.  He  joined  Henry  of  Lancaster  on 
the  continent,  returned  with  him  to  England,  1399, 
crowned  him  king,  Oct.  13,  and  was  reinstated  as 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  He  was  five  times 
Lord  Chancellor  of  England,  twice  under  Richard 
II  (1386-89  and  1391-96),  and  three  times  imder 
Henry  IV.  Arundel  was  a  shrewd  and  far-sighted 
prelate  in  the  performance  of  what  he  understood 
to  be  his  duty.  He  spent  his  wealth  freely  upon 
the  churches  in  which  he  was  interested.  In  his 
later  years  he  entered  heartily  into  the  persecution 
of  the  Lollards  and  was  especially  conspicuous  in 
the  prosecution  of  Lord  Cobham.  He  procured  a 
prohibition  of  the  vernacular  translation  of  the 
Scriptures. 


Bibuoorapht:  W.  F.  Hook.  Livee  of  the  Archbiahope  of 
CanUHmry,  iv,  London,  1865;  DB,  ii,  137-141. 

ASA,  6'sa:  Third  king  of  Judah,  son  and  suc- 
cessor of  Abijah.  He  is  said  to  have  reigned 
forty-one  years,  contemporary  with  Jeroboam, 
Nadab,  Baasha,  Elah,  Zimri,  Omri,  and  Ahab  of 
Israel.  His  dates,  according  to  the  old  chronology, 
are  955-914  b.c;  according  to  Hommel,  911-871; 
according  to  Duncker,  929-872;  according  to  Kamp- 
hausen,  917-877.  Although  in  I  Kings  xv,  10, 
Maachah,  the  daughter  of  Abishalom,  is  mentioned 
as  his  mother,  who,  according  to  verse  2,  was  the 
mother  of  Abijah  (called  ''  Abijam  "  in  I  Kings; 
see  Abuah),  he  was  probably  not  the  latter's 
brother,  but  his  son,  as  is  stated  in  verse  8.  Maa- 
chah was  probably  the  name  of  both  his  mother 
and  his  grandmother,  and  ''  daughter  of  Abi- 
shalom" is  erroneously  inserted  inverse  10  from 
verse  2.  Asa  tried  to  uproot  idolatry,  and  deposed 
his  mother  **  because  she  had  made  an  idol  in  a 
grove  ''(I  Kings  xv,13,  A.  V.;  R.  V.,"  because  she  had 
made  an  abominable  image  for  an  Asherah;"  the 
object  in  question  may  have  been  a  phallic  image). 
He  drove  the  Sodomites  from  the  land,  and  de- 
stroyed the  idols.  The  high  places,  however,  were 
not  removed.  At  the  suggestion  of  the  prophet 
Azariah  (according  to  the  Chronicler)  he  caused 
his  people  to  renew  their  vows  to  Yahweh  at  a 
great  festival.  He  is  said  to  have  built  cities  and 
performed  mighty  deeds,  but  no  details  are  given. 

What  is  told  of  Asa's  conduct  in  the  war  with 
Israel  does  not  redound  to  his  glory  (I  Kings 
XV,  16  sqq.).  When  Baasha  fortified  Ramah 
on  the  frontier  between  Israel  and  Judah, 
Asa  could  think  of  no  better  way  to  retaliate 
than  to  hire  Ben-hadad,  king  of  Syria,  to  invade 
Israel.  The  expedient  accomplished  its  immediate 
purpose  by  forcing  Baasha  to  retire  from  Ramah; 
but  the  ultimate  outcome  was  the  hundred  years' 
war  between  Israel  and  the  Arameans,  which 
brought  misfortime  upon  both  lands  and  even 
involved  Judah.  The  Chronicler  states  that  the 
prophet  Hanani  was  sent  to  rebuke  Asa  for  his 
conduct,  and  was  imprisoned  for  his  boldness. 
The  Chronicler  further  relates  that  in  the  eleventh 
year  of  Asa's  reign  "  Zerah  the  Ethiopian  "  invaded 
Judah  and  met  a  great  defeat.  The  event  is  not 
mentioned  in  the  Book  of  Kings,  and  some  regard 
the  narrative  as  unhistorical.  Those  who  accept 
it  have  not  succeeded  in  identifying  Zerah  the 
Ethiopian.  In  his  old  age  Asa  suffered  from  a 
disease  of  the  feet,  perhaps  gout.  [The  Chronicler 
characteristically  remarks  "  yet  in  his  disease  he 
sought  not  to  Yahweh,  but  to  the  physicians  ".] 
Asa's  history  is  in  I  Kings  xv,  ^14;  II  Chron. 
xiv-xvi.  (W.  LoTZ.) 

The  most  probable  dates  for  Asa  are  912-872 
B.C.  J.  F.  M. 

Biblxooraphy:  Consult  the  works  mentioned  under  Ahab, 

and,  in  addition,  for  Zerah  the  Ethiopian,  H.  Winckler. 

AltteHamenUiche   UrUertuchungent  pp.   160  sqq.,  Leipsic 

1892. 

ASAPH.    See  Psalms. 

ASBURY,  az'ber-i,  FRANCIS:  The  first  Method- 
ist bishop  ordained  in  America;  b.  at  Hamstead 
Bridge,  parish  of  Handsworth  (a  northern  suburb 


809 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Artioles 
▲soetioism 


of  Birmingham),  Staffordshire,  En^and,  Aug.  20, 
1745;  d.  at  Spottsylvania,  Va.,  Mar.  31,  1816. 
He  became  a  local  preacher  at  the  age  of  sixteen, 
and  an  itinerant  minister  in  1767;  at  his  own 
request  he  was  sent  by  Wesley  as  a  missionary  to 
America  in  1771,  landing  at  Philadelphia  with 
his  companion,  Richard  Wright,  Oct.  27;  in  1772 
he  was  appointed  Wesley's  "  general  assistant  in 
America,"  with  supervisory  power  over  all  the 
Methodist  preachers  and  societies  in  the  country, 
but  the  next  year  was  superseded  by  Thomas 
Rankin.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolutionary 
War  Rankin  returned  to  England,  but  Asbury 
chose  to  remain.  like  most  of  the  Methodist 
preachers,  he  was  a  nonjuror  (that  is,  he  had  con- 
scientious scruples  concerning  oaths,  and  refused 
to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  required  by  the  au- 
thorities), and  he  suffered  some  annoyance  from 
the  officials  during  the  war.  After  the  close  of  the 
war  the  Methodists  were  organized  into  an  inde- 
pendent Church,  Thomas  Coke  (q.v.)  and  Asbury 
being  chosen  joint  superintendents  at  the  Christmas 
Conference  at  Baltimore,  1784,  and  Asbury  or- 
dained by  Coke  Dec.  27.  The  remainder  of  his 
life  he  devoted  to  the  Church  with  tireless  energy 
and  unflagging  zeal.' 

Asbury  was  fearless  in  the  discharge  of  duty, 
possessed  a  keen  wit  and  imcommon  shrewdness, 
was  far-sighted  and  a  good  organizer.  He  never 
married;  and  his  salary  was  sixty-four  dollars  a 
year.  His  early  education  was  defective;  but  in 
later  life  he  acquired  some  knowledge  of  Greek  and 
Hebrew.  In  1785  he  laid  the  foundation  of  the  first 
Methodist  college,  and  he  formed  a  plan  of  dividing 
the  coimtry  into  districts  with  an  academy  in  each. 
His  journal  from  the  date  of  sailing  for  America 
to  1780  was  published  before  his  death,  and  the 
remaining  years  were  transcribed  and  published 
by  F.  Hollingworth  in  1821;  it  has  been  often 
reprinted  (cf.  The  Heart  of  Asbury*8  Journal,  ed. 
E.  S.  Tipple,  New  York,  1905). 

Biblxoorapht:  E.  L.  Janes,  Character  and  Career  of  Francia 
Aebury,  New  York.  1870  (the  standard  biography);  W. 
C.  Lairabee,  Arintry  and  Hit  CoadjiUore,  2  vols.,  Cincin- 
nati, 1853;  W.  P.  Strickland,  The  Pioneer  Bishop;  or, 
the  Life  and  Timet  of  Franci$  Aabury,  ib.  1858;  F.  W. 
Briggs,  Bithop  Aabury:  a  Biographical  Study  for  Christian 
Workers,  London,  1874;  J.  F.  Hurst,  Uietary  of  the  Chris- 
tian Church,  ii,  894,  005,  New  York,  1900.  For  Wesley's 
yiewB  on  the  assumption  by  Asbury  of  the  title  "  bishop  " 
consult  R.  D.  Urlin,  Churchman's  Life  of  Wesley,  pp.  168- 
170.  London,  n.d. 

ASCENSION,  FEAST  OF  THE:  In  Acts  i,  3 
the  fortieth  day  after  the  resurrection  is  designated 
as  that  of  Christ's  ascension.    The  Epistle  of  Bamar 

>  He  visited  Massachusetts  23  times  after  1791  .  .  .  the 
■tate  of  New  York  56  times.  New  Jersey  62  times,  Penn- 
sylvania 78  times,  Delaware  33  times,  Maryland  80  times, 
North  Carolina  63  times.  South  Carolina  46  times,  Virginia 
84  times,  Tennessee  and  Georgia  each  20  times,  and  other 
■tates  or  territories  with  corresponding  frequency.  In  his 
unparalleled  career  he  preached  about  16,500  sermons,  or 
at  least  one  a  day,  and  travel  d  about  270,000  miles,  or 
6,000  a  year,  presiding  in  no  Ims  than  224  annual  confer- 
ences, and  ordaining  more  than  4,000  preachers. — Janes, 
p.  6.  When  he  came  to  America  the  Methodists  numbered 
10  preachers  and  600  members;  when  he  died,  after  forty- 
five  years  of  work,  they  had  695  preacher*  and  214,235 


bas  (xv),  on  the  other  hand,  grounds  the  observ- 
ance of  Sunday  on  its  having  been  the  day  marked 
by  both  the  resurrection  and  the  ascension.  If 
this  is  to  be  reconciled  with  the  Acts,  it  can  only 
be  by  the  assumption  that  Luke  counts  four  weeks 
as  four  decades,  just  as  later  ecclesiastical  usage 
numbers  the  Sundays  before  Lent  in  this  loose  way 
as  Septuagesima,  Sexagesima,  and  Quinquagesima; 
but  the  ''  forty  days  "  of  the  Acts  sounds  too  defi- 
nite for  this  hypothesis  to  be  accepted.  The 
Christian  Church  has  observed  this  conunemoration 
on  the  Thursday  of  the  sixth  week  after  Easter 
since  it  has  been  observed  at  all,  which  could  only 
be  after  the  festivals  of  Easter  and  Pentecost  were 
firmly  established.  Origen  does  not  know  the 
festival  (Contra  Celsum,  viii,  23).  It  is  mentioned, 
however,  in  the  Apostolic  Constitutions  (v,  19,  viii, 
13);  and  Chrysostom  has  a  homily  for  it,  besides 
referring  to  it  in  another  place.  Socrates  {Hist, 
ecd.,  vii,  26)  mentions,  under  the  year  390,  that  the 
people  celebrated  it  as  an  established  custom  in 
a  suburb  of  Constantinople.  In  the  West  its  observ- 
ance has  been  thought  to  be  attested  by  an  obscure 
canon  of  the  Council  of  Elvira  (306);  in  any  case, 
Augustine  knows  it  as  an  old  one  (Epist,  liv,  ad 
Januarium),  Its  celebration  was  specially  solemn. 
The  paschal  candle,  lighted  at  Easter  to  symbolize 
the  resurrection  of  the  Light  of  the  World,  is  ex- 
tinguished after  the  Gospel  in  the  high  mass  of 
that  day  throughout  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
signifying  the  departure  of  Christ  from  earth. 
The  Lutheran  Reformation  in  Germany  retained 
the  feast  as  Scriptural;  and  it  is  observed  as  one 
of  the  principal  festivals  in  the  Anglican  communion. 
(Georg  Rietschel.) 
Perhaps  the  earliest  reference  to  the  feast  ex- 
tant is  that  of  the  Peregrinatio  Etheria  (c.  380), 
which  states  that  a  feast  of  the  Ascension  was 
celebrated  in  Jerusalem  toward  the  close  of  the 
fourth  century,  coinciding  with  the  festival  of 
Pentecost  and  observed  on  the  same  day.  The 
feast  marks  the  close  of  the  paschal  season  and  is 
a  holyday  of  obligation  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church.  In  the  Latin  liturgy  the  term  "  ascen- 
sion "  is  used  exclusively  of  our  Lord.     J.  T.  C. 

Biblioorapht:  A.  Baillet,  Les  Vies  dee  saints,  avec  Vhistovre 
des  files  molnles.  Paris,  1701;  F.  Probst,  Brevier  und  Bre- 
viergebel,  f  93.  Tabingen,  1868;  DCA,i,  145-147;  N.  Nilles. 
Kalendarium  manuals  utriueqws  eodesia,  ii,  364,  Inns- 
bruck, 1881. 

ASCENSION  OF  PAUL.  See  Apocrypha,  B,  IV. 
ASCETICISM. 


New    Testament    Teaching 

Asceticism    in    the     Elarly 
Church  (f  2). 


Attitude  of  the  Reformers 
(13). 

True  Value  and  Uses  of  As- 
ceticism (14). 


The  term '' asceticism  "  (Gk.  askisis)  originally 
meant  **  practise,"  especially  the  training  of  an 
athlete.  In  philosophical  language-  it  denotes 
moral  exercise  and  discipline  (e.g.,  Epictetus, 
DissertationeSf  iii,  12;  Diogenes  Laertius,  VIII, 
viii,  8),  and  in  this  sense  passed  into  ecclesiastical 
language  (Eusebius,  Hist,  ecd.,  II,  xvii,  2;  Mar- 
tyres  PaLcBstincB,  x,  2,  xi,  2,  22).  In  the  history  of 
almost  all  religions,  as  well  as  in  ancient  moral 


Afloetiolnn 


THE  NEW   SCHAFF-HERZOG 


810 


philosophy,  asceticism  plays  an  important  part, 
evidenced  by  phenomena  like  self-mutilation, 
circumcision,  tattooing,  fasting,  flagellations,  pen- 
ance, etc.,  and  by  the  ethics  of  the  Buddhists, 
Stoics,  Pythagoreans,  and  Neoplatonists.  The 
Old  Testament  manifests,  on  the  whole,  few  tend- 
encies toward  outward  asceticism;  but  later 
Judaism,  in  its  Pharisaic  as  well  as  in  its  Hellen- 
istic form,  cultivated  it,  especially  in  the  practise 
of  fasting  (cf,  Dan.  x,  3;  Tobit  xii,  8; 
I.  New  Tea-  Matt,  vi,  16,  ix,  14;  Luke  xviii,  12). 
lament  Primitive  Christianity  kept  free  from 
Teaching,  this  externalizing  asceticism.  The 
custom  of  fasting  was  retained  (Matt, 
iv,  2;  Acts  xiii,  2,  xiv,  23,  xviii,  18,  xxi,  24,  xxvii,  9; 
II  Cor.  xi,  27),  but,  as  in  the  Old  Testament,  it  was 
only  auxiliary  to  prayer  (Esther  iv,  16;  Dan.  ix, 
3;  Tobit  xii,  8;  Luke  ii,  37;  Acts  x,  30,  xiii,  2, 
xiv,  23),  and  no  merit  was  attached  to  it.  In  place 
of  a  legal  and  meritorious  asceticism  the  Lord 
demands  watchfulness,  sobriety,  and  prayer  (Matt, 
xxiv,  42,  XXV,  13;  Mark  xiii,  37;  cf.  Acts  xx,  31; 
I  Cor.  xvi,  13;  II  Cor.  vi,  5,  xi,  27;  Eph.  vi,  18; 
Col.  iv.  2;  I  Thess.  v,  6, 8;  I  Pet.  i,  13,  v,  8;  II  Pet. 
iii,  11-12;  Rev.  iii,  3,  xvi,  15),  as  well  as  a  readiness 
to  resign  everything  to  follow  him  and  to  take  up 
the  cross  (Matt,  viii,  21-22,  x,  38-39,  xvi,  24,  xix, 
21;  Mark  viii,  34,  x,  28,  39;  Luke  ix,  67-58,  xiv, 
27).  In  the  morals  of  Jesus  everything  depends 
upon  the  disposition  and  free  deed.  Thus  Matt, 
vi,  17-18,  ix,  15,  xix,  12,  are  not  to  be  understood 
as  outward,  ascetic  regulations.  The  thoughts  of 
Paul  move  along  the  same  lines.  In  the  moral 
struggle  one  must  become  master  of  the  old  man 
who  has  been  put  off  (Rom.  vii,  23,  xiii,  14;  Gal. 
v,  17;  Eph.  vi,  12-18;  Col.  iii,  6-8;  I  Tim.  vi,  12), 
and  discipline  is  also  necessary  to  bring  the  body 
into  subjection  (I  Cor.  ix,  25-27).  This  is  the  true 
notion  of  asceticism  as  expressed  in  I  Tim.  iv,  7,  8. 
Remarks  like  I  Cor.  vii,  5,  8,  26-40  have  not  the 
value  of  generally  received  ethical  laws;  the  legal- 
ism of  Jewish  life,  the  contempt  of  marriage,  the 
worshiping  of  angels,  and  neglect  of  the  body  are  all 
rejected  (Gal.  ii,  12-16;  Col.  ii,  16-23;  I  Tim.  iv, 
3).  The  New  Testament,  therefore,  offers  the 
following  thoughts  as  bases  for  the  notion  of  asceti- 
cism: the  obligation  of  the  Christian  to  crucify 
the  flesh;  the  demand  to  bear  the  cross,  to  be  sober 
and  ready;  and  the  exhortation  to  "  exercise  *' 
the  body  and  to  fashion  it  into  an  organ  fit  for  the 
ends  of  the  Christian. 

Hellenistic   and   Jewish   influences   worked   to- 
gether to  introduce,  with  "  moralism,"  in  the  old 
catholic  time  an  ascetic  order  of  life. 
3.  Asceti-   The  institution  of  certain  fast-days, 
cism  in  the  fixed  hours  of  prayer,  the  restricted 
Early       use  of  food,  abstinence  from  marriage. 
Church,     withdrawal  from  the  world,  charac- 
terize this  tendency.    Asceticism,  no 
less  than  "  knowledge,"  came  to  be  considered  as 
belonging    to  Christianity  (Clement,    Strom,,  vi, 
12).     At  an  early  period  ascetics  are  found  who 
retire  into  the  desert  and  leave  the  Church  from 
moral  considerations    (Irensus,  Hcer,,  III,  xi,  9; 
IV,  xxvi,  2,  XXX,  3,  xxxiii,  7).    As    ascetic  tend- 
encies enter  more  deeply  into  the  Church  (cf .  the 


case  of  Origen,  Eusebius,  HiaL  eccL.,  vi,  2),  and  as 
the  Church  comes  to  know  the  world  more  inti- 
mately, it  becomes  easier  to  understand  the  origin 
of  ascetic  societies  (cf.  the  pseudo-Clementine 
Epistles,  De  virginitaie;  Hieracas,  in  Epiphanius, 
HcBT,,  Ixvii,  13;  Athanasius,  VUa  ArUonii,  iii,  14; 
Cyril,  CatecheseSf  iv,  24,  v,  4,  xii,  33;  Methodius, 
Convivium,  vii,  3;  Aphraates,  Horn.,  vi).  Here 
was  the  beginning  of  the  later  anchoretic  and  mon- 
astic system  (see  Monabticibm). 

On  this  road  the  Middle  Ages  proceeded.  The 
ascetic  practises  were  extended  more  and  more, 
and  their  extension  naturally  produced  among  the 
monks  a  state  of  dulness.  There  are  two  things 
especially  which  mark  the  history  of  medieval 
asceticism:  the  institution  of  penance  with  its 
works  of  satisfaction,  and  the  idea  of  imitating  the 
poverty  and  suffering  of  Jesus.  The  first  shows  a 
descending  evolution,  but  the  second  an  ascending 
one,  tending  to  introspection,  as  in  the  circle  of  the 
Friends  of  God.  The  way  of  asceticism  was  con- 
sidered as  the  way  of  perfection.  The  Augsburg 
Confession  (art.  xxvi,  8)  says  of  the 
3.  Attitude  medieval  period:  "  Christianity  was 
of  the  Re-  thought  of  as  consisting  solely  of  the 
formers,  observance  of  certain  holy  days,  rites, 
fasts,  attire.''  On  the  other  hand, 
the  Reformation  abolished  on  principle  the  medieval 
estimate  of  asceticism,  becaiise  the  solenm  ascetic 
works  are  not  enjoined  by  God,  but  by  worthless 
human  conunandments  (art.  xxiii,  6  sqq.,  19  sqq., 
xxvi,  18;  Apol.,  xxiii,  6,  60,  xxvii,  42-67),  and 
can  even  be  regarded  as  suicide  and  tempting  of 
God  (Luther,  Werke,  Erlangen  ed.,  iv,  380,  vii,  40, 
ix,  289,  xi,  104).  The  ascetic  system  is  also  abol- 
ished by  the  concept  of  righteousness  by  faith  which 
is  opposed  to  meritorious  works,  which  are  there- 
fore to  be  rejected  (Auga,  Con,,  xx,  8,  9  sqq.,  xxvi, 
1  sqq.,  8,  xxvii,  3, 44;  Apol.,  xv,  6  sqq.;  Art,  Schmal., 
iv,  14;  Luther,  xx,  250,  xvii,  8,  xiii,  262,  xKii, 
193,  Ixv,  128,  xxi,  330).  Thus  it  is  asserted 
that  the  ascetic  works  answer  not  the  will  of  God 
and  are  not  meritorious.  For  "  Christian  perfec- 
tion "  ascetic  works  are  not  necessary;  indeed, 
moral  conduct  is  the  more  certain  evidence  of  God's 
presence  (Auga.  Con,,  xvi,  4  sqq.,  xxvi,  10,  xxvii, 
10  sqq.,  XV,  49,  67;  Apol,,  xv,  26-26,  xvii,  61; 
Longer  Catechism,  precept  iv,  145).  But  asceti- 
cism is  hereby  not  done  away  with.  The  **  morti- 
fication of  the  flesh  "  ever  remains  a  Christian  duty 
{Auffs,  Con,,  xxvi,  31  sqq.).  But  by  this  is  not 
meant  a  weakening  and  destruction  of  the  natural 
powers,  but  the  self-discipline  by  which  the  natural 
powers  are  made  subject  to  the  soul,  thus  becoming 
fit  for  serving  God.  Outward  fast-regulations  are 
therefore  very  useful,  but  should  never  become 
a  law  (Luther,  xliii,  197-199,  Ixv,  128).  The 
Protestant  view  is  briefly  this:  "  Every  one  can 
use  his  own  discretion  as  to  fasting  and  watching, 
for  every  one  knows  how  much  he  must  do  to  master 
his  body.  Those,  however,  who  think  to  become 
pious  through  works  have  no  regard  for  fasting, 
but  only  for  the  works  and,  imagining  that  they 
are  pious  when  they  do  much  in  that  direction, 
sometimes  break  their  heads  over  it  and  ruin  their 
bodies  over  it  "  (Luther,  xxvii,  27,  190,  zliii,  199, 


311 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Afloetioism 
Aflohheim 


201,  X,  290,  xxi,  240,  x,  250).  It  is  useless  to  con- 
tinue the  historical  review,  since  no  essentially 
new  types  of  asceticism  have  appeared  in  the 
Church.  The  Roman  Catholic  Church  adheres 
on  principle  to  the  medieval  conception,  yet  in 
the  Jesuitic  **  Spiritual  Exercises "  the  purely 
sensual  asceticism  strongly  recedes,  and  there  is 
acconmiodation  to  the  modem  spirit.  Mysticism 
and  pietism  in  evangelical  Christendom  have 
demanded  renunciation  and  seclusion  in  a  one- 
sided manner  (cf.  C.  E.  Luthardt,  Creschichts  der 
Ethik,  ii,  Leipsic,  1893,  154  sqq.,  248  sqq.,  and  the 
histories  of  pietism  by  Ritschl  and  Schmid;  see 

PlETIfilf). 

Asceticism  is   a   special  moral   act.    Christian 

moral  acts  are  free,  devoted  to  the  acquisition  of  the 

highest  good  or  the  realization  of  the 

4.  True  kingdom  of  God.  They  have  for  their 
Vidua  and  object  the  reformation  of  one's  own 
Uses  of  As-  personality    (conversion    and   sancti- 

ceticism.  fication),  as  well  as  the  influence  on  the 
surroimding  conditions  to  be  realized 
by  this  personality.  The  Christian  life  is  a  con- 
tinual fight  with  sin,  but  is  to  overcome  it  by  virtue 
of  the  effects  of  grace.  This  task  can  not  in  itself 
be  called  an  "  exercise,"  since  it  rather  denotes 
the  self-preservation  of  the  Christian.  To  effect 
this  self-preservation  in  the  struggle  against  sin 
the  Christian  must  indeed  exercise  and  stretch 
his  powers  for  the  struggle.  The  object  of  morality 
is  opposition  to  sin  and  the  positive  exemplification 
of  the  good.  To  bring  this  about  it  is  necessary  to 
have  the  mastery  over  the  natural  gifts  and  powers 
of  man,  which  is  obtained  by  attention  to  self, 
by  watchfulness,  and  by  accustoming  one's  own 
nature  to  subjection  to  the  moral  will.  Asceticism 
is  not  directly  a  struggle  against  sin  and  realization 
of  the  Christian  good,  but  it  aims  at  such  a  rule 
over  the  natural  powers  that  one  is  qualified  to 
follow  the  good  will  readily  in  the  struggle  against 
sin  and  in  the  positive  monl  exemplification.  The 
typical  forms  of  asceticism  (fasting,  self-denial, 
etc.)  show  that  the  question  is  not  directly  the 
overcoming  of  sin  or  of  doing  good  works,  but  the 
training  of  the  natural  powers  for  both.  This  is  the 
specifically  evangelical  conception  of  asceticism. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  Roman  Catholics  define  as- 
ceticism as  a  direct  moral  act  and  as  "  the  summary 
of  all  which  serves  to  promote  moral  perfection" 
(Pruner,  in  KL,  i,  1460);  or  asceticism  is  ex- 
plained as  that  part  of  theology  which  *'  develops 
the  principles  of  Christian  perfection  and  points 
out  the  practical  rules  which  bring  about  the  soul's 
elevation  to  God  "  (J.  Ribet,  L*A8c6ttque  chritienne, 
Paris,  1888).  Here  the  various  exercises  of  asceti- 
cism are  moral  self-interest  and  good  works,  whereas, 
according  to  evangelical  conception,  asceticism 
is  self -discipline  to  make  one  fit  for  good  works; 
in  this  subordination  it  is  a  moral  deed  itself. 
Asceticism  is  therefore  self-control  in  the  true  sense 
of  the  word. 

Upon  a  closer  examination  the  point  here  is 
this:  (1)  The  task  is  to  exercise  nature  in  patience, 
watchfidness,  self-denial,  and  sobriety,  so  that  it 
becomes  fit  to  bear  the  sufferings  of  the  cross  sent 
by  God  as  a  blessing.    These  are  given  to  man 


from  Grod  for  "  the  mortifying  of  the  flesh  ";  the 
question  is  not  of  self-mortification  and  invited 
martyrdom.  The  cross  is  not  to  incite  the  Christian 
to  sin,  but  to  restrain  the  sinful  lust.  From  this 
point  of  view  the  Christian  is  to  consider  the  suffer- 
ing and  be  affected  by  it.  (2)  Our  nature  in  con- 
sequence of  the  sinfulness  of  man  is  exercised  and 
ready  to  walk  the  ways  pointed  out  by  the  evil 
will.  In  concrete  things  it  exemplifies  chiefly 
the  dominion  of  the  sensual  desires  over  the  spiritual 
will.  Over  against  this,  it  is  a  Christian  duty  to 
accustom  nature  to  subjugation  imder  the  spiritual 
will,  to  the  regulation  of  the  desires,  to  regularity 
and  propriety  of  life,  to  steadfastness  in  useful  work, 
to  the  proper  relation  between  labor  and  recreation. 
Here  one  has  to  deal  with  moral  gymnastics,  which 
are  to  fit  human  nature  to  obey  the  good  moral  will 
imparted  by  grace.  (3)  For  each  man  exist  cer- 
tain thoughts  and  incentives  which  in  themselves 
are  morally  indifferent,  but,  as  experience  teaches, 
may  become  a  temptation  to  the  individual.  To 
restrain  these  is  the  further  object  of  asceticism; 
and  herein  it  includes  fasting  in  the  ardent  sense, 
e.g.,  with  reference  to  society,  eating  and  drinking, 
matrimony,  sexual  intercourse,  novel-reading,  the 
theater,  dancing,  total  abstinence,  etc.  The  ques- 
tion here  is  of  a  moral  dietetics.  With  this  the 
field  of  asceticism  is  dreumscribed.  Only  it  should 
be  added  that  the  ascetic  practical  proof  must  never 
become  a  law;  it  calls  only  for  individual  self- 
restraint.  This,  however,  as  little  precludes 
ascetic  habits  in  the  individual  as  ascetic  customs 
in  conununities.  It  must  also  be  emphasized  that 
the  question  can  not  be  as  to  the  meritorious  char- 
acter of  asceticism;  for,  in  the  first  place,  this 
thought  has  no  place  in  evangelical  ethics;  in  the 
second  place,  because  the  necessity  of  ascetic  exer- 
cises proves  not  man's  moral  maturity,  but  imma- 
turity. Finally,  it  must  be  remarked  that  in  the 
concrete  life  the  ascetic  practical  proof  can  not  be 
separated  from  sanctification  and  the  moral  struggle. 

R.  Seebero. 
Bibuoobapht:  G.    Nitach,    PraxU    mortificationiB    oami§, 
Ck>th&.  1725;  K  Kist.  Chritaieha  Atcetik,  2  vols..  Weaael, 
1827-28:  O.  Zdckler,  KritiBche  GetchidUe  der  Aakeee,  Er- 
langen,  1863  (containa  a  bibliography);  idem,  Atkeae  und 
MOnchtum,    2  vols..  Frankfort,  1897;  DC  A,   U  147-149; 
Schaff,  ChruUan  Church,  i,  387-414;  J.  Mayer,  Die  ehrUt- 
liehe    Atceee,    Freiburg,    1894;    R.    Seeberg.     in     CfGA, 
dx  (1898).  506  sqq.;    G.   E.  Hooijkaas.    OvddiruUHike 
Aacese,  Leyden,   1905;  a  detailed  treatment    of  asoeti- 
oism,  Jewish  and  Ghristian,  of  the  latter  in  all  periods,  is 
given   in  Neander,  Chri$iian  Churth,  consult   the  Index; 
also  the  works  on  ethics  and  Ghristian  morals,  such  as 
those  of  Reinhard,  Rothe,  Domer,  Bfartensen,  Harlees, 
Vilmar,  Oettinger.  Frank,  H.  Schults,  Luthardt,  Wutke, 
and  Smyth,  and  see  E^thxcb,  and  MoNABmciBii . 
ASCHHEIH,  ash'hoim,  SYNOD   OF:    A  synod 
held  in  a  village  of  what  is  now  Bavaria,  a  little  to 
the  east  of  Munich.    The  church  there  is  men- 
tioned in  the  seventh  century.    The  year  of  the 
synod  is  not  definitely  namcMi;  but  since  Tassilo 
is  mentioned  as  prince,  and  as  still  very  young,  and 
since  its  decrees  are  evidently  influenced  by  those 
of  the  Franldsh  synod  of  Vememl  (July  11,  766), 
it  must  have  been  held  either  in  the  latter  half  of 
that  year  or  in  756.    Its  canons  are  directed  partly 
to  the  regulation  of  various  ecclesiastical  relations 
(ii,  for  the  security  of  churches,  and  iv,  of  church 


Asherah 
▲•htoreth 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


819 


property;  v,  payment  of  tithes;  xiii,  recognition 
of  the  canonical  law  as  to  marriage)  and  partly 
to  the  affirmation  of  the  rights  of  the  episcopate 
(ill,  power  over  church  property;  vi,  subordination 
of  the  clergy,  and  viii,  ix,  of  monks  and  nims; 
xiv,  zv,  spiritual  oversight  in  courts  of  justice). 

A.  Hauck. 

Bdujoorapht:  The  CapUula  are  in  MOH,  Leg.,  iii  (1863). 
457-469;  ib.  ConeiL,  ii  (1904).  66>«8.  Consult  Hefele.  Con- 
cUienoMchiehU,  iii,  697-602;  Hauok.  KD,  1890,  ii,  399. 

ASHERAH  (pi.  asherim;  in  Judges  iii,  7,  II  Chron. 
xix,  3,  xxxiii,  3,  aaherath):  The  transliteration  of 
a  Hebrew  word  which  in  the  A.  V.  of  the  English 
Bible  (following  the  LXX  and  Vulgate)  is  ren- 
dered "grove"  or  "groves"  (see  Groves  and 
Trees,  Sacred);  in  the  A.  V.  the  word  is  trans- 
ferred ("  Asherah  ")  without  attempt  at 

Two  Di»-    translation.  In  explaining  its  meaning 
tinct       two  entirely  different  senses  in  which 

Meanings,  it  is  employed  must  be  distinguished: 
(1)  as  a  sacred  tree-stem  or  pole;  (2)  as 
the  name  of  a  Canaanitic  goddess.  There  is  now 
no  doubt  of  the  general  meaning  when  the  word  is 
used  in  the  former  sense.  Exactly  what  the  latter 
refers  to  is  still  a  matter  of  much  debate.  There 
are  only  three  passages  (Judges  iii,  7;  I  Kings 
xviii,  19;  II  Kings  xxiii,  4)  in  which  the  word 
(used  with  6a'a2)  clearly  refers  to  a  goddess;  or, 
rather,  only  two,  for  in  Judges  the  reading  should 
be  *ashUxroth  (pi.  of  'aahior^;  see  Ashtorbth)  as 
in  similar  early  statements  with  regard  to  forbid- 
den cults.  The  passage  I  Kings  xv,  13,  often  sup- 
posed to  refer  to  the  worship  of  a  goddess,  should 
be  translated  as  in  the  R.  V.  "  made  an  abomi- 
nable thing  for  (i.e.,  as)  an  asherah."  The  other 
two  passages  in  Kings  are  regarded  by  recent  con- 
servative commentators  as  interpolations  (cf.  R. 
Kittel,  Dis  BUcher  der  K&nige,  QOttingen,  19(X),  pp. 
143,  300),  and  certainly  justify  the  conclusion  that 
at  a  late  period  aaherah  was  used  as  another  name 
for  Ashtoreth.  How  this  came  about  may  be  ex- 
plained from  the  history  of  the  asherah  in  Israel. 

In  preexilic  times  an  asherah  was  not  a  divine 

companion  or  concurrent  of  a  baal  or  the  baals 

at  all.    It  was,  however,  an  indispensable  part  of 

the    normal  baal-worship.    A''high- 

The  Pre-  place,"  or  shrine  of  the  baal  (hamah) 
exilic  consisted  of  an  altar  (with  or  without 
Aiherah.  a  "  sanctuary  "),  a  mijuf^hah  or  stone 
pillar,  and  an  aaherah  (see  Altar; 
High  Place;  Memorials  and  Sacred  Stones). 
The  pillar  was  a  survival  of  the  old  stone-worship; 
that  is  to  say,  the  adoration  of  the  local  deities  or 
numinaf  who  had  their  abode  in  sacred  stones  (cf . 
the  bethel  of  Gren.  xxviii,  19  and  elsewhere).  The 
asherah  or  sacred  pole  was  in  like  maimer  a  sur- 
vival of  the  old  tree-worship,  that  is,  of  the  cult 
of  sacred  trees  whose  sanctity  is  a  marked  feature 
of  the  early  histories  (e.g.,  Gren.  xii,  6,  R.  V.;  Judges 
ix,  37,  R.  v.).  In  the  Hebrew  text  of  Deut.  xi, 
30;  Judges  ix,  6  (cf.  R.  V.)  the  sacred  tree  and 
the  sacred  stone  appear  standing  side  by  side. 
One  step  further  in  the  inevitable  syncretism  was 
the  combination  of  both  of  these  with  the  cult  of 
the  baal,  the  presiding  divinity  or  "  proprietor  " 
of  the  district,  who  gave  fertility  to  its  soil  and  all 


consequential  blessings  to  its  inhabitants  (cf.  Hos. 
ii,  5,  8;  see  Baal).  Whatever  other  factors  may 
have  contributed  to  this  cherishing  of  the  asherim, 
these  are  the  most  important.  At  first  the 
asherim  were  probably  the  stems  of  trees  rudely 
chopped  and  stripped;  afterward  they  were  con- 
ventionalized into  a  shapely  pole  or  mast,  just  as 
the  "  pillars  "  or  mass^hoth  were  at  first  roughly 
hewn  blocks  of  stone. 

At  a  later  stage  the  asherah  became  transfigured 

into  a  goddess  and  naturally  took  the  place  of  the 

old  Ashtoreth  in  the  imagination  of 

Trans-     the  Hebrews,  who,  after  the  Exile,  fol- 

formed     lowed  no  longer  the  old  Canaanitic 

into  a       rites.    The  fact  that  the  worship  of 

Goddess.  Ashtoreth  had  been  combined  with 
that  of  the  baals,  or  rather  absorbed 
into  it,  doubtless  helped  toward  the  substitution. 
The  deification  of  an  outward  object  of  worship  is 
a  familiar  phenomenon  in  neariy  all  religions,  and 
in  the  present  field  of  inquiry  is  actually  paralleled 
by  the  conversion  of  a  bethel  or  bait4U  (a  god-in- 
habited stone)  into  a  god,  Baitulos,  among  the 
Phenidans  and  elsewhere  (cf.  Schrader,  KAT,  pp. 
437-438). 

Whether  the  fact  that  there  was  an  old  Canaan- 
itic goddess  AshirtUy  with  a  Babylonian  namesake, 
aided  in  the  confusion,  in  the  Hebrew  literature,  of 
the  two  senses  of  asheraht  is  not  quite  clear.  It 
is,  at  any  rate,  practically  certain  that  in  the  time 
of  the  active  idolatrous  worship  of  Israel  the 
asherah  was  not  a  goddess.    See  Ashtoreth. 

J.  F.  McCURDT. 

Bibuoorapht:  B.  BUde,  in  ZATW,  i  (1881),  848-346. 
iv  (1884),  203-205,  vi  (1886),  318-310;  T.  K.  Caieyse, 
TU  ProphecU§  of  laaiah,  ii,  201-202.  London.  1882; 
Q.  Hoffmann,  in  ZATW,  iU  (1883).  123;  idem.  Pkd- 
n»ki»eh0  In9diriften,  in  Abhandluni/en  der  OdUinoer  (?•- 
mlUdiaft  der  Wi$99n9ehafUn,  xxxvi  (1880),  26-28;  M. 
Ohnefalsch-Riohtar.  Kyproe,  die  BtM,  und  Homer,  pp. 
144-206.  Berlin.  1803;  Smith.  Rel.  of  Sem,,  pp.  187-100. 
460-470 

ASHIMA,  Q-^hoi'ma:  A  deity  of  the  Hamathites, 
whose  capital,  originally  called  Hamath,  afterward 
Epiphania,  was  on  the  Orontes,  north  of  the  Anti- 
lebanon.  They  were  transported  into  Samaria 
by  Shalmaneser  to  replete  that  depopulated  dis- 
trict (II  Kings  xvii,  30).  The  deity  was  therefore 
Aramean,  and  was  regarded  by  the  Septuagint 
as  feminine,  but  since  nothing  is  known  of  it  be- 
yond what  is  told  in  II  Kings,  all  suggestions  as  to 
its  identity  are  mere  conjectures. 

ASHTORETH. 

The  Chilt  in  Palestine  &nd  Worship.    Its  Astral  Big- 

Syria  ({  1).  niBcanoe  (f  6). 

Significanoe  of  the  Related  The  Sensual   Development 

Names  (f  2).  (f  6). 

Extension  of    Ishtar    Wor-  The    Worship  as  Bpiritnal- 

ship  (f  3).  iied  (f  7). 

The  Early  Ishtar  Cult  (f  4).  Tendency  of  the  Cult  in  Is- 

Dominant  Types  of  Ishtar  rael  (f  8). 

Ashtoreth  is  the  name  of  a  goddess  whose  wor- 
ship, mostly  associated  with  that  of  Baal  or  the 
baals,  figured  largely  in  the  history  of  idolatry  in 
ancient  Israel.  This  divinity  is  especially  marked 
as  a  goddess  of  the  "  Sidonians "  or  Phenidans 
(I  KingB  xi,  5,  33;  II  Kings  xxiii,  13).  She  had 
also  a  temple  among  the  Philistines  at  Ascalon, 


813 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Asherah 
Ashtoreth 


probably  the  same  as  that  mentioned  by  Herodotus 
(i,    105) .     East  of  the  Jordan  her  worship  was  rife 
in  Moab,  combined  with  that   of  the 
X.  The      national   god,  Ashtar-Chemosh  being 
Cult  in  Pal-  named  on  the  Moabite  Stone  in  the 
estine  and    ninth  century    B.C.;    and    the    place 
Syria.       names    Ashtaroth    (Deut.  i,    4    and 
elsewhere),  Ashteroth-Kamaim  (Gen. 
xiv,  5),  and  Be-eshterah  (Josh,  xxi,  27)  indicate 
its  prevalence  in  the  country  of  Bashan.      That 
it  was    of    ancient    date    in    southern    Syria   is 
proved   by   Egyptian   references  to   the  goddess 
*'  Ashtart  of  the  Hittite  land."    The  most  widely 
attested   of   these  branches  of  the  general   cult 
among  Canaanitic  or  Hebraic  peoples  is  the  Phe- 
nician,  which  is  conmicmorated  by  many  inscrip- 
tions both  in  the  home  country  and  in  the  western 
colonies. 

This  famous  goddess  is  also  widely  known  as 
Astarte,  which  is  the  Greek  form  of  the  Phenidan 
'Ashtart.  The  name  Ashtoreth  itself  in  the  orig- 
inal Hebrew  texts  was  'Ashlareth,  the 
3.  Signifi-  Masoretic  form  being  a  change  made 
cance  of  by  using  the  vowels  of  boshetht  '*  the 
the  Rela-  shameful  thing/'  a  nickname  of  Baal 
ted  Names,  (q.v.).  The  Phenidan  *  ashtart  clear- 
ly  points  to  the  correct  reading,  as 
also  does  the  Hebrew  plural  'Ashtaroth.  The 
Babylonian  and  Assyrian  form  Ishtar  ia  modified 
from  'Ashtar,  according  to  a  regular  phonetic  law, 
through  the  influence  of  the  initial  guttiural. 
'Ashtar  \B  identical  with  the  South  Arabian  'Ath- 
tar  and  Aramaic  and  North  Arabian  'Atar  (from 
*Athtar)f  the  former  being  a  god  and  the  latter  ap- 
parently a  goddess.  Of  the  Arabian  cult  very  little 
is  known.  When  more  has  been  learned  of  South 
Arabian  mythology,  much  of  the  mystery  which 
surrounds  the  origin  of  the  universal  Semitic  wor- 
ship of  Ishtar-Ashtoreth  will  be  deared  up. 

The  following  are  the  most  important  of  the 
facts  which  may  be  regarded  as  established  or 
practically  certain:    The  cult  originated  in  Baby- 
lonia and  spread   northward   to  As- 
3.  Ezten-    syria,  northwestward  to  Mesopotamia, 
sion  of  Ish-  thence   to   S3rria  and   Palestine,  and 
tar  Worship,  thence  through  the  Phenidans  to  all 
of  the  Mediterranean  peoples;  south 
and  southwestward  it  spread  to  Arabia,  and  thence 
across  the  sea  to  Abyssinia. 

Both  the  name  and  the  dominant  forms  of  the 
cult  were  of  Semitic  and  not  of  "Turanian"  or 
Sumerian  origin.    There  was  a  god- 
4.  The      dess  Nana  (q.v.)  at  Erech  in  South 
Early       Babylonia,  who  was  held  to  be  iden- 
Ishtar       tical  with  Ishtar  simply  because  she 
Cult        had  been  worshiped  there  by  a  non- 
Semitic  people,  and,  having  attributes 
akin  to  those  of  Ishtar,  was  replaced  by  the  latter 
when  the  Semites  took  over  the  ancient  shrine.    A 
similar  syncretism  took  place  under  the  same  con- 
ditions in  the  interest  both  of  Ishtar  herself  and 
of  other  Semitic  divinities  which  she  absorbed  and 
superseded.    The    word   Ishtar  is   a   Babylonian 
verbal  noun  of  the  ifteal  stem  though  the  etymol- 
ogy is  still  unsettled. 
The  worship  of  Ishtar  was  of  very  complex  or- 


igin, both  in  its  primary  and  in  its  secondary 
sources.    When   in  greatest  vogue  as  a  prindpai 
Semitic   religion    it   was,   as  above   indicated,    a 
composite   or  syncretism  of  many  related   cults, 
non-Semitic   as  well  as    Semitic.    Of   these  some 
left  deep  traces  of  their    original   distinctive  fea^ 
tures  and   remained  in  part  practically  separate 
cults.    Such,  for  example,  was  the  worship  of  Ish- 
tar of  Arbela,  in  which  the  divinity 
5.  Domi-    i^pears  as  a   war-goddess — an  attri- 
nant  Types  bute  probably  suggested  by  the  very 
of  Ishtar     natural     conception    of     the    planet 
Worship.    Venus  being  the  leader  of  the  starry 
Its  Astral    hosts.    Ishtar  was  in  fact  primarily 
Signifi-      and  chiefly  identified  with  this  most 
cance.       beautiful  of  celestial  objects,  espedally 
as  the  evening  star.    This  conception 
spread  from  Babylonia  through  the  other  Semitic 
lands  to  the  Phenidan   settlements,  and   thence 
mainly  by  way  of  Cyprus,  to  the  Greeks  and  Romans 
as  the  cults  of  Aphixxiite  and  Venus.    Among  its 
primary  sources,  therefore,  the  worship  of  Ishtar 
was  in  large  part  astral,  and  Venus  was  its  favorite 
celestial  object.    This  combination  was  not  of  late 
origin,  but  is  known  to  have  been  made  in  very 
eariy  times    (d.  Schrader,  KAT,   pp.    424  sqq.). 
The  moon  in  the  Ishtar  cult  never  took  the  place 
of  Venus;  for  the  moon  among  the  Semites  was 
a  male  deity,  whose  worship  was  older  than  even 
that  of  Ishtar  and  was  centered  in  Sin,  the  moon- 
god  par  excellence.     Hence  Ishtar  in  the  inscrip- 
tions is  represented  not  only  as  the  daughter  of 
Anu,  the  great  heaven-god,  but  also  as  the  daugh- 
ter of  Sin.    It  was  as  impossible  that  "  the  queen 
of  heaven  **  of  Jer.  vii,  18  and  other  passages  could 
be  a  name  of  the  moon  among  the  Hebrews  in 
Palestine  or  Egypt  as  it  could  be  among  the  Baby- 
lonians.   The  identification  of  Ishtar  with  the  fixed 
star  Siriiis  and  with  the  constellation  Virgo  (per- 
haps through  its  beautiful  star  Spica),  though  com- 
paratively eariy,  was  of  secondary  origin. 

From  the  terrestrial  side  the  primary  motive  of 

the  worship  of  Ishtar  was  the  impulse  to  deify 

sensuousness  and  sensuality.    Of  the 

6.  The      resulting  worship  Ishtar- Venus  became 

Sensual     the    celestial   patron.    She  not  only 

Devdop-    legitimated     the   sexual   indulgences 

ment       which  marked  her  cult  in  Babylonia, 

Phenida,  Palestine,  and  the  Semitic 

world  generally,  but  she  was  naturally  taken  as 

the  authoress  of  the  sexual  passion  and  therewith 

of  all  derivative  and  assodated  sentiments.     This 

accounts  for  the  part  played    by  Ashtoreth  or 

Astarte  as  the  female  counterpart  of  the  Phenidan 

Baal  and  of  the  local  Canaanitic  baals,  and  also 

for  the  wide-spread  and  influential  myth  of  her 

relations  with  her  lover  Tammuz  or 

7.  The  Wor- Adonis  (Esek.  viii,  14);   see  Tammuz. 

ship  as  Linked  with  these  primary  attri- 

Spiri-        butes  in  the  most  remarkable  and 

tualized.     instructive  ways  was  the  worship  of 

Ishtar  as  the  fountain  of  the  tender- 

est  and  most  sacred   human  sentiments,  also  of 

imaginative  conceptions  of   external   nature,  and 

even  experiences  of  the  inner  moral  and  spiritual 

life  (on  the  process  of  transition  d.  J.  F.  McCurdy, 


Aahtoreth 
Aala  Kinor 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


814 


History,  Prophecy,  and   the  Monuments,  iii,    New 
York,  1901,  SS  1184  sqq.).  The  best  illustrations  are 
afforded  by  the  Babylonian  hymns  to  Ishtar  as  the 
great  mother-goddess,  as  the  creator  of  the  animate 
universe  generally  (of.  the  exordium  of  Lucretius, 
De  rerum  natura),  and  as  the  helper  of  men,  freeing 
them  from  sickness  and  the  curse  of  sin  and  guilt. 
Though  we  learn  nothing  directly  from  the  Old 
Testament  as  to  the  character  of  the  service  of 
Ashtoreth  in  Palestine,  the  connections  in  which 
the  word  occurs  make  it  clear  that,  whatever  else 
may  have  been  here  and  there  included,  the  lowest 
forms  of  Ishtar  worship  were  ordinarily  exhibited. 
The  regular  association  in  the  singular  with  "  the 
baal''    and    in    the   plural    ('Ashta- 
8.  Tendency  roth)  with  "  the  baals  "  indicates  the 
of  the      predominance  of  the  sexual  aspects 
Cult  in      of   the  many-sided   cult.    Its  popu- 
Israd.      larity  and  seductiveness  are  also  mani- 
fested in  the  use  of  the  plural  (exactly 
as  in  Babjrlonian)  as  an  equivalent  of  goddesses  in 
general  (Judges  ii,  13,  x,  6;  I  Sam.  vii,  3,  4,  xii, 
10)  in  passages  which,  it  is  true,  proceed  from  later 
deuteronomic  editing,  but  are  therefore  all  the 
more  indicative  of  the  prevailing  tendency. 

A  comprehensive  historical  view  of  the  whole 
subject  helps  to  understand  the  fascination  of 
Astarte  worship  as  a  seductive  and  formidable  ob- 
stacle to  the  service  of  Yahweh.  See  Assyria,  VII; 
Ataroatis;  Ashsrah;  Baal;  Babylonia,  VII, 
2,  5  7;  3,  §  6.  J.  F.  McCurdt. 

Bibuoorapht:  J.  Selden,  De  di$  SyrtB,  ii.  2.  London,  1617; 
F.  Manter,  Die  Religion  der  Carthaoer,  pp.  62-66,  Copen- 
hagen, 1821;  F.  C.  Movers.  Die  Phdnieier,  i.  569-660. 
Bonn.  1841;  £.  Schrader.  Die  UdUenfahrt  der  letar,  Giee- 
sen.  1874;  idem,  KAT,  pp.  436  sqq.;  P.  Berger.  L'Ange 
d'AetarU,  Paris.  1879;  F.  Hitsig.  Bibliache  Theologie  dee 
Alien  Teeiamente,  pp.  17  sqq.,  Carlsruhe.  1880;  P.  de  La- 
garde,  Aeiarte,  in  Nachrichten  von  der  OeeeUeekaft  der  Wie- 
eenechaften  eu  OotHngen,  1881.  pp.  396-^400;  C.  P.  Tiele. 
La  Deeeee  letar  etwUnU  dane  le  mythe  BabyUmien,  Leyden, 
1884;  F.  Baethgen.  BeitrOge  eur  eemitiedten  IMioionege- 
•chichie,  pp.  31-37.  218-220,  Berlin,  1889;  Collins.  *Aehr 
iorttK  and  the  ^Aehera,  in  PSBA,  xi  (1888-89).  291  ^XJd; 
A.  Jeremias,  Die  babylonieck-aeevrietJten  Voretettungen 
vom  Leben  nacA  dem  Tode,  pp.  4-45,  Leipsic,  1887;  idem. 
iadvbar-Ninuvd,  pp.  67-66,  68-70,  ib.  1891;  P.  Jensen, 
Die  Koemologie  der  Babylonier,  pp.  117-118, 136,  227  sqq., 
Btrasburg,  1890;  Aehtoreth  and  Her  Influence  in  the  0,T,  in 
JBL,  z(1891).  73  8qq.:G.  A.  Barton,  The  Semitic  lehlar 
CiiK,inHe6roico.ix  (1892-93).  131-166,  x  (1893-94),  1-74. 
For  the  "  Q  ueen  of  Heaven  "  consult:  B.  Stade.  in  ZA  TW, 
vi  (1886),  123-132,  289-339;  E.  Schrader.  in  Sitxunge- 
heridOe  der  Berliner  Akademie,  1886,  pp.  477-491;  idem, 
in  ZA,  iii  (1888).  353-364;  iv  (1889),  74-76;  J.  Well- 
hausen.  Heidenthum,  pp.  38  sqq.;  A.  Kuenen.  De  Mele- 
ekeih  dee  Hemele,  Amsterdam,  1888  (<3erm.  transl.  in  Oe- 
eammeUe  Abhandlungen,  pp.  186-211,  Freiburg,  1894). 


On  the  connection  between  Aphrodite  and  Astarte 
consult:  J.  B.  F.  Lajard.  Recherehee  eur  le  euUe  de 
VSnue,  Paris,  1837;  W.  H.  Engel,  Kyproe,  ii.  5-649,  Ber- 
lin. 1841;  L.  F.  A.  Maury.  Uietoire  dee  religione  de  ta 
Orhee  anHqu/e,  iii.  191-259,  Paris,  1859;  F.  Hommel, 
Aphrodite-Aetarte,  in  Neue  JahrbUcher  fOr  PkUoeofhie 
und  P&dagogie,  cxxv  (1882),  176;  Ohnefalsch-Ricfater,  ut 
sup.,  pp.  269-^27;  DB.  i.  165,  167-171;  M.  Jastrow.  Th* 
Religion  of  Babylonia  and  Aeeyria,  Boston.  1898  (of.  In- 
dex under  lehtar);  EB,  i.  330-333.  335-339;  Q.  A.  Bar- 
ton. A  Sketch  of  Semitic  Origine,  pp.  106.  246-268,  New 
York.  1902;  Schrader.  KAT,  pp.  436-438. 

ASH  WEDNESDAY  (Lat.  Dies  cineris,  feria 
qtiorta  cinerum):  The  firat  day  of  Lent,  the  begin- 
ning of  the  forty  days'  fast  before  Easter  in  the 
Western  Church.  The  name  is  not  simply  a  general 
allusion  to  the  repentance  in  sackcloth  and  ashes 
of  which  the  prophets  speak  in  the  Old  Testament, 
but  refers  more  directly  to  a  rite  which  marks  the 
observance  of  the  day  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church.  The  palm-branches  blessed  on  the  Palm- 
Sunday  of  the  previous  year  are  burned  to  ashes, 
and  these  ashes  are  placed  in  a  vessel  on  the  altar 
before  the  beginning  of  mass.  The  priest,  wearing 
a  violet  cope  (the  color  of  mourning),  prays  that 
God  will  send  his  angel  to  hallow  the  ashes,  that 
they  may  become  a  salutary  remedy  to  all  penitents. 
Then  foUows  the  prayer  of  benediction,  which  ex- 
plains the  symbolical  meaning  of  the  use  of  ashes 
still  more  clearly.  The  ashes  are  then  thrice 
sprinkled  with  holy  water  and  censed,  after  which 
the  celebrant  kneels  and  places  some  of  them  upon 
his  own  head.  The  congregation  then  approach 
the  altar  and  kneel,  while  the  sign  of  the  cross  is 
made  upon  their  foreheads  with  the  blessed  ashes; 
to  each  one  are  said  the  words  Memento,  homo, 
quia  pulvis  esetin  pulverem  reverteris  (**  Remember, 
O  man,  that  dust  thou  art  and  unto  dust  shalt  thou 
return  "). 

It  is  impossible  to  determine  accurately  the  date 
at  which  the  imposition  of  ashes,  which  originally 
formed  a  part  of  the  public  penance  for  grievous 
sinners,  became  a  custom  applicable  to  all  the  faith- 
ful. It  is  demonstrably  at  least  as  old  as  the  synod 
of  Beneventum  in  1091,  which  expressly  commands 
it  for  clergy  and  laity  alike.  In  the  Anglican 
communion  the  day  is  marked  by  a  special  service 
known  as  the  "  conunination  service,"  (q.v.)  or  at 
least  by  a  special  collect  and  Scripture  lessons;  and 
the  Irvingite  liturgy  also  contains  prayers  for  it. 
See  Church  Year. 

Biblioorapht:  Bingham,  Origineat  book  xviii,  chap.  ii.  i  2; 
G.  Bevinet.  Hietory  of  the  ReformaHon  of  the  Church  of 
England,  ii.  94.  London.  1681;  J.  Kutaohker.  Gebrduche, 
pp.  91-152.  Vienna.  1843. 


ASIA  MINOR    IN  TH£  APOSTOLIC    TIME. 


I.  The  Name. 

II.  The  Province  of  Asia. 

III.  The  Imperial  Cult. 

IV.  Cities. 


V.  The  Islands  of  the  iEgean  Sea. 
VI.  The  Province  Pontus-Bithynia. 
VII.  The  Province  Galatia. 
VIII.  The  Province  Lyoiar-Pamphylia. 


IX.  The  Province  Cilicia. 
X.  Cyprus. 
XI.  The  Province  Cappadoda. 


L  The  Name:  The  term  "Asia  Minor"  is  not 
found  in  the  New  Testament;  it  is  said  to  occur  first 
in  Orosius,  i,  2  (400  a.d.).  In  the  apostolic  period 
"Asia"  denoted  the  continent,  Asia  Minor,  and  the 
Roman  province  of  Asia.  Paul  no  doubt  under- 
stood by  Asia,  the  Roman  province  (I  Cor.  xvi,  19; 
II  Cor.  i,  8;  II  Tim.  i,  15).  The  Apocalypse  in- 
cludes also  the  Phrygian  Laodicea;  and  the  provin- 


cial district  is  doubtless  meant  in  I  Pet.  i,  1,  where 
Asia  stands  after  Pontus,  Galatia,  and  Cappadocia 
and  before  Bithynia,  though  it  is  uncertain  whether 
the  author  was  informed  of  the  political  character 
of  these  designations.  How  far  the  Roman  pro- 
vincial demarcations  had  become  familiar  to  the 
people  it  is  difficult  to  tell.  There  are  passages  in 
the  New  Testament  in  which  the  term  Asia  is  used 


315 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Ashtoreth 
Ajda  Minor 


in  a  narrower  sense.  In  the  time  of  Paul  the 
country  was  still  in  a  stage  of  development. 

n.  The  Province  of  Asia:  When  Attains  III 
of  Pergamos  in  133  B.C.  willed  his  countiy  to  the 
Romans,  it  was  declared  a  province,  thou^  the  real 
organization  was  not  effected  until  129.  The  main 
parts  were  the  maritime  districts  Mysia,  Lydia,  and 
Caria.  With  these  Cicero  (Pro  Flacco,  xxvii,  66) 
mentions  Phrygia,  which  belonged  to  the  province 
after  116.  Under  the  emperors  Asia  was  a  sena- 
torial province  ruled  by  a  proconsul,  whose  seat 
was  at  Ephesus.  The  diet  of  the  province,  to  which 
representatives  (Gk.  asiarchai  ;  cf .  Acts  xix,  31 )  were 
sent,  met  annuaUy  in  different  cities.  Its  powers 
and  duties  culminated  in  the  imperial  cult;  and 
hence  it  was  presided  over  by  the  sacerdoa  provin- 
ci€B  or,  Greek,  archiereua  Us  Anaa,  who  offered  the 
sacrifices  and  pronounced  the  vow  for  the  emperor 
and  his  hoiise.  This  office  changed  annually  and 
the  years  were  dated  accordingly. 

nL  The  Imperial  Cult:  The  empire  aa  the 
guaranty  of  peace  and  the  souree  of  all  blessings 
of  culture  appeared  to  the  people  as  a  divine  power. 
From  his  point  of  view  the  author  of  the  Apocalypse 
(xiii,  3-8)  describes  this  worship  of  the  empire 
by  the  world.  He  is  convinced  that  the  empire 
owes  its  success  to  a  supernatural  power,  but  not 
to  the  God  of  heaven — ^rather  to  the  devil.  The 
Jews  as  a  rule  enjoyed  religious  liberty  throughout 
the  empire,  and  were  not  required  to  take  part  in  the 
imperial  cult.  What  Ceesar  had  granted  to  them 
was  confirmed  by  Augustus  and  Claudius.  The 
sufferings  of  the  Christians  of  Asia  Minor,  mentioned 
in  the  First  Epistle  of  Peter,  were  not  caused  by 
their  refusal  to  take  part  in  this  worship  (cf.  ii,  13 
sqq.).  It  is  true  that  the  populace  hated  and 
persecuted  the  Christians,  but  not  because  they 
refused  to  honor  the  emperor;  the  name  of  this 
new  supersHlio  was  distrusted  and  outlawed  as 
at  Rome  in  the  time  of  Nero  (Tacitus,  AnnaleSf 
XV,  44). 

IV.  Cities:  The  number  of  free  cities  was 
steadily  reduced  imder  the  emperors;  and  immu- 
nity from  taxation  was  granted  in  place  of  auton- 
omy. An  edict  of  Antoninus  Pius  divided  the 
cities  into  three  classes  according  to  size  and  im- 
portance. Pliny  (Hiat.  not.,  V,  xxix,  105  sqq.) 
mentions  nine  cities  which  possessed  a  court  of 
justice,  viz. :  Laodicea  ad  Lycum,  Synnada,  Apamea, 
Alabanda,  Sardis,  Smyrna,  Ephesus,  Adramyt- 
tium,  and  Pergamos.  Ephesus,  ftt  the  mouth  of 
the  (Tayster,  often  called  on  inscriptions  "  the  first 
and  greatest  metropolis  of  Asia,"  was  the  seat 
of  the  proconsul.  Another  title  of  the  city  is 
"  temple-keeper  "  (i.e.,  of  Diana;  cf.  Acts  xix,  35, 
R.  v.;  the  Greek  is  nedkoroa,  the  usual  word  for 
the  custodian  of  a  temple).  A  college  of  virgin 
priestesses  ministered  to  Diana,  presided  over  by  a 
eunuch  called  Megabysos.  It  was  no  exaggeration 
of  Demetrius  when  he  said  that  the  Ephesian 
Artemis  was  worshiped  not  only  by  all  Aoa,  but 
by  the  whole  world  (Acts  xix,  27);  for  through 
Ephesus  flowed  the  commerce  between  the  E^t  and 
the  West.  Among  the  strangers  residing  there 
were  many  Jews,  who  had  a  synagogue  (Acts  xviii,  19, 
26,  xix,  8)  and  enjoyed  spedal  privileges,  especially 


those  who  were  Roman  citizens,  as  may  be  seen 
from  documents  contained  in  Josephus  and  Philo. 
Ephesus  was  a  member  of  the  confederation  of  the 
thirteen  'Ionian  cities,  of  which  Miletus  was  the 
head. 

A  great  road  led  from  Ephesus  to  Magnesia, 
where  was  another  temple  of  Artemis  which  Strabo 
places  on  a  par  with  the  Ephesian.  Christianity 
came  to  Magnesia  from  Ephesus;  among  the 
epistles  of  Ignatius,  that  to  the  Magnesians  imme- 
diately follows  that  to  the  Ephesians.  After  Mag- 
nesia, Strabo  mentions  Tralles  (also  mentioned  by 
Ignatius),  once  a  wealthy  city,  called  Csesarea  under 
Augustus.  Jews  also  dwelt  there;  and  it  is  possible 
that  the  Groepel  was  brought  thither  from  Ephesus 
(Acts  xix,  10).  It  seems  that  special  missionaiy 
attention  was  devoted  to  the  cities  along  the  Mean- 
der-Lykos  road;  for  one  meets  with  the  three 
closely  connected  Phrygian  congregations  Laod- 
icea, Hierapolis,  and  Colossae,  of  which  Laodicea 
was  the  most  important  and  is  alone  mentioned  in 
the  Apocalypse.  The  Christian  conmiunity  seems 
to  have  shared  in  the  wealth  of  the  city  (Rev.  iii, 
17).  Laodicea  never  had  an  emperor's  temple. 
Polycrates  of  Ephesus  mentions  among  the  ''  great 
lights  "  of  Asia  a  bishop  and  martyr  with  the 
Phrygian  name  Lagaris  as  buried  at  Laodicea 
(Eusebius,  Hiat.  eccl.t  IV,  xxiv,  5).  In  165  there  was 
"  great  strife  concerning  the  Passover  there ''  (ib. 
IV,  xxvi,  3).  Colossae,  an  important  city  of  Phrygia, 
was  long  the  seat  of  a  bishop.  More  important 
than  Colossse  was  Hierapolis,  the  native  place  of 
the  philosopher  Epictetus,  and  the  place  in  which 
the  apostle  Philip  lived  and  died.  Papias  was 
bishop  of  Hierapolis,  as  was  also  Claudius  Apolli- 
naris.  Apamea  was  founded  by  Antiochus  Soter  and 
was  the  seat  of  a  conventua  juridicua.  That  many 
Jews  lived  here  is  known  from  Cicero  (Pro  Flacco, 
xxviii);  they  had  their  own  constitution,  a  "  law 
of  the  Jews." 

The  Lydian  Philadelphia  was  sparsely  populated 
on  account  of  the  frequent  earthquakes.  The 
Gospel  was  brought  thither  from  Ephesus.  Phila- 
delphia is  one  of  the  seven  churehes  of  Asia  men- 
tioned in  the  Apocalypse  (iii,  7-13);  among  its 
inhabitants  Jews  are  mentioned  (iii,  9).  Ignatius 
addressed  an  epistle  to  the  Philadelphians;  and 
Eusebius  (HiaL  ecd.,  V,  xvii,  3)  mentions  a  prophet- 
ess Ammia  of  Philadelphia.  Sardis  was  the  ancient 
city  of  the  Lydian  kings.  Jews  lived  there,  having 
their  own  jurisdiction.  The  Chureh  at  Sardis, 
one  of  the  seven  mentioned  in  the  Apocalypse 
(iii,  1-6),  was  the  episcopal  see  of  Melito  in  the  time 
of  Antoninus  Pius.  Two  famous  roads  led  from 
Sardis:  one  to  Pergamos  by  way  of  Thyatira,  the 
other  to  Smyrna.  All  three  cities  are  mentioned 
among  the  seven  Churehes  of  the  Apocalypse. 
Thyatira  was  known  especially  for  its  gild  of  dyers. 
The  Lydia  mentioned  in  Acts  xvi,  14,  called  a 
"  seller  of  purple,"  had  probably  come  to  Philippi 
with  wool  which  had  been  dyed  at  home.  Thyatira 
plays  an  important  part  in  the  history  of  Monta- 
nism  (Epiphanius,  /Tcbt.,  li,  33).  Taking  a  west- 
em  road  from  Thyatira  one  comes  to  Smyrna, 
wherein  195  B.C.  a  temple  was  built  in  honor  of  the 
dea  Roma,    Tiberius  aUowed  a  temple  to  be  erected 


Asia  Minor 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


816 


here  to  himself,  his  mother,  and  the  senate.  Polit- 
ically Smyrna  was  not  as  important  as  Ephesus; 
but  it  had  the  reputation  of  being  the  most  beautiful 
city  of  Asia.  Jews  in  Smyrna  are  mentioned  in 
Rev.  ii,  9  and  in  the  Martyrium  Polycarpif  xii,  2, 
and  both  times  as  enemies  of  the  Christians.  Paul 
does  not  seem  to  have  done  missionary  work  there; 
but  that  the  congregation  was  founded  by  John  is 
not  a  necessary  inference.  By  the  "  angel  of  the 
church  in  Smyrna"  (Rev.  ii,  8)  Polycarp  might 
be  meant,  had  not  the  epistles  to  the  seven  churches 
originated  in  a  much  earlier  period  than  the  final 
redaction  of  the  Apocalypse.  From  Smyrna  the 
road  leads  by  way  of  Cyme,  Myrina,  and  Elsea  to 
Pergamos,  where  it  meets  the  road  to  Thyatira. 
Pergamos,  the  ancient  royal  city  of  the  Attalides, 
was  still  famous  under  the  Roman  empire.  In  the 
time  of  Augustus  (29  b.c.)  the  first  provincial 
temple  was  erected  here,  and  by  the  side  of  Ephesus 
Pergamos  seems  to  have  been  the  most  prominent 
city  in  Asia.  It  was  famous  for  the  cult  of  iEscula- 
pius.  Although  the  Jews  had  influence,  they  were 
not  the  cause  of  the  animosities  mentioned  in  Rev. 
ii,  12-17.  Though  they  are  called  in  the  Apocalypse 
a  "  synagogue  of  Satan  "  (ii,  9),  it  is  most  unlikely 
that  they  are  meant  by  the  words:  "  I  know  .  .  . 
where  thou  dwellest,  where  Satan's  seat  is"  (ii, 
13);  the  language  points  to  a  more  concrete  phe- 
nomenon, which  might  be  thought  of  as  an  em- 
bodiment of  Satan,  and  no  doubt  refers  to  the 
worship  of  iEsculapius.  This  "  savior,"  whose 
symbol  was  the  serpent,  and  who,  according  to 
Justin  (Apologia,  i,  21,  22),  looked  much  like  Christ, 
could  easily  appear  as  a  devilish  caricature  of  the 
Son  of  God.  The  words  "  hast  not  denied  my 
faith"  imply  that  in  the  days  of  Antipas  the 
population  made  an  effort  to  force  the  worship  of 
iEsculapius  upon  others. 

From  the  seaport  Adramyttium,  where  there  was 
a  conventiia  juridicus,  following  the  north  coast  of 
the  Adramyttian  bay  the  road  leads  to  Assos, 
where  Paul  seems  to  have  been  active  (Acts  xx, 
13-14).  It  was  the  birthplace  of  Qeanthes  the 
Stoic.  Troas,  or  rather  Alexandria,  became  famous 
imder  Roman  sway.  Augustus  made  it  a  colony. 
It  was  the  seaport  from  which  Paul  went  to  Mace- 
donia (Acts  xvi,  11).  It  is  perhaps  characteristic 
of  the  Roman  citizen,  that,  besides  Ephesus,  Troas 
is  the  only  city  of  the  province  of  Asia  where  Paul 
labored  in  person  (Acts  xx,  5-7;  II  Cor.  ii,  12; 
II  Tim.  iv,  13).  The  Church  of  Troas  is  not  men- 
tioned in  the  Apocalypse,  but  is  referred  to  by 
Ignatius  in  his  epistles  to  the  Philadelphians  (xi, 
2)  and  Smymsans  (xii,  2).  Abydus,  Lampsactis, 
and  Cyzicus  were  not  included  in  Paul's  mission. 

y.  The  Islands  of  the  iEgean  Sea  belonged  in 
great  part  to  the  province  of  Asia.  Tenedos  was 
opposite  Alexandria  Troas;  Lesbos,  with  the  capital 
Mytilene,  or  as  the  later  form  reads  in  Acts  xx,  14, 
Mitylene,  was  the  first  station  on  the  passage  from 
Assos.  Thence  Paul  sailed  (Acts  xx,  15)  to  Chios, 
opposite  the  Ionic  peninsula.  On  the  following  day 
he  reached  Samos.  According  to  the  reading  of 
Codex  D,  he  seems  not  to  have  tarried  on  the  island 
itself  in  the  city  of  Samos,  but  in  the  town  of 
Trogyllium  on  a  little  isle  of  like  name  before  the 


cape,  mentioned  by  Strabo.  South  of  Samos  lay 
the  small  island  of  Patmos.  Following  the  route  of 
Paul  (Acts  xxi,  1)  one  comes  to  Coos  and  Rhodes. 
During  the  last  decades  before  Christ,  Rhodes 
was  a  center  of  culture;  it  was  the  native  place  of 
the  Stoic  Panaetius,  whose  work  "  Gn  Duty  "  Cicero 
used  in  his  De  officiia  ;  in  Rhodes,  too,  labored  his 
pupil  Posidonius  (about  90-50  B.C.);  the  rheto- 
rician Apollonius  Molon,  the  teacher  of  Cicero  and 
Csesar;  and  Theodore  of  Gadara,  the  teacher  of 
Tiberius. 

VI.  The  Province  Pontus-Bithjrnia:  When  King 
Nicomedes  III,  Philopator,  of  Bithynia  bequeathed 
in  74  B.C.  his  country  to  the  Romans,  the  governor 
of  Asia  made  it  a  province,  and  it  was  extended 
toward  the  east  in  64  B.C.  by  annexing  north  Paph- 
lagonia  and  Pontus.  After  the  separation  of  Pontus 
Galaticus,  which  was  joined  to  Galatia,  the  new 
province  with  the  double  name  Pontus  (and) 
Bithynia  comprised  the  entire  coast  region  east  of 
the  Rhyndacus,  north  of  Mt.  Olympus,  extending 
beyond  the  Halys  to  the  city  of  Amisus.  As  a 
senatorial  province  it  was  ruled  by  proconsuls 
with  a  legate,  a  questor,  and  six  lictors.  Pliny  the 
Younger  was  an  extraordinary  governor,  who  was 
sent  to  the  province  (111-112  a.d.)  to  regulate  its 
finances.  The  domestic  conditions  in  Bithynia 
are  described  not  only  in  the  correspondence  of 
Pliny  the  Younger  with  Trajan,  but  also  in  the 
speeches  of  the  sophist  Dio  Chrysostomus  of 
Prusa,  which  have  much  of  interest  to  the  investi- 
gator of  early  Christianity  (ed.  H.  von  Amim,  2 
vols.,  Berlin,  1893-96;  cf.  also  idem,  Dio  von  Prusa, 
ib.  1898).  The  most  noteworthy  of  the  cities  of 
Pontus  and  Bithynia  were  Apamea,  Chalcedon, 
Byzantitun,  and  Prusa.  A  court  of  judgment  was 
also  at  Nicsa  (see  NiciEA,  Councils  of),  where 
there  was  a  temple  of  the  dea  Roma  and  of  the 
divuB  Julius,  whereas  the  provincial  temple  was 
at  Nicomedia.  In  Pontus  were  Amastris,  Sinope, 
Amisus,  Abonuteichus,  and  Comana.  Concerning 
the  Jews  in  Pontus  and  Bithynia  cf .  Acts  ii,  9, 
xviii,  2.  The  spread  of  Christianity  in  Pontus  is 
attested  by  Pliny  (Epist.,  xcvi,  9), 

Vn.  The  Province  Galatia  has  a  complicated 
history.  Its  boundaries  were  often  changed.  It 
derived  its  name  from  the  Celtic  tribes  which 
miCTated  to  Asia  Minor  in  the  third  century  b.c, 
and,  according  to  Strabo,  occupied  the  eastern  part 
ofPhrygia.  Without  going  into  details,  it  can  be  as- 
sumed that  in  the  New  Testament  *'  Galatia  '*  means 
not  the  seat  of  the  three  Celtic  tribes,  but  the 
Roman  province  including  Pisidia  and  Lycaonia, 
therefore  the  territory  of  the  first  Pauline  missionary 
journey.  The  question  is  of  interest  whether  by 
"  the  Churches  of  Galatia  "  (Gal.  i,  2)  Paul  under- 
stood only  those  of  the  first  missionary  journey. 
He  shows  an  inclination  to  address  his  Churches 
according  to  provinces,  following  the  Roman  pro- 
vincial divisions.  When  he  addresses  a  Church 
with  reference  to  its  special  needs,  he  naturally 
speaks  to  Corinthians,  Thessalonians,  PhiUppians; 
but  where  he  overlooks  his  missionary  territory 
as  a  whole,  he  uses  the  provincial  names.  There 
is  no  reason  to  believe  that  'Hhe  Churches  of 
Galatia"  means  anything  else  than  the  Churches 


317 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Asia  Minor 


of  the  Roman  province.  Since  the  Epistle  to  the 
Galatians  was  not  addressed  to  one  Church,  but  to 
a  number  of  Churches,  Paul  had  to  select  a  name 
expressive  of  all;  and  the  designation  "Churches 
of  Galatia  "  was  quite  natural  and  appropriate  for 
the  Roman  citizen,  to  whom  the  political  divisions 
of  the  empire  were  no  fortuitous  arrangement, 
but  a  moral  good.  In  the  time  of  Paul  there  were 
no  Galatians  in  the  old  sense;  and  the  name  means 
subjects  of  the  Roman  emperor  belonging  to  the 
province  of  Galatia.  Similarly  Tychicus  and  the 
Ephesian  Trophimus  (Acts  xxi,  29)  are  said  to  be 
of  Asia  (xx,  4);  and  Gains  and  Aristarchus  are 
called  Biacedonians  (xix,  29,  xxvii,  2;  cf.  II  Cor. 
ix,  2, 4 ),  although  Gains  was  certainly  no  Macedonian 
by  birth.  Of  the  Galatian  cities  Ancyra  was  the 
seat  of  the  governor,  having  the  provincial  temple 
of  Augustus  and  of  the  dea  Roma,  on  the  walls  of 
which  the  deeds  of  Augustus  were  inscribed  (the 
so-called  monumeniwn  Ancyranum),  From  An- 
cyra the  road  leads  eastward  to  Tavium,  the  ancient 
capital  of  the  Trocmse.  The  capital  of  the  Tolis- 
tobogi  was  Pessinus,  famous  for  the  rich  temple 
dedicated  to  Cybele,  whom  the  natives  called 
Agdistis.  North  of  Pessinus  was  Germa,  a  colony 
founded  by  Augustus  (Julia  Augusta  Fida  Germa), 
For  military  purposes  a  direct  connection  must 
have  existed  with  Antioch  in  Pisidia  (Acts  xiii,  14), 
where  Augustus  had  established  a  military  colony 
under  the  name  of  Ceesarea,  not  mentioned  in  the 
New  Testament.  It  was  the  center  of  a  system  of 
military  settlements  which  the  emperor  established 
to  protect  the  province  against  the  mountain  tribes 
of  Pisidia  and  Isaurica.  It  is  possible  that  Paul 
went  to  Iconium  by  way  of  Antioch.  According 
to  Strabo,  Iconium  belonged  to  Lycaonia;  but  in 
Acts  xiv,  6  it  seems  not  to  be  reckoned  among  the 
Lycaonian  cities;  the  population  was  Phrygian. 
The  Jews  had  a  synagogue  and  in  the  Acts  of 
Paul  and  Theda  a  proconsul  is  erroneously  men- 
tioned in  Iconium.  Another  city  was  Lystra,  which 
was  a  Roman  colony  and  had  a  temple  of 
Jupiter.  Another  colony  was  Derbe  at  the  south 
end  of  the  province. 

VIIL  The  Province  Lycia-Pamphylia  was  organ- 
ized by  Claudius  in  43  a.d.  and  again  under  Ves- 
pasian. Till  135  it  was  governed  by  the  emperor; 
afterward,  by  the  senate.  Among  the  six  larger 
cities  of  Lycia  which  are  mentioned  by  Strabo  are 
the  two  maritime  towns  Patara  and  Myra,  through 
which  Paul  passed  on  ins  journeys  (Acts  xxi,  1-2, 
xxvii,  5-6).  Phaselis,  with  three  ports,  did  not 
belong  to  the  Lycian  confederacy  in  the  time  of 
Strabo,  but  was  independent.  The  Jews  in  PhaseUs 
are  mentioned  in  I  Mace,  xv,  23.  Of  the  Pam- 
phylian  cities  Attalia  is  of  special  interest,  because 
Paul  on  returning  from  his  first  missionary  journey 
went  thither  to  sail  to  Antioch  (Acts  xiv,  25-26). 
Ramsay  suggests  that  the  same  vessel  which 
brought  the  apostle  from  Paphos  took  him  to  Perga 
also. 

IX.  The  Province  Cilicia  varied  in  extent  at 
different  times.  Under  Cicero's  administration 
(51-50  B.C.),  besides  Cilicia,  Pamphylia,  Pisidia, 
Isaurica,  and  Lycaonia,  the  districts  of  Laodicea, 
Apamea,    Synnada,  and  Cyprus,  afterward  joined 


with  Asia,  belonged  to  it.  Through  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  provinces  of  Galatia  (25  B.C.),  Pamphylia 
(43  A.D.),and  Cyprus  (22  B.C.),  the  territory  of  the 
province  was  reduced  to  Cilicia  proper.  The 
western  part  of  it,  Cilicia  Aspera,  was  given  by 
Augustus  to  Archelaus  of  Cappadocia  (25  B.C.),  with 
Elaiussa-Scbaste  as  capital;  and  Caligula  gave  it  to 
Antiochus  IV  of  Commagene.  Under  Vespasian 
it  was  restored  to  the  province  of  Cilicia.  Con- 
sidering the  small  extent  which  the  province  had 
imder  the  first  emperors,  it  no  doubt  was  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  procurator  of  Syria.  Under 
Hadrian  Cilicia  Campestris  and  Asp>era  became 
one  imperial  province.  Under  Domitian  the 
seat  of  government  was  Antioch,  otherwise  Tarsus 
was  the  metropolis.  From  the  time  of  Antony 
it  was  an  urbs  libera,  densely  populated  and  wealthy; 
it  was  the  home  of  the  Stoic  philosopher  Atheno- 
dorus,  son  of  Sandon,  the  honored  teacher  of  Augus- 
tus, perhaps  also  of  Strabo.  According  to  Cicero 
{Ad  AUicum,  XVI,  xi,  4,  xiv,  4),  he  helped  him  in 
the  preparation  of  the  De  offlciia.  A  rival  of  Tarsus 
was  Anazarbtis,  called  also  Csesarea,  native  city  of 
the  physician  and  author  Dioscorides,  who  lived 
under  Nero,  and  whose  work,  De  materia  medica 
(ed.  C.  Sprengel,  Leipsic,  1829),  Luke  is  said  to  have 
perused  (cf.  P.  de  Lagarde,  PaaUerium  juxta  He- 
brceoa HieronymitheipBic,  1874,  pp.  165  sqq.;  W.  K. 
Hobart,  The  Medical  Language  of  St,  Luke,  Dublin. 
1882;  Zahn,  Einleitung,  ii,  384,  435).  From  Tar- 
sus the  highroad  leads  over  the  Cilician  Taurus 
to  Cappadocia.  On  the  road  from  Tarsus  to  Issus 
and  Alexandria  was  Mopsuestia,  the  episcopal  see  of 
Theodore. 

X.  Cyprus:  After  a  temporary  union  with 
Cilicia  the  province  of  Cyprus  was  separated  in 
22  B.C.  and  organized  as  a  senatorial  province, 
ruled  by  a  proproBtor  pro  conaide  with  a  legate  and 
questor.  Many  Jews  lived  in  Cjrprus,  and  Cjrprian 
Jewish  Christians  brought  the  Gospel  to  Antioch 
(Acts  xi,  20);  Barnabas  was  fromC^rus  (Acts  iv, 
36).  In  Salamis  there  were  many  synagogues.  In  the 
revolt  under  Trajan  the  Jews  kUled  240,000  non- 
Jews,  and  completely  devastated  the  city  of  Salamis. 
For  a  punishment  they  were  all  banished  from 
the  island.  The  Acts  of  the  Apostles  mention  the 
two  seaports  Salamis  in  the  east,  and  Paphos; 
Soli,  on  the  southern  coast,  had  a  sanctuary  of 
Aphrodite  and  Isis;  Citium  was  the  birthplace  of 
the  Stoic  Zeno. 

XL  The  Province  Cappadocia:  In  the  year 
17  A.D.  Cappadocia,  after  the  death  of  the  last 
king  Archelaus,  was  made  a  province,  governed 
by  a  procurator  who,  as  in  Judea,  was  under  the 
governor  of  the  province  of  Syria  in  military  mat- 
ters. In  the  year  70  Vespasian  united  it  with 
Galatia,  but  it  was  afterward  again  separated. 
Pontus  Galaticus  with  Amasia  and  Pontus  Polemo- 
niacus,  which  had  belonged  to  Galatia,  Trajan 
joined  to  Cappadocia,  to  which  was  added  Armenia 
Minor  and  Lycaonia  with  Iconium.  Cappadocia 
had  very  few  cities  of  importance.  That  Paul  did 
no  missionary  work  there  is  very  intelligible;  hence 
it  is  also  improbable  that  he  should  have  traveled 
through  Cappadocia  (Acts  xviii,  23).  The  road 
would  have  brought  him  within  three  days  from 


Aslnarii 
▲■■eburs' 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


818 


the  Cilician  gates  to  Tyana,  the  birthplace  of 
Apollonius,  a  Roman  colony  after  Caracalla;  from 
thence  perhaps  to  Mazaka-Eusebea,  called  Cesarea, 
the  most  important  and  still  flourishing  city  in 
Cappadocia,  the  metropolis  of  the  province,  the 
birthplace  of  Basil  the  Great.  Nazianzus  and 
Nyssa,  the  episcopal  sees  of  the  two  Gregorys, 
were  places  of  no  importance. 

(JOHANNXB  WSIBS.) 
Bibuoobapht:  The  article  Kleinatien  in  der  ApoatoliMchen 
ZwU,  in  Hauek-Heriog.  RE,  3d.  ed..  z.  535-563,  ia  a 
Mholarly  and  oomprehensive  treatment  of  the  subject, 
and  should  be  constilted  for  further  information  and  ti- 
tles of  works  dealing  with  i>articular  localities  and  special 
topics.  Ritter.  Erdkunde,  xviii.  xix,  2,  Berlin,  1858-59, 
and  Sievers.  Aaien,  pp.  78-80,  556-562,  Leipsic,  1803, 
thre  a  general  description.  For  the  history:  G.  F.  Herts- 
berg,  Die  OeMckidUe  Oriechenlandt  unter  der  Herrttkaft  der 
ROmer,  vol.  ii,  Halle,  1868;  T.  Mommsen,  ROmithe  O0- 
•ditckie,  vol.v,  Berlin,  1004,  available  for  the  English  reader 
in  the  transl.  by  T.  T.  Dickson,  Province  of  ike  Roman  Em- 
pire, i,  chap,  yii.  New  York,  1887;  J.  Marquardt,  ROmieche 
BtaatevenoaUuno,  i,  333-340,  Leipsic,  1881.  A  complete 
eoUection  of  inscriptions  from  Asia  Minor  has  been  undex^ 
taken  by  the  Vienna  Academy,  of  which  vol.  i,  contain- 
ing the  inscriptions  in  the  Lydan  language,  has  been 
issued  (1000).  Of  great  value  in  English  are  W.  M.  Ram- 
say, in  Claeeieal  Review,  iii  (1880),  174  sqq..  The  Hie- 
iorieal  Geography  of  Aeia  Minor,  in  Supplementary  Papere 
cf  tike  Royal  Oeographieal  Society  of  London,  vol.  iv.  1800; 
idem.  The  Chunk  in  the  Roman  Empire  before  A.D,  170, 
London,  1803;  idem.  The CiHee  and Biekoprice  of  Phrygia,  2 
vols.,  ib.  1805-07;  idem.  8L  Paul  ae  Traveler  and  Roman 
CitiMen,  ib.  1800;  idem,  Lettere  to  the  Seven  Churchee 
of  Aeia,  ib.  1004;  articles  on  the  several  cities  in  DB  and 
SB.  The  article  in  Ruggiero.  Disionario  EpigrafUo  di 
AnUckith  Romane  is  highly  commended.  On  the  political 
history  of  the  provinces  the  best  monograph  is  V.  Chapot, 
La  province  romaine  proeoneulavre  d'Aeie,  Paris.  1004. 

ASINARIIy  as-i-nd^-oi:  Originally  a  nickname 
of  the  Jews,  because  they  were  said  to  worship  an 
ass  (see  Ass);  afterward  applied  also  to  the  Chris- 
tians, of  whom  the  same  story  was  told.  It  is  not 
impossible  that  the  Jews  were  the  first  to  shift  the 
reproach  from  themselves  to  the  Christians.  Ter- 
tiUlian  (Ad  natiane8f  i,  14;  Apologia,  xvi)  tells 
how  an  apostate  Jew,  bitterly  hostile  to  the  Chris- 
tians, exhibited  in  Carthage  a  picture  representing 
a  god  with  ass's  ears  and  a  hoof  on  one  foot,  clad 
in  a  toga  and  holding  a  book,  with  the  inscription 
DEUS  CHRISTIANORUM  ONOKOIHTHZ  ["  Ono- 
koietes,  the  God  of  the  Christians;"  the  meaning 
of  ''  Onokoietes  ''  is  not  very  clear;  it  has  been 
explained  as  "  ass-priest  "  or  "  ass-worshiper  **; 
another  reading  is  ONOKOITHZ,  *'  lying  in  an  ass's 
manger  **  (?);  perhaps  there  is  a  ribald  implica- 
tion]. More  offensive  to  the  Christians  was  the 
"travesty  crucifixion"  which  the  Jesuit  Gamicci 
discovered  in  1856  in  the  ruins  of  a  building  on  the 
southern  declivity  of  the  Palatine,  which  was  pos- 
sibly a  school  for  the  imperial  pages.  In  that  case 
it  was  probably  sketched  in  an  idle  moment  by  one 
of  these  lads,  in  mockery  of  the  religion  of  his  Chris- 
tian comrades.  It  represents  a  man's  body  with  an 
ass's  head,  not  strictly  hanging  on  a  cross,  since  the 
feet  are  supported  by  a  platform,  but  with  the  arms 
outstretched  and  fastened  to  the  transverse  piece  of 
a  T-shaped  cross.  To  the  left  is  a  smaller  figure,  rais- 
ing one  hand  in  an  attitude  of  adoration,  and  under 
it  is  the  inscription  AAEHAMENOZ  ZEBETE  [i.e., 
aiperat]  GEON  ("  Alexamenos  worships  his  god  "). 
It  is  now  in  the  Museo  Kircheriano  in  Rome. 


In  1870  Visconti  discovered  another  inscription 
in  the  same  building,  with  the  words  AAEHAMEN02 
FIDELIS.  Both  of  these  probably  belong  to 
the  beginning  of  the  third  century.  That  there  is 
nothing  improbable  in  a  Christian  having  been 
among  the  imperial  pages  at  that  time  is  shown 
by  Tertullian  (Apologia,  xxxvii)  and  by  an  in- 
scription of  the  year  217,  given  by  Rossi. 

(A.  Hauck.) 
Bibuoobapht:  Older  treatments  of  the  subjeet,  still  useful, 
are  Morinus,  De  capUe  atinino  deo  Chriatiano,  Dort,  1620; 
H.  Heinsius,  De  laude  aeini,  p  186.  Leyden.  1620;  T. 
Haseus,  De  calumnia  olim  Judctia  et  Chrtetianie  impaeta^ 
Erfurt,  1 71 6.  Later  discussions  are,  P.  Garruod.  in  CtviZto 
eattolica,  series  3.  vol.  iv  (1856),  629;  DC  A,  i.  149.  For  the 
*'  travesty  crucifixion/'  cf.  F.  Becker.  Dae  Spotterueifix  der 
romied^en  KaieerpaUiete,  Breslau.  1866;  P.  Gamioei.  Staria 
delta  arte  Chriatiana,  plate  483.  vi.  135.  Prato,  1880;  F.  X. 
Kraus.  Dae  Spotterueifix  vom  Palatin  und  neuenidsektee 
OraffUo,  Freibuis.  1872;  DCA,  i,  516. 

ASM0DEX7S,  as^'mo-dt'ns  (in  the  Talmud, 
Aahmedai):  An  "  evil  spirit,"  first  mentioned  in 
the  apocryphal  book  of  Tobit  (iii,  8),  as  loving 
Sara,  the  daughter  of  Raguel  at  Ecbatana,  and 
causing  the  death  of  her  seven  successive  husbands 
on  the  bridal  night.  But  Tobias,  the  eighth,  escaped, 
imder  the  direction  of  Raphael,  by  burning  ''the 
ashes  of  the  perfumes  *'  with  the  heart  and  liver  of  a 
fish  which  he  had  caught  in  the  Tigris.  When  Asmo- 
deus  smelled  the  fumes,  he  fled  to  Upper  Egypt, 
and  was  bound  there  by  Raphael  (Tobit  viii,  1-3). 
The  figure  of  this  demon  is  taken  from  the  Persians 
who  greatly  influenced  later  Jewish  angelology  and 
demonology.  He  is  Parsee  in  origin,  and  to  be 
identified  with  iEshma  of  the  Avesta,  the  imper- 
sonation of  anger  (the  primary  meaning)  and  ra- 
pine. 

Once  adopted  by  the  Jews,  Asmodeus,  thanks  to 
rabbinic  fancies,  took  on  greater  dimensions. 
Thus  he  is  said  to  have  been  implicated  in  Noah's 
drunkenness  and  to  be  the  offspring  of  the  incest 
of  Tubal-cain  with  his  sister  Naamah;  he  is  reputed 
to  have  driven  Solomon  from  his  kingdom,  but 
later  Solomon  forced  him  to  serve  in  building  the 
Temple,  which  he  did  noiselessly  by  means  of  the 
worm  Shamir,  whose  whereabouts  he  revealed  to 
Solomon. 

Bibuoobapht:  J.  A.  EUsenmenger.  Bntdeektee  Judenthum, 
i,  351-361.  823.  Frankfort,  1700;  A.  F.  GfrOrer.  Oeeckiekie 
dee  Urehrietenthume,  i,  378-424.  Stuttgart.  1838;  T.  Ben- 
fey  and  M.  A.  Stem,  Ueber  die  Monatenamen,  p.  201.  Bet- 
lin.  1836;  F.  H.  H.  Windisohmann.  Zoroaetrteehe  Studiem, 
ed.  F.  Spiegel,  pp.  138-147.  ib.  1863;  Kohut.  Ueber  die 
jUdieche  AngeloloQie  und  Ddmonologie  in  ikrer  AbkdmQiO' 
keit  vom  Pareiemue,  in  Al^umdlungen  fiJar  die  Kunde  dee 
Morgenlandee,  iv  (1866).  72-86;  F.  Spiegel.  Eranieehe 
AUertkumekunde,  ii.  131-133,  Leipsic,  1873;  GrQnbaum« 
BeitrOge  sur  vargleiekenden  Mytkalogie  aue  der  Haggada, 
in  ZDMO,  xxxi  (1877).  215-224;  consult  also  eonunen- 
taries  on  Tobit. 

ASMONEANS.    See  Hasmonbanb. 

ASPERSION  WITH  HOLY  WATER:  A  rite 
of  frequent  use  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  It 
has  a  place  in  the  administration  of  baptism  and 
extreme  unction,  in  the  nuptial  blessing,  and  in 
the  ceremonies  of  sepulture,  as  well  as  in  the  con- 
secration of  objects  for  divine  worship  and  in 
blessings  of  all  kinds.  Persons  entering  or  leaving 
a  church  make  the  sign  of  the  cross  with  holy 
water.    A  solemn  form  of  aspersion,  practised  in 


810 


REUGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


AslnarU 
Aflfleburs' 


parish  churches  every  Sunday  before  the  high  mass, 
is  called  the  Aspergcs,  from  the  first  word  of  the 
antiphon  usually  intoned  by  the  officiating  priest. 
The  explanation  of  the  use  of  holy  water  in  asper- 
sions is  found  in  the  prayer  said  at  the  time  when 
it  is  blessed, — that,  wherever  it  is  sprinkled,  the 
invocation  of  God's  name  may  drive  away  all  evil 
spirits  and  every  temptation,  and  that  the  Holy 
Spirit  by  his  presence  may  comfort  all  who  implore 
the  divine  mercy.    See  Holy  Water. 

John  T.  Creagh. 

ASS:  The  wild  ass  (Heb.  pere,  poetic  'arodk; 
aaintu  onager  or  hemippua)  is  often  mentioned  in 
the  Old  Testament,  and  appears  to  have  been  found 
in  earlier  times  more  frequently  in  Syria  than  is 
now  the  case.  It  is  described  as  dwelling  in  the 
wilderness  (Isa.  xzxii,  14;  Jer.  ii,  24);  and  to  the 
poet  it  is  a  type  of  unbridled  love  of  freedom 
(Job  xi,  12,  xxxix,  5-6),  and  a  picture  of  the  wan- 
dering Bedouin  (Gen.  xvi,  12;  Job  xxiv,  5).  Hosea 
(viii,  9)  compares  Ephraim  wilfully  running  after 
Assjrria,  to  a  wild  ass  separated  from  the  herd. 
It  feeds  on  the  vegetation  of  the  salt  steppe  (Job 
vi,  5;  Jer.  xiv,  6).  The  animal  is  larger  and  more 
bcAUtiful  and  graceful  than  the  conunon  ass;  it 
is  famous  for  its  swiftness,  and  is  hard  to  catch. 

The  tame  ass  has  been  from  ancient  times  one  of 
the  most  important  domestic  animals  in  the  East, 
whence  it  was  introduced  into  Greece  and  Italy  (cf. 
V.  Hehn,  KuUurpflamm  und  Hauatiere,  Beriin,  1894, 
pp.  130-131).  The  Oriental  ass  is  larger,  quicker, 
more  enduring,  and  more  intelligent  than  the 
European.  As  in  older  times,  the  light-gray  asses 
or  white  asses  are  still  preferred,  which  the  Sleb 
Bedouins  rear  in  the  desert;  the  usual  color  is 
reddish-brown  (hence  the  name  ^arnor).  All 
classes  used  them  for  riding,  for  which  purpose  the 
females  were  preferred  (Num.  xxii,  11;  Judges  x, 
4;  II  Sam.  xvii,  23,  xix,  26;  I  Kings  xiii,  13;  II 
Kings  iv,  24;  cf.  Matt,  xxi,  2-9).  In  the  time  of 
David,  mules  were  used  (II  Sam.  xiii,  29;  xviii,  9; 
I  Kings  i,  33).  The  driver  went  alongside  or 
behind  (Judges  xix,  3;  II  Kings  iv,  24).  The  ass 
was  also  used  as  a  beast  of  burden  (Gen.  x)ii,  26, 
xlix,  14;  I  Sam.  xxv,  18;  Neh.  xiii,  15),  for  plowing 
(Deut.  xxii,  10;  Isa.  xxx,  24,  xxxii,  20),  and  for 
grinding.  Being  an  unclean  animal,  it  could  not 
be  sacrificed  (Ex.  xiii,  13,  xxxiv,  20),  nor  could 
its  flesh  be  eaten  (but  cf.  II  Kings  vi,  25).  With 
other  nations,  as  the  Egyptians,  it  was  sacred, 
and  with  this  may  probably  be  connected  the  fable 
circulated  by  Greek  and  Roman  writers  that  the 
Jews  worshiped  the  ass  as  God  (see  Asinarh). 

I.  BSNZINGBB. 

Bxbuoobapht:  An  early  treatment  still  valuable  is  by 
S.  Boehart,  Hierotoieon,  i,  14S-140.  ii,  214-215,  London, 
1663;  C.  von  Lengerke.  Kgnaan,  i.  140-141,  146,  165. 
Kdnigsberg,  1844;  J.  G.  Wood,  WiU  AmmaU  of  the  BibU, 
London.  1887;  DB,  i.  173-174;  BE,  i,  343-344. 

ASS,  BROTHERS  OF  THE  (Ordo  aainarum).  See 
Trxnitarianb. 

ASS,  FEAST  OF  THE:  A  popular  entertain- 
ment provided  by  the  Church  in  the  Middle  Ages 
in  several  cities  of  France.  The  aim,  as  in  the 
miracle-plays,  mysteries,  moralities,  and  many 
minor  points  of  the  ritual,  was  to  impress  the 


facts  of  Bible  history  upon  the  minds  of  the  igno- 
rant, and  to  give  general  religious  instruction.  At 
Rouen  a  drajoia  was  presented  at  Christmas-tide, 
in  which  the  prophets,  Moses,  Aaron,  John  the 
Baptist  and  his  parents,  Simeon,  Nebuchadnezzar, 
Vergil,  and  the  Sibyl  appeared  in  appropriate  dress 
and  announced  the  coming  of  a  redeemer.  The 
story  of  Balaam  was  one  of  the  scenes,  and  the  ass 
was  made  to  speak  by  the  help  of  a  priest  concealed 
between  the  legs.  At  Beauvais  a  young  woman 
with  a  child  in  her  arms,  and  mounted  on  an  ass, 
was  led  in  procession  through  the  streets  on  Jan.  14, 
in  conmiemoration  of  the  flight  to  Eg3rpt.  Mass 
was  then  said,  during  which  "  hinham  "  was  sub- 
stituted for  certain  of  the  usual  responses.  There 
was  a  similar  festival  at  Sens,  and  an  ass's  feast 
at  Madrid  on  Jan.  17,  in  the  course  of  which  the 
story  of  Balaam's  ass  was  recited.  In  the  fifteenth 
century  these  feasts  were  forbidden  because  abuse 
had^crept  in  and  they  had  become  a  scandal.  The 
ass  naturally  figured  frequently  in  Palm  Sunday 
processions,  and  a  picture  of  an  ass  was  often 
introduced  in  the  churches  at  that  time.  See  Bot- 
BiSHOP;  FooLB,  Feast  of. 

Bibuoorapht:  S.  du  Tilliot,  Mimaire§  pour  urvir  h  VkU' 
toire  d§  lafHe  deB  foua,  p.  14,  Lausanne,  1741;  C.  F.  du 
Cance,  OloMarium,  8.V.  "  Festum  asinorum." 

ASSBBUR6,  Os'se-burg,  ROSAMUNDE  JULIANE 
VON:  Religious  enthusiast;  b.  at  Eigenstedt,  near 
Aschersleben  (30  m.  n.w.  of  Halle),  Prussia,  1672; 
d.  in  Dresden  Nov.  8,  1712.  She  might  have  been 
forgotten  long  ago,  if  the  well-known  millenarian, 
Johann  Wilhelm  Petersen  (q.v.),  had  not  called 
attention  to  her.  and  been  followed  in  the  study  of 
her  ease  by  such  men  as  Spener,  LOscher,  and  Leib- 
nitz. According  to  her  own  statement,  she  received 
divine  revelations  and  had  glorious  visions  when 
only  seven  years  old,  and  was  regarded  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  her  home  as  an  inspired  prophetess. 
She  asserted  that  Christ  himself  had  appeared  to 
her,  and  that  an  angel  had  received  her  tears  in  a 
golden  vessel.  At  first  these  revelations  were  con- 
fided only  to  the  circle  of  her  friends;  but  they 
obtained  wider  currency  when  she  removed  to 
Magdeburg  and  became  acquainted  with  Petersen 
who  published  a  treatise  on  her  case  in  1691,  dis- 
cussing the  question  whether  God  might  be  supposed 
still  to  reveal  himself  in  direct  apparitions.  L5- 
scher,  at  Dresden,  and  Johann  Friedrich  Meyer,  at 
Hamburg,  warned  against  believing  her;  Spener, 
asked  for  his  opinion  by  the  electress  of  Saxony, 
expressed  himself  with  great  caution;  Leibnitz 
supported  her,  and  compiled  her  visions  to  those 
of  St.  Bridget  and  other  holy  women  of  the  Middle 
Ages.  Petersen  received  her  at  LUneburg,  where, 
her  mental  excitement  increased  to  such  a  degree 
as  to  cause  disturbance  in  the  town  and  to  call  for 
an  official  investigation.  Petersen's  deposition 
from  the  office  of  superintendent  and  banishment 
followed  in  1692,  and  implied  the  condemnation 
of  his  friend  She  followed  him  to  Wolfenbtlttel 
and  to  Magdeburg;  later  she  lived  in  Berlin,  and 
in  the  house  of  a  Saxon  countess,  where  Petersen 
used  to  call  and  visit  her  as  late  as  the  year  1706. 
It  is  said  that  she  died  in  Dresden  Nov.  8,  1712, 
and  was  buried  at  SchOnfeld  near  Pillnitz.    Her  poem 


Assaxanoe 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


890 


euch  gegeben,  is  included  in  some  modem  German 
hymn>books.  (F.  W.  Dibeuus.) 

Bxbuoobapbt:  J.  W.  Peteraen,  Lebentbetdireibuno,  Frank- 
fort, 1719  (reproduoed  in  Eng.,  in  the  work  by  J.  W.  P., 
A  Letter  to  Some  Divinee  Coneeming  this  QueeHon  toKether 
Ood,  eince  Chriat'e  Aeeeneion  doth  any  more  Reveal  Himeelf 
to  Mankind  hy  the  Meane  of  Divine  Apparitionef  With  an 
Exact  Account  of  what  Ood  hath  Beetotoed  upon  a  Noble  Maid 
.  .  .  written  in  HighrDuteh  and  Now  Set  Forth  in  Bno., 
London,  1606). 

ASSEMAIII,  as-e^md^nt  (Italianized  from  the 
Arabio  alrsama'aniyyf  **  the  Simeonite "):  The 
name  of  several  learned  Maronites  who  eame  to 
Rome  from  the  Lebanon. 

1.  Joseph  Simonius  Assemani:  The  oldest  and 
best  known;  b.  at  Hasnm  (35  m.  n.e.  of  Beirut, 
near  the  cedar-grove  at  the  foot  of  Jabal  Makmal); 
d.,  eighty  years  old,  at  Rome  Jan.  13,  1768.  He 
was  educated  at  the  Maronite  college  in  Rome, 
and  is  said  to  have  learned  thirty  languages.  In 
1715  Pope  Clement  XI  sent  him  to  the  East  to 
look  for  manuscripts,  and  he  was  there  again  from 
1735  to  1738  in  behalf  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Christians  of  the  Lebanon.  He  published  numerous 
works,  of  which  the  first,  and  perhaps  the  most 
important,  was  the  Bibliotheca  orientals  Clemen- 
Hnth-Vaticana  in  qua  manuacriptos  codicee  SyriacoSt 
ArabicoB,  Pereicos,  TurcicoSf  Hebraieos,  Samarir 
tanos,  ArmenicoSf  JEthiopicos,  GrcBCoe,  jEgyptiacaa, 
Ibericos,  et  Malabaricoa  .  .  .  bibliotheca  VaHccma 
addictoe  receneuit  digessit  J,  S.  Aaeemani.  Twelve 
volumes  were  planned,  of  which  four  were  published 
(Rome,  1719-28).  For  Cardinal  Quirini's  edition 
of  the  works  of  Ephraem  Syrus  he  prepared  the  three 
Greek  volumes  (1734-46),  and  in  1751-53  issued 
four  volumes  of  Italica  hiatorica  acriptores,  a  sup 
plement  to  Muratori;  four  more  volumes  were 
planned.  Six  volumes  of  Kalendaria  ecdeaicB 
univeraa  appeared  in  1755;  six  more  were  planned 
and  partially  completed,  but  were  destroyed  by 
fire  in  the  Vatican  libraiy  in  1768.  The  Biblio- 
theca juria  orierUalia  canonici  et  civilia  (5  vols., 
1762-66)  is  now  very  rare.  The  archives  of  the 
Propaganda  and  of  the  Inquisition  contain  more 
than  100  volumes  of  treatises  by  Assemani.  Many 
of  the  works  which  he  planned  should  be  taken 
up  by  organized  scholarly  research.  A  list  of  his 
manuscript  remains  is  given  in  Mai,  Nova  coUectio, 
ii,  2  (Rome,  1828),  166-168. 

2.  Joseph  Aloysius  Assemani:  A  younger  brother 
of  the  preceding;  b.  about  1710;  d.  at  Rome  Feb. 
9,  1782.  He  was  professor  of  Oriental  languages 
in  Rome.  His  chief  work  was  Codex  liturgicua 
ecdeaicB  univeracB  in  xv.  libroa  diatributua  (13 
vols.,  Rome,  1749-66).  Most  copies  of  the  last  vol- 
ume were  burned,  but  it  (as  well  as  the  entire  work) 
is  accessible  in  anastatic  reprint.  Besides  minor 
dissertations,  he  published  De  catholida  aeu  patri- 
archia  ChaldcBorum  et  Neatorianorum  commentariua 
hiatorico-iheologicua  (1755).  His  Latin  translation 
of  the  Collectio  canonum  of  Ebed  Jesu  and  of  the 
Nomocanon  of  Barhebrseus  is  in  Mai,  Nova  coUectio, 
vii  (1838). 

3.  Stephan  Evoditis  Assemani:  A  cousin  of  the 
preceding  two;  b.  1707;  d.  Nov.  24,  1782.  He 
was  titular  bishop  of  Apamea  and  member  of  the 
Royal   Society  of  Great  Britain.    He  published 


BibliotheeoB  Medicea  LautenHana  et  Palatina 
codicum  maa,  orientalium  catalogita  (Florence,  1742), 
containing  in  twenty-three  plates  the  illustrations 
of  Bible  history  from  the  Syriac  codex  of  Rabulas; 
the  three  Syriac  volumes  of  the  works  of  Ephraem 
Syrus  in  the  edition  mentioned  above;  Acta  aane- 
torum  martyrum  orientalium  et  occidentalium  in 
duaa  pariea  diatributa  :  adcedunt  acta  S.  Simeonia 
l^litm  (2  vols.,  Rome,  1748);  and  with  J.  S.  Aaee- 
mani,  Bibliotheca  apoatolica  Vaiicana  codicum 
manuacriptorum  catalogiu  in  tree  partea  diatrOndua, 
of  which  3  volumes  (Hebrew  and  Syriac  manu- 
scripts) had  appeared  (1756  sqq.),  as  well  as  eighty 
pages  of  the  fourth  (Arabic  manuscripts),  when  the 
fire  in  the  Vatican  library  destroyed  the  remainder. 

4.  Simon  Assemani:  A  great-nephew  of  Joseph 
Simonius  and  Joseph  Aloysius  Assemani;  b.  in 
Rome  Feb.  19,  1752,  according  to  G.  P.  Zabeo, 
Orazione  in  funeredi  Aaaemani  (Padua,  1821 );  others 
say  in  Tripolis,  and  give  the  date  as  Feb.  20,  1752, 
and  Mar.  14,  1749;  d.  in  Padua,  where  he  was  pro- 
fessor of  Arabic,  Apr.  7, 1821 .  Hia  publications  were 
chiefly  on  Arabic  subjects,  as  Muaeo  cufico  Naniana 
(Padua,  1788);  Su  la  Setta  Aaaiaaana  (1806). 

E.  Nestle. 
Bibuoobapht:  J.  8.  Ersch  and  J.  O.  Gniber.  AUoemeine 

BncifdopOdiet   vol.  vi.   Leipaic.  1821    sqq.;    Nouvelle  trio- 

graphic  a^n^roie,  vol.  iii.  Paris,  1854. 

ASSEMBLY,  GENERAL:  The  highest  court  of 
the  Presbyterian  churches  (see  Presbtterianb). 
The  name  is  from  Heb.  xii,  23. 

ASSER:  Bishop  of  Sherborne;  d.  909  or  910. 
He  was  a  Briton,  a  monk  of  Menevia  (St.  David's), 
and  related  to  the  bishop  of  that  see.  His  repute 
for  learning  was  such  that  about  885  King  Alfred 
asked  him  to  enter  his  service,  and  an  arrange- 
ment was  ultimately  made  whereby  the  monkish 
scholar  agreed  to  spend  half  of  each  year  with  the 
English  kmg  and  half  in  his  own  home.  Alfred 
gave  him  very  substantial  rewards,  including  a 
grant  at  Exeter  and  its  district  in  Saxonland  and 
Cornwall.  He  became  bishop  of  Sherborne  (in 
Dorsetshire)  before  900.  He  wrote  a  life  of  Alfred 
(De  rebua  geatia  ^Ifridi),  which  is  a  chronicle  of 
English  history  from  849  to  887,  with  a  personal  and 
original  narrative  of  Alfred's  career  to  the  latter 
year.  It  betrays  the  author's  Celtic  birth  in  many 
passages,  and  in  existing  manuscripts  has  been 
much  interpolated.  The  best  editions  are  by 
F.  Wise  (Oxford,  1722),  in  Petrie's  Aionumenta 
hiatorica  BrUannica  (London,  1848),  and  by  W.  H. 
Stevenson  (Oxford,  1904,  Eng.  transl.  by  A.  S. 
Cook,  Boston,  1906). 

Bibuoorapbt:  T.  Wright,  Biographia  Britanniea  literaria, 
i,  405-413,  London,  1842  (questions  Asser's  authorship  of 
the  De  nbue  geetie);  R.  Pauli,  KOnig  jElfred  und  eeine 
SteUe  in  der  Oeeehichte  Englande,  Berlin,  1851  (shows  that 
Wright's  objections  are  unfounded). 

ASSHUR:  1.  City  of  Assyria.  See  Assyria, 
IV,  S 1.   2.  Assyrian  God.    See  Assyria,  VII,  §  2. 

ASSHURBANIPAL.  See  Assyria,  VI,  3,  S§  14- 
15. 

ASSISTANTS  IN  PUBLIC  WORSHIP:  The 
historical  functions  of  those  whose  place  it  is  to 
assist  the  principal  minister  in  divine  service 
belong  largely  to  the  development  of  the  various 


321 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Aasaranoe 


order?  (aee  Oedisbh,  Holt).  In  the  modem  Roman 
Catholic  Church  Ihe  celebrant  at  high  mass  is  assiet^ 
ed  by  a  deacon  and  eubdeacoo  who  are  usually 
priests.  The  minor  functions  are  performed  by 
acolytes,  usually  laymen  and  boys.  A  priest  m 
not  allowed  to  celebrate  even  a  low  mana  without 
at  least  one  person  to  make  the  responses.  In 
the  Anglican  prayer-book  the  clergymen  who 
read  the  epistle  and  gospel  are  designated  not 
deacon  and  subdeacoo,  but  epistoler  and  goapeler. 
See  also  LAy'REAni^R, 

ASSMAra,  flfi'mon,  JOHAIHl  BAPTIST  MARIA: 
German  Eoman  CathoUe;  b.  at  Branits  (SO  m.  s,e. 
of  Brealau)  Aug*  26^  1833,  He  was  educated  at 
the  University  of  Breslau,  and  after  his  ordination 
to  the  priesthood  in  1860  was  assistant  in  Katschcr 
from  1^1  to  1864,  and  a  minion  priest  and  military 
ehaplain  in  Kolberg  in  1865-6S,  Ftom  the  latter 
year  until  1882  be  was  divisional  chaplain  at  Neisse, 
and  was  then  provost  of  St.  Hed wig's,  Berlin^  and 
delegate  of  the  prince-bishop  for  six  years.  In 
18S2  he  wa«  consecrated  titular  bishop  of  Phila- 
delphia^  and  since  the  same  year  has  been  field 
provost  of  the  Prussian  army  and  navy,  being  also 
the  recipient  of  numerous  orders  and  decorations, 

ASSOCIATE  CHURCH  OF  NORTH  AMERICA, 
See  Prbsbttehians. 

ASSOCUTE  REFORMED  SYTIOD  OF  THE 
SOUTH*     See  Presbvterians. 

ASSUMPTlOlf,  FEAST  OF  THE;  A  festival 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  Churchy  commemorating 
the  assumption ,  or  corporal  translation,  of  the 
Virgin  Mary  into  heaven  after  her  death.  This 
doctrine,  which  the  Greek  Church  also  teaches 
(Synod  of  Jerusalem,  1672),  has  never  been  made 
the  object  of  a  dogmatic  papal  definition ,  but  the 
attitude  of  the  Church  toward  it  and  the  general 
teaching  of  theologians  class  it  among  those  truths 
which  it  woyld  be  rash  to  deny;  at  the  Vatican 
Council  over  two  hundred  bishops  desired  a  decree 
making  the  Assumption  an  article  of  faith.  The 
Assumption  can  not  be  proved  from  Holy  Scripture, 
and  is  based  entirely  upon  tradition,  though  the 
scriptural  prerogatives  of  Mary  are  invoked  to 
prove  the  propriety  of  such  an  occurrence.  About 
the  year  600  the  emperor  Maurice  ordered  the  cele- 
bration of  the  feast  on  Aug,  15;  and  at  about  the 
same  time  Gregory  the  Great  fixed  the  same  date 
for  the  West,  where  it  had  previously  been  observed 
on  Jan.  18,  for  a  reason  which  can  not  now  be 
ascertained.  The  Galilean  Church  held  to  Jan.  18 
down  to  the  ninth  century.  The  most  that  can  be 
said  for  the  antiquity  of  the  feast  es  that  its  general 
solemn  observance  in  East  and  West  at  the  end  of 
the  sixth  century  would  seem  to  jastify  the  belief 
that  its  beginnings  date  from  at  least  a  century 
earlier.  The  word  "  assumption/'  at  one  time 
applied  generally  to  the  death  of  saints,  especially 
martyrs,  and  their  entry  into  heaven,  has  come 
to  have  an  exclusive  application  to  the  Blessed 
Virgin.    See  Maby,  the  Motheei  of  JEstra. 

John  T.  Creaoh, 

ASSTJHPnOIf ,  AtTGUSTHTIAKS  OF  THE  (known 
popularly   as  Assumptionista):     A    religious    con- 


gregation of  men,  founded  at  Ntmea  in  1845 
by  Emmanuel  d'Alzon  (1810-^),  and  finally 
approved  by  the  pope  in  1864.  The  rule  is  that 
of  St.  Augustine,  supplemented  by  sfjccial  con- 
stitutions. The  purpose  of  the  society  is  the  sanc^ 
tification  of  it^  members,  devotion  to  God,  to  the 
Blessed  Virgin^  and  to  the  Church,  and  real  for 
souls.  The  activity  of  the  Assumptionista  has 
been  displayed  in  many  fields.  A  large  part  of 
their  energy  has  been  devoted  to  the  poor  and  work- 
ing classes,  in  a.9ylums,  schools,  and  technical 
institutions.  In  1864  the  Little  Sisters  of  the 
Assumption  were  organized  to  assist  in  this  work, 
and  later^  to  secure  still  more  efTectively  the  spiri- 
tual and  material  relief  of  the  needy,  three  pious 
confraternities  of  laywomen  were  affiliated  to 
the  Oblates— the  Servants  of  the  Poor,  the  Sister- 
hood of  Our  Lady,  and  the  Daughters  of  St,  Monica. 
In  1863  Father  d'Alzon  was  sent  by  Pius  IX  to 
Constantinople  to  take  up  missionary  work,  and 
to-day  about  350  members  of  the  society  are  labor- 
ing in  Turkey,  Bulgaria,  Asia  Minor,  and  Palestine, 
in  schools,  seminaries,  hospitals,  and  general  mis^ 
sionaiy  work.  The  demands  of  this  field  led  to 
the  founding  of  the  Oblate  Sisters  of  the  Assump- 
tion, Perhaps  the  beet  known  work  of  the  Assump- 
tionists  is  the  Oeuvre  de  la  Bonne  Presa^  for  the 
dissemination  of  good  literature.  This  undertaking 
which  was  attended  by  a  remarkable  degree  of  suc- 
cess, resulted  in  numerous  newspapers  and  maga- 
zines, and  almost  countless  other  publications. 
La  Croix  du  Dimanche  bad  a  circulation  of  510,000. 
Dissolved  by  a  decree  of  the  Court  of  Appeal  of 
Paris,  Mar.  6,  1900,  the  Assumptionista  were 
doomed  to  exile  or  dispersion,  but  still  maintain 
their  corporate  existence,  with  a  central  house  at 
Rome,  and  establishments  in  Belgium,  Spain, 
Italy,  England,  Australia,  Chile,  and  the  United 
States.  They  count  at  the  present  time  about 
1,000  members.  The  habit  is  a  black  robe  with 
long,  flowing  sleeves,  a  black  cape  and  c%)wl,  and 
a  leathern   cincture.  John  T.  Creaqh. 

ASSURAITCE :  The  doctrine  that  those  who  are 
truly  converted  know  beyond  doubt  that  they  are 
saved  (cf.  CoL  u,  2;  Heb.  vi,  11;  x,  22), 

The  doctrine  may  easily  be  made  to  contribute 
to  spiritual  pride.  The  degree  of  its  objectionable- 
ness  depends  upon  the  interpretation  placed  upon 
it.  It  is  particularly  objectionable  when  it  as- 
sumes to  deny  a  state  of  salvation  to  those  who 
are  troubled  by  doubts,  and  in  its  exaggerated  form 
easily  leads  to  Antinomianisia  Cq,v,).  The  doc- 
trine was  taught  by  both  Luther  and  Calvin,  and 
has  been  generally  held  in  Protestantism,  In- 
deed, the  Westminster  Assembly  was  the  first 
Protestant  synod  to  declare  aBSuranee  not  to  be 
of  the  essence  of  faith.  In  connection  with  the 
belief  in  unconditional  election,  the  doctrine  in 
Calvinism  (cf.  We^tminsler  Confe^ion,  art.  xviii) 
takes  the  form  of  assurance  of  final  salvation  (see 
Pehseverance  of  thb  Saints).  In  Methodism  it 
means  full  confidence  of  present,  not  eternal,  sal- 
vation. In  this  form  the  doctrine  was  advocated 
by  Wesley,  who  connected  it  with  the  witness  of 
the  Holy  Spirit;  and  it  is  still  generally  held  by 
Methodist  theologians  (see  MErraooiBtia), 


Aworria 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


829 


ASSYRIA. 


V.  The  People,  Language,    and    Cxil- 
ture. 
National  Character  (f  1). 
Occupations  ({  2). 
Language  ($  3). 
The  Culture  not  Native  (S  4). 
VI.  The  History. 

1.  Chronology. 
Sources  and  Resulta  (f  1). 

2.  Ethnological  Data. 
Peoples  and  Places  Named  in  As- 
syrian Annals  (f  1). 

The  Story  of  Assyria. 
Early  History  and  Names,  to  1600 

B.C.  (5  1). 
The    Winning    of     Independence, 

1500-1300  B.C.  (I  2). 
Shalmaneser     I-Tiglath-Pileeer    I, 

1300-1100  B.C.  (I  3). 
Semitic  Rule  Unstable  (f  4). 
A  Time  of  Quiescence,    1100-050 

B.C.  (S  6) 


3. 


I.  The  Name. 
II.  The  Country. 

Geographical  Position  and  Extent 

(ID. 
The  Tigris  (|  2). 

Influence  of  Topography  on  His- 
tory (I  3). 
Climate,  Fauna,  Flora,  and  Min- 
erals (f  4). 

III.  Exploration  and  Excavation. 
The  Persepolis  Inscriptions  ({  1). 
Preliminary    Exploration.       Rich 

and  Porter  ($  2). 
Botta  at  Khorsabad  (f  3). 
Layard  and  Rassam  (f  4). 
Rassam,  1852  (f  5). 
Place  (f  6). 
George  Smith  (f  7). 
Rassam.  1877-82  (S  8). 
Obstacles  in  Excavating  (f  9). 

IV.  The  Cities. 
Asshur  (f  1). 

Nineveh  (f  2).  Tiglath-Pileser 

Calah  (S  3).  shurnasirpal 

Resen,  Arbela,  and  Dur-Shamikin  (S  6). 

(S  4).  Shalmaneser  II, 

L  The  Name:  The  original  form  seems  to  have 
been  a-uaar  (**  water-plain  "),  which  was  assimi- 
lated to  or  confused  with  the  name  of  the  god 
Anshar  ("  Host  of  Heaven  "),  softened  into  Asshar, 
and  Asshur.  The  country  appears  in  both  Assyrian 
and  Hebrew  as  Asshur  and  **  land  of  Asshur  "; 
to  the  Greeks  it  was  Assyria  ;  in  the  Aramaic  the 
name  became  Athur  and  Aihwriya, 

n.  The  Country:    In  the  case  of  a  land  the 
extent   of   which   fluctuated   so   greatly    at    dif- 
ferent   periods,    and   the    name   of   which    con- 
noted   very    different     areas,    some 
I.  Geo-      convention  is  necessary.    Accordingly, 
graphical    following  the  datum  of  original  size 
Position     rather  than  of  subsequent  devclop- 
and  Extent,  ment,  historians    regard    as    Assyria 
that  portion  of  territory  lying  along 
the  Tigris,  mainly  to  the  east  of  it,  north  of  the 
confluence  of  the  Lower  (or  Little)  Zab  on  the 
south    to    the     foothills    of    the    mountains    of 
Armenia  on  the    north,  and  on   the   east    from 
the  Zagros  Mountains  to   just  beyond  the  Tigris 
on  the  west.    This  demarcation  coincides  with  a 
change    in    the    topographical   character   of    the 
country    at  its  southern  limit.     Below  the  Lower 
Zab  the  country  becomes  alluvial;  above  that  it 
is  rolling  or  mountainous;  while  the  desert  lies  to 
the  west.     Since  this  is  in    accord  with    native 
characteristics  of  the  people  to  be  noted  later, 
for  which  it  helps  to  account,  the  boundaries  given 
above  are  assumed  for  this  article. 

Topographically  the  Tigris  is  the  chief  feature, 
the  character  of  which  is  best  understood  by  com- 
parison with  the  Euphrates  (q.v.).     It  rises  only 
a  few  miles  south  of  the  course  of  the  Euphrates 
and  at  about  the  same  level,  but  on  the  south  side 
of  the  mountains.  The  Euphrates,  therefore,  has  to 
skirt  the  north  side  of  the  range  and 
3.  The      break   through   on   its   much   longer 
Tigris,      journey  south.    The  general  course  of 
the  Tigris  is  quite  consistently  south- 
east; and  the  two  rivers  reach  the  same  level  about 
opposite  Bagdad.    The  consequence  is  that  to  make 
the  difference  in  level  of  about  1,(XX)  feet  between 


960    B.c-As- 
885-860    B.C. 


Shamishi-Ramamn  IV  and  his  Sue- 

cessors.  824-745  B.C.  (J  8). 
Tiglath-Pileser    III,   745-727    b.c. 

(§9). 
Shalmaneser    IV,      727-722      B.a 

(5  10). 
Sargon,  722-705  b.c.  (5  U). 
Sennacherib,  706-681  b.c.  (|  12). 
Esarhaddon.  681-668  b.c.  (S  13). 
Asshurbanipal.  668-626  b.c.  (1 14). 
Asshurbanipal's   Successors,    62&- 

606  B.C.  (S  16). 
VII.  The  Religion. 

Relation    to  Babylonian    Religion 

(5  1). 
Asshur  (S  2). 
Ishtar  (S  3). 
Ramman  (S  4). 
The  Sun-gods  Shamash,  Ninib,  and 

Nergal  (S  6). 
Sin,   the    Moon-god.     Nusku,   the 

Fire-god  (§  6). 
Rivalry  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria 

(5  7). 
Magic  (f  8). 
860-«24  B.C.  (5  7). 

the  source  and  the  alluvium,  the  Tigris,  having  a 
much  shorter  distance  to  go,  makes  a  more  rapid 
descent  than  the  Euphrates,  and  its  current  is 
swifter.  A  second  and  noteworthy  difference  is 
that  while  the  Euphrates  receives  only  two  impor- 
tant tributaries  after  turning  south,  the  Tigris  con- 
tinues to  receive  all  the  way  to  its  mouth  streams 
which  drain  the  mountain  regions  and  basins  to  the 
east.  While,  therefore,  the  Euphrates  loses  much 
of  its  water  to  the  thirsty  soil  through  which  it 
the  Tigris  swells  its  torrent  as  it  proceeds. 
Another  characteristic  of  the  country  is  its  partial 
isolation.  Mountains  make  it  difficult  of  access 
from  the  north  and  east;  and  the 
3.  Influence  desert  does  the  same  on  the  west. 
ofTopog-  Its  only  easy  approach  is  from  the 
raphy  on  south  by  the  rivers,  where  settled 
History,  populations  in  ancient  times  guard- 
ed it  from  the  nomadic  hordes  in 
that  direction.  Still  one  more  note  should  be 
made.  The  country  is  not  alluvial  like  the  great 
and  marvelously  fertile  plain  of  Babylonia.  It  is 
rolling  or  hilly,  harder  therefore  to  cultivate,  and, 
being  more  northerly  in  situation,  its  returns  to 
the  cultivator  are  less  generous.  All  these  facts 
have  their  bearing  upon  the  character  of  the  people. 
Further  still,  the  land  to  the  west  of  the  river  being 
prevailingly  desert,  the  population  of  Assyria  was 
almost  entirely  to  the  east  of  it;  and  there,  with  a 
single  exception,  the  great  cities  were  situated. 

In  its  temperature  and  its  sufficiently  abundant 
rainfall  Assyria  was  fortunate:  it  was  much  cooler 
and  moister  than  its  southern  neigh- 
bor. Of  course,  the  temperature  was 
lower  in  proportion  to  elevation  and 
to  distance  north.  In  the  hills  the  win- 
ters were  severe.  The  fauna  was  very 
extensive.  In  the  earlier  periods  the 
elephant  was  known  about  the  middle  Euphrates. 
Of  beasts  of  prey,  there  were  the  black-maned  and 
another  species  of  lion,  the  bear,  panther,  lynx, 
wild-cat,  wolf,  fox,  jackal,  and  hyena.  Of  other 
animals,  the  porcupine,  beaver,  wild  ass,  wild 
boar,  wild  sheep,  wild  goat,  ibex,  gray  deer,  spotted 


4.  Climate, 

Fauna, 

Flora,  and 

Minerals. 


323 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Asairria 


deer,  and  hare  may  be  named,  while  the  great  wild 
ox  was  not  yet  extinct.  Of  birds  of  prey  or  carrion, 
the  eagle,  vulture,  and  various  hawks  were  known. 
Birds  suitable  for  food  were  the  bustard,  swan, 
goose,  duck,  partridge,  grouse,  and  plover.  The 
conmion  domestic  animals  were  employed,  while 
dogs  were  trained  for  the  chase.  The  pine,  poplar, 
plane,  oak,  sycamore,  and  walnut  aboimded.  Un- 
der cultivation,  though  some  of  them  were  impoi^ 
tations,  were  the  date  (of  inferior  quality),  orange, 
lemon,  pomegranate,  apricot,  mulberry,  fig,  and 
grape.  Assyrian  citrons  were  famous;  melons 
were  abundant;  while  cucumbers,  onions,  the 
grains — wheat,  barley,  and  millet— and  the  legu- 
minous plants  were  food  staples.  Under  the  care- 
ful and  extensive  system  of  irrigation  in  iise,  the 
agriculturist  reaped  a  good  return  for  his  labors. 
Mineral  resources  were  abundant  and  conveniently 
at  hand  in  the  shape  of  iron,  lead,  copper,  alum, 
salt,  and  bitumen,  while  alabaster  of  a  fine  quality, 
limestone,  and  sandstone  were  in  close  proximity 
to  the  cities  or  easily  reached  from  the  Tigris,  on 
which  they  were  floated  down  to  the  places  where 
they  were  required. 

m.  Exploration  and  Excavation:  It  may  ap- 
pear somewhat  inconsequent  that  excavations 
in  Assyria  and  Babylonia  should  be  the  result  of 
the  discovery  and  partial  decipherment  of  inscrip- 
tions from  a  locality  so  distant  as  PersepoUs.  Yet 
the  discovery  that  these  were  neither  mere  orna- 
mentation nor  arbitrary  signs  influenced  greatly 
the  patient  toil  and  research  which  have  recovered 
in  large  part  the  histoiy  of  nations  once  forgotten, 
and  have  carried  history  back  into  the  fifth  pre- 
Christian  millennium.  The  steps  leading  to  these 
results  are  as  follows.  The  ruins  at 
X.  The  Per-  Persepohs  had  been  mentioned  in 
sepolis  In-  1320  by  Odoric,  and  the  inscriptions 
scriptiona.  in  1611  by  the  friar  Antonio  de 
Gouvea;  they  were  first  described  by 
the  Spanish  ambassador  of  Philip  III  to  Shah 
Abbas,  Don  Garcia  Sylva  Figueroa,  in  1621;  the 
guess  that  they  read  from  left  to  right  was  first 
made  in  1677  by  Thomas  Herbert;  they  were  first 
called  cuneiform  in  1700  by  Thomas  Hyde;  first 
decided  to  be  in  three  forms  of  writing  in  1774  by 
Carsten  Niebuhr;  declared  to  be  in  three  languages 
in  1798  by  Olaf  Tychsen;  and  first  really  translated, 
in  part,  in  1815  by  Georg  F.  Grotefend,  whose  work 
was  the  climax  which  finally  stimulated  to  direct 
effort  upon  Assyrian  and  Babylonian  mounds. 
While  discussion  had  been  going  on  over  the  Persep- 
oUs inscriptions,  bits  of  inscriptions  in  the  cunei- 
form character  had  been  collected  by  the  surveyors 
who  had  been  observing,  locating,  and  plotting  the 
moimds  in  Assyria  and  Babylonia.  A  relation- 
ship had  been  asserted  between  these  scraps  and 
the  PersepoUs  writing;  and  Niebuhr  had  urgently 
advised  excavation  in  Babylonia  and  had  predicted 
rich  results. 

The  site  of  Nineveh  had  been  correctly  located 
as  early  as  1160  by  the  rabbi  Benjamin  of  Tudela. 
Desultory  digging  had  been  done  in  Babylonia  at 
various  sites  by  Claudius  Rich  of  the  East  India 
Company,  in  some  cases  missing  by  only  a  foot  or 
two  walls  which  must  have  led  him  to  investigate 


farther  and  have  anticipated  by  over  a  quarter 
of  a  century  the  real  discovery  of  the  lost  em- 
pires. That  was  in  1811;  he  visited 
3.  Prelimi-  Nineveh  in  1820  and  there  turned  up 
nary  Explo-  a  few  bricks  with  characters  on  them 
ration.  Rich  and  bought  others  from  the  natives, 
and  Porter.  aU  of  which  were  sent  home  and  found 
place  in  the  British  Museum.  A 
visit  of  the  artist  and  archeologist  Sir  R.  K.  Porter 
to  the  region,  particularly  to  the  mounds  at  Hillah 
in  Babylonia,  under  the  guidance  of  Rich,  led  to 
the  pubUcation  in  1821-22  of  a  sumptuous  work 
by  Porter  illustrated  by  his  own  brush.  The  in- 
teresting and  even  brilUant  description  of  what 
was  to  be  seen  and  inferred  aroused  anew  the 
interest  of  Europe;  so  that  the  years  which  foUowed, 
as  well  as  those  which  preceded  his  visit,  were  years 
of  exploration.  The  sites  of  the  mounds  were 
visited  and  plotted  and  described  until  locaUties 
and  names,  with  conjectures  as  to  their  history, 
became  almost  commonplace.  The  era  of  exca- 
vation, however,  was  still  to  come. 

In  1842  a  French  consulate  was  estabUshed  at 
Mosul,  across  the  river  from  the  site  of  Nineveh, 
and  Paul  Emil  Botta  was  appointed  consul.  Botta 
had  served  in  Egypt,  Arabia,  and  Syria,  and  had 
so  become  well  acquainted  with  the  Arabs  and  their 
methods  of  working,  as  weU  as  with  French  proce- 
dure in  archeological  investigation.  He  had  met 
a  German  scholar  named  Julius  Mohl,  who  had 
visited  Babylonia  and  had  been  impressed  with  the 
opportunities  which  it  was  not  in  his  power  to  grasp. 
By  him  Botta  was  urgently  advised  not  to  be 
content  with  mere  explorations  and  plotting  of 
sites,  but  to  dig.  Accordingly  Botta  at  once  began 
at  Eouyunjik,  but  with  resiUts  so  scanty  that  he 
transferred  his  operations  to  Khorsa- 
3.  Botta  at  bad,  where  speedily  so  large  a  niunber 
Khorsabad.  of  bas-reUefs  and  weU-preserved  in- 
scriptions were  discovered  in  the  un- 
covered palace  of  Sargon,  that  upon  his  sober  report 
of  the  facts  the  French  government  made  a  grant 
of  3,000  francs  to  continue  the  work.  The  local 
pasha  meanwhile  had  procured  an  order  for  the 
cessation  of  the  operations;  but  the  arrival  of  a 
firman  soon  enabled  Botta  to  resume,  the  result 
being  the  nucleus  of  the  magnificent  coUection 
now  in  the  Louvre,  made  between  1842  and  1846. 
In  the  latter  year  Botta  was  transferred,  and  his 
work  as  an  excavator  came  to  an  end;  but  the 
results  were  published  by  the  French  government 
in  five  magnificent  volumes  which  are  even  yet 
almost  high-water  mark. 

While  Botta  was  engaged  in  digging,  and  after 
some  of  ins  successes  had  been  gained,  he  was 
visited  by  Austen  Henry  Layard,  whose  early 
reading  had  given  him  a  decided  bent  toward 
archeology.  Layard  told  the  story  of  the  mounds 
to  Lord  Stratford,  who  had  secured  the  HaUcar- 
nassus  marbles  for  the  British  Museum;  and  in 
1845  the  latter  made  a  contribution  of  £60  which 
Layard  was  to  iise  in  excavating.  Layard  returned 
to  Mosul,  kept  his  plans  from  the  local  pasha,  and 
began  excavating  at  Nimrud  (Calah)  at  two  dif- 
ferent points.  His  first  day's  work  led  him  into 
two  chambers,  belonging  to  two  palaces,  lined  with 


AMmyriA 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


324 


alabaster  slabs  bearing  inscriptions.  Further  effort 
resulted  in  the  uncovering  of  colossi  which  created 
sensation  first  among  his  Arab  laborers  and  then  in 
England,  in  the  latter  case  so  pronounced  that 
the  apathetic  British  government  made  a  parsi- 
monious grant  for  the  continuance  of  the  work. 
The  local  pasha  had  closed  the  trenches;  but  au- 
thority from  the  Porte  was  obtained  which  over- 
ruled opposition.  The  palace  of  Shal- 
4.  Layard  maneser  II  was  excavated,  and  the 
and  black  obelisk  unearthed  with  its 
Rassam.  simken  panels  of  relief  and  its  210 
lines  of  inscription  and  the  mention 
of  Jehu  of  Israel,  along  with  many  other  inscrip- 
tions. Layard  had  the  benefit  of  Hormuzd  Rais- 
sam's  skill  in  managing  natives,  since  Rassam  was 
himself  of  the  country,  but  educated  in  England. 
In  1847  Kalah-Shergat  was  attacked;  and  among 
other  finds  was  the  great  inscription  of  Tiglath- 
Pileser  I.  An  interval  of  two  years  was  employed 
partly  in  writing  his  first  books,  and  then  Layard 
returned  as  the  agent  of  the  British  Museum 
and  excavated  at  Nimrud,  Kalah-Shergat,  Nebi 
Yunus,  and  Kouyunjik,  at  the  latter  place  uncover- 
ing Sennacherib's  palace.  In  1851  his  transference 
to  the  diplomatic  service  at  Constantinople  brought 
his  work  as  an  excavator  to  an  end.  He  had 
identified  Calah  and  Nineveh,  had  discovered  eight 
palaces,  and  had  recovered  part  of  the  great  royal 
library,  many  historical  inscriptions,  the  great  col- 
lection of  seids  and  seal  impressions,  the  great  slab, 
21  ft.  by  16  ft.  7  in.,  the  monolith  and  statue  of 
Asshumasirpal,  and  great  numbers  of  bronze  and 
copper  vessels,  implements,  and  arms.  Mean- 
while his  books,  written  in  most  pleasing  style 
and  using  with  telling  effect  Biblical  passages  refer- 
ring to  Assyria  and  Babylon,  had  thoroughly 
awakened  England  to  the  importance  of  the  opera- 
tions. While  his  active  work  in  digging  ceased, 
his  diplomatic  post  afforded  him  the  opportunity 
of  facilitating  the  efforts  of  others  by  preventing 
much  of  the  local  bigoted  and  fanatical  or  ava- 
ricious obstruction  which  had  impeded  his  own 
success. 

In  the  year  1852  Rassam,  who  had  contributed 
00  much  to  Layard's  success,  was  conunissioned 
by  the  British  Museum  to  continue 
5«  Rassam,  the  work  of  excavating,  under  the 
1852.  direction  of  Sir  Henry  Rawlinson. 
He  unearthed  at  Kouyimjik  the  palace 
of  Asshurbanipal  with  its  ''  chamber  of  the  lion 
hunt "  and  the  record  chamber  with  its  heaps  of 
inscribed  tablets,  including  the  Deluge  Tablets, 
the  richest  discovery  yet  made.  At  Nimrud  he 
found  E-zida,  the  temple  of  Nebo,  six  statues  of 
the  god,  the  stele  of  Shamshi-Ramman  IV,  and 
the  fragments  of  the  black  obelisk  of  Asshurbanipal 
II.  At  Kalah-Shergat  the  two  intact  prisms  of 
Tiglath-Pileser  I  with  their  811  lines  of  inscription 
were  the  prizes.  His  work  was  followed  by  that 
of  Loftus  and  Boutcher,  which  produced  less  spec- 
tacular but  equally  solid  values,  while  Hilmi  Pasha, 
who  had  displaced  the  unscrupulous  Mohammed 
Pasha,  recovered  at  Nebi  Yunus  some  winged 
bulls,  a  number  of  bas-reliefs,  and  other  important 
material. 


Meanwhile  the  French  government  had  made 

an  appropriation  of  70,000  francs,  by  which  Victor 

Place  was  enabled  during  1851-55  to 

6.  Place,      carry  on  investigations  at  Khorsabad 

and  Kalah-Shergat.  The  plan  of  the 
former  was  thoroughly  worked  out,  while  fourteen 
cylinders,  a  magazine  of  potteiy,  another  of  ^azed 
tUes,  and  the  bakery  and  wine  cellar  of  the  palace 
were  imcovered.  Unfortunately  the  materials 
gathered  by  this  expedition  and  the  one  of  the  same 
period  at  Birs  Nimrud  in  Babylonia  were  lost  by 
the  capsizing  of  the  raft  on  which  they  were  being 
conveyed  down  the  river  for  shipment. 

The  joint  results  of  these  labors  being  a  mass  of 
imread  inscriptions,  it  is  hardly  surprising  that  a 
tacit  understanding  supervened  to  suspend  exca- 
vations until  decipherment  should  decide  the  value 
of  the  documents.  Progress  was  rapid;  Assjrrian 
and  Babylonian,  Vannic  and  Sumerian  yielded 
their  secrets;  and  the  reading  of  part  of  the  material 
proved  its  great  importance  (see  Inbcriptionb). 
A  new  start  was  taken  in  the  year 

7.  George    1872.    George  Smith  had  discovered 
Smith.        among    Rassam's    tablets    obtained 

from  Asshurbanipal 's  palace  the  frag- 
ments of  the  deluge  story.  The  possible,  even 
certain,  illumination  of  the  Bible  by  these  docu- 
ments, guaranteed  by  the  reading  of  the  names  of 
several  of  the  Hebrew  kings,  stimulated  to  new 
effort.  The  popular  demand  became  urgent  for 
new  discovery;  yet  the  government's  action  was 
so  tardy,  under  the  restrictions  of  routine,  that 
private  enterprise  was  evoked  and  the  London 
Daily  Telegraph  offered  £1,000  to  defray  the  ex- 
penses of  an  expedition,  if  Smith  would  lead  it  and 
send  reports  of  progress.  The  start  was  made  in 
January  of  1873;  Kouyimjik  was  the  site  chosen 
for  work;  and  three  new  fragments  of  the  deluge 
series  were  recovered,  along  with  a  number  of  his- 
torical inscriptions.  With  this  success  the  Tele- 
graph was  satisfied  and  recalled  Smith.  The  same 
year  he  was  sent  back  by  the  British  Museum, 
and  secured  some  3,000  inscriptions,  many  of  which 
filled  gaps  in  the  material  already  at  hand.  In 
1875  he  was  again  sent  out;  but  Turkish  oppo- 
sition intervened,  and  when  that  had  been  over^ 
come,  his  death  had  occurred. 

During   the   period   1877-82  Rassam  was   the 

agent   in  the    field;  and  he  imearthed  at  Bala- 

wat  (fiifteen  miles  from  Mosul)    the 

8.  Rassam,  beautiful   bronze  plates  of  the  gates 
1877-82.     of  Imgur-Bel,  a  city  which  was  the 

site  of  a  palace  of  Asshumasir- 
pal II.  Kouyunjik  was  more  thoroughly  ex- 
plored, 2,000  pieces,  some  of  them  exceedin^y 
fine,  being  the  reward.  But  the  rich  finds  of  pre- 
vious years  made  these  results  seem  meager;  and 
the  consequence  was  a  cessation  of  excavation  in 
Assyria  which  has  not  yet  been  resumed,  the  south- 
em  region  of  Babylonia  being  more  promising 
and  offering  greater  rewards. 

The  difficulties  which  have  to  be  overcome  by 
excavating  archeologists  in  these  regions  are  four- 
fold. (1)  Financial.  The  French  and  German 
governments  have  established  a  fine  record  of  sup- 
port of  scientific  research;  the  record  of  the  British 


825 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Assyria 


is  not  so  clear;  the  United  States  has  done  nothing. 
Consequently  expeditions  from  the  United  States 

have  to  rely  upon  private  enterprise. 
9.  Oteta-  It  is  a  pity  that  some  great  fund  is  not 
cles  in  Ex-  available  that  shall  make  appeal  for 
cavating.    special  resources  unnecessary :  the  result 

would  be  more  thorough  work  and  not 
the  kind  which  looks  for  spectacular  effects  and 
leaves  on  the  ground  material  as  valuable  as  that 
recovered.  (2)  Governmental.  This  is  in  the  shape 
either  of  refusal  or  delay,  at  the  Sublime  Porte, 
to  grant  permission  to  dig,  or  at  the  field  in 
the  case  of  bigoted  or  obstinate  pashas.  The 
only  remedy  in  the  former  case  is  timely  applica- 
tion supported  by  suitable  diplomatic  effort.  If 
the  pasha  on  the  ground  is  inclined  to  interpose 
obstructions,  the  display  of  a  firman  should  be 
sufficient.  (3)  Popular.  The  suspicion  and  super- 
stition of  the  Arabs  can  be  overcome  only  by  the 
exercise  of  great  patience  and  diplomacy.  Their 
confidence  once  gained,  the  Arabs  are  loyal  to  their 
employers,  as  is  amply  proved  by  experience.  The 
assistance  of  one  trained  in  dealing  with  them  is, 
however,  a  necessity.  (4)  Natural.  The  ruins  of 
the  country  and  of  its  system  of  irrigation,  the 
resulting  stretches  of  marshes  with  their  miasmatic 
fevers,  the  heat  of  the  sim,  and  the  scorching  winds 
and  dust-storms,  are  obstacles  which  can  not  be 
overcome.  Their  effects  may  be  palliated  by  proper 
precautions,  which,  imfortunatdy,  the  excavator 
too  often  neglects  in  the  ardor  of  his  pursuit  of 
knowledge. 

IV.  The  Cities:  According  to  the  best  reading 
of  Gen.  X,  11  (R.  V.  margin),  "  out  of  Shinar  went 
forth  Asshur,  and  builded  Nineveh,  Rehoboth-Ir, 
and  Calah,  and  Resen."  By  excepting  from  these 
Rehoboth-Ir  (which  is  now  regarded  as  a  mistake 
for  Rehohoth'Nina,  either  the  place  where  Mosul 
now  is,  or  the  "  open  places,"  i.e.,  "  squares,"  of 
Nineveh  itself),  and  by  adding  Asshur,  Arbela, 
and  Dur-Sharrukin,  a  list  of  the  known  cities 
belonging  to  Assyria  proper  is  completed. 

Asshur,  the  modem  Kalah-Shergat,  on  the  west 
tide  of  the  Tigris,  rather  below  the  middle  point 

of  the  places  where  the  Upper  and 
X.  Anhur.    the  Lower  Zab  join  the  Tigris,  was 

the  chief  city  of  Assyria  until  the 
reign  of  Asshur-bel-kala,  son  of  Tiglath-Pileser  I, 
c.  1090  B.C.  It  never  attained  as  frequent  mention 
or  description  as  Nineveh  in  contemporary  records, 
though  the  inscriptions  record  the  frequent  rebuild- 
ing and  repair  of  the  great  temple  of  Asshur  which 
bore  the  name  of  E-karsag-kurkiura.  That  it  was 
eclipsed  by  its  rival  Nineveh  is  due  perhaps  to  two 
causes:  (1)  The  more  healthful  and  pleasant  sit- 
uation of  the  latter;  and  (2)  The  location  of  Asshur 
in  the  zone  of  danger  from  Babylonian  attack. 
But  the  return  of  quite  late  kings  to  it  as  their 
capital  shows  the  hold  the  old  city  had  upon  the 
sentimental  regard  of  those  rulers. 

Nineveh  (Assyr.  Nina  or  Ninua;  Hebr.  Ninwth 
or  Nineweh ;  LXX,  Nineui),  the  modem  Kouyunjik 
on  the  north  and  Nebbi  Yunus  on  the  south  of  the 
Choser,  named  probably,  like  the  southern  city 
of  the  same  name,  from  Nin,  daughter  of  Ea  and 
identified  with  Ishtar  of  Nineveh,  stood  on  the 


left  bank  of  the  Tigris,  about  twenty  miles  north 
of  the  confluence  of  the  Upper  Zab  with  the  Tigris. 
Its  walls  enclosed  about  1,800  acres,  and  were  about 
seven  and  one-half  miles  in  circimif  erence  (approxi- 
mately two  miles  square).  Herodotus  describes  them 
as  being  380  feet  high  and  80  feet  thick,  though 
in  all  probability  the  height  given  is  an  exaggeration; 
but  Layard's  plans  make  them,  at  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal gates,  where  they  were  doubtless  reinforced, 
110  feet  thick.  The  gates  were  flanked  with  towers 

for  their  defense.  The  eastern  wall 
a.  Nineyeh*  was  protected  by  a  moat  filled  with 

water  from  the  Choser.  The  time  and 
circumstances  of  the  founding  of  the  dty  are  un- 
known, though  its  Semitic  origin  seems  implied  by 
its  name.  The  last  datum  is  not  quite  conclusive, 
since  it  might  have  been  pre-Semitic  and  renamed 
by  its  Semitic  possessors.  As  it  lay  on  the  Indo- 
Mediterranean  caravan  route,  its  early  origin  and 
importance  are  assured.  Gudea  (see  Babylonia, 
VI ,  3,  S  3)  left  an  inscription  referring  to  the  building 
of  a  temple  in  Nineveh  which  may  (and  proba- 
bly does)  refer  to  the  Babylonian  city.  Similarly 
precarious  is  the  identification  of  the  Assyrian 
Nineveh  with  the  one  mentioned  by  Dimgi,  second 
kingof  Ur(c.2700  B.C.),  as  the  place  where  he  built 
a  temple  to  Nergal.  The  fact  that  Shalmaneser  I 
made  gifts  to  such  a  temple  in  Nineveh  does  not, 
considering  the  diffusion  of  the  worship  of  Ner- 
gal, make  the  identification  secure.  The  con- 
jecture of  Jeremias  that  it  once  belonged  to  a  king- 
dom called  Kisshati  has  little  to  support  it.  About 
1450  B.C.  it  was  possibly  imder  control  of  the 
(Hittite?)  state  of  Blitanni,  since  Tushratta,  king 
of  Blitanni,  lent  an  image  of  Ishtar  of  Nineveh  to 
the  contemporary  Pharaoh.  It  is  named  twice  in 
the  Amama  Tablets  (q.v.),  both  times  in  connection 
with  Ishtar.  The  first  Assyrian  who  made  his  resi- 
dence there  was  Asshur-bel-kala,  mentioned  above. 
It  was  neglected  for  a  number  of  centuries,  and 
finally  under  Sennacherib  was  made  perhaps  the 
richest  and  best  adorned  city  of  the  times.  He 
tore  down  the  old  palace  and  built  a  double  one, 
one  part  in  the  Assyrian  style  and  one  in  the  Syrian. 
He  also  conducted  thither  a  water-supply  drawn 
from  the  upper  reaches  of  the  Choser.  Esar- 
haddon  and  Asshurbanipal  added  great  structures, 
and  it  became  the  foremost  city  of  the  world,  a 
great  center  of  commerce  and  enormous  wealth. 
Under  the  last-named  king,  it  became  a  repository 
also  of  Babylonian  culture. 

Calah  (Assyr.  KaU^u)  was   the  city  next  in  im- 
portance, really  a  suburb  of  Nineveh,  twenty  miles 

south,  in  the  fork  of  the  Upper  Zab 
3.  Calah.      and   the  Tigris.    It  was   apparently 

founded  by  Shalmaneser  I  (c.  1300 
B.C.)  and  used  as  his  capital  in  place  of  Asshiu*.  It 
was  then  neglected  imtil  the  time  of  Asshumasir- 
pal  (c.  880  B.C.),  who  rebuilt  it,  fortified  it  with  a 
massive  wall,  brought  a  water-supply  from  the  Zab, 
and  made  of  it  a  garden  city,  adorned  with  foreign 
trees  and  shrubbery.  His  palace  was  one  of  great 
beauty,  and  the  bas-reliefs  found  there  by  Layard, 
George  Smith,  and  Rassam  are  in  the  British 
Museimi.  Shalmaneser  II  built  another  palace, 
one  of  the  adornments  of  which  was  the  famous 


Assirria 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


826 


Black  Obelisk;  and  this  palace  was  occupied  also 
by  Tiglath-Pileser  III.  Esarhaddon  destroyed  it 
and  used  the  materials  to  construct  his  own  palace. 
For  these  different  structures  a  great  platform 
was  built  of  bricks  and  faced  with  stone,  forty  feet 
high,  to  guard  against  floods. 

Of  Resen  ("  fountain-source  ")  little  is  known 

except  its  location  between  Nineveh  and  Calah,  and 

that  it  is  identified  with  the  Larissaof  Xenophon's 

Anabasis  (III,  iv,  7).  Arbela  ("  [The  City  of  the]  Four 

God8")»  the  modem  Erbil,  is  never 

4.  Resen,     noticed  in  the  early  inscriptions,  yet 
Arbela,       must  have  had  an  important  though 

and  Dur-  quiet  life,  and  long  outlived  its  more 
Sharmkin.  pretentious  and  magnificent  sister 
cities.  It  was  situated  in  the  moun- 
tains between  the  Upper  and  Lower  Zab,  and  was 
the  seat  of  worship  of  one  of  the  Ishtars,  next  in 
prominence  to  her  of  Nineveh.  Diu*-Sharrukin 
("  Sargon's  Fort "),  the  modem  Khorsabad,  the 
site  of  the  palace  of  Sargon  (707  B.C.)  and  of  the 
necessary  adjimcts  thereto,  was  north  of  Nineveh, 
near  the  sources  of  the  Choser  and  on  the  slopes  of 
the  hills.  It  was  much  smaller  than  the  capital, 
its  walls  being  3,820  yards  in  circumference.  Two 
mountain  streams  flowed  past  it.  Only  in  Sar- 
gon's  time  did  it  have  much  importance. 

y.  The  People,  Language,  and  Culture:  The 
people  belonged  to  the  so-called  Northem  Semites, 
and  were  related  consequently  most  closely  to  the 
Semitic  Babylonians,  Arameans,  Hebrews,  and 
Phenicians.  They  were  sturdy  in  physique,  and 
their  physiognomy,  clearly  portrayed  in  their 
many  bas-reliefs,  is  of  a  pronounced  Semitic 
type.    Their    character   is    traceable 

X.  National  partly  to  their  origin,  partly  to  their 

Character,  environment.  Their  isolation  pre- 
served or  intensified  their  native 
qualities,  and  prohibited  the  mellowing  influences 
of  contact  with  other  peoples  as  well  as  the  tolera- 
tion which  comes  with  admixture  of  blood.  Their 
country  was  less  attractive  to  marauders,  besides 
being  out  of  the  beaten  track  of  the  migrations. 
The  mountaineers  to  the  east  and  north  served  as 
buffers  against  the  great  waves  from  the  northeast, 
until  they  were  subdued  or  denationalized  by 
forced  colonization.  Thus,  in  contrast  with  the 
Babylonians,  who  became  a  much  mixed  people, 
the  Assyrians  preserved  the  purity  of  their  race 
and  consequently  its  primitive  characteristics, 
among  them  that  of  fierceness  (Isa.  xxxiii,  19). 
This  quality  of  a  new  people  is  illustrated  in  the 
case  of  two  other  Semitic  peoples.  The  ferocity  of 
the  Chaldeans  (c.  600  B.C.)  is  attributable  to  the 
fact  that  they,  too,  were  a  "  new  people,"  only 
recently  from  their  Arabian  habitat;  and  the 
fanaticism  of  the  Mohammedan  hosts  is  a  matter 
of  history,  due  not  merely  to  religious  causes. 
The  isolation  of  the  Assyrians  is  in  nothing  more 
remarkably  illustrated  than  in  the  fact  that  their 
literature  was  of  late  importation  from  the  south, 
subsequent  to  their  great  military  operations,  much 
of  it  in  the  days  of  Asshurbanipal  (669-626  B.C.). 
Another  trait  of  this  people  is  a  national  self-con- 
sciousness lacking  to  most  Semites.  The  larger 
cities  of  Assyria  do  not  appear  as  self-governing 


units  bearing  impatiently  the  sway  of  the  overlord. 
Assyria  appears  almost  without  exception  as 
united;  and  the  exceptions  come  from  dissensions 
in  the  royal  family  in  disputes  about  the  succes- 
sion. 

The  occupations  of  the  people  are  largely  in- 
cluded in  the  two  words  "  war  "  and  "  conunerce." 
The  early  Assyrian  contract  tablets 
a.  Occupa-  found  in  Cappadocia  bear  testimony 
tiong.  to  a  commercial  enterprise  which 
prophesied  of  the  wars  of  the  future. 
It  has  been  correctly  concluded  by  several  histo- 
rians that  the  object  of  campaigns  was  not  alone 
extension  of  territory,  but  that  security  and  en- 
largement of  trading  operations  had  their  part  in 
the  purposes  of  the  warring  kings.  This  finds 
warrant  not  so  much  in  the  express  words  of  the 
inscriptions  as  in  indirect  hints  such  as  are  found 
in  the  Amama  Tablets  (q.v.)  and  in  the  usages 
of  the  times  as  represented  by  Ahab  and  Ben- 
hadad  (I  Kings  xx,  34).  Of  other  occupations, 
agriculture  has  already  been  assumed  (see  II,  §  4, 
above),  as  also  the  handicrafts  in  the  mention  of 
the  metals.  Casting  was  known,  and  there  has 
been  found  a  mold  for  arrow-heads  of  accurate 
construction,  in  four  parts,  in  which  three  heads 
could  be  cast  at  the  same  time.  The  representa- 
tions of  siege  operations  show  ingenuity  in  the 
mechanical  construction  of  implements  of  offensive 
warfare. 

The  language  belongs  also  to  the  North  Semitic 
group,  and  is  very  close  to  the  Babylonian,  differing 
only  dialectically.     The  expression  of 
3.  Lan-      it    in   the    cuneiform   was   inherited 
guage.      directly   from   the    Babylonians,    in- 
directly from  the  pre-Semitio    inhab- 
itants of  Babylonia,  but  developing  as  a  consequence 
of  the  fact  that  writing  is  the  expression  of  a  living 
force,  speech. 

The  culture  of  Assyria  was  borrowed.  In  nothing 
is  this  clearer  than  in  their  methods  of  building. 
Although  they  lived  in  a  land  where 
4.  The  Cul-  stone  was  easily  prociured,  the  principal 
ture  not  building  material  was  sun-dried  brick, 
Native,  in  the  more  pretentious  structures 
faced  with  burnt  brick  and  sometimes 
with  stone.  Even  the  choice  of  sites,  near  the 
rivers  where  platforms  had  to  be  erected  to  avoid 
floods,  was  probably  due  to  early  habit  acquired 
in  Babylonia  or  imitated.  To  this  method  and 
material  of  building  were  due  the  constant  repe- 
tition of  building  operations  on  the  great  temple- 
structures  and  the  narratives  of  the  same  in  the 
annals  of  both  countries.  Roof-making  was, 
from  a  structural  point  of  view,  evidently  most 
imperfectly  developed.  When  once  the  roof  was 
broken,  and  the  elements  had  access  to  the  unbumt 
brick,  swift  collapse  of  a  stmcture  was  inevitable. 
Yet  to  this  very  fact  in  most  cases  is  attributable 
the  preservation  of  the  libraries  and  records  un- 
earthed; for  the  superincumbent  clay  sealed  her- 
metically the  chambers  used  as  repositories.  In 
the  way  of  literature  nothing  creative  appears  to 
have  come  from  the  Assyrians  except  the  mere 
narratives  of  the  campaigns.  The  tablets  con- 
taining the  portions  of  the  epics  are  knowx  to  be 


827 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Assyria 


copies  from  the  south.  The  elegant  style  of  As- 
shurbanipal's  annals  suggests  that  the  fonnative 
period  of  Assyrian  literature  was  just  beginning, 
but  the  speedy  collapse  of  the  empire  prevented 
any  ripening  into  creative  work. 

VI.  The  History. — 1.  Ohronology:  The  crucial 
datum  is  the  mention  of  an  eclipse  in  the  epony- 
mate  of  Pur-shagali  in  the  month  Sivan  (May- 
June).  A  total  eclipse  occurred  at  Nineveh,  June 
15,  763  B.C.,  thus  fixing  the  year  of  Pur-shagali's 
eponymate.  The  bearing  of  this  on  Assyrian 
chronology  appears  below.  Other  data  are  afforded 
by  the  Epanym  Canon,  found  in  the 
I.  Sources    library  of  Asshurbanipal,   a  sort  of 

and  Re-  calendar  in  which  succeeding  years 
suits.  are  named  respectively  for  officers  of 
state.  There  are  several  sets  of  these, 
all  incomplete,  but  often  overlapping  each  other, 
and  in  these  synchronistic  parts  showing  that  they 
are  not  replicas  of  each  other,  but  in  some  cases 
independent  documents.  They  cover  consecu- 
tively the  period  902-667  B.C.  and  give  the  succes- 
sion of  the  kings  as  well  as  of  the  eponyms,  often 
including  a  short  statement  of  the  principal  events 
of  the  year.  In  a  succession  like  this,  if  the  date  of 
one  is  fixed,  that  of  the  rest  follows;  the  eclipse 
just  mentioned  furnishes  the  desired  fixed  date. 
On  these  two  sets  of  data  hangs  nearly  all  of  Assyr- 
ian and  Babylonian  chronology,  as  well  as  that  of 
some  of  the  contemporary  nations.  The  Canon 
of  Ptolemy  (Greek),  is  an  appendix  to  the  astro- 
nomical work  of  Claudius  Ptolemseus,  based  on 
solar  and  lunar  eclipses  and  using  Babylonian 
sources.  This  was  successfully  employed  to  indi- 
cate the  order  in  which  the  Eponym  Canon  should 
be  arranged.  The  Synchronistic  History  of  Baby- 
lonia and  Assyria  (cimeiform)  gives  an  enumeration 
of  Babylonian  kings  and  contemporary  Assyrian 
monarchs,  and  covers  the  periods  1400-1050 
and  900-SOO  B.C.  The  Balyylonian  Chronicle 
(cuneiform)  covers  the  period  744-668  B.C.,  during 
the  Assyrian  dominance,  and  therefore  throws  light 
on  Assyrian  chronology  or  corroborates  results 
otherwise  obtained.  For  the  early  periods  depend- 
ence must  be  placed  upon  isolated  data.  Thus, 
Sennacherib,  in  the  rock  inscription  at  Bavian 
(Schrader,  KB,  ii,  116  sqq.)  alleges  that  he  restored 
to  the  temple  E-kallati  images  carried  off  to  Babylon 
by  Marduk-nadin-ahi  418  years  earlier  in  the  days 
of  Tiglath-Kleser  I.  This  is  practically  corrobo- 
rated by  the  Babylonian  king's  statement  that 
in  his  tenth  regnal  year  he  gained  a  victory  over 
Assyria.  The  date  of  restoration  was  689  B.C., 
putting  the  date  when  the  images  were  carried 
off  at  1107  B.C.,  making  the  coronation  year  of  the 
Babylonian  1117  B.C.,  and  establishing  the  contem- 
poraneity of  the  kings.  Sennacherib  mentions 
another  fact  which  (though  in  round  numbers  and 
therefore  slightly  suspicious)  places  Tiglath-Nindar 
(or  Ninib),  son  of  Shalmaneser  I,  about  the  year 
1289  B.C.  Similarly,  Tiglath-Pileser  I  (dated 
above)  records  a  fact  which  places  the  death  of  his 
great-grandfather  Asshur-Dan  c.  1175  B.C.  He 
also  gives  the  date  of  the  rebuilding  of  a  temple 
by  the  patesi  (see  Babylonia)  Shamshi-Ramman 
as  641  years  earlier,  thus  placing  the  latter  c.  1815 


B.C.  Further  data  are  obtained  by  mention  of  the 
ancestors  of  different  monarchs.  When  Ramman- 
Nirari  calls  himself  son  of  Pud-il,  grandson  of  Bel- 
nirari,  great-grandson  of  Asshur-Uballit,  he  serves 
a  useful  purpose  by  naming  a  succession  of  four 
kings.  Tiglath-Pileser  I  announces  that  the 
Shamshi-Ranmian  whom  he  dates  was  son  of  Ishmi- 
Dagan,  and  that  both  were  patesis  of  Assyria. 
This  datum  shows  also  that  in  their  time  Assyria 
was  not  independent,  since  patesi  is  not  the 
title  of  an  independent  ruler.  These  data  give 
results  upon  which  in  most  cases  agreement  is 
reached  by  scholars  within  the  margin  of  a  year. 

2.  Ethnoloflrical  Data:  Gutium  (Assyr.  Kuiu) 
was  situated  northeast  from  Nineveh,  and  stretched 
from  the  headwaters  of  the  Upper 
I.  Peoples  Zab  to  Lake  Urumiah.  It  is  prob- 
and ably  referred  to  in  Gen.  xiv.  The 
Places  Namri  occupied  the  southern  part  of 
Named  in  the  Zagros  mountain  range,  between 
Assyrian  Media  and  Assyria,  east  of  the  Lower 
Annals.  Zab.  The  Madai  and  Manda,  later 
known  as  the  Umman-Manda,  were 
Aryan  tribes  beyond  the  Namri  to  the  east  of  the 
mountains  and  toward  the  Caspian.  The  Kasshi, 
sometimes  confused  in  the  Old  Testament  (the 
unpointed  Hebrew  is  the  same)  with  Cush  (Ethi- 
opia), were  northeastern  neighbors  of  the  Elamites 
and  gave  a  long-lived  dynasty  to  Babylonia.  The 
Kaldu,  later  known  as  the  Chaldeans,  occupied 
the  territory  north  and  west  of  the  head  of  the 
Persian  Gulf  and  became  rulers  of  Babylonia  when 
the  Assyrian  empire  fell.  The  Manni  or  Minni 
inhabit^  the  territory  between  lakes  Van  and 
Urumiah,  and  were  sturdy  foes  of  the  Assyrians. 
The  Urartu  or  Armenians  dwelt  in  the  Armenian 
mountains  and  valleys  northwest  of  Lake  Van,  and 
partly  controlled  the  plains  at  the  foot.  They 
were  perhaps  the  most  difficult  foes  the  Assyrians 
had  to  meet.  The  Mitanni,  during  the  rise  of 
Assyria,  held  Upper  Mesopotamia  c.  1400  b.c,  and 
are  supposed  to  have  been  a  Hittite  power.  By 
their  position  they  controlled  the  trade  route 
between  the  Upper  Tigris,  the  Mediterranean,  and 
the  West.  Gozan,  later  Gauzanitis,  was  a  district 
on  the  upper  waters  of  the  Chabur.  Bit-Adini 
was  the  Aramean  state  north  of  the  confluence  of 
the  Chabur  with  the  Euphrates.  Kummui'  was 
a  state  considerably  to  the  north  of  Bit-Adinion 
the  southern  spurs  of  the  Taiuiis  Mountains.  In 
the  northeastern  part  of  Syria,  north  of  where 
Antioch  was  situated  later,  not  quite  contemporary 
with  each  other  were  the  Aramean  states  of  Patin, 
Unki,  Samal,  Gurgum,  and  Yaudi — the  latter 
for  many  years  mistaken  by  Assyriologists  for 
Judah,  particularly  as  it  had  a  king  named  Axri- 
yahu  nearly  contemporary  with  Azariah  of  Judah. 
It  lay  between  Samal  and  Unki  (cf.  Winckler, 
AUorientalische  Forschungen,  i,  1893).  Kite  was 
the  name  of  the  eastern  part  of  the  coast  of  Cilicia. 
Northeast  from  Kue  was  the  Mwpri  of  Asia  Minor 
(confused  in  I  Kings  x,  28  and  II  Kings  vii,  6  with 
Egypt,  though  mentioned  in  connection  with  Syria 
and  the  Hittites  in  both  passages;  in  the  former 
passage  the  name  Kue  is  perhaps  concealed  in  the 
word  morkoh).    Still  farther  to  the  north  were  the 


AMTxia 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


828 


Mushke,  known  to  the  Greeks  as  Moschi  The 
Phenicians,  the  Syrians  of  Aleppo,  Hamath,  Arpad, 
and  Damascus  are  all  frequently  mentioned  in 
the  inscriptions,  as  axe  the  Hebrew  kingdoms, 
Edom,  Moab,  Ammon,  and  Philistia.  Arabia 
was  known  as  Arabif  Arubu,  and  Aribi.  In  North 
Arabia  the  cuneiform  makes  known  a  district  called 
Mtupri  or  Mi^,  also  mistaken  in  the  Hebrew  of 
I  Kings  zi,  17,  for  Mvpraim,  Egypt.  It  was  sub- 
dued by  Tiglath-Pileser  III.  South  Arabian 
inscriptions  also  name  the  locality.  In  the  same 
region  was  a  district  called  Ctuh,  sometimes  con- 
fused with  Ethiopia.  Mdufjfyi,  the  Ma' in  of  the 
Old  Testament,  was  in  North  Arabia.  Saba,  the 
Sheba  of  I  Kings  x,  1,  Minaea,  rediscovered  by 
Giaser,  and  Yaman,  probably  the  modem  Yemen, 
are  all  noted  in  the  annals  of  the  kings.  Northeast 
Arabia  was  known  as  Magan. 

8.  TheStory  of  Assyria:    The  histoiy  of  Assyria 
before  1800  b.c.  is  veiled.    Gen.  x,  1 1  (R.  V.  margin) 

affirms   the   Babylonian   background 

I.  Early     of  this  people,  and  all  evidence  from 

History  and  archeology,    language,    and    cultural 

Hamety  to    remains,    supports    the    affirmation. 

1500  B.C.    The  date  of  colonization  is  unknown, 

but  it  was  before  2300  B.C.  Asshur 
was  the  first  city.  The  connection  with  the  parent 
eountiy  was  close  0.  2000  b.c.  Hammurabi  of 
Babylon  (c.  2250  b.c.)  had  Assyrian  soldiers  in  his 
anny.  No  ruler  eariier  than  Ishmi-Dagan  (c.  1850 
B.C.)  is  known,  and  he  bore  the  title  of  paUsi  (or 
isahaku),  a  term  that  implied  political  dependence. 
In  the  time  of  his  son,  Shamshi-Ramman,  Nineveh 
was  already  in  existence;  for  he  restored  a  temple 
of  Ishtar  there.  Between  his  time  and  that  of 
Asshur-bel-nisheshu  only  a  few  names  are  known. 
Igur-kapkapu  (or  Bel-kapkapu  or  Bel-bani)  and 
hii  son  Shamshi-Ramman  II,  Kallu  and  his  son 
Irishimi  are  all,  but  of  the  first  it  is  known  that  a 
tablet  exists  dated  in  his  reign,  and  (from  it)  that 
he  bore  the  title  of  king.  Assyrian  contract  tablets 
belonging  to  the  period  1800-1500  b.c.  have  been 
found  in  Cappadocia,  indicating  commercial,  and 
perhaps  a  beginning  of  territorial,  expansion.  At 
the  time  when  Thothmes  III  of  Egypt  was  most 
active,  the  Assyrian  king  sent  him  a  gift  of  "  a  great 
stone  of  lapis-iazuli  "  which  Thothmes  interpreted 
as  a  sign  of  submission,  and  so  recorded  it.  If 
Assyria  really  feared  Egypt,  that  fear  did  not  last 
long,  for  the  Hittites  were  soon  active,  and  Egyp- 
tian aggression  did  not  threaten  the  Tigris. 

The  independence  of  Assyria,  won  soon  afterward, 
was  due,  not  to  Assyria's  strength,  but  to  the 

weakness  of  the  parent  power.    Inter- 

3.  The  Win-  nai    strife    gave    the    Kasshites    the 

ning  of       opportunity    to    conquer  Babylonia, 

Independ-    but  they  were  too  busy  cementing 

ence,  1500-  their  own  power  to  attack  Assyria, 

1300  B.C.    and  the  boundary  was  settled  under 

Asshur-bel-nisheshu  and  Puzu-Asshur 
in  treaties  to  which  the  Kasshite  Karaindash  of 
Babylon  was  one  of  the  parties.  This  implies 
independence.  About  1400  B.C.,  fifty  years 
later,  the  Babylonian  Bumaburiash  claimed  As- 
syria for  his  territory.  The  probable  dependence 
of  Nineveh  upon  Tushratta  of  Mitanni  has  been 


noted  above  (IV,  §  2).  Assur-uballit  wrote  to 
Amenophis  IV  as  an  independent  monarch; 
and  indeed  the  claim  of  Assyria  to  Babylon  began 
in  the  same  reign.  The  Asayrian's  daughter  had 
married  Kara-kardash  of  Babylon,  and  the  latter's 
son  had  succeeded  his  father  and  then  been 
murdered  by  his  subjects.  Asshur-uballit  inters 
vened,  subjected  Babylon,  and  placed  another 
grandson  on  the  throne  In  the  same  reign  and 
the  next  the  Assyrian  arms  were  carried  to  the 
borders  of  Elam,  which  led  to  war  between  Kuri- 
galzu  II  of  Babylon  and  Bel-nirari  in  which  the 
northern  cause  was  successful.  Ramman-nirari  I 
(c.  1345-30  B.c  )  reconquered  the  lands  already 
overrun,  and  located  cities  for  their  government. 
He  extended  his  sway  beyond  the  Euphrates,  and 
had  a  successful  essay  against  Blitanni.  New 
troubles  with  Babylonia  arose  over  the  conquest 
of  Gutium;  both  sides  claimed  the  victory,  but 
the  Assyrian  boundary  was  advanced.  Ramman's 
inscription  is  the  earliest  one  of  Assyria  that  is 
dated,  and  in  it  he  calls  himself  king,  not  of  Asshur, 
but  of  Ki88hati,  "  the  world." 

Shalmaneser  I   (c.  1300  b.c.)  left  on  his  succes- 
sors an  impression  of  greatness.    He  crossed  the 

Euphrates  and  pushed  his  conquests 

3.  Shalman-  as  far  as  Mu^ri,  which  probably  means 

eserl-Tig-   that  the  territory  up  to  the  river  at 

lath-Pileser  least  was  added  to  Asayrian  territory. 

ly  1300-      Asshur  was  abandoned  as  the  capital, 

xxoo  B.C.    and  Calah  was  built.    The  temple  of 

Ishtar  at  Nineveh  was  also  recon- 
structed, and  Harran  was  added  to  the  possessions 
of  the  king.  Shalmaneser's  son,  Tiglath-Nimb, 
invaded  Babylonia,  captured  and  plundered  Baby- 
lon, partly  destroyed  the  wall,  carried  north  with 
him  the  image  of  Marduk,  governed  the  south  from 
his  own  capital,  and  assumed  the  titles  borne  by 
Sargon  the  Great  (see  Babylonia),  king  of  Sumer 
and  Akkad,  as  well  as  of  Kisshati  and  Aeehur.  But 
he  could  not  sustain  himself,  and  lost  his  life 
in  a  rebellion  headed  by  his  son.  For  a  time  the 
Assyrian  star  declined.  It  is  very  likely  that  to  this 
decline  the  Hittites  had  contributed;  for  the  dash 
to  the  Mediterranean  must  have  aroused  them  and 
certainly  have  included  in  its  scope  some  of  their 
cities.  The  Babylonians  became  the  aggressors, 
and  the  next  king,  Asshumasirpal  I  had  difficulty 
in  repelling  them.  Under  the  next  four  reigns 
Assyria's  territory  shrank  to  about  its  original 
extent.  Then  Assur-Dan  I  (c.  1210-1181  b.c.) 
began  to  regain  territory  south  of  the  Lower  Zab. 
His  grandson,  Asshur-rish-ishi,  cleared  the  way  to 
Babylon  by  conquering  foes  on  the  southeast, 
and  then  defeated  Nebuchadrezzar  I  of  Bab^don. 
He  rebuilt  the  Ishtar-temple  in  Calah.  With 
Tiglath-Pileser  I  began  a  new  era  for  Assyria. 
The  celebrated  eight-sided  prism  contains  a  part 
of  his  record.  That  full  information  of  his  pred- 
ecessors' activity  is  not  at  hand  is  shown  by  his 
having  in  the  very  beginning  of  his  reign  to  subdue 
people  so  distant  as  the  Mushke.  Hewon  a  victory 
over  them  among  their  hills,  destroyed  14,000  out 
of  the  20,000  engaged,  and  pursued  the  plan  of 
subduing  the  territory  by  destroying  the  fighting 
forces.    Tribute  was  exacted  from  the  rest.    During 


820 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Assyria 


the  next  three  years  he  carried  his  arms  into  the 
mountain  regions  northeast,  northwest,  and  south- 
east with  the  uniform  result  of  success  and  immense 
booty  A  confederation  of  twenty-three  kings 
from  the  neighborhood  of  Lake  Van  was  overcome, 
and  heavy  tribute  imposed.  Mu^ri  was  once  more 
subdued,  and  Babylonia  had  to  submit.  At  the 
end  of  his  fifth  year  Tiglath-Pileser  claimed  to 
have  subdued  "  forty-two  coimtries  with  their 
rulers."  Mention  of  the  Hittites  first  occurs  in 
his  reign. 

At  this  point  it  is  well  to  note,  in  explanation 
of  the  preceding  and  of  much  that  follows,  a  char- 
acteristic of  eariy  Semitic  rule.    Con- 

4.  Semitic  stant  reconquest  of  subjected  territory 
Rule  Un-    was  necessary     The  order  of  events 

stable,  was:  subjection  and  a  light  tribute  if 
submission  had  been  ready,  a  heavy 
one  if  strong  opposition  had  been  offered;  this 
was  invariably  followed  by  rebellion  at  the  first 
seeming  opportunity,  and  a  change  in  the  ruler 
was  always  considered  an  opportunity;  then  new 
subjection  and  a  heavier  tribute;  when  rebellion 
again  arose,  the  case  of  the  rebels  was  desperate, 
and  further  revolt  was  eliminated  by  almost  com- 
plete desolation  of  the  refractory  territory.  The 
creation  of  an  empire  by  unifying  peoples  under  a 
beneficent  rule  had  not  yet  been  conceived.  On 
the  other  side  was  the  inherent  tendency  to  segre- 
gation, which  was  a  characteristic  of  the  Semites. 
An  invader  could  reduce  city  after  city,  throwing 
against  it  the  force  of  his  united  army,  while  other 
cities  awaited  their  fate  in  trembling.  Confedera- 
tions invariably  fell  apart.  Assyria  was  the  one 
Semitic  power  thoroughly  unified;  and  this  unity 
was  the  cause  of  its  victorious  progress  until  the 
wars  of  centuries  had  sapped  its  strength. 

Tiglath-Pileser 's  activities  were  not  all  warlike; 

he  rebuilt  Asshur,  restored  its  temples  and  palaces, 

and  fostered  agriculture  and  arbori- 

5.  A  Time  culture.    He    was  followed    by  two 
of  Quies-   of   his  sons    in  succession,   who  re- 

cenceyXioo-moved  the  capital  to  Nineveh  once 
950  B.C.  more,  restoring  its  great  Ishtar-tem- 
ple.  A  new  period  of  quiescence  or  of 
exhaustion  for  Assyria  had  come,  and  its 
enemies  organized  themselves  for  new  resistance. 
This  resistance  coincides  with  that  of  the  ex- 
pansion of  the  Hebrew  kingdom.  The  Arameans 
had  settled  in  Mesopotamia  and  fallen  heir  to  the 
Hittite  possessions  including  Hamath,  Aleppo,  and 
Damascus.  They  were  traders,  and,  holding  the 
caravan  routes,  directly  menaced  Assyrian  com- 
merce. The  Phenicians,  too,  had  been  making  of 
their  cities  strong  fortresses.  Between  Tiglath- 
Pileser  I  and  II  were  several  rulers  whose  names 
are  known  and  little  else,  while  there  is  also  a  gap 
in  the  known  succession.  But  the  period  was  not 
the  time  of  entire  weakness  generally  supposed; 
the  outburst  of  vigor  which  followed  and  continued 
with  little  intermission  for  three  and  one-half  cen- 
turies proves  it  a  time  of  development  of  power 
which  was  used  in  a  series  of  campaigns  which  have 
not  ceased  to  astonish  since  knowledge  of  them 
has  been  regained.  i 

Tiglath-Fileser  II  (c.  950  B.C.)  began  a  succession 


of  kings,  all  of  whose  names  are  known,  though  of 
what  either  he  or  his  son  Asshur-Dan  II  (0. 930  b.c) 
did,  little  is  certain.  During  the  next  reign,  that  of 
Ranunan-nirari  II  (911-891  B.C.),  the 
6.  Tiglatfa-  struggle  with  Babylonia  was  renewed, 
Pileser  11,  the  latter  losing  territory  to  its  op- 
950  B.C.  ponent.  Tiglath-Ninib  (890-885  B.C.) 
-Awhur-  placed  imder  tribute  the  highlands 
nasirpainiy  of  the  north  from  Urumiah  to  the 
885-860  Mediterranean.  Asshumasirpal  III 
B.C.  (885-860  B.C.),  son  of  the  foregoing, 
carried  forward  the  work  of  conquest. 
One  of  the  finest  inscriptions  -  extant  is  his, 
on  alabaster  in  389  lines,  corroborated  by 
other  texts.  His  first  campaign  in  Armenia  was 
so  savage  that  with  a  sin^e  exception,  severely 
punished,  all  tribes  in  his  line  of  march  hastened 
to  submit.  While  on  a  campaign  against  Kum- 
muh,  he  heard  of  the  rebellion  of  an  Aramean 
conmiunity  at  Bit-Kalupe  on  the  Euphrates.  He 
at  once  countermarched,  took  and  plundered  the 
city,  cut  off  the  legs  of  the  officers  engaged  in  the 
rebellion,  flayed  the  nobles  and  stretched  their 
skins  on  a  pile  built  for  the  purpose,  and  sent  the 
rebel  governor  to  Nineveh  to  be  flayed.  The 
result  was  immediate  submission  of  the  district  and 
of  ail  in  his  line  of  march.  While  he  was  thus  en- 
gaged in  the  west,  rebellion  broke  out  in  the  east 
and  southeast,  was  crushed,  broke  out  again,  and 
was  again  put  down  with  plundering,  devastation, 
and  slaughter.  Sedition  among  the  Arameans, 
fomented  and  assisted  by  Nabupaliddin  of  Babylo- 
nia, was  overcome,  and  Sum,  the  capital,  destroyed. 
The  fomenter  of  the  trouble  in  turn  found  work 
in  repelling  the  Aramean  hordes  and  occupation 
in  rebuilding  the  temple  of  Shamash  at  Sippar. 
Continued  rebellion  among  the  Arameans  revealed 
the  fact  that  the  little  state  of  Bit-Adini,  the  Bene- 
*Edhen  of  II  Kings  xix,  12,  was  the  cause  of  the  rising. 
This  the  Assyrians  assailed  and  destroyed,  and 
showed  that  they  would  permit  no  strong  state  on 
the  Euphrates.  The  Mediterranean  coast  was 
next  visited;  tribute  was  received  from  the  Phe- 
nicians; wood  was  gathered  for  the  new  works 
at  Calah;  and  a  memorial  was  left  on  the  rocks  at 
Nahr-el-Kalb  (near  Beirut).  Asshiumasirpal  made 
the  Assyrian  name  a  synonym  for  ferocity  and 
savagery.  Yet  war  was  not  his  whole  occupation. 
Calah  had  fallen  into  ruins  while  Asshur  had  been 
the  capital.  He  rebuilt  it,  erected  there  a  great 
palace,  and  conducted  to  the  city  a  water-supply 
from  the  Lower  Zab. 

With    Shahnaneser    II     (860-824    B.C.)    began 
contact  of  the  Assyrians  with  the  Hebrews.    In 
the  Black  Obelisk  and  the  Monolith 
7.  Shalman- texts  this  king  has  left  some  of  the 
eser  11,  860-  finest  inscriptions  known.    These  with 
824  B.C.    supplementary  records  show  a  per- 
sonal leadership  by  the  king  of  his 
armies  for  twenty-six  consecutive  years.    Under 
him  began  that  battering  at  the  gates  of  Damascus 
which  continued  from  his  time  till  the  city  fell  in 
732  B.C.,  and  then  was  directed  against  the  He- 
brews, Arabs,  and  Egyptians  till  about  660  B.C. 
The  three  prominent  Syrian  powers  at  the  time 
were  centered  at  Hamath,  Patin,  and  Damascus. 


AMmyrim 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


380 


A  coalition  of  these  with  their  allies,  including 
Israelites  (Ahab  furmshcd  a  contingent  of  2,000 
[7]  chariots  and  10,000  men),  Arabs,  and  Ammon- 
ites, was  met  and  defeated  at  Karkar.  The  quality 
of  the  victory  claimed  by  Shalmaneser  is  doubtful, 
since  in  three  inscriptions  (the  Black  ObeUsk, 
Monolith,  and  Bull;  cf.  Schrader,  Keilachrift- 
forachung,  p.  47)  the  number  of  killed  varies  from 
14,000  to  25,0()0,  and  no  statement  is  made  of 
tribute  imposed.  The  victory  was  barren.  There 
was  revealed  here  a  force  which  might  have  stayed 
the  advance  of  Assyria  could  it  have  been  held 
together.  Six  campaigns  were  made  in  this  region 
during  854-839  B.C.,  none  decisive  in  itself,  but  con- 
tributing in  the  end  to  the  isolation  of  Damascus. 
Jehu  of  Israel  sent  tribute  to  divert  from  himself 
the  attacks  of  Damascus.  With  reference  to  his 
campaigns  in  Armenia,  Shalmaneser  describes  him- 
self as  *'  trampling  down  the  country  like  a  wild 
bull.''  But  there,  too,  results  were  indecisive,  and 
the  region  remained  a  menace  to  the  dominant 
power.  Media  was  invaded  in  a  mere  booty- 
snatching  expedition.  Internal  conflict  in  Baby- 
lonia resulted  in  the  reestabUshment  of  Assyrian 
power  there,  and  in  checking  the  northward  march 
of  the  Kaldu.  The  later  years  of  the  king  were 
harassed  by  rebellions  at  home,  led  in  one  case  by 
hii  sons,  and  due  in  part  probably  to  utter  weari- 
ness at  the  constant  drain  caused  by  the  perpetual 
wars. 

This  legacy  of  civil  war  was  left  to  the  son  Sham- 

Bhi-Ramman  IV   (824-812  B.C.),    who  used  two 

years  in  defeating  bis  brother  and  in 

8.  Shamshi-  repressing    the    general    rebellion    of 

Ramman    the  provinces.    A  coalition  of  Baby- 
IV  and      lonians,  Elamites,  Southern  Arameans, 

his  Succes-  and  Kaldu  was  met  and  defeated  and 

sorSy  824-  quiet  restored  after  two  campaigns. 
745  B.C.  Payment  of  tribute  was  forced  in  dif- 
ferent regions  only  by  the  presence  of 
the  army.  His  son,  Ramman-nirari  III  (812-783 
B.C.),  who  called  himself  a  descendant  of  Igur- 
(Bel-)kapkapu,  reduced  Damascus  to  tributary 
relationship.  The  entire  eastern  coast  of  the  Medi- 
terranean contributed  to  his  exchequer.  A  series 
of  eight  campaigns  against  the  Medes  took  this 
king  to  the  Caspian,  and  the  south  to  the  Persian 
Gulf  was  tributary.  He  made  an  attempt  to  weld 
religiously  Babylonia  and  Assyria  by  the  intro- 
duction of  Babylonian  cults  into  Nineveh,  while 
Babylonia  was  treated  as  an  Assyrian  province. 
With  the  next  king,  Shahnaneser  III  (783-773 
B.C.),  began  a  period  of  decadence  which  continued 
for  three  reigns.  Campaigns  to  enforce  payment 
of  tribute  are  mentioned,  but  Armenia  in  the  mean 
time  gained  in  power.  Under  Asshur-Dan  III 
(773-755  B.C.)  the  story  of  rebellion  and  disaster 
grows.  The  eclipse  of  the  sun,  763  B.C.,  and  pesti- 
lence in  759  and  754  were  events  of  this  reign. 
Asshur-nirari  II  (755-745  B.C.)  left  fewer  notices, 
but  enough  to  make  evident  that  warlike  attempts 
were  not  altogether  discontinued.  In  an  uprising 
at  Calah  he  disappeared,  and  with  him  the  dynasty 
which  had  ruled  at  least  since  Tiglath-Pileser  11. 

Under  the  great  Tiglath-Pileser  III    (745-727 
B.C  ),  the  Pul  of  II  Kings  zv,  19.  Asr^yria  recovered 


at  a  bound  her  greatest  former  eminence  and  sur- 
passed it.  The  origin  of  the  new  king  is  un- 
known, for  in  his  niunerous  inscriptions  he  never 
mentions  his  ancestry.  His  vigor 
9.  Tiglath-  and  boldness  of  conception  and  swift- 
Pileser  in,  ness  of  execution  were  unparalleled 
745-727  even  in  Assyrian  history.  Babylonia, 
B.C.  during  the  period  of  Assyria's  weak- 
ness, had  b^n  imable  to  take  advan- 
tage of  relief  from  pressure,  owing  to  attacks  by 
the  Arameans.  Tiglath-Pileser  invaded  t he  country, 
repelled  the  Arameans,  reorganized  the  government, 
and  conciliated  the  inhabitants  by  paying  homage 
to  the  chief  deities.  The  districts  east  were  recon- 
quered, and  a  new  policy  carried  out  of  settling 
disaffected  subjects  in  a  distant  part  of  the  empire. 
Urartu,  under  a  king  named  Sarduris  II,  had 
completely  demolished  Assyrian  supremacy  in 
the  north.  A  single  sweeping  victory  over  him 
changed  all  this,  and  his  allies  paid  their  tribute 
to  the  conqueror.  Arpad  fell  in  740  B.C.,  and  with 
it  the  northwest  was  pacified.  A  new  coalition  of 
states  of  Syria,  Asia  Minor,  and  Palestine  was 
formed;  but  at  the  appearance  in  the  field  of  the 
Assyrian  forces,  it  fell  apart,  Menahem  of  Israel 
paid  tribute,  the  states  north  of  Israel  were  put 
under  a  governor,  their  inhabitants  deported,  and 
colonists  brought  in  from  other  parts.  A  rebellion 
near  Nineveh  was  suppressed  by  the  governors, 
who  had  been  made  responsible  for  good  order. 
They  deported  the  rebellious  subjects  to  Syria 
and  settled  Syrians  in  their  places.  Armenia 
was  crippled  in  a  campaign  which  reached  the 
capital  on  Lake  Van,  but  did  not  capture  it.  Tig- 
lath-Pileser began  next  to  clear  the  road  to  Egypt, 
just  then  weakened  by  attacks  from  Ethiopia. 
Syria  was  effectually  overawed,  Phenicia  ptaid 
tribute,  and  Gaza  was  captured  and  held  as  an 
outpost.  To  offset  this,  Israel  and  Damascus  had 
determined  to  force  Judah  into  an  alliance  against 
the  Assyrian.  Ahaz  was  thoroughly  alarmed, 
and  all  the  efforts  of  Isaiah  were  insufficient  to 
restrain  him  from  throwing  himself  into  the  arms 
of  Assyria.  Tiglath-Pileser  listened  to  the  appeal, 
ravaged  Israel,  had  Hoshea  made  king  (II  Kings 
xv-xvi),  assailed  Damascus,  destroyed  its  depend- 
encies, and  finally  captured  it  in  732  b.c.  While 
engaged  in  the  west,  the  king  heard  of  rebellion  in 
Babylonia.  This  was  punished;  and  Merodach- 
baladan,  who  proved  almost  a  perennial  rebel, 
submitted.  The  Assyrian  appointed  govemon 
from  the  north  instead  of  leaving  native  princes 
to  rule,  did  homage  to  the  gods  of  the  land,  in  726 
B.C.  "  took  the  hands  of  Bel,"  the  annual  right  and 
duty  of  the  rightful  king  of  Babylon,  and  assumed 
the  name  Pul  with  the  old  title  **  King  of  Sumer 
and  Akkad  and  of  Babylon  "  (see  Babylonia). 
Tiglath-Pileser's  death  occurred  the  next  year.  His 
achievements  in  war  and  in  government  were  the 
greatest  the  world  had  yet  biown.  The  Semitic 
crescent  of  territory  from  the  Persian  Gulf  to  the 
border  of  Egypt  was  his  without  dispute;  tribute 
was  sent  from  Arabia  as  far  south  as  Sabeea,  from 
Armenia,  from  Elam,  and  from  the  states  on  the 
Mediterranean.  The  policy  of  exchanging  popu- 
lations of  chronically  rebelliouB  states  hs^  made 


881 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Aosyrla 


the  empire  more  homogeneous  by  putting  seditious 
nations  where  circumstances  did  not  favor  risings. 
Of  Uglath-Pileser's  successor,  Shahnaneser  IV 
(727-722  B.C.))  but  little  is  known,  not  even  his 
relationship  to  his  predecessor.    Under 
10.  Shal-     him  Hoshea  was  led  into  what  proved 
maneserlV,  the    final   rebellion   of  the  northern 
737-722      Israelitic   kingdom,  and  the   episode 
B.C.         narrated  in  II  Kings  xvii    occurred. 
In  this  chapter  Hoshea  is  represented 
as  sending  messengers  to  "  80,  king  of  Egypt." 
So  has  been  erroneously  identified  with  Shabak. 
Sargon  mentions  a  Shabi  of  the  Arabian  Mu^ri; 
Shabi  in  Assyrian  would  represent  the  Hebrew 
word  So  pointed  to  read  Seve  ;  and  modem  scholars 
are   inclined    to    follow   Winokler    (Mittheilungen 
der  vorderasiaiiachen  GeseiUchaftf  i,  5)  and  see  a 
double    confusion    in    Mi^raim    ("  Egypt ")    for 
Mu^f  and  in  So  for  Seve,    It  is  to  the  point  that 
this  Shabi  furnished  no  little  trouble  for  Sargon, 
Shalmaneser's  successor.    From  him,  then,  Hoshea 
expected   help   and   rebelled,    when   Shidmaneser 
attacked,  defeated,  and  captured  him,  and  invested 
Samaria.    The  city  held  out  for  three  years.    Mean- 
while Shahnaneser  died  and  was  succeeded  by 
Sargon  (722-705  B.C.).    Samaria  was  captured  in 
721;  and  the  Israelitic  kingdom  ceased  to  exist. 

Sargon's  ancestry  is  veiy  doubtful:  he  claimed 
no  royal  lineage,  nor  did  Ids  son  for  him;  but  his 
grandson,  Sennacherib,  connected  him 
zx.  Sargon,  with  the  Igur-kapkapu  mentioned 
722-705  above.  He  reproduced  the  traits  of 
B.C.  the  great  Tiglath-Pileser  III— self-con- 
fidence, vigor  in  plan  and  action, 
and  great  military  and  administrative  ability.  In 
Babylonia  the  determined  rebel  Merodach-baladan 
seized  Babylon  with  the  help  of  the  Elamites; 
Sargon  claimed  the  victory  in  the  battle  which 
ensued,  but  Merodach  retained  his  crown.  In  the 
west  Hamath  raised  the  flag  of  rebellion,  and  Shabi 
of  Musri  and  Hanno  of  Gaza  engaged  to  support 
Hamath;  but  Sargon  attacked  the  town  before 
the  allies  could  come  in,  then  marched  south,  and 
defeated  Shabi  at  Raphia^  The  next  rising  was 
in  the  north,  with  Urartu  as  the  backbone  of  the 
movement.  But  Assyria  was  still  able  to  conquer; 
and,  soon  after,  the  old  Hittite  center,  Carchemish, 
was  destroyed.  Campaigns  in  Media,  eastern 
Asia  Minor,  and  Arabia  kept  the  armies  moving. 
Finally  peace  was  secured  in  the  north  by  the  end- 
ing of  the  kingdom  of  Urartu,  which  had  for  cen- 
turies defied  Assyria  and  proved  its  most  dangerous 
foe.  A  new  uprising  in  Palestine,  Phihstia,  Edom, 
and  Moab,  involving  Hezekiah  of  Judah  and  evi- 
dently fomented  by  Egypt  (Isa.  xx),  necessitated 
the  sending  of  Sargon's  tartan  with  an  anny,  who 
occupied  the  Philistine  cities,  deported  the  inhab- 
itants, and  crushed  the  rebelHon.  The  other  states 
seem  to  have  escaped  punishment.  Only  Babylon 
was  needed  to  round  out  the  empire.  Merodiach- 
baladan  had  foreign  military  forces  in  support; 
but  he  had  alienated  the  native  priests,  the  most 
influential  class  of  his  subjects.  They  called  in  the 
Assyrians,  who  put  the  Chaldeans  to  flight;  and 
Sargon  was  acclaimed  the  deliverer  of  the  city  of 
Babylon.    He  perfonned  sacrifice  and  took  office 


as  viceroy  (not  king),  and  restored  the  temple- 
worship  in  the  great  religious  centers.  In  the  north- 
west, boundaries  were  pushed  back,  and  even 
Cyprua  sent  tribute.  Sargon  built  Dur-Shamikin 
with  its  magnificent  palace,  but  occupied  it  only 
a  year. 

Sargon  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Sennacherib 

(705-681    B.C.).    The   change  in   succession   was 

followed  by  another  attempt  of  Mero- 

za.  San-     dach-baladan   to   possess   Babylonia. 

nacherib,    It  is  likely  that  the  embassy  to  Heze- 

7os-<^z  kiah  (II  Kings  xviii,  13)  occurred  here. 
B.C.  If  so,  its  motive  is  plain :  he  was  foment- 
ing a  revolt  in  the  west  to  create  a 
diversion  while  he  settled  himself  in  the  south. 
But  Sennacherib  marched  south  at  once,  defeated 
the  rebel,  captured  Babylon,  rifled  the  palace,  and 
then  punished  severely  the  Aramean  supporters 
of  the  Kaldu,  appropriating  immense  booty  and 
removing,  according  to  the  Taylor  cylinder,  over 
200,000  people  and  settling  them  in  the  Median 
mountains  after  a  successful  campaign  there. 
The  rebellion  fomented  by  Merodach  (if  the  sugges- 
tion above  be  correct)  had  gathered  headway, 
with  Hezekiah  leading  the  movement,  the  latter 
having  seized  Philistia.  The  revolt  must  have 
been  general;  for  Sennacherib  first  visited  Phenida, 
captured  Sidon,  set  up  his  appointee  as  king,  and 
apportioned  him  a  fair  kingdom.  The  coalition  fell 
apart  before  his  army,  though  several  of  the  Phi- 
listine towns  held  out  and  were  reduced.  An  anny 
from  Egypt  was  defeated,  Ekron  captured,  and  its 
chiefs  impaled.  Then  Sennacherib  turned  on  Judah, 
captured  forty-six  towns,  deported  200,150  in- 
habitants, and  gave  the  district  to  his  governors 
in  Philistia  to  manage.  Hezekiah  submitted  and 
paid  tribute,  to  gather  which  he  was  compelled 
to  strip  palace  and  temple.  Sennacherib,  either 
at  this  time  or  later,  sent  a  small  force  to  demand 
the  siurrender  of  Jerusalem.  Beyond  question 
the  reason  for  this  was  that  the  conquest  of  Egypt 
was  projected,  and  the  Assyrian  did  not  care  to 
leave  so  strong  a  fortress  as  Jerusalem  in  his  rear. 
The  surrender  was  refused;  the  forces  were  with- 
drawn; a  new  campaign  in  Babyloni:.  against  the 
irrepressible  Merodach-baladan  was  successfully 
carried  through;  and  Asshur-nadin-shum,  son  of 
Sennacherib,  was  put  on  the  throne  of  Babylon. 
The  next  eleven  years  were  spent  mainly  in  the 
south  against  the  Elamites  and  Kaldu  \mder  Mero- 
dach-baladan. After  holding  the  country  for  some 
time  the  allies  were  defeated  in  691  B.C.  after  a 
terrible  conflict.  Babylon  was  taken,  sacked, 
burned  to  the  groimd,  the  waters  of  the  Euphrates 
turned  upon  the  site,  and  the  statue  of  Marduk  taken 
to  Asshur.  A  final  expedition  against  Egypt  was 
probably  undertaken  near  the  end  of  his  life  by 
Sennacherib.  Tirhakah  of  Egypt  advanced  to  meet 
him,  perhaps  as  far  as  Pelusiiun.  There  Sennach- 
erib experienced  a  severe  check,  variously  ex- 
plained. II  Kings  ix,  35  tells  of  a  pestilence  which 
destroyed  in  a  single  night  185,000  men;  Tirhakah 
claimed  credit  for  a  great  victory;  Herodotus 
(ii,  141)  was  told  by  the  Egyptians  that  field-mice 
gnawed  the  bow-strings  and  quivers  of  the  As- 
qrriaiis  and  left  them  defenseless  before  the  Egyp- 


AMyria 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


382 


tians;  and  the  Babylonian  Chronicles  suggest  the 
necessity  for  return  in  a  rebellion  in  that  region. 
Sennacherib  was  killed  in  681  B.C.  by  one  (Baby- 
lonian Chronicle)  or  two  (II  Kings  xix,  36-37)  of 
his  sons.  He  had  removed  the  seat  of  government 
from  Calah  to  Nineveh,  and  built  there  the  "  peer- 
less "  palace,  and  had  provided  the  city  with  a 
system  of  water-works. 

Esar-haddon  (681-668  B.C.),  Sargon's  son,  who 
succeeded  him,  reversed  the  policy  toward  Baby- 
lonia. He  assumed  the  title  of  viceroy 
Z3.  Bsar-  of  Babylon,  and  almost  at  once  set 
haddon,  about  rebuilding  the  city  in  a  style 
681-668  of  greater  grandeur.  By  restoring 
B.C.  the  gods  carried  away  by  his  father 
he  regained  the  good-\dll  of  the  people. 
His  first  care,  however,  was  to  avenge  the  death  of 
Sennacherib  and  to  secure  his  own  position  in 
Nineveh,  whence  his  brothers,  the  murderers,  who 
had  seized  the  throne,  fled  on  his  approach.  The 
extreme  south,  again  in  rebellion,  was  subdued 
and  the  projected  invasion  of  Egypt  was  undertaken. 
But  first  the  rebellion  of  Phenicia  had  to  be  quelled, 
in  which  three  years  were  occupied,  when  Sidon 
was  destroyed,  a  new  city  built  and  settled  by 
colonists.  Tyre  was  assailed;  but  its  sea-gate 
enabled  it  to  hold  out.  In  783  B.C.  Tirhakah  was 
enabled  to  repel  the  first  attack  on  Egypt;  but 
Esar-haddon  renewed  the  attempt  three  years  later, 
was  successful  in  three  battles,  and  occupied 
Memphis.  The  land  was  parceled  out  for  govern- 
ment, and  no  great  opposition  was  offered  by  the 
people,  to  whom  the  disaster  seemed  beyond  repair. 
Northeastern  Arabia  was  then  subdued  that  it 
might  no  longer  afford  assistance  to  the  recurrent 
rebellions  of  Palestine.  New  troubles  were  by  that 
time  affecting  the  northern  boundaries.  The  Indo-- 
European migration,  generally  known  as  the  Cim- 
merian or  Scythian,  had  begun.  This  was  split 
into  two  bodies,  one  of  which  pressed  down  into 
Persia  and  Media  and  settled  there,  and  the  other 
passed  westward.  The  former  occupied  a  part 
of  what  had  been  Assyrian  territory,  and  later 
formed  a  part  of  the  force  which  captured  Nineveh. 
The  latter  passed  through  Armenia;  but  its  forces 
were  prevented  by  Esar-haddon  from  penetrating 
southward.  In  668  B.C.  the  king  was  called  to 
Egypt  by  rebellion  there.  Before  leaving,  he  had 
one  son  proclaimed  his  successor  in  Assyria  (As- 
shurbanipal)  and  another  in  Babylon  (Shamash- 
shum-ukin).  He  died  the  same  year,  and  before 
reaching  Egypt,  having  extended  Assyrian  domina- 
tion farther  than  it  had  yet  reached.  He  was 
fond  of  building,  and  constructed  the  great  arsenal 
at  Nebi-Yunus,  the  materials  for  which  were 
contributed  by  twenty-two  kings  and  princes,  ten 
of  them  in  Cyprus.  The  name  of  Manasseh  of 
Judah  appears  in  this  list  of  tributaries. 

The  events  of  the  reign  of  Asshur- 
14.  Asshur-  banipal  (668-626  B.C.;  Greek, Sardana^ 
banipaly     palus,  Aram.  Osnappar,  Ezra  iv,  10) 
668-626     are  hard  to  make  out,  not  because  of 
B.C.        paucity  of  niaterial,  for  it  is  abundant, 
nor  because  of  roughness  or  careless- 
ness, for  the  annals  are  elegant  and  polished,  but 
because  the   chronological  clue  is  not  given.    It 


is  clear,  however,  that  his  first  movement  was 
to  the  border-land  between  Elam  and  Babylonia, 
where  his  presence  prevented  serious  trouble. 
A  new  invasion  of  Egypt  was  made  necessary 
by  Tirhakah 's  return,  the  Assyrian  forces  being 
gathered  partly  on  the  Mediterranean  coast.  Tir- 
hakah was  defeated,  and  the  country  occupied 
this  time  as  far  south  as  Thebes.  A  new  rising 
which  took  place  almost  immediately  was  as  quickly 
punished  in  ruthless  fashion,  and  enormous  booty 
was  sent  home.  A  third  insurrection  under  the 
son  of  the  now  dead  Tirhakah  was  futile.  Tyre 
had  finally  submitted  and  sent  tribute.  But  the 
story  continues  of  revolts  in  different  parts  of  the 
empire  which  presage  its  speedy  fall.  The  king 
was  occupied  in  desperate  attempts  to  maintain 
himself.  Participation  in  these  led  to  the  conquest 
of  Elam  up  to  the  very  walls  of  Susa.  Even  his 
brother  on  the  throne  of  Babylon  revolted;  but 
Asshurbanipal's  movements  were  swift  and  sure. 
Babylon,  Borsippa,  Sippara,  and  Cutha  were  beset; 
Shamash-shum-ukin  in  despair  burned  himself 
in  his  own  palace;  and  people  from  the  ct^p- 
tured  towns  were  settled  in  Samaria.  A  new  chal- 
lenge from  Elam  was  accepted;  and  finally  Susa 
was  taken  with  immense  booty.  The  usual  success 
attended  the  king's  final  campaign  in  Arabia.  The 
results  of  this  long  succession  of  successful  wars 
was  the  heaping  up  of  enormous  wealth  in  the 
cities  of  Assyria,  particularly  in  Nineveh.  The  end 
of  a  victorious  campaign  was  the  transportation  of 
precious  metals,  works  of  art,  flocks,  and  herds, 
and,  in  the  later  reigns,  of  people  as  slaves  to  As- 
syria. The  great  works  of  the  Assyrian  kings  were 
doubtless  in  great  part  the  product  of  the  toil  of 
captives.  And  the  captors  of  Nineveh  fell  heir  to 
this  immense  wealth.  Asshurbanipal's  wars  were 
not  his  only  interest.  Apart  from  the  palace  which 
he  built,  the  walls  of  which  were  lined  with  sculp- 
tured reliefs,  he  was  fond  of  the  hunt,  and  his  contests 
with  lions  are  frequently  portrayed.  Most  significant 
for  modem  times  was  his  interest  in  literature.  His 
library,  uncovered  by  George  Smith,  was  amassed 
by  the  copying  of  tablets  from  libraries  in  the 
south,  and  contained  works  on  history,  ethics, 
science,  religion,  and  linguistics. 

Asshurbanipal  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Asshur- 
etil-ilani,  of  whom  it  is  known  that  he  built  or  re- 
stored the  temple  E-zida  in  Calah,  and 
15.  Awhur-  that  during  his  fourth  year  he  claimed 

banipal 's    the  title  of  king  of  Sumer  and  Akkad. 
Successors,  Whether  a  Sin-shiun-Ushir  next  reigned 

626-606  is  not  known;  but  mention  of  him  as  a 
B.C.  king  of  Assyria  has  been  found.  A  Sin- 
shar-ishkun  is  known  from  three  tab- 
lets from  Sippar  and  Erech.  In  his  seventh  year  he 
was  still  king  of  a  part  of  Babylonia,  though  not  of 
Babylon,  over  which  Nabopolassar  had  established 
himself.  Upon  an  invasion  of  Babylonia  by  the 
Assyrian,  Nabopolassar  invoked  the  aid  of  the 
Umman-Manda,  and  Sin-shar-ishkun  was  forced 
to  retreat,  Nabopolassar  securing  the  provinces 
as  the  former  evacuated  them.  It  seems  that 
one  branch  of  the  Scythians  were  aUies  of  the 
Assyrians  at  this  time  and  actually  defeated  the 
armies  of  the  assailants,  thus  prolonging  the  life 


883 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Asayria 


of  Nineveh.  The  rush  of  the  Scythians,  which  so 
terrified  western  Asia  and  elicited  the  prophecies 
of  Nahum  and  Zephaniah  (Driver,  Introduction, 
5th  ed.,  1894,  pp.  314-320),  is  to  be  explained  by 
their  alliance  with  Assyria  and  a  desire  to  attack 
Egypt,  the  king  of  which,  Psammetichus,  had 
assailed  Philistia.  Their  sudden  disappearance 
is  as  remarkable  as  their  unheralded  coming. 

The  Umman-Manda  returned  soon  to  Nineveh. 
The  story  of  the  siege  is  unknown;  but  the  city 
fell  607-606  B.C.,  and  its  vast  treasures  became 
the  nucleus  of  the  tremendous  wealth  of  the  later 
Persian  empire.  With  it  fell  the  empire  which 
twenty-five  years  earlier  had  controlled  all  south- 
western Asia. 

Vn.  The  Religion:  From  the  relationship  of 
Assyrians  and  Babylonians  set  forth  in  the  pre- 
ceding it  would  be  expected  that 
X.  Relation   both    resemblances    and    differences 

to  Baby-  would  be  foimd  to  exist  in  the  two 
Ionian       religions.    The   resemblances   are   as 

Religion,  follows:  (1)  The  general  character 
of  the  ciilts  is  the  same;  the  litur- 
gies, prayers,  psalms  are  often  identical,  as  are 
some  of  the  deities.  (2)  The  goddesses  are  of 
minor  importance  in  Assyria,  appearing  hardly 
as  prominent  as  in  the  southern  land.  Theoret- 
ically the  gods  had  consorts;  practically  these  are 
but  shadows  and  a  name.  (3)  The  great  exceptions 
to  this  in  both  countries  were  the  Ishtars;  to  the 
extent  exhibited  below,  the  pantheons  were  the 
same,  at  least  in  theory  (see  Babylonia).  The 
dissimilarities  are:  (1)  Asshur  assumes  the  char- 
acter of  a  national  god  as  far  back  as  he  can  be 
traced.  (2)  His  aloofness  is  a  new  feature;  he  in 
particular  seems  ever  without  consort  and  family. 
(3)  The  next  difference  needs  stating  at  some 
length.  In  their  annals  the  Babylonians  laid  great 
stress  upon  their  temple-building,  even  more  than 
upon  wars  and  the  construction  of  palaces.  From 
the  emphasis  laid  upon  religion,  and  the  care  taken 
to  house  the  divinities  and  provide  for  their  main- 
tenance, the  country  seems  priest-ridden,  with  the 
kings  devoted  first  of  all  to  religion.  The  Assyrians, 
on  the  other  hand,  while  indeed  they  often  built 
or  restored  temples,  devoted  much  less  space  to 
the  recital  of  their  operations  and  put  far 
less  emphasis  on  the  story  of  this  activity  than  on 
that  attending  their  wars  and  the  construction 
of  their  palaces.  They  seemed  less  absorbed  in  their 
religion,  though  not  less  devout  when  worshiping. 
It  is  a  case  of  correctly  reading  in  a  lesser  abun- 
dance of  matter  a  lower  quality  of  intensity.  Re- 
ligion seemed  less  on  the  Assyrian's  mind.  (4)  The 
pantheon  was  much  smaller.  Tiglath-Pileser  I, 
one  of  the  most  pious  of  Assyrian  monarchs,  names 
Asshur,  Bel  (rarely  named  elsewhere).  Sin,  Ramman, 
Ninib,  and  Ishtar.  Shalmaneser  II  mentions  on 
the  obelisk,  in  addition  to  the  gods  of  Tiglath-Pileser 
I,  Anu,  Ea,  Marduk,  Nergal,  Nusku,  and  Belit. 
It  is  just  the  deities  mentioned  here  which  were 
most  generally  disregarded;  and  their  notice  by 
this  king  is  doubtless  to  be  traced  to  his  attempt 
to  fuse  more  closely  the  north  and  the  south. 
Asshurbanipal  omits  Anu,  Ea,  Marduk,  and  Belit, 
but  mentions  two  Ishtars  and  adds  Nebo.    But 


a  caveat  should  be  entered  here,  which  is  justified 
by  knowledge  of  facts  existing  in  other  lands 
where  a  similar  civilization  had  been  attained;  as 
in  Oriental  countries  generally,  so  in  Assyria 
there  were  an  aristocratic  or  official  cult  and  a 
popular  and  democratic  cult.  The  pantheon  of 
the  kings,  particularly  of  Tiglath-Pileser,  repre- 
sented the  former;  the  peasant  and  farmer  wor- 
shiped the  gods  and  spirits  of  field,  tree,  and  foun- 
tain, and  these  did  not  get  into  the  inscriptions. 

The  chief  of  the  As^rian  pantheon,  not  found 
in  the  pantheon  of  Babylonia,  was  Asshur.  His  deri- 
vation and  origin  are  obscure,  though 

2.  Asshur.    there  is  some  plausibility  in  the  sug- 

gestion that  he  was  ultimately  derived 
from  Anu,  the  heaven-god  of  Babylonia.  But  it 
is  possible  that  Asshur  the  dty  was  not  originally 
Semitic,  and  that  the  local  god  was  adopted  by  the 
Semitic  colonists.  As  that  city  was  for  a  long 
period  the  capital,  he  became  the  chief  deity.  The 
great  triad  of  the  south  was  entirely  subordinated 
and  lost;  Anu,  Bel,  and  Ea  find  scanty  mention 
in  the  god-lists  of  the  kings.  The  significance  of 
Asshur  is  that  he  stands  for  nationalism.  His 
position  from  the  first  seems  more  elevated,  his 
attitude  has  in  it  more  of  aloofness  imd  abstraction 
than  even  Marduk  ever  attained  in  the  south. 
Moreover,  he  never  appears  to  be  chained  to  a 
locality.  Whatever  city  was  the  capital,  there  he 
made  his  abode.  His  symbol  or  representation 
was  not  an  image,  but  a  winged  disk  surmounted 
by  the  figure  of  an  archer  discharging  his  shaft. 
This  served  also  as  a  military  standard,  and  accom- 
panied the  armies  in  their  campaigns.  While 
individual  kings  could  and  did  choose  what  may 
be  called  individual  patrons  among  the  gods,  Asshur 
was  always  the  nation's  guardian  and  protagonist, 
the  unquestioned  chief.  Yet  it  must  be  noted  that 
in  spite  of  this  reverence,  even  when  Assyria  most 
completely  dominated  Babylonia,  there  was  no 
attempt  to  displace  Marduk  or  Shamash  or  any 
other  of  the  southern  deities  by  Asshur;  his  domain 
was  his  own  country,  and  there  was  honor  among 
the  gods,  precluding  one  from  usurping  the  due  of 
another.  Sayce  was  the  first  to  point  out  that  in 
this  deity  and  the  conceptions  about  him  there 
was  the  possibility  of  all  the  greatness  of  a  mono- 
theism such  as  developed  in  the  conception  of 
Yahweh.  Asshur's  position  was  unique,  without 
wife  or  family,  a  consideration  which  doubtless 
had  much  to  do  with  the  elevation  of  the  concep- 
tion which  was  formed  of  his  being.  There  seems 
every  reason  to  assume  that  he  was  originally  a 
sun-deity,  but  this  feature  is  not  prominent  in  the 
original  records  in  which  he  figures.  The  other 
gods  form,  after  a  fashion,  his  retinue  or  court, 
but  even  this  feature  is  far  less  pronounced  than  in 
the  case  of  Marduk. 

Ishtar  was  in  Assyria  never  one,  but  at  least 
three;  she  of  Nineveh,  of  Arbela,  and  of  Kitmur 

(a  city   of  which  almost  nothing  is 

3.  Ishtar.      known).    The  first  two  were  the  most 

prominent;  and  both  appear  to  have 
been  above  ail  goddesses  of  battle.  Ishtar  of  Kit- 
mur ruled  in  the  domain  of  love.  In  the  south 
this  goddess  reached  her  eminence  by  absorbing 


AMTxia 
Astexliui 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


884 


or  fussimilating  the  beings,  ftinctions,  and  rites  of 
local  goddesses,  such  as  Nana  of  Erech,  Nina  and 
Bau  of  Shirpurla,  Sarpanit  of  Babylon,  and  Anunit. 
In  neither  place  was  she  originally  a  moon-deity; 
this  function  appears  in  late  times,  and  gen- 
erally in  the  west  after  she  had  become  associated, 
often  as  consort,  with  Baal  as  sun-god.  In  some 
cases  religious  prostitution  was  associated  with 
her  cult;  but  it  was  not,  as  is  so  often  supposed, 
exclusively  or  primarily  her  rite.  The  origin  of 
name  and  goddess  is  obscmre.  Neariy,  if  not  quite, 
all  Semitic  peoples  had  a  deity  of  the  name,  though 
Athtar  of  South  Arabia  was  male.  The  hypothesis 
of  non-Semitic  origin  seems  out  of  court,  in  view 
of  the  universality  of  her  cult  among  Semites; 
and  yet  no  satisfactory  Semitic  etymology  has  been 
foimd.  If  she  was  a  loan-goddess,  she  was  borrowed 
in  the  prehistoric  age  of  the  Semitic  peoples.  The 
Ishtar  of  Nineveh  ranked  next  to  Asshur  in  esti- 
mation, was  to  the  Ass3rrians  Belit  ("  the  Lady  "\ 
as  Asshur  was  Bel  ("  the  Lord  ");  yet,  as  is  im- 
plied in  the  foregoing,  she  was  never  his  consort. 
"  Goddess  of  Battle,"  "  Princess  of  Heaven  and 
Earth,''  "  Queen  of  All,"  are  titles  given  her.  In 
the  religious  literatiu^  she  is  invoked  as  the  **  gra- 
cious mother  of  creation,  the  giver  of  plenty, 
hearer  of  the  supplications  of  the  sinner,"  and  as 
the  goddess  of  fertility.  It  was  partly  out  of  this 
latter  conception  that  the  debasing  worship  grew 
which  attended  her  as  the  Oriental  Aphrodite. 
The  functions  of  the  various  Ishtars  were  quite 
the  same;  and  there  is  more  of  the  primitive  attach- 
ment to  locality  than  in  the  case  of  Asshur.     (See 

ASHTORETH.) 

The  deity  who  seemed  to  rank  third,  at  any  rate 
if  one  may  judge  by  the  frequency  with  which  his 

name  was  used  in  the  formation  of 
4.  Ramman.  proper    names,    was    Ramman,    the 

thunderer,  god  of  storms,  and  prob- 
ably in  consequence  of  this,  also  of  fertility  and 
fruitfulness.  He  was  identified  with  Hadad  or 
Adad,  a  deity  of  Syria,  one  of  whose  principal  seats 
was  Aleppo.  There  has  alwaya  been  considerable 
doubt  whether  his  name,  which  in  the  cuneiform 
is  represented  by  the  sign  IM,  should  be  read 
Ramman  or  Hadad,  The  name  has  been  found 
in  the  region  of  Van  in  the  cuneiform  written 
phonetically  Hadad,  so  that  it  is  settled  that  at 
least  the  form  common  in  Syria  was  known  in 
Assyria  and  used  there.  But  it  is  not  a  necessary 
conclusion  that  the  sign  IM  is  always  to  be  read 
Hadad  and  never  Ramm^m, 

Doubtless  the  cults  of  Asshur,  Ishtar,  and  Ram- 
man were  those  characteristic  of  Assjrria.  But  the 
student  of  religions  will  always  be  alert  for  signs 

of  sim-worship;  and,  since  Asshur,  if 
5.  The  Sun-  he  was  indeed  originally  a  sim-deity, 
gods  Sham-  had  been  disassociated  from  that  relL- 
ashy  Ninib,  tionship,  it  would  be  expected  that 
and  NergaL  other  deities  would  represent  that  phase 

of  early  worship.  There  were  three 
sun-gods  in  Assyria  who  had  a  more  or  less  prom- 
inent position,  were  derived  from  the  south,  and 
were  known  in  both  lands  as  Shamash,  Ninib,  and 
Nergal.  The  first  was  par  excellence  the  sun-god 
(cf.  the  Hebr.  ahemesh,  "  sim  ");  and  the  splendor 


and  fervor  and  inspiration  of  his  ritual  almost 
equals  that  of  Asshur.    It  is  practically  certain 
that  he  had  temples  in  every  city.     Ninib  became 
connected  among  the  Assyrians  with  hunting  and 
sports,  and  then  with  war.    Nergal  represented 
rather    the  maleficent,  destructive  power  of  the 
sun;  he  was,  therefore,  associated  with  war  as  the 
destroyer,  with  pestilence,  and  also  with  the  chase. 
A  religion  which  derived  its  elements  in  large 
part  from  a  people  to  whom  the  moon  had  be^ 
an  eminent  power  would  be  expected  to  retain 
clear  traces  of  that  cult.    Accordingly  Sin,  called 
also  Nannar,  the  pre-Semitic  EN-ZU, 
6.  Sin,  the  god  of  wisdom,  who  had  eariy  seats 
Moon-god.  in  Ur  and  Harran,   both  connected 
NuskUy  the  by  the  Hebrews'  tradition  with   the 
Fire-god.    father  of  their  race,  Abraham,  had  his 
seats  of  worship  also  in  Assyria.    The 
diffused  character  of  his  worship  will  be  partly  real- 
ized when  it  is  remembered  that  he  gave  Ins  name  to 
the  peninsula  of  Sinai.  He  was  always  closely  associ- 
ated with  the  endowment  of  mankind  with  wisdom. 
Nusku  was  a  fire-god,  then  the  deity  of  charms 
and  incantations,  a  night  deity,  and  also  associated 
with  the  impartation  of  knowledge. 

Other  deities  had  little  place  in  the  worship 
and  regard  of  the  people.  Mention  of  them  seems 
rather  perfunctory,  a  sort  of  parade  of  piety,  or  a 
diplomatic  measure  of  conciliation  toward  the  south, 
rather  than  an  acknowledgment  of  their  importance 
for  the  country  or  the  religion.  A  factor  that 
swayed  mightily  the  selection  of  the  members 
of  the  pantheon — ^a  selection  which  was  instinctive 
rather  than  deliberative  and  planned — ^was  the 
persistent  rivalry  of  Babylonia  and 
7.  Rivalry  Assjrria.  It  was  impossible  for  the 
of  Baby-  god  Marduk  to  become  domiciled  in 
lonla  and  Nineveh  or  Asshur  or  Calah,  for  he 
Assyria.  was  the  god  of  the  rival  city.  Even 
if  he  had  been  more  mobile,  had  the 
native  Babylonian  conception  of  deity  been  more 
favorable  to  a  change  of  residence  of  the  god  than 
it  was,  the  fact  mentioned  would  have  impeded 
his  adoption  of  a  seat  in  the  north.  But,  as  has 
been  noted  above,  even  when  the  arms  and  star 
of  the  Assyrians  were  thoroughly  dominant  in  the 
south,  no  attempt  was  made  to  demand  that  Asshur 
take  his  place  at  the  head  of  the  southern  pan- 
theon. The  image  of  Marduk  was  carried  to  As- 
syria as  a  sign  of  his  subjection;  but  that  of  Asshur 
was  not  installed  in  his  place,  so  far  as  any  hint 
goes  in  the  annals  accessible.  So  that  the  As- 
syrian recognition  of  Marduk  conveys  simply 
the  impression  of  assent  to  his  lordship  in  his 
own  land.  It  is  not  beyond  suspicion  that  the 
tendency  to  favor  Nebo  was  not  because  he  was 
especially  revered,  though  as  the  god  of  oracles  he 
became  less  chained  to  a  locality  and  more  eligible 
to  general  worship  than  others;  more  probably  he 
was  used  by  Raniman-nirari  and  Asshurbanipal  to 
diminish  the  prestige  of  the  almost  hostile  god 
Marduk. 

The  background  and  undercurrent  of  Assyrian 
religion  was  thoroughly  animistic.  Omens  of  all 
sorts  were  consulted;  magic  of  formulas  and  of 
material,  sympathetic  and  simple,  was  everywhere; 


385 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Aamyrim 
AsteriuB 


eore(*rj'  waa  a  constant  peril  and  device;  spirits  evil 
and  ^ood,  maleficeDt  and  beneficent,  swarmed.  The 
diagnoaiii  of  disease  woe  reeognition  of  obsession  of 

infliction    of  suffering  or   prevention 
8.  Magic,      of  health    by   spirits   or  deiti^  who 

must  be  driven  out  or  exorcised  or 
placated  in  order  to  lighten  or  abolish  the  suffering 
or  to  secure  health.  The  formulas  of  magic!  were 
numerous  and  potent^  the  medicine-man  or  shaman 
as  well  as  the  priest  thrived.  While  for  king, 
nobility f  armyi  and  priesthood  the  great  gods  were 
eupremej  there  are  hints  even  in  the  annab  of  the 
kings,  and  more  decided  proof  in  the  collections  of 
magical  texts,  of  apprehensions  of  the  lower  powers, 
of  hopea  that  rested  not  on  the  goda.  Of  ioean- 
tation  tablets  a  whole  series  give  a  ritual  of  **  the 
b^tI  demons/^  Parts  of  the  body  had  their  appro* 
priate  ritual  for  their  preservation  from  disease 
and  to  banish  tUe  spirits  which  chose  them  bm  the 
spheres  of  their  operations.  The  formulas  arose 
and  became  fixed  because  the  occasion  which  pro- 
duced them  appeared  to  be  recurrent.  And,  as 
elsewhere  in  early  religion,  the  exact  letter,  word, 
and  intonation  were  eisential  to  succeeu  in  usiag 
them. 

The  idea  of  sin  as  transgression  against  the  wiU 
of  the  gods  was  highly  developed;  and  eiome  of  the 
penitential  psalms,  with  the  polytheistic  expressions 
eliminated,  would  fitly  express  the  most  pious 
sentiments  of  devout  Christians  in  worship  of  to- 
day* The  notion  of  communion  between  god 
and  man  is  involved  in  the  elaborate  system  of 
omens  and  oraclen  which  obtained.  For  ideas  of 
essciiatology,  the  underworid,  and  future  life,  see 
Babylonia, 

Geo.  W.  Gilmore. 

HmLioaa^PHT:  On  th**  l^.t:p1Dmtio^a  and  di^cfiv^rbs:  ft  W. 
Rogers ,  HtMitiru  of  Habjfionia  and  Aantfria,  vul.  1,  N(fw 
YDrk.  1900;  H.  V.  Hilprecht.  Expioratwnt  in  BibU  Land*, 
pp,  1-578,  Philadelpliift,  1903  <Tery  full  and  frwh);  A.  H, 
L&y&nl^  Ninrvth  and  Ita  Heitkaint,  3  vdIb.,  Londoa,  1848- 
49  {an  old  cliu«AJc  And  good  for  geoerapiiieal  and  topo- 
graph iral  detiiil),  ftiid  aa  &  com  pan  ion  ^imi^,  H.  RaaBaoi, 
Atahur  artd  the  Land  af  Nimf&d,  New  York.  ISflT, 

On  the  laii|^uii4se:  F.  Belituich,  /lMi/ri»cA«  GrammaHk* 
Tidpflie,  1006,  EtifC.  trnQBl.,  1 889;  J.  Men  an  i.  Let  Lanffucx 
perdwa  de  £a  Ptrae  et  de  I'AMwi^,  PariA,  1S86:  A.  H.  Bayce, 
/Vt'iner  pf  At*vry^loOUr  N«w  York,  1^5  (deald  with  the 
people,  tfafl  IflUfuaee,  and  the  whole  iubject). 

For  Bouroeii:  IL  C,  EawlLtisoii,  Cuneiform  InacripH&nM 
af  Weaiem  Atia,  6  voK,  London.  1861^4;  A»»vrii'logi*ehe 
BiUiathak,  \xw^n  by  C.  Behold,  i»ntinuisd  by  F,  UelitMch 
H.nd  P.  Haupt,  Lcjpsio,  1SM6  iiqq^  Schrader,  KB;  H. 
Winckler^  Sammlvng  mm  KvUin^chriften,  Leipfiie,  1S93 
pqq4  J<  A.  Cmii;,  Aatflrian  and  ii^a^ir^niai^  RdimifV^ 
TexU,  2  vole.,  ib.  lS06-©7:  C.  Johnston,  Epistolajv  Lit- 
erature of  Atmyrians  and  Bt^ifionittn*.  Baltimore »  18&8; 
R.  F.  Harper^  Avyrian  and  Bab^ltmian  Leiier»,  5  vok., 
Chicago.  1900-05:  idem,  A«*vrmn  Littrature^  Now  York. 
1901. 

On  dunnohgy:  A.  KiimphaUffoa,  Dim  Chrtmohoig  dtr 
hebrAitchen  K&niffe^  Bonn,  1S83;  B.  G.  Niebuhr,  Die 
Chrondo^  ,  .  .  BdbyhnimM  und  Aminmt,  licipaio, 
1896. 

On  the  htAtory  the  b«it  for  tba  ED^^lish  reader  in  R,  W. 
Tloifeni,  Hi^tartf  tff  Babyhnia  and  Anyria,  ii.  New  York, 
1000;  other  worbi  are;  F.  iloiiiJH*U  Otachichlt  Bf^i/ioni- 
enM  und  Attyrien*.  Berlin.  1SS5;  C  P.  Ticle,  Bohi/tonisch- 
oMm/nnfM  CeitrAifAte,  1886-88;  F,  MOrdter  and  F,  Ik^ 
lit»cht  Ge*chKhte  von  Bab^Umien  und  AM^yrien,  Stuttj|;art, 
1891  i  H.  Winekler,  Gtttchiehte  Babyt&nwne  und  AaayrienM, 
Lei  11  Die K  1892;  idem,  Diif  Vstker  Vordtr^iena.  and  Dim 
poUtiMdie  Eatitjickflutig  Bahylonienf  und  Aatyrixna,  in  Der 
aite  Orieni.  h  i,  11,  i.  ib.   I8fl^l900;  O.  Maspero,    Down 


of  Civitimtion,  New  Tork^  1804;  idem.  The  Struggle  of 
the  Natii}nt,  1S07*  ideal,  Th^  Paeeina  of  the  Empires,  1900; 
J.  F.  McCurdy,  History,  i^ropAeeir  and  the  Monumenltt  3 
voU.,  ib,  1894-1901  (igrive«  the  piftrallcl  development  of 
Israel  and  the  coatemporikry  natiotm);  F.  Kauleut  Anjf- 
ri^n  ujui  Babytoni^n  naJeh  den  neuesten  EntdeekuHQien,  Frei- 
buTS,  1899;  L,  B,  faton.  Early  Hittary  vf  Syria  and 
PaleaHntt  New  York,  1001  (involved  the  history  of  A»^ 
Syria);  Q.  S,  Gondjipe<Kl>  History  of  Babytoniana  and 
AteyrianM^  New  Y^ork.  1902  (popular)^ 

On  apeolal  iiubjdcts:  O.  Smitli«  Hialitry  of  Auurhanipaf, 
London,  1871;  W.  Loti,  £>u  Intchriften  TigtQth- Piietert 
t.j  Leipaii?*  1880;  K.  Bchrader,  Die  Keiiintcfiriften  am 
Einoanfffl  der  QueUfjrotte  d^  B^feneh-Su^  Berlin „  1885  (on 
this  reliefs  of  Tiglalh-Pileaer  1«  Ti^latb-Ninib,  and  Ab- 
ahumanirpal  III  at  Sebneh);  S.  A.  £^mjth,  Die  Km£- 
tcAriftiexte  AMmarbanipois,  Leipne,  18S7-^9;  U.  Winokleri 
Die  Keii»diTifaey^  Bargona,  ib.  1889;  idem.  Die  inaehtif- 
Un  Tiolat^PileMera  I„  ib.  1893;  idem.  Die  KeHachrifti^te  A»^ 
fwhanipaU,  ib,  1895;  B.  Meimier  and  P.  Rost.  Die  Bauin- 
Khriften  Sanhmha,  ib.  1893;  P.  Host,  Die  KriUchrift- 
texte  Tigla^PUeMtrs  ///.,  ib.  1893;  D,  G.  Lyon,  Die  Keil- 
echriftterte  Sarffone  //.,  in  AtayriohffiMche  B^ioihek^  I*  iv, 
ib.  1SS3;  H.  Wiaekter,  Altorientalieehe  Fortchungen, 
Ui  »eriea,tb.  1893  QT.Sdeeriea,  1808-1901,  M  seriea,  1902, 
in  proereaa  (I,  i^  1893,  on  Y'aidi;  I,  iv,  1896,  on  Muzri; 
1,  vi,  1&07.  on  the  Cimmerians;  II,  i,  on  Eaarhaddon;  U^ 
ii,  1898,  on  TiKlath-Pileser  Ul);  O.  Weber.  Sitttherib 
KOnig  von  Aeeyrien,  n  Der  alie  Orient,  ib.  1905;  L.  W. 
King,  Ee&irde  of  the  Reiffn  of  Tukutti^Ninib  /.«  KinQ  af 
Amtyria,  London,  1904;  F.  DelitMnch  and  P*  Haupt,  Bei- 
^Affe  tur  A  wyriolfiffif^  ib.  1 890- 1 900  { con  taint!  a  Wiirlea  of  trea- 
tiaefl  on  special  topics);  on  Muzri.  Meluhha,  and  Main,  cf. 
H.  Winckler,  in  Miiteilungen  der  vorderomi^tiathcn  Geeeil- 
eehaft^  imnd  iv,  1098,  Ekhrader,  ^.IT*,  i,  140  naQ,  and 
Winekler,  Ge»chiehie  feraeU^  t,  150-153,  2  voLb.,  Leipaic, 
1S95-1900. 

On  the  religion:  M.  Jastrow,  Reliffiofi  of  Babylonia  and 
Aaeyria,  Boston,  1898  (re vised  ed^,  in  German,  iaaued  in 
partd  and  ^ttll  in  progresfl,  Berlin);  J.  A.  Kaudtion,  A*- 
ayrUrbe  (Jvbete  an  den  SannengoU,  Ijeipiiit,  1894;  G.  Taaka, 
Aittatameniliehe  Tht^kfQie,  Hanover,  1604;  A,  S.  Ge^leu, 
Btvdiea  in  Compm^ve  Beliffion,  London,  1898. 

On  the  rel&lionji  of  Aiisyriology  to  the  Old  TeatiJiieiit: 
Sehrader,  KA  T,  and  COT;  B.  T.  A.  Evetti,  Neio  Light 
on  the  Hoty  /^ad,  ib.  1891;  H,  Winekler,  AlUetfamenllielim 
Un^tntJiungen,  Leipno^  1892;  A-  H,  Sayoe,  Biffher  Criti* 
dem  and  the  Manuments,  London.  Iji94;  C,  J,  Ball, 
Light  from  the  EaMt,  ib.  1899;  T.  G.  Pincbe*,  The  Old 
Teetameni  in  the  Ligfit  of  the  Hietory  .  .  .  of  Aetyria  and 
Babylonia,  ib.  1002;  H,  WincUer,  KeiiinKhrifHiEhe  Text- 
bueh  xurm  Aiten  Trmtament,  Ijejpaic,  1903;  J,  Jer«miafl, 
Bom  AUe  Teitament  im  Lichte  de§  alien  Oriente,  ib.  1904:  F, 
DeUttiich.  Bahd  und  Bihel^  Leipftie,  1902,  Eng,  tmiuL, 
Ghieago,  1906. 

Jownab  of  note  contoiEunig  Taluabte  Enatetial  are:  ZA; 
Retue  d' A^tyriologie  et  d^ArdiSologie  Orwnloie,  Pkrii; 
Orientaliedi^  LiUerntttrtiiittng^  Berlin;  American  Journal 
of  Semi^  Languages  and  Liieraturti*,  Chicago;  Journal  of 
the  Boyal  A  tiatic  Society,  Lcmdon ;  Tranaadiona  and  PSBA , 
ib.     Q>nRi,iH  also  the  literature  under  BabtLoXiA. 

AST  ARTE,     8ea  AsnTORETM, 

ASTERIUS,  as^trre-Tja:  Name  of  twenty-five 
writers  mentioned  in  Fabricitis^Harlea  (Bibliotheca 
Grmea,  ix,  Hamburg,  1S04,  51^-^22).  The  foUow- 
ing  are  the  more  imi>ortant: 

I.  AiteiiuB  Urbanus:  Montanktp  editor  of  a 
collection  of  orac1e«  used  by  the  anti-Montanist 
mentioned  in  Eusebius,  HuL  Ecd.j  V,  xvi,  17. 

G.KrCgbe. 
Biouoorapbt:  ANF,  vil,  333-337  (contaiiiii  introduistioii 

and  En^.  trarisl.  of  fraffnientfl):  ef,  EuaebiusJt  HiaL  EccL 

by  McGiffert,  NPNF,  Sd  series,  i,  232,  note  27. 

3.  Aflterius  of  CeippadocU!  A  teacher  of  rheto- 
ric, converted  from  paganism  to  Chnstianity.  He 
relapsed  io  the  persecution  under  Maximianus  (c, 
305),  and,  notwithstanding  the  support  of  the  semi- 
Arian  party,  could  not  afterward  attain  to  ecclesi- 
astical dignities.    Theologically  he  was  a  dkeiple 


Aatie 
AtaivatU 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


886 


of  LuciaD  of  Antioch  (see  Ldcian  the  Martye) 
and  represented  Ariamsm  in  a  mild  form.  Accord- 
ing to  Jerome  {De  mr  iU,^  xciv )  he  wrote  commen- 
taries OD  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans,  the  Gospels, 
and  the  Pealms.  G.  KRtGica. 

Bibmogbafet:  T.  Zalm.  MarcdtuM  van.  A7U:yra,  pp.  38  SQQ., 

Gotba,  IS&T. 

8p  BiEthop  of  Petra  in  Arabia.  He  was  originally 
a  follower  of  Eusebius,  but  renounced  the  party  at 
Sardica  iji  343,  and  was  banished  to  Libya.  In 
362  he  took  part  in  the  synod  held  at  Alexandria. 

G.  KrUger. 
BiDUooaAmf :  D€B,  u  177-17^. 

4*  Bishop  of  Amosia  in  Pontus  from  378;  d, 
before  431.  Ha  was  a  famotis  pulpit  orator  of  the 
ancient  Greek  Church;  of  his  homllie.';,  which  have 
historical  importance,  twcntynsne  are  wholly  ex- 
tant, and  extracts  iram  six  others  are  given  by 
Phodus  (codex  271).     They  are  in  MPG,  xl. 

G.  KRt^OER. 

dtr  chrUsUichen  Beredmmkfit,  i»  pftrl  2,  562-5S2«  Leipiie, 
tS41;  L.  Koch,  in  ZHT,  xli  ilBJl),  77-107:  BCB^  U  173; 
KiHger, /fufiarv,  p  337. 

ASTIE,  aa"tf,  JEAIT  FREDERIC:  Swiss  Prot- 
estant;  b,  at  N^rac  (65  m.  s.e.  of  Bordeaux)^  Lot- 
et-Oaronne,  France,  Sept.  21,  1822;  d.  at  Lausanne 
May  20,  1S92.  He  studied  at  Geneva,  HaLle,  and 
Berlm,  went  to  the  United  States^  and  was  pastor 
of  a  French  church  in  New  York  from  1S4S  to  IS53; 
from  IS50  till  his  death  he  wa^  professor  of  phi- 
losophy and  theology  in  the  Free  Faculty  at  Lau- 
sanne. From  1S68  he  was  joint  editor  of  the  ifevu* 
de  Tk^^logie  et  de  PkUoaophie,  published  at  Geneva 
and  Lauaanne.  Besides  polemical  pamphletst,  he 
wrote  Louis  Fonrietntk  and  the  Writera  of  His  Age, 
lectures  in  French  delivered  in  New  York^  trans- 
lated by  E.  N.  Kirk  (Boston,  1855);  an  account,  in 
French,  of  the  religious  revival  in  the  United  States 
in  18d7-5S  (Lausanne,  1859);  a  history  of  the 
United  States  (2  vola.,  Paris,  1865);  EspHt  d'Akx- 
andre  Vinei  (2  vols.»  1861);  Les  Deux  Th^ohgies 
nout^lles  sans  k  uein  du  Protmlaniisme  fran^ois 
(1862) ;  Explication  de  VSvangile  selan  Saint-Jean  (3 
vols.,  Geneva,  1864);  Th^ohgie  aUetnajide  coniefn- 
poraine  (1874);  Melanges  de  tfUologie  ei  de  phUoao- 
phie  { Lausanne,  1 S7S) ;  and  published  an  edition  of 
the  Pensies  of  Pascal  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1857;  2d  ed., 
1882). 
ASTROLOGY  AND  ASTRONOMY.  See  Stars 
ASTRUC,  as"t^ftc^  JEAN:  Roman  Catholic; 
b.  at  Sauve  (20  m,  w.n.w,  of  Ntmes,  department 
of  Oard),  Languedoc,  Mar.  19,  1684;  d.  in  Paris 
May  5,  1766,  He  was  carefully  educated  by  his 
father,  who  had  been  a  Protestant  pastor,  but  had 
been  converted  to  Roman  Catholicism;  he  studied 
abo  at  Montpellier,  where  he  received  the  degrees 
of  M.A.  and  M.t)«  (1703),  lectured  at  Montpellier, 
became  professor  on  the  medical  faculty  at  Tou- 
louse (1710),  and  at  MontpeUier  (1717).  In  1729 
be  became  physician  to  King  Augustus  III  of  Po- 
land, returned  to  France  in  1730  as  physician  to 
Louis  XV,  was  professor  at  the  royal  college  in 
Paris  from  1731,  and  member  of  the  medical  faculty 
there  from  1743.  He  was  eminent  in  his  profession 
and  published  several  medical  treatises  of  value. 


The  study  of  skin  diseases  led  him  to  cooaider  the 
Pentateuchal  laws  of  the  clean  and  the  midean; 
and  this  occasioned  the  work  which  entitles  bim  to 
mention  in  a  theological  encyclopedia,  a  work 
which  is  regarded  by  many  trtodem  scholars  as 
pointing  out  the  true  path  of  Pentateuchal  investi* 
gation.  It  appeared  anonymously  (12mo,  Bnift- 
sels,  1753),  with  the  title,  Con/edtirc*  sur  les  nU- 
moires  originaux  dont  U  patoU  que  Moyse  s'est  s^rvi 
pour  composer  ie  Hvre  de  la  Ginhe.  Avec  ties  te^ 
marques  qui  appuierU  &u  qui  idaireissent  ces  amje^ 
iuTm„  and  consists  of  a  preface  (pp,  1^2)*  prelimi- 
naiy  remarks  (pp  3-24),  the  Book  of  Gene^  and 
chapters  i  and  ii  of  Exodus  in  French  traojslation 
from  the  Geneva  folio  edition  of  1610  arraa^ied 
according  to  the  supposed  m^-moircs  (pp  25— 280)» 
the  '*  conjectures  "  proper  (pp.  281-495),  clofiing 
with  an  index  of  twenty-eight  pages 

That  the  Pentateuch  is  based  upon  older  docu- 
ments was  no  new  idea.  Astruc^s  originality  con- 
sistetl  rather  in  hia  assumption  that  these  Bourcea 
had  not  been  recast,  but  had  been  pieced  together, 
and  in  his  attempt  to  reproduce  the  sources,  follow- 
ing as  a  clue  the  varying  use  of  Elohitn  and  Yahumh 
for  the  divine  name.  He  thought  that  he  dis- 
covered traces  of  twelve  documents,  and  made 
naive  guesses  at  their  authorship;  as  Amram  the 
father  and  Levi  the  great-grandfather  of  Moses  for 
Ex.  i-ii,  and  what  inunediately  precedes,  respect- 
ively; Joseph  for  his  owti  story;  Levi  for  the 
Dinah  narrative  (Gen.  ]cxjdv);  etc.  He  rightly 
perceives  that  his  hypothesis  explains  the  two  ex- 
pressions for  the  divine  name,  as  well  as  repetitiona 
and  chronological  difficulties.  He  also  thinks  that 
it  \indicates  Moses  from  the  reproach  of  careless 
workmanship,  since  it  is  probable  that  ori^ally 
he  arranged  the  material  in  columns  Like  the  woric 
of  Origen  or  a  harmony  of  the  Gospels,  and  that 
negligent  or  ignorant  copyists  put  it  in  consecutive 
fonn.  The  Mosaic  authorship,  Astruc  con^ddered 
established  beyond  possibility  of  doubt  by  pas- 
sages such  as  John  i,  45,  v,  46.  The  fear  that  free- 
thinkers would  misuse  his  work  deterred  him  from 
pubEshing  it  till  his  seventieth  year;  and  he  issued 
it  then  only  on  the  assurance  of  a  man  "  learned 
and  very  ^ealoiia  for  religion  *'  that "  far  from  being 
injurious  to  the  cause  of  religion,  it  could  only  be 
helpful  to  it,  because  it  would  remove  or  dear  up 
several  difficulties  which  arise  in  reading  the  book 
ojid  with  the  weight  of  which  commentators  have 
always  been  burdened"  (Preface,  p.  1).  The  title- 
page  bears  the  motto  Avia  Piendum  peragro  loca 
ni^ius  ante  trila  solo  ("  Free  through  the  muses' 
pathless  haunts  1  roam,  where  mortal  feet  have 
never  strayed,"  Lucretius,  iv,  1).  A  German  trans- 
lation of  the  Conj^^reSf  abridged,  appeared  at 
Frankfort  in  1782,  with  the  title  Mulmassungen  m 
Betreff  dtr  Originalberkhle  deren  sick  Moses  udkr- 
ach£iniicheru>eise  bei  Verfetiigung  des  eratffrk  wwwr 
Efwher  bedient  hat,  neimi  Anmerkungen  wodurt^ 
diese  Muimassungtn  thmh  unt^MtiWd  the^  erfdlv- 
tert  werden.  As  a  guaranty  of  his  soundness  in  tbo 
faith,  Astruc  published  immediately  after  the  Cm- 
jectures  a  DisaertaHon  sur  VimmofialUi  et  sur  Tim- 
Tnat&riaiit^  de  Mme  with  a  Dissertatian  sur  la  Hberti 
(Paris,  1755).     His  Mimoirea  pour  sertnrd  Viacom 


887 


RELIGIOUS    ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Atarvatifl 


de  la  FaculU  de  midecine  de  Mantpellier  were  edited 

after  his  death  with  an  £loge  historigtie  by  A.  C. 

Lorry.  (E.  BdHMERf.) 

Bibuoqrapht:  A.  C.  Lorry,  Fie  d'Attruc,  in  his  ed.  of  A»- 

truo's  Af^motfM  pour  tervir  h  I'hutoif  de  la  FaeuiUdemS' 

dtdne  de  MontpeOitr,  Paris.  1867;  A.  Wettphal.  Lee  Sowreee 

de  la  Peniaieuque,  I.  Le  ProbUme  UtUrmre,  p.  Ill  sqq., 

Pftria,  1888;  C.  A.  Briggs,  Study  of  Holy  Sarijftun,  pp.  246. 

250.  278  8qq.»  New  York.  1809. 

ASYLUM,  RIGHT  OF:  Among  practically  ail 
nations  is  found  an  early  belief  that  places  dedi- 
cated to  the  service  of  divine  beings  acquire  a 
sanctity  which  makes  them  inviolable  places  of 
refuge  for  people  pursued  by  their  enemies.  Spe- 
cific prescriptions  for  the  canying  out  of  this  prin- 
ciple are  found  in  the  Mosaic  law  (Ex.  xxi,  13;  Deut. 
xix,  7-10).  Certain  temples  among  the  Greeks 
had  the  same  quality;  and  in  Rome,  where  orig- 
inally only  special  temples  had  been  places  of  refuge 
for  slaves,  under  the  empire  statues  of  the  emperor 
were  considered  as  affording  protection,  which  the 
law  definitely  recognized  in  the  case  of  slaves.  In 
early  Christian  times  the  bishops  possessed  the 
privilege  of  interceding  for  accused  persons  or  con- 
demned criminals,  who  accordingly  fled  to  the 
churehes;  but  these  were  not  considered  inviolable 
asylums  either  by  the  ecclesiastical  or  by  the  im- 
perial law.  On  the  contrary,  the  latter  definitely 
provided  against  abuses  which  had  grown  up  in 
connection  with  this  practise. 

The  right  of  asylum  first  received  legal  recogni- 
tion for  the  West  in  399;  this  was  made  more  def- 
inite in  419,  extended  by  Valentinian  III  (425-455), 
and  regulated  by  Leo  I  in  466.  But  Justinian  re- 
stricted it  in  535;  and  the  final  shape  assumed  by 
the  Roman  law  was  that  certain  defined  classes  of 
persons  who  might  have  taken  sanctuary  in  the 
churches  could  not  be  removed  against  their  will, 
while  the  bishops  had  the  right,  but  not  the  duty, 
of  allowing  them  to  remain  there.  In  the  Ger- 
manic kin^oms  forcible  violation  of  an  asylum  was 
indeed  forbidden;  but  the  fugitive  had  to  be  sur- 
rendered, though  he  was  exempted  from  the  penalty 
of  death  or  mutilation.  In  the  Prankish  kingdom 
the  Decretio  Chlotharii  (511-558)  took  a  position 
in  harmony  with  that  of  the  Synod  of  Orleans  (511 ); 
the  surrender  of  the  fugitive  was  only  required  on 
an  oath  being  given  to  renounce  the  penalties  just 
mentioned;  but  no  secular  punishment  was  pro- 
vided for  the  violation  of  sanctuary,  and  the  Caro- 
lingian  legislation  did  away  with  this  oath,  while 
it  denied  the  right  of  asylum  altogether  to  those 
condemned  to  death.  Under  the  influence  of  the 
Dtcretum  Gratiani  and  other  collections  of  decre- 
tals, the  right  of  asylum  was  considerably  extended; 
and  this  extension  has  been  partly  confirmed, 
partly  revised  by  various  papal  decisions  since  the 
sixteenth  century. 

In  general  the  right  may  be  said  to  attach  to 
churches  and  other  buildings  directly  connected 
with  them,  to  a  certain  amoimt  of  adjacent  ground, 
to  the  whole  enclosures  of  monasteries,  to  hospitals 
and  similar  pious  institutions,  and  to  episcopal 
palaces.  The  fugitive,  whether  judicially  con- 
demned or  not,  and  even  if  he  has  escaped  from 
prison,  may  not  be  repulsed  or  removed,  even  with 
his  consent,  by  state  officers.  He  may  only  be 
I.— 22 


surrendered  when  what  he  has  done  comes  under 
the  head  of  a  casus  exceptua,  such  as  murder,  treason, 
robbery  of  churches,  etc.  The  violation  of  sanctu- 
ary is  sacrilege,  and  incurs  excommunication  ipso 
facto.  The  right  of  asylum,  however,  provoked  a 
secular  reaction  after  the  sixteenth  century,  which 
in  the  eighteenth  went  as  far  as  total  abolition  in 
some  coimtries.  This  is  now  everywhere  the  case, 
though  the  Church  holds  to  the  right  in  principle. 

(E.  Friedberq.) 
Bxbuoorapht:  The  fundamental  book  is  Rittershusiua, 
'AXvAia,  hoc  eei,  de  jure  aeylorum,  Strasburg.  1624.  re- 
printed in  CriHei  Saeri,  i,  249  aqq..  best  ed..  Amsterdam, 
ie08;  8  Pecse.  in  Ardioeolooia,  vol.  viii  (published  by 
the  Society  of  Antiquaries,  London.  1770  sqq..  gives  hia- 
tory  of  Asylxmk  in  Great  Britain  down  to  James  I); 
Bingham.  Originee,  book  viii.  chap,  xi;  J.  J.  Altmeyer. 
Du  Droit  d'aeile  en  Brabant,  Brussels,  1862;  A.  Bulwinoq, 
Dae  Aeylrecht  in  eerner  geediichtliehen  Eniwickeluno,  Dor- 
pat.  1853;  C.  R  de  Beaurepaire.  L'Aeile  religieux  dane 
Vempire  romain  et  la  monarchie  franfoiee,  Paris.  1864;  J. 
J  E  Proost.  Hietoire  du  droit  d'aeile  religieux  en  Betgiiue, 
Brussels.  1870;  A  St6ber.  Rednerdkee  ewr  le  droit  d*aeile, 
MOlhausen.  1884;  J.  F.  Stephen.  Hietory  of  Criminal  Law, 
vol.  i.  chap  xiii,  London,  1883;  A  P  Riessel,  The  Law  of 
Aeylum  in  lerael,  I^psio,  1884;  A.  Gengel.  Aeybreeht 
und  FUretenmord,  Frauenfeld.  1886;  H.  Lammasch.  Aii#- 
li0ferungepflieKtundAeylredU,Leiveie,l887;  P.  Hinsohius. 
Kirehenrecht,  iv,  380.  Berlin,  1888;  N.  M.  Trenholm.  AttfJU 
of  Sanctuary  in  England,  University  of  Missouri.  1903. 

ATAR6ATIS,  at-ar-g6'tis:  A  word  which  does  not 
occur  in  the  canonical  Scriptures;  but  in  II  Maco. 
xii,  26  mention  is  made  of  ''  a  temple  of  Atargatis  " 
(Atargateion)  as  a  place  of  refuge  sought  by  the 
Arabians  and  Ammonites  who  were  defeated  by 
Judas  MacoabsBUs.  This  temple  was  situated  in 
Camion  (cf.  I  Mace,  v,  43-44),  which  is  probably 
the  same  as  the  Ashteroth-Kamaim  of  Gen.  xiv, 
5.  The  supposition  is  natural  that  the  place  was 
an  old  seat  of  Astarte-worship,  and  some  have 
even  identified  Atargatis  directly  with  Astarte. 

Support  has  been  foimd  for  this  view  in  the  fact 
that  a  principal  seat  of  the  cult  of  Atargatis  was 
Ascalon,  and  that  Herodotus  (i.  105)  places  there 
a  temple  of  **  the  heavenly  Aphrodite."  This  is 
not  conclusive,  for  there  may  have  been  shrines 
of  both  goddesses  in  the  same  city,  or — which  is 
far  more  probable — the  Aphrodite  of  the  days  of 
Herodotus  may  have  been  succeeded  by  Atargatis. 
She  had  there  a  famous  shrine  for  several  centuries 
before  and  after  the  Christian  era.  Mabug  or 
Hierapolis,  on  the  Euphrates,  was  an  equally 
famous  seat  of  her  worship. 

In  connection  with  both  temples  fishes  were 
kept  sacred  to  the  goddess,  and  at  Ascalon  she 
was  represented  as  a  sort  of  mermaid — a  woman 
with  the  tail  of  a  fish  (Ludan,  De  dea  Syria,  xiv; 
cf.  xlv).  Various  reasons  are  given  for  these  cus- 
toms. According  to  one  form  of  the  legends 
in  Greek  and  Roman  writers,  Deroeto  (the  name 
Atargatis  modified),  having  thrown  herself  into  the 
water,  was  saved  by  a  fish  (Hyginus,  Astronomia, 
ii,  30) ;  according  to  another  version  she  was  turned 
into  a  fish  (Diodorus  Siculus,  ii,  4).  The  dove, 
which  was  sacred  to  Astarte,  Aphrodite,  and 
Venus,  also  figures  in  the  same  legends. 

The  only  question  of  present  importance  is  the 
connection  between  the  cult  of  Atargatis  and  that 
of  Astarte.  That  the  connection  was  close  is  indi- 
cated prima  facie  by  the  fact  that  the  Atar  of 


Athl^TlftB^f'^'n 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


888 


Atargatis  is  the  contracted  form  of  *Athtar,  the 
Aramaic  equivalent  of  Ishtar  or  Astarte  (see  Ash- 
TORETH,  §  2).  Presumably  A<ar is  here  confounded 
with  the  name  of  another  deity.  A  certain  Pahny- 
rene  god  AH  or  Atah  is  supposed  to  be  the  one  in 
question,  but  his  attributes  are  not  sufficiently 
known  to  make  the  combination  certain. 

Although  a  wholly  satisfactory  explanation  of  the 
compound  name  is  lacking,  a  plausible  hypothesis 
as  to  the  leading  motive  of  the  complex  cult  may 
be  offered.  After  the  political  extinction  of  Sem- 
itism,  and  the  consequent  depreciation  of  Ishtar- 
Astarte  (along  with  the  decline  of  the  comple- 
mentary Baal- worship),  it  was  found  necessary  to 
perpetuate  some  of  the  leading  features  of  such  a 
wide-spread  and  deep-rooted  cult.  The  fertility 
and  life-giving  power  of  water  was  one  of  the 
most  familiar  of  the  conceptions  of  the  world  of 
thought  and  fancy  of  which  Astarte  was  the  center. 
This  idea  was  in  large  measure  suggested  by  the 


mysterious  origin  and  fecundity  of  fish,  the  chief  of 
water  animals.  These  consequently  figure  very 
largely,  along  with  other  elements,  in  the  cult  of 
Atargatis,  which  replaced  but  did  not  supersede  the 
worship  of  Astarte.    See  Ashtoreth. 

J.  F.  McCJURDT. 

Bibuography:  J.  Selden,D0  dU  Sj/ru,  ii,  3.  London,  1617; 
F.  C  Movers.  Die  PhOnitier,  i.  584-600,  Bonn.  1841; 
K.  B.  Stark,  Oaaa  und  die  philistai$che  KOste,  pp.  250- 
255.  Jena.  1852;  Derceio  the  Qoddeaa  of  Aecalon.  in  the 
Journal  of  Sacred  lAtereUure,  new  series,  vii  (1865),  1-20; 
P.  Scholi.  OOtzendienst  und  Zauberweeen  bei  den  alien 
HebrOem,  pp.  301-333.  Regensburg.  1877;  J.  P.  Six. 
in  the  Numiamatic  Chronicle^  new  series,  xviii  (1878).  103 
sqq.;  Hauvette-B^nault.  in  Bulletin  de  eorreapondanee 
hdUnique,  vi  (1882),  470-503;  L.  PrcUer.  ROmieehe  Mtftko- 
loffie,  vol.  ii,  Berlin,  1883;  W.  Robertson  Smith,  in  the 
Englieh  Hietorical  Review,  ii  (1887).  303-317;  F.  Baeth- 
gen,  Beitr&ge  twr  temilischen  Reliffionegeechiehie,  pp.  68- 
75.  Berlin.  1880;  R.  PietMchmann.  Geachichte  der  PhOninrr, 
pp.  148-140.  BerUn.  1880;  Scharer.  Oeachiehie,  ii,  23-24. 
Eng.  tranBl.,II.  i.  13-14  and  iii,  01-02;  DB,  i.  104-195; 
EB,  i.  370;    Smith.  ReL  of  Setn,»  172-176. 


I.  Title  not  Justified. 

Not  an  Eoumenioal  Creed  (§  1). 
Not  Athanasian  (S  2). 
II.  History  of  Discussion. 
Theories  of  Origin  (§1). 


ATHANASIAN  CREED. 

Facts  as  to  Manuscripts  (S  2). 
Ancient  Commentaries  ($  3). 
The  Theory  of  Two  Sources  (J  4). 
Parallels  to  the  Athanasian  Creed 
(5  6). 


III.  Present  Status. 

Attempted  Conclusion  (|  1). 
C!ontrover8y   in   Anglican   Churdi 
($2). 


The  so-called  Athanasian  Creed  (Symbolum 
Athanasianumf  also  called,  from  its  first  word,  Sym- 
bolum Quicunque)  is  an  exposition  of  the  catholic 
faith  which,  from  the  Carolingian  period,  in  some 
places  earlier  than  in  others,  began  to  be  sung  at 
prime  every  day  throughout  the  Western  Church. 
It  was  not  then  called  a  "  symbol  "  or  creed;  the 
passage  in  Theodulf  of  Orleans  {De  spiriiu  sancto, 
MPLf  cv,  247)  which  was  supposed  so  to  designate 
it  is  corrupt,  and  Hincmar's  reference  to  "  Atha- 
nasius  speaking  in  the  creed  "  {De  prcedestinationef 
MPL,  cxxv,  374)  has  been  shown  to  refer,  not  to 
this,  but  to  the  so-called  fides  Romanorum  (see 
below,  II,  i  5). 

I.  Title  not  Justified:  None  of  the  manuscripts 
of  the  ninth  or  tenth  century,  no  certain  quotation 
of  this  date,  none  of  the  old  commentaries,  call  it 
a  creed  And  even  later,  Thomas  Aquinas  ex- 
pressly says  that  Athanasius  wrote  his  exposition 
not  in  the  manner  of  a  creed  but  rather  in  that  of 
a  teacher's  lesson  (5timma,  lib,  1,  10,  3).  And  he 
is  right.  Nothing  was  originally  considered  a 
creed,  strictly  speaking,  but  the  baptismal  profes- 
sion of  faith,  and  only  a  composition  of  similar 
structure  could  be  accounted  a  creed,  or  more 
properly,  a  form  of  the  creed.    The 

X.  Not  an  Quicunque  can  not  come  under  this 
Ecumenical  head;  it  is  a  theological  exposition  of 
Creed.  the  doctrines  of  the  Trinity  and  the 
Incarnation  found  in  the  creed.  It  is 
natural,  however,  that  its  use  in  public  worship 
should  approximate  it  in  the  popular  mind  to  the 
Apostles'  Creed  used  at  baptism,  and  the  Nicene 
used  in  the  mass.  As  late  as  1287,  it  is  true,  a  dioc- 
esan synod  at  Exeter  refers  to  the  "  articles  of 
faith  as  they  ate  contained  in  the  psalm  Quicunque 
vuU  and  in  both  symbols;"  but  in  the  thirteenth 
century  the  name  of  creed  was  not  seldom  applied 
to  it.     Durandus  (d.  1296)  says  "  the  creed  is  three- 


fold;" and  Alexander  of  Hales  in  like  manner, 
writing  in  England  about  1230,  says,  **  there  are 
three  symbols,  one  of  the  apostles;  one  of  the 
Fathers,  which  is  sung  in  the  mass;  and  the  third, 
the  Athanasian,  which  is  sung  at  prime."  Accord- 
ingly the  Reformers,  when  their  time  came,  had 
learned  to  receive  these  old  confessions  as  "  the 
three  creeds  "  of  catholic  Christendom.  They  did 
not  know  that  the  Greek  Church  had  neither  the 
Apostles'  nor  the  Athanasian,  and  the  later  Luther- 
ans included  all  three  as  a  universal  heritage 
in  their  Corpus  doctrince.  So  also  Zwin^,  the 
French  and  Bclgic  Confessions,  and  the  Ang^ 
can  Thirty-nine  Articles  expressly  accepted  the 
three  creeds  as  ecumenical.  But  the  Elastem 
Churches  do  not  know  the  Athanasian  as  an 
authority,  in  spite  of  the  assertion  of  the  Russian 
theologian  Macarius.  Of  the  Reformed  Churches, 
those  wliich  accept  the  Westminst-er  Confession, 
wliile  agreeing  with  its  general  teaching,  do  not 
accept  it  formally;  the  American  Episcopal  Church 
has  dropped  it  from  the  prayer-book;  the  Churches 
of  Puritan  origin  and  the  Methodists  do  not  use  it; 
so  also  the  Swiss  and  French  Reformed,  to  say 
nothing  of  the  antitrinitarian  bodies. 

But  the  Athanasian  Creed  is  not  only  not  ecu- 
menical; it  is  not  even  Athanasian.     Since  Ger- 
hard Voss  demonstrated  tliis  in  1642,  the  Athanar 
sian  origin  of  it  has  boon  practically  abandoned  by 
scholars,  even  those  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 
There  are  decisive  grounds  against  it: 
2.  Not  Atha-  it  was  composed  in  Latin — the  Greek 
nasian.     forms,  which  can  be  shown  to  be  as 
late   as   the   thirteenth   century,   are 
mere  translations;  Athanasius  himself,  as  well  as  his 
biographers,  know  nothing  of  it — the  Greeks  men- 
tion it  first  about  1200;  and  it  expresses  things  of 
later  ori^n,  such  as  the  final  settlement  of  not  only 
the  Trinitarian  but  the  Apollinarian  and  Christo- 


380 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Athaxiaalaii 


logical  controversies,  the  dogmatic  formulas  of 
Augustine,  and  the  doctrine  of  the  double  proces- 
sion of  the  Holy  Spirit.  The  evidence  of  the  manu- 
scripts, too,  is  insufficient.  Several  of  them  give 
it  without  any  author's  name,  and  of  the  seven 
oldest  commentaries  only  two  mention  Athanasius 
in  the  title  and  one  in  the  introduction.  Besides 
all  this,  it  is  not  difficult  to  account  for  its  attribu- 
tion to  Athanasius. 

11.  History  of  Discussion:  But,  however  gen- 
erally these  facts  are  recognized,  there  is  little  posi- 
tive agreement  as  to  any  other  origin.  The  period 
of  study  of  the  subject  which  reaches  from  Voss  to 
1870  produced  a  bewildering  variety  of  hypotheses. 
Voss  himself  conjectiured  that  it  grew  up  on  Prank- 
ish soil  under  Pepin  or  Charlemagne,  as  a  conse- 
quence of  the  controversies  over  the  fUioque;  his 
contemporary,  Archbishop  Ussher,  at- 
X.  Theories  tributed  it  to  an  unknown  author  be- 

of  Origin,  fore  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century; 
and  Quesnel  to  Vigilius  of  Thapsus  (c. 
500),  in  which  he  was  followed  by  Cave,  Du  Pin,  and 
many  others.  Antelmius  was  for  Vincent  of 
Lerins  (c.  430);  Muratori  for  Venantius  Fortunatus 
(d.  c.  600);  Lequien  doubtfully  suggested  Pope 
Anastasius  I  (d.  401);  Waterland,  whose  book 
is  the  most  learned  and  authoritative  of  the  older 
discussions,  favored  Hilary  of  Aries  (d.  449);  and 
Speroni  referred  it  to  Hilary  of  Poitiers  (d.  367). 

A  new  period  in  the  study  of  the  subject 
opened  with  1870,  the  impulse  coming  from  Eng- 
land, where  the  creed  is  publicly  recited  in  the 
Anglican  liturgy  on  certain  days,  not  without  oppo- 
sition. The  commission  for  the  revision  of  the  Pray- 
er-book in  1689  had  recommended  the  insertion  of  a 
note  explaining  away  the  "  damnatory  clauses,'' 
and  the  question  of  its  retention  came  up  again 
before  the  Ritual  Commission  appointed  in  1867, 
with  no  practical  result  except  to  stir  up  fresh  in- 
terest in  the  creed  and  advance  its  study.  Ff oulkes 
tried  in  1871  to  assign  it  to  Paulinus  of 
Aquileia  (d.  802);  Swainson  published  a  learned,  if 
not  uniformly  satisfactory,  book  in  1876,  coming  to 
the  conclusion  that  it  was  a  composite  product, 
which  assumed  its  present  form  between  860  and 
870.  Lumby's  book,  published  in  1873,  was  in 
substantial  agreement  with  Swainson,  dating  the 
crystallizing  process  between  813  and  870.  The 
theory  of  two  sources  was  also  accepted,  with  nota- 
ble modifications,  by  Hamack  in  his  Dogmen- 
geschichte.  He  saw  in  the  Trinitarian  section  an 
exposition  of  the  Nicene  Creed,  growing  up  by  de- 
grees in  Gaul  from  the  fifth  centiuy  and  assuming 
its  present  form  in  the  sixth;  to  this  was  added 
perhaps  in  the  eighth  or  ninth  the  second  half,  about 
whose  origin  nothing  can  be  certainly  said  except 
that  it  is  older  than  the  ninth  century.  Onmianney 
and  Bum  added  new  material  but  no  new  results. 
An  independent  French  investigation  by  Morin 
urged  the  claims  of  Pope  Anastasius  II  (496-498). 

Of  these  hypotheses,  those  which  point  to  Anar- 
stasius  I  and  II  do  not  deserve  serious  considera- 
tion, even  if  they  receive  a  specious  attractiveness 
from  the  fact  that  some  of  the  manuscripts  (though 
the  later  ones)  give  the  name,  and  a  thirteenth  cen- 
tury compilation  treats ''  of  the  third  symbol,  that 


of  Pope  Anastasius  ";  but  Morin  himself  admits  that 
without  this  no  one  would  ever  have  thought  of 
the  theory,  which  has  really  no  other  support  than 

the  stupidity   of   medieval   copyists. 

2.  Facts  as  In   order   to  form  an  opinion  of  the 

to  Manu-    other  theories,  it  is  necessary  to  glance 

scripts,      at   the  facts  as  to  the  manuscripts. 

Down  to  1870  eight  were  named  as  an- 
cient, viz.:  (1)  a  psalter  in  the  Cottonian  Library, 
which  Ussher  put  in  the  time  of  Gregory  the  Great; 
(2)  the  PaaUerium  Aethelatani  in  the  same  collec- 
tion, dated  by  Ussher  703;  (3)  the  Codez  Colbertintu 
784,  dated  by  Montfaucon  c.  760;  (4)  the  Sanger- 
manenaiSf  about  the  same  age;  (6)  the  Codex  regiue 
4908,  c/  800;  (6)  the  Codex  CoJbeHinue  1339,  called 
PaaUerium  Caroli  Calvi ;  (7)  the  Codex  Ambrosianua, 
which  Muratori  in  1697  thought  to  be  over  a  thou- 
sand years  old;  (8)  a  psalter  in  Vienna,  presented 
by  a  Prankish  king  Charles  to  a  pope  Adrian, 
thought  by  Waterland  to  belong  to  the  first  year 
of  Adrian  I  (772).  Recent  investigations  have 
altered  the  status  of  several  of  these.  That  sup- 
posed to  be  the  oldest,  the  one  named  first  above, 
lost  after  Ussher 's  time  and  rediscovered  in  1871  in 
the  so-called  Utrecht  Psalter,  is  now  believed  by  ex- 
perts to  be  of  the  ninth  centiuy,  and  thus  not  much 
older  than  (6),  which  was  certsdnly  written  between 
842  and  869.  The  second  is  now  known  to  be  a 
compilation  of  three  pieces,  that  containing  the 
creed  being  later  than  the  ninth  centiuy.  The 
fourth  can  no  longer  be  used  as  a  basis  for  argu- 
ment, since  it  is  lost.  The  fifth  may  not  be  older 
than  (6);  and  (8)  is  considered  to  belong  to  the 
time  of  Charles  the  Bald  and  Adrian  II  (867-872) 
Of  all  these  manuscripts,  then,  only  that  numbered 
(7)  above  can  be  shown  to  be  older  than  800 — as 
not  only  Muratori,  Waterland,  and  Montfaucon 
believed  it  to  be,  but  also  such  modem  scholars  as 
Ceriani,  Reifferscheid,  and  Krusch  have  maintained. 
Yet  this  is  not  the  only  one  to  place  the  origin 
further  back,  if  only  a  little  further,  than  800. 
Two  more  must  now  be  added:  (9)  Paris,  13, 169, 
a  psalter  from  Saint-Germain-des-Prds,  not  the 
same  as  (4),  assigned  on  strong  grounds  to  c.  796; 
and  (10)  Paris,  1461,  a  collection  of  canons  dated 
with  apparent  probability  796.  The  manuscripts, 
then,  place  the  date  of  the  Quicunque  at  least  as 
early  as  the  end  of  the  eighth  century 

The  same  evidence  is  given  by  the  oldest  com- 
mentaries. Waterland  and  the  older  students  of 
the  question  knew  of  only  one  commentary  older 
than  that  attributed  to  Bruno  of  WUrzburg  (d. 

1046) — the  so-called  ExposUio  Fortu- 

3.  Ancient  naii.    The   latter,  first  published  by 

Commen-  Muratori  from  the  Codex  Amhrosianus 

taries.      79  (eleventh  or  twelfth  century),  was 

ascribed  by  most  of  the  earlier  inves- 
tigators to  Venantius  Fortunatus  (d.  c.  600),  and 
regarded  as  the  oldest  evidence  of  the  existence  of 
the  Quicunque,  At  present  there  are  sixteen  ex- 
tant manuscripts  of  this  ExposUio,  besides  three 
codices  which  give  the  bulk  of  it  in  the  form  of 
glosses  Its  ascription  to  Fortunatus,  resting  oniy 
on  the  comparatively  late  authority  of  the  Codex 
Ambrosianus,  and  easily  to  be  explained  there  by 
the  fact  that  the  codex  begins  with  his  exposition 


Atfh#^*^T*^?* 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


840 


of  the  Apostles'  Creed,  has  now  been  abandoned. 
The  only  other  author's  name  is  offered  by  a  lost 
manuscript  from  St.  Gall,  printed  by  Melchior 
Goldast  in  1610,  which  caUs  it  Eupkronii  presby- 
teri  expositio,  Morin  identified  tlds  Euphronius 
with  the  bishop  of  Tours  of  that  name  (555-572), 
who  was  well  known  to  Venantius  Fortimatus. 
Bum  is  inclined  to  see  its  author  in  Euphronius  of 
Autim,  who  built  the  church  of  St.  Symphorian 
there  about  450.  But  this  positive  criticism  is 
very  hazardous  in  view  of  the  number  of  anony- 
mous manuscripts,  to  say  nothing  of  the  frequency 
of  the  name  Euphronius  in  Gaul.  A  more  impor- 
tant question  is  that  of  its  date.  An  attempt  has 
been  made  to  decide  this  from  the  fact  that  the 
author  explains  the  words  in  sobcuIo  in  section  31 
of  the  creed  (Schaff,  Creeds,  ii,  New  York,  1887, 
68)  by  ''  that  is,  in  the  sixth  millennium  [sex- 
turn  miliariutn]  in  which  we  now  are."  This  has 
been  supposed  to  indicate  799  as  the  terminita 
ante  quern  ;  but  no  stress  can  be  laid  on  this;  peo- 
ple spoke  of  the  sextum  miliarium,  with  Augus- 
tine, after  799  as  well  as  before  it.  Just  as  little 
can  be  made  of  its  supposed  dependence  on  Alcuin 
for  a  terminua  post  quern,  as  Ommanney  has  shown. 
The  only  sure  limit  of  date  might  be  supposed  to 
be  given  by  the  fact  that  the  oldest  manuscript 
{Bodleian.  Junius  25)  belongs  to  the  ninth  century 
— ^probably  the  beginning — were  it  not  that  a  whole 
group  of  other  ancient  conunentaries  allow  us  to 
put  the  terminus  ante  quern  further  back.  Om- 
manney has  rendered  a  signal  service  to  the  inves- 
tigation by  the  discovery  of  these,  and  Bum  has 
followed  independently.  These  are,  in  the  order 
of  the  dates  given  by  Bum:  (2)  the  Expositio 
Parisiensis,  certainly  written  between  Gregory  the 
Great  and  900;  (3)  the  Expositio  Trecensis,  as- 
signed by  Ommanney  to  the  seventh,  by  Bum  to 
the  end  of  the  eighth  century;  (4)  the  Expositio 
Oratorii,  found  in  the  same  manuscript,  dated  by 
Onunanney  about  700,  by  Bum  a  century  later; 
(5)  the  Stabidensis,  ninth  centiuy  according  to 
Bum;  (6)  the  Buheriana,  based  on  (4),  and  written, 
according  to  Ommanney,  in  the  first  half  of  the 
eighth  century,  to  Bum,  in  the  ninth;  and  (7)  the 
Aurelianensis,  first  published  in  1892  by  Cuissard, 
who  attributes  it  to  Theodulf  of  Orleans,  while 
Bum  is  for  an  author  of  the  middle  or  end  of  the 
ninth  century.  Now,  of  all  these  commentaries, 
only  the  Expositio  Fortunati  and  the  Trecensis 
(which  in  its  first  part  is  very  dependent  on  the 
former),  do  not  evidence  a  knowledge  of  the  entire 
Quicunque.  To  be  sure.  Bum's  dates — to  say 
nothing  of  Ommanney's — are  by  no  means  certain. 
But  none  the  less  these  commentaries  are  of  great 
importance  as  helps  to  a  decision  of  the  difficult 
problem  imder  discussion.  The  last-named,  one 
of  the  latest  (because  dependent  on  three  or  four 
of  the  others),  is  preserved  in  a  manuscript  which 
Delisle  assigns  to  the  ninth  century;  and  the  Tre- 
censis, used  in  the  compilation  of  this,  presupposes 
in  its  tum  the  Expositio  Fortunati,  This  behig  so, 
it  is  not  too  bold  a  conclusion  that  the  latter,  every- 
thing about  which  shows  it  to  be  the  oldest  of  them 
all,  belongs  to  the  period  before  799.  If  this  is 
granted,  one  may  go  a  little  fiurther,  and  point  out 


that  since  its  author  says  nothing  about  the  ap- 
proaching end  of  the  sextum  mUiarium,  he  did  not 
live  very  near  that  date. 

Both  the  Expositio  Fortunati  and  the  Expontio 

Trecensis  leave  certain  verses  of  the  QtUcunque 

without  mention.    Are  we  to  conclude  that  the 

whole  of  it  was  not  known  to  their  authors  7    We 

have  seen  how  far  the  testimony  of  the  manuscripts 

supports  the  theses  of  Ffoulkes,  Swainson,  and 

Lumby;  our  Quicunque  was  definitely  in  existence 

before  the  end  of  the  eighth  century. 

4.  The      But   that  does  not  in  itself  militate 

Theory  of  against  the  acceptance  of  the  theory  of 

Two       two    sources;    Hamack    considerB  it 

Sources,  possible  that  both  halves  of  our  present 
creed  were  foimd  in  conjimction  in  the 
eighth  centiuy,  or  even  earlier.  We  must  there- 
fore look  further  into  that  theory.  Its  main  sup- 
port is  the  manuscript  referred  to  above  as  (3), 
the  Codex  Colbertinus  784  (now  known  as  Paris. 
3836),  which  all  authorities  agree  to  place  in  the 
eighth  century,  Swainson  dating  it  as  eariy  as 
730.  In  this  manuscript  the  Christological  poi^ 
tion  of  the  Athanasian  Creed  (though  with  note- 
worthy verbal  variants)  is  foimd  under  the 
rubricated  caption  Hcec  invini  treveris  in  uno  libro 
scriptum  sic  incipiente  Domini  nosiri  Jesu  Ckristi 
fideliter  credat  et  reliqua.  Now,  assuming  that  the 
scribe  copied  exactly  what  he  foimd  in  the  Treves 
manuscript,  Swainson,  Lumby,  and  Hamack  see  in 
this  text,  which  goes  well  back  into  the  eighth  cen- 
tury (possibly  to  730),  distinct  documentary  evi- 
dence for  the  separate  existence  of  the  Christolog- 
ical half  of  the  Quicunque.  But  it  does  not  seem  to 
have  been  observed  that  the  manuscript  will  not 
sustain  this  contention.  The  copyist  put  down  in 
red  ink,  as  his  introduction,  words  which  actually 
form  a  part  of  the  verse  which  makes,  in  the  com- 
plete creed,  the  transition  from  the  Trinitarian  to 
the  Christological  section.  The  "  Treves  frag- 
ment ''  is  thus  really  a  fragment — part  of  a  whole 
whose  first  half  stood  in  the  same  relation  to  our 
Quicunque  as  the  extant  second  half.  There  is 
nothing  surprising  in  this  conclusion.  That  a 
preacher  (and  Swainson  himself  has  noticed  that 
this  fragment  is  clearly  a  fragment  of  a  sermon) 
should  have  undertaken  to  set  forth  "  the  faith," 
and  then  have  spoken  only  of  the  Incarnation  and 
not  of  the  Trinity,  would  have  been  much  more 
surprising.  But  the  conclusion,  if  not  surprising, 
is  none  the  less  weighty;  for  it  takes  both  halves 
of  the  creed  distinctly  further  back  than  any  of  the 
manuscripts  described  above.  We  do  not  know 
how  old  the  Treves  manuscript  was  when  the 
writer  of  Paris.  3836  copied  it  in  750  or  730;  but 
there  is  room  for  a  logical  train  of  reasoning  which 
leads  to  valuable  results.  It  is  obviously  improb- 
able that  a  copyist  with  a  complete  manuscript 
before  him  should  copy  only  the  last  part,  begin- 
ning in  the  middle  of  a  sentence;  therefore  the 
Treves  manuscript  (or  its  original)  must  have  been 
defective.  This  train  of  thought  gains  in  force 
when  we  notice  that  the  ''  fragment  "  represents 
exactly  a  third  of  our  Quicunque.  On  the  assump- 
tion that  the  two  first  pages  of  the  original  went 
down  to  incamationem  quoque,  the  third  beginning 


841 


REUGIOUS  ENC3YCL0PEDIA 


A  JM  o-Yi  ft  ^\  nn 


with  Domini  noatri  Jeau  Chriatif  the  loss  of  the  first 
part  would  fully  explain  the  condition  of  Paris, 
3836.  It  follows  further  that  the  Codex  Treviren- 
siSf  already  defective  about  750,  was  more  probably 
than  not  relatively  old  then,  and  the  manuscript 
evidence  actually  confirms  the  supposition  that  the 
Treves  fragment  must  originally  have  been  pre- 
ceded by  something  answering  to  the  first  section 
of  the  present  Quicunque.  The  theory  of  two 
sources  breaks  down,  therefore,  at  its  strongest 
point — ^for  the  other  arguments,  from  both  external 
and  internal  evidence,  are  very  weak. 

But  the  interest  of  the  Codex  Paris.  3836  is  not 
exhausted  by  its  decisive  evidence  against  the  two- 
source  theory,  or  by  the  remarkable  text  which  it 
offers.  It  brings  up  the  question  whether  the  eermo 
contained  in  the  Codex  Trevirenaia  was  taken 
from  the  Quicunque,  or  whether  the  latter  in 
some  way  grew  out  of  this  and  other  like  ser- 
mons. The  Apostles'  Creed  in  its  simplicity  was 
the  standard  of  faith  for  the  Western 
5.  Parallels  Church  at  least,  long  after  the  Trini- 

to  the      tarian  and  Christological  controversies 
Athanasian  had    carried    dogmatic    development 

Creed,  far  beyond  its  simple  words.  Popular 
misconceptions  of  the  meaning  of 
those  words  had  called  for  more  precise  defini- 
tions in  numerous  sermons  on  the  creed  still  ex- 
tant. To  supply  these  is  Augustine's  aim  in  his 
Sermonea  de  iraditione  aymboli  (212,  213,  214), 
which  contain  expressions  reminding  of  the  Qui- 
cunque. The  same  is  true  of  the  pseudo-Augus- 
tinian  244,  attributed  by  the  Benedictine  editors 
and  some  modem  scholars  to  Csesarius  of  Aries; 
and  whether  or  not  he  wrote  it,  it  is  a  product 
of  the  Lerins  school,  in  which  similar  formulas 
were  current.  Thus  Vincent  himself  recalls  our 
phrases  in  his  Commonitonum  (434),  and  other 
parallels  are  foimd  in  Faustus  of  Riez,  abbot 
of  Lerins  433-462,  and  in  Eucherius  of  Lyons, 
who  was  a  monk  there  from  416  to  434.  But 
parallels  of  thought  are  to  be  expected  wherever 
these  traditional  theologians  discussed  the  Trinity 
or  the  Incarnation;  and  we  need  only  mention  here 
those  authors  who  offer  us  not  merely  a  parallel  of 
thought  but  a  close  resemblance  in  phrasing  outside 
of  the  consecrated  formulas  of  definition.  Besides 
Augustine,  to  whom,  as  has  long  been  recognised, 
not  a  few  phrases  go  back,  and  Vincent  of  Lerins, 
those  who  deserve  especial  mention  are  Vigilius  of 
Thapsus  (or  the  author  who  passes  under  his  name), 
Isidore  of  Seville,  and  Paulinus  of  Aquileia.  In  the 
writings  more  or  less  doubtfully  ascribed  to  Vigilius, 
especially  the  three  books  against  Varimadus 
and  the  twelve  on  the  Trinity,  we  find  at  least  three 
sections  (13,  15,  17)  almost  word  for  word,  and  a 
confession  of  faith — ^the  so-called  fidea  Romanorum 
— which  touches  the  Quicunque  rather  in  general 
structure  than  in  details.  Isidore,  writing  on  the 
rule  of  faith,  uses  these  similar  expressions  directly 
as  an  exposition  of  the  Apostles'  Creed.  The 
oration  of  Paulinus  at  the  Council  of  Friuli  has  led 
to  his  identification  by  Ffoulkes  as  the  original 
author;  in  it  expressions  parallel  to  no  less  than 
twelve  verses  of  the  Quicunque  occur.  The  fact 
that  Paulinus  was  addressing   a  council  reminds 


us  that  many  synodal  confessions  of  faith  had 
a  life  and  an  influence  far  beyond  their  original 
purpose,  being  adopted  and  copied  as  happy  for- 
mulations of  the  faith.  Thus  the  Council  of  Aries 
(813)  adopted  the  Confession  of  Toledo  (633),  and 
many  more  examples  might  be  given.  The  two 
most  important  of  these  confessions  for  oiur  subject 
are  those  described  in  the  newer  investigations  as 
fidea  Romanorum  and  aymbolum  Damaai.  The 
latter  (included  imder  this  obviously  misleading 
title  among  the  works  of  Jerome)  is  specially  inter- 
esting not  only  because  it  reminds  in  several  places 
of  the  Quicunque,  and  because  it  is  closely  related 
to  the  Toledan  confession  of  633,  but  also  because 
a  resemblance  may  easily  be  traced  here  and  there 
to  the  ExpoaUio  FortunaH.  Still  more  important 
is  the  other,  which,  imder  the  title  Fidea  catholica 
eccleaicB  Romana,  can  be  traced  in  manuscript  to 
the  sixth  centiuy.  It  was  cited  as  Athanasian  by 
Hincmar  and  by  Ratramnus  in  passages  which  used 
to  be  thought  to  refer  to  the  Quicunque  ;  its  whole 
structure  is  worth  notice — ^it  begins  with  a  Trini- 
tarian section,  reminding  us  of  our  subject,  and 
this-  is  followed  by  a  Christological  one,  which, 
exactly  as  in  the  Quicunque  and  in  the  Toledan  con- 
fession of  633,  goes  down  to  the  last  judgment. 

in.  Present  Status:  The  question  whether  such 
expositions  of  the  faith,  or  any  of  them,  presuppose 
the  existence  of  the  Quicunque  is  the  real  question 
at  the  present  stage  of  the  discussion.  If  they 
do,  its  author  must  have  lived  very  early;  if  they 
do  not,  its  development  forms  only  a  part  of  the 
varied  development  of  these  expository  formulas 
down  through  the  ages.  The  decision  for  the  first 
alternative  would  be  easy  if  any  of  the  theologians 
named  above,  before  Paulinus,  could  be  shown 
to  have  been  acquainted  with  oiur  Quicunque. 
But  this  acquaintance  is,  for  various 
X.  At-       reasons,  not  probable  in  the  cases  of 

tempted  Paulinus,  of  CsBsarius  of  Aries,  of 
Conclusion.  Vincent  of  Lerins,  of  Vigilius  of 
Thapsus,  or  of  Isidore.  Many  reasons, 
for  which  there  is  not  space  here,  go  to  make  us  think 
further  that  the  same  thing  applies  to  the  writer 
of  the  Treves  fragment;  and,  after  all,  the  weight 
of  evidence  seems  in  favor  of  the  second  alternative 
mentioned.  A  long-continued  and  gradual  process, 
in  which  the  aermo  Trevirenaia  is  but  one  stage, 
seems  the  inevitable  conclusion.  Much  remains 
to  be  done  before  the  various  steps  of  the  process 
can  be  determined.  But  one  of  the  most  important 
data  for  this  further  research  is  the  famous  canon 
of  the  Coimcil  of  Autun:  "  If  any  priest,  deacon, 
subdeacon,  or  cleric  does  not  receive  the  creed 
which  has  been  handed  down  from  the  Apostles 
as  inspired  by  the  Holy  Spirit  and  the  creed  of 
bishop  St.  Athanasius  without  criticism,  he  is  to 
be  condemned  by  his  bishop."  Waterland  and 
the  older  investigators  had  reason  to  doubt  its 
authenticity,  which,  however,  modem  research 
has  confirmed.  The  coimcil  was  demonstrably 
held  under  the  presidency  of  Leodegar,  bishop  of 
Autim  659-683,  but  its  date  is  not  positively  known; 
the  best  we  can  do  is  to  assign  it  roughly  to  670, 
as  the  middle  of  Leodegar's  episcopate. 

If,  then,  the  Quiamque  was  ascribed  to  Athar 


Athanaaian 
Athanaalna 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


342 


nsMMB  about  670,  a  stilt  earlier  date  for  the  conclu- 
sion of  its  formation  may  well  be  looked  for.  The 
question  how  much  earlier  this  m&y  be  invoh^es  the 
question  of  its  birthplace — for  pi^duetions  were 
possible  in  sevcDth  century  Italy  and  Spain  which 
were  im possible  in  the  contemporary  Merovingian 
north,  Italy  is  excluded  by  the  fact  that  the 
Ctopyist  of  the  Codes  Paris,  3836  was  not  fiimiliar 
with  the  Quicunq^ic;  nothing  speaks  for  Africa; 
sjid  against  Spain  may  be  urged  the  fact  tlmt  it 
seemji  to  have  been  unknown  there  at  a  period 
later  than  that  at  which  the  canon  of  Autun  ^how» 
it  had  begun  to  play  an  important  part  in  the  Frank- 
ish  regions.  Besides  this  negative  evidence  for  a 
Gallic  origin,  there  is  the  positive  one  of  the  fre- 
quent echoes  of  it  in  the  fifth  century  theologians 
of  uouthem  Gaul.  But  if  it  grew  up  in  France  at 
all^  it  was  not  the  Merovingian  thcologianis  who 
eould  give  it  its  final  sliape;  the  place  of  this 
development  is  to  be  sought  in  the  south  of  France, 
between  c.  450  and  600— eo  that  the  nerma  Trevi- 
r^iBw  may  vefy  well  belong  to  the  fifth  century. 
The  new  importance  and  Mgnificance  wliich  the 
document  assumed  in  the  CarolingiaQ  period  does 
not  require  belief  in  a  late  authorship;  it  is  suffi- 
ciently explained  by  the  fact  that  the  Carolingian 
culture  knew  how  to  make  full  use  of  tliis  heritage 
of  the  past,  which  had  remained  ifiolated  and  in- 
operative in  Gaul  during  the  confusion  of  the 
Merovingian  period.  The  Quicunque  is  no  product 
of  the  early  Middle  Ages;  it  is  a  precipitate  resulting 
from  the  early  western  development  of  expositions 
of  the  creed »  But  its  history  shows  how  in  this 
process  the  theologians*  exposition  of  the  faith  has 
been  confounded  with  the  faith  itself  to  such  an  ex- 
tent as  to  preclude  its  acceptance  as  a  final  authority 
by  evangehcal  Chris tian?i.  (F.  LoofsJ 

The  Atbanasian  Creed  is  ordered  to  be  recited 

at  morning  prayer  in  the  Church  of  England,  in 

place  of  the  Apostles',  on  a  number 

2*  Contro-  of    greater    festivals.     In    the    anti- 

versy  in    dogmatic  period  when  tlie  American 

Anglican    revision  of  the  Prayer-book  was  made, 

Church,     it  was  wholly  omitted;  and  the  same 

sort    of  tendency  to   avoid  positive 

expressions   of   strong    belief,    which    might    give 

offense   to   those   who    held   dilferent  viewi^    has 

caused  attempts  to  be  made  at  different    tiraes 

sltice  1867,  if  not  to  remove  it  from  the  English 

Prayer-book,    at    least    to    render    ita    recitation 

optional,  to  omit  the  so-called  **  damnatory  clauses," 

or  by  a  retranslation  to  avoid  the  very  possible 

misconstruction  which  might  be  placed  upon  them. 

Of  this  movement  Dean  Stanley  was  one  of  the 

principal  leaders,   and  Canon   Liddon^   supported 

by  a  large  number  who  dreaded  any  tampering 

with  the  etandarik  of  faith,  was  one  of  the  principal 

opponents.     The  opposition  has  been  so  determined 

and  vigorous  that  all  propositions  for  a  change 

have  thus  far  been  defeated, 

Biqlickiiiafbt:  The  text  in  ax  viLrliLTit  forma  ii  in  MFO^ 
xxviu;  in  the  UtrtcM  PmUicr^  London,  IS75  (a  fucflinule 
ed.  of  the  eodex);  erf.  T.  H&nly,  Reports  on  the  Athananan 
Crmd  in  Cimnedion  wiOi  the  Utrtchi  PaaJU^r,  ib.  1873; 
und  w  edited  by  A.  E.  Bum,  Thtt  Aihamuian  Crved  and 
iif  Early  Comnwnfisruv,  in  TS,  vol.  iv,  part  1,  Cmobridee, 
iSm,  abo  ici  ba  found  io  Schaff.  Cr«tdM,  ii,  60-71.    For 


the  hbtory  or  ehe  creed  cnajuJt:  G.  O.  W«  Ommumey, 
DUiffiaUon  on  thv  Atharmnan.  CrHMf^  London.  1S97  icrit^ 
iiml  and  hlstoricdJH  D.  Wat^rJ&nd,  Critwal  llisiafy  vf 
ih€  Atharmtian  Creed.  Ciimbridisfe,  1723,  revii«d  ed.  by 
X  R,  Kinfin  London  t  1870  Ube  fulJeet  djAcu^oEi,  bat 
in  put  antiquated)^  E.  B.  Ffoutkee*  The  Athanamam 
Cremi,  ib.  1871  (hiaioricalh  C.  A.  Heart  ley.  Harmimm 
Si/mboliea,  Oxford,  1858;  idem.  The  Athamuian  €rt4sd^  ib. 
1S72;  Schaff.  Creed*,  u  34-42;  idem,  CkriMtian  Ch^rtk, 
jjj,  (18&-0g8:  G.  Marin,  Lr*  Origins  du  SifmboU  Qm- 
cunque.  in  Retfue  dea  fiuentian*  rciijriru*u,  w  (189])* 
No.  0;  Hamaok,  Dogma,  iv,  133  eqq,,  156>  V,  30^- 
303,  vii,  i74.  For  the  debate  in  the  Ang]ican 
Church  conauLt:  A,  P.  Bt&nWy,  The  AlhanoMtan  Crmd^ 
London,  1871  (&dverae  to  tbe  u«e  of  the  creed);  J.  B. 
Brewer.  Origin  of  the  Afhanaman  Creed,  ib,  1872  (de- 
fenaive);  MemoriaU  ta  the  Prinmtet  and  Ptffitwn  to  Cmv^ 
cation  .  .  .  for  Some  Chungs  mther  in  ike  Campvlmjrit  Bm- 
bfi&  or  in  th/s  Damnatory  Ciauaee^  Chester,  1872;  G.  A. 
Willan,  The  Athananan  Crwfl  not  Damnatory ^  London^ 
1872;  The  Atht^mman  Cnmd;  Suoge^umi  ,  .  .  by  a  lay 
Member  of  the  General  Sjfnod,  Dublin,  1876;  0«  A.  Swaan- 
■on.  The  Nicen*  and  Apo^tleM*  Cre^  .  .  .  vnih  an  A&^otr^ 
&f  .  .  .  **The  Creed  of  Sk  Atharnmtt*,**  LondoD,  ISM 
Chijtoncal  and  critica]*  but  bejiritig  on  the  Anstii^Ji  difr* 
euMioa);  F.  N.  Oxenham.  The  Athanatian  Creed:  ShoMii 
ii  be  Recikdf  aivf  M  a  TVuaf  ib.  1002. 

ATH"A-NA'SIOS  PA-RI'OS:  Dogmatician  of  the 
Greek  Church;  b.  on  the  island  of  Paros  1725; 
d.  at  Cliios  Jtine  24,  1813.  He  studied  in  the 
Athoe  academy  under  Eugenius  Bulgaria,  and 
from  1792  till  1S12  was  director  of  the  school  at 
Chio8^  which  Ls  the  period  of  bia  moet  impiortant 
activity;  He  belongs  to  the  most  prominent  and 
fertile  theological  writers  of  the  Greek  Church  of 
his  time^  and  waA  also  an  able  phOcksopher.  A 
pupU  of  Bulgaria,  in  bia  opposition  to  the  West  be 
aurpa&sed  his  master;  he  attacked  with  great  energy 
not  only  the  Roman  Church  and  her  scholasticism, 
and  the  Protestants,  but  also  the  western  rational- 
ism— the  worst  representative  of  which,  in  his 
eyes  was  Voltaire^ — particularly  in  ita  opposition 
to  positive  Ctiristionity  and  monasticisra.  This 
ex]>1ains  hia  op[>OBition  to  the  desire  of  bia  people 
for  hberty.  Yet  his  historical  judgment  waa  an 
far  influenced  by  Bulgaria,  that  in  theology  he 
recognized  the  more  recent  teachers  of  hia  Chuirh, 
even  KoressioB^  a^  "  fathers,"  and  seeredngly  made 
conceasiona  to  Bibheal  criticism.  But  Weet^ni 
science  he  used  only  when  he  attacked  his  oppo- 
nents. His  polemic^  disposition  sometime  placed 
him  in  opposition  to  his  own  Chureh,  By  hisc-onneo- 
tion  witii  the  At  hos  community  he  became  involved  in 
the  Kolyba-controverey  (see  Atboh),  and  wrote  his 
'* Exposition  of  the  Faith'*  in  1774.  In  1776  he 
was  excommunicated,  but  the  ban  was  removfd 
in  178L  His  principal  work  is  an  "  Epitome  or  Sum- 
mary of  the  Holy  Dogmaa  of  the  Faith  "  (Ldpsic, 
lSOG)j  in  which  he  shows  his  dopendenee  on  Bulgaxis, 
but  at  the  same  time  no  much  independence  of 
thought  that  this  epitome  may  be  regarded  as  one 
of  the  most  important  dogmatic  efforts  of  the 
Greek  Church  of  the  eighteenth  century.  The 
sources  of  doctrine  are,  according  to  him,  the  Holy 
Scripture^  w^ritten  tradition,  and  the  teSiChing  of 
the  Church  as  fixed  by  the  eynodfl.  TTie  woriE 
of  Clmst  ho  treats  under  the  hea^iings  of  kiAg, 
priest,  lawgiver,  and  judge.  In  the  doctrine  ol 
the  Lord*s  Supper  he  accepts  transubstantiatioo. 
He  opposes  rationalism  in  hia  "  Christian  Apology  " 
(Constantinople,    1797),   attacking   espodally   the 


848 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Athanarina 


false  freedom  and  the  false  equality  of  the  French, 
and  renouncing  all  sympathy  with  the  Greek 
struggles  for  freedom.  Against  Voltaire  especially 
he  directed  the  "Antidote  for  Evil,"  which  was  pub- 
b'shed  after  his  death  (Leipsic,  1818).  Of  his 
hagiographical  works  the  most  noteworthy  were 
lives  of  Gregorios  Palamas  (Vienna,  1785),  and  of 
Marcus  Eugenicus  (1785),  which  have  little  inde- 
pendent value.  In  the  "  New  Limonarium  "  (Venice, 
1819)  he  gives  many  marvelous  stories  and  biog- 
raphies of  modem  saints.  Very  interesting  is  a 
treatise  at  the  beginning  of  the  book,  in  which  he 
tries  to  show  that  those  who  were  condemned  as 
Christians  because  of  a  renunciation  of  Islam 
are  just  as  much  martyrs  as  those  of  the  ancient 
time.  Athanasios  was  also  active  as  a  preacher. 
A  discourse  on  Gregorios  Palamas,  printed  after 
the  Logoi  of  Makarios  Chrysokephalos  (Vienna, 
1797?)  is  a  brilliant  combination  of  popular  elo- 
quence and  fanatical  rhetoric.  Philipp  Meter. 
Bibliography:  A  biography,  tniatworthy  in  the  main,  with 

a  list  of  his  writings,  by  his  pupil,  A.  Z.  Mamukas,  ia  given 

in   C.  N.  Sathas.    NcocAAifi'uci}    ^lAoAoyio,  Athens,    1868; 

consult  also  P.  Meyer,  Die  Haupturkunden  der  AthoMMtr, 

pp.  76  sqq.,  236  sqq.,  Leipsic,  1894. 

ATH"A-NA'SIUS. 

I.  Life.  Fourth    and  Fifth    Exiles 

Sources  (S  1).  (S  6). 

Early  Life.    Chosen  Bish-  Relations    with    Monasti- 

op  326  (S  2).  cism  (S  6). 

The     Arian    Controversy.  II.  Writings. 

First  Exile  (fi  3).  His  Works  in  Chronologioal 

Second  and  Third  Exiles.  Order  ($1). 

(fi  4).  His  Teaching  (ft  2). 

Athanasius,  bishop  of  Alexandria,  was  bom 
apparently  at  Alexandria  293;  d.  there  May  2, 
373.  His  fame  is  due  solely  to  his  unswerving  and 
self-sacrificing  opposition  to  the  Arian  heresy,  and 
some  account  of  his  life,  with  a  statement  of  his 
views,  is  given  in  the  article  Arianism.  A  few 
facts  will  be  added  here,  and  an  accoimt  of  his  liter- 
ary activity  attempted. 

I.  Life:  The  principal  sources  for  the  biog- 
raphy of  Athanasius  are  the  numerous  docu- 
ments bearing  on  the  great  Arian  controversy 
which  have  been  preserved,  and  his  own  works, 
which  are  rich  in  biographical  material, — especially 
his  **  Apologies"  ("against  the  Arians,"  "toCon- 
stantine,"  and  '*  for  his  Flight ")  and  his  "  History 
of  the  Arians  for  Monks." 

The  oration  on  Athanasius  by  Gregory  Nazian- 
zen  (xxi,  NPNF,  2d  ser.,  269-280;  dating  from 
3807)  is  a  mere  panegyric  without  much  bio- 
graphical value.  The  biographies 
I.  Sources,  prefixed  to  the  Benedictine  edition 
of  his  works  are  later  than  the 
fifth  century  historians  and  quite  worthless.  Of 
greater  importance  are  two  sources  not  known  to 
the  seventeenth  century  editor  of  his  works.  These 
are  the  fragment  published  by  Maffei  (1738)  of  the 
so-called  Historia  acephaUif  written  between  384  and 
412,  and  the  preface  to  the '  *  Festal  Letters  "  of  Atha- 
nasius which  are  preserved  in  a  Syriac  version  (ed. 
Cureton,  Mai).  Both  of  these  come  apparently 
from  a  single  older  source,  and  are  very  careful  in 
their  chronology,  so  that  since  they  have  been 
known  the  dates  given  by  Socrates  and  Sozomen 
have  often  to  be  corrected. 


Some  difficulties  still  remain;  but  a  careful 
comparison  of  these  authorities  enables  us  with 
reasonable  security  to  fix  the  date  of  Athanasius's 
consecration  at  326,  and,  with  the  help  of  a  re- 
cently discovered  fragment  of  a  0>ptic  "  Enco- 
mium," written  by  a  contemporary  of  Bishop 
Theophilus  of  Alexandria  (d.  412),  to  put  his  birth 
back  to  293.  Of  his  life  up  to  326,  however,  we 
still  know  very  little.  He  seems  to  have  been  an 
Alexandrian;  that  his  parents  were  Christians  is 
not  proved.    The  traditional  story  of 

2.  Early  his  pla3ring  at  "  church  "  as  a  boy  and, 
Life.  Chosen  in  the  character  of  a  bishop,  so  correctly 
Bishop  326.  baptizing  some  catechumens  that  Bish' 

op  Alexander  (313-326)  recognized  the 
validity  of  the  baptism,  and  took  the  lad  under  his 
care,  is  worthy  of  its  first  narrator,  Rufinus;  the 
chronology  is  sufficient  to  condemn  it.  Devoting  him- 
self, however,  to  a  clerical  life,  he  served  (according 
to  the  CJoptic  "  Encomium  ")  six  years  as  reader; 
by  the  outbreak  of  the  Arian  controversy  he  was 
already  a  deacon,  and  in  close  relations  with  the 
aged  bishop  Alexander,  perhaps  as  his  amanuensis. 
This  would  account  for  Alexander's  taking  him  to 
the  0>uncil  of  Nicaea,  and  perhaps  for  Sozomen's 
story  that  he  designated  him  as  Los  successor.  At 
any  rate,  Athanasius  was  chosen  to  thisoffice  on  Alex- 
ander's death  (326),  and  was  received  with  enthusi- 
asm by  the  great  majority  of  his  flock.  His  opponents 
early  asserted  that  he  was  chosen  bishop  by  a  mi- 
nority and  consecrated  secretly;  but  this  is  dis- 
proved by  the  evidence  of  the  Egyptian  bishops 
assembled  in  council  in  339. 

The  position  was  by  no  means  an  easy  one.  The 
Meletian  schism  (see  Meletius  of  Ltcopolib)  had 
rent  the  Egyptian  Church  in  two;  and,  although  the 
Nicene  decisions  had  opened  the  way  for  a  termina- 
tion of  the  schism,  the  manner  in  which  this  came 
about  did  not  preclude  the  continuance  of  strife  as 
to  the  validity  of  the  orders  of  the  Meletian  clergy. 
Athanasius  had  scarcely  been  consecrated  when 
these  disturbances  broke  out  anew,  complicated 
by  the  enmities  aroused  by  his  decided  anti-Arian 
attitude. 

At  the  instance  of  Eusebius  of  Nicomedia,  the 
leader  of  the  scmi-Arians  (see  Eusebius  of  Nico- 
media   AND    Constantinople),    the 

3.  The  emperor  demanded  the  readmission 
Arian  Con-  of  Arius  into  the  Church;  but  Atha- 

troversy.  nasius  stoutly  refused  his  consent. 
First  Exile,  and  immediately  the  storm  broke 
(see  Arianism,  I).  He  was  summoned 
before  the  emperor,  who  was  at  that  time  in  Nico- 
media, and  accused  of  conspiring  to  prevent  the 
export  of  grain  from  Egypt  to  0>nstantinople. 
Only  after  long  and  wearisome  exertions  did  he  suc- 
ceed in  proving  his  innocence.  Immediately  after 
his  return,  new  accusations  were  brought  against 
him;  it  was  said  that  he  had  killed  a  Meletian 
bishop,  Arsenius,  and  used  his  bones  for  magical 
arts.  An  investigation  was  ordered,  and  a  synod 
summoned  to  meet  at  CJffisarea  (334).  Athanasius 
refused  to  appear;  and  the  investigation  came  to 
a  natural  end  on  the  discovery  that  Arsenius  was 
alive.  Eusebius,  however,  still  had  the  emperor's 
ear,  and  Athanasius  was  summo^^^  Vi^  ^;^^^r3ss.  ^^ 


AthanaainB 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


844 


a  s3rnod  in  Tyre.  He  left  Alexandria  July  11,  335, 
but  found  at  Tyre  that  the  council  had  made  up 
its  mind  to  condenm  him,  and  repaired  to  Constan- 
tinople, where  he  succeeded  in  convincing  the  em- 
peror of  the  imfaimess  of  the  synod.  Constantino 
saw  in  him,  none  the  less,  an  obstacle  to  peace,  the 
maintenance  of  which  seemed  the  most  desirable 
thing,  and  banished  him  to  Treves  toward  the 
end  of  the  year.  Constantino  died  May  23,  337, 
and  Athanasius's  first  exile  ended  with  his  re- 
turn to  his  diocese,  Nov.  23  of  the  same  year,  his 
entrance  into  the  city  being,  according  to  Gregory 
Nazianzen,  **  more  triumphal  than  had  ever  an  em- 
peror." 

The  opposition  and  intrigues  still  continued, 
however;  the  enemies  of  Athanasius  accused  him  of 
having  sold  and  employed  for  his  own  use  the  com 
which  the  late  emperor  had  destined  for  the  poor 
widows  of  Egypt  and  Libya.  A  synod  of  African 
bishops  declared  in  his  favor,  but  as  Constantius  was 
influenced  by  Eusebius  of  Nicomedia,  and  as  the  pre- 
fect of  Egypt,  Philagrius,  wanted  the 

4*  Second  see  for  a  coimtryman  of  his  own,  Greg- 

and  Third  ory  of  Cappadocia,  he  was  driven  into 
Exiles,  his  second  exile  March  19,  339,  and 
Gregory  was  installed  by  military  force 
at  Easter.  Athanasius  went  to  Rome,  where  he 
was  well  received  by  Pope  Julius,  and  later  to  Gaul 
to  confer  with  Hosius,  whom  he  accompanied  to 
Sardica  to  take  part  in  the  famous  council  held 
there  (3437).  After  spending  some  time  at  Nalssus 
in  Dacia,  at  Aquileia,  and  in  Gaul  (where  he  met 
Constans,  whose  influence  with  his  brother  was 
exerted  in  his  favor),  he  finally  appeared  once  more 
before  Constantius,  and  obtained  permission  to  re- 
turn. Gregory  died  June  25,  345,  and  was  not 
replaced;  and  Athanasius  was  able  to  resume  his 
jurisdiction  Oct.  21,  346.  After  the  death  of  Con- 
stans (Jan.,  350),  his  position  once  more  became 
unsafe;  and  the  end  of  a  long  series  of  intrigues 
and  machinations  was  that  the  "  Duke  "  Syrianus 
surrounded  the  church  of  St.  Theonas  with  5, 000 sol- 
diers to  arrest  him  on  the  night  of  Feb.  8,  356.  He 
escaped,  and  fled  the  next  day,  finding  refuge  dur- 
ing this  his  third  exile  among  the  monks  and  her- 
mits of  the  desert,  though  for  a  part  of  the  time 
he  lay  concealed  within  the  city,  and  by  his  wri- 
tings continued  to  encourage  his  faithful  followers. 
On  Feb.  24,  357,  another  Cappadocian,  George, 
was  made  bishop,  and  as  many  as  possible  of  the 
ecclesiastical  offices  were  filled  by  Aiians.  George, 
however,  was  able  to  maintain  himself  for  only 
eighteen  months,  and  then,  after  a  three  years' 
absence,  was  imprisoned  three  days  after  his  return, 
and  put  to  death  in  the  disturbances  which  fol- 
lowed the  death  of  Constantius.  The  new  emperor, 
Julian  the  Apostate  (361-363),  issued  an  edict 
permitting  the  exiled  bishops  to  return  to  their 
sees,  hoping  thus  to  increase  the  confusion  in  the 
Church,  to  the  profit  of  the  paganism  which  he 
was  bent  on  restoring.  The  third  exile  of  Atha- 
nasius thus  ended  Feb.  21,  362. 

But  a  fourth  exile  followed  shortly.  The  new 
emperor's  counselors  foimd  Athanasius  too  danger- 
ous a  man  for  their  plans,  and  Julian  issued  a  spe- 
cial edict  commanding  him,  as  he  had  returned  to 


Alexandria  without  personally  receiving  peimis- 
sion,  to  leave  it  at  once  (Oct.  24,  362).  He 
remained  in  concealment  in  the  deserts  of  the 
Thebaid  until  he  heard  of  Julian's  death  (June  26, 

363),  when  he  returned  to  Alexandria 

5.  Fourth   (Sept.  5),  though  only  to  pass  througii 

and  Fifth  on  his  way  to  see  the  new  emperor, 

Exiles.      Jovian,  at  Antioch.    Jovian  received 

him  kindly,  and  his  fourth  exile  was 
definitely  terminated  by  his  return  on  Feb.  20, 
364.  Jovian's  death  after  only  eight  months 
brought  fresh  trouble  to  the  orthodox.  An  edict 
of  Valens  (May  5,  365)  reversed  Julian's  recall 
of  the  exiled  bishops;  and  on  Oct.  5  the  prefect 
Flavianus  broke  into  the  church  of  St.  Dionysius 
and  compelled  Athanasius  to  flee  once  more.  He 
remained  at  a  villa  in  the  neighborhood  of  the 
city,  until  Valens  foimd  the  discontent  in  so  im- 
portant a  place  as  Alexandria  dangerous,  and 
made  a  special  exception  in  favor  of  Athana- 
sius, who  was  able  to  return  Jan.  31,  366.  The 
last  seven  years  of  his  episcopate  were  undis- 
turbed. 

The  refuge  of  Athanasius  among  the  monks  and 
hermits  of  the  desert  during  his  third  and  fourth 
periods  of  exile  leads  up  to  a  point  which  needs 
special  mention — his  relations  with  monasticism. 
Athanasius  was  not  only  the  father  of  orthodoxy 
in  the  East,  but  also  the  first  bishop  to  take  an 

active  part  in   encoiutiging  the  mo- 

6.  Rela-    nastic  life.    This  assertion  is  so  far 

tions  with  from  being  founded  on  the  "Life  of 

Monasti-   Anthony  "  alone  that  it  would  still  be 

cism.       demonstrable    if    his    authorship    of 

that  work  were  less  certain  than  it  is. 
From  an  early  period  he  was  in  close  relations 
with  Egyptian  monasticism.  When  the  assem- 
bled bishops  in  339  designate  him  as  ' '  one  of 
the  ascetics"  (referring  to  the  motives  which 
led  to  his  election),  it  may  mean  no  more  than 
that  he  belonged  to  the  large  number  in  the 
Christian  community  who  practised  the  ascetic 
life  in  varying  degrees,  without  retiring  from  the 
world.  We  can  not  say  whether  his  personal  inter- 
course with  Anthony  (d.  356)  occurred  altogether 
after  he  was  a  bishop  or  partly  before.  But  he 
came  early  in  his  episcopate  into  contact  with 
Pachomius  (d.  345),  who  came  out  with  his  brethren 
to  greet  their  new  bishop  when  he  undertook  a 
visitation  of  the  Thebaid  between  the  ^Easters  of 
328  and  329.  Lasting  relations  with  this  colony 
were  kept  up  by  means  of  the  yearly  visits  of 
deputations  of  the  monks  to  Alexandria  for  the 
purpose  of  making  necessary  purchases.  Pa- 
chomius is  reported  to  have  said  that  there  were 
three  sights  specially  pleasing  to  the  eyes  of  Crod 
in  the  Egypt  of  his  time — Athanasius,  Anthony, 
and  his  own  community  of  monks.  Athanasius 
knew  Theodore,  the  successor  of  Pachomius,  and 
visited  him  in  his  desert  retreat  at  Phboou — 
probably  in  363,  for  which  year  we  have  evidence 
of  a  journey  as  far  south  as  Antino6  and  Her- 
mopolis.  So  well  known  were  these  relations  that 
an  imperial  officer  sent  by  Constantius  to  appre* 
hend  him  in  360  searched  for  him,  though  in  vain, 
at  Phboou.    When  Theodore  died  (368),  Athanasius 


846 


RELIGIOUS    ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Athaaaaiiui 


wrote  his  successor  a  letter  of  warm  sympathy. 
These  long  and  intimate  relations  with  Egyptian 
monasticism  support  the  assertion  of  Jerome  (Epist,, 
cxxvii)  that  the  Roman  lady  Marcella  first  heard 
through  Athanasius,  in  341,  of  Anthony,  Pa- 
chomius,  and  the  ascetic  communities  of  the  Thebaid. 
If,  however,  he  rendered  monasticism  a  service 
by  calling  to  it  the  attention  of  the  western  world, 
he  did  even  more  for  it  by  successfully  combating 
the  tendency  which  it  showed  at  first  to  form  a 
caste  apart  from,  and  to  some  extent  in  rivalry 
with,  the  clergy;  he  was  also  the  first  (at  least  in 
the  Church  of  the  empire)  to  promote  monks  to  the 
episcopate — a  point  of  great  importance  to  the  later 
development  of  the  Eastern  Church. 

n.  Writings:  Athanasius  ranks  high  as  an  au- 
thor— though  it  may  be  doubted  whether  he  would 
have  attained  so  high  a  place  had  it  not 
z.  His      been  for  the  epoch-making  war  which 

Works  in  he  waged  upon  Arianism.  Of  pure 
Chronolog-  learning  he  had  not  much,  or  else  it 
ical  Order,  was  put  in  the  background  by  the  more 
absorbing  interests  of  his  life.  His 
most  important  works  were  written  for  some  special 
purpose  of  the  moment;  and  they  may  therefore 
be  best  considered  in  their  chronological  order, 
the  more  that  any  classification  of  them  is  prac- 
tically impossible.  The  editors  of  his  works  place 
first  the  two  connected  treatises  **  Against  the 
Heathen  "  and  "  On  the  Incarnation."  These  have 
until  recently  been  considered  as  a  product  of  Atha- 
nasius's  youth  (c.  318);  but  some  recent  critics 
(Schultze,  Dr&seke)  have  attempted  to  deny  his 
authorship  and  to  assign  them  to  the  middle  of  the 
fourth  century.  Thegroimds  given  for  this  opinion 
are  unconvincing,  although  the  date  may  be  brought 
down  as  late  as  325.  Next  follow  the  oldest  of  the 
"Festal  Letters"  (32^-335  and  338-339);  of  the 
later  ones  only  short  fragments  have  been  preserved, 
either  in  Greek  or  Syriac — among  them  part  of  the 
39th,  which  is  important  for  its  bearing  on  the 
New  Testament  canon.  Up  to  348  the  only  things 
that  can  be  surely  dated  are  the  ''Encyclical 
Letter,"  written  soon  after  Easter,  339,  and  the  dis- 
cussion of  Matt,  xi,  27  (probably  incomplete),  be- 
longing to  a  time  before  the  death  of  Eusebius  of 
Nicomedia.  But  with  the  collection  of  docmnents 
known  as  the  "  Apology  against  the  Arians  "  (be- 
tween 347  and  351)  begins  a  long  series  of  works 
more  important  for  the  history  of  the  period,  and 
at  the  same  time  more  certainly  to  be  dated. 
These  are  the  "  Defense  of  the  Nicene  Council " 
(probably  351);  the  ''Defense  of  Dionysius"  soon 
after;  the  "  Letter  to  Dracontius  "  (Easter,  354  or 
355);  the  "Letter  to  the  Bishops  of  Egypt  and 
Libya  "  (between  February  of  356  and  the  same 
month  of  357);  the  "Apology  to  Constantius" 
(probably  summer  of  357);  the  "  Apology  for  his 
Flight,"  a  little  later;  the  "History  of  the  Arians 
for  Monks  "  (end  of  357  or  beginning  of  358);  the 
"  Letter  to  Serapion  on  the  Death  of  Arius  "  (358); 
the  four  "  Letters  to  Serapion,"  decisive  for  the 
doctrine  of  the  consubstantiality  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  (during  the  third  exile);  **  On  the  Synods  of 
Ariminum  and  Seleucia"  (end  of  359);  the  "  Book 
to  the  Antiochians"  (362);  the  "Letter  to  Jo- 


vian" (364);  the  "  Letter  to  the  Africans  "  (probably 
369);  and  about  the  same  time,  after  the  Roman 
synod  of  369  or  370,  the  "  Letters  to  Epictetus," 
"to  Adelphus,"  and  "to  Maximus  the  Philoso- 
pher," so  weighty  for  the  controversies  of  the 
fifth  century.  We  have  not  mentioned  in  this 
enumeration  a  few  important  works  whose  date 
can  not  be  certainly  determined,  as  well  as  a 
large  number  of  smaller  letters,  sermons,  and 
fragments.  To  the  former  class  belong  the  "  Life  of 
Anthony,"  whose  genuineness  has  been  disputed  of 
late  years  on  insufficient  groimds;  the  "  Four  Ora- 
tions against  the  Arians,"  which  have  by  many  been 
considered  the  dogmatic  masterpiece  of  Athanasius 
(usually  dated  in  the  third  exile,  but  for  various 
reasons  more  probably  to  be  assigned  to  a  much  earlier 
date,  say,  338  or  339);  the  fragmentary  "  Longer  Ser- 
mon on  the  Faith, "and  the  "  Statement  of  Faith," 
both  of  which  seem  fairly  assignable  to  the  earliest 
period  of  Athanasius's  authorship.  Owing  to  his  fame, 
it  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  that  a  large  number  of 
works  were  ascribed  to  him  which  have  since  been 
classed  as  doubtful  or  certainly  not  his.  For  the 
famous  exposition  of  the  doctrines  of  the  Trinity 
and  Incarnation  which  passes  under  his  name,  see 
Athanasian  Creed. 

As  to  the  teaching  of  Athanasius,  especially  in 
regard  to  his  Christology,  consult  the  article 
Arianism;  some  fiuther  discussion 
2.  His  of  his  views  on  the  human  nature  of 
Teaching.  Christ,  which  deserve  a  more  thorough 
examination  than  they  have  ever 
received,  will  be  foimd  imdcr  Nestoriub.  It  is 
the  opinion  of  Hamack  that  the  doctrine  of  Atha- 
nasius is  identical  with  that  of  Alexander  and 
underwent  no  development.  But  it  would  be  diffi- 
cult to  prove  that  the  teaching  of  the  two  is  really 
identicid,  at  least  on  the  basis  of  the  writings  of 
Athanasius  from  the  "  Defense  of  the  Nicene  Coun- 
cil "  on;  and  perhaps  as  hard  to  show  that  his 
views  did  not  develop  as  time  went  on.  It  is 
more  probable  (though  the  question  needs  more 
thorough  investigation)  that  he  began  by  simply 
accepting  Alexander's  teaching,  and  then  struck 
out  a  path  of  his  own.  His  terminology,  in  ques- 
tions of  Christology,  demonstrably  changes.  The 
earlier  works,  like  those  of  Alexander,  do  not  use 
the  word  which  became  the  crucial  test  of  ortho- 
doxy, homoottsios ;  even  in  the  main  thesis  of 
the  "Statement  of  Faith"  hamoios  tdi  patri  is 
found,  though  hamoouaios  occurs  in  the  expla- 
nations, but  with  an  express  caution  against 
a  Sabellian  meaning.  The  same  impression  is 
strengthened  by  the  "  Orations  against  the  Arians," 
written  after  he  had  spent  some  time  in  banishment 
at  Treves;  it  is  probably  an  already  visible  effect 
of  his  contact  with  western  thought  that  we  get  a 
slightly  different  terminology — ^but  the  influence 
of  the  older  phrases,  which  he  gave  up  later,  is 
still  clearly  marked;  he  employs  the  word  homo- 
ousioSf  which  his  opponents  rejected  as  unscriptural, 
only  once  in  passing,  and  uses  homoioa  several  times 
to  denote  the  generic  identity  of  substance  between 
the  Father  and  the  Son.  In  short,  in  these  "  Ora- 
tions" Athanasius's  terminology  is  in  a  transi- 
tional stage,  not  free  from  mio«cS:^s&:^«  Xafcjat^ 


Athanasiiis 
Athenasroras 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


846 


be  got  over  his  concealed  dread  of  the  term  homo- 
ouaioSy  though  without  giving  up  the  assimilation 
of  ausia  and  hypostasis ,  as  to  which  he  was  evi- 
dently uncertain  in  the  "Orations."  In  fact,  his  la- 
ter homoousios  is  scarcely  distinguishable  from  mono- 
ousioSf  and  the  earlier  homoios  [tes  ousias']  no  longer 
sufficed  him.  If  we  ask  the  origin  of  this  change 
between  339  and  34^-352,  it  will  be  obvious  that 
we  can  not  neglect  to  think  of  his  sojourn  in  the 
West  from  339  to  346,  and  his  intercourse  with 
Marcellus.  Further  evidences  of  development 
may  be  found  in  his  teaching  as  to  the  manhood  of 
Christ.  If,  however,  his  change  of  attitude  to- 
ward the  Homoousians,  his  condemnation  of  Basil 
of  Ancyra,  etc.,  show  that  he  was  capable  of  de- 
velopment, it  need  not  be  taken  as  a  reproach. 
He  knew  better  than  many  of  his  contemporaries 
how  to  separate  the  fact,  as  to  which  he  never 
wavered,  from  the  formidas  employed  to  describe 
it;  his  convictions  were  fixed  early ,  but  to  the  end  of 
his  life  he  never  obstinately  asserted  the  complete- 
ness of  the  phrases  he  had  chosen  to  express  them. 
Through  evil  report  and  good  report,  through  the 
many  changes  of  a  long  and  eventful  career,  he 
maintained  indisputably  his  title  to  the  respect 
which  we  give  to  love  of  truth  and  honesty  of 
mind.  (F.  Loops. ) 

Biblioobapht:  The  Benedictine  ed.  of  the  works  waa  printed 
in  4  vols.,  at  Padua,  1677;  again  at  Paris,  1690.  ed.  B. 
de  Montfauoon;  in  MPO,  xxv-xxviii;  and  in  A.  B.  Cail- 
lau.  Patrea  Apotiolici,  xxx-xxxii,  Paris.  1842-43.  The 
dogmatic  treatises  are  accessible  in  the  eid.  of  J.  E.  Thilo. 
Leipsic,  1853.  Editions  or  translations  of  selected  works 
are:  Hutorical  Tracts  and  TreatUes  in  Controverty  with 
Oie  ArianSt  in  Library  of  the  Fathers,  viii,  ix,  xiii,  and 
xxviii.  1843;  Contra  Oentea,  ed.  H.  von  Hurter, in  CoUectio 
opuaculorum  eanctorum  patrum,  xliv.  Innsbruck.  1874; 
Select  TreaHaea,  transl.  by  J.  H.  Newman,  2  vols.,  Lon- 
don, 1881;  HietoriaU  WrUinge  ed.  from  the  Benedictine 
Text,  by  W.  Bright.  Oxford.  1881;  Dialoffue  of  Athanaeiua 
and  ZacchcBUB.  ed.  F.  C.  Conybeare,  in  Anecdota Oxonienaia, 
part  8.  ib.  1882;  Orations  Againat  the  Ariana,  ed.  W. 
Bright,  with  a  life,  ib.  1873.  reissued  in  Ancient  and 
Modem  Library  of  Theological  Literature,  1887;  Select 
Writinga  and  Lettera,  transl.  with  prolegomena,  in  N FN F, 
iv;  and  De  Inoamatione  Verbi  Dei,  transl.  with  notes  by 
T.  H.  Bindley,  London,  1903.  Especially  noteworthy  is 
the  edition  of  the  long  lost  Feated  Lettera,  by  W.  Cureton 
from  a  Syriac  manuscript.  London,  1853,  Eng.  transl.  by 
H.  Burgess,  Oxford,  1854.  His  life,  from  early  soiu-ocs, 
is  in  ASB,  May,  i,  186-268,  cf.  756-762  and  vii,  546- 
547;  consult  the  biographies  by  P.  Barbier,  Paris,  1888; 
R.  W  Bush,  London,  1888;  and  H.  R,  Reynolds,  ib. 
1880  ("  lucid  and  able  ").  For  his  writings  and  teaching 
consult  J.  A.  Moehlor,  Athanaaiua  der  Oroaae  und  die 
Kirche  seiner  Zeit,  Mains,  1844  (Roman  Catholic);  H. 
Voigt,  Die  Lehre  dea  Athanaaiua,  Bremen,  1861;  F.  Boeh- 
ringer,  Athanaaiua  und  Ariua,  oder  der  erate  groaae  Kampf 
der  Orthodoxie  und  Heterodoxie,  Btntt^^art,  1874  (Protestant, 
in  his  familiar  series);  E.  Fialon,  SL  Athanaae,  iltude  litn 
tfraire,  Paris,  1877;  L.  Atzberger,  Die  Logoalehre  dea 
Athanaaiua,  ihre  Qegner  und  Vcrl&ufer,  Munich,  1880; 
G.  A.  Pell,  Lehre  dea  Athanaaiua  von  der  Silnde,  Passau, 
1888  (Roman  Catholic,  "  difficulties  not  always  faced  "); 
W.  Bright,  Leaaona  from  the  Livea  of  Three  Oreat  Father  a. 
New  York,  1891;  P.  Lauchert,  Die  Lehre  dea  heUigen 
Athanaaiua,  Leipsic,  1895;  K.  Hoss,  Siudien  iiber  SchrifU 
turn  und  Theologie  dea  Athanaaiua,  Freiburg,  1899; 
Hamack,  Dogma,  passim  (consult  Index),  7  vols.,  Bos- 
ton, 1895-19(X)  (important,  very  detailed);  L.  L.  Paine, 
Critical  Hiatory  of  the  Evolution  of  TrinUarianiam,  Boston. 
19(X)  (brilliant,  deals  with  the  position  of  Athanasius 
respecting  homoousianism);  W.  F.  Fraser,  A  Cloud  of 
Witneaaea  to  Chriatian  Doctrine,  third  series,  Againat 
Arianiam,  j>aTt  1,  SL  Athanaaiua,  London,  19()0;  L.  H. 
Hough,  AUuinaaiua;  the  Hero,  Cincinnati,  1906. 


ATHEISM:    A  term  employed  with  some  variety 
of  connotation.     Sometimes  it  is  taken  purely  neg- 
atively and  applied  to  every  point  of  view  which 
does  not  distinctly  assert  the  existence  of  God,  or 
order  the  life  in  view  of  his  claims  upon 

Different  it.  In  this  application  it  is  broad 
Uses  of  the  enough  to  include  not  only  such  sys- 
Word.  tems  as  Agnosticism  and  Secularism 
(qq.v.),  but  even  that  simple  forget- 
fulness  of  God  which  is  commonly  known  as  "  prac- 
tical atheism."  Sometimes,  on  the  other  hand,  it 
is  given  a  distinctly  positive  sense,  and  made  to 
designate  the  dogmatic  denial  of  the  existence  of 
God.  Even  when  it  is  so  understood,  however,  it 
has  a  wider  and  a  narrower  application,  dependent 
on  the  meaning  attached  to  the  term  "  God,"  the 
denial  of  which  constitutes  its  differentiation.  In 
its  narrowest  sense,  it  is  confined  to  those  theories 
which  deny  the  existence  of  all  that  can  be  called 
God,  by  whatever  extension  or  even  abuse  of  that 
term.  In  this  sense  it  stands  over  against  Panthe- 
ism or  Fetbhism,  as  truly  as  over  against  Theism; 
and  takes  its  place  alongside  of  this  whole  series  of 
terms  as  designating  a  distinct  theory  of  the  uni- 
verse. In  its  widest  sense,  on  the  contrary,  it  re- 
ceives its  definition  in  contrast  with,  not  a  vague 
notion  of  the  divine,  but  the  specific  conception  of 
Theism,  and  designates  all  those  systems,  differing 
largely  in  other  resp>ects,  which  have  in  conunon 
that  they  are  antagonistic  to  a  developed  Theism. 
In  this  application,  Atheism  is  synonymous  with 
Antitheism,  and  includes  not  only  Pantheism  (q.v.), 
but  even  Polytheism,  and,  with  some  writers.  Deism 
itself, — all  of  which  fail  in  some  essential  elements 
of  a  clear  Theism.  Most  commonly  the  term  is 
employed  by  careful  writers  either  in  its  narrowest 
sense,  or  else  in  the  somewhat  broadened  sense  of 
the  denial  of  a  personal  God.  Between  these  two 
definitions  choice  is  not  easy.  All  depends  on  our 
definition  of  God,  and  what  we  are  prepared  to 
admit  to  involve  recognition  of  him.  From  the 
point  of  view  of  developed  Theism  all  that  can  be 
thought  God  is  denied  when  a  living  personxd  God, 
the  creator,  preserver,  and  governor  of  all  things 
is  disallowed;  it  is  inevitable,  therefore,  that  from 
the  standpoint  of  Theism,  Atheism  should  tend  to 
receive  one  of  its  more  extended  connotations.  It 
may  be  truer  to  the  historical  sense  of  the  term, 
however,  to  take  it  in  its  narrowest  sense  and  to 
treat  it  as  designating  only  one  of  the  Antitheistic 
theories,  and  as  standing  as  such  alongside  of  the 
others,  from  which  it  is  differentiated  in  that  it 
denies  the  validity  of  the  notion  of  God  altogether, 
while  the  others  allow  the  possible  or  actual  existence 
of  the  divine  in  one  or  another  sense  of  that  term. 

The  question  which  has  been  much  discussed, 
whether  Atheism  is  possible,  depends  for  its  solu- 
tion very  much  upon  its  definition.  That  negative 
Atheism,  especially  in  the  form  of  ''  practical  athe- 
ism," is  possible,  is  evident  from  its  persistent  ap- 
pearance in  the  world.  Whether  men  may  be 
totally  ignorant  of  God  or  not,  they  certainly  can 
very  completely  ignore  him.  And  if  the  great 
atheistic  systems  like  Buddhism  and  ConfudaniBm 
have  not  been  able  to  preserve  the  purity  of 
their  Atheism,  no  more  have  the  great  theistie 


347 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Athanaaiiui 
Athenasroras 


systems — Mohammedanism,  Judaism,  Christianity 

itself — been  able  to  eliminate  ''  practical  atheism  " 

from   among  their  adherents.     It  is 

The  Possi-  equally  idle  to  deny  the  possibility  of 
bility  of  positive  Atheism  in  its  wider  sense,  in 
Atheism,  the  face  of  the  great  part  which  has 
been  played  in  the  world  by  the  var- 
ious forms  of  Pantheism,  which  not  only  underlies 
whole  systems  of  religion  but  is  continually  inva- 
ding with  its  leaven  the  most  austere  and  complete 
systems  of  Theism.  It  is  only  in  its  narrowest  sense, 
in  which  it  is  the  denial  of  all  that  is  called  God  or 
that  is  worshiped,  that  the  possibility  of  Atheism 
can  be  brought  into  question,  and  then  only  when 
we  regard  it,  not  in  its  outward  expression,  but  in 
the  most  intimate  convictions  of  the  heart.  No 
one  can  doubt  that  portentous  systems  of  reasoned 
Atheism  have  flourished  in  the  bosom  of  the  most 
advanced  culture.  As  little  can  it  be  denied 
that,  among  the  backward  races,  a  very  low  order 
of  religious  conception  may  sometimes  be  discov- 
ered. It  may  well  be  contended,  however,  that 
even  the  most  thoroughly  compacted  system  of 
atheistic  thought  only  overlies  and  conceals  an  in- 
stinctive and  indestructible  "  sense  of  the  divine," 
just  as  the  most  elaborated  system  of  subjective 
idealism  only  insecurely  covers  up  an  ineradicable 
realism;  and  that  it  is  this  innate  "  sense  of  the 
divine  "  which  we  see  struggling  in  the  conceptions 
of  low  savages  to  express  itself  in  the  inadequate 
forms  which  alone  a  low  stage  of  cultiu^  can  pro- 
vide for  it.  If  this  is  all  that  is  meant.  Atheism  is, 
no  doubt,  a  condition  impossible  to  man.  Bian 
differs  from  the  lower  creations,  not  in  being  less 
dependent  than  they,  but  in  being  conscious  of  his 
dependence  and  responsibility;  and  this  conscious- 
ness involves  in  it  a  sense  of  somewhat,  or  better, 
some  one,  to  which  he  is  thus  related.  The  expli- 
cation of  this  instinctive  perception  into  an  ade- 
quate conception  is  a  different  matter;  and  in  this 
explication  is  wrapped  up  the  whole  development 
of  the  idea  of  God.  But  escape  from  the  appre- 
hension of  a  being  on  whom  we  are  dependent  and 
to  whom  we  are  responsible  is  no  more  possible 
than  escape  from  the  world  in  which  we  live.  God 
is  part  of  our  environment. 

The  history  of  reasoned  Atheism  is  as  old  as  the 
history  of  thought.    There  can  be  no  right  think- 
ing unless  there  be  thinking,  and  it  is  incident  to 
thinking  among  such  creatures  as  men 

History  of  that  some  may  think  awry.  In  all 
Atheism,  ages,  accordin^y,  the  declaration  has 
found  its  verification  that  those  who 
have  not  liked  to  retain  God  in  their  knowledge  he 
has  given  over  to  a  reprobate  mind.  India  and 
China  both  early  gave  birth  to  gigantic  atheistic 
systems.  The  materialism  of  classical  antiquity 
found  its  expression  especially  in  the  Atomists — 
Democritus,  Epicurus,  Lucretius.  The  unbelief  of 
the  eighteenth  century  ran  to  seed  in  the  French 
Encyclopedists — De  la  Mettrie,  D'Holbach,  Diderot, 
Lalande — and  embodied  itself  in  that  Systhne  de 
la  Nature  which  Voltaire  called  the  Bible  of  Athe- 
ism. In  the  nineteenth  centiuy  the  older  mate- 
rialism strengthened  itself  by  aUiance,  on  the  one 
hand,  with  advancing  scientific  theoiy,  and,  on  the 


other,  with  the  increasing  social  unrest;  and  Athe- 
ism found  expression  through  a  series  of  great  sys- 
tems— Positivism,  Secularism,  Pessimism,  Socialism. 
The  doctrine  of  Evolution  (q.v.),  which  was  given 
scientific  standing  by  Darwin's  Origin  of  Speciee 
(1859),  became  almost  at  once  the  prime  support 
and  stay  of  the  atheistic  propaganda.  In  every 
department  of  thought  "  evolution  "  is  supposed 
to  account  for  evexything,  while  itself  needing  no 
accoimting  for.  Men  as  widely  unlike  in  every- 
thing else  as  Feuerbach,  Strauss,  Flourens,  Czolbe, 
Duehring,  Vogt,  Buechner,  Moleschott,  Mail&nder, 
Haeckel,  Nietzsche,  have  united  in  a  conunon  proc- 
lamation of  dogmatic  Atheism;  and  probably  in  no 
period  since  the  advent  of  Christianity  has  positive 
Atheism  been  proclaimed  with  more  confidence  or 
accepted  more  widely. 

Benjamin  B.  Warfield. 

Biblioorapht:  R.  Flint,  AfUHhtUHc  Theoriet,  Edinbursfa. 
1880  (gives  literature  in  Appendix  4);  J.  Beattie,  Evp- 
tUneet  of  the  ChrUtian  Reliffion,  2  voLb..  Edinburgh,  1786 
(eontains  a  bibliography);  J.  Buchanan,  Faith  in  Ood  and 
Modem  Alheimn  Compared,  Edinburgh.  1855;  Modem 
Alheiem  under  tie  Form*  of  Pantheiem,  Materialiem,  Secu- 
lariem;  Development  and  haiural  Law,  Boston.  1866; 
Paul  Janet,  Le  MaUrialieme  contemporain,  Paris.  1864; 
Fdlix  Dupcuiloup,  UAihHeme  et  le  pfrd  eodal,  Paris, 
1866;  fi.  Mirie,  Morale  et  ath£ieme  eontemporaine,  Paris, 
1875;  J.  S.  Blaokie,  Natural  Hietory  of  Alheiem,  London, 
1877  (keen  and  discriminating);  J.  Cairns,  Unbelief  in  the 
Eiohteenth  Century,  London,  1881;  E.  Naville,  Le  Phe 
Cdeete,  <3eneya.  1865,  Eng.  transl.,  Modem  Atheiem  or  the 
Heavenly  Father,  London,  1882  (philosophical);  F.  W. 
Hedge.  Alheiem  in  Philoeophy,  Boston.  1884;  W.  H.  Mal- 
look.  Alheiem  and  the  Value  of  Life,  London.  1884;  H.  H. 
Moore,  Anatomy  of  Atheiem  in  the  Light  of  the  Laum  of 
Nature,  Boston,  1890;  A.  Egger.  Der  Atheiemue,  Einsiedeln, 
1901  (evangelical);  F.  le  Dantec,  L'AthHeme,  Paris,  1906. 

ATHENAGORAS,  ath^'e-nag'o-ras:  Reputed 
author  of  two  Greek  treatises  of  the  time  of  the 
Antonines,  one  on  the  resurrection,  the  other  an 
apology  for  the  Christians.  He  is  entirely  unknown 
to  the  tradition  of  the  Church.  £usebius,  Jerome, 
and  their  suctessors  are  silent,  and,  as  the  survey 
which  Eusebius  gives  of  the  apologetic  literature 
of  the  second  century  is  very  complete,  his  silence 
could  not  fail  to  attract  attention.  Very  early  the 
existence  of  an  apologist  of  the  name  was  doubted 
and  the  work  was  ascribed  to  Justin  (cf .  Baronius, 
Annalee,  ii,  ad  an.  179,  chap,  xxxix).  This  suppo- 
sition, however,  is  from  internal  reasons  imtenable. 
The  first  testimony,  and  the  only  one  from  the 
third  century,  to  the  existence  of  the  apology  and 
the  name  of  its  author,  is  a  quotation  by  Methodius, 
found  (1)  in  the  ancient  Bulgarian  translation 
(ed.  Bonwetsch,  i,  293);  (2)  in  Epiphanius,  Hcer,, 
Ixiv,  20,  21;  (3)  in  Photius,  Bibl,  cod.  234  (cf.  Athe- 
nagoras,  SupplicatiOf  xxiv,  p.  27  B).  Certain  notices 
by  an  unknown  scribe  (Cod,  Barocc.  142,  fol.  216) 
quoting  from  the  ''  Christian  History  "  of  Philippus 
Sidetes  (early  in  the  fifth  century)  state  that  Athe- 
nagoras  was  an  Athenian  by  birth,  and  first  director 
of  the  catechetical  school  of  Alexandria;  he  lived 
in  the  time  of  Hadrian  and  Antoninus  Pius;  like 
CelsuB,  he  was  occupied  with  searching  the  Scrip- 
tures for  arguments  against  Christianity,  when  he 
was  suddenly  converted.  Most  of  these  notices, 
however,  are  palpably  erroneous.  Yet,  in  spite  of 
the  entire  abeenoe  of  tradition  and  the  doee  reeenir- 


Athmnm 
A,ton6inmt 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


848 


blanoe  to  the  apology  of  Justin,  the  date  of  the 
work  must  be  placed  somewhere  in  the  second 
century.  It  is  addressed  to  the  emperors  Marcus 
Aurelius  and  Lucius  Aurelius  Commodus,  and 
various  passages  indicate  the  period  between  176 
and  178.  After  an  introduction  (i-iii)  the  author 
refutes  the  chief  calumnies  urged  against  the  Chris- 
tians in  that  day,  viz.,  that  they  were  atheists 
(iv-zxx),  and  that  they  ate  human  flesh  and 
oonunitted  the  most  horrible  crimes  in  their  assem- 
blies (xxxi-xxxvi).  In  the  treatise  on  the  resur- 
rection, Athenagoras  argues  in  its  favor  from  the 
goodness,  wisdom,  and  power  of  God,  together  with 
the  natural  constitution  of  man.    (A.  Harnack.) 

BnuooRAPHT:  The  text  of  Athenagoras  is  given  in  MPO, 
▼i;  the  beet  editiona  are  by  J.  C.  T.  Otto,  in  Corpus  apolo- 
iftiarum  ChriaUanorum,  vol.  vii,  Jena,  1876,  and  E. 
Schwari,  in  TU,  iv,  2,  Leipeio,  1891;  a  handy  ed.  ia  by 
F.  A.  March,  New  York,  1876;  an  Eng.  transl.  is  to  be 
found  in  ANF,  ii.  125-162.  Consult  Hamaok,  LiUeraiur, 
i,  266-258.  ii,  317-31Q;  KrOger.  Hiatary,  pp.  130-132; 
L.  Amould,  De  Apologia  Athenagora,  Paris,  1898  A  full 
bibliography  up  to  1886  is  in  ANF,  Bibliography,  36-38. 

ATHENS.    See  Greece,  I.,  §  2. 

ATH'OS:  The  easternmost  of  the  three  tongues 
of  land  projecting  into  the  £gean  Sea  from  the 
Chalcidian  peninsula.  It  is  about  35  miles  long 
and  culminates  at  the  southern  extremity  in  Mt. 
Athos  proper,  6,780  feet  high.  Grand  forests, 
murmuring  brooks,  clear  air,  and  charming  com- 
bination of  rocks  and  sea,  make  it  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  spots  of  Europe.  By  the  Orthodox 
Greeks  it  is  always  called  "  the  Holy  Mount." 
According  to  the  legend,  the  Holy  Virgin  Chris- 
tianized Mt.  Athos  and  Constantine  the  Great 
founded  the  first  monasteries  there.  But  the 
Athos  monasticism  docs  not  appear  in  church  his- 
tory before  the  middle  of  the  ninth  century.  At 
that  time  the  monks  formed  a  laura  of  the  old 
fashion,  with  its  center  at  Karyas,  presided  over 
by  a  frOtos  appointed  by  the  emperor  in  Constan- 
tinople. With  the  foimding  of  the  Laura  of  St. 
Athanasius,  the  first  great  monastery  there,  in  963, 

Athos  rises  in  historical  importance. 
The  Various  The  founder  of  this  monastery  (which 
Monasteries,  still  bears  his  name)  and  of  the  whole 

monastic  life  on  Mt  Athos,  belonged 
to  a  noble  family  in  Trebizond.  Through  Michael 
Malelnos,  the  famous  hegumenos  of  Mt.  Kyminos 
in  Asia  Minor,  where  he  himself  lived  at  first  as 
monk,  he  became  acquainted  with  the  future 
emperor,  Nicephoras  II  (Phocas).  The  two  men 
became  good  friends  and  the  laura  was  founded  at 
the  instance  of  the  emperor.  Ever  after  Athos 
enjoyed  imperial  favor  and  monasteries  were 
founded  in  rapid  succession.  To  the  tenth  century 
belongs  the  founding  of  Iveron,  Vatopedi,  and 
Philotheu;  to  the  eleventh,  Xeropotam,  Esfig- 
menu,  Dochiariu,  Agiu  Paulu,  Karakallu,  and 
Xenophontos;  to  the  twelfth,  the  two  important 
Slav  monasteries,  Russiko  and  Chilandari;  to  the 
thirteenth,  Zografu;  and  to  the  fourteenth,  Pan- 
tokratoros,  Simopetra,  Dionysiu,  and  Gregoriu. 
The  most  recent  is  Stauronikita,  founded  in  1542. 
There  were  others  which  long  ago  disappeared, 
such  as  a  Latin  monastery  of  the  Amal  fines. 


Until  the  fifteenth  century  all  the  monks  lived 
together,  according  to  rules  laid  down  by  Atha- 
nasius   in    his    three    writings,    the 

The  Men-  Kanonikon,   the    Diathiki,    and    the 

astic  Life    so-called  DtatypOsia  (cf .  Meyer,  Haupr 

to  the  Fif-  wrkunden).    Any  man  of  unblemished 

teenth      character    could    be    received;   but 

Century,  women,  children,  beardless  youths, 
and  people  of  royal  descent  were 
forbidden  entrance.  After  a  three  years'  probation 
admission  into  the  holy  company  of  the  brethren 
took  place  and  the  tonsure  was  received.  At  the 
head  of  the  monastery  stood  the  higoumenos,  assisted 
by  a  coimdl  of ''  the  chosen,"  i.e.,  the  higher  monas- 
tic officers  and  the  priest-monks.  Two  ephois, 
generally  a  noble  layman  outside  of  Athos  and  a 
monk  not  belonging  to  the  monastery,  formed  a 
non-resident  directorate.  Approved  monks  could 
live  by  themselves,  and  received  a  special  dwelling 
(Gk.  kellian),  whence  they  were  called  kelliotes, 
or  after  their  mode  of  living,  ascetics  or  hesychasts, 
but  were  dependent  on  the  monastery.  The 
relation  of  the  monasteries  to  each  other  and  the 
entire  constitution  of  the  holy  mount  was  regulated 
at  that  period  by  the  typica  of  975,  1045,  and  1391 
(printed  in  Meyer).  The  prOlos  stood  at  the  head, 
by  his  side  the  aynaxis,  consisting  of  the  repre- 
sentatives of  the  monasteries,  which  as  before 
met  at  Karyas.  At  first  the  life  during  this 
period  was  austere,  but  in  the  eleventh  century  it 
relaxed,  and  at  one  time  nomads  with  wives  and 
children  were  sheltered  at  Athos  (Meyer,  163  sqq.). 
The  Latin  rule  at  0>nstantinople  was  an  espe- 
cially sad  time  for  the  monasteries.  In  the  Hesy- 
chastic  controversy  (1341-51)  western  science  was 
rejected  especially  through  the  influence  of  the 
Athos  monks  and  quietistic  mystidsm  was  re- 
ceived into  the  teachings  of  the  Greek  Church  (see 
Hestchabts). 

With  the  fifteenth  century  a  new  period  com- 
mences in  the  constitution  of  the  holy  mount, 
which  by  degrees  transformed  the  entire  life.  The 
idiorrhythmic  life  begins,  which  consisted  in  the 
abohtion  of  the  common  life  in  the  monasteries 
and  the  adoption  of  a  plan  whereby  every  monk, 
sometimes  with  a  few  friends,  lived  by  himself. 
The   common   roof   and    the   church 

Changes  alone  are  common  to  all.  Since 
after  1500.  every  one  lived  at  his  own  expense, 
the  power  of  the  hegumenos  was  soon 
crippled.  But  the  influence  of  idiorrhythm  went 
still  further.  As  the  monasteries  following  it  soon 
became  worldly,  the  stricter  tendency,  which  was 
by  no  means  extinct,  reacted  upon  the  monks  and 
new  places  of  earnest  ascetidsm  were  established 
outside  of  the  monasteries,  such  as  the  skHaif 
monastic  villages,  the  first  of  which  was  founded 
by  St.  Anna  in  1572.  Here  one  could  live  an  ascetic 
life  after  the  old  fashion.  Such  sketes  were  depend- 
ent on  their  monasteries;  their  rights  are  set 
forth  in  separate  collections  of  canons  (cf.  Meyer, 
248).  The  last  regulation  of  the  rights  of  the 
kelliotes,  who  still  remained,  and  of  the  sketist^ 
took  place  in  1864  (Meyer,  254).  The  influence  of 
idiorrhythm  was  ultimately  of  such  a  character 
on  the  general  constitution  of  the  holy  mount,  that 


849 


RELIGIOUS    ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Atomiimint 


the  office  of  protcis  was  abolished  and  the  entire 
constitution  became  democratic.  The  last  typicon 
is  of  1783  (Meyer,  243).  In  the  nineteenth  century 
hidf  of  the  monasteries  returned  to  the  common 
life,  but  the  old  constitution  was  retained-  Down 
to  the  eighteesth  century  the  religious  and  morml 
life  was  of  a  low  type.  After  1750  there  seems  to 
have  been  a  revival.  At  that  time  Eugenioa  Bul- 
garia (q»v.)  was  teacher  in  the  academy  of  Vato- 
pedi.  At  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  there 
were  certain  lively  religioua  controveraies  on  Mt, 
AthoB,  among  others  the  so-called  kolyba  con- 
troversy—whether the  memorial  days  of  the  dead 
oould  be  celebrated  on  Sunday  instead  of  Saturday. 
On  the  whole  the  life  on  AthoA  has  remaiBed 
unchanged,  and  is  still  a  remnant  of  pure  medieval- 
ism. The  great  Dumber  of  manuscripts  and  docu- 
ments there  offer  to  the  scholar  a  rich  field  of 
activity.  The  student  of  art  finds  all  that  Byzan- 
tine art  produced  gathered  together.  The  student 
of  religion  can  study  the  Eastern  piety  of  all  Chris- 
tian eenturiea,  for  each  period  has  left  betiind 
distinct  remains.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  struggle 
of  the  nationalists,  especially  the  struggle  of  Fan- 
hellenism  against  PanslaviBm,  will  not  deprive  the 
Athos  monachism  of  its  universality. 

Phiupp  Meter. 

BiBUOORArar;  Tb«  HUtarim  BjfMantina  of  Nioepbora« 
Qregciru,  book  xiv,  id  MPO,  o^viii,  ajid  of  John  Ciitit&> 
cui«nuB,  boolc  iv,  in  MPQ^  cjiv^  15-370,  puniin;  John 
ComaenuB,  Uptta^it^r^TApiot^  tov  kyiov  Spovf,  Venice,  ITOI* 
and  ofteo;  J.  P.  F^llmerayer,  Fruffmente  auM  drm 
Oritmi^  8tutt«&rt,  1345;  M.  I.  Gedeon,  h  'h9m.  Con- 
itBJitinople,  1SS5;  Porphyrins  Uipemiky,  Gioachichte  de« 
Atha»  und  teiner  Kliiiter  (id  Russian),  3  vnl»,,  Kiev  and 
Hoaoovr,  1&45-92;  PhiLIpp  Meyer,  Z>ut  Haupturkunden 
ftir    dis    GachichU    der    AthotkiO^trr,    LdpaiHt  1804;    A. 


Schmtdtkef  Bat  KUnierland  di»  Alho*,  LeipAic,  1603; 
H,  Gelser,  Vom  Heiliofn  Herge  ujtd  aum  Maced^nien^  l^ip- 
■je,  1004;  H.  Broc-khAU#,  DU  Kunat  in  dgn  Athaaklditernf 
LeipaiG^,  1891.  CAialostlcs  of  the  draciuneDla  are  given  in 
V.  Lon^loiEi,  L£  Mofd  Atho*  *t  ««t  monOAtJTm^  pBJim,  1867; 
J.  Mailer,  Skit-itch^  BiblioViek,  Vaeiin&.  1351;  and  in  the 
U*inypa4niQi!  KftTiAoy«,  pubJii^lLFd  B^t  Con»t4Lntinop[e  in  lOOfl 
•t  the  inatance  of  the  patriarch  Jciachim  III.  A  cataloflue  q| 
the  monuiiGriptfl  in  oioat  of  the  Ubrarie«  bj^iven  la  E.  Lam^ 

profl,  £«T(£A0'j*«  TwP    Ir  rult  $*fiA\o$iiKaAt  tav  iyiav    ppavf  *EA- 

knviKmmnmt&Uf^v,  2  Tob..  Cambridge,  1895-1900.  Many  docu- 
ments have  been  pubtlahed  m  Greek  and  RuAtiinn  periixl' 
icala.  A  new  collection  has  been  begun  by  Regel„  Xfiv&6- 
fl^ivAka.  Ksi  yfta^fia^Ti^a,  t^  tr  f^'Ayty 'Op*t  ^or^fToD  Barowt- 
Hw,  BU  IVtersburg,  1893.  For  ipedal  literature*  coneult 
KnjmbaAher,  O^tehichtei  the  Enitliah  wnrka  of  R.  Cnrson, 
Vint*  to  Monaatena  in  the  Levant,  London^  1S49,  IStUi, 
and  A.  Riley,  Atho*  ««■  tha  MauntaiTi  of  the  Monkt,  Lon- 
don, 18S7,  may  alaa  be  m«nUoaed, 

ATKUfSj     JAMES;     Methodist      Epiaeopalian; 

b,  at  KnoxviUe,  Tenn.,  Apr.  18,  1850.  He  waa 
educated  at  Emory  aod  Ilemy  College  (B.A*^ 
1B72)  and  entered  the  ministry  in  the  Holjston  Con- 
ference of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Cbtirch,  South, 
in  IH72,  in  which  he  held  varioua  pastorates  until 
1879.  He  was  president  of  Aahcville  Female  Col- 
lege, 1870-S9  and  1893-96,  and  of  Emory  and 
Hen^  Cbllege,  1889-93,  Since  1896  be  has  been 
the  Sunday-school  editor  of  the  Methodist  Episco- 
pal Church,  South.  He  is  president  of  the  Board 
of  Mis^ons  of  the  Western  North  Carolina  Confer 
enee,  and  vice-president  of  the  General  Board  of 
Missiona  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  ^  South, 
and  was  alao  a  member  of  the  commission  which 
eO'ected  the  union  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Churches  of  Japan  in  1900.  He  is  the  author  ol 
The  Kingdmt  in  the  CrmUe  (NashviUe,  1905). 

ATMIYA  SABHA.     See  India,  III,  1. 


I.  Signifioanoe  and  History  of  the  Doc- 
trine. 
The   New  Testament  Presentation 

(5  1). 
Development  of  the  Doctrine  (f  2). 
Various  Theories  (f  3). 
II.  The  Five  Chief  Theories  of  the  Atone- 
ment. 
1.  Terminating  upon  Satan. 
The   *'  Triumphantorlal    Theory  " 
(»1). 


ATONEMENT. 

2.  Terminating  Physically  on  Man. 
"  Mystical  Theories  "  and  their  Ad- 
vocates (S  2). 
8.  Terminating  on  Man  in  the  Way 
of  Bringing  to  Bear  on  him  In- 
ducements to  Action. 
'*  Moral  Influence  Theories."    The 

Essential     Thought  (f  3). 
Various  Forms  of  these  Theories 
(»4). 
4.  Terminating  on  Man  Primarily  and 
on  God  Secondarily. 


"  Rectoral  or  Ooremmental  TIm- 

ories  "  (S  6). 
Advocates  of  these  Theories  (f  0). 
Horace  Bushnell  (f  7). 
5.  Terminating  on  God  Primarily  and 

on  Man  Secondarily. 
**  Theories  of  Reconciliation  "  (f  8). 
Certain       **  Sacrificial      Theories " 

(5  0). 
The    Doctrine  of    "Satisfaction" 

(5  10). 


L  Sisniflcance    and    History    of   the    Doctrine: 

The  replacement  of  the  term  "  satisfaction "  (q.v.), 
to  designate,  according  to  its  nature,  the  work  of 
Christ  in  saving  sinners,  by  "  atonement,"  the 
term  more  usual  at  present,  is  somewhat  unfor- 
timate.  "  Satisfaction "  is  at  once  the  more 
comprehensive,  the  more  expressive,  the  less 
ambiguous,  and  the  more  exact  term.  The 
word  ''  atonement "  occurs  but  once  in  the  Eng- 
lish New  Testament  (Rom.  v,  11,  A.  V.,  but  not 
R.  V.)  and  on  this  occasion  it  bears  its  archaic 
sense  of  "  reconciliation,"  and  as  such  translates 
the  Greek  term  kataUagS,  In  the  English  Old 
Testament,  however,  it  is  found  quite  often  as  the 
stated  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  terms  An'pper, 
kippurimf  in  the  sense  of  "  propitiation,"  "  expia- 
tion." It  is  in  this  latter  sense  that  it  has  become 
current,  and  has  been  applied  to  the  work  of  Christ, 
which  it  accordin^y  describes  as,  in  its  essential 


nature,    an    expiatory    offering,    propitiating    an 

ofifended   deity   and   reconciling   him   with   man. 

In  thus  characterizing  the  work  of  Christ,  it  does 

no  injustice  to   the    New  Testament 

z.  The  New  representation.     The  writers    of    the 

Testament  New  Testament  employ   many  other 

Presenta-   modes  of  describing  the  work  of  Christ, 

tion.        which,  taken  together,  set  it  forth  as 

much  more  than  a  provision,  in  his 

death,  for  canceling  the  guilt  of  man.    To  mention 

nothing  else  at  the  moment,  they  set  it  forth  equally 

as  a  provision,  in  his  righteousness,  for  fulfilling 

the  demands  of  the  divine  law  upon  the  conduct  of 

men.    But  it  is  imdeniable  that  they  enshrine  at 

the  center  of  this  work  its  efficacy  as  a  piacular 

sacrifice,  securing  the  forgiveness  of  sins;  that  is 

to  say,  relieving  its  beneficiaries  of  "  the  penal 

consequences  which  otherwise  the  curse  of  the 

broken  law  inevitably  entails."    The  Lord  himself 


Atonamaiit 


THE  NEW    8CHAFF-HERZ0G 


850 


fafitens  attention  upon  this  aspect  of  his  work 
(Matt.  XX,  28,  xxvi,  28);  and  it  is  embedded  in 
every  important  t3rpe  of  New  Testament  teaching, 
— as  well  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  (ii,  17), 
and  the  Epistles  of  Peter  (I,  iii,  18)  and  John  (I,  ii, 
2),  as  currently  in  those  of  Paul  (Rom.  viii,  3;  I 
Cor.  V,  7;  Eph.  v,  2)  to  whom,  obviously,  "  the 
sacrifice  of  Christ  had  the  significance  of  the 
death  of  an  innocent  victim  in  the  room  of  the 
guilty  "  and  who  therefore  "  freely  employs  the 
category  of  substitution,  involving  the  conception 
of  imputation  or  transference  *'  of  legal  standing 
(W.  P.  Paterson,  art.  Sacrifice  in  DB,  iv,  343-345). 
Looking  out  from  this  point  of  view  as  from  a 
center,  the  New  Testament  writers  ascribe  the 
saving  efficacy  of  Christ's  work  specifically  to  his 
death,  or  his  blood,  or  his  cross  (Rom.  iii,  25-59; 
I  Cor.  x,  16;  Eph.  i,  7;  ii,  13;  Col.  i,  20;  Heb.  ix, 
12,  14;  I  Pet.  i,  2,  19;  I  John  i,  7,  v,  6-8;  Rev.  i, 
5),  and  this  with  such  predilection  and  emphasis 
that  the  place  given  to  the  death  of  Christ  in  the 
several  theories  which  have  been  framed  of  the 
nature  of  our  Lord's  work,  may  not  unfairly  be 
taken  as  a  test  of  their  scripturalness.  All  else 
that  Christ  does  for  us  in  the  breadth  of  his  redeem- 
ing work  is,  in  their  view,  conditioned  upon  his 
bearing  our  sins  in  his  own  body  on  the  tree;  so 
that  ''  the  fimdamental  characteristic  of  the  New 
Testament  conception  of  redemption  is  that  deliver- 
ance from  guilt  stands  first;  emancipation  from 
the  power  of  sin  follows  upon  it;  and  removal  of 
all  the  ills  of  life  constitutes  its  final  issue  "  (O. 
Kim,  art.  Erldsung  in  Hauck-Herzog,  RE,  v,  464; 
see  Redemption). 

The  exact  nature  of  Christ's  work  in  redemption 
was  not  made  the  subject  of  scientific  investigation 
in  the  early  Church.  This  was  due  partly,  no 
doubt,  just  to  the  clearness  of  the  New  Testament 
representation  of  it  as  a  piacular  sacrifice;  but  in 
pi^  also  to  the  engrossment  of  the  minds  of  the 
first  teachers  of  Christianity  with  more  immediately 
pressing  problems,  such  as  the  adjustment  of  the 
essential  elements  of  the  Christian  doctrines  of 
God  and  of  the  person  of  Christ,  and  the  establish- 
ment of  man's  helplessness  in  sin  and  absolute 
dependence  on  the  grace  of  God  for  salvation. 
Meanwhile  Christians  were  content  to  speak  of  the 
work  of  Christ  in  simple  scriptural  or  in  general 
language,  or  to  develop,  rather  by  way  of  illustra- 
tion than  of  explanation,  certain  aspects  of  it, 
chiefly  its  efficacy  as  a  sacrifice,  but 
2.  Develop-  also,  very  prominently,  its  working 
ment  of  the  as  a  ransom  in  delivering  us  from 
Doctrine,  bondage  to  Satan.  Thus  it  was  not 
until  the  end  of  the  eleventh  century 
that  the  nature  of  the  Atonement  received  at  the 
hands  of  Anselm  (d.  1109)  its  first  thorough  dis- 
cussion. Representing  it,  in  terms  derived  from 
the  Roman  law,  as  in  its  essence  a  **  satisfaction  " 
to  the  divine  justice,  Anselm  set  it  once  for  all  in 
its  true  relations  to  the  inherent  necessities  of  the 
divine  nature,  and  to  the  magnitude  of  human 
guilt;  and  thus  determined  the  outlines  of  the  doc- 
trine for  all  subsequent  thought.  Contemporaries 
like  Bernard  and  Abelard,  no  doubt,  and  perhaps 
not  imnaturally,  found  difficulty  in  assimilating 


at  once  the  newly  framed  doctrine;  the  former 
ignored  it  in  the  interests  of  the  old  notion  of  a 
ransom  offered  to   Satan;  the  latter  rejected  it 
in  the  interests  of  a  theory  of  moral  influence  upon 
man.    But  it  gradually  made  its  way.    The  Vio- 
torines,  Hugo  and  Richard,  united  with  it  oUier 
elements,  the  effect  of  which  was  to  cure  its  one- 
sidedness;  and  the  great  doctors  of  the  age  of 
developed   scholasticism  manifest  its  victory  by 
differing  from  one  another  chiefly  in  their  individual 
ways  of  stating  and  defending  it.    Bonaventura 
develops  it;  Aquinas  enriches  it  with  his  subtle 
distinctions;  Thonust  and  Scotist  alike  start  from 
it,  and  diverge  only  in  the  question  whether  the 
"  satisfaction  "  offered  by  Christ  was  intrinsically 
equivalent  to  the  requirements  of  the  divine  justice 
or  availed  for  this  purpose  only  through  the  gracious 
acceptance  of  God.    It  was  not,  however,  until  the 
Reformation  doctrine  of  justification  by  faith  threw 
its   light   back   upon   the   "  satisfaction "   which 
provided  its  basis,  that  that  doctrine  came  fully 
to  its  rights.    No  one  before  Luther  had  spoken 
with  the  clarity,  depth,  or  breadth  which  chaiacter- 
ize  his  references  to  Christ  as  our  deliverer,  first 
from  the  guilt  of  sin,  and  then,  because  from  the 
guilt  of  sin,  also  from  all  that  is  evil,  since  all  that 
is  evil  springs  from  sin  (cf.  T.  Hamack,  Luiher*a 
Theologief  ii,  Leipsic,  1886, 16-19,  and  Kim,  ut  sup., 
467).    These    vital     religious    conceptions     were 
reduced  to  scientific  statement  by  the  Protestant 
scholastics,  by  whom  it  was  that  the    complete 
doctrine  of  "  satisfaction  "  was  formulated  with  a 
thoroughness    and    comprehensiveness    of    grasp 
which  has  made  it  the  permanent  possession  of  the 
Church.    In    this,  its  developed  form,    it   repre- 
sents our  Lord  as  making  satisfaction  for  us  ''  by 
his  blood  and  righteousness";  on  the  one  hand, 
to  the  justice  of  God,  outraged  by  human  sin,  in 
bearing  the  penalty  due  to  our  guilt  in  his  own  sac- 
rificial death;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  to  the  demands 
of  the  law  of  God  requiring  perfect  obedience,  in 
fulfilling  in  his  immaculate  life  on  earth  as  the 
second  Adam  the  probation  which  Adam  failed  to 
keep;  bringing  to  bear  on  men  at  the  same  time 
and  by  means  of  the  same  double  work  every  con- 
ceivable influence  adapted  to  deter  them  from  sin 
and  to  win  them  back  to  good  and  to  God, — by  the 
highest  imaginable  demonstration  of  God's  right- 
eousness and  hatred  of  sin  and  the  supreme  mani- 
festation of  God's  love  and  eagerness  to  save;  by 
a  gracious  proclamation  of  full  forgiveness  of  sin 
in  the  blood  of  Christ;  by  a  winning  revelation  of 
the  spiritual  order  and  the  spiritual  world;  and  by 
the  moving  example  of  his  own  perfect  life  in  the 
conditions  of  this  world;  but,  above  all,  by  the  pur- 
chase of  the  gift  of  the  Holy  Spirit  for  his  people  as 
a  power  not   themselves  making  for  righteousness 
dwelling  within  them,  and  supernaturally  regen- 
erating their  hearts  and  conforming  their  lives  to 
his  image,  and  so  preparing  them  for  their  perma- 
nent place  in  the  new  order  of  things  which,  flow- 
ing from  this  redeeming  work,  shall  ultimately  be 
established  as  the  eternal  form  of  the  Kingdom  of 
God. 

Of  course,  this  great  comprehensive  doctrine  of 
"  the  satisfaction  of  Christ "  has  not  he&OL  per- 


851 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Atonement 


mitted  to  hold  the  field  without  controversy. 
Many  "  theories  of  the  atonement "  have  been 
constructed,  each  throwing  into  emphasis  a  frag- 
ment of  the  truth,  to  the  neglect  or  denial  of  the 
complementary  elements,  including  ordinarily  the 
central  matter  of  the  expiation  of  guilt  itself  (cf. 
T.  J.  Crawford,  The  Doctrine  of  Holy  Scripture 
Respecting  the  Atonement,  Edinburgh,  1888,  pp.  395- 
401;  A.  B.  Bruce,  The  Humiliation  of  Christ, 
Edinburgh,  1881,  lecture  7;  A.  A.  Hodge,  The 
Atonement,  Philadelphia,  1867,  pp.  17  sqq.).  E^ich 
main  form  of  these  theories,  in  some  method  of 
statement  or  other,  has  at  one  time  or  another 
seemed  on  the  point  of  becoming  the  common 
doctrine  of  the  Churches.  In  the  patristic  age 
men  spoke  with  such  predilection  of  the  work  of 
Christ  as  issuing  in  our  deliverance  from  the  power 
of  Satan  that  the  false  impression  is  very  readily 
obtained  from  a  cursory  survey  of  the  teaching  of 
the  Fathers  that  they  predominantly  conceived  it  as 
directed  to  that  sole  end.  The  so-called  "  mystical " 
view,  which  had  representatives  among  the  Greek 

Fathers  and  has  always  had  advo- 
3.  Various  cates  in  the  Church,  appeared  about 
Theories,    the  middle  of  the  last  century  almost 

ready  to  become  dominant  in  at  least 
Continental  Protestantism  through  the  inmiense 
influence  of  Schleiermacher.  The  "  rectoral  or 
governmental  theory,"  invented  by  Grotius  early 
in  the  seventeenth  century  in  the  effort  to  save 
somctliing  from  the  assault  of  the  Socinians,  has 
ever  since  provided  a  half-way  house  for  those  who, 
while  touched  by  the  chilling  breath  of  rationalism, 
have  yet  not  been  ready  to  surrender  every  sem- 
blance of  an  '*  objective  atonement,"  and  has 
therefore  come  very  prominently  forward  in  every 
era  of  decaying  faith.  The  "  moral  influence " 
theory,  whicli  in  the  person  of  perhaps  the  acutest 
of  all  the  scholastic  rcasoners,  Peter  Abelard,  con- 
fronted the  doctrine  of  "  satisfaction  "  at  its  formu- 
lation, in  its  vigorous  promulgation  by  the  Socin- 
ians and  again  by  the  lower  class  of  rationalists 
obtained  the  widest  currency;  and  again  in  our  own 
day,  its  enthusiastic  advocates,  by  perhaps  a  not 
unnatural  illusion,  are  tempted  to  claim  for  it  the 
final  victory  (so,  e.g.,  G.  B.  Stevens,  The  Christian 
Doctrine  of  Salvation,  New  York,  1905;  but  cf. 
per  contra,  of  the  same  school,  T.  V.  Tymms,  The 
Christian  Idea  of  Atonement,  London,  1904,  p.  8). 
But  no  one  of  these  theories,  however  attractively 
they  may  be  presented,  or  however  wide  an  accept- 
ance each  may  from  time  to  time  have  found  in 
academic  circles,  has  ever  been  able  to  supplant 
the  doctrine  of  **  satisfaction  "  either  in  the  formal 
creeds  of  the  Churches,  or  in  the  hearts  of  simple 
believers.  Despite  the  fluidity  of  much  recent  think- 
ing on  the  subject,  the  doctrine  of  "  satisfaction  " 
remains  to-day  the  established  doctrine  of  the 
Churches  as  to  the  nature  of  Christ's  work  of  re- 
demption, and  is  apparently  immovably  entrenched 
in  the  hearts  of  the  Christian  body  (cf.  J.  B.  Rem- 
ensnydcr,  The  Atonement  and  Modem  Thought, 
Philadelphia,  1905,  p.  xvi). 

n.  The  Five  Chief  Theories  of  the  Atonement: 
A  survey  of  the  various  theories  of  the  Atonement 
which  have  been  broached,  may  be  made  from 


many  points  of  view  (cf.  especially  the  survey  in 
T.  G.  Crawford,  ut  sup.,  pp.  385-401;  Bruce,  ut 
sup.,  lecture  7;  and  for  recent  German  views,  F.  A. 
B.  Nitzsch,  Lehrbuch  der  evangelischen  Dogmatikf 
Freiburg,  1892,  §§  43-46;  O.  Bensow,  Die  Lehre 
von  der  Veradhnung,  GQtersloh,  1904,  pp.  7-156; 
G.  A.  F.  Ecklin,  Erldsung  und  Veradhnung,  Basel, 
1903,  part  4).  Perhaps  as  good  a  method  as  any 
other  is  to  arrange  them  according  to  the  con- 
ception each  entertains  of  the  person  or  persons 
on  whom  the  work  of  Christ  terminates.  When 
so  arranged  they  fall  naturally  into  five  classes 
which  may  be  enumerated  here  in  the  ascending 
order. 

1,  Theories  which  conceive  the  work  of  Christ 
as  terminating  upon  Satan,  so  affecting  him  as  to 
secure  the  release  of  the  souls  held  in  bondage  by 
him.  These  theories,  which  have  been  described 
as  emphasizing  the  "  triumphantorial  "  aspect  of 
Christ's  work  (Ecklin,  ut  sup.,  pp.  113  sqq.)  had 
very  considerable  vogue  in  the  patristic  age  (e.g., 

Irenseus,  Hippolytus,  CHement  of  Alex- 
I.  The"Tri-andria,  Origen,  Basil,  the  two  Greg- 

umphan-  ories,  Cilyril  of  Alexandria,  down  to  and 
torial       including    John    of    Damascus    and 

Theory."  Nicholas  of  Methone;  Hilary,  Rufinus, 
Jerome,  Augustine,  Leo  the  Great,  and 
even  so  late  as  Bernard).  They  passed  out  of  view 
only  gradually  as  the  doctrine  of  "  satisfaction  " 
became  more  widely  known.  Not  only  does  the 
thought  of  a  Bernard  still  run  in  this  channel, 
but  even  Luther  utilized  the  conception.  The 
idea  runs  through  many  forms, — speaking  in 
some  of  them  of  buying  off,  in  some  of  overcoming, 
in  some  even  of  outwitting  (so,  e.g.,  Origen)  the 
devil.  But  it  would  be  unfair  to  suppose  that 
such  theories  represent  in  any  of  their  forms  the 
whole  thought  as  to  the  work  of  Christ  of  those 
who  made  use  of  them,  or  were  considered  by  them 
a  scientific  statement  of  the  work  of  Christ.  They 
rather  embody  only  their  author's  profound  sense 
of  the  bondage  in  which  men  arc  held  to  sin 
and  death,  and  vividly  set  forth  the  rescue  they 
conceive  Christ  has  wrought  for  us  in  overcoming 
him  who  has  the  power  of  death. 

2.  Theories  wliich  conceive  the  work  of  Christ 
as  terminating  physically  on  man,  so  affecting  him 
as  to  bring  him  by  an  interior  and  hidden  working 
upon  him  into  participation  ^\ith  the  one  life  of 
Christ;  the  so-ciolled  "  mystical  theories."  The 
fundamental  characteristic  of  these  theories  is  their 
discovery  of  the  saving  fact  not  in  anything  which 
Christ  taught  or  did,  but  in  what  he  was.  It  is 
upon  the  Incarnation,  rather  than  upon  Christ's 
teaching  or  his  work  that  they  throw  stress,  at- 
tributing the  saving  power  of  Christ  not  to  what  he 
does  for  us  but  to  what  he  does  in  us.  Tendencies 
to  this  type  of  theory  are  already  traceable  in  the 

Platonizing  Fathers;  and  with  the  en- 

2. "  Mystical  trance  of   the  more  developed  Neo- 

Theories"  platonism   into  the  stream  of  Chris- 

and  their   tian  thinking,  through  the  writings  of 

Advocates,  the  Pseudo-Dionysius  naturalized  in  the 

West  by  Johannes  Scotus  Erigena,  a 

constant  tradition  of  mystical  teaching  began  which 

never  died  out.    In  the  Reformation  age  this  type 


Atonemsnt 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


858 


of  thought  was  represented  by  men  like  Osiander. 
Schwenckfeld,  Franck,  Weigel,  Boehine.  In  the 
modem  Chmt;h  a  new  impulse  was  given  to  essen- 
tially the  same  mode  of  conception  by  Schleier- 
macher  and  his  followers  (e.g.,  C.  I.  Nitzsch,  Rothe, 
SchOberlein,  Lange,  Martensen),  among  whom  what 
is  known  as  the  **  Mercersburg  School  "  (see  Mer- 
CERSBURQ  Theoloot)  will  be  particularly  interest- 
ing to  Americans  (e.g.,  J.  W.  Nevin,  The  Mystical 
Presence,  Philadelphia,  1846).  A  very  influential 
writer  among  English  theologians  of  the  same  gen- 
eral class  was  F.  D.  Maurice  (1805-72),  although 
he  added  to  his  fundamental  mystical  conception  of 
the  work  of  Christ  the  further  notions  that  Christ 
fully  identified  himself  with  us  and,  thus  partaking 
of  our  sufferings,  set  us  a  perfect  example  of  sacri- 
fice of  self  to  God  (cf .  especially  Theological  Essays, 
London,  1853;  The  Doctrine  of  Sacrifice,  Cambridge, 
1854;  new  ed.,  1879).  Here,  too,  must  be  classed 
the  theory  suggested  in  the  writings  of  the  late 
B.  F.  Westcott  (The  Victory  of  the  Cross,  London, 
1888),  which  was  based  on  a  hypothesis  of  the  effi- 
cacy of  Christ's  blood,  borrowed  apparently  directly 
from  William  Milligan  (cf .  The  Ascension  and  Heav- 
enly Highpriesthood  of  our  Lord,  London,  1892) 
though  it  goes  back  ultimately  to  the  Socinians, 
to  the  effect  that  Christ's  offering  of  himself  is 
not  to  be  identified  with  his  sufferings  and  death, 
but  rather  with  the  presentation  of  his  life  (which 
is  in  his  blood,  set  free  by  death  for  this  purpose) 
in  heaven.  *'  Taking  this  blood  as  efficacious 
by  virtue  of  the  vitality  which  it  contains,  Dr. 
Westcott  holds  that  it  was  set  free  from  Christ's 
body  that  it  might  vitalize  ours,  as  it  were,  by 
transfusion"  (C.  H.  Waller,  in  the  Presbyterian 
and  Reformed  Review,  ii,  1892,  p.  656).  Some- 
what similarly  H.  Clay  Trumbell  (The  Blood 
Covenant,  New  York,  1885)  looks  upon  sacrifices 
as  only  a  form  of  blood  covenanting,  i.e.,  of 
instituting  blood-brotherhood  between  man  and 
God  by  transfusion  of  blood;  and  explains  the 
sacrifice  of  Christ  as  representing  communing  in 
blood,  i.e.,  in  the  principle  of  life,  between  God  and 
man,  both  of  whom  Christ  represents.  The  theory 
which  has  been  called  "  salvation  by  sample,"  or 
salvation  "  by  gradually  extirpated  depravity," 
also  has  its  affinities  here.  Something  like  it  is  as 
old  as  Felix  of  Urgel  (d.  818;  see  Adoptionism), 
and  it  has  been  taught  in  its  full  development  by 
Dippel  (1673-1734),  Swedenborg  (1688-1772),  Men- 
ken (1768-1831),  and  especially  by  Edward  Irving 
(1792-1834),  and,  of  course,  by  the  modem  followers 
of  Swedenborg  (e.g.,  B.  F.  Barrett).  The  essence 
of  this  theory  is  that  what  was  assumed  by  our 
Lord  was  human  nature  as  he  found  it,  that  is,  as 
fallen;  and  that  this  human  nature,  as  assumed  by 
him,  was  by  the  power  of  his  divine  nature  (or  of 
the  Holy  Spirit  dwelling  in  him  beyond  measure) 
not  only  kept  from  sinning,  but  purified  from  sin 
and  presented  perfect  before  God  as  the  first-fruits 
of  a  saved  himianity;  men  being  saved  as  they  be- 
come partakers  (by  faith)  of  this  purified  humanity, 
as  they  become  leavened  by  this  new  leaven.  Cer- 
tain of  the  elements  which  the  great  German  theo- 
logian J.  C.  K.  von  Hofmann  built  into  his  compli- 
cated and  not  altogether  stable  theory — a  theory 


which  was  the  occasion  of  much  discussion  about 
the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century — reproduce 
some  of  the  characteristic  language  of  the  theory 
of  "  salvation  by  sample." 

8.  Theories  which  conceive  the  work  of  Christ  as 
terminating  on  man,  in  the  way  of  bringing  to  bear 
on  him  inducements  to  action;  so  affecting  man  as 
to  lead  him  to  a  better  knowledge  of  God,  or  to  a 
more  lively  sense  of  his  real  relation  to  God,  or  to 
a  revolutionary  change  of  heart  and  life  with  refer- 
ence to  God;  the  so-called  "  moral  in- 

3.  "Moral   fluence  theories."    The  essence  of  all 

Influence    these  theories  is  that  they  transfer  the 

Theories.*'  atoning  fact  from  the  work  of  Chnst 

The  Essen-  to  the  response  of  the  human  soul  to 

tial Thought,  the  influences  or  appeals  proceeding 
from  the  work  of  Christ.  The  work  of 
Christ  takes  inunediate  effect  not  on  God  but  on 
man,  leading  him  to  a  state  of  mind  and  heart  which 
will  be  acceptable  to  God,  through  the  medium  of 
which  alone  can  the  work  of  Christ  be  said  to  affect 
God.  At  its  highest  level,  this  will  mean  that  the 
work  of  Christ  is  directed  to  leading  man  to  repent- 
ance and  faith,  which  repentance  and  faith  secure 
God's  favor,  an  effect  which  can  be  attributed  to 
Christ's  work  only  mediately,  that  is,  through  the 
medium  of  the  repentance  and  faith  it  produces  in 
man.  Accordingly,  it  has  become  quite  common 
to  say,  in  this  school,  that  "  it  is  faith  and  repent- 
ance which  change  the  face  of  God;"  and  advo- 
cates of  this  class  of  theories  sometimes  say  with 
entire  frankness,  "  There  is  no  atonement  other 
than  repentance"  (Auguste  Sabatier,  La  Doctrine 
de  V  expiation  et  son  tvolution  historique,  Paris,  1903, 
Eng.  transl.,  London,  1904,  p.  127). 

Theories  of  this  general  type  differ  from  one  an- 
other, according  as,  among  the  instrumentalities 
by  means  of  which  Christ  affects  the  minds  and 
hearts  and  actions  of  men,  the  stress  is  laid  upon 
his  teaching,  or  his  example,  or  the  impression 
made  by  his  life  of  faith,  or  the  manifestation  of  the 
infinite  love  of  God  afforded  by  his  total  mission. 
The  most  powerful  presentation  of  the  first  of  these 
conceptions  ever  made  was  probably  that  of  the 
Socinians  (followed  later  by  the  rationalists,  both 
earlier  and  later, — Tdllner,  Bahrdt,  Steinbart,  Eber- 
hard,  Ldffler,  Henke,  Wegscheider).  They  looked 
upon  the  work  of  Christ  as  summed 

4.  Various  up  in  the  proclamation  of  the  willing- 
Forms  of    ness  of  God  to  forgive  sin,  on  the  sole 

These  condition  of  its  abandonment;  and 
Theories,  explained  his  sufferings  and  death  as 
merely  those  of  a  martyr  in  the  cause 
of  righteousness  or  in  some  other  non-essential  way. 
The  theories  which  lay  the  stress  of  Christ's  work 
on  the  example  he  has  set  us  of  a  high  and  faithful 
life,  or  of  a  life  of  self-sacrificing  love,  have  found 
popular  representatives  not  only  in  the  subtle  theory 
with  which  F.  D.  Maurice  pieced  out  his  mystical 
view,  and  in  the  somewhat  amorphous  ideas  with 
which  the  great  preacher  F.  W.  Robertson  dothed 
his  conception  of  Christ's  life  as  simply  a  long  (and 
hopeless)  battle  against  the  evil  of  the  worid  to 
which  it  at  last  succumbed;  but  more  lately  in 
writers  like  Auguste  Sabatier,  who  does  not  stop 
short  of  transmuting  Christianity  into  bald  altni- 


858 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Atonemsnt 


ism,  and  making  it  into  what  he  calls  the  religion 
of  "  universal  redemption  by  love,"  that  is 
to  say,  anybody's  love,  not  specifically  Christ's 
love, — for  everyone  who  loves  takes  his  position 
by  Christ's  side  as,  if  not  equally,  yet  as  truly, 
a  savior  as  he  (The  Doctrine  of  the  Atonement 
in  its  Historical  Evolution,  Eng.  transl.,  ut  sup., 
pp.  131-134;  so  also  Otto  Pfleiderer,  Das  Chris- 
tusbild  des  urchrisUichen  Olaubens  in  rdigions- 
geschichtlicher  JBdeuchtung,  Berlin,  1903,  Eng. 
transl.,  London,  1906,  pp.  164-165;  cf.  Horace 
Bushnell,  Vicarious  Sacrifice,  New  York,  1865,  p. 
107:  ''  Vicarious  sacrifice  was  in  no  way  pecul- 
iar"). In  this  same  general  category  belongs 
also  the  theory  which  Albrecht  Ritschl  has 
given  such  wide  influence.  According  to  it,  the 
work  of  Christ  consists  in  the  establishment  of  the 
Kingdom  of  God  in  the  world,  that  is,  in  the  revela- 
tion of  God's  love  to  men  and  his  gracious  purposes 
for  men.  Thus  Jesus  becomes  the  first  object  of 
this  love  and  as  such  its  mediator  to  others;  his 
sufferings  and  death  being,  on  the  one  side,  a  test 
of  his  steadfastness,  and,  on  the  other,  the  crown- 
ing proof  of  his  obedience  (Rechtfertigung  und 
Versdhnung,  iii,  {§  41-^1, 3d  ed.,  Bonn,  1888,  Eng. 
transl.,  Ekiinburgh,  1900).  Similarly  also,  though 
with  many  modifications,  which  are  in  some  in- 
stances not  insignificant,  such  writers  as  W.  Herr- 
mann {Der  Verkekr  des  Christen  mit  Gott,  Stuttgart, 
1886,  p.  93,  Eng.  transl.,  London,  1895),  J.  Kaftan 
{Dogmatik,  Tubingen,  1901,  pp.  446  sqq.),  F.  A. 
B.  Nitzsch  {Evangdische  Dogmatik,  Freiburg,  1892, 
pp.  504-513),  T.  Kftring  (in  his  Ueber  das  Blei- 
bende  im  Glavben  an  Christiis,  Stuttgart,  1880, 
where  he  sought  to  complete  Ritschl's  view  by 
the  addition  of  the  idea  that  Christ  offered  to  God 
a  perfect  sorrow  for  the  world's  sin,  which  supple- 
ments our  imperfect  repentance;  in  his  later  wri- 
tings, Zu  Ritschl's  Versdhnungslehre,  Zurich, 
1888,  Zur  Versdhnungslehre,  GOttingen,  1893,  he 
assimilates  to  the  Grotian  theory),  E.  Ktthl  (Die 
HeilshedeiUung  des  Todes  Christi,  Berlin,  1890), 
G.  A.  F.  Ecklin  (Die  HeilsweHh  des  Todes  Jesu, 
GQtersloh,  1888;  Christus  Unser  BUrge,  Basel,  1900; 
and  especially  Erldsung  und  Versdhnung,  1903, 
wliich  is  an  elaborate  history  of  the  doctrine  from 
the  point  of  view  of  what  Ecklin  calls  in  antag- 
onism to  the  "  substitutional-expiatory  "  concep- 
tion, the  "  solidaric-reparatory  "  conception  of  the 
Atonement, — the  conception,  that  is,  that  Christ 
comes  to  save  men  not  primarily  from  the  guilt,  but 
from  the  power  of  sin,  and  that  ''  the  sole  satisfac- 
tion God  demands  for  his  outraged  honor  is  the 
restoration  of  obedience,"  p.  647).  The  most  pop- 
ular form  of  the  "  moral  influence  "  theories  has 
always  been  that  in  which  the  stress  is  laid  on  the 
manifestation  made  in  the  total  mission  and  work 
of  Christ  of  the  ineffable  and  searching  love  of  God 
for  sinners,  which,  being  perceived,  breaks  down 
our  opposition  to  God,  melts  our  hearts,  and  brings 
us  as  prodigals  home  to  the  Father's  arms.  It  is 
in  this  form  that  the  theory  was  advocated  (but 
with  the  suggestion  that  there  is  another  side  to  it), 
for  example,  by  S.  T.  Coleridge  (Aids  to  Reflec- 
tion), and  that  it  was  commended  to  English-speak- 
ing readers  of  the  last  generation  with  the  highest 


ability  by  John  Young  of  Edinburgh  (The  Life  and 
Light  of  Men,  London,  1866),  and  with  the  great- 
est literary  attractiveness  by  Horace  Bushnell  (Vi- 
cariaus  Sacrifice,  New  York,  1865;  see  below,  § 
7;  see  also  article  Bushnell,  Horace);  and  has 
been  more  recently  set  forth  in  elaborate  and  vigor- 
ously polemic  form  by  W.  N.  Clarke  (An  Outline 
of  Christian  Theology,  New  York,  1898,  pp.  341- 
367),  T.  Vincent  Tymms  (The  Christian  Idea  of 
Atonement,  London,  1904),  G.  B.  Stevens  (The 
Christian  Doctrine  of  Salvation,  New  York,  1905), 
and  C.  M.  Mead  ( Irenic  Theology,  New  York,  1905). 

In  a  volume  of  essays  published  first  in  the  An- 
dover  Review  (iv,  1885,  pp.  57  sqq.)  and  afterward 
gathered  into  a  volume  under  the  title  of  Progres- 
sive Orthodoxy  (Boston,  1886),  the  professors  in 
Andover  Seminary  made  an  attempt  (the  writer 
here  being,  as  was  understood,  George  Harris)  to 
enrich  the  ''  moral  influence  "  theory  of  the  Atone- 
ment after  a  fashion  quite  common  in  Germany  (cf ., 
e.g.,  H&ring,  ut  sup.)  with  elements  derived  from 
other  well-known  forms  of  teaching.  In  this  con- 
struction, Christ's  work  is  made  to  consist  primarily 
in  bringing  to  bear  on  man  a  revelation  of  God's 
hatred  of  sin,  and  love  for  souls,  by  which  he  makes 
man  capable  of  repentance  and  leads  him  to  repent 
revolutionarily;  by  this  repentance,  then,  together 
with  Christ's  own  sympathetic  expression  of  re- 
pentance God  is  rendered  propitious.  Here  ChnaVa 
work  is  supposed  to  have  at  least  some  (though  a  sec- 
ondary) effect  upon  God;  and  a  work  of  propitia- 
tion of  God  by  Christ  may  be  spoken  of,  although 
it  is  accomplished  by  a  "  sympathetic  repentance." 
It  has  accordingly  become  usual  with  those  who 
have  adopted  this  mode  of  representation  to  say 
that  there  was  in  this  atoning  work,  not  indeed 
"  a  substitution  of  a  sinless  Christ  for  a  sinful  race," 
but  a  "  substitution  of  humanity  plus  Christ  for 
humanity  minus  Christ."  By  such  ciuiously  com- 
pacted theories  the  transition  is  made  to  the  next 
class. 

4.  Theories  which  conceive  the  work  of  CJhrist  as 
terminating  on  both  man  and  God,  but  on  man  pri- 
marily and  on  God  only  secondarily.  The  outstand- 
ing instance  of  this  class  of  theories  is  suppUed  by 
the  so-called  "  rectoral  or  governmental  theories." 
These  suppose  that  the  work  of  Christ  so  affects 
man  by  the  spectacle  of  the  sufferings  borne  by 
him  as  to  deter  men  from  sin;  and  by  thus  deter- 
ring men  from  sin  enables  God  to  for- 
5.  "Rector-  give  sin  with  safety  to  his  moral  gov- 
al  or  Gov-  emment  of  the  worid.  In  these 
emmental  theories  the  sufferings  and  death  of 
Theories.  **  Christ  become,  for  the  first  time  in 
this  conspectus  of  theories,  of  cardinal 
importance,  constituting  indeed  the  very  essence  of 
the  work  of  Christ.  But  the  atoning  fact  here  too, 
no  less  than  in  the  "  moral  influence  "  theories,  is 
man's  own  reformation,  though  this  reformation  is 
supposed  in  the  rectoral  view  to  be  wrought  not  pri- 
marily by  breaking  down  man's  opposition  to  God 
by  a  moving  manifestation  of  the  love  of  God  in 
Christ,  but  by  inducing  in  man  a  horror  of  sin, 
through  the  spectacle  of  God's  hatred  of  sin  af- 
forded by  the  sufferings  of  Christ, — through  which, 
no  doubt,  the  contemplation  of  man  is  led  on  to 


Atonement 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


854 


God's  love  to  sinners  as  exhibited  in  his  willing- 
ness to  inflict  all  these  sufferings  on  his  own  son, 
that  he  might  be  enabled,  with  justice  to  his  moral 
government,  to  forgive  sins. 

This  theory  was  worked  out  by  the  great  Dutch 
jurist  Hugo  Grotius  {Defensio  fidei  ChristiancB  de 
Botisfactione  Ckrisiit  etc.,  Leyden,  1617 ;  modem 
ed.,  Oxford,  1856;  Eng.  transl.,  with  notes  and 
introduction  by  F.  H.  Foster,  Andover,  1889)  as 
an  attempt  to  save  what  was  salvable  of  the  es- 
tablished doctrine  of  satisfaction  from  disintegration 
under  the  attacks  of  the  Socinian  advocates  of  the 
"  moral  influence"  theories  (see  Grotius,  Hugo). 
It  was  at  once  adopted  by  those  Ar- 
6.  Advocates  minians  who  had  been  most  affected 
of  These  by  the  Socinian  reasoning;  and  in  the 
Theories,  next  age  became  the  especial  property 
of  the  better  class  of  the  so-called  su- 
pranatiu'alists  (Michaelis,  Storr,  Moms,  Knapp, 
Steudel,  Reinhard,  Mimtinge,  Vinke,  Egeling).  It 
has  remained  on  the  continent  of  Europe  to  this 
day,  the  refuge  of  most  of  those,  who,  influenced 
by  the  modem  spirit,  yet  wish  to  preserve  some 
form  of  "  objective,"  that  is,  of  Godward  atone- 
ment. A  great  variety  of  representations  have 
grown  up  imder  this  influence,  combining  elements 
of  the  satisfaction  and  rectoral  views.  To  name 
but  a  single  typical  instance,  the  commentator  F. 
Godet,  both  in  his  conmientaries  (especially  that 
on  Romans)  and  in  a  more  recent  essay  (published 
in  The  Atonement  in  Modem  Thought  by  various 
writers,  London,  1900,  pp.  331  sqq.),  teaches  (certain- 
ly in  a  very  high  form)  the  rectoral  theory  distinctly 
(and  is  corrected  therefor  by  his  colleague  at  Neu- 
ohAtel,  Prof.  Gretillat,  who  wishes  an  "  ontolog- 
ical "  rather  than  a  merely  "  demonstrative  "  neces- 
sity for  atonement  to  be  recognized).  Its  history 
has  run  on  similar  lines  in  English-speaking  coun- 
tries. In  Great  Britain  and  America  alike  it  has 
become  practically  the  orthodoxy  of  the  Independ- 
ents. It  has,  for  example,  been  taught  as  such  in 
the  former  coimtry  by  Joseph  Gilbert  {The  Chris- 
tian Atonement,  London,  1836),  and  in  especially 
well  worked-out  forms  by  R.  W.  Dale  {The  Atone- 
ment,  London,  1876)  and  Alfred  Cave  {The  Scrip- 
tural Doctrine  of  Sacrifice,  Edinburgh,  1877;  new 
ed.  with  title,  The  Scriptural  Doctrine  of  Atonement 
and  Sacrifice,  1890;  and  in  The  Atonement  in  Modem 
Thought,  ut  sup.,  pp.  250  sqq.).  When  the  Cal- 
vinism of  the  New  England  Puritans  began  to  break 
down,  one  of  the  symptoms  of  its  decay  was  the 
gradual  substitution  of  the  rectoral  for  the  satis- 
faction view  of  the  Atonement.  The  process  may 
be  traced  in  the  writings  of  Joseph  Bellamy  (1719- 
90),  Samuel  Hopkins  (1721-1803),  John  Smalley 
(1736-1820),  Stephen  West  (1735-1819),  Jonathan 
Edwards,  Jr.  (1745-1801),  Nathanael  Enamons 
(1745-1800);  and  Edwards  A.  Park  was  able,  ac- 
cordingly, in  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century 
to  set  the  rectoral  theory  forth  as  the  "  traditional 
orthodox  doctrine  "  of  the  American  Congregation- 
alists  {The  Atonement:  Discourses  and  Treatises  by 
Edwards,  Smalley,  Maxcy,  Emmons,  Griffin,  Burge, 
and  Weeks,  with  an  Introductory  Essay  by  Edwards 
A.  Park,  Boston,  1859;  cf.  Daniel  T.  Fiske,  in  the 
Bibliotheca  Sacra,  Apr.,  1861,  and  further  N.  S.  S. 


Beman,  Sermons  on  the  Atonement,  New  York,  1825, 
2d  ed.,  1846;  N.  W.  Taylor,  Lectures  an  the  Moral 
Government  of  God,  New  York,  1859;  Albert  Barnes, 
The  Atonement  in  its  Relation  to  Law  and  Moral 
Government,  Philadelphia,  1859;  Frank  H.  Foster, 
Christian  Life  and  Theology,  New  York,  1900;  Lewis 
F.  Steams,  Present  Day  Theology,  New  York,  1893). 
The  early  Wesleyans  also  gravitated  toward  the 
rectoral  theory,  though  not  without  some  hesitation, 
a  hesitation  which  has  sustained  itself  among  Biit- 
ish  Wesleyans  until  to-day  (cf.,  e.g.,  W.  B.  Pope, 
Compendium  of  Christian  Theology,  London,  1875; 
Marshall  Randies,  Substitution,  a  Treatise  on  the 
Atonement,  London,  1877;  T.  O.  Summers,  Sys- 
tematic Theology,  2  vols.,  Nashville,  Tenn.,  1888; 
J.  J.  Tigert,  in  the  Methodist  Quarterly  Review,  Apr., 
1884),  although  many  among  them  have  tau^t  the 
rectoral  theory  with  great  distinctness  and  decision 
(e.g.,  Joseph  Agar  Beet,  in  the  Expositor,  Nov.,  1892, 
pp.  343-355;  Through  Christ  to  God,  London,  1893). 
On  the  other  hand,  the  rectoral  theory  has  been 
the  regnant  one  among  American  Methodists  and 
has  received  some  of  its  best  statements  from  their 
hands  (cf.  especially  John  Miley,  The  Atonement  of 
Christ,  New  York,  1879;  SysUmatic  Theology,  ii. 
New  York,  1894,  pp.  65-240);  although  there  are 
voices  raised  of  late  in  denial  of  its  claim  to  be  con- 
sidered distinctively  the  doctrine  of  the  Methodist 
Church  (J.  J.  Tigert,  ut  sup.;  H.  C.  Sheldon, in  AJT, 
viii,  1904,  pp.  41-42). 

The  flnsd  form  which  Horace  Bushnell  gave  his 
version  of  the  "  moral  influence "  theory,  in  his 
Forgiveness  and  Law  (New  York,  1874;  made  the 
second  volume  to  his  revised  Vicarious  Sacrifice, 
1877)  stands  in  no  relation  to  the  rectoral  theories; 
but  it  requires  to  be  mentioned  here  by  their  side, 

because  it  supposes  like  them  that 
7.  Horace  the  work  of  Christ  has  a  secondary  ef- 
Bushnell.     feet  on  God,  although  its  primary  effect 

is  on  man.  In  this  presentation,  Bush- 
nell represents  Christ's  work  as  consisting  in  a  pro- 
foimd  identification  of  himself  with  man,  the  effect 
of  which  is,  on  the  one  side,  to  manifest  God's  love 
to  man  and  so  to  conquer  man  to  him,  and,  on  the 
other,  as  he  expresses  it,  ''to  make  cost  "  on  God's 
part  for  man,  and  so,  by  breaking  down  God's 
resentment  to  man,  to  prepare  God's  heart  to 
receive  man  back  when  he  comes.  The  imderlying 
idea  is  that  whenever  we  do  anything  for  those 
who  have  injured  us,  and  in  proportion  as  it  costs 
us  something  to  do  it,  our  natural  resentment  of  the 
injury  we  have  suffered  is  undermined,  and  we  are 
prepared  to  forgive  the  injury  when  forgiveness 
is  sought.  By  this  theory  the  transition  is  nat- 
urally made  to  the  next  class. 

5.  Theories  which  conceive  the  work  of  Christ 
as  terminating  primarily  on  God  and  secoruiarily 

on  man.    The  lowest  form  in  which 

8.  **  Theo-  this  ultimate  position  can  be  said  to 

ries  of      be  fairly  taken,  is  doubtless  that  set 

Reconcilia-  forth    in    his   remarkably    attractive 

tion."      way  by  John  McLeod  Campbell  {The 

Nature  of  the  Atonement  and  its  Rela- 
tion to  Remission  of  Sins  and  Eternal  Life,  Lon- 
don, 1856;  4th  ed.,  1875),  and  lately  argued  out 
afresh  with  even  more  thaii  Campbell's  winningneBS 


365 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


At<mem«nt 


and  far  more  than  his  cogency,  depth,  and  richness, 
by  the  late  R.  C.  Moberly  (Atonement  and  Person- 
oliiyy  London,  1901).  This  theory  supposes  that 
our  Lord,  by  sympathetically  entering  into  our 
condition  (an  idea  independently  suggested  by 
Schleiermacher,  and  emphasized  by  many  conti- 
nental thinkers,  as,  for  example,  to  name  only  a 
pair  with  little  else  in  common,  by  Gess  and  H&ring), 
so  keenly  felt  our  sins  as  his  own,  that  he  could 
confess  and  adequately  repent  of  them  before  God; 
and  this  is  all  the  expiation  justice  asks.  Here 
''sympathetic  identification"  replaces  the  con- 
ception of  substitution;  "  sodality,"  of  race-unity; 
and  ''  repentance,"  of  expiation.  Nevertheless, 
the  theory  rises  immeasurably  above  the  mass  of 
those  already  enumerated,  in  looking  upon  Christ 
as  really  a  Savior,  who  performs  a  really  saving 
work,  terminating  immecUately  on  God.  Despite 
its  insufficiencies,  therefore,  which  have  caused 
writers  like  Edwards  A.  Park,  and  A.  B.  Bruce 
{The  HumiliaUon  of  Christ,  ut  sup.,  pp.  317-318) 
to  speak  of  it  with  a  tinge  of  contempt,  it  has 
exercised  a  very  wide  influence  and  elements  of 
it  are  discoverable  in  many  constructions  which 
stand  far  removed  from  its  fundamental  pre- 
suppositions. 

The  so-called  "  middle  theory  "  of  the  Atonement, 
which  owes  its  name  to  its  supposed  intermediate 
position  between  the  "moral  influence"  theories 
and  the  doctrine  of  "  satisfaction,"  seems  to  have 
offered  attractions  to  the  latitudinarian  writers 
of  the  closing  eighteenth  and  opening  nineteenth 
centuries.  At  that  time  it  was  taught  in  John 
Balguy's  Essay  an  Redemption  (London,  1741), 
Henry  Taylor's  Apology  of  Ben  Mordecai  (London, 
17S4),  and  Richard  Price's  Sermons  on  Christian 
Doctrine  (London,  1737;  cf.  Hill's  Lectures  on 
Divinity,  ed.  1851,  pp.  422  sqq.).  Basing  on  the 
conception  of  sacrifices  which  looks  upon  them  as 

merely  gifts  designed  to  secure  the 
Q.  Certain  good-will  of  the  King,  the  advocates 
"  Sacrificial  of  this  theory  regard  the  work  of 
Theories."  Christ  as   consisting    in  the  offering 

to  God  of  Christ's  perfect  obedience 
even  to  death,  and  by  it  purchasing  God's  favor 
and  the  right  to  do  as  he  would  with  those  whom 
God  gave  him  as  a  reward.  By  the  side  of  this 
theory  may  be  placed  the  ordinary  Remonstrant  the- 
ory of  acceptilatio,  which,  reviving  this  Scotist  con- 
ception, is  willing  to  allow  that  the  work  of  Christ 
was  of  the  nature  of  an  expiatory  sacrifice,  but  is 
unwilling  to  allow  that  his  blood  any  more  than  that 
of  '*  bulls  and  goats  "  had  intrinsic  value  equivalent 
to  the  fault  for  which  it  was  graciously  accepted 
by  God  as  an  atonement.  This  theory  may  be 
found  expounded,  for  example,  in  Limborch 
(Theologia  Christiana,  4th  ed.,  Amsterdam,  1715, 
iii,  chape,  xviii-xxiii).  Such  theories,  while  pre- 
serving the  sacrificial  form  of  the  Biblical  doctrine, 
and,  with  it,  its  inseparable  implication  that  the 
work  of  Christ  has  as  its  primary  end  to  affect  God 
and  secure  from  him  favorable  regard  for  man 
(for  it  is  always  to  God  that  sacrifices  are  offered), 
yet  fall  so  far  short  of  the  Biblical  doctrine  of  the 
nature  and  effect  of  Christ's  sacrifice  as  to  seem 
little  less  than  travesties  of  it. 


The  Biblical  doctrine  of  the  sacrifice  of  Christ 
finds  full  recognition  in  no  other  construction  than 
that  of  the  established  church-doctrine  of  satisfac- 
tion. According  to  it,  our  Lord's  redeeming  work 
is  at  its  core  a  true  and  perfect  sacrifice  offered  to 
God,  of  intrinsic  value  ample  for  the  expiation  of  our 
guilt;  and  at  the  same  time  is  a  true  and  perfect 
righteousness  offered  to  God  in  fulfilment  of  the 
demands  of  his  law;  both  the  one  and  the  other 
being  offered  in  behalf  of  his  people,  and,  on  being 
accepted  by  God,  accruing  to  their  benefit;  so 
that  by  this  satisfaction  they  are  relieved  at  once 

from  the  curse  of  their  guilt  as  breakers 

10.  The     of  the  law,  and  from  the  burden  of  the 

Doctrine  of  law  as  a  condition  of  life;  and  this  by 

"Satisfac-  a  work  of  such  kind  and  performed 

tion."      in  such  a  manner,  as  to  carry  home 

to  the  hearts  of  men  a  profound 
sense  of  the  indefectible  righteousness  of  God 
and  to  make  to  them  a  perfect  revelation  of  his 
love;  so  that,  by  this  one  and  indivisible  work, 
both  God  is  reconciled  to  us,  and  we,  under 
the  quickening  influence  of  the  Spirit  bought 
for  us  by  it,  arc  reconciled  to  God,  so  making 
peace — external  peace  between  an  angry  God  and 
sinful  men,  and  internal  peace  in  the  response  of 
the  hmnan  conscience  to  the  restored  smile  of 
God.  This  doctrine,  which  has  been  incorporated 
in  more  or  less  fulness  of  statement  in  the  creedal 
declarations  of  all  the  great  branches  of  the 
Church,  Greek,  Latin,  Lutheran,  and  Reformed, 
and  which  has  been  expounded  with  more  or  less 
insight  and  power  by  the  leading  doctors  of  the 
Churches  for  the  last  eight  hundred  years,  was  first 
given  scientific  statement  by  Anselm  (q.v.)  in  his  Cur 
Deus  homo  (1098);  but  reached  its  complete  devel- 
opment only  at  the  hands  of  the  so-called  Protes- 
tant Scholastics  of  the  seventeenth  century  (cf., 
e.g.,  Turretin,  The  Atonement  of  Christ,  transl.  by 
J.  R.  WiUson,  New  York,  1859;  John  Owen,  The 
Death  of  Death  in  the  Death  of  Christ,  1650,  Edin- 
burgh, 1845).  Among  the  numerous  modem 
presentations  of  the  doctrine  the  following  may 
perhaps  be  most  profitably  consulted.  Of  Con- 
tinental writers:  August  Tholuck,  Lehre  von  der 
SUnde  und  von  der  Versdhnung  (Hamburg,  1823); 
F.  A.  Philippi,  Kirchliche  Glaubenslehre  (Stuttgart, 
1864-^2),  IV,  ii,  24  sqq.;  G.  Thomasius,  Christi 
Person  und  Werk  (3d  ed.,  Leipsic,  1886-88),  vol.  ii; 
E.  B6hl,  Dogmatik  (Leipsic,  1887),  pp.  361  sqq.; 
J.  F.  Bula,  Die  Versdhnung  des  Menschen  mit  GoU 
(Basel,  1874);  W.  KOlling,  Die  Saiisfactio  vicaria 
(2  vols.,  Gtttersloh,  1897-99);  Merie  d'Aubign^, 
U Expiation  de  la  croix  (Geneva,  1868);  A.  GretiUat, 
EzposS  de  thiologie  syst&matique  (Paris,  1892),  iv, 
pp.  278  sqq.;  A.  Kuyper,  E  Voto  Dordraceno  (Am- 
sterdam, 1892),  i,  pp.  79  sqq.,  388  sqq.;  H.  Bavink, 
Gereformeerde  Dogmatik  (Kampen,  1898),  iii,  pp. 
302-424.  Of  writers  in  English:  The  appropriate 
sections  of  the  treatises  on  dogmatics  by  C.  Hodge, 
A.  H.  Strong,  W.  G.  T.  Shedd,  R.  S.  Dabney,  and 
the  following  separate  treatises:  W.  Symington, 
On  the  Atonement  and  Intercession  of  Jesus  Christ 
(New  York,  1852;  defective,  as  excluding  the  "ac- 
tive obedience  "  of  Christ);  R.  S.  Candlish,  The 
Atonement,  its  Efficacy  and  Extent  (London,  1867); 


Atonement 
Atterlmry 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


856 


A.  A.  Hodge,  The  Atonement  (Philadelphia,  1867; 
new  ed.,  1877);  George  Smeaton,  The  Doctrine  of 
the  Atonement  aa  Taught  by  Christ  Himself  (Edin- 
burgh, 1808;  2d  ed.,  1871);  idem,  The  Doctrine  of 
the  Atonement  as  Taught  by  the  Apostles  (1870);  T.J. 
Crawford,  The  Doctrine  of  the  Holy  Scriptures 
Respecting  the  Atonement  (London,  1871;  5th  ed., 
1888);  Hugh  Martin,  The  Atonement  in  its  Relations 
to  the  Covenant^  the  Priesthood,  the  Intercession  of 
our  Lord  (London,  1870).    See  Satispaction. 

Benjamin  B.  Warfield. 

Bibuoorapht:  The  more  important  treatises  on  the  Atone- 
ment have  been  named  in  the  body  of  the  article.  The 
history  of  the  doctrine  has  been  written  with  a  fair  degree 
of  objectivity  by  Ferdinand  Christian  Baur,  Die  Christ- 
liche  Lehre  von  der  VerMdhnung  in  ihrer  getehidUlichen  Enl- 
vnckelunot  Tttbingen,  1838;  and  with  more  subjectivity 
by  Albrecht  Ritsohl  in  the  first  volume  of  his  RedUferti- 
ffuno  und  Vtrtdhnuno^  3d  ed.,  Bonn,  1889,  Eng.  tnmsl. 
from  the  first  ed.,  1870.  A  CriHcal  History  of  the  Christian 
Doctrine  of  JustificaHon  and  Reconciliation,  Edinburgh, 
1872.  Excellent  historical  sketches  are  given  by  G.  Tho- 
masius,  in  the  second  volume  of  his  Christi  Person  und 
Werkt  pp.  113  sqq.,  3d  ed.,  Leipsic,  1886,  from  the  oon- 
fessional,  and  by  F.  A.  B.  Nitssch,  in  his  Lehrbueh  der 
evanoelischen  DoomoHk,  pp.  467  sqq.,  Freiburg,  1802, 
from  the  mdral  influence  standpoint.  More  recently  the 
history  has  been  somewhat  sketchily  written  from  the 
general  confessional  standpoint  by  Oscar  Benson  as  the 
first  part  of  his  Die  Lehre  von  der  Versdhnung,  GQtersloh, 
1004,  and  with  more  fulness  from  the  moral  influence 
standpoint  by  G.  A.  F.  Ecklin,  in  his  Erldsung  und  Ver- 
sihnuno,  Basel,  1003.  Consult  also  E.  M^n^os,  La  Mart 
de  Jisus  et  le  Doome  de  VExpiation,  Paris,  1006.  The  Eng- 
lish student  of  the  history  of  the  doctrine  has  at  his  dis- 
posal not  only  the  sections  in  the  general  histories  of  doc- 
trine (e.g.,  Hagenbach,  Cunningham,  Shedd,  Huiutck) 
and  the  comprehensive  treatise  of  Ritschl  mentioned 
above,  but  also  interesting  sketches  in  the  appendices  of 
G.  Smeaton's  Doctrine  of  the  Atonement  as  Taught  by  the 
Apostles,  Edinburgh,  1870,  and  J.  8.  Lidgett's  The  Spiri- 
tual Principle  of  the  Atonement,  London,  1808,  from  the 
confessional  standpoint,  as  well  as  H.  N.  Ozenham's  The 
Catholic  Doctrine  of  the  Atonement,  London,  1866,  3d  ed., 
1881,  from  the  Roman  Catholic  standpoint.  Consult  also: 
J.  B.  Remensnyder,  The  Atonement  and  Modem  Thought, 
Philadelphia.  1006;  D.  W.  Simon,  The  Redemption  of 
Man,  London,  1006;  C.  A.  Dinsmore,  Atonement  in  Liter- 
ature and  Life,  Boston.  1006;  L.  Pullan.  The  Atonement, 
New  York.  1006.  An  interesting  episode  is  treated  by 
Andrew  Robertson,  History  of  the  Atonement  Controversy 
in  the  Secession  Church,  Edinburgh.  1846. 

ATONEMENT,  DAY  OF:  The  great  Hebrew 
and  Jewish  fast-day,  occurring  annually;  called  in 
Lev.  xxiii,  27-28  yom  ha-kippurim,  in  the  Talmud 
simply  yoma,  "  the  day  ";  in  vulgar  Hebrew  yom 
kippur.  The  legal  provisions  are  given  in  Lev. 
xvi  (cf.  Ex.  XXX,  10);  xxiii,  26-32;  Num.  xxix, 
7-11.  Since  these  enactments,  in  spite  of  their 
relative  differences,  are  not  sufficient  to  define 
the  very  important  ritual  in  all  details,  a  supple- 
mentary tradition  became  necessary;  the  Mishnaic 
treatise  Yoma  is  devoted  to  the  celebration  of  the 
day  during  the  Second  Temple.  According  to 
Lev.  xvi,  29,  xxiii,  27,  Num.  xxix,  7, 
Institution  the  day  fell  on  the  tenth  of  the  seventh 
and  Ritual,  month  (Tishri);  it  was  to  be  a  sab- 
bath of  rest  ("  sabbath  of  sabbaths," 
Lev.  xvi,  31),  on  which  all  labor  was  prohibited, 
and  the  congregation  had  to  meet  in  the  sanctuary 
(Lev.  xxiii,  27-28).  A  general  fast — the  only  one 
enjoined  in  the  Mosaic  law — was  prescribed  for  the 
day.  By  this  fast,  the  "afflicting  of  the  soul," 
the  members  of  the  congregation  were  to  bring 


themselves  into  a  penitential  mood  appropriate 
to  the  serious  atonement  act.  The  day  is  therefore 
called  sometimes  simply  "  the  fast-day  "  (Josephus, 
Ant.,  XIV,  iv,  3,  where,  however,  as  in  XIV,  xvi,  4, 
the  "  third  month  "  causes  some  difficulty;  Philo, 
De  septenario,  296  M)  or  "  the  fast  "  (Philo,  278  M; 
Acts  xxvii,  9);  by  the  rabbis  also  "  the  great  fast  " 
to  distinguish  it  from  the  fast-days  which  were 
introduced  after  the  Exile.  The  stranger  who 
dwelt  in  the  land  was  also  obliged  to  rest  from 
work,  but  he  was  not  obliged  to  fast  (Lev.  xvi,  29). 
The  rite  to  be  performed  in  the  sanctuary  is  de- 
scribed in  Lev.  xvi,  3-28.  Aaron  (i.e.,  the  high 
priest),  attired  in  plain  priestly  clothing  is  to  offer, 
first  for  himself  and  his  house,  a  young  bullock 
for  a  sin-offering.  He  is  to  bring  its  blood  into  the 
Holy  of  Holies  and  sprinkle  with  it  the  KapporeUi, 
the  expiatory  covering  of  the  ark.  In  the 
same  manner  he  has  to  deal  with  the  blood  of  the 
goat,  appointed  as  a  sin-offering  for  the  people. 
With  this  blood  the  other  vesseb  of  the  sanctuary 
also  were  afterward  sprinkled.  Two  goats  were 
presented  before  God  for  the  people,  and  the  high 
priest  cast  lots,  designating  the  one  goat  "  for 
Yahweh  "  as  a  sin-offering,  the  other  "  for  Ajsazel  " 
(A.  V.  "scapegoat;"  see  Azazel);  on  this  second 
goat  the  high  priest  laid  his  hands  and  confessed 
the  sins  of  the  people,  which  the  goat  was  to  carry 
away  into  the  wildemess.  Thither  it  was  led  by 
a  man,  so  that  it  could  not  return  (with  the  two 
goats  compare  the  two  birds.  Lev.  xiv,  4-7).  The 
sin  is  to  remain  in  the  territory  of  the  imclean 
desert-demon  Azazel  (cf.  Zech.  v,  5-11).  When 
this  act  was  over  the  burnt  offering  for  the  high 
priest  and  the  people  and  other  offerings  were 
brought.  The  great  importance  of  this  day  is 
seen  from  the  fact  that  the  high  priest  officiates 
personally,  and  his  functions  are  mostly  performed 
in  the  Holy  of  Holies,  which  he  could  enter  only  on 
this  day;  furthermore,  from  the  purpose  of  the 
whole,  to  purify  priest  and  congregation,  and  the 
habitation  of  God  and  its  vessels,  from  all  defile- 
ment. On  this  account  this  day  is  also  referred  to 
as  a  type  in  the  New  Testament  (cf.  especially 
Heb.  ix,  7,  11  sqq.,  24  sqq.;  also  the  Epistle  of 
Barnabas  vii). 

The  antiquity  of  this  fast-day,  its  Mosaic  origin, 
and  even  its  preexilic  existence,  is  denied  by 
Vatke  {Btblische  Theologie,  i,  Berlin,  1835,  548), 
George  {Feste,  Berlin,  1835,  200  sqq.),  Graf,  Well- 
hausen,  Kuenen,  Reuss,  and  others.  It  is  indeed 
strange  that  this  important  festival  is  nowhere 
mentioned  in  preexilic  writings  except  in  the  Law. 
But  this  may  be  accidental.  At  all  events  it  is  a 
rash  inference  that  so  solemn  a  festival  must  be 
of  late  origin,  because  the  old  festivals  of  the  He- 
brews were  of  a  joyous  character.  In  favor  of 
the  higher  antiquity  of  this  usage  is  the  fact  that 

the  entire  action  takes  place  by  the 

Date  of      ark  of  the  covenant,  which  did  not 

Origin,      exist  after  the  Exile  and  of  whose 

absence  nothing  is  said  in  the  Law. 
The  desert-demon  Azazel  (for  which  in  later  times 
one  would  rather  expect  Satan  as  opposed  to  Yah- 
weh) also  points  back  to  the  Mosaic  time  of  the 
abode  in  the  wildemess.    It  may,  however,  rigfitly 


357 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Atonement 
Atterlmry 


be  inferred  irom  the  fact  that  the  Day  of  Atonemetit 
h  not  mentioned  in  pree3dlic  Uteratura  that  it 
did  not  pass  into  the  consciousness  and  life  of  the 
people,  like  the  three  great  festivals^  Passover, 
Pentecostp  and  Feast  of  Tabernacles,  It  wa^  a 
festival  connected  mainly  with  the  priesthood  and 
sanctuaiy,  hence  it  was  more  strictly  ob«erv€d  at 
the  center  of  the  legitimate  woniliip.  There  came  a 
change  in  the  postexiMc  time,  in  which  the  Temple  at 
Jerusalem  exerciiie<l  greater  in  fJuence  upon  the  people. 
But  even  then  we  see  that  in  spite  of  the  prescribed 
6t!lf-mortification  the  people  knew  how  to  indulge 
in  joyful  recreation  j  from  the  Mishnah  (TaanU  iv, 
8)  we  learn  that  on  the  Day  of  Atonement  (no  doubt 
in  the  evening,  after  the  high  priest  had  returned 
to  Ida  home),  the  maidens  all  went  forth,  an^yed 
in  white  garmente,  into  the  vineyards  around  Jeru- 
salem, where  they  danced  and  sang,  inviting  the 
young  men  to  select  their  brides  (cf,  Dehtzsch, 
Zur  Geschichle  der  jildi$ehen  Pocsif.,  Lcipsic^  183S, 
195-196),  The  Gemara  finds  mieh  joy  perfectly 
legitimate  on  a  day  when  atonement  was  made  for 
IsraeL  After  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  the 
cdebration  of  the  Day  of  Atonement  was  con- 
tinued, although  the  sacrificial  rites  could  no  more 
be  perfonnetl.  The  grand  festival  with  it-a  eoleran 
eamcatnesfi  had  ho  deeply  impressed  it^lf  upon  the 
people,  that  it  could  not  be  wholly  dispensed  with. 
(For  the  later  usages  see  Orach  Cha^mj  translated 
by  L5we,  150  aqq,;  Buxtorf,  B^nagoga  Judaica, 
chaps.  xKv-xjcvi.)  In  general  the  penitential 
prayers  in  the  synagogue  have  taken  the  place  of  the 
atoning  temple-sacrifices.  Nevertheless ^  the  eesea- 
tion  of  the  sacrifice  m  deplored j  in  some  placea 
the  houfle-father  takes  a  cock,  the  mother  a  ben, 
which  are  killed  as  a  substitute  foF  the  sacrifice. 

C.  voK  Orblu, 
The  late  date  of  the  origin  of  the  festival  would 
seem  to  be  made  certain  by  the  following  c^jnsid- 
erationa:  (1)  Its  absence  from  the  list  of  fcaats 
given  in  the  earlier  books  can  not  be  accidental, 
esjjecially  in  view  of  the  radical  character  of  its 
practical  prescriptions,  (2)  These  prescriptions 
and  their  moral  sanction  were  not  in  keeping  with 
the  spirit  of  the  earUer  laws,  in  which  there  is  no 
suggestion  of  fasting  and  contrition,  (3)  Tran- 
sition stages  between  the  prophetic  and  the  prieatly 
legislation  are  indicated  in  the  ideal  conception 
of  Ezeksel,  the  prophet-priest,  with  its  two  single 
days  of  atonement  (xlv,  18-20),  also  in  the  inter- 
vening institution  by  Ezra  of  a  general  faat  on  the 
twenty-fourth  day  of  the  seventh  month,  with  no 
mention  of  the  tenth  day  of  the  priestly  code, 
(4)  The  old  festivals  of  the  Hebrews  were  of  a 
joyou3  character,  while  the  Levitical  Day  of  Atone- 
ment was  one  of  great  solemnity.  J.  F,  M. 

BiBLiooKAFiiT;  Tlse  Minhti^  imet  Yoma,  trmjuliLted  into 
Latin  with  n.ot«i  by  R.  Shenngham,  Londoii,  1648;  ibe 
samct  ed.  K,  L.  Btnick,  Leip^ic,  1S04I:  An  Eng.  tnuiAl. 
ia  In  J.  Barclay,  The  Talmud,  I^ndon,  1878;  the  Towpht* 
on  ttufl  tract  &nd  JerusaLera  QemAttt  in  Ui^Dlibit  Thctaurutt 
xriii,  153  aqq,;  Maimamdeif  Yad  ha-^ata^|iah,  tranaL  by 
F.  Dt^itiitch,  HebrHirbrief,  p|>.  749  ^n,,  LeipiiQ.  1857;  J. 
LiKhtfoot,  Minwt^rium  icmpii,  chap,  xv,  in  Opera,  U  671- 
75B,  Uotturdanit  1686;  J.  G.  CftrpKCiv,  Apparatu*  Att- 
timef>^-criHcu»  antifitdkttum  aorri  eodicii,  pp.  433  Kiq^i 
Frankfort^  1748;  J.  Lund,  JMitcht  Heilifftham^.  pp. 
11 QL  »qq.i  Huubuj^t  173S;  J.  H.  Otho»  Laicon  m^frtnic^* 


phiMoffitum^  pp-  182  stiq.,  Oenova,  1676;  J.  Mpyer*  IH 
t^mpoF^UB  fq^rtt  M4^aorum»  in  Ugolini,  T^eiaunu,  vol  1; 
C.  W.  F.  B&hr.  Symhoiik  dt*  momi»tJven  Cuih*#,  ii,  6M 
»(iq.»  Hdda]h<irE»  1S39;  M.  Bruwk.  PAariaaurAfl  VoUa- 
niton  und  RUuaiun,  Frankfort^  184D;  H,  Knrit.  Der  oll- 
testammtliche  OpferkuUuM,  pp.  335  nqq.,  Berlin.  1862;  B, 
Wechfller,  Zur  Grschichtx  der  VtrBUhnunffvf^i^t  in  /iJ- 
diKhe  ZeiUchrifU  ii  (1863),  113-12S:  Nowack.  ArchA^ 
fltotfte,  ii,  183-1&4;  Beminaer,  Anh&oloffi^,  pp,  200.  398, 
401,  427;  the  workii  on  Old  Teat&ment  IhisoloiEy,  atid  the 
QommentBLriofl  to  Lev.  xvi,  particiilarly  Driver's  LeviticuM, 
in  8B0T,  I  SOS.  On  the  chtifal  queution  eoa»ult  Fmai 
DeUtMCih.  in  EKW ,  i  (1880),  173-183.  For  the  lflt*rJu^ 
daiam,  eamiuJt  J.  F,  Sehr&der,  SaUungen  und  Gebrauch* 
da  kdmuditch-rahHnwchen  J udvnShuTnM,  ]  30 aq q. .  Brcmpn , 
1S51:  B.  Adier,  In  ZATW,  ii  (1SS2),  178  sqq..  272; 
L.  Dembttz,  Jmn^  SerewtM  in  Sifnaaogue  orul  Homt^ 
PhilAdalphia,  iSOiS;  M.  Jiutraw,  in  AST,  i  (1898),  312 
aq<j. 

ATRIUM:  In  the  church  architecture  of  thft 
earlier  centuries,  an  open  space  in  front  of  the 
entrance  to  the  chorch,  Burrouuded  by  porticos, 
and  provided  with  a  fountain,  or  at  leaat  a  large 
veeael  containing  water.  Here  the  penitents  who 
were  not  allowed  to  enter  the  church  assembled, 
and  begged  the  f aithf \il  to  pray  for  them. 

ATTERBUHY,  FRANCIS:  English  Jacobite 
bishop;  b.  at  Mil  ton  or  Middleton  Keynes  (about 
45  in,  n.w;  of  London),  Buckinghamshire,  England, 
March  6,  1662;  d.  at  Paris  Feb.  22,  1732.  He 
Btudied  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  and  received  holy 
orders  about  i6S7.  His  brilliant  suecesa  as  a  con- 
troversial i.%tj  and  hia  powerful  eloquence  in  the 
pulpit,  soon  attracted  attention;  he  was  made 
chaplain  to  William  and  Maiy  in  1692,  de^n  of 
Carlisle  in  1704,  dean  of  Christ  Church  in  1711, 
and  bishop  of  Rocheater  and  dean  of  Westminster 
in  1713.  He  was  a  Tory  in  politics,  and  inecclesiaa' 
tical  affairs  his  sympathies  were  with  the  High- 
churchmen.  The  succession  of  George  I  at  the 
death  of  Queen  Anne  was  unfavorable  to  his  am* 
bitioDj  and,  as  a  Tory,  being  coldly  received  by 
the  new  kingv  he  took  his  place  in  the  foremost 
ranks  of  the  opposition,  refused  in  1715  to  aign  the 
paper  in  which  the  bishopa  declared  their  attach^ 
ment  to  the  House  of  Brunswick,  and  began  in 
1717  to  correspond  directly  with  the  Pretender, 
and  carried  on  hia  intrigues  so  akiHuUy  that  his 
most  intimate  friends  did  not  suspect  him.  But 
in  1722  his  guilt  was  manifested;  he  was  commit t^ 
to  the  Tower,  and  by  an  act  of  Parliament  was 
banished  for  life  in  March,  1723,  and  aU  Britiah 
subjects  were  forbidden  to  hold  communication 
with  him  except  by  the  royal  permission.  He  went 
to  the  continentj  nnd  lived  most  of  the  time  in 
Paria,  in  more  or  less  constant  correspondence 
with  the  Pretender,  for  whose  sake  he  had  suffered 
so  much.  Ill  health  and  the  death  of  a  devoted 
daughter  added  to  hia  afflictions .  Atterbury  wa;s 
a  man  of  restless  and  pugnacious  disposition,  with 
many  striking  qualities,  and  one  of  the  foremost 
preachers  and  orators  of  his  time.  He  had  little 
learning,  however,  his  talents  were  superficial, 
and  his  judgment  was  rash.  In  private  life  be  ia 
said  to  have  been  winning  and  amiable,  and  he 
counted  among  his  friends  most  of  the  literary 
men  of  the  day  as  well  as  many  influential  pei^ 
sonages.  He  had  much  popular  sympathy  in  hia 
banishment*    At   hk  death  hia  body  was  carried 


Atterlmry 
Auburn 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


858 


to  En^and  and  buried  privately  in  Westminster 
Abbey. 

The  most  important  of  Atterbury's  controversial 
writings  were:  An  Answer  to  Some  Considerations 
on  the  Spirit  of  Martin  Luther  and  the  Original  of 
the  Reformation  (Oxford,  1687),  in  reply  to  an  at- 
tack upon  the  Reformation  by  Obadiah  Walker; 
An  Examination  of  Dr.  Bentley*8  Diesertations  on 
the  Epistles  of  Phalaris  and  the  Fables  of  JEeop 
(London,  1698);  Rights  and  Privileges  of  an  Eng- 
lish Convocation  Stated  and  Vindicated  (1700). 
Selections  from  his  sermons  have  been  many  times 
printed  and  a  collected  edition  in  four  volumes 
appeared  in  London,  172^37.  His  Epistolary 
Correspondence t  Visitation  Charges^  SpeecheSf  and 
Miscellanies  were  edited  by  J.  Nichols  (5  vols., 
London,  1783-90). 

Biblioobapht:  The  standard  life  is  by  T.  Stackhouse,  Mem- 
cira  at  the  Life,  Character,  Conduct,  and  WriHnge  of  Francie 
Atterbury,  London,  1727;  his  biography  by  Macaulay  is 
in  the  Enevdopadia  Britanniea;  consult  also  F.  Williams, 
Memoire  and  Correapondence  of  Francie  Aiterbury,  2  vols.. 
London.  1860;  DNB,  ii.  233-238;  W.  H.  Hutton.  Englieh 
Churdi  {16U-171k),  pp.  273,  278.  280.  London.  1003. 

ATTERBURY,  WILLIAM  WALLACE:  Pres- 
byterian; b.  at  Newark,  N.  J.,  Aug.  4,  1823.  He 
was  educated  at  Yale  College  (B.A.,  1843)  and 
Y^e  Divinity  School  (1847).  He  held  Presby- 
terian pastorates  at  Lansing,  Mich.,  from  1848  to 
1854  and  at  Madison,  Ind.,  from  1854  to  1866. 
He  traveled  in  Europe  and  the  East  and  acted  as 
a  supply  for  various  pulpits  at  Cleveland,  O.,  and 
other  cities  from  1866  to  1869,  when  he  was  chosen 
secretary  of  the  New  York  Sabbath  Committee. 
In  1898  he  was  relieved  of  much  of  his  work  in  this 
capacity  by  the  appointment  of  an  assistant,  to 
whom  he  relinquished  his  regular  duties  two  years 
later.  He  has  also  been  an  active  member  of  the 
United  States  branch  of  the  Evangelical  Alliance, 
and  was  its  secretary  in  1875.  His  writings,  which 
are  generally  brief,  are  devoted  chiefly  to  the 
various  aspects  of  the  Sunday  question. 

ATTICUS:  Patriarch  of  CJonstantinople  406- 
425  (or  427).  He  was  bom  at  Sebaste  in  Armenia, 
repaired  early  to  Constantinople,  and  was  one  of 
the  party  opposed  to  Chrysostom  (q.v.),  who  was 
expelled  from  ([Constantinople  in  June,  404;  his 
successor,  Arsadus,  an  old  man  of  eighty  years, 
died  the  following  year,  and  after  a  few  months 
Atticus  was  elevated  to  the  patriarchate.  He  is 
described  as  a  man  of  but  moderate  learning,  whose 
sermons  were  not  thought  worth  preserving,  but 
possessed  of  much  skill  in  affairs,  and  esteemed  for 
charity  and  piety.  He  restored  the  name  of  Chrys- 
ostom to  the  diptychs  in  412.  Two  of  his  letters 
with  a  fragment  of  a  third,  and  two  fragments 
of  a  homily  on  the  birth  of  Christ  are  preserved; 
consult  MPG,  Ixv,  637-652. 

ATTO :  The  name  of  three  churchmen. 

1.  Bishop  of  Basel.    See  Haito. 

2.  Archbishop  of  Mainz.    See  Hatto. 

8.  Bishop  of  Vercelli  924-961.  If  his  will  (pre- 
served with  his  works  in  MPL,  cxxxiv,  9-916) 
is  to  be  taken  as  genuine,  he  came  of  the  family  to 
which  Desiderius,  the  last  Lombard  king,  belonged; 
and  this  would  accoimt  for  his  remarkable  educa- 


tion, which  included  not  only  a  knowledge  of  the 
Bible  and  the  principal  western  Fathers,  but  Greek 
as  well,  with  at  least  some  works  of  the  eastern 
ecclesiastical  writers.  He  was  especially  well 
read  in  legal  history,  knowing  the  Roman,  Lom- 
bard, and  canon  law.  He  was  ordained  at  Milan, 
where  he  became  archdeacon,  and  in  924  was 
advanced  to  the  see  of  Vercelli.  Among  the  pro- 
ductions of  his  episcopal  career  is  his  Capitidare, 
a  series  of  instructions  for  the  clergy,  which  shows 
him  to  have  been  a  foe  to  superstition  and  a  friend 
of  popular  education.  His  other  extant  works 
are  a  conunentary  on  the  Pauline  epistles,  following 
the  older  exegesis;  eighteen  sermons;  nine  letters; 
the  treatise  De  pressuris  ecclesiasticiSf  which  pleads 
for  the  exemption  of  the  clergy  from  the  jurisdiction 
of  secular  tribunals  and  protests  against  lay  inter- 
ference with  ecclesiastical  elections  and  the  aliena- 
tion of  church  property;  the  Pclyptieum,  which 
contains  a  philosopUcal  presentation  of  the  affaire 
of  Italy  from  the  accession  of  King  Hugh  (926) 
down  to  the  repeated  intervention  of  Otto  I.  Atto 
is  an  outspoken  opponent  of  the  Germans,  and  a 
partizan  of  Berengar  of  Ivrea.  This  work  exists 
in  two  forms,  of  which  the  shorter  is  undoubtedly 
the  authentic  one,  the  other  being  a  version  edited 
with  a  view  of  removing  some  of  its  obscurities. 

(A.  Hauck.) 
Bibliooraprt:  The  Opera  were  edited  by  C.  Burontiiu,  2 
vols.,  Veroelli,  1768,  and  are  in  Mai,  Velerwn  eeriplorum 
nova  eoUecOo,  vi,  2,  pp.  42  8qq.,  Rome,  1832,  and  in  MPL, 
oxzxiv.  Coninilt  J.  Sohults,  Atto  von  Vercelli,  Odttinjcen. 
1885;  A  Ebert,  Oeechiehte  der  Literatur  dee  MittelaUere, 
iii.  368  8qq.,  Leipaic.  1887. 

ATTRIBUTES  OF  GOD.    See  God,  II,  $  3. 

ATTRITION.    See  Penance. 

ATWATER,  LYMAN  HOTCHKISS:  Presby- 
terian; b.  at  Hamden,  Gonn.,  Feb.  23,  1813;  d.  at 
Princeton,  N.  J.,  Feb.  17, 1883.  He  was  graduated 
at  Yale  1831;  was  tutor  there  and  student  of  divin- 
ity 1833-35;  pastor  of  the  First  Congregational. 
Church,  Fairfield,  0>nn.,  1835-54;  professor  (at 
first  of  mental  and  moral  philosophy,  after  1869 
of  logic  and  moral  and  political  science)  at  Princeton 
College,  1854  till  his  death.  He  was  also  lecturer 
in  Princeton  Seminary  and  acting  president  of  the 
college.  He  contributed  many  articles  to  the 
religious  reviews  and  was  one  of  the  editors  of  the 
Biblical  Repertory  (1869-71)  and  its  continuation 
(from  1872),  the  Presbyterian  Quarterly  and  Prince- 
ton Review,  He  published  a  Manual  of  Elementary 
Logic  (Philadelphia,  1867). 

ATWILL,  EDWARD  ROBERT:  Protestant 
Episcopal  bbhop  of  Kansas  City;  b.  at  Red  Hook, 
N.  Y.,  Feb.  18, 1840.  He  was  educated  at  Columbia 
College  (B.A.,  1862)  and  the  General  Theological 
Seminary  (1864),  and  was  successively  rector  of 
St.  Paul's,  Burlington,  Vt.  (1867-80), and  Trinity, 
Toledo,  O.  (1881-90),  until  he  was  consecrated  first 
bishop  of  the  newly  organised  diocese  of  Kansas 
City  in  1890. 

ATWOOD,  ISAAC  MORGAN:  Universalist; 
b.  at  Pembroke,  N.  Y.,  Mar.  24,  1838.  He  was 
educated  at  Yale,  but  did  not  graduate.  He  was 
a  tutor  in  Ferguson  Boys'  School  in  1859  and  pm- 
cipal  of  Corfu  Classical  Institute  in  1859-60.    In 


360 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Atterlmry 


the  following  year  ha  entered  the  Universalist 
ministry  and  until  1879  held  vnnoiis  pastoratea  m 
New  York  J  Maine,  and  MasaachuBette.  He  then 
became  president  of  the  Canton  (N.  Y.)  Theological 
School,  where  he  remained  until  1899.  Since  1S9S 
he  has  been  general  superintendent  of  the  Univer- 
sahst  Church  in  the  United  States  and  Canada^  of 
which  h©  was  also  appointed  secretary  in  1905. 
He  lectured  before  the  St.  Lawrence  University 
Divinity  School  in  190(M)6  and  before  the  Lom- 
bard College  Divinity  School  in  1906.  He  was 
vice-president  of  the  Universalist  General  Con- 
vention in  1880-^  and  is  a  member  of  the  Ad- 
visory Board  of  the  New  York  State  League  of 
Churchea  and  of  the  committee  on  churches  in  the 
Religious  Education  Aissociation .  From  1867  to 
1874  he  edited  the  Christian  Letidert  of  which  ho 
has  since  been  asaociate  editor,  while  in  1886-89 
he  was  a  BtafT-oontributor  to  the  Independent 
and  in  1892-94  was  on  the  editorial  sta^  of  the 
Standard  D^idionary.  He  la  also  a  member  of  the 
American  Social  Science  Association  and  of  the 
New  York  Economic  Club,  In  theology  he  holds 
firmly  to  the  cardinal  doctrine  of  the  Univer- 
sal tat  denomination «  His  principal  writings  are: 
Have  We  Outgrown  ChristianUy  f  (Boston,  ISTO); 
Laieei  Word  of  Universfdism  (1879);  Walks  About 
Zwn  (1880);  Episcopacy  (1885);  Revtlatmn  (1893); 
and  Balajice  Sheet  of  Biblical  Criticum  (1896). 

ATZBERGER,  LEONHARD:  Roman  Catholic; 
b.  at  Velden  (a  village  near  Vibviburg^  42  m,  n.e. 
of  Munich)  July  23,  1854.  He  was  educated  at 
the  Gymnasium  and  Lyceum  of  Freising  and  at  the 
University  of  Munich.  He  was  ordained  to  the 
priesthood  in  1879,  and  three  years  later  became 
privat-doccnt  at  Munich,  where  ho  was  university 
preacher  in  1886,  In  1888  he  wils  appointed  asso- 
ciate professor  of  theology  at  the  same  university, 
and  was  promoted  to  full  professor  in  18&4-  He 
has  written  Die  L^igoakhre  des  heiligen  AthanasiiJ^ 
(Munich,  1880);  Die  UmundlidikeU  CMsti  (1883); 
ChrUUiche  Etichatologie  in  den  Stadien  ihrm^  Offen- 
barung  im  Alten  und  Neuen  Testament  (Freiburgi 
1890);  Der  Glaube  (1891);  Qeschichle  der  christ- 
liehen  Eschakttogie  in  der  vomicdniaehen  Zeit  (IS9Q)] 
and  Handbuch  der  katholischen  DogmMik  (1898- 
19()3;  being  the  fourth  volume  of  the  work  of  the 
same  title  by  M,  J.  Scbecben). 

AUBERLEli,  au'ber-len,  KARL  AUGUST :  Theo- 
logian; b.  at  Fellbaehj  near  Stuttgart,  Nov,  19, 
1824;  d.  at  Basel  May  2,  1864.  He  studied  in  the 
seminary  of  Blaubeuren  1837-11,  and  theology  at 
TQbingen  1841^5;  became  repetent  in  theology 
at  Tubingen  1849,  and  professor  at  Basel  1S5L 
As  a  young  man  he  was  attracted  by  the  views  of 
Goethe  and  Hegel  and  enthusiastic  for  the  criticism 
of  Baur;  but  be  later  became  an  adherent  of  the 
old  WQrttemberg  circle  of  theologians — Bengel, 
Oetinger,  Roos,  etc.  He  published  Die  Theosophie 
Oetinger»  (Tubingen,  1847)^  Der  Prophet  Daniel 
und  die  Offenharung  Johannis  (Basel,  1854j  Eng, 
traaaL,  by  Adolph  Saphir,  The  Propheciee  of  Daniel 
and  the  Revelation,  Edinburgh,  1874;  2d  German 
ed„    1857);  Die   gotdiche    Offejiharuf^f    (i,    Ba^l, 


1861;  Eng,  transL.with  memofr,  Edinburgh,  1867). 
A  volume  of  sennons  appeared  m  1845;  a  volume 
of  lectures  on  the  Christian  faith  in  1861, 

AUBERTm,  6''bar"tan',  EDME ;  French  Re- 
formed clergyman;  b.  at  CMlons-eur-Marae  (90 
m,o.of  Paris)  1595;  d.  at  Paria  Apr.  5,  1652.  He 
became  minister  at  Chartres  1618,  and  at  Charen- 
ton  (Paris)  1631 .  To  prove  that  the  doctrine  of  the 
Reformed  Church  concerning  the  Eucharist  was 
the  flame  as  that  of  the  ancient  Church,  he  wrote 
Conformiii  de  la  crtance  de  l'£gluie  avee  celle  de  8t, 
Augyustin  mir  le  sacrement  de  rEucharistie  (Paris, 
1626),  afterward  enlarged  and  entitled  UExicharU* 
tie  de  l^ancienne  Mglise  (1629),  The  work  attracted 
attention  and  caused  much  controversy. 

AUBIGH i,  JEAN  HENRI  MERLE  D'.  See  Merle 
d'Aubignk, 

AUBIGKE,    e"bi"^yfi^   THEODORE  AGRIPPA 

D  ;  Hugyenot  soldier  and  writer;  b,  at  St,  Maury, 
near  Pons  (50  m.  n,  of  Bordeaux),  in  Saintonge, 
Feb.  8,  1552;  d,  at  Geneva  Apr.  29,  1630,  Ha 
grew  up  imder  inSuences  which  tended  to  make  him 
a  strong  purtizan  in  the  religious  disputes  of  the 
time;  atudied  for  a  period  under  Bern  at  Geneva, 
but  ran  away  to  join  a  Huguenot  regiment  at  the 
age  of  5 f teen;  fought  with  distinction  through  the 
wars  which  ended  m  the  accession  of  Henry  IV, 
and,  notwithstanding  Ids  rough  manners  and  un- 
politic  candor^  retained  the  friendship  of  the  king 
till  his  death.  After  the  abjuration  of  Henry  be 
retired  from  the  court,  and  devoted  the  later  years 
of  hiB  Ufe  to  Uterary  work.  In  1620  to  escape 
threatening  persecution  he  took  refuge  in  Geneva. 
One  of  his  sona  was  the  father  of  Madame  de  Main- 
tenon.  His  most  important  work  was  the  Hi^Unre 
univereelie  depuis  IBBO  jusqu'd,  fan  1601  (3  vols., 
Mailld,  1616-20;  new  ed.,  by  A,  de  Ruble,  9  vols., 
Paris,  1S86-9S).  The  Tragiquee  (1616;  ed.  C. 
Read^  2  vols.,  Paris,  1896),  a  long  epic  poem, 
treate  in  bad  verms  of  the  same  subject  as  the 
Histoire  imiveneUe.  These  works,  little  read  when 
published,  and  almost  forgotten  during  the  eight- 
eenth century,  in  modem  times  have  come  to  be 
regarded  as  valuable  sources  of  French  history.  His 
complete  works  have  been  edited  by  E.  E^aume 
and  F.  de  Caussade  {6  vols.,  Paris,  1873-92). 
BmuofiftAFHT:  Hij!  aiitobiosTmphy  wna  pubU&h«d  by  L,  La- 
lAune,  Mimoite^  de  T,  A*  d'Avhtffn^,  Pan  a,  ISSfi.  Cotmjlt 
further  E.  Frarond,  Lei  -Poatei  A**torww»,-  *  .  .  d*Au- 
bigni  tout  Henri  UL^  Parip.  1373;  P,  MOTillot,  DiKmiTt 
rur  ta  vit  et  let  amiTet  d'Affrippa  d'Avbiffni^  P»mp  1884; 
A.  von  fialiH,  Affrippa  d'AiibigTUt  HmdtlhnrSt  ISSfi;  G. 
Guiioti  Asfrippa  d'AubiffrU,  FarUi  ISSO. 

AUBURlf    DECLARATIOn^     An  inddent  of  the 

Old  and  New  School  controversy  in  the  Presby- 
terian Church  in  1837.  The  General  Assembly 
of  that  year,  controlled  by  the  Old  School  party, 
"  exscinded  **  the  synods  of  Utica,  Geneva,  and 
Genesee,  in  New  York,  and  Western  Reserve,  in 
Ohio,  declaring  them  to  be  "  neither  in  form  nor  in 
fact  a  part  of  the  Presbyterian  Church."  On  the 
17th  of  the  following  August  a  convention  of  about 
two  hundred  clergymen  and  a  number  of  prominent 
laymen,  representing  all  the  presbyteries  in  these 
synods,  met  in  Auburn,  N.  Y.,  to  repd  the  chajf^ 


Auburn 
Auffsburff 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


860 


of  unsoundness  in  the  faith  and  set  forth  the  views 
they  actually  held.  A  declaration  was  adopted, 
consisting  of  sixteen  articles,  corresponding  to  a 
similar  Ust  of  sixteen  heresies  alleged  to  be  held 
by  the  New  School  churches,  which  had  been  pre- 
sented to  the  Assembly  and  had  been  the  basis  of 
its  action.  Replying  to  the  first  of  the  charges,  that 
it  was  taught  *'  that  God  would  have  been  glad  to 
prevent  the  existence  of  sin  in  our  world,  but  was 
not  able  without  destroying  the  moral  agency  of 
man;  or  that,  for  aught  that  appears  in  the  Bible, 
sin  is  incidental  to  any  wise,  moral  system,"  the 
members  of  the  convention  declared  that  they 
believed  that  "  God  permitted  the  introduction  of 
sin,  not  because  he  was  unable  to  prevent  it  con- 
sistently  with  the  moral  freedom  of  his  creatures, 
but  for  wise  and  benevolent  reasons  which  he  has  not 
revealed  "  (art.  i) .  In  replying  to  the  other  charges, 
the  convention  pronounced  fully  in  the  sense  of 
the  Westminster  Symbols.  With  a  perhaps  un- 
conscious supralapsarianism,  they  put  the  doctrine 
of  election  first  in  order,  and  all  the  other  facts  in 
the  process  of  redemption  after  it;  so  the  arrange- 
ment suggests  that  it  was  the  primary  purpose  of 
God  to  save  a  definite  number  of  men  out  of  a 
race  to  be  thereafter  created;  that  in  pursuance 
of  this  purpose  man  was  formed,  the  fall  decreed, 
and  an  atonement  provided  sufficient  to  meet  the 
case  of  that  predestined  number,  and  no  others. 
No  affirmation  of  the  imiversality  of  the  atone- 
ment is  found  among  these  sixteen  propositions. 
Original  sin,  total  depravity,  vicarious  atone- 
ment, Christ's  intercession  for  the  elect  previous 
to  their  conversion,  absolute  dependence  upon 
irresistible  divine  grace  for  the  renewal  of  the 
heart,  instantaneous  regeneration,  etc.,  all  these 
dogmas  are  emphatically  affirmed.  "  All  who  are 
saved  are  indebted  from  first  to  last  to  the  grace 
and  spirit  of  God  and  the  reason  why  God  does 
not  save  all  is  not  that  he  wants  the  power  to  do  it, 
but  that  in  his  wisdom  he  does  not  see  fit  to  exert 
that  power  further  than  he  actually  does"  (art. 
xiii).  In  short,  the  Auburn  Declaration  rises  well 
up  to  the  high-water  mark  of  the  Calvinistic  theology 
and  was  indorsed  by  the  General  Assembly  (Old 
School)  in  1868  as  containing  '*  all  the  fimdamentals 
of  the  Calvinistic  Creed." 

Bibuoorapht:  For  full  text  of  the  declaration  oonmilt 
Schaff,  Creeds,  ui.  777-780;  consult  also  E.  D.  Morris,  The 
Preebyierian  Churchy  New  School,  1837-1869,  pp.  77  sqq., 
Columbus.  O..  1906. 

AUDIANS:  The  followers  of  a  certain  Audius, 
according  to  Epiphanius  (Hcer.,  Ixx;  followed  by 
Augustine,  Hcer.y  1),  Theodoret  (HisL  eccl.,  iv,  10; 
H<sr.  fab.,  iv,  10),  and  Ephraem  Syrus  (Serm,,  xxiv, 
Adv,  koer.),  who  state  that  Audius  was  a  Mesopo- 
tamian,  a  layman  who  lived  "  in  the  time  of  Arius," 
that  he  declaimed  against  the  worldly  conduct  of 
the  clergy,  foimded  an  ascetic  sect,  and,  in  his  old 
age  banished  to  Scythia,  did  successful  missionary 
work  among  the  Goths.  When  Epiphanius  wrote 
(c.  375)  the  sect  was  practically  extinct  in  its  orig- 
inal home.  He  praises  the  orthodoxy  of  Audius 
and  his  exemplary  life,  but  blames  him  and  his  fol- 
lowers for  holding  anthropomorphic  views  of  God 
and  for  being  quartodecimans.  G.  KRt^OER. 


Bibuoorapht:  G.  W.  F.  Waloh.  Eniwttrf  einer  vctUUkitdigm 
Hietorie  der  Ketaereien,  iii,  300-321,  Leipsio,  17M:  G. 
Hoffmann,  AutsQo^  au*  eyriedien  Akten  pertiaeher  Mtr- 
tyrer,  pp.  122,  Leipsic,  1880;  J.  Overbeck,  8.  Bpknumt 
8yri  Rabula  opera,  p.  194,  Oxford,  1865;  L.  £.  laelin,  in 
JPT,  xvi  (1890),  298-306. 

AUDIENTIA  EPISCOPALIS:  The  name  given 
by  the  code  of  Justinian  to  the  bishop's  power  d 
hearing  and  deciding  judicial  cases.  This  power 
in  the  early  Ghurch  was  based  upon  such  passages 
of  Scripture  as  Matt,  xviii,  18-16  and  I  Cor.  vi,  1- 
6.  The  Didache  testifies  to  the  exercise  of  this 
power  by  the  presbyters,  or  by  the  college  of  pres- 
byters with  the  bishop  at  their  head;  and  the  Apos- 
tolic Constitutions  forbid  Christians  to  go  to  law, 
even  with  the  heathen,  before  a  pagan  tribunal. 
Small  differences  are  to  be  adjusted  by  the  deacons; 
the  more  important  are  to  be  laid  before  the  bishop 
sitting  in  judgment  with  his  clergy  every  Monday; 
he  is  to  decide  after  careful  investigation  and  orderiy 
examination  of  witnesses,  by  a  procedure  following 
closely  that  of  the  secular  tribunals.  The  enforce- 
ment of  his  sentence  by  the  civil  power  could,  of 
course,  only  follow  when  the  act  took  on  the  form 
of  a  stipulation,  which  could  be  brought  before  the 
courts.  But  with  the  public  recogm'tion  of  Chris- 
tianity, Constantine  gave  the  bishops  a  real  judicial 
power.  The  first  of  his  three  edicts  on  this  sub- 
ject is  lost,  and  there  have  been  many  controver- 
sies about  the  other  two,  of  321  and  333.  Either 
party  might  appeal  to  the  bishop  at  any  stage  in 
the  proceedings,  and  his  decision  was  final,  thou^  it 
required  enforcement  by  the  civil  tribunals,  for  even 
Constantine  gave  the  bishop  no  imperium.  This 
privilege  was  abolished  by  Arcadius  for  the  East 
(398)  and  by  Honorius  for  the  West  (408);  the 
regulations  established  by  Valentinian  III  in  452 
provide  that  no  one  shall  be  forced  to  appear  before 
the  episcopal  tribunal,  and  reduce  the  power  to 
something  more  like  its  original  limits.  In  the 
form  then  fixed,  it  remained  in  Justinian's  code. 
The  bishops  attempted,  in  virtue  of  their  disciplin- 
ary authority  over  their  clergy,  to  compel  the  latter 
to  submit  even  their  civil  differences  to  episcopal 
judgment;  this  Justinian  approved,  and  extended 
to  suits  by  laymen  against  clerics.  The  represent- 
atives of  the  ecclesiastical  tendency  in  the  Frank- 
ish  kingdom  went  back  to  the  edicts  of  Constan- 
tine. Thus  Florus  of  Lyons,  in  his  conmientary  on 
the  constitutions  published  later  by  Sirmond,  dis- 
regarded the  facts  that  these  had  been  reversed  by 
Constantine 's  successors,  and  that  in  any  case  the 
edicts  of  Roman  emperors  were  no  authority  for 
the  Prankish  kingdom;  and  Benedictus  lievita 
wrote  an  introduction  to  the  law  of  333  in  which  he 
asserted  that  Charlemagne  had  proclaimed  this  as 
the  law  of  his  empire.  Regino  only  quotes  one 
passage  from  the  edict  of  333;  but  later  collections 
down  to  that  of  Gratian  include  the  whole  of  what 
is  given  by  Benedictus  Levita;  and  Innocent  III 
(1198-1216)  relied  upon  it  as  the  basb  of  his  De- 
nunciatio  evangdica  (see  JuRiSDicnoN,  Ecclebus- 
tical).  But  the  later  development  of  systematic 
ecclesiastical  judicature  absoribed  the  function  of 
the  bishop  as  arbiter.  (E.  Frisdbero.) 

Biblioorapht:  B.  Schilling,  De  origine  juriadietiom*  aede- 

naaUca  in  eautia  civiUhue,  heipno,  1825;  Jungk,  Da  origi' 


861 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Aubum 
Auffslmrff 


nibuB  e<  proffreMu  €jri»eopaUt  iudieU  in  eautit  eiviHbu9 
laieorum  uaque  ad  JutHnianumt  Berlin,  1832;  Turok,  De 
iurUdieHonu  civilu  per  medium  ovum  .  .  .  eriffine  et  pnn 
greeeu,  MttnBter,  1832;  B.  Matthiaos,  Die  Bnturieklung  dee 
r&mieehen  Schiedegerichte,  pp.  130  sqq..  Rostock.  1888. 
There  is  an  Eng.  tranal.,  with  introduction  and  notes,  of  the 
IneHhUee  of  Justinian,  by  T.  C.  Sanders,  London,  1888. 

AUDHf,  6''dan'  (JEAR  MARIE),  VINCEIIT: 
French  Roman  Catholic;  b.  at  Lyons  1793;  d.  at 
Paris  Feb.  21,  1851.  He  studied  theology  at  the 
seminary  of  I'Argentidre,  then  studied  law,  but  in 
1814  went  to  Paris  and  lived  thenceforth  as  book- 
seller and  author.  He  wrote  Hiatoire  de  la  Sainl- 
BarthSlemy  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1826);  Hiataire  de  Luther 
(2  voU.,  1839;  Eng.  transl.,  Philadelphia,  1841); 
Histoire  de  Calvin  (2  vols.,  1841);  Hietoire  de  Henri 
VIII  (2  vols.,  1847;  Enjg.  transl.,  London,  1862); 
Histoire  de  Lion  X  (2  vols.,  1844).  His  work  has 
been  criticized  as  prejudiced  and  unscholarly. 
Biblioorapht:  J.   Barbey  d'Aurevilly,  Notice  ew  J,  M, 

Audin,  Paris,  1856. 

AUDREY,  SAINT.    See  Ethbldreda,  Saint. 
AXTFKLARUNG,    THE.    See    Enlightknmxnt, 

THS. 

AUGER,  O^'zhft',  EDMOND:  Jesuit  preacher; 
b.  at  Alleman,  near  Troyes,  France,  1530;  d.  at 
Como  June  17,  1591.  He  made  a  pilgrimage  to 
Rome,  and,  while  filling  a  menial  position,  attracted 
the  notice  of  Loyola,  who  admitted  him  to  the  novi- 
tiate; sent  back  to  France  as  mission  preacher,  he 
is  said  to  have  converted  more  than  40,000  Hugue- 
nots to  the  Church  of  Rome.  He  became  court 
preacher  and  confessor  to  Henry  III  in  1575,  and 
founded  the  Congregation  of  the  Penitents  of  the 
Annunciation  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  1583.  He  wrote 
ascetical  and  controversial  works,  but  is  best  known 
by  his  CcUichisme  franfaiSf  written  in  Lyons,  15G3 
(published  at  Paris,  1508). 
Biblioorapht;  For  his  life  consult  N.  Bailly.  Paris.  1662; 

Dorigny,  Avignon,  1828;  M.  A.  Pericaud,  Lyons.  1828. 

AUGSBURG,  BISHOPRIC  OF:  The  origin  of  the 
Augsburg  bishopric  is  lost  in  obscurity,  but  there 
is  no  doubt  that  it  goes  back  to  the  days  of  the 
Roman  empire.  The  importance  of  the  colony  of 
Augusta  Vindelicorum  is  sufficient  to  account  for 
the  early  introduction  of  Christianity  there.  That 
it  was  evangelized  from  the  north  of  Italy  is  prob- 
able from  the  fact  that  it  originally  formed  a  part 
of  the  ecclesiastical  province  of  Aquileia.  It  sur- 
vived the  downfall  of  the  empire,  the  Alemannio 
conquest,  and  the  subjection  of  the  Alemanni  in 
their  turn  to  Prankish  rule.  The  early  boundaries 
of  the  diocese,  including  not  only  Suabian  but  also 
Bavarian  and  Prankish  territory,  give  further  evi- 
dence that  it  was  in  existence  before  the  establish- 
ment of  Teutonic  dominion.  The  present  diocese 
has  lost  a  few  Austrian  districts  and  those  parts 
which  are  now  in  Wdrttemberg,  but  has  retained 
so  much  of  the  old  diocese  of  Constance  as  is  now 
Bavarian.  From  the  foundation  of  the  archbishop- 
ric of  Mainz,  Augsburg  was  a  suffragan  see  under 
its  jurisdiction  untU  the  reorganization  of  1817 
transferred  it  to  the  newly  founded  province  of 
Munich.  The  secular  jurisdiction  which  the  bishops 
of  Augsburg  had  exercised  for  more  than  a  thou- 
sand years  was  taken  from  them  in  1802  and  trans- 
ferred to  the  Elector  of  Bavaria.        (A.  Hauck.) 


Bzbuogbapht:  P.  I.  Braun,  Oeechichie  dm  BieehOfe  von 
Avofbvrg,  4  vols..  Augsburg,  1813-16;  A.  Steiehele.  Dae 
Bieium  Augefrmv  .  .  .  beeehrieben,  6  vols..  Augsburg, 
1864-1001;  oonsult  also  Rettbeig.  KD;  Friedrioh.  KD; 
and  Hauok.  KD. 

AUGSBURG  COUFBSSIOH  A5D  ITS  APOLOGY. 

Origin  of  the  Confession  (f  1). 

Its  Character  and  Contents  (f  2). 

Origin  of  the  Apology  (f  3). 

History  of  the  Confession  and  the  Apology  (f  4). 

On  Jan.  21,  1530,  the  Emperor  Charles  V  issued 
letters  from  Bologna,  inviting  the  German  diet 
to  meet  in  Augsburg  Apr.  8,  for  the  purpose  of 
discussing  and  deciding  various  important  ques- 
tions. Although  the  writ  of  invitation  was  couched 
in  very  peaceful  language,  it  was  received  with 
suspicion  by  some  of  the  Evangelicals.  The  far- 
seeing  Landgrave  of  Hesse  hesitated 

X.  Orlgiii  to  attend  the  diet,  but  the  Elector 
of  the  Con-  John  of  Saxony,  who  received  the  writ 

fession.  Mar.  11,  on  Mar.  14  directed  Luther, 
Jonas,  Bugenhagen,  and  Melanchthon 
to  meet  in  Torgau,  where  he  was,  and  present  a 
summary  of  the  Protestant  faith,  to  be  laid  before 
the  emperor  at  the  diet.  This  simimary  has  re- 
ceived the  name  of  the  "  Torgau  Articles."  On  Apr. 
3  the  elector  and  reformers  started  from  Torgau 
and  reached  Coburg  on  Apr.  23.  There  Luther 
was  left  behind.  The  rest  reached  Augsburg 
May  2.  On  the  journey  Melanchthon  worked 
on  an  "  apology,"  using  the  Torgau  articles,  and  sent 
his  draft  to  Luther  at  Coburg  on  May  11,  who 
approved  it.  Several  alterations  were  suggested 
to  Melanchthon  in  his  conferences  with  Jonas, 
the  Saxon  chancellor  BrQck,  the  conciliatory  bishop 
Btadion  of  Augsburg,  and  the  imperial  secretary 
Alfonso  Valdez.  On  June  23  the  final  form  of  the 
text  was  adopted  in  the  presence  of  the  Elector 
John  of  Saxony,  the  Landgrave  Philip  of  Hesse, 
the  Bfargrave  George  of  Brandenburg,  the  Dukes 
Ernest  and  Francis  of  Laneburg,  the  represent- 
atives of  Nuremberg  and  Reutlingen,  and  other 
counselors,  besides  twelve  theologians.  After  the 
reading  the  confession  was  signed  by  the  Elector 
John  of  Saxony,  Margrave  George  of  Branden- 
burg, Duke  Ernest  of  LQneburg,  the  Landgrave 
Philip  of  Hesse,  the  Prince  Wolfgang  of  Anhalt, 
the  representatives  of  Nuremberg  and  Reutlingen, 
and  probably  also  by  the  electoral  prince  John  Fred- 
erick and  Duke  Francis  of  LQneburg.  During  the 
diet  the  cities  of  Weissenburg,  Heilbronn,  Kempten, 
and  Windesheim  also  expressed  their  concurrence 
with  the  confession.  The  emperor  had  ordered  the 
confession  to  be  presented  to  him  at  the  next 
session,  Jime  24;  but  when  the  evangelical  princes 
asked  that  it  be  read  in  public,  their  petition  was 
refused,  and  efforts  were  made  to  prevent  the 
public  reading  of  the  document  altogether.  The 
evangelical  princes,  however,  declared  that  they 
would  not  part  with  the  confession  until  its 
reading  should  be  allowed.  The  25th  was  then 
fixed  for  the  day  of  its  presentation.  In  order 
to  exclude  the  people,  the  little  chapel  of  the 
episcopal  palace  was  appointed  in  place  of  the 
spacious  city  hall,  where  the  meetings  of  the  diet 
were  held.  The  two  Saxon  chancellors  Bt<^<!.k. 
and  Beyer,  the  one  with  the  Latin  copy,  tX^^^  ^:i^^=«^ 


Anflrslmrff 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


862 


with  the  German,  stepped  into  the  middle  of  the 
assembly,  and  against  the  wish  of  the  emperor 
the  German  text  was  read.  The  reading  lasted 
two  hours  and  was  so  distinct  that  every  word 
could  be  heard  outside.  The  reading  being  over, 
the  copies  were  handed  to  the  emperor.  The 
German  he  gave  to  the  imperial  chancellor,  the 
Elector  of  Mainz,  the  Latin  he  took  away.  Neither 
of  the  copies  is  now  extant. 

The  history  of  its  origin  shows  that  the  docu- 
ment presented  at  Augsburg  was  confession  and 
apology  at  the  same  time,  destined 

2.  Its  Char-  to  serve  the  cause  of  peace  and  to 
acter  and  refute  the  charge  of  deviating  from 
Contents,   the  ancient  doctrine  of  the  Church 

and  of  having  communion  with  sec- 
taries; and  the  entire  first  part  (Articuli  pr occiput 
fidei,  arts,  i-xxi)  was  intended  to  prove  that  the 
Evangelicals  agreed  with  the  Catholic  teaching, 
aqd  wherever  they  differed  from  the  transmitted 
form  of  doctrine  they  wished  to  restore  the  original, 
genuine  teaching  of  the  Church.  The  second 
part  {Articuli  in  quibus  recensentur  abusus  mtUati, 
xxii-xxviii)  treats  of  abuses  and  proves  how  cer- 
tain general  abuses  must  be  abolished  for  the  sake 
of  conscience  and  that  such  action  was  not  only 
supported  by  Scripture  but  also  by  the  practise 
of  the  ancient  Church  and  the  acknowledged 
teachers  of  the  Church. 

[The  first  part  of  the  Confession,  which  treats 
of  the  chief  articles  of  faith,  speaks  of  the  follow- 
ing subjects:  art.  i,  of  God;  ii,  of  original  sin;  iii,  of 
the  Son  of  God;  iv,  of  justification;  v,  of  the 
ministry  of  the  Church;  vi,  of  the  new  obedience; 
vii,  of  the  Church;  viii,  what  the  Church  is;  ix,  of 
baptism;  x,  of  the  Lord's  Supper;  xi,  of  confession; 
xii,  of  repentance;  xiii,  of  the  use  of  sacraments; 
xiv,  of  ecclesiastical  orders;  xv,  of  ecclesiastical 
rites;  xvi,  of  civil  affairs;  xvii,  of  Christ's  return 
to  judgment;  xviii,  of  free  will;  xix,  of  the  cause 
of  sin;  xx,  of  good  works;  xxi,  of  the  worship  of 
saints.  The  second  part  recounts  the  abuses  which 
have  been  corrected:  art.  i,  of  both  kinds  in  the 
Lord's  Supper;  ii,  of  the  marriage  of  priests;  iii,  of 
the  mass;  iv,  of  confession;  v,  of  the  distinction 
of  meats  and  of  traditions;  vi,  of  monastic  vows; 
vii,  of  ecclesiastical  power.] 

The  hope  that  the  opponents  of  the  Confession 

would  make  a  profession  of  their  faith  was  not 

fulfilled.    They    refused    to    be   con- 

3,  Origin     sidered     as     a    party.     Nevertheless, 
of  the  Apol-  it  was  decided  to  have  the  Confession 

ogy.  examined  by  intelligent  and  unpreju- 

diced scholars,  who  were  to  acknowl- 
edge that  which  was  correct  and  to  refute  that 
which  was  against  the  Christian  faith  and  the 
Christian  Chiurh  (Ficker,  Die  Confvlation  des  Augs- 
burger  Bekenntniases,  Leipsic,  1891,  pp.  15  sqq.). 
Among  the  twenty  scholars  selected  by  Campeggi 
were  some  of  the  most  malicious  opponents  of 
Luther,  like  Eck,  Faber,  Cochlaeus,  Dietenberger, 
and  Wimpina,  and  their  refutation  (reprinted 
by  Ficker)  was  of  such  a  character  that  it  was 
rejected  by  the  emperor  and  the  estates  siduig  with 
Rome.  A  revision,  however,  was  accepted,  and 
as  Responaio  AugustancB  confesaionis  it  was  read  on 


Aug.  3,  1530,  in  the  same  room  in  which  the  Con- 
fession had  been  read.  Since  this  reply,  the  Con- 
fiUatio  pontifica,  as  it  afterward  came  to  be  known 
(the  Latin  text  in  Kolde,  141  sqq.),  was  adopted 
by  the  emperor  as  his  own  and  conformity  to  it  was 
demanded,  the  Protestants  thought  necessary  to 
refute  it.  No  copy  of  the  confutation  was  given 
to  the  Evangelicals,  and,  as  negotiations  led  to  no 
result,  Melanchthon  and  others  were  requested  to 
prepare  an  "  Apology  of  the  Confession, "  that  is 
to  say,  a  refutation  of  the  charges  of  the  Confutatio, 
and  the  same  was  approved  by  the  Evangelical 
estates.  In  the  circular  for  cUsmissing  the  diet 
which  was  presented  to  the  estates,  Sept.  22, 
the  remark  was  found  that  the  evangelical  con- 
fession "  had  been  refuted."  This  remark  was 
contradicted  by  the  chancellor  BrQck  in  the 
name  of  the  Evangelicals,  who  presented  at  the 
same  time  Melanchthon's  apology.  But  the 
emperor,  to  whom  Ferdinand  had  whispered  some- 
thing, refused  to  accept  it.  This  is  the  so-called 
Prima  delineatio  apologia^  first  made  known  in 
Latin  by  Chytr&us  {Historia  Augustana  confcs- 
aioniSf  Frankfort,  1578,  328  sqq.;  best  edition  of 
the  Latin  and  German  text  in  the  Corptu  refor- 
matorunif  xxvii,  275  sqq.).  Subsequently  Melanch- 
thon received  a  copy  of  the  Confutation,  which 
led  to  many  alterations  in  the  first  draft  of  the 
Apology.  It  was  then  published  in  1531  under 
the  title  Apologia  confeasionia  Augustanas.  It 
follows  the  articles  of  the  Augustana  (i.e.,  the 
Augsburg  Confession),  and  on  accoimt  of  its  theo- 
logical exposition  is  rather  a  doctrinal  work  than 
a  confession. 

Although  the  emperor  prohibited  the  printing  of 
the  evangelical  confession  without  his  special  per- 
mission, during  the  diet  six  German 
4.  History  editions  and  one  in  Latin  were  pub- 
of  the  Con-  lished  (cf .  Corpua  refomtatorum,  xxvi, 
fessionand  478  sqq.).  Their  inaccuracy  and 
the  Apology,  incorrectness  induced  Melanchthon 
to  prepare  an  edition  to  which  he 
added  the  Apology.  Thus  originated  the  so-called 
editio  princepa  of  the  Augustana  and  Apology, 
which  was  published  in  the  spring  of  1531.  This 
edition  was  regarded  as  the  authentic  reproduction 
of  the  faith  professed  before  the  emperor  and  em- 
pire. Whereas  the  first  recension  of  the  Apology 
was  composed  in  behalf  of  the  evangeUcal  stat«, 
the  edition  now  issued  by  Melanchthon  was  evi- 
dently a  private  work  to  which  he  attached  his  name 
as  author,  which  is  not  the  case  with  the  Augustana. 
Nevertheless,  the  Apology  was  accepted  everywhere 
and  the  German  translation  of  Justus  Jonas  made 
it  accessible  to  the  laity.  In  1532  the  Apology 
was  officially  accepted  at  Schweinfurt  by  the 
evangelical  estates  as  an  **  apology  and  exposition 
of  the  confession  along  with  the  confession."  Ever 
since  the  Augustana  and  Apology  have  been 
regarded  as  the  official  principid  confessions  of  the 
nascent  Evangelical  church.  Their  recognition 
was  a  condition  of  membership  in  the  Schmalkald 
League;  both  were  adopted  in  the  Concord  of 
Wittenberg  of  1536  and  again  at  Schmalkald  m 
1537.  Meanwhile  Melanchthon  worked  contin- 
ually to  improve  the  text.    The  German  edition  of 


863 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Axigm\mrg 


the  Augustana  published  in  1533  shows  changes 
in  arts,  iv,  v,  vi,  xii,  xv,  xx,  which  are  of  no  doc- 
trinal consequence.  The  same  is  the  case  with 
subsequent  editions.  More  important  was  the 
new  Latin  edition  of  1540,  where  the  apology  is 
said  to  have  been  diligerUer  recognita.  But  the 
Augustana  appears  here  in  such  a  form,  espe- 
cially in  art.  x,  that  it  afterward  received  the 
name  varicUa,  Although  attention  had  been 
called  in  1537  to  Melanchthon's  changes  in  the 
text,  and  the  Elector  John  Frederick  criticized 
them  as  arrogant  (Corpus  reformatorum,  iii,  366), 
we  find  that  the  "  Variata  "  when  published  gave 
no  offense.  The  assertion  that  Luther  condemned 
it,  can  not  be  confirmed  (cf.  KOllner,  Symbolik, 
i,  Hamburg,  1837,  239).  The  new  edition  was 
used  freely,  as  a  new  edition  is  preferable  to  an 
older;  even  such  strict  Lutherans  as  Johann  Brenz 
praised  Melanchthon  for  it  {Corpus  reformatorum, 
iv,  737).  Even  the  fact  that  Johann  Eck  at  the 
Worms  Colloquy  in  1541  mentioned  the  change 
of  the  original  text  (Corpus  reformatorum,  iv,  34 
sqq.;  Ranke,  Deutsche  Geschichte,  iv,  176)  had  so 
little  effect  upon  the  contemporaries  and  Melanch- 
thon, that  when  a  new  edition  became  necessary 
in  1542  the  latter  introduced  other  changes.  After 
the  death  of  Luther,  when  dogmatic  controversies 
widened  the  chasm  between  Melanchthonians  and 
the  strict  Lutherans  and  the  edition  of  1540  became 
the  party-symbol  of  the  former  and  later  also  of  the 
Crypto-Calvinists,  it  naturally  became  an  object 
of  suspicion  to  the  stricter  Lutherans  and  it  was 
but  natural  that  in  preparing  the  Book  of  Concord 
the  original  text  was  adopted.  The  Latin  text 
represents  the  editio  princeps  of  1531,  whereas 
the  German  was  made  from  a  Mainz  copy. 

(T.  KOLDB.) 
Biblioorapht:  The  best  text  of  the  Confession  in  Lat. 
and  Germ,  is  by  Tschaokert,  Leipsio,  1001;  given  also  by 
T.  Kolde.  Gotha,  1896.  cf.  the  ed.  by  E.  Rausoh,  Die  un- 
ffeAnderte  augaburffUche  Canfeanon,  Dresden,  1874;  the 
Lat.  with  En«.  transl.  by  C.  B.  Krauth  is  in  Schaff.  Crsstfs. 
iii,  3-73;  the  Krauth  transl.  of  the  Confession  and  Eng. 
transl.  of  the  Apology  by  H.  E.  Jacobs  are  in  the  latter's 
Book  of  Concord,  i,  69-302,  Philadelphia.  1893.  while  full 
information  as  to  the  history  of  these  documents  is  given 
in  the  same.  ii.  24-41.  For  early  history  and  collections  of 
sources  consult  D.  Chsrtr&us,  Hiatorie  der  Auot^uroer  Cott" 
feawion,  Rostock,  1676.  and  often;  J.  J.  MOller.  Hiatorie 
von  dir  evanffeliaehen  StAnde  Proteatation  uie  auch  von 
dem  Eur  Augaburo  itberod>enen  Oiaubenabekenntniaaet  Jena, 
1705;  E.  S.  Cyprian.  Hiatorie  der  Avo^mrger  Confeaaion, 
Gotha.  1730;  C.A.  Salig,  VolleUkndioe  Hiatorie  der  Auge- 
burger  Confeaaion,  3  vols.,  Halle,  1730;  G.  G.  Weber, 
KriHacKe  OeachicfUe  der  Augaburger  Cor^eeaion,  aua  ardii- 
valieckenNttchrichten,2yo]B.,  Frankfort,  1786.  For  his- 
tory of  the  text  consult  C/2.  zxvi,  280;  G.  W.  Panier, 
Die  unverAnderie  augabtergiaeha  Confeaeion,  Nuremberg, 
1782  (Germ,  and  Lat.);  G.  P.  C.  Kaiser,  Beiirag bu  einer 
kritiedien  LiterOrgeachichte  der  MelanctKoneeKen  Original' 
auagabe,  ib.  1830.  For  the  sotirces  consult  C.  E.  FOrste- 
mann,  Urkundenbtieh  nw  Qeachiekte  dee  Reiehetaga  mu 
AugAurg,  26SO,  Halle,  1830;  idem,  Archiv  filr  die  Oe- 
aehichte  der  kireMichen  Reformation,  vol.  i,  pext  1,  Halle, 
1831;  Luther's  Briefe,  ed.  M.  L.  de  Wette.  voL  iii,  Berlin, 
1826;  CA,  ii;  T.  Kolde.  Analecta  Lutherana,  pp.  119 
sqq.,  Gotha.  1883;  F.  Schirrmacher.  Briefe  und  Akten  eur 
Oeechiehte  dee  Rdigionageaprdcke  und  dee  Reiehatage  mu 
Augaburg,  ib.  1876.  On  the  history  and  interpretation 
consult  G.  L.  Plitt.  Einleitung  in  die  Auguetana,  2  vols., 
Erlangen,  1867-68;  O.  Z6ckler.  Die  augaburgiecke  Confee- 
aion  ale  aymboliaehe  Lehrgrundlage,  Frankfort,  1870;  C.  P. 
Krauth.  The  ConaervaHve  Reformation  and  ite  Theology  ae 
repreaented  in  the  Augeburg  Confeeeion,  Philadelphia,  1871; 


L.  von  Ranke,  Deutache  Oeechiehte,  iii.  172  sqq.,  Leipsio, 
1881;  J.  Ficker.  i>tf0  KonfutaOon  dee  augabwrgiachen  Bekennt" 
niaeee,  ihre  erate  Oeatalt  und  ihre  Oeechiehte,  ib.  1891; 
H.  E.  Jacobs.  Book  of  Concord,  ut  sup.  (the  best  edition 
for  English  readers);  T.  Kolde.  Martin  Luther,  ii.  324  sqq  , 
Gotha.  1893;  Schaff.  Chriatian  Church,  vi,  706-718:  J. 
W.  Richard,  PhUip  Melanchthon,  pp.  190-218.  New  York, 
1898;  J.  K6stli  i.  Martin  Luther,  ii,  192  sqq..  Berlin.  1908. 
AUGSBURG,  INTERIM  OF.  See  Interim. 
AUGSBURG,  RELIGIOUS  PEACE  OF:  A  con- 
ventioD  concluded  in  a  diet  at  Augsburg  Sept. 
25,  1555,  intended  to  settle  the  religious  question 
in  Germany.  After  his  victory  over  the  Schmal- 
kald  League  (1547),  the  Emperor  Charles  V  thought 
he  was  near  his  goal,  the  religious  and  ecclesiastical 
unity  of  the  empire.  But  the  desertion  of  Duke 
Maurice  of  Saxony,  and  the  Treaty  of  Passau  (1552) 
changed  the  situation,  because  by  the  latter  public 
recognition  was  given  to  the  Lutheran  faith  as 
among  the  ecclesiastical  institutions  of  the  empire. 
Such  recognition  meant  a  complete  rupture  with  the 
ecclesiastical  and  political  development  inherited 
from  the  Middle  Ages,  and  a  peace  on  the  basis  of 
the  equal  recognition  of  both  religions  was  highly 
unacceptable  to  the  emperor.  As  he  could  not  pre- 
vent it,  he  withdrew  from  the  negotiations  and 
transferred  all  power  to  his  brother  Ferdinand,  who 
felt  like  himself,  but  was  ready  to  accept  the  in- 
evitable. When  the  diet  at  Augsburg  was  finally 
opened  Feb.  5,  1555,  Ferdinand's  endeavor  was 
directed  more  toward  strengthening  the  peace  of 
the  country  than  to  religion.  But  the  Protestants 
insisted  upon  settling  the  question  of  the  religious 
peace  first,  without  regard  to  a  council.  The  op- 
posite party  yielded  reluctantly.  With  the  excep- 
tion of  the  Augsburg  cardinal.  Otto  von  Truchsess, 
the  spiritual  princes  agreed  that  **  there  should  be 
concluded  and  established  a  continual,  firm,  un- 
conditional peace  lasting  forever,"  between  the 
professors  "  of  the  old  religion  and  the  estates  be- 
longing to  the  Augsburg  Confession."  The  stipu- 
lations of  the  peace  were  as  follows:  All  adherents 
of  the  Augsburg  Confession  were  to  be  included, 
without  regard  to  its  various  editions  (see  Augs- 
burg Confession  and  its  Apology),  those  sects 
alone  being  excluded  which  had  been  condenmed. 
by  decrees  of  the  diet,  as  already  provided  in  the 
Treaty  of  Passau.  Spiritual  junsdiction  in  Prot- 
estant territory  was  to  be  suspended,  but  the  chap- 
ters were  not  to  be  expelled  from  Protestant  cities. 
Confiscated  spiritual  estates,  which  did  not  belong 
to  those  immediately  subject  to  the  emperor  and 
which  at  the  time  of  the  Treaty  of  Passau  or  later 
were  no  longer  in  the  possession  of  the  clergy  were 
to  remain  in  the  hands  of  the  Evangelicals.  To 
the  secular  estates  alone  was  unrestricted  freedom 
of  religion  granted,  and  they  were  masters  of  the 
religion  of  their  subjects,  for  "  where  there  is  one 
Lord,  there  should  be  one  religion."  The  conver- 
sion of  a  spiritual  prince  to  the  Augsburg  Confes- 
sion, according  to  the  reservatum  ecclesiasticum 
added  by  the  king,  carried  with  it  the  loss  of  his 
spiritual  dignity  and  his  office  as  well  as  of  the  im- 
perial fief.  The  imperial  chamber,  to  which  Prot- 
estants were  now  admitted,  was  to  watch  over 
the  continuance  of  the  peace.  Considered  all  in 
all,  the  success  of  the  Protestants  was  8maS\>  ^^^j^v.- 


AngnsU 
Augnstiiia 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


864 


eatantiBm  was  deprived  of  the  chance  to  epread, 
by  the  TeMcrvalum  eadesiasticumf  a  large  part  of 
Germaoy  was  permanently  assigned  to  CathoLidsm, 
and  the  Lutheran  peformation,  which  had  hardly  be- 
gun} was  broken  off,  not  to  be  resumed.  The  Uttle 
that  had  been  gained  wob  established ^  but  the  im- 
mediate efTect  waB  the  outbrBak  of  the  internal  doc- 
trinal controversies  and  the  rise  of  the  official  Church, 

(T.  KOLDE.) 

lo  Auatria  and  iUt  dependencies  Lutheraniam 
profited  greatly  by  the  peace*  Many  nobles  having 
become  Protestant  claimed  and  exercised  the  right 
to  promote  the  Protestant  cause  in  their  posse^iona. 
To  be  surep  the  Hapsbur^  claimed  for  themselves 
the  exclusive  right  to  determine  the  religion  of  the 
people  iti  all  their  dependencies;  but  they  found 
it  impossible  to  enforce  their  views  upon  the  nobles. 

A.  H,  N. 

BtsuoaRAPlfY:  Lehenm^au.  De  paa  r^tffi&nia  a^a  pubiiea 
ei  iriffinidit^  Frajakfort^  1631;  h*  Van  H&nket  Deuii^he 
Oeiehtchte,  vol  v,  book  x,  Leipmc,  ISS2;  M.  Ritter, 
DeuUthe  Getekidiitf  itn  Zgilcdtet  drr  Geoenrvf^frmatwn.  i, 
79  eqq,*  8iutt(Eart,  1886;  G.  Wolff,  Der  AuQ*burffer  Re- 
tiffiontfriede,  ib.  ISSO;  F.  von  Bexold,  QMchichU  der  deut- 
ichen  Eefarmation,  p,  §66,  B«rlin.  ISDO;  G.  Effelbiuif, 
DeuUche  Genchiektt  im.  ueehtiehnttn  Jakthundert^  il,  587 
aq<l,,atutticart,  1891. 

AUGUST!,  au^gOs'tt,  JOHAIffl  CHRISTIAK 
WILHELM;  Theologian  and  archeologif^t:  b.  at 
Eschenberga,  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,  Oct.  27 ^  1772; 
d.  at  CJoblenz  Apr*  2S,  184L  He  studied  theology 
at  Jena  and  became  professor  of  philosophy  there 
1800|  of  Oriental  languages  1823;  professor  of  the- 
ology at  Breslau  1812,  at  Bonn  1819,  where  he  rep* 
resented  the  older  school  of  theology  by  the  side  of 
younger  teachers  such  as  Lilcke,  Giescler,  and 
NitMch;  in  182S  he  became  councilor  of  the  con- 
sistory of  Coblenz,  in  1835  president.  Among  his 
works  are  DenkwHrdigkeUen  aus  der  ckn^Ui/^ken 
Archa&hgie  (12  vols.,  Leipsic,  1817-31);  Lehrbuch 
d^  ehrUtlichen  Dogmengeschkhte  (1805;  4th  ed*, 
1835);  Einleiiung  in  das  AUe  Testament  (1806;  2d 
©d.,  1827).  The  moat  widely  used  of  his  works  was 
the  Handhuth  der  chrUilichm  ArcMologie  (3  vols*, 
1836--37);  he  also  assisted  de  Wette  in  translating 
the  Bible  into  Gennan  (1809-14),  Adaptations  of 
his  works  on  archeology  were  published  m  English 
by  J.  E.  Riddle  (London,  1839)  and  L.  Coleman 
(Andover,  1841). 

AUGTJSTIIf  A,  SISTER.  See  Lasattlx,  Amaltu  von 

AUGUSTOIE  OF  ALVEIDT;  German  Fran- 
ciscan; b.  at  Alfeld  (27  m.  s.  of  Hanover),  Prussia, 
c.  1480;  d.  probably  in  Halle  after  1532.  He  first 
appears  in  Leipsic,  where  he  was  a  reader  in  theol- 
ogy at  a  convent.  He  is  the  Minorite  to  whom 
Erasmus  refers  in  the  Spongia.  He  is  known 
chiefly  as  an  opponent  of  Luther.  On  Jan.  20, 
1522,  he  engaged  in  apubhc  disputation  at  Weimar 
with  Johann  Lftng!«?  in  defense  of  cloister-life.  He 
became  guardian  of  the  Franciscan  cloister  at  Halle 
about  1523.  His  worka  have  now  no  value,  except 
as  curioattiea. 

AUGUSniTE  (AUSTIN),  SAIlfT,  OF  CAWTER- 
BURY  :  The  apoBtle  to  the  English  and  first  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury;  d.  at  Canterbury  May  26, 604 
or  605,  When  first  beard  of  he  was  prtppositua 
(prior)  of  the  monastery  of  St*  Andre Wj  founded 


by  Gregoiy  the  Great  in  Rome^  and  was  sent  1^ 
Gregory  in  5M  at  the  head  of  a  mission  of  forty 
monks  to  preach  to  the  Anglo-Saxons,  They  lo«t 
heart  on  the  way  and  Augustine  went  back  to 
Rome  from  Provence  and  asked  that  the  mission 
be  given  up.  The  pope,  however,  commanded 
and  encouraged  them  to  proceed ,  and  they  landed 
on  the  Island  of  Thanet  in  the  spring  of  597, 
They  found  the  way  not  unprepared  as  Bertha, 
daughter  of  Charibert  of  Farts  and  wife  of  Ethel- 
bert,  king  of  Kent^  was  a  Christian  and  was 
allowed  to  worship  God  in  her  own  way,  Ethel- 
be  rt  permitted  the  missionaries  to  settle  and 
preach  in  his  town  of  Canterbury  and  before  the 
ead  of  the  year  he  was  converted  and  Augustine 
was  consecrated  bishop  at  Arlea,  At  Chrvstmaa 
lOtOOO  of  the  king's  subjects  were  baptized.  Au- 
guatino  6cnt  a  report  of  hia  succesa  to  Gregory  with 
certain  rather  petty  questions  concerning  his  work, 
which  do  not  indicate  a  great  mind.  In  601  Melli- 
tus  (q.v.)  and  others  brought  the  pope's  replies, 
with  the  pallium  for  Augustine  and  a  present  of 
sacred  vessels,  vestments,  reUcs,  books,  and  the 
like.  Gregory  directed  the  new  archbbhop  to  or- 
dain as  soon  as  possible  twelve  suETragan  bishops 
and  to  send  a  bishop  to  York,  who  should  also  have 
twelve  suffragans, — a  plan  which  was  not  carried 
out,  nor  was  the  primatia!  see  established  at  London  as 
Gregory  intended.  More  practicable  were  the  pojje^a 
mandates  con ce ruing  heathen  temples  and  usages; 
the  former  were  to  be  consecrated  to  Christian 
service  and  the  latter,  so  far  as  possible,  to  be  trans- 
formed into  dedication  ceremonies  or  feasts  of  mar- 
tyrs, since  "  he  who  would  climb  to  a  lofty  height 
must  go  up  by  steps,  not  leaps  "  (letter  of  Gregory 
to  Mellitus,  in  Bcde,  i,  30).  Augustine  reconse- 
crated and  rebuilt  an  old  church  at  Canterbury  as 
his  cathedral  and  founded  a  monastery  in  oonnecUoa 
with  it.  He  also  restored  a  church  and  founded 
the  monastery  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul  outside 
the  walls.  His  attempts  to  effect  a  union  with  the 
old  British  Church  in  Wales  failed.  See  Axqlo- 
Saxons,  Conversion  or  the;  Celtic  Chubch  nr 
BniTAiN  ANU  InELANn. 

BiBLiooRAPfTTi  The  import&nt  eoiirc«A  hie  Bede.  Hial  RcL 
i,  23-ii,  3  iknd  tb«  l(*tt«ni  oi  Gr^ory  the  Grvat  (in  H&ddiii 
and  Stubba,  C&unciU,  iii,  5-S8}.  Tbe  thirteenth  oent^ 
nary  pf  AiijfllitineV  miidoi)  m  IS07  called  forth  a  mimba- 
of  pubUcatiofLep  includiiif  an  edttJOD  of  th«  i*hapterv  of 
Bede,  with  introducUoH*  by  A.  Bnow^  O.  S.  B..  LondiM, 
1S97,  and  Thii  Mitttwn  aj  SL  ^u^^uififfe  fs  EnffUind  aeofd' 
tn^  to  the  Oriffinat  DocumcnU,  ed.  A.  J,  Mnaoii,  Cambridev, 
IS07,  which  given  everything  df  importance  io  Lfttia  wnd 
Englinh  (cf.  ulao  Haiidan  and  Stubbs,  ui  aup.,  iii.  3-001 
MaatifimphB  of  a  mohe  pppulor  eharaet«r  «rere  inued  1^ 
G.  F.  Browne.  AiiffusHno  and  Kit  C&mpanumt,  Lo&doflp 
1S95;  E,  L*  Cutt*,  Auov^tine  of  Canierbury,  ib,  1S95; 
Brou,  B.  J.,  SL  ^uguifin  de  Canterbury  et  hj  cpmpa&f^^J^ 
Pam,  1897,  Erig.  tranji.,  London,  1897;  F.  A.  GaB^uet, 
The  MUvwn  of  SL  Ati^j^Hne,  ib*  1807;  W,  E.  Cblliaa, 
Beffirtnin&t  of  Englah  Vhrittiamtu*  Coming  of  SL  Av4Pi^ 
iine,  ib.  180S  {brief  but  BchfilarLy)^  mention  may  be  maik 
ftlao  of  DNJi,  1885.  ii.  255-257;  W.  Hook,  £,i«t  of  tkt 
Archbithop*  of  CoiiterbMry,  voL  i,  London,  1860:  E.  Bafr 
ficnK<>,  Bit  Senduf^  Au(iu»titiM  tur  B^kehrvng  dir  Angi^ 
mtJisrn,  Leipaic,  1890:  A.  P.  Stanley,  HUioHeat  M^ 
moriait  of  Canterbury,  pp.  19-S5,  Lflodon.  1883;  O,  F.  ]lae> 
bar,  ApQtUmt  of  MtdioTal  Europe,  pp.  87'~98,  London.  ISSSi 
W.  Enght,  Earlu  Engliah  Chxtrch  History ,  pp,  40-100,  Ol- 
ford,  1897.  The  life  of  Ati^fltino  is  included  in  CbiiiEHl 
Newman's  Livei  of  th*  Enfflith  Smnti,  Londnn.  I84S, 


866 


REUGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Aoffoati 
Auffoatine 


AUGUSTINE,  SAINT,  OF  HIPPO. 


I.  Life. 

1.  Formative  Period. 
Soiiroea  for  a  Biography  (f  1). 
Boyhood.  Parental  Influences  (f  2). 
Schooling  and  Early  Marriage  (f  3). 
Comes  Under  Manichean  Influenoee 

(5  4). 
Teaches  at  Thagaste  (f  6). 
Rejection   of  Manicheanism.     Re- 
moval to  Rome  (S  6). 
Life  Under  Ambrose  at  Milan  (f  7). 


Attracted  to  Neoplatoniam  (f  8). 
Conversion  to  Christianity  (f  9). 
Baptism.     Ordination    in    Africa 

(f  10). 
Presbyterate  at  Hippo  (f  11). 
Beginnings  of    Polemic    Activity 

(f  12). 
2.  Work  as  Bishop. 
Election  to  the  Bishopric  (f  1). 
Poesidius's    View    of    Augustine's 

Services  (f  2). 


Doctrinal  Importance  of  Augustine 

(13). 
Events  of  His  Episcopate  (f  4). 
II.  Theology  and  Writings. 

His  Anti-Manicheanism  (f  1). 
His  Anti-Pelagianism  (f  2). 
Anti-Pelagian  Writings  (f  3). 
Activity  Against  Donatism  (f  4). 
Development  of  His  Views  (f  6). 
Additional  Writings  (f  6). 
Miscellaneous  Works  (f  7). 


I.  Life:  1.  FormatlTe  Period:  Augustine,  bishop 
of  Hippo  (Lat.  Atiguatinus;  the  pnenomen  Aure- 
lius  given  by  Orosius,  Prosper,  and  others,  has  no 
evidence  in  his  own  writings,  or  in  letters  ad- 
dressed to  him),  is  not  only  the  most  important  of 
the  Fathers  of  the  early  Church,  but  at  the  same 
time  the  one  best  known  through  a  variety  of 
specially  full  and  useful  sources.  He  was  one  of 
the  most  fertile  writers  of  the  early  period,  and 
the  multiplication  of  his  manuscripts  has  allowed 
his  works  to  come  down  relatively  complete  in  mmi- 
ber.  Among  these,  the  Confesato- 
I.  Sources  nea    and    the    Retractationes    have  a 

for  a  Bi-    unique  value  for  the  history  of  primi- 

ography.  tive  church  life,  while  others  are  full 
of  biographical  details.  Moreover, 
a  countryman  of  his,  Possidius,  Bishop  of  Calama, 
who  was  in  close  relations  with  him  for  forty  years 
and  present  at  his  death,  has  given  us  a  life  which 
deserves  a  place  of  honor  in  early  hagiography. 
We  have  thus  remarkably  satisfactory  sources 
both  as  to  Augustine's  life  and  as  to  his  literary 
work.  He  himself,  in  his  Confesaianes  (written 
between  397  and  400),  has  described  the  events 
of  his  first  thirty-three  years;  and  for  the  rest  of 
his  life  we  have  both  the  treatises  and  letters, 
which  begin  about  the  time  when  the  Confeasiones 
stop,  as  well  as  the  biography  by  Possidius.  For 
the  historical  imderstanding  of  his  works,  as  well 
as  for  their  dates  and  criticism,  Augustine  himself 
has  left  in  the  Retractaiionea  (completed  at  the  end 
of  427)  a  unique  guide.  In  this  review  he  takes  up 
each  one  of  his  writings,  except  the  letters  and  ser- 
mons, in  chronological  order,  with  the  purpose  of 
explaining  things  which  might  be  misconstrued 
or  of  restating  them  in  a  better  way;  and  Possidius 
has  given  us  also  a  comprehensive  and  systematic 
list  of  all  the  writings,  as  an  appendix  to  his  biog- 
raphy. 

Augustine  is  the  first  ecclesiastical  author  the 
whole  course  of  whose  development  can  be  clearly 
traced,  as  well  as  the  first  in  whose  case  we  are  able 
to  determine  the  exact  period  covered  by  his  career, 
to  the  very  day.  He  informs  us  himself  that  he  was 
bom  at  Thagaste  (Tagaste;  now  Suk 
2.  Boyhood.  Arras),  in  proconsular  Numidia,  Nov. 

Parental  13,  354;  he  died  at  Hippo  Regius 
Influences,  (just  south  of  the  modem  Bona)  Aug. 
28, 430.  [Both  Suk  Arras  and  Bona  are 
in  the  present  Algeria,  the  first  60  m.  w.by  s.  and  the 
second  65  m.  w.  of  Tunis,  the  ancient  Carthage.] 
His  father  Patricius,  as  a  member  of  the  coimcil, 
belonged  to  the  influential  classes  of  the  place; 
he  was,  however,  in  straitened  circumstances, 
and  seems  to  have  had  nothing  remarkable  either 


in  mental  equipment  or  in  character,  but  to  have 
been  a  lively,  sensual,  hot-tempered  person,  en- 
tirely taken  up  with  his  worldly  concerns,  and 
unfriendly  to  Christianity  until  the  close  of  his  life; 
he  became  a  catechumen  shortly  before  Augustine 
reached  his  sixteenth  year  (369-370).  To  his  mother 
Monnica  (so  the  manuscripts  write  her  name,  not 
Monica;  b.  331,  d.  387)  Augustine  later  believed 
that  he  owed  what  he  became.  But  though  she 
was  evidently  an  honorable,  loving,  self-«acrificing, 
and  able  woman,  she  was  not  always  the  ideal  of 
a  Christian  mother  that  tradition  has  made  her 
appear.  Her  religion  in  earlier  life  has  traces  of 
formality  and  worldliness  about  it;  her  ambition 
for  her  son  seems  at  first  to  have  had  little  moral 
earnestness  and  she  regretted  his  Manicheanism 
more  than  she  did  his  early  sensuality.  It  seems 
to  have  been  through  Ambrose  and  Augustine 
that  she  attained  the  mature  personal  piety  with 
which  she  left  the  world.  Of  Augustine  as  a  boy 
his  parents  were  intensely  proud.  He  received  hLB 
first  education  at  Thagaste,  leaming  to  read  and 
write,  as  well  as  the  rudiments  of  Greek  and  Latin 
literature,  from  teachers  who  followed  the  old 
traditional  pagan  methods.  He  seems  to  have  had 
no  systematic  instruction  in  the  Christian  faith 
at  this  period,  and  though  enrolled  among  the  cate- 
chumens, apparently  was  near  baptism  only  when 
an  illness  and  his  own  boyish  desire  made  it  tem- 
porarily probable. 

His  father,  delighted  with  his  son's  progress  in  his 
studies,  sent  him  first  to  the  neighboring  Madaura, 
and  then  to  Carthage,  some  two  days'  journey 
away.  A  year's  enforced  idleness,  while  the 
means  for  this  more  expensive  schooling  were  being 
accumulated,  proved  a  time  of  moral  deterioration; 
but  we  must  be  on  our  guard  against  forming  our 
conception  of  Augustine's  vicious  living  from  the 
Confeaaionea  alone.  To  speak,  as  Mommsen  does, 
of  ''  frantic  dissipation  "  is  to  attach  too  much 
weight  to  his  own  penitent  expressions  of  self- 
reproach.  Looking  back  as  a  bishop,  he  naturally 
regarded  his  whole  life  up  to  the 
3.  Schooling  "  conversion  "  which  led  to  his  bap- 
and  Early  tism  as  a  period  of  wandering  from 
Marriage,  the  right  way;  but  not  long  after 
this  conversion,  he  judged  differently, 
and  foimd,  from  one  point  of  view,  the  turning- 
point  of  his  career  in  his  taking  up  philosophy  in 
his  nineteenth  year.  This  view  of  his  early  life, 
which  may  be  traced  also  in  the  Confeaaionea, 
is  probably  nearer  the  tmth  than  the  popular 
conception  of  a  youth  simk  in  all  kinds  of  immoral- 
ity. When  he  began  the  study  of  rhetoric  at 
Carthage,  it  is  tme  that  (in  company  with  com- 


Aoflrnstixia 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOO 


866 


rades  whose  ideas  of  pleasure  were  probably  much 
more  gross  than  his)  he  drank  of  the  cup  of  sensual 
pleasure.  But  his  ambition  prevented  him  from 
allowing  his  dissipations  to  interfere  with  his 
studies.  His  son  Adeodatus  was  bom  in  the  sum- 
mer of  372,  and  it  was  probably  the  mother  of  this 
child  whose  charms  enthralled  him  soon  after  his 
arrival  at  Carthage  about  the  end  of  370.  But  he 
remained  faithful  to  her  until  about  385,  and  the 
grief  which  he  felt  at  parting  from  her  shows  what 
the  relation  had  been.  In  the  view  of  the  civiliza- 
tion of  that  period,  such  a  monogamous  imion  was 
distinguished  from  a  formal  marriage  only  by 
certain  legal  restrictions,  in  addition  to  the  infor- 
maUty  of  its  beginning  and  the  possibility  of  a 
voluntary  dissolution.  Even  the  Church  was 
slow  to  condemn  such  unions  absolutely,  and 
Monnica  seems  to  have  received  the  child  and  his 
mother  publicly  at  Thagaste.  In  any  case  Augus- 
tine was  known  to  Carthage  not  as  a  roysterer 
but  as  a  quiet  honorable  student.  He  was,  how- 
ever, internally  dissatisfied  with  his  life.  The 
Hortensiua  of  Cicero,  now  lost  with  the  exception 
of  a  few  fragments,  made  a  deep  impression  on 
him.  To  know  the  truth  was  henceforth  his  deepest 
wish.  About  the  time  when  the  contrast  between 
his  ideals  and  his  actual  life  became  intolerable, 
he  learned  to  conceive  of  Christianity  as  the  one 
religion  which  could  lead  him  to  the  attainment 
of  his  ideal.  But  his  pride  of  intellect  held  him 
back  from  embracing  it  earnestly;  the  Scriptures 
could  not  bear  comparison  with  Cicero;  he  sought  for 
wisdom,  not  for  humble  submission  to  authority. 

In  this  frame  of  mind  he  was  ready  to  be  affected 
by  the  Manichean  propaganda  which    was    then 

actively  carried  on  in  Africa,  without 

4.  Comes     apparently  being  much  hindered  by 

Under  Mani-  the  imperial  edict  against  assemblies 

chean  In-    of  the  sect.    Two   things  especially 

flttences.     attracted    him    to   the     Manicheans: 

they  felt  at  liberty  to  criticize  the 
Scriptures,  particularly  the  Old  Testament,  with 
perfect  freedom;  and  they  held  chastity  and  self- 
denial  in  honor.  The  former  fitted  in  with  the 
impression  which  the  Bible  had  made  on  Augustine 
himself;  the  latter  corresponded  closely  to  his 
mood  at  the  time.  The  prayer  which  he  teUs  us 
he  had  in  his  heart  then,  "  Lord,  give  me  chastity 
and  temperance,  but  not  now,"  may  be  taken  as 
the  formula  which  represents  the  attitude  of  many 
of  the  Manichean  auditores.  Among  these  Augus- 
tine was  classed  during  his  nineteenth  year;  but 
he  went  no  further,  though  he  held  firmly  to  Mani- 
cheanism  for  nine  years,  during  which  he  en- 
deavored to  convert  all  his  friends,  scorned  the 
sacraments  of  the  Church,  and  held  frequent  dis- 
putations with  catholic  believers. 

Having    finished    his   studies,    he    returned    to 
Thagaste  and  began  to  teach  grammar,  living  in 

the  house  of  Romanianus,  a  prominent 

5,  Teaches   citizen  who  had  been  of  much  service 

at  Thagaste.  to  him   since  his  father's  death,  and 

whom  he  converted  to  Manicheanism. 
Monnica  deeply  grieved  at  her  son's  heresy,  for- 
bade him  her  house,  imtil  reassured  by  a  vision 
that    promised    his  restoration.     She    comforted 


herself  also  by  the  word  of  a  certain  bishop  (prob- 
ably of  Thagaste)  that  **  the  child  of  so  many 
tears  could  not  be  lost. ''  He  seems  to  have  spent 
little  more  than  a  year  in  Thagaste,  when  the 
desire  for  a  wider  field,  together  with  the  death 
of  a  dear  friend,  moved  him  to  return  to  Carthage 
as  a  teacher  of  rhetoric. 

The  next  period  was  a  time  of  diligent  study, 

and  produced  (about  the  end  of  380)  the  treatise, 

long  since  lost,  De  pulckro  et  apio, 

6.  Rejection  Meanwhile  the  hold  of  Manicheanism 
of  Mani-  on  him  was  loosening.  Its  feeble 
cheanism.   cosmology  and  metaphysics  had  long 

Removal  to  since  failed  to  satisfy  him,  and  the 
Rome.  astrological  superstitions  springing 
from  the  credulity  of  its  disciples 
offended  his  reason.  The  members  of  the  sect, 
imwilling  to  lose  him,  had  great  hopes  from  a  meet- 
ing with  their  leader  Faustus  of  Mileve;  but  wh^i 
he  came  to  Carthage  in  the  autumn  of  382,  he  too 
proved  disappointing,  and  Augustine  ceased  to  be 
at  heart  a  Manichean.  He  was  not  yet,  however, 
prepared  to  put  anything  in  the  place  of  the  doc- 
trine he  had  held,  and  remained  in  outward  com- 
mimion  with  his  former  associates  while  he  pursued 
his  search  for  truth.  Soon  after  his  Manichean  con- 
victions had  broken  down,  he  left  Carthage  for 
Rome,  partly,  it  would  seem,  to  escape  the  pre- 
ponderating influence  of  his  mother  on  a  mind 
which  craved  perfect  freedom  of  investigation. 
Here  he  was  brought  more  than  ever,  by  obligations 
of  friendship  and  gratitude,  into  close  association 
with  Manicheans,  of  whom  there  were  many  in 
Rome,  not  merely  auditores  but  perfecH  or  fully 
initiated  members.  This  did  not  last  long,  however, 
for  the  prefect  S3rmmachus  sent  him  to  Milan, 
certainly  before  the  beginning  of  385,  in  answer 
to  a  request  for  a  professor  of  rhetoric. 

The  change  of  residence  completed  Augustine's 

separation    from   Manicheanism.     He  listened  to 

the  preaching  of  Ambrose  and  by  it 

7.  Life  Un-  was  made  acquainted  with  the  alle- 
der  Am-  gorical  interpretation  of  the  Scrip- 
brose  at    tures  and  the  weakness  of  the  Mani- 

Milan.  chean  BibUcal  criticism,  but  he  was 
not  yet  ready  to  accept  catholic 
Christianity.  His  mind  was  still  under  the  influ- 
ence of  the  skeptical  philosophy  of  the  later  Acad- 
emy. This  was  the  least  satisfactory  stage  in  his  men- 
tal development,  though  his  external  circumstances 
were  increasingly  favorable.  He  had  his  mother 
again  with  him  now,  and  shared  a  house  and  gard^ 
with  her  and  his  devoted  friends  Alypius  and  Ne- 
bridius,  who  had  followed  him  to  Mikm;  his  assured 
social  position  is  shown  also  by  the  fact  that,  in 
deference  to  his  mother's  entreaties,  he  was  for- 
mally betrothed  to  a  woman  of  suitable  station. 
As  a  catechimien  of  the  Church,  he  listened  regularly 
to  the  sermons  of  Ambrose.  The  bishop,  though  as 
yet  he  knew  nothing  of  Augustine's  internal 
struggles,  had  welcomed  him  in  the  friendliest 
manner  both  for  his  own  and  for  Monnica's  sake. 
Yet  Augustine  was  attracted  only  by  Ambrose's 
eloquence,  not  by  his  faith;  now  he  agreed,  and 
now  he  questioned.  Morally  his  life  was  perhaps 
at  its  lowest  point.    On  his  betrothal,  he  had  put 


867 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDU 


Aoflrastlne 


away  the  mother  of  his  son;  but  neither  the  grief 
which  he  felt  at  this  parting  nor  regard  for  his 
future  wife,  who  was  as  yet  too  young  for  marriage, 
prevented  him  from  takbig  a  new  concubine  for  the 
two  intervening  years.  Sensuality,  however,  began 
to  pall  upon  hhn,  little  as  he  cared  to  struggle 
against  it.  His  idealism  was  by  no  means  dead; 
he  told  Romanian,  who  came  to  Milan  at  this 
time  on  business,  that  he  wished  he  could  live  alto- 
gether in  accordance  with  the  dictates  of  philoso- 
phy; and  a  plan  was  even  made  for  the  foundation 
of  a  community  retired  from  the  world,  which 
should  live  entirely  for  the  pursuit  of  truth.  With 
this  project  his  intention  of  marriage  and  his  am- 
bition interfered,  and  Augustine  was  further  off 
than  ever  from  peace  of  mind. 

In  his  thirty-first  year  he  was  strongly  attracted 
to  Neoplatonism  by  the  logic  of  his  development. 

The  idealistic  character  of  this    phi- 

8.  Attracted  losophy  awoke    unbounded     enthusi- 

to  Neo-     asm,  and  he  was  attracted  to  it  also 

platonism.   by  its  exposition  of  pure  intellectual 

being  and  of  the  origin  of  evil.  These 
doctrines  brought  him  closer  to  the  Church,  though 
he  did  not  yet  grasp  the  full  significance  of  its  central 
doctrine  of  the  personality  of  Jesus  Christ.  In 
his  earlier  writings  he  names  this  acquaintance 
with  the  Neoplatonic  teaching  and  its  relation  to 
Christianity  as  the  turning-point  of  his  life,  though 
in  the  Confessiones  it  appears  only  as  a  stage  on 
the  long  road  of  error.  The  truth,  as  it  may  be 
established  by  a  careful  comparison  of  his  earlier 
and  later  writings,  is  that  his  idealism  had  been 
distinctly  strengthened  by  Neoplatonism,  which 
had  at  the  same  time  revealed  his  own  will,  and  not 
a  natura  altera  in  him,  as  the  subject  of  his  baser 
desires.  This  made  the  conflict  between  ideal  and 
actual  in  his  life  more  unbearable  than  ever.  Yet 
his  sensual  desires  were  still  so  strong  that  it  seemed 
impossible  for  him  to  break  away  from  them. 

Help  came  in  a  curious  way.  A  countryman  of 
his,  Pontitianus,  visited  him  and  told  him  things 
which  he  had  never  heard  about  the  monastic  life 
and  the  wonderful  conquests  over  self  which  had 
been  won  under  its  inspiration.  Augustine's  pride 
was  touched;  that  the  unlearned  should  take  the 

kingdom  of  heaven  by  violence,  while 

9.  Conver-  he  with  all  his  learning,  was  still  held 

sion  to      captive  by  the  flesh,  seemed  unworthy 

Christianity,  of  him.    When  Pontitianus  had  gone, 

with  a  few  vehement  words  to  Al3rpius, 
he  went  hastily  with  him  into  the  garden  to 
fight  out  this  new  problem.  Then  followed  the 
scene  so  often  described.  Overcome  by  his  con- 
flicting emotions  he  left  Alypius  and  threw  himself 
down  imder  a  fig-tree  in  tears.  From  a  neigh- 
boring house  came  a  child's  voice  repeating  again 
and  again  the  simple  words  ToUe,  lege,  "  Take  up 
and  read."  It  seemed  to  him  a  heavenly  indica- 
tion; he  picked  up  the  copy  of  St.  Paul's  epistles 
which  he  had  left  where  he  and  Alypius  had  been 
sitting,  and  opened  at  Romans  xiii.  When  he 
came  to  the  words,  "  Let  us  walk  honestly  as  in  the 
day;  not  in  rioting  and  drunkenness,  not  in 
chambering  and  wantonness,"  it  seemed  to  him 
that  a  decisive  message  bad  been  sent  to  his  own 


soul,  and  his  resolve  was  taken.  Alypius  found  a 
word  for  himself  a  few  lines  further,  "  Him  that 
is  weak  in  the  faith  receive  ye;"  and  together 
they  went  into  the  house  to  bring  the  good  news 
to  Monnica.  This  was  at  the  end  of  the  summer 
of  386. 

Augustine,  intent  on  breaking  wholly  with  his 
old  life,  gave  up  his  position,  and  wrote  to  Ambrose 
to  ask  for  baptism.  The  months  which  inter- 
vened between  that  simuner  and  the  Easter  of  the 
following  year,  at  which,  according  to  the  early 
custom,  he  intended  to  receive  the  sacrament,  were 
spent  in  delightful  calm  at  a  coimtry-house,  put  at 
his  disposal  by  one  of  his  friends,  at  Cassisiacum 
(Casciago,  47  m.  n.  by  w.  of  Milan).  Here  Monnica 
Al3rpius,  Adeodatus,  and  some  of  his  pupils  kept 
him  company,  and  he  still  lectured  on 
10.  Baptism.  Vergil  to  them  and  held  philosophic 
Ordination  discussions.  The  whole  party  re- 
in Africa,  turned  to  Milan  before  Easter  (387), 
and  Augustine,  with  Alypius  and  Adeo- 
datus, was  baptized.  Plans  were  then  made  for 
returning  to  Airica;  but  these  were  upset  by  the 
death  of  Monnica,  which  took  place  at  Ostia  as 
they  were  preparing  to  cross  the  sea,  and  has  been 
described  by  her  devoted  son  in  one  of  the  most 
tender  and  beautiful  passages  of  the  Confessianea. 
Augustine  remained  at  least  another  year  in  Italy, 
apparently  in  Rome,  living  the  same  quiet  life 
which  he  had  led  at  Cassisiacum,  studying  and 
writing,  in  company  with  his  countryman  Evo- 
dius,  later  bishop  of  Uzalis.  Here,  where  he  had 
been  most  closely  associated  with  the  Manicheans, 
his  literary  warfare  with  them  naturally  began;  and 
he  was  also  writing  on  free  will,  though  this  book 
was  only  finished  at  Hippo  in  391.  In  the  autumn 
of  388,  passing  through  Carthage,  he  returned  to 
Thagaste,  a  far  different  man  from  the  Augustine 
who  had  left  it  five  years  before.  Alypius  was 
still  with  him,  and  also  Adeodatus,  who  died  young, 
we  do  not  know  when  or  where.  Here  Augustine 
and  his  friends  again  took  up  a  quiet,  though  not  yet 
in  any  sense  a  monastic,  life  in  common,  and  pur- 
sued their  favorite  studies.  About  the  beginning 
of  391,  having  found  a  friend  in  Hippo  to  help  in 
the  foundation  of  what  he  calls  a  monastery,  he 
sold  his  inheritance,  and  was  ordained  presbyter  in 
response  to  a  general  demand,  though  not  with- 
out misgivings  on  his  own  part. 

The  years  which  he  spent  in  the  presbyterate 
(391-395)  are  the  last  of  his  formative  period.    The 
very  earliest  works  which  fall  within  the  time  of 
his  episcopate  show  us  the  fully  developed  theolo- 
gian of  whose  special  teaching  we  think  when  we 
speak  of  Augustinianism.    There  is  little  externally 
noteworthy  in    these   four  years.    He   took    up 
active    work     not    later    than    the 
II.  Pres-    Easter  of   391,   when   we    find    him 
hyterate  at  preaching  to  the  candidates  for  bap- 
Hippo,      tism.    The  plans  for  a  monastic  com- 
munity  which    had  brought  him    to 
Hippo    were  now  realized.    In    a  garden    given 
for    the    purpose    by   the    bishop,  Valerius,   he 
founded  his  monastery,  which  seems  to  have  been 
the  first  in  Africa,  and  is  of  especial  significance 
because  it  maintained  a  clerical  school  and  thus 


Aivastlne 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


868 


made  a  connecting  link  between  monasticism 
and  the  secular  clergy.  Other  detailfl  of  this 
period  are  that  he  appealed  to  Aurelius,  bishop 
of  Carthage,  to  suppress  the  custom  of  hold- 
ing banquets  and  entertainments  in  the  churches, 
and  by  395  had  succeeded,  through  his  courageous 
eloquence,  in  abolishing  it  in  Hippo;  that  in  392 
a  public  disputation  took  place  between  him  and  a 
Manichean  presbyter  of  Hippo,  Fortunatus;  that 
his  treatise  De  fide  et  symbolo  was  prepared  to  be 
read  before  the  council  held  at  Hippo  October  8, 
393;  and  that  after  that  he  was  in  Carthage  for  a 
while,  perhaps  in  connection  with  the  synod  held 
there  in  394. 

The  intellectual  interests  of  these  four  years  are 
more  easily  determined,  principally  concerned  as 
they  are  with  the  Manichean  controversy,  and  pro- 
ducing the  treatises  De  tUilitate  ere- 
12.  Begin-  dendi  (391),  De  duabtie  animabue  eon- 
nings  of  tra  Manichaos  (first  half  of  392),  and 
Polemic  Contra  AdimarUum  (394  or  395).  His 
Activity,  activity  against  the  Donatists  also 
begins  in  this  period,  but  he  is  still 
more  occupied  with  the  Manicheans,  both  from 
the  recollections  of  his  own  past  and  from  his  in- 
creasing knowledge  of  Scripture,  which  appears, 
together  with  a  stronger  hold  on  the  Church's 
teaching,  in  the  works  just  named,  and  even  more 
in  others  of  this  period,  such  as  his  expositions  of 
the  Sermon  on  the  Mount  and  of  the  Epistles  to  the 
Romans  and  the  Galatians.  Full  as  the  writings 
of  this  epoch  are,  however,  of  Biblical  phrases  and 
terms, — grace  and  the  law,  predestination,  vocation, 
justification,  regeneration — a  reader  who  is  thor- 
oughly acquainted  with  Neoplatonism  will  detect 
Augustine's  old  love  of  it  in  a  Christian  dress  in 
not  a  few  places.  He  has  entered  so  far  into  St. 
Paul's  teaching  that  humanity  as  a  whole  appears 
to  him  a  maeaa  peccati  or  pecccUorumf  which,  ^  left 
to  itself,  that  is,  without  the  grace  of  God,  must 
inevitably  perish.  However  much  we  are  here 
reminded  of  the  later  Augustine,  it  is  clear  that  he 
still  held  the  belief  that  the  free  will  of  man  could 
decide  his  own  destiny.  He  knew  some  who  saw 
in  Romans  ix  an  unconditional  predestination 
which  took  away  the  freedom  of  the  will;  but  he 
was  still  convinced  that  this  was  not  the  Church's 
teaching.  His  opinion  on  this  point  did  not  change 
till  after  he  was  a  bishop. 

2.  Work  as  Bishop:    The  more  widely  known 
Augustine  became,  the  more  Valerius,  the  bishop 
of  Hippo,  was  afraid  of  losing  him  on  the  first  va- 
cancy of  some  neighboring  see,  and  desired  to  fix 
him  permanently  in  Hippo  by  making  him  coad- 
jutor-bishop,— a  desire  in  which  the 
I.  Election  people    ardently    concurred.    Augus- 
to  the       tine  was  stron^y  opposed  to  the  pro- 
Bishopric,    ject,  though  possibly  neither  he  nor  Va- 
lerius knew  that  it  might  be  held  to  be 
a  violation  of  the  eighth  canon  of  Nicsea,  which  for- 
bade in  its  last  clause  "  two  bishops  in  one  city  " 
(Hefele,  Conciliengeechichtef  i,407  sqq.,  Eng.  transl., 
1,409-410);  and  the  primate  of  Numidia,  Megalius  of 
Calama,  seems  to  have  raised  difficulties  which  sprang 
at  least  partly  from  a  personal  lack  of  confidence. 
But  Valerius  carried  his  plan  through,  and  not  long 


before  Christmas,  395,  Augustine  was  consecrated 
by  Megalius.  It  is  not  known  when  Valerius  died; 
but  it  makes  little  difference,  since  for  the  rest  of 
his  life  he  left  the  administration  more  and  more 
in  the  hands  of  his  assistant. 

A  complete  narration  of  Augustine's  doin^  dur- 
ing the  thirty-five  years  in  which  he  was  the  gjory 
of  the  little  diocese  would  require  a  history  of  the 
African,  almost  of  the  whole  Western,  Church. 
Here  we  can  do  no  more  than  briefly  discuss  some 
things  which  constitute  his  importance  to  later 
Christianity,  and  mention  a  few  important  bio- 
graphical facts.  Further  details  will  be  found  in 
the  articles  Donatism,  Pelaoiub,  Semipeulqian- 
IBM,  Monasticism,  North  African  Church.  Tlie 
life  of  Augustine  by  his  friend  Possidius  shows  that 
its  author  was  possessed  by  the  de- 
2.  Possid-  sire  to  erect  a  suitable  memorial  to  a 
ius's  View  of  man  who  was  destined  to  have  a  last- 
Augustine's  ing  importance  in  the  history  of  the 
Services.  Church;  it  is  much  more  than  a  mere 
product  of  hagiography.  He  con- 
siders Augustine  first  as  an  author  who  has  left  so 
many  works  in  refutation  of  heresy  and  encourage- 
ment of  piety  that  few  even  of  diligent  students 
can  master  them  all;  and  he  feeb  hiinself  therefore 
bound  to  include  a  brief  account  of  his  subject's 
literary  activity.  Then  he  deals  with  the  services 
which  Augustine  rendered  to  the  peace  and  unity 
of  the  Church  by  his  labors  against  the  Donatists; 
and  finally  he  attributes  to  Augustine's  encourage- 
ment of  monasticism  much  of  its  growth,  together 
with  an  actual  regeneration  of  the  clerical  life.  His 
view  on  the  two  latter  points,  if  colored  a  little 
by  the  local  point  of  view,  is  still  the  respectable 
opinion  of  a  contemporary;  but  it  does  not  alto- 
gether agree  with  the  deliberate  historical  judg- 
ment of  posterity.  The  Vandal  invasion,  which 
came  like  a  spring  frost  upon  the  young  life  of  the 
African  Church,  and  the  Mohammedan  conquests, 
both  prevented  Augustine's  labors  from  having 
their  full  effect  in  Africa.  Leaving  aside  for  the 
moment  the  influence  of  his  writings,  one  may 
really  say  that  the  condemnation  of  Pelagianism 
was  the  only  permanant  result  of  his  woric. 

But  his  writings  have  continued  to  exert  such 
an  influence,  by  no  means  confined  to  the  time  of 
the  early  Church  nor  to  African  soil,  as  no  other 
Father  before  or  since  has  ever  attained. 
3.  Doctrinal  If  we  look  to  the  posthumous  effects 
Importance  they  have  had,  we  may  agree  with  the 
of  Augus-  verdict  of  Possidius,  and  carry  it 
tine.  further  than  was  possible  to  a  contem- 
porary. Augustine  is  practically  the 
father  of  all  western  Christianity  after  his  time.  It 
is  true  that  Catholicism  has  never  officially  accepted 
his  doctrine  of  grace  in  its  entirety;  but  this  fact 
is  of  relatively  slight  importance  when  we  think  of 
the  colossal  influence  which  his  writings  have  had 
upon  the  gradual  shaping  of  the  Church's  doctrine 
as  a  whole — there  is  scarcely  a  single  Roman  Cath- 
olic dogma  which  is  historically  intelligible  without 
reference  to  his  teaching.  And  it  is  not  only  Uie 
dogmas  of  the  Western  Church  over  which  he  has 
exerted  an  unparalleled  influence;  its  hierarchical 
and  its  scientific  development  both  derive  from 


860 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDU 


ATiflmstine 


him.  The  great  struggle  between  the  rival  chiefs 
of  medieval  Christendom,  the  pope  and  the  emperor, 
is  explicable  in  its  deepest  meaning,  intelligible  in 
its  course,  only  from  his  De  civitate  Dei;  when  medi- 
eval theology  was  most  active,  then  it  was  most 
under  his  influence,  and  the  scholastic  movement 
was  determined,  not  only  in  its  speculations  but  in 
its  very  method,  by  him.  From  him,  again,  medi- 
eval mysticism,  in  both  its  authorized  and  its 
heretical  forms,  received  its  most  decisive  impulse; 
Augustinian  influences  must  be  taken  into  account 
in  the  study  of  all  the  so-called  precursors  of  the 
Reformation.  When,  however,  we  have  called 
him  the  father  of  medieval  Catholicism,  we  have 
not  yet  said  all.  The  effect  of  his  teaching  in  the 
East  has  been,  to  be  sure,  slight  and  indirect;  but 
the  Reformers  made  an  ally  of  him.  The  charac- 
teristic notes  of  what  are  specifically  called  the 
Reformed  Churches,  in  contradistinction  to  the 
Lutheran,  are  especially  founded  upon  Augustinian 
tradition.  In  the  history  of  philosophy,  too,  he 
has  been  a  force  far  beyond  the  Middle  Ages;  in 
both  Descartes  and  Spinoza  his  voice  may  be  dis- 
tinctly heard. 

Space  forbids  any  attempt  to  trace  all  the  causes 
of  these  abiding  effects;  and  in  what  remains  to  be 
said,  biographical  interest  must  be  largely  our 
guide.  We  know  a  considerable  number  of  events 
in  Augustine's  episcopal  life  which  can  be  surely 

placed — the  so-called  third  and  eighth 
4.  Events    synods  of  Carthage  in  397  and  403,  at 
of  His      which,  as  at  those  still   to  be  men- 
Episcopate,  tioned,  he  was  certainly  present;  tl^ 

disputation  with  the  Manichean  Felix 
at  Hippo  in  404;  the  eleventh  synod  of  Carthage 
in  407;  the  conference  with  the  Donatists  in  Car- 
thage, 411;  the  synod  of  Mileve,  416;  the  African 
general  council  at  Carthage,  418;  the  journey  to 
Caesarea  in  Mauretania  and  the  disputation  with 
the  Donatist  bishop  there,  418;  another  general 
council  in  Carthage,  419;  and  finally  the  consecra- 
tion of  Eraclius  as  his  assistant  in  426.  None  of 
these  events,  however,  marks  a  decisive  epoch  in 
his  life,  which  flowed  on  quietly  and  evenly  during 
the  whole  time  of  his  episcopate,  except  the  last 
few  months.  Thus  it  will  require  careful  study  to 
determine  the  epochs  in  his  intellectual  develop- 
ment during  this  period. 

n.  Theology:  His  special  and  direct  oppo- 
sition to  Manicheamsm  did  not  last  a  great  while 

after    his    consecration.    About    397 

I.  His  Anti-  he  wrote  a  tractate  Contra  ejnstolam 

Maniche-    [Manichcsi]  quam  vocant  fundamerUt; 

anism.       in  the  De  agone  christianOt   written 

about  the  same  time,  and  in  the 
ConfesaioneSf  a  little  later,  numerous  anti-Mani- 
chean  expressions  occur.  After  this,  however, 
he  only  attacked  the  Manicheans  on  some  special 
occasion,  as  when,  about  400,  on  the  request  of 
his  "brethren,"  he  wrote  a  detailed  rejoinder  to 
Faust  us,  a  Manichean  bishop,  or  made  the  treatise 
De  natura  boni  out  of  his  discussions  with  Felix; 
a  little  later,  also,  the  letter  of  the  Manichean 
Secundinus  gave  him  occasion  to  write  Contra 
Secundinum,  which,  in  spite  of  its  comparative 
brevity,  he  regarded  as  the  best  of  his  writing? 


on  this  subject.  In  the  succeeding  period,  he  was 
much  more  occupied  with  anti-Donatist  polemics, 
which  in  their  turn  were  forced  to  take  second 
place  by  the  emergence  of  the  Pelagian  contro- 
versy. 

It  has    been  thought    that    Augustine's    anti- 
Pelagian  teaching  grew  out  of  his  conception  of  the 

Church  and  its  sacraments  as  a  means 

2.  His  Anti-  of  salvation;  and  attention  was  called 

Pelagian-    to  the  fact  that  before  the  Pelagian 

ism.        controversy  this  aspect  of  the  Church 

had,  through  the  struggle  with  the 
Donatists,  assumed  special  importance  in  his  mind. 
But  this  conception  should  be  denied.  It  is  quite 
true  that  in  395  Augustine's  views  on  sin  and  grace, 
freedom  and  predestination,  were  not  what  they 
afterward  came  to  be.  But  the  new  trend  was 
given  to  them  before  the  time  of  his  anti-Donatist 
activity,  and  so  before  he  could  have  heard  anjrthing 
of  Pelagius.  What  we  call  Augustinianism  was 
not  a  reaction  against  Pelagiam'sm;  it  would  be 
much  truer  to  say  that  the  latter  was  a  reaction 
against  Augustine's  views.  He  himself  names  the 
beginning  of  his  episcopate  as  the  turning-point. 
Accordingly,  in  the  first  thing  which  he  wrote  after 
his  consecration,  the  De  diversia  quaationibus  ad 
Simplicianum  (396  or  397),  we  come  already  upon 
the  new  conception.  In  no  other  of  his  writings 
do  we  see  as  plainly  the  gradual  attainment  of 
conviction  on  any  point;  as  he  himself  says  in  the 
Retractatione8f  he  was  laboring  for  the  free  choice 
of  the  will  of  man,  but  the  grace  of  God  won  the 
day.  So  completely  was  it  won,  that  we  might 
set  forth  the  specifically  Augustinian  teaching  on 
grace,  as  against  the  Pelagians  and  the  Massilians, 
by  a  series  of  quotations  taken  wholly  from  this 
treatise.  It  is  true  that  much  of  his  later  teaching 
is  still  undeveloped  here;  the  question  of  predestina- 
tion (though  the  word  is  used)  does  not  really  come 
up;  he  is  not  clear  as  to  the  term  "  election " ; 
and  nothing  is  said  of  the  "  gift  of  perseverance." 
But  what  we  get  on  these  points  later  is  nothing 
but  the  logical  consequence  of  that  which  is  ex- 
pressed here,  and  so  we  have  the  actual  genesis 
of  Augustine's  predestinarian  teaching  under  our 
eyes.  It  is  determined  by  no  reference  to  the 
question  of  infant  baptism — still  less  by  any  con- 
siderations connected  with  the  conception  of  the 
Church.  The  impulse  comes  directly  from  Scrip- 
ture, with  the  help,  it  \b  true,  of  those  exegetical 
thoughts  which  he  mentioned  earlier  as  those  of 
others  and  not  his  own.  To  be  sure,  Paul  alone 
can  not  explain  this  doctrine  of  grace;  this  is  evi- 
dent from  the  fact  that  the  very  definition  of  grace 
is  non-Pauline.  Grace  is  for  Augustine,  both  now 
and  later,  not  the  misericordia  peccata  condonana 
of  the  Reformers,  as  justification  is  not  the  altera- 
tion of  the  relation  to  God  accomplished  by  means 
of  the  acdpere  remieaionem,  Grace  is  rather  the 
mx$ericordia  which  displays  itself  in  the  divine 
inspiratiOt  and  justification  is  juatum  or  pium 
fieri  as  a  result  of  this.  We  may  even  say  that 
this  grace  is  an  interna  iUumiruUio  such  as  a  study 
of  Augustine's  Neoplatonism  enables  us  easily 
to  understand,  which  restores  the  connection  with 
the  divine  bonum  ease.    He  had  long  been  convinced 


Auffustine 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


870 


that  "  not  only  the  greatest  but  also  the  smallest 
good  things  can  not  be,  except  from  him  from 
whom  are  all  good  thmgs,  that  is,  from  God*/' 
and  it  might  well  seem  to  him  to  follow  from  this 
that  faith,  which  is  certainly  a  good  thing,  could 
proceed  from  the  operation  of  God  alone.  This 
explains  the  idea  that  grace  works  like  a  law  of 
nature,  drawing  the  human  will  to  God  with  a 
divine  omnipotence.  Of  course  this  Neoplatonio 
coloring  must  not  be  exaggerated;  it  is  more  con- 
sistent with  itself  in  his  earlier  writings  than  in  the 
later,  and  he  would  never  have  arrived  at  his  pre- 
destinarian  teaching  without  the  New  Testament. 
With  this  knowledge,  we  are  in  a  position  to  esti- 
mate the  force  of  a  difficulty  which  now  confronted 
Augustine  for  the  first  tihie,  but  never  afterward 
left  him,  and  which  has  been  present  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  teaching  even  down  to  the  Coimcils  of 
Trent  and  the  Vatican.  If  faith  depends  upon 
an  action  of  our  own,  solicited  but  not  caused  by 
vocation,  it  can  only  save  a  man  when,  per  fidem 
ffratiam  accipienSf  he  becomes  one  who  not  merely 
believes  in  God  but  loves  him  also.  But  if  faith 
has  been  already  inspired  by  grace,  and  if,  while 
the  Scripture  speaks  of  justification  by  faith,  it  is 
held  (in  accordance  with  the  definition  of  grace) 
that  justification  follows  upon  the  infusio  caritatiSf 
— then  either  the  conception  of  the  faith  which  is 
God-inspired  must  pass  its  fluctuating  boundaries 
and  approach  nearer  to  that  of  carUas,  or  the  con- 
ception of  faith  which  is  imconnected  with  caritaa 
will  render  the  fact  of  its  inspiration  unintelligible 
and  justification  by  faith  impossible.  Augustine's 
anti-Pelagian  writings  set  forth  this  doctrine  of 
grace  more  clearly  in  some  points,  such  as  the  terms 
"  election,"  "  predestination,"  "  the  gift  of  perse- 
verance," and  also  more  logically;  but  space  for- 
bids us  to  show  this  here,  as  the  part  taken  in  this 
controversy  by  Augustine  is  so  fully  detailed  else- 
where (see  Pelagius;  Semipelagianism).  An 
enumeration  of  his  contributions  to  this  subject 
must  suffice. 

They  are  as  follows:  De  peccatorum  meriits   et 

remiasione    (412);    De     spiritu    et     litera     (412); 

De  naiura  et  gratia  contra  Pelagium 

3.  Anti-      (415);   De  perfectione    justiticB    homi- 

Pelagian  nia  (about  415);  De  gestis  Pelagii 
Writings.  (417);  De  gratia  Christi  et  de  peccato 
originali  (418) ;  De  nuptiis  et  con- 
cupiacentia  (419  and  420);  De  anima  et  ejus 
origine  (about  419),  which  does  not  bear  directly 
on  Pelagianism,  but  answers  a  Pelagianizing  critic 
of  Augustine's  reserve  on  the  question  of  traducian- 
ism  and  creationism;  Contra  duos  episttdas  Pe- 
lagianorum  ad  Bonifatium,  romance  ecclesicB  epia- 
copum  (about  420);  Contra  Julianum  (about  421); 
De  gratia  et  libero  arbitrio  (426  or  427);  De  cor- 
reptione  et  gratia  (426  or  427);  De  prcedeatinatione 
aanctorum  (428  or  429);  De  dono  peraeverantice 
(428  or  429) ;  and  the  opua  imperfectum  written  in 
the  last  years  of  his  life.  Contra  aecundam  Juliani 
reapor^ionem. 

In  order  to  arrive  at  a  decision  as  to  what  influ- 
ence the  Donatist  controversy  had  upon  Augustine's 
intellectual  development,  it  is  necessary  to  see 
how  long  and  how  intensely  he  was  concerned 


with  it.  We  have  seen  that  even  before  he  was  a 
bishop  he  was  defending  the  catholic  Church  against 
the  Donatists;  and  after  his  consecration  he  took 
part  directly  or  indirectly  in  all  the  important 
discussions  of  the  matter,  some  of  which  have  been 
already  mentioned,  and  defended  the  cause  of  the 
Church  in  letters  and  sermons  as  well  as  in  his 
more  formal  polemical  writings.    The 

4.  Activity   first  of  these  which  belongs  to   the 
Against     period  of  his  episcopate.  Contra   par- 

Donatism.  tern  Donati,  has  been  lost;  about  400 
he  wrote  the  two  cognate  treatises 
Contra  epiatvdam  Parmeniani  (the  Donatist  bishop 
of  Carthage)  and  De  baptiamo  contra  Donatiataa. 
He  was  considered  by  the  schismatics  as  their 
chief  antagonist,  and  was  obliged  to  defend  himself 
against  a  libelous  attack  on  their  part  in  a  re- 
joinder now  lost.  From  the  years  401  and  402 
we  have  the  reply  to  the  Donatist  bishop  of  Cirta, 
Contra  epiattUam  Petilianif  and  also  the  Epistula 
ad  catholicoa  de  unitate  eccleaice.  The  conflict 
was  now  reaching  its  most  acute  stage.  After  the 
Carthaginian  synod  of  403  had  made  preparations 
for  a  decisive  debate  with  the  Donatists,  and  the 
latter  had  declined  to  fall  in  with  the  plan,  the 
bitterness  on  both  sides  increased.  Another  synod 
at  Carthage  the  following  year  decided  that  the 
emperor  should  be  asked  for  penal  laws  against  the 
Donatists.  Honorius  granted  the  request;  but  the 
employment  of  force  in  matters  of  belief  brought 
up  a  new  point  of  discord  between  the  two  sides. 
When  these  laws  were  abrogated  (409),  the  plan  of 
a  joint  conference  was  tried  once  more  in  June,  411, 
imder  imperial  authority,  nearly  300  bishops 
being  present  from  each  side,  with  Augustine  and 
Aurelius  of  Carthage  as  the  chief  representatives 
of  the  catholic  cause.  In  the  following  year,  the 
Donatists  proving  insubordinate,  Honorius  issued 
a  new  and  severer  edict  against  them,  which  proved 
the  beginning  of  the  end  for  the  schism.  For  these 
years  from  405  to  412  we  have  twenty-one  extant 
letters  of  Augustine's  bearing  on  the  controversy, 
and  there  were  eight  formal  treatises,  but  four  of 
these  are  lost.  Those  which  we  still  have  are: 
Contra  Creaconium  grammaticum  (about  406); 
De  unico  baptiamo  (about  410  or  411),  in  answer 
to  a  work  of  the  same  name  by  Petilian;  the  brief 
report  of  the  conference  (end  of  411);  and  the  Liber 
contra  Donatiataa  poat  coUationem  (probably  412). 
After  this  date,  though  he  occasionally  touched  on 
the  question  in  letters  and  sermons,  he  produced 
practically  no  more  literary  polemics  in  regard  to  it; 
we  know  of  one  lost  anti-Donatist  treatise  of  i^ut 
416,  and  still  possess  one  written  for  a  special 
occasion  Contra  Gavdentiumf  Donatistarum  epia- 
copum,  about  420;  but  these  are  all. 

The  earliest  of  the  extant  works  against  the 
Donatists  present  the  same  views  of  the  Church  and 
its  sacraments  which  Augustine  developed  later. 
The  principles  which  he  represented  in  this  con- 
flict are  merely  those  which,  in  a  simpler  form, 
had  either  appeared  in  the  anti-Donatist  polemics 
before  his  time  or  had  been  part  of  his  own  earlier 
belief.  What  he  did  was  to  formulate  them  with 
more  dogmatic  precision,  and  to  permeate  the 
ordinary  controversial    theses  with   his  own  deep 


371 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


An^iutlna 


thoughts  on  unitaa,  caritaa,  and  inapiraHo  graHa 
in  the  Church,  thoughts  which  again  trace  their 
origin  back  to  his  Neopiatonic  foundations.  In 
the  course  of  the  conflict  he  changed 
5.  Develop-  his  opinion  about  the  methods  to  be 

ment  of  employed;  he  had  at  first  been  opposed 
His  Views,  to  the  employment  of  force,  but  later 
came  to  the  ''  Compel  them  to  come 
in  "  point  of  view.  It  may  well  be  doubted,  how- 
ever, if  the  practical  struggle  with  the  schismatics 
had  as  much  to  do  with  Augustine's  development 
as  has  been  supposed.  Far  more  weight  must 
be  attached  to  the  fact  that  Augustine  had  be- 
come a  presbyter  and  a  bishop  of  the  catholic 
Church,  and  as  such  worked  continually  deeper  into 
the  ecclesiastical  habit  of  thought.  This  was  not 
hard  for  the  son  of  Monnica  and  the  reverent  ad- 
mirer of  Ambrose.  His  position  as  a  bishop  may 
fairly  be  said  to  be  the  only  determining  factor  in 
his  later  views  besides  his  Neoplatonist  foundation, 
his  earnest  study  of  the  Scripture,  and  the  predes- 
tinarian  conception  of  grace  which  he  got  from 
this.  Everything  else  is  merely  secondary.  Thus 
we  find  Augustine  practically  complete  by  the 
beginning  of  his  episcopate — about  the  time  when 
he  wrote  the  Confessiones,  It  would  be  too  much 
to  say  that  his  development  stood  still  after  that; 
the  Biblical  and  ecclesiastical  coloring  of  his  thoughts 
becomes  more  and  more  visible  and  even  vivid; 
but  such  development  as  this  is  no  more  significant 
than  the  effect  of  the  years  seen  upon  a  strong  face; 
in  fact,  it  is  even  less  observable  here — for  while 
the  characteristic  features  of  his  spiritual  mind 
stand  out  more  sharply  as  time  goes  on  with 
Augustine,  his  mental  force  shows  scarcely  a 
sign  of  age  at  seventy.  His  health  was  uncertain 
after  386,  and  his  body  aged  before  the  time;  on 
Sept.  26,  426,  he  solemnly  designated  Eraclius  (or 
Heraclius)  as  his  successor,  though  without  conse- 
crating him  bishop,  and  transferred  to  him  such  a 
portion  of  his  duties  as  was  possible.  But  his 
intellectual  vigor  remained  imabated  to  the  end. 
We  see  him,  as  Prosper  depicts  him  in  his  chronicle, 
**  answering  the  books  of  Julian  in  the  very  end  of 
his  days,  while  the  on-rushing  Vandals  were  at  the 
gates,  and  gloriously  persevering  in  the  defense 
of  Christian  grace."  In  the  third  month  of  the 
siege  of  Hippo  by  the  barbarian  invaders,  he  fell 
ill  of  a  fever,  and,  after  lingering  more  than  ten 
days,  died  Aug.  28,  430.  He  was  able  to  read  on 
his  sick-bed;  he  had  the  Penitential  Psalms  placed 
upon  the  wall  of  his  room  where  he  could  see  them. 
Meditating  upon  them,  he  fulfilled  what  he  had 
often  said  before,  that  even  Christians  revered  for 
the  sanctity  of  their  lives,  even  presbyters,  ought 
not  to  leave  the  world  without  fitting  thoughts  of 
penitence. 

He  left  no  property  behind  him  but  the  books 
which  he  had  procured  for  the  library  of  the  church, 
among  which,  according  to  Possidius,  corrected 
copies  of  his  own  works  were  some  of  the  most 
valuable.  They  constitute,  in  fact,  Augustine's 
legacy  to  the  Church  at  large.  Certain  parts  of  it 
which  have  not  been  enumerated  above  may  be 
mentioned  here.  He  himself  divided  his  writings 
into  three  classes:  the  232  treatLses  (/i&ri)  discussed 


in  the  Retractationes ;  the  letters;  and  the  ''popular 

tractates,  which  the  Greeks  call  homilies  "  (he  calls 

them  aermones  ad  popiUum  in  another 

6.  Addi-  place).  He  had  intended  to  review 
tional        the  two  latter  classes  as   he  did  with 

Writings,  the  libri  in  the  Retractationes,  but  death 
prevented  him.  In  so  far,  therefore,  as 
the  index  of  Possidius  fails  us — and  this  is  often  the 
case,  owing  to  the  uncertainty  of  titles  and  the  great 
number  of  letters  and  sermons — a  critical  study 
of  these  classes  of  writings  is  much  more  difficult 
to  make  than  of  the  libri.  The  edition  published 
by  the  Benedictines  of  St.  Maur  (Paris,  1679-1700) 
in  eleven  folio  volumes  affords  a  useful  working 
basis ;  it  includes  217  letters,  though  the  classi fication 
is  not  always  justified,  and  a  few  more  have  come 
to  light  since.  The  sermons  comprise  a  much  larger 
number.  Augustine  must  be  considered,  although 
his  preaching  did  not  please  himself,  as  the  greatest 
Western  preacher  of  the  early  Church.  He  did  not 
memorize  his  sermons,  but  after  saturating  himself 
with  his  subject,  spoke  from  the  inspiration  of  the 
moment;  some  of  them  he  himself  dictated  for 
preservation  after  preaching  them,  while  others 
were  taken  down  by  his  hearers.  Among  those 
for  which  he  is  responsible  are  the  series  on  the 
Gospel  of  John,  dogmatically  among  his  most 
interesting  works  (about  416),  and  the  comments 
on  the  Psalms,  partly  preached  (between  410  and 
420). 

Of  works  not  yet  mentioned,  those  written  after 
395  and  named  in  the  Retractationes  ^  may  be  classi- 
fied   imder    three    heads — exegetical 

7.  Miscel-  works;  minor  dogmatic,  polemical, 
laneous  and  practical  treatises;  and  a  separate 
Works,      class  containing  four  more  extensive 

works  of  special  importance.  The 
earliest  of  the  minor  treatises  is  De  catechizandis 
rudibus  (about  400),  interesting  for  its  connection 
with  the  history  of  catechetical  instruction  and 
for  many  other  reasons.  A  brief  enumeration  of  the 
others  will  suffice;  they  are:  De  opera  monor 
chorum  (about  400);  De  bono  conjitgali  and  De 
sanda  virginitate  (about  401),  both  directed 
against  Jovinian's  depreciation  of  virginity;  De 
divinatione  dcemonum  (between  406  and  411); 
De  fide  et  operibus  (413),  a  completion  of  the  argu- 
ment in  the  De  spiritu  et  litera,  useful  for  a  study 
of  the  difference  between  the  Augustinian  and  the 
Lutheran  doctrines  of  grace;  De  cura  pro  mortuia, 
interesting  as  showing  his  attitude  toward  super- 
stition within  the  Church;  and  a  few  others  of 
less  interest.  We  come  now  to  the  four  works 
which  have  deserved  placing  in  a  special  category. 
One  is  the  De  doctrina  Christiana  (begun  about 
397,  finished  426),  important  as  giving  his  theory 
of  scriptural  interpretation  and  homiletics;  an- 
other is  the  Enchiridion  de  fide,  spe,  et  caritate 
(about  421),  noteworthy  as  an  attempt  at  a  system- 
atic collocation  of  his  thoughts.  There  remain 
the  two  doctrinal  masterpieces,  the  De  trinitate 
(probably  begun  about  400  and  finished  about 
416)  and  the  De  civitaie  Dei  (begun  about  413, 
finished  about  426).  The  last-named,  beginning 
with  an  apologetic  purpose,  takes  on  later  the  form 
of  a  history  of  the  City  of  God  from  its  beginnings, 


Anffustlne 
Auriikber 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


872 


before  the  world  was,  to  the  time  when  it  looks 
upward,  beyond  the  world,  to  its  heavenly  goal. 
The  closing  years  of  his  life,  after  the  completion 
of  the  Retractationes  in  426-427,  were  busy  ones. 
Besides  works  already  named,  he  wrote  four  others 
in  these  years:  three  against  heresies,  and  the 
Speculum  de  scriptura  sacrOf  a  collection  of  the 
ethical  teaching  of  the  Scripture  for  popular  use. 
We  can  not  now  tell  whether  the  last  paragraph 
of  the  0pu8  imperfectum  or  the  latest  of  the  letters 
were  the  last  words  he  wrote;  but  the  close  of  the 
letter  is  eminently  characteristic  of  him:  "  That 
we  may  have  a  quiet  and  tranquil  life  in  all  piety 
and  love,  let  this  be  your  prayer  for  us  (as  it  is  ours 
for  you),  wherever  you  are;  for,  wherever  we  are, 
there  is  no  place  where  he  is  not  whose  we  are." 

(F.  LooFS.) 
Biblioobapht:  The  earliest  printed  ed.  of  the  collected 
works  was  by  Amerbach,  9  vols.,  Basel,  1506,  reprinted 
Paris,  1515,  lacking,  however,  the  EpiatolcB^  Sermonea^  and 
Enarrationea  in  Paalmot,  of  the  original  edition;  an  ed. 
by  Erasmus  was  published  in  10  vols.,  Basel,  1520,  often 
reprinted  there,  at  Venice,  and  at  Lyons;  the  next  ed.  by 
the  theologians  of  the  University  of  Louvain  was  in  10 
vols.,  Antwerp,  1577,  often  reproduced  (a  great  advance 
on  both  the  others);  the  Benedictine  ed.,  still  the  best, 
came  next,  11  vols.,  Paris,  1679-1700  (the  article  Augiu- 
Hne  in  DCB,  i,  222-224  gives  the  contents  of  this  ed., 
volume  by  volume);  other  editions  are  by  Lederc,  12 
vols.,  Antwerp  [Amsterdam],  1700-03,  Qaume,  11  vols., 
Paris,  1836-39.  Antonelli,  14  vols..  Venice,  1858-60,  MPL, 
xxxii-xlvii;  in  CSEL  fifteen  volumes  have  appeared, 
1887-1905  (this  will  be  the  definitive  edition).  An  Eng. 
transl.  of  the  most  important  works  is  in  NPNE^  1st 
series,  vols,  i-viii  (vol.  i  contains  St.  AttgiuHne't  Life  and 
Work  by  P.  SchafF.  This  edition  reproduces  in  revised 
form  the  fifteen  volumes  of  the  Edinburgh  edition,  Marcus 
Dods  editor,  and  the  three  volumes  on  the  New  Testament 
and  the  six  on  the  Psalms  in  the  Oxford  Library  of  the 
FcUhera,  with  treatises  not  previously  translated,  making 
it  superior  to  all  previous  translations).  Of  individual 
works  editions  that  are  noteworthy  or  convenient  are  the 
following:  Ctvitae  Dei,  OpuactUa  eelecta  de  ecdeeia,  De 
gratia  et  libero  arbibrio,  De  prcedeaiinaiione,  De  dono  per- 
aeverantice,  De  trinitate.  In  Joannem,  and  Confeaaionea 
are  all  in  the  Teubner  series;  Civitaa  Dei,  Lat.  text  and 
Eng.  transl.,  by  H.  Gee,  2  vols.,  London.  1893-94,  and 
Lat.  text  with  Fr.  transl.,  3  vols.,  Paris,  1846;  Select 
AnH-Pelagian  Treatiaea,  Lat.  text  with  introduction 
by  W.  Bright,  Oxford,  1880.  Translations  of  separate 
treatises  worthy  of  mention  are,  in  English:  Confeaaiona, 
by  W.  Watts,  London,  1631,  republished  by  W.  G.  T. 
Shedd,  Andover,  1860,  by  W.  H.  Hutchings,  London. 
1883,  by  A.  Smellie,  ib.  1897,  and  by  C.  Bigg,  ib.  1898; 
Lettera,  selected  and  translated  by  Mary  H.  Allies,  ib. 
1890;  Homiliea  on  John,  by  H.  F.  Stewart,  ib.  1902;  City 
of  Ood,  by  J.  Healey,  3  vols.,  ib.  1903;  in  German:  Con- 
feaaionea by  A.  Rapp,  Bremen,  1889,  by  W.  Bornemann. 
Gotha.  1889,  and  by  E.  Pfleidcrer,  Gottingen,  1902;  Afedi- 
tationea,  by  A.  Dreier,  Steyl,  1886;  in  French:  La  CiU  de 
Dieu,  by  E.  Saisset,  4  vols.,  Paris,  1855;  MSditationa,  by 
Pelissier,  ib.  1853;  Lettrea,  by  J.  J.  F.  Poujoulat,  4  vols., 
ib.  1858;  Lea  Confeaaiona,  by  P.  Janet,  ib.  1857,  and  by 
C.  Douais,  ib.  1893.  For  the  life  of  Augustine  the  chief 
sources  are  his  Confeaaionea,  Retradationea.  and  Epiatola, 
and  the  "Viia  Avguatini  by  his  pupil  Possidius,  the  latter 
ed.  A.  G.  Cramer,  Kiel,  1832,  from  which  are  culled  the 
accounts  in  L.  S.  Tillemont,  Mhnoirea  .  .  .  eccUaiaa- 
tiquea,  vol.  xi,  Paris  fl706  (Eng.  transl.,  2  vols.,  London, 
1733-35),  and  in  ASB,  Aug.  vi,  pp.  xxviii,  213-286.  Mod- 
em accounts  to  be  mentioned  are:  F.  A.  G.  Kloth,  Der  heU- 
ige  Kirchenlehrer  Augtiatin,  3  vols.,  Aachen,  1839-40; 
J.  J.  F.  Poujoulat,  Hiatoire  de  St.  Auffiutin,  3  vols.,  Paris, 
1843;  C.  Bindemann.  Der  heilige  Auguatinua,  2  vols., 
Leipsic,  1844-55  (a  standard  work);  F.  Bohringer,  Aure- 
liua  Aiiffiutinua,  Biachof  von  Hippo,  Btuttgart,  1878; 
U.  J.  C.  Bourke,  Life  and  Laboura  of  St.  AturuaHne,  Dub- 
lin, 1880;  R.  W.  Bush,  St.  AuguaUne,  hia  Life  and  Timea, 
London,    1883;  C.    II.    CoUette,    St.    AuguaUne;  .  .  .  hU 


Life  and  Writinoa  aa  affecUno  hia  Controveray  toith  Rome, 
ib.  1883;  Hiatoire  de  St.  Auffu^tin,  2  vols.,  Paris.  1886 
(by  a  member  of  the  Augustine  Order);  P.  SchafT.  Siitdiea 
in  Chriatian  Biography,  SL  Chryaoatom  and  SL  Auguatine, 
New  York,  1891;  C.  Wolfsgruber,  Auguatinua.  Auf  Grund 
dea  kirchengeachichtlichen  Naehlaaaea  von  Kardinal  Ra^- 
achen,  Paderbom,  1898;  A.  Hatsfeld,  St.  Augustin,  Paris. 
1902  (Eng.  transl.  of  earlier  ed.,  London,  1898);  J.  Hod- 
son,  St.  Auguatine,  Biahop  of  Hippo,  ib.  1899;  J.  McCabe. 
SL  Auguatine  and  hia  Age,  New  York,  1903  (a  brilliant 
book);  G.  W.  Osmun,  Auguatine,  the  Thinker,  Cincinnati, 
1906.  For  discussions  of  various  phases  of  his  activities 
and  influence  consult:  J.  C.  F.  B&hr,  Oea^iehie  der  rdmi- 
achen  Literatur,  supplement  volume,  part  2,  3  parts,  Carls- 
ruhe,  1836-40;  G.  F.  Wiggers*  Verauch  einer  pragmatic 
achen  DarateUung  dea  Auguatiniamua  und  Petagu^niamua 
nach  ihrer  geachichtlichen  Entwickelung,  Hamburg,  2  vols.^ 
1821-33,  Eng.  transl.,  An  HiatUnical  PreaeniaHon  of  Aur 
guatiniam  and  Pelagianiam  from  the  Original  Sourcea, 
Andover,  1840  (a  standard  work);  J.  B.  M.  Flott^.  £hidea 
aur  St.  Auguatin,  aon  gHi'e,  aon  Ame,  aa  phUoaopkie, 
Montpellier,  1861;  Nourisson.  La  Philoaophie  da  SL  Au- 
guatin, 2  vols.,  Paris,  1866;  Ferras,  De  la  paychologia  da 
SL  Auguatin,  ib.  1869;  A.  Naville,  £tude  aur  le  dSvelop- 
pement  de  aa  penaie  juagu*ii  I'ipoque  de  aon  ordintUion, 
(Geneva,  1872;  A.  Domer,  Auguatintia,  aein  ikeoLogi- 
achea  Syatem  und  aeine  religionaphiloaophiache  Anachau^ 
ung,  Berlin,  1873;  J.  H.  Newman,  Auguatine  and  Aa 
Vandala,  and  Converaion  of  Auguatine,  in  vol.  iii  of  Hiator- 
ical  Sketchea,  London,  1873;  J.  B.  Mosley,  The  Auguatiniau 
Doctrine  of  Predeatination,  London,  1878;  A.  F.  Th^, 
Le  Ginie  phUoaophique  et  littiraire  de  SL  Auguatin, 
Amiens,  1878;  J.  Stors,  Die  Philoaophie  dea  heiligen  Au- 
guatinua, Freiburg.  1882.  K.  Werner,  Die  atiguatiniaeka 
Theologie,  Vienna,  1882;  8.  Angus,  Sowrcea  of  the  Firal 
Ten  Booka  of  Auguatine* a  De  eivitate  Dei,  Princeton,  N.  J., 
1906;  H.  Renter,  Auguatiniache  Studien,  Gotha.  1887; 
G.  J.  Sesrrich,  Die  Geachichtaphiloaophve  Aumutina  nock 
aeiner  Schrift  De  eivitate  Dei,  Leipsic,  1891;  J.  Specht, 
Die  Lehre  von  der  Kirche  nach  dem  heiligen  Auguatinua, 
Paderbom,  1891;  W.  Heinsclmann,  Auguatina  Anaiehlen 
vom  Weaen  der  menachlichen  Seele,  Erfurt,  1894;  O.  Scheel, 
Die  Anachauung  Auguatina  Hber  Chriati  Peraon  und  Werk, 
TQbingen,  1901.  Besides  the  foregoing  the  various  his- 
tories of  the  church  and  of  Christian  doctrine  may  be  con- 
sulted with  profit. 

AUGUSTINIANS :  The  general  name  for  a 
number  of  orders  and  congregations  of  both  men 
and  women  living  according  to  the  so-called  Augus- 
tinian  rule.  It  is  true  that  St.  Augustine  composed 
no  monastic  rule,  for  the  hortatory  letter  to  the 
nuns  at  Hippo  Regius  {Epist.,  ccxi,  Benedictine 
ed.)  can  not  properly  be  considered  such;  never- 
theless three  sets  have  been  attributed  to  him 
(texts  in  Holstenius-Brockie,  Codex  regulantm 
monaaticarum,  ii,  Augsburg,  1759,  121-127),  the 
longest  of  which,  a  medieval  compilation  from 
certain  pseudo-Augustinian  sermons  in  45  chapters, 
is  the  one  commonly  known  as  the  regula  Augus- 
tinij  and  served  as  the  constitution  of  the  Regular 
Canons  of  St.  Augustine  and  many  societies  imi- 
tating them,  as,  for  example,  the  Dominicans  (see 
Chapter;  Dominic,  Saint,  and  the  Dominican 
Order). 

The  Hermits  of  St.  Augustine  (who  are  generally 
meant  by  the  name  "  Augustinians; "  known  also 
as  "  Austin  Friars;  "  the  order  to  which  Martin 
Luther  belonged)  were  the  last  of  the  four  great 
mendicant  orders  which  originated  in  the  thir- 
teenth century.  They  owed  their  existence  to  no 
great  personality  as  founder,  but  to  the  policy  of 
Popes  Innocent  IV  (1241-54)  and  Alexander  IV 
(1254-61),  who  wished  to  antagonize  the  too  powe^ 
ful  Franciscans  and  Dominicans  by  means  of  a 
similar  order  imder  direct  papal    authority  and 


373 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Autfiuitine 
Aorlftkber 


devoted  to  papal  interests.  Innocent  IV  by  a  bull 
issued  Dec.  16,  1243,  united  certain  small  hennit 
societies  with  Augustinian  rule,  especially  the 
Williamites,  the  John-Bonites,  and  the  Brictinans 
(qq.v.).  Alexander  IV  (admonished,  it  was  said, 
by  an  appearance  of  St.  Augustine)  called  a  general 
assembly  of  the  members  of  the  new  order  under 
the  presidency  of  Cardinal  Richard  of  St.  Angeli 
at  the  monastery  of  Santa  Maria  del  Popolo  in 
Rome  in  Mar.,  1256,  when  the  head  of  the  John- 
Bonites,  Lanfranc  Septala,  of  Milan,  was  chosen 
general  prior  of  the  united  orders.  Alexander's 
bull  Licet  ecclesice  catholiccB  of  Apr.  13,  1256,  con- 
firmed this  choice.  The  same  pope  afterward 
allowed  the  Williamites,  who  were  dissatisfied 
with  the  new  arrangement,  to  withdraw,  and  they 
adopted  the  Benedictine  rule.  The  new  order 
was  thus  finally  constituted.  Several  general 
chapters  in  the  thirteenth  century  (1287  and  1290) 
and  toward  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  (1575  and  1580), 
after  the  severe  crisis  occasioned  by  Luther's 
reformation,  developed  the  statutes  to  their  present 
form  (text  in  IIolstcnius-Brockie,  ut  sup.,  iv,  227- 
357;  cf.  Kolde,  17-38),  which  was  confirmed  by 
Gregory  XIII.  A  bull  of  Pius  V  in  1567  had 
already  assigned  to  the  Hermits  of  St.  Augustine 
the  place  next  to  the  last  (between  Carmelites  and 
Servites)  among  the  five  chief  mendicant  orders. 
In  its  most  flourishing  state  the  order  had  forty- 
two  provinces  (besides  the  two  vicariates  of  India 
and  Moravia)  with  2,000  monasteries  and  about 
30,000  members.  The  German  branch,  which 
until  1299  was  counted  as  one  province,  was  divided 
in  that  year  into  four  provinces:  a  Rheno-Swabian, 
Bavarian,  Cologne-Flemish,  and  Thuringo-Saxon. 
To  the  last  belonged  the  most  famous  German 
Augustinian  theologians  before  Luther:  Andreas 
Proles  (d.  1503),  the  foimder  of  the  Union  or  Con- 
gregation of  the  Observant  Augustinian  Hermits, 
organized  after  strict  principles;  Johann  von 
Paltz,  the  famous  Erfurt  professor  and  pulpit- 
orator  (d.  1511);  Johann  Staupitz,  Luther's  mon- 
astic superior  and  Wittenberg  colleague  (d.  1524). 
Reforms  were  also  introduced  into  the  extra- 
German  branches  of  the  order,  but  a  long  time  after 
Prolcs's  reform  and  in  connection  with  the  Counter- 
reformation  of  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth 
centuries.  The  most  important  of  these  later 
observant  congregations  are  the  Spanish  Augus- 
tinian tertiary  nuns,  founded  in  1545  by  Archbishop 
Thomas  of  Villanova  at  Valencia;  the  "  reformed  " 
Augustinian  mms  who  originated  under  the  influ- 
ence of  St.  Theresa  after  the  end  of  the  sixteenth 
century  at  Madrid,  Alcoy,  and  in  Portugal;  and  the 
barefooted  Augustinians  (Augustinian  Recollects; 
in  France  Augustins  dichausafa)  founded  about 
1560  by  Thomas  a  Jesu  (d.  1582).    O.  ZacKLBRf. 

Biblioorapht:  Helyot.  Ordrf  moruutiqUieM,  iii,  1-72;  T. 
Kolde,  Die  deutache  AuguMtinerkonffreoiUion  und  Johann 
von  StaupiU,  Gotha.  1879;  Heimbuoher.  Orden  und  Kon- 
ffregaiionen,  ii,  388,  443  oqq.;  Currier,  lUlioicut  Order;  pp. 
310-315.  669-772. 

AURELIAN:  Roman  emperor  2!7(}-2!7b,  He  was 
of  humble  origin  but  through  his  talents  as  a  soldier 
rose  to  a  high  position  under  the  emperors  Valerian 
and  Claudius  and  by  the  latter  was  nominated 


Csesar  at  the  wish  of  the  army.  Upon  the  death 
of  Claudius  (270),  Aurelian  succeeded  to  the  prin- 
cipate  at  a  time  when  the  integrity  of  the  empire 
was  threatened  by  the  barbarians  and  the  appear- 
ance of  numerous  pretenders  within  its  bounds. 
His  talent  and  energy  in  restoring  order  and  repel- 
ling invasion  won  him  the  title  of  Restorer  of  the 
Conmionwealth.  He  was  victorious  on  the  Danube 
and  in  Italy,  but  is  best  known  in  connection  with 
the  overthrow  of  the  Syrian  kingdom  of  Palmyra 
and  its  celebrated  queen  S^nobia.  He  was  assas- 
sinated in  Thrace  by  one  of  his  own  oflicers  while 
preparing  to  set  out  on  an  expedition  against  the 
Persians. 

Aurelian,  according  to  an  old  tradition  in  the 
Church,  originated  the  ninth  of  the  ten  great 
persecutions  of  the  Christians  spoken  of  by  the 
early  writers;  but  this  tradition  seems  to  rest  on 
a  misunderstanding  of  the  texts.  Orosius  (vii,  23) 
speaks  of  Aurelian  as  a  persecutor  of  the  Christians, 
but  attributes  to  him  only  the  inception  of  a  plan 
of  persecution  without  stating  that  it  was  put  into 
effect.  The  author  of  the  De  mortibus  peraeciUorum 
(vi)  is  authority  for  the  statement  that  an  edict 
hostile  to  the  Christians  was  promulgated,  but  that 
before  it  could  reach  the  border  provinces  the  death 
of  the  emperor  intervened.  Eusebius  {HUt,  ecd,, 
vii,  30),  to  whom  all  other  accoimts  may  be  referred 
as  the  source,  says  that  toward  the  end  of  his  reign 
Aurelian  experienced  a  change  of  view  with  regard 
to  the  Christians  and  for  the  worse,  but  that  before 
he  could  proceed  to  the  execution  of  his  hostile 
designs  he  was  overtaken  by  the  divine  vengeance. 
Eusebius  speaks  neither  of  the  actual  issue  of  an 
edict  nor  of  its  execution,  and  this  accords  with 
the  known  character  of  the  emperor  and  the  con- 
ditions prevailing  in  the  empire.  Aurelian  was 
first  of  aU  a  soldier  and  was  occupied  almost  entirely 
with  military  affairs  during  his  reign.  It  is  highly 
improbable  that  in  a  time  of  foreign  danger  and 
internal  unrest  he  would  risk  further  disturbances 
by  organizing  a  general  persecution  of  the  Chris- 
tians; and,  though  he  was  devoted  to  the  pagan 
faith  and  even  to  its  superstitions,  he  would  recog- 
nize that  Christianity  had  held,  since  the  time  of 
Gallienus,  a  publicly  guaranteed  position  in  the 
State.  (August  Ki^wtermann.) 

Bibuoorapht:  Gibbon,  Decline  and  FaU,  chap,  xi;  T.  Momin- 
Ben,  Provineee  of  the  Roman  Empire,  i,  180,  268-200;  ii. 
117-120.  New  York,  1887;  V.  Duniy,  Hieiory  of  Rome, 
vii.  283-323,  Boston,  1890;  and  other  histories  of  the 
period. 

AURICULAR  CONFESSION  (From  Lat.  auricula, 
"  the  external  ear  **):  Confession  into  the  ear  of  a 
priest  in  private,  enjoined  by  Leo  the  Great  (440- 
461)  as  a  substitute  for  public  confession.  The 
twenty-first  canon  of  the  Fourth  Lateran  Council 
(1215),  under  Innocent  III,  makes  it  obligatory 
every  year  upon  all  Catholics,  on  pain  of  excom- 
munication, and  consequently  the  loss  of  Christian 
burial.    See  Confession  of  Sins. 

AURIFABER,  au-rt-fa'ber  (60LDSCHMID),  AN- 
DREAS: German  physician  and  theologian,  best 
known  in  connection  with  the  Osiandrian  contro- 
versy in  Prussia;  b.  at  Breslau  1514;  d.  at  KOnigs- 
berg  Dec.   12,   1559.    He  began  his  studies    at 


AnriftOier 
Austin 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


874 


Wittenberg  in  1627  and  there  gained  the  friendship 
of  Melanchthon.  In  1529  he  became  rector  of  the 
Latin  school  at  Danzig  and  two  years  later  accepted 
a  similar  post  at  Elbing.  The  boimty  of  Duke 
Albert  of  Prussia  enabled  him  to  pursue  the  study 
of  medicine  at  Wittenberg  and  in  Italy,  and  after 
1545  he  was  physician  to  the  Duke  and  professor 
of  physics  and  medicine  in  the  newly  established 
university  at  K5nigsberg,  issuing,  in  the  perform- 
ance of  his  duties,  a  number  of  treatises  on 
physics  and  physiology.  In  1550  he  married  a 
daughter  of  Osiander  and  thus  became  involved 
in  the  bitter  controversy  aroused  by  the  latter's 
views  on  justification  and  grace  (see  Osiander, 
Andreas).  After  Osiander's  death  in  1552,  Auri- 
faber,  who  in  the  preceding  year  had  been  made 
rector  of  the  university,  became  the  leader  of  the 
Osiandrian  party  and  made  use  of  his  office  and  his 
influence  over  the  duke  to  crush  the  rival  faction 
in  Prussia,  driving  its  adherents  from  the  univer- 
sity in  1554.  In  pursuance  of  the  same  object  he 
traveled  extensively  throughout  Germany  and  by 
his  activity  aroused  the  bitter  hatred  of  the  con- 
servatives, who  assailed  him  with  extreme  viru- 
lence. Aurifaber,  however,  retained  his  influence 
till  his  death,  which  occurred  suddenly,  in  the 
antechamber  of  the  duke.  (G.  Kawerau.) 

AURIFABER,  JOHANNES,  OF  BRESLAU  {Vratis- 
lavienais):  German  reformer  and  church  adminis- 
trator, younger  brother  of  Andreas  Aurifaber; 
b.  at  Breslau  Jan.  30,  1517;  d.  there  Oct.  19, 
1568.  He  began  the  study  of  languages  and  phi- 
losophy at  Wittenberg  in  1534,  and  later  turned 
to  theology,  forming  an  intimate  friendship  with 
Melanchthon,  whose  lifelong  friend  and  adviser 
he  remained.  He  became  a  member  of  the  philo- 
sophical faculty  in  1540,  and  in  1545  was  dean. 
In  1547  he  became  rector  of  a  school  at  Breslau 
but  returned  in  the  following  year  to  Wittenberg, 
leaving  again  in  1550  to  assume  the  position  of 
professor  of  theology  at  the  University  of  Rostock, 
secured  for  him  through  Melanchthon 's  inter- 
cession. In  1551-52  he  took  a  leading  part  in  the 
drafting  and  promulgation  of  the  Mecklenburg 
chtirch  order.  Through  the  influence  of  his 
brother  Andreas  he  was  summoned  to  Konigsberg 
in  1554  as  professor  of  theology  and  inspector 
of  the  churches  within  the  see  of  Samland,  where 
it  was  hoped  that  his  reputation  for  mildness  and 
the  conciliatory  character  of  his  theology  would  be 
instrumental  in  allaying  the  bitter  dissensions 
aroused  by  the  teachings  of  Osiander.  Aurifaber 
devoted  himself  to  the  task  of  pacification  and  in 
September,  1554,  presided  over  a  general  synod 
called  for  the  purpose  of  arriving  at  a  compromise 
between  the  factions.  The  parochial  clergy,  how- 
ever, regarded  with  mistrust  the  advent  of  an  out- 
sider who  was  not  wholly  free  from  suspicion  of  the 
Osiandrian  taint  and  the  synod  failed  to  effect  a 
compromise.  Aurifaber  was  nevertheless  appointed 
president  of  the  see  of  Samland.  Persisting  in 
his  efforts  at  conciliation  he  summoned  a  second 
synod  at  Riesenburg  in  1556  and  succeeded  in 
obtaining  from  the  Osiandrian  faction  a  recanta- 
tion of  their  extreme  doctrines,  without,  however, 
satisfying  either  party.    His  unpopularity  increased 


as  a  result  of  the  publication,  in  1558,  of  the 
new  Prussian  church  order,  with  the  preparation 
and  editing  of  which  Aurifaber  was  closely  con- 
cerned and  in  which  his  opposition  to  the  practise 
or  exorcism  in  baptism  found  expression.  Many 
of  the  clergy  refused  to  subscribe  to  the  new  oi^ 
dinances  and  recourse  was  had  to  imprisonment 
and  expulsion,  measures  which  were  repugnant  to 
Aurifaber  and  made  his  office  irksome.  In  1565 
he  resigned  and  returned  to  Breslau,  where  he 
became  two  years  later  pastor  and  inspector  of 
schools  and  churches.  (G.  Kawerau.) 

AURIFABER,  JOHANNES,  OF  WEIMAR  (Vina- 
riensis) :  German  Lutheran  divine,  best  known 
as  a  collector  and  editor  of  the  writings  of  Luther; 
b.  probably  in  the  county  of  Mansfeld  in  1519; 
d.  at  Erfurt  Nov.  18,  1575.  He  began  his  studies 
at  the  University  of  Wittenberg  in  1537,  where  he 
attached  himself  closely  to  Luther.  From  1540 
to  1544  he  acted  as  tutor  to  the  young  count  of 
Mansfeld  and  in  the  following  year  made  the  cam- 
paign against  the  French  as  field  chaplain.  In 
1545  he  went  to  live  with  Luther  as  his  famulus 
and  remained  with  him  till  the  great  reformer's 
death  in  the  following  year.  In  1550  he  became 
court  preacher  at  Weimar  and  for  the  next  ten  years 
took  a  very  prominent  part  in  the  internal  quarrels 
of  the  followers  of  Luther,  distinguishing  himself  as 
a  zealous  adherent  of  the  so-called  Gnesio-Lutheran 
faction.  His  extreme  views  caused  his  dismissal 
from  the  court  of  Weimar  in  1561  and  he  removed 
to  Eisleben  where  he  began  his  series  of  Luther 
publications.  In  1566  he  became  pastor  at  Erfurt, 
where  he  passed  the  rest  of  his  life  engaged  in  almost 
incessant  strife  with  his  colleagues.  Aurifaber 
began  collecting  Lutherana  as  early  as  1540  and 
by  1553  he  claimed  to  be  in  possession  of  2,000 
letters  of  the  master.  From  1553  to  1556  he  was 
coeditor  on  the  Jena  edition  of  the  works  of  Luther. 
In  the  latter  year  he  published  a  volume  of  Latin 
letters  by  Luther  and  followed  this  with  a  second 
volume  in  1565.  In  1566  appeared  his  celebrated 
Tischreden  und  CoUoquia  D,  M.  Luthers,  of  which 
part  only,  that  dealing  with  the  last  days  of  the 
reformer,  was  based  on  notes  taken  by  Aurifaber. 
The  great  mass  of  the  work  followed  closely  a  col- 
lection of  Luther's  Table  Talk  prepared  by  Lauter- 
bach  as  early  as  1538  and  subsequently  revised 
by  him.  With  Lauterbach's  material  Aurifaber 
incorporated  much  from  other  sources,  displaying, 
however,  little  care  in  the  collation  of  his  texts  or 
even  in  the  logical  arrangement  of  the  sources. 
His  compilation,  therefore,  has  the  value  only  of 
a  secondary  authority  except  for  the  memoranda 
of  his  own  preservation.  Without  attempting 
deliberate  falsification  of  his  texts  Aurifaber  showed 
little  hesitation  in  modifying  the  tone  of  Luther's 
discourse,  so  that  his  work  should  not  be  read  with- 
out caution.  It  is  more  than  probable  that  in 
many  places  he  has  sought  to  intensify  Luther's 
characteristic  homeliness  of  expression,  with  the 
result  of  lending  to  the  book  a  spirit  of  gratuitous 
coarseness.  Aurifaber  derived  great  profit  from 
the  sale  of  collections  of  Luther's  writing  to  the 
Protestant  princes  of  Germany. 

(G.  Kawsbau.) 


376 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Anrifiiber 
Auatin 


Biblioobapht:  On  the  Table  Talk  oonault  W.  Meyer,  Uebm' 
Laulerbadu  und  Atarifabert  SamnUunoen  der  TMireden 
Luthera,  Gdttingen,  1806.  Consult  further  Von  Popowsky, 
KrUik  der  handadtrifUichen  SamnUuno  dee  Jchann  Awri- 
faber,  Kdnigsberg.  1880. 

AUSO'NIUS,  DECIMnS  MAGNXTS:  Latin  poet 
and  rhetor;  b.  at  Burdigalia  (Bordeaux)  about 
310;  d.  there  about  393.  His  family  was  of  Celtic 
origin  and  the  poet  numbered  among  his  near  ances- 
tors members  of  the  Druid  class.  He  received 
his  education  at  Tolosa  and,  returning  to  his  native 
city  about  327,  established  himself  as  a  teacher  of 
granmiar  and  rhetoric,  attaining  in  a  career  of  more 
than  thirty  years  the  reputation  of  one  of  the 
greatest  professors  of  his  time.  About  the  year 
364  Ausonius  probably  declared  himself  formally 
a  Christian,  for  in  the  following  year  he  was  sum- 
moned to  Treves  as  tutor  of  the  young  Gratian, 
eldest  son  of  the  Emperor  Valentinian  I,  a  post 
which  would  have  scarcely  have  been  open  to  him 
if  he  had  continued  to  profess  the  pagan  faith. 
The  sincerity  of  his  conversion  or  rather  the  depth 
of  his  new  belief  has  been  made  the  subject  of  a  long 
controversy,  his  writings  offering  evidence  in  sup- 
port of  different  views.  Thus  his  Versus  paschaUs 
pro  Augusto,  falling  between  the  years  367  and 
371,  express  an  undoubted  adherence  to  the  for- 
mulas of  the  Nicene  Creed,  while  about  the  year 
378  in  the  Precatio  consiUis  designaii  he  turns 
once  more  to  the  heathen  gods,  invoking  Janus 
among  them.  Over  Gratian,  Ausonius  exercised 
unbounded  influence  and  when  the  former  ascended 
the  throne  of  the  Western  Empire  in  375  his  tutor 
attained  an  important  position  in  state  affairs  and 
was  powerful  enough  to  bestow  the  highest  offices 
on  members  of  his  own  family.  He  made  use  of  his 
influence  to  further  the  cause  of  education  in  Gaul 
by  instituting  schools  of  rhetoric  in  the  principal 
cities  and  he  was  active  in  saving  the  monuments  of 
the  ancient  civilization  from  the  iconoclastic  fury  of 
the  early  Christians  In  378  he  was  made  prefect 
of  Gaul  and  in  the  following  year  became  consul. 
This  was  the  climax  of  his  career  and  was  followed 
by  the  speedy  disappearance  of  his  influence  over 
the  emperor,  who  was  now  completely  under  the 
sway  of  the  great  Ambrose.  Ausonius  felt  deeply 
the  loss  of  power  and  it  has  been  conjectured  that 
his  animosity  against  Ambrose  finds  expression 
in  his  Mixobarbaron,  which  some  would  have  to  be 
a  travesty  in  form  and  matter  upon  the  hymns 
of  the  bishop  of  Milan.  Whether  his  views  upon 
Christianity  also  underwent  an  unfavorable  change 
with  the  decline  of  his  fortunes  is  uncertain.  A 
poem  of  the  year  379  in  which  Ausonius  commends 
himself  to  the  aid  of  Christ  as  his  master,  would 
be  decisive  on  this  point  were  it  not  for  the  fact 
that  in  the  first  collection  of  his  poems  which  he 
prepared  in  383  the  Christian  element  appears  as 
unimportant,  while  verses  quite  in  the  nature  of 
the  old  pagan  hedonism  find  a  very  conspicuous 
place.  After  the  death  of  Gratian,  Ausonius  gave 
himself  up  to  literary  work,  leading  a  life  of  luxu- 
rious ease  in  his  native  city  or  on  his  estates  in 
Aquitania.  From  this  period  date  the  family 
poems,  Parentalia,  and  the  biographic  Commemo- 
ratio  professorum  Burdtgalenstum,  which,  though  far 


inferior  in  literary  value  to  his  exquisite  master- 
piece, the  MoseUaf  are  of  value  as  sources  for  the 
life  and  thought  of  his  times.  It  is  in  this  period, 
too,  that  Ausonius  appears  in  his  most  interesting 
aspect  as  the  representative  of  the  classic  spirit 
and  culture  battling  in  vain  against  the  rising 
spirit  of  asceticism,  which  under  the  inspiration  of 
men  like  Martin  of  Tours  was  rapidly  transforming 
the  character  of  West  European  civilization.  Among 
the  most  devoted  followers  of  St.  Martin  was  Pauli- 
nus  of  Nola,  a  former  pupil  of  Ausonius,  and  in 
the  letters  which  passed  between  the  two  men  this 
conflict  between  the  old  and  new  finds  eloquent 
expression.  Possibly  the  nearest  approximation 
to  the  poet's  real  views  on  Christianity  may  be 
obtained  by  considering  him  solely  in  the  character 
of  a  literary  craftsman,  to  whom,  by  temperament, 
religion  was  a  more  remote  influence  than  art,  and 
who,  while  lending  adherence  to  the  formulas  of 
the  Christian  faith,  continued  to  find  in  the  old 
beliefs  inspiration  and  grateful  material  for  the 
use  of  his  poetic  gifts.  (F.  Arnold.) 

Biblioorapht:  The  optuatla  of  AuaoniuB  have  been 
edited  by  C.  Schenkl.  MGH,  Auct.  ant,  ▼.  2.  1883, 
and  by  R.  Peiper.  in  Bibliotheca  Teubneriana,  Leii>- 
rio,  1886;  they  are  also  in  MPL,  xix.  An  excellent 
edition  of  the  Moeella,  with  French  translation,  is  that 
of  H.  de  la  Ville  de  Mirmont,  Bordeaux,  1889;  consult 
also  idem«  De  Aueonii  MoeeUa,  Paris,  1892;  A.  Ebert, 
OeechiehU  der  Litteratur  dee  MittelaUere,  i.  294  ^qq.,  Leip- 
Bio.  1889;  M.  Manitius,  Oeeehichle  der  ehriatlichen  tateini- 
edten  Poeeie,  pp.  105  sqq..  Stuttgart,  1891;  C.  Jullian. 
Aueone  U  Bordeaux,  Bordeaux,  1893;  J.  W.  Mackail, 
LaHn  LUeraiure,  pp.  265-267,  New  York,  1895;  S.  Dill, 
Roman  Society  in  (^  Laet  Century  of  the  Weetem  Empire, 
especially  pp.  141-156,  London,  1898. 

AUSniT:  A  syncopated  form  of  Augustine, 
used  especially  for  St.  Augustine  of  Canterbury 
(q.v.);  also  used  for  the  adjective  Augustinian; 
as,  an  Austin  friar. 

AUSTIN,  JOHN:  English  Roman  Catholic; 
b.  at  Walpole  (65  m.  n.  of  London),  Norfolk.  1613; 
d.  in  London  1669.  He  studied  at  St.  John's, 
Cambridge,  and  remained  there  until  about  1640, 
when,  having  embraced  the  Roman  Catholic 
religion,  he  found  it  necessary  to  leave  the  univer- 
sity; he  studied  law  and  lived  in  London,  and  for 
some  time  during  the  civil  war  was  a  private  tutor 
in  Staffordshire.  Under  the  pseudonym  of  William 
Birchley  he  published  The  Christian  Moderator; 
or  persecution  for  religion  condemned  by  the  light 
of  nature^  law  of  God,  evidence  of  our  oum  prin- 
ciples (part  i,  London,  1651;  parts  ii-iv,  1652-61), 
aiming  to  vindicate  the  Roman  Catholic  beliefs 
against  popular  misconceptions  and  pleading  for 
the  rights  and  privileges  accorded  to  other  religious 
bodies.  He  aSso  wrote  Devotions;  First  Part, 
in  the  Ancient  Way  of  Offices,  with  psalms,  hymns, 
and  prayers  for  every  day  in  the  week  and  every 
holy  day  in  the  year  (2d  ed.,  Rouen,  1672;  place 
and  date  of  Ist  ed.  not  known),  a  work  which  in 
various  forms  has  passed  through  many  editions 
(4th  ed.,  1685;  "  reformed  "  by  T.  Dorrington, 
1687,  9th  ed.,  1727;  by  Mrs.  Susanna  Hopton, 
with  preface  by  Dr.  George  Hickes,  commonly 
known  as  "  Hickes's  Devotions,"  1701,  6th  ed., 
1717,  reprinted,  1846).  The  Harmony  of  the  Holy 
Oospds  Digested  into   one  History,  reformed   and 


Atutrftlia 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


876 


improtfed  by  J,  Bonnet  (London,  1705)  is  thought 

to  have  been  originally  published  as  the  second 

part  of  the  Devotions, 

Bibuoobapht:  A.  &  Wood,  A&t^cB  Oxonienaea,  in,  140,  160, 
1226,  1227,  Oxford,  1©92;  C.  Butler,  Historical  Metnoirt, 
of  Engliah  .  .  .  Catholica,  iv.  459.  London,  1822;  DNB» 
ii.  263-264;  J.  Qillow,  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eng- 
liah Catholica,  i.  87-00,  London.  1885. 

AUSTRALIA. 


History  (fi  1). 

Relation  to  England  (fi  2). 

Church  and  State.  General 

Statistics  (fi  3). 
Anglican  Church  (8  4). 
Other  Protestents  (fi  5). 


Roman  Catholics  (fi  6). 

Non  -  Christian  Religions 
(«7). 

Missions  Among  Aborigi- 
nes (fi  8). 

Education  (fi  0). 


Australia  is  a  continent  and  a  federal  common- 
wealth that  includes,  for  administrative  purposes, 
the  island  of  Tasmania;  it  consists  of  five  states, 
with  a  population  of  about  3,670,000 
I.  History,  in  1901,  in  addition  to  the  172,000 
inhabitants  of  Tasmania.  In  1788 
Sydney,  in  the  present  state  of  New  South  Wales, 
was  foimded,  chiefly  as  a  penal  settlement, 
but  the  immigration  of  freemen  continued  side  by 
side  with  that  of  criminals  until  1840,  while  after 
1835  the  latter  class  of  settlers  entered  the  colony 
in  considerable  numbers.  In  the  present  Western 
Australia  and  Queensland  penal  settlements  were 
established  at  King  George  Sound  and  Brisbane 
in  1825  and  1826,  while  Adelaide  and  South  Aus- 
tralia were  settled  in  1 836.  In  consequence  of  the  rich 
discoveries  of  gold  Victoria  was  formed  i^io  a  new 
colony  in  1851,  and  Queensland  was  separated  from 
New  South  Wales  eight  years  later.  These  districts 
enjoyed  the  utmost  independence,  especially  after 
1855,  but  the  need  of  union  was  increasingly  felt,  so 
that  on  Jan.  1,  1901,  a  confederation  of  all  the 
colonies  and  Tasmania  was  formed  under  the  name 
of  the  Commonwealth  of  Australia.  The  adminis- 
tration consists  of  the  Governor-General,  seven 
ministers,  a  senate  of  six  members  from  each  of 
the  allied  states,  and  a  house  of  seventy-six  repre- 
sentatives. In  addition  to  this,  each  state  has 
its  own  parliament  and  president. 

The  legal  bond  of  Australia  with  the  mother 
country  is  extremely  loose,  since  the  power  of  the 
English  Governor-General  is  restricted  to  a  tem- 
porary veto  with  regard    to  foreign 
a.  Relation  affairs.     On   the  other  hand,  by  far 
to  England,  the  greater  majority  of  the  population 
recognize  themselves  as   united   with 
the   mother  coimtry  by  descent,    language,   and 
religion,  so  that  Australia  and  England  are  knit 
together  by  internal  bonds  other  than  political. 
The  import  and  export   trade,  moreover,  is  car- 
ried   on  chiefly  with  England,  which  is  also   the 
principal  creditor  of    the  national   debt  of    Aus- 
tralia.    The    immigrants    naturally    transplanted 
their  ecclesiastical  tendencies  and  institutions  into 
their   new   home,   and   the  religious  communities 
of  Australia  are  vitaUy  connected  with  those  of  the 
mother   country   as    well    as   with   other   British 
colonies,  thus  further  cementing  the  internal  union 
of  Australia  and  England. 

An  external  union  of  Church  and  State  was  long 
maintained  in  Australia,  the  state  finances  paying 
the  greater  part  of  the  salaries   of  the  clergy  and 


contributing  largely  to   the    building  of  chuicheB 

and  parish  expenses  until  the  seventh  decade  of  the 

nineteenth  century.     The   dissolution 

3.  Church    of  this  relation,  begun  by  New  South 

and  State.   Wales  in  1862,  brought  little  disadvan- 

General      tage  to  the  larger  denominations,  and 

Statigtics.    of  the  smaller  sects  only  the  Lutherans 

(chiefly   Germans)  suffered    severdy 

by  the  change. 

The  following  table  gives  results  of  the  census 
of  1901,  to  which  figures  for  1891  are  added  for 
comparison: 


1S01.... 

Freabjterlans,  MMll 

"*  If'^  I 

1«&1.., 

Gonfire^tlrtiiiil  1  Ht  ^ 

andludeiieiidentfi, 

ISCIL... , 

1«9L. 

**         fi»| 
Ilaptlata,  mi  .\V.'.\ 
"      imi 

T0E4l,ia)l .,.. 

"    imi 


a 


7.400 
T,(BO 

13,150 


94^550 
767,770 


II 


iaij,(i60 

57,6aO 
1A.660 

411.000 
80,900 


fl,»JO 

26,5.^10 
23,4Ci(J 


am,fl60 

mh4S0 


107,0(0 
18,300 

»aooo 
aaeso 


laioo 

I7,d00 


377,000 
£Sa;3D0 


E,eon 

4.510 


,00i> 

4i7.2li> 

,060 


7«JfO 
IT^SOO  168,060 


17.300 

se,sio 

3aj¥J0 
L*7,900 


131,300  l!W2,anoi^jM 


ll£,OlQ«)L,eili* 


I- 


34^ 

14,730 

S4.aOT 


4.4Sft 
1,;*K» 

L7^i 


im 


d*,m 


To  the  figures  for  1901  are  to  be  added  1,240 
Quakers,  3,100  Unitarians,  22,050  who  reported 
themselves  simply  as  Protestants  (the  majority 
probably  Germans),  11,660  "  Christians,"  and  24,- 
200  adherents  of  smaller  bodies.  The  Salvation 
Army  numbered  31,150.  The  siun  total  of  the 
Protestant  population  of  the  Commonwealth  is 
therefore  in  the  neighborhood  of  two  and  three- 
quarter  millions. 

The  Roman  Catholics  are  also  strong  in  Aus- 
tralia, as  is  shown  by  the  following  table: 


1901. 

2891. 


I| 


286,950 


|a 


847,150120,700  62,200 


92,800 


47,200 


80.860 


280,060  40.800 


26,800240,800 


i. 


12,500 


Adding  6,200  who  designated  themselves  simply 
as  '*  Catholics,"  the  sum  total  is  857,450. 

The  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  of  the  religious 
bodies  naturaUy  conforms  to  the  political  bound- 
aries of  the  states,  although,  as  in  case  of  the  states, 
imions,  either  temporary  or  permanent,  have 
been   formed.    The   oldest   and   most   prominent 

Protestant  body  in  Australia   is  the 

4.  Anglican  Anglican  Church,  with  a  membership  of 

Church.     1,498,750.    Services  were  held  as  eariy 

as  1788,  although  the  bishopric  of  Aus- 
tralia (including  Tasmania  and  New  Zealand)  was  not 
created  until  1836.  In  1847  three  new  bishoprics 
were  created  and  the  former  bishop  of  Australia 
became   bishop   of   Sydney  and   metropolitan  of 


377 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Australia 


Australia  and  Tasmania.  In  1897  the  incumbent 
was  made  archbishop  of  Sydney  and  he  has  the 
title  of  primate  of  Australia.  He  is  elected  by  the 
Australian  bishops,  but  must  be  confirmed  by  the 
archbishop  of  Canterbury.  At  present  the  prov- 
ince of  New  South  Wales  includes,  besides  the 
primatial  see  of  Sydney,  the  dioceses  of  Bath- 
urst  (founded  1869),  Goulbum  (1863),  Graf- 
ton and  Armidale  (1867),  Newcastle  (1847), 
and  Riverina  (1883).  The  province  of  Victoria 
comprises  the  dioceses  of  Ballarat  (1875),  Bendigo 
(1902),  Gippsland  (1902),  Melbourne  (1847),  and 
Wangaratta  (1902).  The  province  of  Queensland 
includes  the  dioceses  of  Brisbane  (1859),  North 
Queensland  (1878),  Rockhampton  (1892),  New 
Guinea  (1896),  and  Carpentaria  (1900).  Further, 
there  are  the  independent  dioceses  of  Tasmania, 
with  seat  at  Hobart  (1842);  Adelaide,  for  South 
Australia  (1847);  Perth  (1857)  and  Bunbury 
(1903),  in  West  Australia.  Each  bishopric  man- 
ages its  own  affairs,  diocesan  conventions  being 
convened  from  time  to  time  by  the  bishop  and  at- 
tended by  both  clergy  and  laity.  The  chief  busi- 
ness of  these  conventions  concerns  finance,  the 
education  of  clergy,  and  relations  to  other  ecclesias- 
tical bodies.  In  1872  a  regular  organization  was 
adopted  which  unites  the  dUoceses  of  the  present 
Commonwealth  imder  the  primate  of  Sydney. 
Clerical  and  lay  representatives  of  these  sees  as- 
semble every  five  years  at  Sydney  for  general 
conference  and  legislation.  In  education  the 
Anglican  Church  is  important  chiefly  through  a 
number  of  colleges  imder  its  supervision. 

The  Presbyterians,  who  numbered  427,000  in 
the  Commonwealth  in  1901,  belong  to  several 
branches.  Their  first  minister  was  installed  at 
Sydney  in  1823.  The  synod  of  each  state  and  the 
general  assembly  meet  annually.  The  Australian 
Methodists  in  1901  were  506,000  strong.  After 
the  census  of  that  year,  which  showed  seven 
branches  of  Methodists  in  New  South  Wales,  the 
union  of  the  entire  denomination 
5.  Other  was  effected  by  the  establishment 
Protestants,  of  the  "  Methodist  Church  of  Aus- 
tralia," first  in  three  colonies,  and  in 
1902  in  the  remainder.  The  first  Wesleyan  serv- 
ice in  Australia  was  held  in  1821,  but  a  Methodist 
conference  was  not  established  until  1854;  it  was 
at  first  affiliated  with  the  British  conference, 
becoming  independent  in  1876.  An  annual  con- 
ference is  held  in  each  colony,  and  the  general 
conference  meets  triennially,  while  every  ten  years 
the  Australian  Methodists  take  part  in  the  inter- 
national Methodist  Ecumenical  Conference.  The 
Baptists  of  Australia  numbered  91,700  in  1901, 
although  they  did  not  begin  to  increase  rapidly  until 
after  1852,  their  gains  being  due  primarily  to  their 
missionary  activity  in  cooperation  with  the  larger 
denominations  already  mentioned.  The  Congre- 
gationalists,  including  the  Independents,  num- 
bered 75,350  in  1901,  but  can  scarcely  be  considered 
a  united  and  influential  religious  community  on 
accoimt  of  their  basal  principle. 

The  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  the  Common- 
wealth, with  857,450  members,  is  divided  into  five 
provinces.  Although  Roman  Catholic  priests  were 


in  Australia  as  early  as  1803,  it  was  not  until  1820 
that  the  Church  came  to  a  vigorous  development 
with  the  aid  of  State  subvention  of  clergy  and 
buildings.  In  1834  Sydney  became  the  seat  of  a 
vicar  apostolic  with  twenty-five  priests,  and  eight 
years  later  was  elevated  into  an  archbishopric 
and  the  seat  of  a  metropolitan  for  Australia  and 
the  islands,  Hobart  and  Adelaide  being  suffragan 

sees,  although  they  did  not  remain  in 
6.  Roman  the  province  of  Sydney,  which  now 
Catholics,    includes   Maitland    (1847),   Armidale 

(1862),  Goulbum  (1862),  Bathurst 
(1865),  Lismore  (formerly  Grafton;  1887),  and  Wil- 
cannia  (1887).  The  second  oldest  archbishopric 
is  Melbourne,  which  was  created  a  diocese  in  1847 
and  elevated  to  an  archdiocese  in  1874.  To  it 
belong  the  bishoprics  of  Sandhurst  (1874),  Ballarat 
(1874),  and  Sale,  the  southeastern  part  of  Vic- 
toria (1887).  In  1887  Adelaide  and  Brisbane 
(founded  as  bishoprics  in  1842  and  1859)  were 
made  archbishoprics.  The  province  of  the  former 
comprises  the  dioceses  of  Perth  (1845);  Victoria, 
formerly  Palmerston,  in  the  north,  opposite  Mel- 
ville Island  (1847);  Port  Augusta,  on  Spencer 
Gulf  (1887);  and  Geraldton  (1898);  also  the  abbacy 
of  New  Norcia  (founded  on  Moore  River  in  1867) 
and  the  apostolic  vicarship  of  Kimberley  (1887). 
Brisbane  includes  the  bishopric  of  Rockhampton 
(1881)  and  the  apostolic  vicarships  of  Cooktown 
(founded  in  1876  and  placed  for  the  most  part  in 
the  charge  of  the  Augustinians  for  missionary 
purposes)  and  Queensland  (1887).  The  fifth 
province  is  Hobart  (Tasmania),  foimded  as  a  bishop- 
ric in  1842,  raised  to  metropolitan  rank  in  1888. 
Many  of  these  dioceses  contain  but  few  Roman 
Catholics,  and  were  poor  in  ecclesiastical  institu- 
tions and  churches  at  the  time  of  their  creation. 
With  the  rapid  increase  of  immigration  after  the 
seventh  decade  of  the  nineteenth  century,  however, 
and  in  the  determination  to  resist  the  propaganda 
of  Protestant  denominations,  orders  and  congrega- 
tions were  brought  to  Australia  at  an  early  period, 
and  were  particularly  active  in  missions  and  paro- 
chial schools.  The  most  extensive  settlements 
were  those  of  the  Jesuits,  the  Marists,  the  Domini- 
cans, and  the  Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schools, 
although  the  Benedictines  were  the  first  to  arrive. 
The  most  active  female  orders  are  the  Sisters  of 
Charity,  the  Sisters  of  the  Good  Shepherd,  and  the 
Sisters  of  St.  Joseph.  Roman  Catholic  associations 
flourish  in  all  the  cities,  and  schools  of  all  kinds, 
especially  intermediate,  are  under  ecclesiastical 
control,  while  Roman  Catholic  newspapers  and 
weeklies  promote  the  interests  of  this  Church. 
Syi)ods  of  the  Roman  Catholic  clergy  of  Australia 
have  thrice  been  held,  the  first  being  in  1844. 

The  number  of  Jews  in  Australia  is  relatively 
small;  there  were  in  1901  only  14,850,  of  whom 

6,450  were  in  New  South  Wales  and 

7.  Non-     5,910    in    ^ctoria.     Mohammedans, 

Christian    chiefly  from  India  and  the  Sunda  Is- 

Religions.    lands,  numbered  scarcely  4,500,  chiefly 

in  Queensland.  Confucians  and  Bud- 
dhists were  not  carefully  distinguished  in  every 
colony,  as  is  clear  from  the  grave  discrepancy 
between  the  number  of  Chinese  immigrants  and 


Austria 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


878 


the  figures  assigned  to  Confucismism  and  Bud- 
dhism. The  majority  of  Buddhists  live  in  New 
South  Wales,  while  the  most  of  the  Confucians 
are  found  in  Queensland  and  Victoria.  The  esti- 
mated number  of  the  latter  in  the  Commonwealth 
is  between  15,000  and  16,000,  and  that  of  the 
former  more  than  7,000. 

Polytheists  and  fetish-worshipers  come  from 
the  islands  of  the  Pacific,  the  Philippines,  and  the 
Sunda  Islands;  it  is  imcertain  how  large  a  propor- 
tion of  this  category  is  made  up  of  the  aborigines. 
By  far  the  greater  number  of  Australian  black- 
fellows  have  been  converted  to  Christianity  by 
missionary  activity  in  their  behalf ,  although  the  pre- 
carious conditions  of  life  and  the  poverty  of  nature 
in  the  interior  render  it  extremely  difficult  to  reach 
the  natives  in  that  region,  and  the  obstacles  are 
augmented  by  their  spiritual  and 
8.  Missions  moral  degradation.  Nevertheless,  not 
Among  only  the  larger  denominations,  but 
Aborigines,  also  the  smaller,  such  as  the  Luther- 
ans and  the  Quakers,  are  engaged 
in  missionary  activity  among  the  aborigines. 
There  are,  in  addition,  special  societies  under  the 
auspices  of  the  Anglican  Church  and  unions  of 
several  denominations,  such  as  the  Aborigines' 
Protection  Mission,  the  Society  for  the  Propaga- 
tion of  the  Gospel,  the  Free  Mission  (in  New  South 
Wales),  and  the  Australian  Board  of  Missions  (in 
Victoria).  The  missions  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  are  chiefly  in  the  north.    The  number  of 


unconverted  Australian  aborigines  is  estimated 
between  10,000  and  20,000.  Several  missions  have 
also  been  established  for  workmen  in  the  gold  mines. 

The  number  of  those  who  profess  to  be  without  a 
religion,  such  as  freethinkers  and  the  like,  is  incon- 
siderable, the  census  returning  less  than  24,000 
of  this  class;  to  this  group,  however,  should  doubt- 
less be  added  many  of  those  who  declined  to  answer 
the  question  concerning  their  religion,  so  that  the 
number  can  probably  be  doubled. 

The  public  schools  of  Australia  underwent  an 

important   change  in  the  eighth  decade  of  the 

nineteenth     ccntuiy,     when     obliga- 

9.  Educa-  tory  gratuitous  instruction  was  intro- 
tion.  duced  into  all  the  colonies.  While 
many  schools  are  still  maintained  by 
religious  denominations,  all  citizens  contribute 
to  the  support  of  the  public  schools.  The  inter- 
mediate schools,  on  the  other  hand,  are,  for  the 
most  part,  under  denominational  control  and  of 
denominational  origin.  Popular  Christian  educa- 
tion is  also  furthered  by  the  Sunday-schools,  which 
are  well  attended.  Wilhelm  Goetz. 

Bibuoorapht:  Q.  W.  Rusden,  Hutory  of  Australia^  3  Tob^ 
London.  1883;  T.  A.  Coghlan,  Statiatical  Aeeouni  of  tkt 
Seven  Coloniea  of  AtutnUia,  Sydney,  1891;  R.  R.  Garran, 
The  Comino  Commontpealth;  a  Handbook  of  Federal  Gop- 
emment,  ib.  1897;  P.  F.  Moran.  Hiat.  of  the  Catholic  Chunk 
in  Atutralaeia,  ib.  1897;  W.Wcstgarth,  Half  a  Century  of 
Aiutralian  Progreaa,  London,  1899;  Auebralian  Handbook, 
ib.  1902;  W.  H.  Moore,  ConatituHon  of  the  CowunonweaUk 
of  Auetralia^  ib.  1902;  Encychpcddia  Briiannica,  Supple- 
ment, 8.V. 


I.  The  Roman  Catholic,  Greek,  and  Ar- 
menian Churches. 
The  Concordat  of  1855  (fi  1). 
EfFectfl  of  the  Concordat  (8  2). 
Theological  Education  (8  3). 
Revenuea  (8  4). 

Archdioceses  and  Dioceses  (8  6). 
Societies  and  Charities  (§  6). 


AUSTRIA. 

Greek    and    Armenian    Christians 
(8  7). 
II.  The  Protestant  Churches. 

The  Evangelical  Church  and  its  Or- 
ganisation (8  1). 
Changes  of  Ck>nfession  (8  2). 
Schools  (§3). 
Theological  Education  (8  4). 


Financial  Status  of  the  E>rangel- 
icals  (8  5). 

Societies  and  Charities  (§6).        ^ 

Bfinor  Denominations  ai^d  Non- 
Christians  (8  7). 

Religious  Distribution  and  Statis- 
tics (8  8). 


Austria  is  an  empire  of  southern  Europe,  forming 
with  the  kingdom  of  Hungary  (which  is  not  in- 
cluded in  the  present  article;  see  Hungary)  the 
Austro-Hungarian  Monarchy.  Excluding  also  the 
former  Turkish  provinces  of  Bosnia  and  Herze- 
govina (q.v.),  the  area  is  115,903  square  miles, 
the  population  (19{X))  26,107,304. 

I.  The  Roman  Catholic,  Greek,  and  Armenian 
Churches:  During  the  period  of  the  Reformation, 
Protestantism  made  much  progress  among  the 
people  and  gave  rise  to  a  considerable  number  of 
sects,  especially  in  Bohemia.  But  the  government 
remained  Roman  Catholic  and  by  force  and  law 
freed  the  Church  from  heresy  and  then  began  to 
rule  it.  Long  before  the  reign  of  Joseph  II  (1780- 
90)  Gallican  and  Jansenist  teachings  were  intro- 
duced and  were  intensified  by  Febronianism  (see 
HoNTHEiM,  JoHANN  NiKOLAus),  and  Joseph  trans- 
formed the  Austrian  Church  into  a  body  which 
was  almost  schismatic.  An  ecclesiastical  govern- 
ment was  formed  which  regulated  the  minutest 
details  by  state  law,  sparing  scarcely  any  depart- 
ment of  activity,  legislation,  or  administration 
(see  Joseph  II). 

A  new  period  began  with  the  concordat  of  1865 


(see  CoNcoRDATB  AND  Deluotino  Bulub,  VT,  2, 
§§6,  8).  The  imperial  patent  of  Mar.  4,  1849, 
and  the  imperial  enactments  of  Apr.  18  and  23, 
1850,  laid  the  foundation  of  the  complete  independ- 
ence of  the  Church  and  in  1853  negotiations  were 
begun  with  the  Curia  for  carrying  out  the  new  pro- 
visions. The  result  was  the  concordat  of  Aug.  18, 
1855,  which  was  promulgated  by  a  bull  of  the 
pope  and  by  an  imperial  patent,  both  dated  Nov. 
5  of  the  same  year.  A  definite  agreement  in  regard 
to  all  ecclesiastical  matters  was  enacted  in  thirty- 
six  articles.  The  jurisdiction  and  administration 
of  the  Church,  so  far  as  its  internal 
I.  The  Con-  interests  were  concerned,  were  placed 
cordat  of  entirely  under  church  control,  in  this 
1855.  category  falling  the  relations  between 
the  bishops,  the  clergy,  the  laity,  and 
the  Holy  See;  the  education  and  ordination  of  the 
cler^r;  diocesan  administration;  the  arrangement  of 
public  prayers,  processions,  pilgrimages,  funeralA, 
provincial  coimcils,  and  diocesan  synods;  the  super- 
intendence and  giving  of  instruction  to  the  Roman 
Catholic  youth,  and  all  religious  instruction  from 
the  theological  faculties  to  the  public  schodb; 
the  ecclesiastical  right  to  censor  bookB;  jurisdictioii 


879 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Austria 


over  marriage;  the  discipline  of  the  clergy;  the 
right  of  patronage;  ecclesiastical  penalties  inflicted 
on  the  Uuty;  seizing  of  ecclesiastical  property;  and 
the  internal  administration  of  religions  orders. 
The  State  retained  control  of  marriage  in  its  civil 
aspect,  the  civic  position  of  the  clergy,  and  the  right 
to  punish  them.  An  agreement  between  Church 
and  State  was  necessary  for  the  creation  or  altera- 
tion of  dioceses,  parishes,  and  other  benefices,  the 
collation  to  livings  and  ecclesiastical  offices,  the 
appointment  of  professors  of  theology,  catechists, 
the  inspectors  of  schools,  the  introduction  of  orders 
and  religious  congregations,  and  the  expenditure 
of  religious  funds. 

The  results  of  the  concordat,  though  it  was  actu- 
ally enforced  in  but  few  points,  were  especially  note- 
worthy in  two  phases  of  public  life.  The  marriage 
laws  hitherto  prevailing  were  subjected  to  a  rigid 
scrutiny,  and  by  the  imperial  patent  of  Oct.  8, 1856, 
the  Roman  Catholics  received  a  new  law  corre- 
sponding in  all  respects  to  the  decrees  of  the  Council 
of  Trent,  placing  divorce  imder  the  control  of  the 
newly  created  episcopal  divorce  court.  Seminaries 
for   boys   were   established   in   all   dioceses,   and 

received    children    of    lawful    birth 

a.  Effects     inmiediately  after  they  left  the  public 

of  the      schools,    giving  them,  in  addition  to 

Concordat,  their  gymnasium  training,  preparation 

for  later  theological  studies,  thus 
forming  places  of  education  for  the  future  clergy. 
The  expenses  of  these  seminaries  were  partly  cov- 
ered by  ecclesiastical  funds  and  partly  by  the  income 
from  benefices.  The  influence  of  the  State  was 
limited  to  the  supervision  of  their  financial  relations 
and  the  superintendence  of  instruction  so  far  as 
it  concerned  the  State.  The  result  was  an  increase 
in  the  number  of  Roman  Catholic  theological 
students  from  1,804  in  1861  to  3,286  in  1868,  after 
which  began  a  period  of  decline,  due  especially  to 
the  law  of  Dec.  5,  1868,  which  abrogated  the  pre- 
vious exemption  of  theological  students  from 
military  service,  an  additional  factor  being  the 
school  laws  of  1868  and  1869,  which  made  admission 
to  study  in  a  faculty  conditional  on  the  possession 
of  a  diploma  from  a  gynmasium.  The  breach 
with  the  concordat  widened  steadily,  and  the  law 
of  May  25,  1868,  repealed  the  imperial  patent  of 
Oct.  8,  1856.  The  former  regulations  concerning 
marriage  were  agdn  enforced,  divorces  being  re- 
ferred to  state  tribimaLs  and  civil  marriage  being 
again  permitted.  "  Finally,  by  a  despatch  of  July 
30.  1870,  Austria  abrogated  the  concordat  alto- 
gether. 

The  theological  training  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
clergy  is  given  partly  by  the  faculties  of  the  various 
imiversities  and  partly  by  the  diocesan  seminaries. 

Theological  faculties  exist  in  the  imi- 

3.  Theo-    versities  of  "Vienna,  Graz,  Innsbruck, 

logical     Prague  (two),  Lemberg|  (for  both  the 

Education.  Latin  and  Greek  rites),  Czemowitz,  and 

Cracow,  in  addition  to  two  independent 
theological  faculties,  not  affiliated  with  any  imiver- 
sity,  in  Salzburg  and  Olmtitz.  The  course  given 
by  the  diocesan  seminaries  corresponds  essentially 
to  that  given  by  the  imiversity  faculties,  but 
they    are    forbidden    to    confer    academic    de- 


grees  and  the  bishop  is  in  absolute  control.  Cer- 
tain orders  provide  for  the  education  of  their 
own  members  in  twenty  monastic  schools,  yearly 
courses  being  given  in  successive  years  in  different 
monasteries  in  the  Tyrol.  In  1 895  the  Roman  Catho- 
lic Church  had  16,132  priests,  the  Greek  Catholic 
2,649,  and  the  Greek  Oriental  475. 

In  cases  where  a  living  has  no  canonical  claims 
to  a  definite  income,  the  revenues  of  the  Church, 
and  even  the  State,  come  to  its  assistance.  The 
claim  to  such  an  income,  either  from  the  property 
of  the  living  or  from  the  benefice,  begins  with 
ordination  to  the  priesthood,  but  if  religious  foimda- 
tions  and  monasteries  desire  to  give  a  title  to  such 
income  to  one  who  does  not  belong  to  their  own 
number,  they  are  required  to  secure  the  consent 
of  the  government.  The  endowment  of  the  Church 
has  come  from  the  monasteries  secularized  in  the 
reign  of  Joseph  II  and  later,  abandoned  churches, 

and  suppressed  oonmiunities,  canon- 
4.  Revenues,  ries,  benefices,  and  ecclesiastical  feoffs. 

It  is  continually  augmented,  more- 
over, by  the  intercalaries  (the  income  of  vacant 
positions),  the  auxiliary  taxes  of  dioceses  and 
orders,  and,  in  Bohemia,  by  a  certain  per  cent,  of 
the  sale  of  salt.  This  fund,  when  the  property 
has  been  sold,  is  invested  in  state  bonds  which 
belong  to  the  ecclesiastical  province  or  diocese, 
the  income  being  administered  by  the  government 
with  the  cooperation  of  the  bishop  or  bishops. 
It  is  charged  with  the  defrayal  of  certain  expenses 
(the  cathedral  chapters  of  BudweiB,  Salzburg, 
Trent,  and  Brixen  drawing  their  entire  income  from 
it),  as  well  as  with  the  payment  of  all  other  dis- 
bursements which  are  not  obligatory  on  a  third 
party.  The  revenues  are  devoted  to  the  defray- 
ment of  patronage,  the  income  and  endowment 
of  new  parishes,  the  building  of  churches,  the  in- 
crease in  the  income  of  livings,  the  salary  of  chap- 
lains, the  making  good  of  deficits,  the  support  of 
mendicant  orders,  the  salaries  of  teachers  at  the 
state  schools,  and  the  maintenance  of  theological 
faculties  and  seminaries.  A  second  fimd  is  that 
for  students,  which  is  derived  from  the  estates  of 
the  Jesuit  monasteries  suppressed  by  Maria  Theresa 
on  Dec.  23,  1774,  and  is  devoted  to  defraying  the 
expenses  of  Roman  Catholic  education  in  interme- 
diate and  higher  institutions  of  learning.  Since 
the  passage  of  the  new  school  law,  this  fund  is  also 
used  for  undenominational  public  schools,  since 
the  estates  of  the  Jesuit  monasteries  are  not  regarded 
as  the  property  of  the  Church.  For  the  value  of 
the  livings  and  the  income  of  the  religious  orders 
no  recent  data  are  at  hand,  but  in  1875  the  former 
amounted  in  all  parts  of  the  empire  to  7,644,611 
florins,  and  the  latter  to  4,100,375  florins. 

Austria  is  divided  into  nine  ecclesiastical  prov- 
inces as  follows:  (1)  the  archdiocese  of  Vienna 
for  Upper  and  Lower  Austria,  with  the  two  suffragan 
dioceses  of  St.  Pdlten  and  Linz;  (2)  Salzburg  for 
Salzburg,  Styria,  Carinthia,  Tyrol,  and  Vorarlberg, 
with  the  five  suffragan  dioceses  of  Seckau,  Lavant, 
Gurk,  Brixen,  and  Trent;  (3)  GOrz  for  Camiola, 
KUstenland,  and  the  island  of  Arbe,  with  the  four 
suffragan  dioceses  of  Laibach,  Triest-Capo  d'Istria, 
Parenzo-Pola,    and    Veglia-Arbe;  (4)    Prague   for 


Austria 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


880 


Bohemia,   with   the   three   suffragan  dioceses    of 

Leitmeritz,  K5niggr&tz,  and  Budweis;  (5)  OhnUtz 

for  Moravia  and  a   portion  of  Silesia, 

5.  Arch-  with  the  suffragan  diocese  of  BrUnn; 
dioceses  and  (6)  the  Austrian  portion  of  the  exempt 

Dioceses,  diocese  of  Breslau  for  the  remainder 
of  Silesia;  (7)  the  Austrian  portion 
of  the  archdiocese  of  Warsaw,  with  the  diocese 
of  Cracow;  (8)  Lemberg  for  Galida  (excepting 
Cracow)  and  Bukowina,  with  the  two  suffragan 
dioceses  of  Przemysl  and  Tamow;  (9)  Zara  for 
Dalmatia  (excepting  Arbe),  with  the  five  suffragan 
dioceses  of  Sebenico,  Spalato-Macarsca,  Lesina, 
Ragusa,  and  Cattaro. 

Austria,  like  Germany,  has  coimtless  Roman 
Catholic  societies,  institutions,  and  foundations. 
In  almost  every  parish  there  are  brotherhoods 
and  societies  for  prayer,  associations  of  both  sexes 
and  all  ages,  societies  of  priests,  congregations  of 
Mary,  Franciscan  Tertiaries,  the  Society  of  the 
Holy  Family  (with  25,000  families  in  the  diocese  of 
Lavant  alone),  societies  for  pilgrimage  and  for  the 
building  and  adornment  of  churches,  church  music, 
home  missions,  brotherhoods  of  St.  Michael,  polit- 
ical Roman  Catholic  societies,  and  general  Roman 
Catholic  social  organizations  with  40,000  members 
in  the  single  provmce  of  Upper  Austria.  Children 
and  youth  are  cared  for  m  protectories,  kinder- 
gartens, orphan  asylums,  refectories, 

6.  Societies  boarding-schools,     refuges,     training- 

and  schools  for  apprentices,  and  the  like. 
Charities,    while    the    great    Roman    Catholic 

school-union  has  about  40,000  mem- 
bers. Popular  education  is  promoted  by  reading 
clubs  and  societies  for  the  dissemination  of  educa- 
tional literature,  as  well  as  by  reading-rooms  and 
libraries  for  the  clergy  and  laity,  while  Roman 
Catholic  science,  literature,  and  art  are  advanced 
by  the  Leo^eseUschaft,  the  Czech  society  Vlast, 
and  by  various  periodicals.  Coimtless  institutions 
are  devoted  to  charity,  including  almshouses, 
memorial  foundations,  poor  gilds,  hospitals  of  the 
most  various  characters,  and  funds  for  the  feeding 
of  the  poor  in  monasteries.  There  are  likewise 
insurance  societies  for  the  protection  of  masters, 
partners,  apprentices,  peasants,  workmen,  credit 
and  other  purposes  of  economic  nature,  but  clubs 
of  Roman  Catholic  students  are  still  only  in  embryo. 
There  is  a  large  number  of  Greek  and  Armenian 
Christians,  some  being  Uniates  and  some  non- 
Uniates.  The  Uniate  Greeks,  or  Greek  Catholics, 
form  a  special  ecclesiastical  province  with  the  arch- 
diocese of  Lemberg  and  the  suffragan  diocese  of 
Przemysl.  The  Uniates  of  the  Armeno-Catholic 
rite  also  have  an  archbishopric  of  Lemberg,  the  arch- 
bishop likewise  ruling  over  the  non-Uniate  Arme- 
nians of  Galicia  and  Bukowina.  The  non-Uniate 
Greeks  of  the  Greek  Oriental  rite  have  a  patriarchate 

at  Carlowitz  with  ten    bishoprics  or 

7.  Greek     eparchies,  of  which  seven  are  in  Hun- 
and  Arme-  gary,  one  in  Czemowitz  (Bukowina), 

nian  Chris-  one  at  Hermannstadt  (Transylvania), 

tians.      and  one  at  Sebenico  (for  Dalmatia  and 

Istria),  in  addition  to  the  community 

at  "^enna.    The  patriarch  is  chosen  by  the  national 

congress  of  Servia,  which  must  remain  in  session 


sufficiently  long  for  its  candidate  to  receive  the 
sanction  of  the  emperor,  after  which  the  formal 
consecration  takes  place.  The  non-Uniate  Arme- 
nians of  the  Armeno-Oriental  rite  control  the 
Mekhitarist  monastery  in  Vienna  (see  Mekhi- 
taristb)  and  are  accordingly  subject  to  the  Uniate 
Armenian  archbiBhop  of  Lemberg.  The  Old  Catho- 
lics have  three  parishes  at  Vienna,  Wamsdorf, 
and  Ried,  and  in  1902  built  two  new  churches  at 
SchOnlinde  and  Blottendorf.  The  Philippones, 
or  Lippowanians,  expelled  from  Russia,  have 
formed  scattered  communitieB  in  Galicia  and 
Bukowina. 

n.  The  Protestant  Churches:  Austria  is  essen- 
tially Roman  Catholic,  and  the  number  of  Evan- 
gelical Protestants  in  the  Empire  has  declined  from 
a  tenth  of  the  population  at  the  time  of  their  great- 
est expansion  in  the  sixteenth  century  to  a  fiftieth. 
A  patent  of  toleration  was  issued  in  their  favor  on 
Oct.  13,  1781,  and  the  Protestant  patent  of  Apr. 
8,  1861,  conferred  upon  them  full  equality  before 
the  law.  At  the  same  time  the  political,  civil,  and 
academic  disabilities  of  the  non-Catholics  were  re- 
moved, and  they  were  no  longer  required  to  con- 
tribute to  the  support  of  another  Church,  while 
they  were  now  permitted  to  adorn  their  churches, 
to  celebrate  their  feasts,  and  to  exercise  pastoral 
care.  On  the  day  after  the  patent  was  issued 
(Apr.  9),  a  preliminary  church  constitution  was 
drawn  up,  but  one  which  was  substituted  on  Jan. 
6  (23),  1866,  canceled  important  rights  of  self-gov- 
ernment, and  from  this  the  present 
I.  The  constitution  of  Dec.  9,  1891,  dif- 
Evangelical  fers  only  in  minor  details.  The  Evan- 
Church  gelical  Church,  divided  into  parishes, 
and  its  Or-  seniories,  superintendencies,  and  syn- 
ganization.  ods,  is  unrestricted  m  respect  to  its 
conifession,  its  books,  the  creation  of 
societies  for  ecclesiastical  and  educational  pur- 
poses, and  its  relations  to  foreign  religious  bodies. 
It  forms  a  national  Church,  of  which  the  emperor 
may  be  regarded  as  the  bishop,  his  prerogatives  in 
its  control  being  distinguished  from  the  correspond- 
ing functions  of  the  Roman  Catholic  German  sov- 
ereigns in  degree,  not  in  kind.  His  position  is  due, 
however,  to  his  constitutional  relation  to  the  Evan- 
gelical CJhurch,  and  not,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Ger- 
man princes,  to  his  ecclesiastical  relation.  The 
lawful  administration  of  Evangelical  fimds,  as  wdl 
as  revenues  and  assessments,  is  guaranteed  by  the 
State. 

The  Austrian  Evangelical  Church  is  divided  into 
ten  superintendencies,  six  of  the  Augsburg  Confes- 
sion, three  of  the  Helvetic  Confession,  and  one 
mixed.  Those  of  the  Augsburg  Confession  are: 
(1)  Vienna,  with  the  seniories  of  Lower  Austria, 
Triest,  Styria,  the  region  south  of  the  Drave  m 
Carinthia,  and  the  region  north  of  the  Drave  and 
in  the  Gmiind  valley  in  Carinthia;  (2)  Upper  Aus- 
tria, with  an  upper  and  a  lower  seniory;  (3)  West- 
em  Bohemia;  (4)  Eastern  Bohemia;  (5)  Asch 
(also  in  Bohemia);  (6)  Moravia  and  Sileeda,  with 
the  seniories  of  BrOnn,  Zauchtl,  and  Silesia.  The 
superintendencies  of  the  Helvetic  Confession  are: 
(1)  Vienna;  (2)  Bohemia,  with  the  seniories  of 
Plague,   Chruddm,   Podiebrad,   and  Cxaslau;  and 


381 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Anstria 


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Authority 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


88S 


(3)  Moravia,  with  a  western  and  an  eastern  se- 
niory.  The  superintendency  of  mixed  confession 
is  that  of  GaUcia  and  Bukowina,  with  three  seniories 
of  the  Augsburg  Confession,  western,  middle,  and 
eastern,  and  one  of  the  Helvetic  Confession,  Ga- 
licia.  There  is  also  a  small  Anglican  parish  in 
Triest,  under  the  control  of  the  Helvetic  superin- 
tendency of  Vienna.  The  number  of  ministers  and 
vicars  in  1900  was  299,  and  there  were  640  places 
of  worship. 

While  in  the  last  decade  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury the  increase  of  Roman  Catholics  was  but  9.12 
per  cent,  the  Evangelicals  of  the  Augsburg  Con- 
fession showed  an  increase  of  15.17  per  cent,  as 
against  9.28  in  the  preceding  decade;  and  the  Hel- 
vetic Confession  a  gain  of  6.67  per  cent,  as  con- 
trasted with  the  more  rapid  accretion  of  9.05  in 
the  ten  years  previous.  In  Bohemia 
a.  Changes  the  Evangelical  gain   was  20.06  per 

of  Con-      cent,  in  Styria  25.9  per  cent,  and  in 

fession.  Lower  Austria  37.01  per  cent.  In 
Silesia  and  Galicia  alone  the  increase 
of  Evangelicals  failed  to  keep  pace  with  the  gain 
in  population,  this  being  due  to  the  increasing  emi- 
gration from  the  German  districts  of  West  Silesia 
and  the  German  colonies  in  Galicia,  an  additional 
factor  being  the  immigration  of  GaUcian  workmen 
to  Silesia  to  work  in  the  coal  mines. 

No  statistics  are  available  for  a  classification  of 
the  Austrian  Protestants  according  to  language, 
nor  are  the  figures  sufficiently  complete  to  afford  a 
safe  basis  to  determine  the  changes  caused  by  im- 
migration and  emigration.  The  Los  von  Rom 
movement,  which  began  in  1898,  resulted  by  1900 
in  the  loss  of  more  than  40,000  members  to  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  some  30,000  becoming 
Evangelicals,  several  thousand  Old  Catholics,  an 
imdetermined  number  joining  the  Moravians  and 
Methodists,  while  some  broke  entirely  with  denom- 
inational Christianity.  Many,  however,  returned 
to  the  Roman  CathoUc  Church.  A  hundred  new 
chapels  were  erected,  and  seventy-five  preachers, 
chiefly  from  Germany,  entered  upon  the  work  (see 
Los  VON  Rom). 

Religious  instruction  is  given  in  the  primary  and 
secondary  schools  by  the  minister  of  the  parish, 
or,  in  certain  cases,  by  secular  teachers  of  religion, 
either  in  the  school  or  in  "  stations."  By  a  law  of 
Jime  17,  1888,  an  allowance  was  given  or  a  special 
teacher  of  religion  was  appointed  in  the  higher 
classes  of  primary  or  secondary  schools  of  more 
than  three  classes,  and  more  than  160  teachers  of 
this  description  are  active  in  over  560 
3.  Schools.  "  stations."  The  Church  also  pro- 
vides for  religious  instruction  in  nor- 
mal and  intermediate  schools,  although  state  aid  is 
given  only  when  the  total  number  of  Evangelical 
scholars  in  such  an  institution  is  more  than  twenty. 
National,  district,  and  local  school  boards  are  en- 
trusted with  the  administration  and  supervision  of 
normal  and  intermediate  schools  in  each  province, 
and  in  almost  all  the  boards  the  EvangeUcaJ  Church 
has  a  vote  (at  least  advisory)  and  representatives. 
In  consequence  of  the  rivalry  of  the  state  imde- 
nominational  schools,  however,  the  Evangelical 
schools  tend  to  become  more  or  less  ultramontane, 


and  are  gradually  decreasing  as  a  result  of  the 
double  taxes  levied  on  the  Evangelicals.  In  1869 
there  were  372  Evangelical  schools,  a  nimiber  which 
has  since  decreased  by  two-thirds.  An  Evangelical 
normal  school  exists  in  Bielitz  for  the  training  of 
Evangelical  teachers,  while  in  Czaslau  there  is  a 
Czech  Evangelical  Reformed  seminary  for  Bohemia 
and  Moravia. 

The  education  of  the  Evangelical  clergy  is  con- 
fined to  the  Evangelical  theological  faculty  main- 
tained at  the  expense  of  the  State  in'Vlenna. 
Though  desired  by  the  estates  for  this  purpose 
in  the  sixteenth  century,  it  was  first  founded 
as  a  theological  institute  after  the  separation 
of  the  empire  from  Germany  and  the  pro- 
hibition to  attend  German  universities  (Apr.  2, 
1821).  On  Oct.  8,  1850  (July  18,  1861)  it  was 
made   a   faculty   with   the   ri^t   to 

4.  Theo-  confer  degrees,  but  although  the  only 
logical  Evangelical  theological  school  in  aU 
Education.  Austria,  clerical  intrigues,  Protestant 
narrowness,  and  the  disfavor  and  indif- 
ference of  the  Liberals  have  prevented  it  from  being 
incorporated  with  the  university  and  securing  the 
rooms  allotted  to  it  in  the  new  buildings.  The 
school  consists  of  six  professors  and  two  privat- 
docents,  teaching  Augsburg  and  Helvetic  dogmatics 
separately.  The  course  of  study  is  at  least  six 
semesters,  two  of  which  must  be  spent  at  Vienna. 
Since  the  formation  of  the  dual  monarchy  in  1861, 
which  denies  to  Himgary  all  Austrian  subventions, 
and  as  a  consequence  of  the  Hungarian  legislation 
and  the  national  excitement,  the  number  of  stu- 
dents at  the  theological  school  has  diminished.  In 
1904-05,  however,  fifty-one  were  studying  there,  al- 
though the  meager  salaries  attached  to  the  majority 
of  the  parishes  gives  little  hope  of  an  increased 
student  body.  In  1901  a  small  national  denomina- 
tional Utraquist  home  was  established  at  Vienna 
by  private  contributions  for  the  aid  of  students 
without  means,  and  is  conducted  by  an  inspector 
and  an  ephor. 

In  view  of  the  necessity  of  maintaining  their 
churches,    schools,    and    charitable   organizations, 
the  congregations  have  the  right  to  claim  State  aid, 
but  this  is  asked  reluctantly,  despite  the  heavy 
debts  of  most  of  the  congregations,  especially  in 
Galicia.    Outside   assistance    is,    therefore,    abso- 
lutely necessary.    The  oldest  and  most  generous 
benefactor  is  the  Gustav  Adolf  Vertin 
5.  Financial  (q.v.)    which    has   spent    millions   of 
Status  of     florins,  and  which  is  divided  in  Austria 
the  Evan-    into  a  main  society  with  fifteen  branch 

gelicals.  societies,  in  addition  to  thirty  societies 
for  women,  forty-nine  for  children, 
and  324  local  organizations.  This  is  followed  by 
the  Lutherischer  GoUeskasten  and,  more  recently, 
by  the  Evangelischer  Bund  (see  Gotteskasten,  Lu- 
therischer ;  Bund,  Evangelischer),  as  weU  as  by 
many  societies  and  private  benefactors  in  Switzer- 
land and  Holland.  The  property  of  the  individual 
superintendencies  is  administered  by  conmiittees 
of  the  districts  concerned,  while  the  foundations 
and  funds  of  the  superintendencies  and  seniories 
are  controlled  by  committees  appointed  from  these 
bodies^  and  also  by  the  supreme  church  council 


888 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Anstria 
Authority 


and  the  Oustav  Adolf  Verein.  These  funds  are 
devoted  to  many  purposes,  such  as  general  eccle- 
siastical interests,  the  support  of  ecclesiastical 
officials  and  their  widows  and  orphans,  candidates 
for  the  ministry  and  theological  students,  general 
educational  objects,  teachers  with  their  widows 
and  orphans,  religious  instruction,  charities,  and 
buriaLs.  The  Evangelical  Church  likewise  provides 
pensions  for  superannuated  pastors  and  teachers, 
as  well  as  for  their  widows  and  orphans. 

Societies  and  charitable  organizations  are  ex- 
tremely numerous  among  the  Evangelicals  of 
Austria.  Women's  clubs  exist  in  many  city  con- 
gregations, and  institutions  for  those  intending 
to  be  confirmed  are  also  popular.  Orphan  asylmns 
exist  at  Biala,  Biclitz,  Goisem,  Graz,  Krabschitz, 
Russic,  Stanislau,  Teled,  Ustron,  Weikersdorf 
(Gallneukirchen),  Waiem,  and  Vienna  (St.  P6lten). 
Smnmer  homes  are  provided  by  the  Erater  Evan- 
gelischer  UnteratiUzungsverein  fur  Kinder,  while 
the    Oberdsterreichischer    Evangelischer  Verein    fUr 

Innere   Mission    cares   for   the   sick, 

6.  Societies  maintaining    in    Gallneukirchen,    in 

and         addition  to  a  house  of  deaconesses, 

Charities,    asylums  for  the  sick  and  insane,  as 

well  as  homes  for  convalescents. 
The  deaconesses  trained  at  Gallneukirchen  find 
employment  at  Gablonz,  Graz,  Hall,  Marienbad, 
Meran,  and  Vienna,  while  in  Aussig  and  Teplitz 
they  have  been  placed  in  charge  of  the  municipal 
hospital  after  the  expulsion  of  the  nims.  Closely 
connected  with  this*  society  is  that  of  the  Verein 
fur  die  Evangelische  Dicieonissensache  in  Wien 
with  its  home,  siunmer  sanitarium,  and  hospital. 
In  1901  a  third  house  of  deaconesses  was  estab- 
lished at  Prague,  and  a  number  of  other  Evan- 
gelical homes  and  hospitals  also  exist.  Provision 
is  made  for  the  dead  and  their  survivors  by  the 
Evangelischer  Leichenbestattungsverein  in  T^enna 
and  by  the  Sterbekasse  fUr  Evangelische  Pfarrer 
und  Lehrer  Oesterreichs.  Educational  institutions 
abound,  while  devotion  is  fostered  by  libraries  of 
various  types,  "  evenings  at  home,"  church  con- 
certs, Sunday-schools,  Young  Men's  Christian 
Associations,  and  young  women's  societies.  The 
Czech  "  Comenius  Society,"  the  "  Evangelical 
Literary  Society  of  the  Augsburg  Confession," 
and  the  "  Comenium,"  as  well  as  the  German 
Evangelischer  VolksbUdungverein,  the  first  three 
at  Prague  and  the  last  at  Teschen,  are  literary  in 
character.  The  only  scientific  Evangelical  maga- 
zine, however,  is  the  Jahrhuch  der  Oesellschaft  fUr 
die  Geschichte  des  ProtestanHsmus  in  Oesterreich, 
founded  in  1879  for  the  investigation  and  presen- 
tation of  the  history  of  Evangelical  Protestantism. 
Among  other  Protestant  denominations.  State 
recognition  is  accorded  only  to  the  Moravians, 

beginning  with  1880.  Baptists,  Irving- 
7.  Minor    ites,  Mennonites,  Methodists,  Congre- 
Denomina-  gationalists,     the   Scotch    New    Free 
tions  and   Church  in  Vienna,  and  the  Free  Evan- 
Non-Chris-  gelical    Church  in   Bohemia  are    re- 
tians.        garded  as  undenominational,  and  are 

allowed  to  worship  only  in  private. 
The  Jews  are  now  represented  in  all  provinces 
of  Austria,  although  previous  to  1848  no  Jew  was 


allowed  to  reside  in  Salzburg,  St3rria,  Carinthia, 
Camiola,  Istria,  Tyrol,  and  Vorarlberg.  The  Mo- 
hammedans in  the  army  thus  far  have  places  of 
worship  only  in  the  barracks. 

With  regard  to  the  distribution  of  various  con- 
fessions   in   Austria,   it   may   be   said   that    the 
Greek  Uniates  are  foimd   chiefly  in   Galicia,  the 
Armenian    Uniates    in    Galicia    and    Bukowina, 
the  Greek  Catholics  of  the  Oriental 
8.  Religious  rite  in  Bukowina  and  Dalmatia,  the 
Distribution  Armenian    Catholics  of    the    Orien- 
and         tal  rite   in    Bukowina    and  Galicia, 
Statistics,    the  Jews  in  Lower  Austria,  Galicia, 
and  Bukowina.    The  Evangelicals  of 
the  Augsburg  Confession  are  far  more  evenly  dis- 
tributed than  those  of  the  Helvetic  Confession, 
who  are  centered  chiefly  in  Bohemia  and  Moravia- 
Almost  half  of  those  professing  no  creed  are  in 
Lower  Austria.    The  religious  statistics  of  the  em- 
pire on  the  basis  of  the  census  of  Dec.  31,  1900,  are 
summarized  on  page  381.  Georo  Loesche. 

BzBLiooRAPHT :  K.  Kusiiumy,  Lehrbuch  det  aUgemeinen 
und  69UrreiehUchen  evanoeU»ehrfjrotMianti»chen  Kirchen- 
reehtM,  Vienna,  1856;  J.  A.  Qinsel,  Handbuch  dea  neueaten 
in  Ouierreich  geUenden  Kirdien-ReeKtet,  3  vols.,  Vienna, 
1856-62;  SamnUuno  der  aUgemeinen  kirchlichen  Verord- 
nungen  der  kaiaerliduin  kirchlichen  evangelieehen  Ober^ 
kird^enraiee  (published  continuously  sinoe  1873);  StaHe- 
HacKe  MonaUchrift  (published  at  Vienna  by  the  Central 
Commission  for  Statistics  since  1875);  M.  Baumgarten, 
Die  katholiache  Kvrche  uneerer  Zeii  und  ihre  Diener  in 
Wort  und  Biid,  3  vols.,  Munich,  1897-1902;  Q.  A.  Skalsky, 
Zur  OeaehidUe  der  evangeliadien  Kirchenverftueung  in 
Oeeierreieh,  Vienna,  1898;  Q.  Loesche,  Jahrbuch  der  Qe- 
aellachaft  fUr  die  QteehiehU  dea  Proteaiantiamua  in  Oeater- 
reidi  (published  since  1883  in  Vienna);  Oeaterreichiache 
StoHaWc  (edited  under  the  (Central  Commission  for  Statis- 
tics, in  Vienna),  especially  vols.  Ixii-lxiii,  1902;  the  Quelr- 
len  und  Forachungen  tur  Oaterreichiachen  KircKengeachiehia 
has  begun  publication  under  the  care  of  the  Leo-CSesell- 
schaft  in  Vienna,  1906. 

AUTHORITY,  ECCLESIASTICAL  (Potestas  ec- 
desiastica):  The  vested  power  of  the  Church 
over  its  members,  by  virtue  of  a  divine  commission 
{mandatum  divinum)  in  the  foimdation  of  the 
Church.  According  to  the  pre-Reformation  view 
and  according  to  the  same  view  as-  conserved  by 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church  to-day,  this  authority 
is  vested  only  in  the  pope  and  the  bishops;  so  that 
any  others  can  exercise  it  merely 
Pre-Refor-  in  their  name,  as  their  conunissioned 
mation  and  agents.      Indeed,     strictly    regarded, 

Roman      according  to  the  sense  of  the  curia, 

Catholic  it  devolves  exclusively  upon  the  pope, 
View.  so  that  even  the  bishops  possess  none 
but  a  derivative  power  from  him; 
and  in  so  far  as  this  conception  of  the  matter  is 
fundamental  to  the  Vatican,  it  must  accordin^y 
be  regarded  as  the  sense  which  officially  obtains 
in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  to-day. 

Intrinsically,  to  be  sure,  the  power  of  the  Church 
is  a  salutary  and  spiritual  power  even  according 
to  the  pre-Rcformation  doctrine.  But  the  com- 
mission also  carries  with  it  everything  which 
appears  expedient  in  the  sight  of  the  commissioned 
themselves,  with  reference  to  the  interests  and 
cure  of  souls,  toward  the  appertaining  regulation 
of  external  conduct.  Withhi  limits  affecting  the 
cure  of  soids,  then,  the  Church  is  also  empowered 
with   civil   functions   and   prerogatives.    In   this 


Authority 
AoziUiui 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


884 


respect,  the  pre-Refonnation  doctrine  distinguishes 
two  sides  or  directions  of  ecclesiastical  authority: 
an  internal  power  (poteaUu  ordinia  or  sacramen- 
Udia)  and  an  external  (poteatas  juriadictionU  or 
juriadictumalis),  the  ionner  acting  upon  the  so- 
called  forum  internum,  the  latter  upon  the  externum. 
The  Evangelical  Church,  Lutheran  and  Reformed 
alike,  puts  a  narrower  construction  upon  eccle- 
siastical authority,  interpreting  the  poteatas  ecde- 
aiaatica  exclusively  as  the  power  of  administering  the 
word  and  sacraments  in  the  widest 

Protestant  sense  of  the  term;  which  includes 
YUtw,  the  cure  of  souls  imder  these  instru- 
mentalities, but  not  at  all  the  external 
regulation  of  conduct  by  the  exercise  of  legal 
compulsion.  The  exclusion  of  the  imgodly  from 
the  congregation  is  to  be  brought  about  without 
human  power,  solely  through  the  word  of  God; 
and  so  this  jurisdiction  is  only  an  act  of  verbal 
execution.  Not  infrequently  in  the  Evangelical 
confessional  writings,  ecclesiastical  authority  is 
mentioned  comprehensively  as  the  "  power  of  the 
keys  "  (see  Keys,  Power  of  the).  As  such  it  is 
attributed  not  to  a  single  estate  in  the  Church,  but 
to  the  Church  as  a  whole.  The  power  of  the  Church 
is  thus  committed  inmiediately  to  the  Church; 
intermediately  and  for  practical  operation  the  per- 
sons thereimto  adopted  receive  it  from  the  Church. 
Thus  the  Evangelical  conception  of  ecclesiastical 
authority  assigns  to  the  secular  powers,  or  as 
modemly  expressed,  the  State,  a  different  province 
in  relation  to  the  control  of  church  affairs,  from 
that  of  pre-Reformation  times  and  likewise  that 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  to-day.  The 
Schwabach  articles  of  1528  declare  "  the  power 
of  the  Church  is  only  to  choose  ministers  and  to 
exercise  the  Christian  ban,''  and  to  provide  for  the 
care  of  the  sick;  **  all  other  power  is  held  either  by 
Christ  in  heaven,  or  by  temporal  powers  on  earth." 
The  reiterated  expressions  of  Luther  and  other 
Reformers,  to  the  effect  that  this  temporal  power 
has  no  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  and  may  not 
interfere  in  church  government,  mean 

Views  of  consistently  this  alone,  that  the  tem- 
Luther  and  poral  power  has  no  spiritual  juris- 
Other  Re-    diction     and    may    not    intermeddle 

formers.  with  the  cure  of  souls.  The  matter 
of  control  in  the  external  affairs  of 
the  Church,  that  is,  what  we  nowadays  call  church 
government,  was  deferred  by  Luther  even  so  early 
as  his  tract  to  the  German  nobility,  and  at  a  later 
period  constantly  .so,  to  the  temporal  powers 
directly;  and  the  same  is  true  of  the  other  German 
Reformers.  In  particular,  they  claim  for  the 
Church  no  manner  of  legislative  prerogative;  the 
Reformation  ecclesiastical  law  subsists  rather,  in 
so  far  as  it  was  formulated  by  new  legislation, 
entirely  upon  State  enactments  (see  CJhurch 
Order).  Only  since  the  established  reformation 
Church  has  come  to  be  superseded  more  and  more 
by  the  organized  union  Church  on  a  presbyterial- 
S3modical  basis,  has  the  latter,  apart  from  the 
absolute  administration  of  word  and  sacraments, 
been  also  empowered  by  the  State  with  the  jua 
ataiuendi;  and  this  it  exercises  within  forms  and 
limits  determined  by  the  State;  as  it  also  exercises 


the  right  of  independent  church  government  accord- 
ing to  its  constitutional  latitude  under  this  organ- 
ization. Li  both  instances,  however,  this  is  done 
not  upon  any  fundamentally  intrinsic  ground,  but 
solely  on  historic  grounds;  and  therefore,  in  so  far  as 
no  unwholesome  ideas  come  into  play,  without  con- 
flict with  the  State  authorities.  E.  Sehung. 

In  the  free  Churches  of  Great  Britain,  in  the 
British  colonies,  and  in  the  United  States,  there 
is  no  assumption  of  ecclesiastical  authority  by  the 
civi  government,  its  sole  function  being  to  protect 
the  Churches  in  their  right  to  hold  property  and 
to  carry  on  their  work.  In  many  cases  church 
property  and  in  some  commimities  where  an  in- 
come tax  prevails  ministers'  salaries  are  exempted 
from  taxation.  Individuals  are  protected  by  the 
civil  courts  from  injustice  at  the  hands  of  a  Church. . 
Ministers  may,  e.g.,  sue  for  their  salaries  or  for 
wrongful  dismissal,  and  excommunicated  members 
for  malicious  or  unjust  treatment;  but  even  in 
such  cases,  the  courts  are  careful  to  interfere  as 
little  as  possible  with  the  authority  of  the  Churches. 
In  each  religious  body  the  question  of  authority 
is  determined  by  its  polity.  In  episcopal  bodies 
much  authority  is  vested  in  individual  bishops  and 
boards  of  bishops,  in  presbyterial  bodies  in  synods, 
in  congregational  bodies  in  the  local  church.  See 
Church  Government;  Polity.  A.  H.  N. 

AUTHORIZED    VERSION  OF    THE    ENGLISH 
BIBLE.    See  Bible  Versions.  B,  IV,  6. 

AUTO  DA  FE  (Portuguese,  "Judgment  [Judicial 
Decision]  of  the  Faith,"  from  Latin,  atiua  fidei): 
The  public  annoimcement  and  execution  of  the 
judgment  of  the  Inquisition  upon  heretics  and 
infidels;  also  called  aermo  publieuaf  or  ffeneralia,  de 
fide,  because  a  sermon  on  the  Catholic  faith  was 
delivered  at  the  same  time.  It  was  not  to  take 
place  on  Sunday  or  in  a  church,  but  on  the  street. 
At  sunrise  of  the  appointed  day,  those  condemned 
with  the  hair  shaved  ofif,  and  variously  dressed, 
according  to  the  different  degrees  of  punishment, 
were  led  in  a  solemn  procession,  with  the  banners 
of  the  Inquisition  at  the  head,  to  some  public  place. 
When  the  secular  authorities,  whose  duty  it  was 
to  be  present,  had  sworn  to  stand  by  the  Inquisition, 
and  execute  its  orders,  the  sermon  was  delivered, 
and  then  judgments  against  the  dead  as  well  as  the 
living  were  pronounced.  Next  the  backshders, 
and  those  who  refused  to  recant,  were  expelled 
from  the  Church  and  given  over  to  the  secular 
authorities  for  pimishment,  and  then  the  processioD 
again  began  to  move.  The  bones  of  the  dead 
who  had  been  condemned  were  carried  on  sledges 
to  the  place  of  execution.  Those  condemned  to 
death  rode  on  asses,  between  armed  men,  and  wore 
coats  and  caps,  called  in  Spanish  aanbenito,  painted 
over  with  devils  and  flames.  Not  only  the  mob 
and  the  monks,  but  also  the  magistrates,  and  some- 
times even  the  king  and  the  court  were  present  at 
the  spectacle.  .  There  were,  however,  differences 
in  the  solemnization  of  autos  da  f ^  in  Southern 
France,  in  Spain,  in  Italy,  and  in  the  Portuguese 
colonies  in  India.  After  the  middle  of  the  eight- 
eenth century  they  disappeared,  and  the  veitBcts 
of  the  Inquisition  were  executed  in  private. 


385 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Authorlty 
Auzilins 


Bibliooiiapht:  Exhaustive  artleli;*  mm  to  b«  founcl  in.  P. 
Larouiue^  Grand  dicHanrmir'f  unii<erw£,  i,  1180-98 L  Pari*. 
I8fl4l^  aod  lit  Berthulfitp  Ld  Grande  Eneycioptdix.  W,  755- 
758;  GoiiBult  alio  H*  C*  LeSi  HisUtry  ^f  ^  IttquimiwfK  J, 
380^391.  ii.  200,  N«w  York,  ISSS;  L,  Tanon,  Fiistoirti  dma 
trOmnaux  dW  JSngwii>»/u}n  <f*  francs,  Pori*.  18&3.  The 
Bxticle  m  JE^  ii.  3S&-342»  is  very  full  and  ia  mosi  vaJuAble 
for  ttie  abundant  Ut^rHture  thcro  cited. 

AUTPERTUS,  AMBROSmS:  Abbot  of  St  Vin- 
cent at  Beoeventoi  d.  probaWy  in  7Slj  though  the 
date  778  haa  generally  been  accepted.  He  is  chiefly 
memorable  for  Im  comprehensive  commentary 
on  the  Apocalypse,  which  eJso  givea  the  most 
reliable  infotmation  as  to  hk  life.  The  brief  auto- 
biography which  terminates  it  stat^js  that  he  waa 
bom  in  the  province  of  Gaul,  and  that  he  began 
and  finished  his  conunentary  in  the  days  of  Pope 
Paul  I  (757-767)  J  DefiideriuHj  king  of  the  Ijombards, 
and  Ariehls  11^  duke  of  Benevento.  In  this  work, 
for  which  he  obtained  the  special  protection  of 
Stephen  III  {752-757)  against,  the  attacks  of  the 
jgnoranti  he  follows  the  Fathers,  especially  AugiL^ 
tine  and  Jerome;  his  principal  purpose  is  the  at- 
tempt to  discover  the  myatical  sense  of  the  apoca- 
lyptic imagery.  He  is  as  much  attracted  by  the 
method  of  f? pi  ritual  interpretation  ofTcred  by  the 
Doiiatist  Ticoniujs  as  was  his  predecessor,  the 
*'  obscure  "  Primasius  (q*vO»  in  working  over  this 
heretic  in  an  orthodox  sense;  Ticonius's  seven 
rules  [cf.  DCBf  iv,  1026],  especLilly  the  sixth,  ^* 
T€capiiidatimt€t  governed  the  eccLeaiastical  exegesis 
of  the  time.  But  Autpertus  added  moral  and 
devotional  considerations  of  his  own,  and  aimed  at 
imitating  the  transparent  clearness  of  Gregory  the 
Greiit-  The  commentary  as  a  whole  made  such  an 
impression  on  Alcuin  that  in  his  own  exposition  of 
the  Apocalypae  he  scarcely  attempted  to  do  more 
than  make  extract^s  from  it.  An  uncritical  eleventh 
century  biography  of  Autpertus,  contained  in  the 
Chnmicon  VuUumensef  mentions  a  number  of  other 
writings— commentaries  on  Leviticus,  the  Psalms, 
and  the  Song  of  Solomon,  a  treatise  De  conflidu 
viliafuTfif  homilies  on  the  Goj^pels,  and  lives  of  the 
founder  and  first  abbots  of  his  monastery;  these 
lives  are  poor  in  tustoncal  material,  and  are  TeaUy 
an  ideal  picture  of  monastic  life  as  a  stimulus  to  the 
zeal  of  his  fellow  monks,  Autpertus 's  own  rule 
as  abbot  did  not  last  long.  His  election  provoked 
a  schism  in  the  monastery;  be  was  the  choice  of 
the  Prankish  monks,  while  one  Potho  waa  electad 
by  the  Lombards.  The  contest  was  referred  to 
Charlemagne  through  an  accusation  of  treason 
brought  against  Potho.  The  king  asked  Adrian  I 
to  decide,  and  both  competitors  were  summoned 
to  Rome;  Autpertus  died  on  the  way,  and  Potho  w^as 
acquitted.  Both  the  letters  written  by  Adrian  to 
Charles  on  the  subject  are  addressed  "  nmlro 
apiritati  compairi,^*  wiiicb  seems  to  fix  their  date 
after  Adrian  had  baptised  Charles's  youngpst  son 
in  Rome  (April  15, 781),  and  thus  to  place  the  death 
of  Autpertus  later  than  the  date  given  by  the 
Chronkan  VuUumenstf  July  19,  778.  His  works 
are  in  MPL,  Ixxxix,  (J.  HAtTfiSLEiTEtt.) 

BifiUoci&iLFST:  C,  U'  J.  Chevalier.  Ripertoire  drt  ^outctM 
hiiUftiqutt  du  mc^u^fi'^^,  PP-  &5H*7.  Paris.  1877;  tf«- 
iptfv  titiimw^  dtf  Fwhjwb,  ir,  Ul-lOU  J.  C.  F.  Bihr,  Qm- 
jehuAle  dtr  rfimiMehen  L^/eraiur  im  karotinffuxhrn^  Zn^ 
alter,  pp.  191-102,  29^-205,  Corbrube,  1840;  E*uck,  KD, 
Ii,  I3a,  138. 

L— 26 


AUTUff,  d"tun':  A  town  of  France,  department . 
of  Sa^ne-et-Loire,  160  m,  s.e,  of  Paris.  It  is  the 
old  Bibracte,  the  capital  of  the  ^Edui  in  Ccesar^s 
time,  whose  name  was  changed  under  the  emperors 
to  Augustodunum.  It  was  one  of  the  principal 
toifVTis  of  Gallia  Lugdunends;  its  walls  had  a  cir- 
cumference of  over  two  miles.  The  few  inscrip- 
tions pretKjrved  from  its  early  Christian  period  show 
that  the  Greek  language  was  used  in  the  Christian 
conununity  there,  side  by  side  with  the  Latin,  aa 
late  as  the  fourth  century.  The  first  bishop  of 
whom  we  have  certain  knowledge  wajs  Reticius, 
who  w^as  present  at  the  First  Synod  of  Aries  (316), 
In  the  seventh  century  Bishop  Leodegar  held  a 
provincial  synod  there,  whose  decrees  have  only  in 
part  siuT^ived.  The  first  canon  contains  one  of  the 
earliest  distinct  mentions  of  the  Athanaj?ian  Creed; 
the  fifteenth  shows  the  progress  already  made  in 
the  Prankish  kingdom  by  the  Benedictine  rule. 

(A.  Hauck.) 
niBUO0]Ut>fnr:  MGH,  Legum,  S^ctio  III,  Cotidlm,  vol.  i, 

CaneiJia  ttti  Mfttivirmd,  i  ( l§»3),  220:  Hefele,  CmuHiimt^ 

oeichichte,  iii,  113,  Eng.  trsnsl..  iv,  4S5. 

AUXERRE,  S^'sar',  SYNOD  OF:  A  dioc^an 
synod  held  by  Bishop  Aunachar  in  the  Burgundian 
city  of  Auxerre,  the  old  Autessiodorum  or  Altisio- 
dorum  in  Gallia  Lugdunensis,  105  m.  s.s.e,  of  Paris. 
Thirty-four  priests,  three  deacons,  and  seven  ab- 
bots were  present.  Its  date  can  be  only  approxi- 
mately fixed,  since  all  we  know  of  Aunachar  is  Ih&t 
he  took  part  in  the  Synod  of  Paris  in  573  and  the 
two  Synods  of  Macon  in  583  and  585.  It  must 
accordingly  have  been  held  between  570  and  590. 
Forty- five  canons  were  passed,  which  have  a  cer- 
tain importance  as  contribuHng  to  our  knowledge 
of  the  pagan  superstitions  stiU  surviving  at  the 
period  and  condemned  in  several  canons, 

(A.  Hacck.) 

Biblioorapbt:  MOH,  l^um^  Seetio  III,  Cancilia^  vi>L  i, 
Conniia  tsevi  Merevinffici.  i  (I8i93),  178:  Hpfele,  CsncUier^ 
ffetchiehtt,  lii,  42-^7,  En^.  traiuiL,  iv,  400-^14. 

AlXKILT^S:  German  clerical  author;  d.  after 
911.  He  went  to  Rome  in  the  pontificate  of  For- 
moflus  (891-890)  to  receive  holy  orders  from  him,  as, 
he  tells  us,  was  common  custom  at  the  time.  He 
remained  in  Italy,  perhapa  at  first  in  Rome,  but 
probably  later  in  or  near  Naples,  with  whose  bishop 
Stephen  and  archdeacon  Peter  he  appears  in  relation. 
It  is  at  least  not  impossible  that  he  finally  became 
a  monk  at  Monte  Cassino.  We  still  possess  four 
treatises  of  his,  which  all  bear  directly  or  indirectly 
on  the  controversy  about  Pope  Formosus  (q.v.). 
That  In  defetisianem  $acrte  ordinatmnis  papm  For- 
mmif  written  in  906  or  909,  describes  the  events  lead- 
ing up  to  the  pontificate  of  Formosus,  to  show  that 
these  afford  no  ground  for  contesting  the  legitimacy 
of  his  episcopate,  and  those  which  followed  hia 
death,  to  prove  how  unjust  was  the  sentence  upon 
him.  The  aim  of  Auxilius  is  to  prove  the  validity  of 
orders  conferred  by  Formosus,  and  the  object  of 
the  three  other  treatises  is  the  same.  The  second, 
LibelluB  in  defensionem  SUpkani  epUcopt,  gives 
not  a  little  information  about  the  checkered 
career  of  the  Stephen  mentioned,  proving  the  valid- 
ity of  his  Neapolitan  episcopate,  though  he  was 
enthroned  by  Ben^liet  IV  (900-903),  who  was  or- 


▲▼a 

Avitos 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


886 


dained  by  FormoeuB  The  third  and  fourth  bear 
directly  upon  the  validity  of  these  ordinations 
The  works  are  m  AfPL,  exxix,  1053-1100,  and 
E.  Diimmler,  Auxilius  und  Vulgarius  (Leipsic,  1866), 
pp.  59-116.  The  Liber  cujtisdam  requirentis  et 
responderUiSf  mMPL,  cxxix,  1101-12,  is  not  genuine. 

(A.  BL\ucK.) 
Bxbuograpbt:  Watttenbach,  DQQ,  i  (1894).  300. 

AVA:  The  first  German  poetess;  d.  at  Melk 
(on  the  Danube,  50  m.  w.  of  Vienna),  or  a  neighbor- 
ing convent  of  Lower  Austria,  Feb.  8,  1127.  A 
number  of  poems  are  ascribed  to  her,  of  which  the 
most  important  and  most  certainly  genuine  is  de- 
scribed in  one  of  the  manuscripts  as  treating  of 
"the  life,  passion,  and  resurrection  of  the  Lord, 
and  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  according  to  the  gospels; 
of  the  Last  Judgment  and  Antichrist,  and  of  the 
delights  of  heaven." 

A  later  manuscript  includes  the  life  of  John  the 
Baptist.  Two  sons  are  said  to  have  helped  in  its 
composition,  who  are  thought  to  have  been  two 
poets  known  from  other  works,  named  Hartmann 
and  Heinrich.  The  former  was  educated  for  the 
priesthood  at  Passau,  became  prior  of  St.  Blasien 
in  1094,  then  abbot  of  GOttweih,  foimded  the  mon- 
astery of  Lambrecht  in  1096,  and  died  in  1114. 
The  latter  was  a  layman  and  probably  survived 
Hartmann.  Ava  was  a  reduaGf  but  conjectures  as 
to  her  sinful  early  Ufe  and  later  ascetic  practises 
are  based  upon  the  doubtful  works  and  are  hardly 
jiistified  by  these.  The  poem  as  preserved  \a  not 
composite.  It  displays  real  poetic  gifts  and,  in  the 
choice  of  incidents  as  well  as  in  their  treatment, 
indicates  that  the  author  was  a  woman,  with  no 
trace,  however,  of  feminine  enthusiasm.  The  ma- 
terial is  drawn  from  the  gospels  and  the  Acts,  for 
the  presentation  of  Antichrist  and  the  Last  Judg- 
ment from  Rev.  xvii-xx.  The  aim  seems  to  have 
been  to  present  a  simple  narrative  in  poetic  form 
of  the  great  deeds  of  God  in  the  new  covenant  simi- 
lar to  treatments  of  Genesis,  Exodus,  and  other 
parts  of  the  Pentateuch  which  are  known  to  have 
been  already  in  existence.  There  is  no  homiletical 
coloring,  and  moral  reflections  and  allegory  are 
avoided.  The  separation  of  the  good  and  the  bad 
at  the  Last  Judgment  gives  opportunity  for  a  brief 
but  instructive  picture  of  social  conditions  of  the 
time,  which  indicates  personal  famiUarity  with  the 
sins  of  the  higher  classes.  The  time  of  composition 
was  probably  about  1120.  A.  Fretbe. 

Biblioorapht:  J.  Diemer,  DeuUehe  GedidUe  de»  xi  und  xii 
Jakrhunderia,  aufgefunden  im  regtilierten  ChorherrenatifU 
gu  Vorau  in  der  Uteiermark,  Vienna,  1840;  W.  Scherer, 
OeUtliche  Poeten  der  deutachen  Kaiaeneii,  ii,  inQuetten  und 
Forachungen  tur  Spraehe  und  CtUttwgeachic/Ue  der  germani' 
achen  Vdlker,  vii,  pp.  73-77.  Stuttgart,  1875;  and  especially 
A.  Langguth,  Unteraiuhunoen  liber  die  OedicfUe  der  Ava, 
Budapest.  1880. 

AVARS,  THE:  A  tribe  related  to  the  Huns, 
who  from  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century  came 
into  contact  with  the  Christian  nations — first  with 
the  Byzantine  empire,  and  then  with  the  Franldsh 
kingdom;  but  they  learned  Christianity  from 
neither  of  these.  Virgil  of  Salzburg  seems  to  have 
been  the  first  to  attempt  their  conversion,  and 
Charlemagne  supported  him.  Duke  Tassilo  of 
Bavaria    siunmoned    them    to    Germany  as  allies 


against  him;  in  788  they  attacked  the  Prankish 
kin^om  from  two  sides,  but  were  repulsed  on  both, 
and  the  struggle  ended  with  their  complete  subju- 
gation in  796,  when  they  accepted  Christianity  as 
one  of  the  conditions  of  peace.  The  territory  thus 
won  for  Charlemagne  and  Christian  missions  ex- 
tended from  the  Enns  and  the  slopes  of  the  Styrian 
Alps  to  the  Danube.  It  was  divided  between  the 
dioceses  of  Aquileia,  Salzburg,  and  Passau.  The 
Avars,  however,  soon  afterwuxi  disappeared  from 
history,  probably  being  absorbed  by  the  Slavic 
population  which  formed  a  majority  in  their  terri- 
tory. (A.  Hauck.) 

Bxbuoorapbt:  Sohiefner,  Veraudi  Hber  dot  Awariaehe,  St. 
Ftotenburg.  1862;  Hauok,  KD,  ii.  410. 

AVE  MARIA.   See  Rosart. 

AVE  MARIA  BRETHREN.    See  Servites. 

AVENARIUS,  JOHANIVES.     See    Habermann, 

JOHANN. 

AVENGING  OF  THE  SAVIOR.  See  Apocrypha, 
B,  I,  7. 

AVERCinS,a-ver^shius  (AVIRCnJS,  ABERCIUS), 
OF  HIEROPOLIS  (in  the  Glaucus  valley,  not  Hie- 
rapoliB;^on  the  Lycus):  A  Phrygian,  the  inscription 
on  whose  gravestone  is  preserved  in  a  legendary 
life,  written  probably  about  400,  and  was  foimd,  in 
part,  on  a  portion  of  the  actual  stone  by  W.  M. 
Ramsay  in  1883  at  the  warm  baths  near  Hieropolis. 
The  inscription,  with  restorations,  may  be  rendered 
as  follows: 

I,  the  eitiien  of  a  noble  city,  have  made  this  (monument) 
in  my  lifetime  that  I  might  have  here  a  reatins-plaoe  in  the 
eyes  of  men  for  my  body,  Averdus  by  name,  the  servant  of 
a  holy  shepherd  who  pastures  flocks  of  sheep  upon  the  hilb 
and  meadows;  whose  eyes  are  large  and  all-eeeing;  for  he 
taught  me  .  .  .  writings  worthy  of  faith.  To  Rome  he 
sent  me  that  I  might  see  the  king  and  the  queen  in  golden 
apparel  with  sandals  of  gold.  But  I  saw  a  people  there 
bearing  a  shining  seal.  I  saw  likewise  the  plains  of  Sinria 
and  all  its  cities  (as  well  as)  Nisibis,  after  I  had  crooeed  the 
Euphrates.  But  everywhere  I  had  a  companion,  for  Ftal 
sat  in  the  chariot  with  me.  And  Faith  led  the  way  (as  guide) 
and  in  all  places  set  before  me  as  food  a  fish  from  the  spring, 
gigantic  pure,  which  a  holy  virgin  had  caught.  And  this 
(fish)  he  (Faith)  gave  at  all  times  as  food  to  friends,— 
(Faith)  who  has  good  wine,  giving  mixed  drink  and  bread. 
This  have  I,  Avercius,  while  I  stood  by,  ordered  to  be  written 
down;  seventy-two  years  old  was  I  when  it  was  done.  Yoa 
who  understand  the  meaning  of  this,  pray  for  Averdoa, 
every  one  that  is  of  the  same  mind.  In  my  grave  let  no  one 
lay  another.  But  if  any  one  do  so,  he  shall  pay  to  the 
treasury  of  the  Romans  2.000.  and  to  the  loved  natrve  dty 
Hieropolis  1.000,  pieces  of  gold. 

From  this  wording  G.  Ficker  concludes  that 
Avercius  was  a  priest  of  Cybele,  while  Hamack 
would  make  him  out  the  member  of  a  sect  partially 
Gnostic,  partially  heathen,  wherein  pagan  mysteries 
were  combined  with  one  of  the  mysteries  of  the 
Christian  faith,  namely,  the  Lord's  Supper.  The 
weight  of  authority,  however,  is  in  favor  of  the 
Christian  character  of  the  inscription.  It  must 
be  dated  somewhere  about  200, — a  time  when  it 
was  not  safe  to  make  too  open  profession  of  Chris- 
tian faith;  hence  Avercius  phrases  his  confession 
in  mysterious  language  which  has  a  double  meaning, 
yet  is  easily  intelligible  to  one  "  who  understands." 
The  life  idready  referred  to  supports  this  view, 
being  based  apparently  on  a  well-established  local 
legend  corroborative  in  many  details  of  the  writing 


387 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


ATa 

Avitaa 


on  the  tombstone.  Possibly  the  author  may  have 
been  the  Avercius  Marcellua^  a  native  of  Phrygia, 
to  whom  a  work  against  the  Montaniats  was  dedi- 
cated about  the  year  193  (Eueebiiiar  i^wf^-  tccL, 
V,  16).  As  internal  evidence*  are  cited  the  unmiH^ 
takable  allusion  to  the  Lord's  Supper,  to  baptism 
(the  "  shining  aeal  *'),  and  the  reference  to  Paul, 
which  may  be  taken  to  mean  either  that  Avercius 
had  the  works  of  the  apostle  with  him  on  his  traveb 
or  compared  haa  own  journey  to  that  of  Paul  from 
Damascus  to  the  west.  The  inscription  is  now  in 
the  Latemn  museum  at  Rome.  (T.  Za^ks,) 

BisLicxiRAi'nr:  The  life  t^  in  MPO,  cxr.  CaiiHtilt  J^  B. 
Pit™,  Spicdmum  3ote€mm»,  ill*  633-533.  P»™.  1855; 
ideiiiH  ATMilecta  Maera,  ii  (1884),  ISO^lST:  W.  M.  Rjunsay,  in 
the  Jourtml  of  Hellenic  SivdUa,  W  (1883).  424-427:  idem, 
in  TAe  Expositor,  ix  (1889),  156- ISO.  233-272;  idem,  Ths 
CUitM  ofid  BiMhoprici  of  Phrygian  vol.  i,  part  X  708^716, 
722-729,  Oatford.  1897;  G.  B.  de  Rossi,  InMtripHGmeM 
CArwfwjnar,  li,  pp.  Jtii^ixv^  Rciine.  18S8:  J.  B.  Ligbtfoot, 
TKt  ApostoUc  Faihera,  il  part  1,  493-501.  LoDdon.  ISSQ; 
T.  Zahn.  F^tchuniffn,  v,  57-99,  Leipnic,  1802;  O.  Picker* 
in  SiisunstberitJitg  der  Berliner  Ahidemw,  18ta»  87-112: 
A.  Hwnawk,  TU^  stii,  4.  Leipaie,  ISOS- 

AVES,  HEITRY  BAMEREL:  Protestant  Epis- 
OopaUan  bishop  of  Mexico;  b.  in  Huron  Co*,  O,, 
July  lOj  1S53.  He  was  educated  at  Kenyon  Col- 
lege, Gambier,  O.  (Ph.B.,  1878),  the  Cincinnati 
Law  School  (IS79-S0),  and  the  theological  seminary 
attached  to  Kenyon  CoUege  (B;D.,  1883).  He  was 
then  rector  succeasively  at  St.  Paiil's,  Mt.  Vernon, 
0.  (1883-84);  St  John's,  Oeveland  (1 884-93)  j 
and  Christ  Chm^eh,  Houston,  Tex,  (1892-1904). 
In  1904  he  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Mexico. 

AVIGTfOl?.  fl"vi"ny6o':  The  capital  of  the 
departmt^nt  of  Vaucluse,  southern  France,  flituated 
on  the  Rhone,  about  400  tn.  s.8,e.  of  Paris,  and  50 
m.  n.n.w.  of  MarseiUea,  It  became  the  papal  resi- 
dence in  1309,  at  which  time  it  was  under  the  rule 
of  the  kings  of  Sicily  (the  house  of  Anjou);  in  1348 
Pope  Oeinent  VI  bought  it  from  Queen  Joanna  I 
of  Sicily  for  80,000  gold  gulden,  and  it  remained  a 
papal  possession  till  1791,  when,  during  the  dis- 
orders of  the  French  Revolution,  it  was  incorporated 
with  France.     Seven  popes  resided  fhere,^ — Clement 

V,  John  XX 11,  Benedict  XII,  Clement  VI,  Innocent 

VI,  Urban  V,  and  Gregory  XI;  and  during  this  period 
(130^-77;  the  so-called  Babylonian  Captivity  of 
the  popes)  it  was  a  gay  and  corrupt  city.  The 
an ti popes  Clement  VII  and  Benedict  XI II  continued 
to  reside  there,  the  former  during  his  entire  pon- 
tificate (1378-94),  the  latter  until  1408,  when  he 
fled  to  Aragon.  Avignon  was  the  seat  of  a  bishop 
as  early  as  the  year  70,  and  became  an  archbishopric 
in  1476.  Several  synods  of  minor  importance 
were  held  there,  and  its  university,  founded  by 
Pope  Boniface  VIII  in  1303  and  famed  a^  a  seat  of 
lepd  atudiea,  flourished  until  the  French  Revo- 
lution. The  walls  built  by  the  popes  in  the  years 
immediately  succeeding  the  acquisition  of  A-iignoa 
as  papal  territory  are  well  preserved.  The  papal 
palace,  a  lofty  Gothic  building,  with  walls  17-18 
feet  thick,  built  1335-64,  long  used  as  a  barrack^ 
is  now  to  be  turned  into  a  mu^iim, 

AVILA,  fl'v!-ifl,  JUAN  DE:  Ascetic  writer, 
caUed  the  apostle  of  Andalusia;  b.  at  Almodovar 
del  Campo  (16  m.  s.w,  of  Ciudad   Real)   in  the 


archdiocese  of  Toledo,  between  1494  and  1500; 
d.  in  Montilla  (18  m.  &,e.  of  Cordova)  May  10,  1569. 
In  1516  he  entered  the  University  of  Salamanea 
to  itudy  law,  but  soon  retired  to  his  home  and 
lived  a  strict  aseetic  life  for  three  years.  Then  ho 
studied  theology  at  Alt^da  imder  Domingo  de 
Soto.  Having  been  admitted  to  orders,  he  con- 
tinued his  ascetic  Ufe  and  won  fame  as  a  preacher 
in  different  places.  Through  envy  he  was  brought 
before  the  Inquisition  and  refused  to  defend  him- 
self, but  was  acquitted  for  his  exemplary  Hfe.  At 
the  age  of  fifty  he  went  into  retirement,  broken  in 
body  by  hii  exertions  in  preaching  and  ascetic 
practises;  thenceforth  he  addressed  smaller  cireles 
and  devoted  himself  to  writing.  He  declined  a 
profferred  appointment  as  canon  in  Grenada,  as 
well  as  the  bishopric  of  Segovia  and  the  areh- 
hiahopric  of  Grenada,  Hia  tomb  in  the  Jesuits' 
Church  at  MontQla  bears  the  inscription,  Mogisira 
Johanni  Amlm,  PalH  optimo,  Vira  int^genimOt 
Deiqtie  amaniiasimo,  Filii  ejus  in  ChrintOf  Fm- 
[ueruTU\  His  writings  were  collected  in  nine 
volumes  at  Madrid,  1757;  the  chief  were  Aiidi 
filia  and  the  Cartas  espiriiu^ex  (in  vol,  xiii  of 
the  Bihlioteca  de  Autorev  E^pafiohs,  Mat! rid,  1850), 

K,  Bewrath- 

BisLioaiiAr&Tt  Lif«  m  Bp&aiHb  by  Luu  da  Gnnailik  (d. 
ISSi)  in  iroL  iii,  pp.  451^80.  of  hii  ^orks,  Madrid.  li4Q; 
N.  Antoaio.  B^iotktta  Hitpana  novo,  i,  63&-fl42,  Madhd, 
17^;  L,  degli  Oddl,  Ufe  of  thm  Ble^a^  Matter  John 
of  AvUa*  trariftl.  from  the  It&U&a,  Qwtrt^ty  Series,  vcjL 
2CVU,  Londoii.  ISflS. 

AVITUSp      a-voi'tus,      ALCIMUS    ECDICmS: 

Bishop  oi  Vientie;  d,  Feb.  5,  518.  He  was  bom  of 
a  distinguished  Romano-Gallic  family,  connected 
with  the  Emperor  Avitus  (455-456);  his  father, 
Hesychius,  was  bishop  of  Vienne,  where  the  son 
seems  to  have  been  educated,  probably  in  the 
involved  and  fanciftil  rhetorical  style  of  Sapaudus^ 
who  was  then  teaching  there.  In  494  we  find  him 
mentioned  as  his  father's  successor  in  the  see; 
and  until  the  death  of  Gundobad  (516)  he  exercised 
a  predominant  influence  on  the  Church  of  Burgundy, 
and  through  it  on  the  civil  government.  He 
induced  Gundobad 's  son,  Sigismund,  to  renonnca 
Arianism,  and  the  old  king  liimself  listened  gladly 
to  A  Vitus  and  seemed  dtsposed  to  follow  this  ex- 
ample. In  the  contest  over  boundaries  between 
the  metropolitan  sees  of  Vienne  and  Aries,  Avitus 
won  a  decisive  victory  under  Pope  Anaatasius  II 
(496-498),  He  was  a  zealous  supporter  of  the  close 
connection  between  the  south  of  Gatd  and  the 
Roman  see  which  was  restored  In.  494,  and  did  his 
beet  to  promote  the  power  of  the  latter.  His 
political  influence  was  far  from  salutary,  since  it 
was  exercised  mainly  for  ecclesiastical  ends.  His 
theology  was  dominat'ed  by  his  opposition  to  Arian- 
ism and  other  kindred  heresies;  otherwise  he 
appears  to  have  been  chiefly  interested  in  questions 
of  ritual  and  church  law.  His  last  great  success 
was  t^  call  and  preside  over  the  Burgundian  councQ 
at  Epao  m  617,  some  of  whose  canons  show  his 
authorship,  even  in  their  wording.  His  prose 
writings  consist  partly  of  sermom,  p^ly  of  letters^ 
which,  as  was  customary  at  that  time,  attain  the 
dimensiona    of    complete    tractatdi.    Them    havi 


AtIz 
Azymitea 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


888 


some  historical  value,  which  would  be  greater  if 
we  could  establish  a  more  secure  chronology  for 
them.  The  most  famous  is  Epist.  xlvi  (xli),  ad- 
dressed to  Clovis  in  the  beginning  of  497.  Epist. 
xxxiv  (xxxi)  is  important  for  the  hght  which  it 
throws  upon  his  attitude  in  regard  to  ecclesiastical 
polity  Here  he  speaks  for  the  Gallic  episcopate 
in  relation  to  the  Roman  contest  arising  out  of  the 
charges  against  Pope  Symmachus.  This  note- 
worthy manifesto  unfolds  an  entire  ultramontane 
programme,  addressed  to  the  senators  Faustus  and 
Symmachus,  probably  at  the  end  of  501.  Some 
of  his  oratorical  productions  are  interesting,  but 
more  important  is  his  poetical  work,  an  epic  dealing 
with  the  origin  of  the  human  race,  and  a  didactic 
poem.  The  former  is  called  by  Ebert  "  at  least 
in  regard  to  its  plan,  the  most  significant  contribu- 
tion to  the  poetical  treatment  of  the  Bible  in  early 
Christian  literature."  It  seems  to  have  been  com- 
posed in  the  last  decade  of  the  fifth  century,  and 
consists  of  2,522  hexameter  verses,  divided  into 
five  books  which  carry  the  history  of  the  world 
from  its  creation  through  the  fall  of  man  (in  which 
Satan  is  drawn  as  an  imposing  figure  reminding  of 
Milton)  to  the  Flood  and  the  Exodus.  It  is  much 
more  than  a  bald  transcript  of  the  Biblical  text, 
and  frequently  goes  off  into  long  typological  trains 
of  thought.  (F.  Arnold.) 

Bibliography:  The  works  are  in  AfPL,  lix«  and  ed. 
R.  Peiper  in  MGH,  AucL  Ant.,  vol.  vi,  part  2, 
1883;  also,  (Euvres  compliteM  de  St.  Avit,  ed.  U.  Cheva- 
lier, Lyons,  1890.  Consult  A.  Charaux,  St.  AvUe  .  .  .  ta 
vie,  set  ceuvret.  Pans,  1876;  P.  Parizel.  St.  Avite, 
ea  vie  et  tea  icrita,  Louvain,  1850:  A.  Ebert,  Oetchxchte 
der  Lxtteratur  det  MitUlaUert.  i.  303-402.  Leipsic.  1880; 
W  S.  Teuffel,  Qeechichte  der  rOmiechen  LUeratwr,  p. 
1210.  No.  5.  Leipsic,  1800;  C.  F.  Arnold.  CceearivM  von 
Ar elate  und  die  gallUche  Kirche  aeiner  Zeit,  pp.  101  sqq., 
202-215.  578.  Leipsic.  1804. 

A  VIZ,  a"  viz',  ORDER  OF:  An  association  of 
knights  founded  about  1145  by  King  Alfonso  I  of 
Portugal  to  extend  his  dominions  into  Moorish 
territory  to  the  south.  They  were  originally  called 
nova  militia;  when  Alfonso  captured  Evora  from 
the  Moors  (1166)  he  gave  it  to  the  knights  as  their 
seat  and  they  took  the  name  "  Brethren  of  St. 
Maria  of  Evora,"  and  after  1211,  when  Alfonso  II 
gave  them  the  town  of  Aviz  (75  m.  n.e.  of  Lisbon), 
they  were  known  as  the  "  Brethren  (or  Knights) 
of  Aviz."  Their  constitution,  which,  besides  the 
three  customary  vows,  imposed  also  the  obligation 
to  fight  against  the  infidels,  was  prepared  in  its 
main  outlines  by  the  Cistercian  abbot  Johannes 
Civita  about  1162.  Like  the  Order  of  Alcantara 
(q.v.)  the  Knights  of  Aviz  were  for  a  time  dependent 
upon  the  Order  of  Calatrava  (q.v.),  but  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  fifteenth  century  they  obtained  their 
independence,  and  successfully  resisted  an  attempt 
of  the  Council  of  Basel  to  restore  the  supremacy 
of  the  Calatrava  Order.  Toward  the  end  of  the 
Middle  Ages  they  received  dispensation  from  the 
vow  of  ceUbacy  and  were  allowed  to  marry  once. 
In  1789  the  order  was  changed  into  one  of  military 
merit  and  the  ecclesiastical  vows  were  abolished. 

O.  ZdCKLERt. 
Bibliographt:  Helyot.  Ordrea  monaetiquee,  vi,  65-60;    G. 
Giucci.    Iconoffrafia  etorica  degli  ordini  religion  e  caval- 
lereschi.  i,  61-63,  Rome.  1836;   P.  B.  Gams.  Die  Kxrchen- 
geechtchte  von  Spanien,  iii,  57-58.  Regensburg,  1876. 


AWAKENING:  A  term  which  in  recent  times 
has  occasionally  been  mentioned  in  Protestant 
dogmatics  as  a  member  of  the  ordo  aaltUis  (see 
Order  op  Salvation).  Elsewhere  the  term  is 
used,  especially  in  the  language  of  the  Pietists  and 
Methodists,  to  designate  the  great  commotion 
produced  in  the  heart,  especially  by  preaching. 
To  this  usage  corresponds  also  the  popular  con- 
ception which  understands  by  the  term  "  awaken- 
ing ''  specifically  the  stirring  of  strong  religious 
feelings,  such  as  at  times  accompany  the  beginning 
of  the  Christian  estate.  In  this  sense  books  or 
sermons  are  characterized  as  "  awakening,"  and 
periods  of  history  in  which  there  Is  a  rapid  change 
of  religious  feeling  are  called  "  times  of  awakening." 

So  far  as  the  Biblical  basis  for  the  conception  is 
concerned,  the  sources  are  quite  meager.  Only 
Rom.  xiii,  II  and  £ph.  v,  14  come  into  considera- 
tion. In  both  passages  the  act  of  awakening  is 
placed  in  close  connection  with  the  light  or  illumi- 
nation. He  who  is  brought  into  the  sphere  of  the 
light,  does  not  continue  to  sleep,  but  awakes  out 
of  his  sleep  and  then  by  the  awaking  is  illuminated 
by  the  light.  If  the  work  of  grace  be  considered 
as  an  enlightenment,  then  its  first  effect  in  man  is 
that  of  awaking.  According  to  the  Biblical  usage, 
therefore,  we-are  to  think  neither  of  a  special  divine 
act  of  "  awaking  ''  nor  of  a  condition,  having  tem- 
poral duration,  of  "  awaking "  or  "  becoming 
awake."  There  are,  however,  some  recent  dog- 
maticians  who  take  these  positions  (e.g.,  C.  I. 
Nitzsch,  System  der  christlichen  LehTe,  Bonn,  1851, 
pp.  298,  304-^05;  L.  A.  Domer,  GlauberuUhre, 
vol.  ii,  part  2,  Berlin,  1881,  725-728;  F.  Reiff, 
Chrisaiche  Glaubenalekre,  ii,  Basel,  1873,  349;  F. 
Nitzsch,  Lehrbuch  der  Dogmatik^  Freiburg,  1892, 
p.  593).  Calling  (q.v.)  is  then  divided  into  illumi- 
nation (q.v.),  which  aims  to  give  a  knowledge  of 
salvation,  and  awakening,  which  directs  the  will 
to  the  salvation.  Others,  on  the  contrary,  empha- 
size more  the  subjective  condition  of  the  awakening. 
It  is  the  introduction  to  regeneration;  the  awa- 
kened is  "  mightily  moved  by  grace  ";  it  is  a  '*  con- 
dition of  religious  suffering,"  for  as  yet  there  is  no 
self-determination  (Martensen,  Die  christliche  Dog- 
matik,  Beriin,  1870,  pp.  361-362);  it  is  "  a  moment 
in  which  the  soul  is  more  profoundly  seized  by 
grace,"  "  the  birth  throes  of  the  new  man,"  where 
"  there  is  still  too  much  being  bmlt  UfK>n  feeling 
and  sensibility "  (Thomasius,  Lehre  von  Christi 
Person  und  Werk,  ii,  Leipsic,  1888,  377,  384 ;  cf. 
Luthardt,  Kompendium  der  Dogmatik,  Leipsic, 
1893,  p.  264;  Wacker,  Die  Heilsordnung,  GQtere- 
loh,  1898,  pp.  33, 34).  Of  special  interest  is  the  repre- 
sentation of  "  awakening  "  given  by  the  dogma- 
tician  of  German  Methodism,  A.  Sulzberger  (cf. 
Die  christliche  Glavbenslehre,  ii,  Bremen,  1876,  368 
sqq.).  But  in  spite  of  these  and  other  efforts 
to  give  the  term  "  awakening  "  a  place  in  dog- 
matics, the  necessity  of  the  conception  can  not  be 
maintained.  Objectively,  it  adds  nothing  to 
"  calling,"  and,  subjectively,  it  has  no  specific  con- 
notation as  against  the  first  beginnings  of  faith 
and  "  conversion  "  in  the  old  dogmatics.  Here 
as  in  general,  the  undue  subdividing  of  the  ordo 
saliUis  is  to  be  opposed.  R.  Sbebero. 


389 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Avis 
Azymitea 


AWAKENING,  THE  GREAT.  See  Revivalb  of 
Religion. 

AXEL.    See  ABaA.LON. 

AYER,  JOSEPH  CULLEN,  JR.:  Protestant 
Episcopalian;  b.  at  Newtonville,  Mass.,  Jan.  1, 
1866.  He  was  educated  at  Harvard  University  and 
the  universities  of  Berlin,  Halle,  and  Leipsic  (Ph.D., 
1893),  and  at  the  Episcopal  Theological  School, 
Cambridge,  Mass.,  from  which  he  was  graduated 
in  1887.  He  was  honorary  fellow  at  Johns  Hop- 
kins in  189^1900,  and  in  the  following  year  was 
appointed  lecturer  on  canon  law  in  the  Cambridge 
Theological  School.  In  1905  he  was  chosen  pro- 
fessor of  ecclesiastical  history  in  the  Divinity  School 
of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  Philadelphia. 
His  theological  position  is  that  of  a  conservative 
Broad-churchman  or  a  Uberal  High-churchman. 
In  addition  to  numerous  briefer  studies  on  canon 
law,  music,  and  painting,  in  various  reviews,  and,  be- 
sides contributions  to  the  second,  third,  and  fourth 
volumes  of  The  World*8  Orators  (New  York,  1900), 
he  has  written  Die  Ethik  Joseph  Butlers  (Leipsic, 
1893)  and  The  Rise  and  Development  of  Christian 
Architecture  (Milwaukee,  1902). 

AYLMER,  61-mer  (ELMER),  JOHN:  Bishop  of 
London;  b.  at  Aylmer  Hall,  parish  of  Tivetshall  St. 
Mary  (15  m.  s.  of  Norwich),  Norfolk,  England,  1521; 
d .  in  London  Ju ne  3, 1 594 .  He  studied  at  Cambridge 
(B.A.,  1541)  and  was  tutor  to  Lady  Jane  Grey; 
was  made  Archdeacon  of  Stow  in  1553.  During 
the  reign  of  Mary  he  retired  to  Strasburg  and  Zurich, 
and  wrote  there  a  reply  to  John  Knox's  Monstrous 
Regi?nent  of  Women  (Geneva,  1558),  under  the  title 
An  Harborowe  [Harbor]  for  Faithful  and  True  Sub- 
jects against  the  late  blown  blast  concerning  the 
government  of  women  (Strasburg,  1559).  He  re- 
turned to  England  shortly  after  the  accession  of 
Elizabeth  (1558)  and  was  made  archdeacon  of 
Lincoln  in  1562,  bbhop  of  London  in  1577.  He 
was  a  somewhat  narrow-minded  man,  of  arbitrary 
and  arrogant  temper,  and  as  bishop  displayed  a 
harshness  toward  Puritans  and  Roman  Catholics 
which  brought  upon  him  much  unpopularity  and 
exposed  him  to  the  biting  satire  of  the  Marprelate 
tracts  (q.v.);  yet  he  was  a  man  of  learning  and  a 
patron  of  scholars.  Besides  the  volume  already 
mentioned  he  left  sermons  and  devotional  works. 

Biblioorapht:  The  best  book  is  by  J.  Strype,  Hittorieal 
CoUecHona  of  the  Life  and  Actt  of  John  Aylmer,  Oxford, 
1821;  S.  R.  Maitland,  Bsaayt  on  the  Reformation  in  Eng- 
land, London.  1849;  J.  Hunt,  Relioioue  Thoughi  in  Eng- 
land, i,  73-76.  London,  1870;  DNB,  u,  281-283. 

AZARIAH,  az^'a-roi'd:  King  of  Judah.  See 
UzziAH.  For  the  apocryphal  "  Prayer  of  Azariah," 
see  Apocrypha,  A,  IV,  3. 

AZAZEL  Q-z^'zel  or  a-zd'zel  (Heb.  'aza'zel): 
The  word  translated  "  scapegoat "  in  the  A. 
v.,  found  only  in  .Lev.  xvi,  in  the  legislation 
concerning  the  Day  of  Atonement,  where  the 
high  priest  is  directed  to  take  two  goats  as 
sin-offering  for  the  people,  to  choose  by  lot 
one  of  them  "  for  Yaiiweh  "  and  the  other  "  for 
Azazel  "  (ver.  8),  and  to  send  the  latter  forth  into 
the  wilderness  (ver.  10,  21-22;  see  Atonement, 
Day  of).    The  meaning  of  the  word   has   occa- 


sioned much  discussion.  Starting  from  the  fact 
that  ''  for  Yahweh  "  and  "  for  Azazel  "  stand  in 
opposition  (ver.  8),  many  think  that  it  is  the  name 
of  a  being  opposed  to  Yahweh, — a  desert-monster, 
a  demon,  or  directly  Satan.  Such  as  attempt  an 
etymological  interpretation  then  explain  it  as 
characterizing  the  demon  or  Satan  as  removed  or 
apostatized  from  God,  or  a  being  repelled  by  men 
(averruncus)f  or  one  which  does  things  apart  and 
in  secret  (from  azcU,  "  to  go  away  ")•  Others  con- 
ceive of  Azazel,  not  as  a  proper  name,  but  as  an 
appellative  noim  and  modified  redupUcated  form 
of  a  root  *azalf  "  to  remove,  retire,"  signifying  longe 
remotus  or  porro  abiens.  The  sense  of  verses  8,  10, 
and  26,  then,  is  that  the  goat  is  designated  by  the 
lot  as  an  azazel,  i.e.,  something  which  is  to  go  far 
away,  and  is  sent  into  the  wilderness  as  such;  and 
the  idea  is  expressed  symbolically  that  with  the 
sending  away  of  the  goat,  sin  has  also  been  removed 
from  the  people  for  whom  atonement  has  been 
made,  and  they  regard  themselves  as  freed  and  re- 
leased from  their  sins.  The  contrast  between  *'  for 
Yahweh"  and  "for  Azazel,"  however,  in  ver.  8 
favors  the  interpretation  of  Azazel  as  a  proper  noun, 
and  a  reference  to  Satan  suggests  itself.  It  has 
been  urged  that  nowhere  else  in  the  Pentateuch  is 
Satan  mentioned,  and  that  afterward,  when  the 
idea  of  Satan  comes  out  more  fully  in  the  conscious- 
ness of  the  Old  Testatment  congregation,  the  name 
Azazel  is  not  found.  But  it  may  be  that  Azazel — 
whatever  its  meaning  may  be — was  the  name  of  an 
old  heathen  idol  or  of  one  belonging  to  Semitic 
mythology  and  thought  of  as  the  evil  principle, 
which  older  Judaism  made  the  head  of  the  demons 
as  later  Judaism  used  the  name  of  the  PhiUstine 
Baal  Zebub.  A  definite  explanation,  satisfactory  to 
all,  can  hardly  be  looked  for.  The  name  of  Azazel, 
Uke  BeUal  and  Beelzebub,  is  transferred  from  the 
Old  Testament  language  into  the  Book  of  Enoch 
as  designation  of  a  power  of  evil.  W.  VoLCKf. 
Biblioorapht:  H.  Schults,  Old  Testament  Theology,  i,  403- 
406.  Edinburgh,  1802;  Diestel.  SetnTyphon,  Aeaeel  und 
Satan,  m  ZHT,  1860.  pp.  150  sqq.;  G.  H.  A.  von  Ewald, 
Die  Lehre  der  Bibel  von  Oott,  ii.  101-102.  Leipsic.  1874; 
Oort.  in  ThT,  x  (1876).  150-155;  S.  R.  Driver,  in  Expoeitor, 
1885.  pp.  214-217;  Nowack.  ArehHologie,  u,  186-187; 
Beniinger.  ArchOdogie,  p.  478;  DB,  U  207-208;  EB,  i, 
304-308;  consult  also  the  commentaries  on  Leviticus.  For 
ethnic  analogies  of.  J.  G.  Fraser,  Golden  Bought  ii,  18-10, 
London,  1000. 

AZYMITES,  Q-zim'oits  (Gk.  azymitai,  from 
a-privative  and  zymi,  "  leaven  ") :  An  epithet  given 
by  the  Greek  Church  to  the  Latin  Church  from  the 
eleventh  century,  because  the  latter  uses  unleav-  ' 
ened  bread  in  the  Lord's  Supper.  Michael  Cseru- 
larius.  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  (q.v.),  in  1053 
attacked  the  practise  of  the  Western  Church,  de- 
claring their  Eucharist  worthless  because  unleav- 
ened bread  was  Ufeless  and  powerless.  A  hot  con- 
test ensued  in  which  the  Latins  maintained  that 
either  leavened  or  unleavened  bread  could  be  used; 
they  retaliated  upon  their  opponents  with  the 
epithets  fermentarii  or  fermentacei  (from  Lat.  fer- 
mentumy  "leaven")  and  proztfmitai  (from  Gk. 
pro/*  for,"and  zymi).  The  Council  of  Florence  (1439) 
decreed  that  each  cihurch  must  follow  its  own  cus- 
tom, and  for  the  Latin  Church  to  change  would  be 
grievous  sin.    See  Lord's  Supper. 


Baader 
Baal 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


890 


B 


BAADER,  b&Mer,  FRANZ  XAVER VON:  Roman 
Catholic  philosopher;  b.  at  Munich  Mar.  27,  1765; 
d.  there  May  23,  1841.  He  studied  and  practised 
medicine,  afterward  became  a  mining  engineer, 
and,  after  a  visit  to  England  (1791-96),  held  of- 
ficial positions  in  the  Bavarian  department  of 
mines.  In  1826  he  became  professor  of  philosophy 
and  speculative  theology  at  Munich.  In  1838, 
having  opposed  the  interference  of  the  Church  in 
civil  affairs,  he  was  forbidden  to  lecture  on  religion 
and  thenceforth  confined  himself  to  psychology 
and  anthropology.  He  was  an  original  and  sug- 
gestive thinker,  and  exercised  considerable  influ- 
ence on  his  own  and  the  succeeding  generation,  al- 
though the  aphoristic  and  paradoxical  form  in  which 
he  presented  his  thought  often  makes  it  difficult 
to  understand  him.  He  sought  for  a  deep  and 
true  understanding  of  Christianity,  always  with 
the  conviction  that  ''  the  legitimate  organs  had 
lost  the  key."  A  tendency  toward  individual 
judgment  caused  the  Roman  Catholics  to  reject 
him  as  one  of  their  philosophers;  he  considered 
the  papacy  an  equivocal  institution  not  essential 
to  the  Church,  and  contrasted  the  Eastern  and 
Western  Churches  unfavorably  to  the  latter  (in 
Der  morgerUdndiache  und  der  aberuUdndische  Katho- 
licismua,  Stuttgart,  1841).  At  the  same  time  he 
was  a  theosophist  rather  than  a  philosopher  or 
theologian,  and  sought  the  lost  key  in  the  mystical 
speculations  of  Eckhart,  St.  Martin,  and  BOhme; 
hence  he  was  equally  out  of  sympathy  with 
the  rationalistic  tendencies  of  nineteenth  century 
theology.  His  system  is  set  forth  in  his  FermerUa 
cogniticmis  (parts  i-v,  Berlin,  1822-24;  part  vi, 
Leipsic,  1825)  and  Vorlesungen  iiber  spekulative 
Dogmatik  (part  i,  Stuttgart,  1828;  parts  ii-v. 
Monster,  1830-38).  His  works,  collected  and  edited 
by  his  scholars  (Franz  Hoffmann,  Hamberger, 
Eknil  von  Schaden,  Lutterbeck,  von  Osten,  SchlU- 
ter),  appeared  in  16  vols.,  Leipsic,  1851-60;  vol. 
XV  contains  a  biography  by  Hoffmann. 

Biblioorapht:  C.  P.  Faacher.  Zur  hundertj&hrioen  Geburta- 
feier  F.  von  Baadem,  Leipaic,  1865;  J.  Hamberger, 
Cctrdinalpunkte  der  baadertchen  Philoaophie,  Stuttgart, 
1855;  idem,  Fundamentalbegriffe  von  F.  Baaders  Ethik, 
Politik  und  ReligionaphiloBophie,  ib.  1866;  C.  A.  Thilo, 
BeUucMung  des  Angrifft  des  F.  Baader,  in  Theoloffiairende 
Rechta-  und  StaaUlehre,  Leipsic,  1861;  O.  Goepp,  Eaeai  eur 
F.  de  Baader,  Strasburg,  1862. 

BAAL. 

Various  Forma  of  the  Name  (5  1). 
Meaning  and  Use  of  the  Name  ({  2). 
The  Conception  of  Baal  ({  3). 
Special  Baals  in  the  Old  Testament  (S  4). 
The  Baal-cult  in  Israel  (J  6). 
Ceremonies  of  the  Baal- worship  ({  6). 

Baal  is  frequently  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment as  a  god  of  the  idolatrous  Israelites,  as 
well  as  of  the  Phenicians,  Philistines,  and  Moab- 
ites  (?).  The  name  also  occurs  in  a  proper  name 
of  the  Edomites,  in  Phenician  and  Aramaic  in- 
scriptions, in  Greek  and  Roman  authors  (Baal, 
Bal),  in  the  Septuagint  and  writings  dependent  on 
it,  and  in  Josephus.    Greek  and  Latin  writers  for 


the  most  part  speak  of  Bsl,  BUos,  Bd  as  a  Babylo- 
nian as  well  as  a  Syrian  and  Phenician  god.    The 
form  Bal  is  more  frequently  found  in  composite 
Phenician  proper  names  as  Abibalos, 

1.  Various  Hannibal,  etc.,  according  to  which  the 
Forms  of  Phenicians  pronounced  the  name  of 
the  Name,  the  god  ha'l  (cf.  P.  Schroder,  Dieph&nir 

zische  Sprache,  Halle,  1869,  p.  84). 
The  Phenicians  carried  their  religion  wherever  they 
went,  and  thus  the  worship  of  Baal  was  very  widely 
spread.  Even  the  Semitic  Hyksos  in  Egypt, 
according  to  Egyptian  testimony,  worshiped  the 
god  Bar  {=Ba*al;  cf.  E.  Meyer,  Sei-Typhm, 
Leipsic,  1875,  p.  47,  and  ZDMG,  xxxi,  1877,  p.  725; 
W.  Max  MOller,  Asien  und  Europa  nach  aUdgyp- 
iischen  Denkmdlem,  Leipsic,  1893,  p.  309). 

There  can  be  no  doubt  of  the  identity  of  the 
names  Ba*al  and  Bel,  the  Babylonian  god  mentioned 
in  the  Old  Testament,  the  BH  or  BUo8  of  the  Greeks, 
i.e.,  the  Assyrian  Bdu  (Bilu)  contracted  from  Be'el, 
which  is  modified  from  Ba*al  by  the  influence  of 
the  guttural.  In  an  Esarhaddon  inscription  fil-Bd 
{"  Baal  is  protection  ")  is  the  name  of  a  king  of 
Haziti,  i.e.,  of  Gaza  (E.  Schrader,  Keilinschriften 
und  Geschichtsforschung,  Giessen,  1878,  pp.  78-79), 
where  Bd  is  evidently  used  for  the  Canaanitic 
Baal.  The  "  hoi  "  in  the  names  of  the  Palmyrene 
deities  AgUbol  and  Yaribol  (and  "bd"  in  Malak- 
bel)  may  be  still  another  form  of  Baal. 

The  Hebrew  word  ba*al  means  "owner*  or 
"lord,"  also  "  husband,''  as  possessor  of  the  wife. 
The  names  of  Semitic  divinities  all  set  forth  the 
idea  of  power,  and  thus  present  a  conception 
different  from  that  of  the  Aryan  divinities  (cf.  A. 
Deissman,  in  The  Expository  Times,  xviii,  205  sqq.). 
Furthermore,  it  has  been  disputed  whether  ba*al 
in  the  sense  of  "  lord  "  was  an  epithet 

2,  Meaning  of  honor  attached  to  divinity  in  gen- 
and  Use  of  eral,  or  was  given  as  a  proper  name 
the  Name,  to  a  definite  local  god.     In  favor  of 

the  latter  supposition  is  the  fact  that 
there  was  a  Baal  of  Tyre,  a  Baal  of  Sidon,  a 
Baal  of  Harran,  a  Baal  of  Tarsus,  and  so  on. 
When  in  later  times  many  such  local  deities  were 
worshiped  in  close  proximity,  the  name  "  Baar'desg- 
nated  the  principal  god  of  a  place;  for  he  alone 
could  there  be  called  the  owner  or  lord.  From 
this  can  be  explained  the  later  confusion  between 
the  Canaanitic  Baal  and  the  Babylonian  Bel,  also 
the  fact  that  Baal  was  called  Zeus  by  the  Greeks 
and  Jupiter  by  the  Romans.  When  ba'al  occurs 
in  the  Old  Testament  with  the  article,  this  does 
not  prove  that  there  was  a  special  god  called 
Baal;  it  shows  only  that  ba^al  appears  in  the  (Hd 
Testament  not  as  a  proper  name  but  rather  as  an 
appellative  noun.  The  use  of  the  article  in  the 
Old  Testament  can  be  explained  from  this,  that 
in  cases  where  the  Old  Testament  speaks  of  an 
actual  Baal-cult,  some  one  Baal  among  the  many 
is  meant;  the  later  Old  Testament  usage,  especially 
that  of  Jeremiah,  employed  "  the  baal "  in  the 
sense  of  "  the  idol." 
If  Baal  were  merely  the  designation  of  some  god 


391 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


as  owner  of  a  place  of  worship  or  the  honorary 
title  of  a  god,  an  inquiry  into  the  common  meaning 
of  the  word  would  not  be  necessary.  But  such  an  in- 
quiry is  suggested  by  the  statements  concerning 
the  Baals  of  different  places.  From  the  Arabic 
appellative  meaning  of  the  word  ba'l  it  has  been 
supposed  that  in  places  naturally  irrigated  the 
deity  was  worshiped  as  the  Baal  of  that  place. 
According  to  Hoeea  (ii,  15),  the  idola- 
3.  The  Con-  trous  Israelites  imagined  that  the 
caption  of  gods  worshiped  by  them,  whom  the 
BaaL  prophet  .otherwise  calls  'Hhe  Baals," 
were  the  authors  of  the  good  things 
of  nature.  Sacred  springs  are  also  found  in  places 
where  the  Tynan  Heracles  was  worshiped.  But 
this  does  not  necessarily  imply  that  some  special 
terrestrial  notion  must  be  connected  with  Baal. 
It  is  easy  to  understand  how  among  an  agricultural 
people  like  the  Canaanites  the  god  of  heaven  could 
be  conceived  as  god  of  agriculture,  for  the  field 
can  not  produce  without  the  blessing  of  heaven. 
But  it  is  possible  that  in  different  Baal-cults  a 
terrestrial  idea  and  the  conception  of  Baal  as  heaven- 
god,  at  first  distinct  and  separate,  afterward  grew  to- 
gether, as  in  the  case  of  Astarte  (see  Ashtoreth). 
It  is  erroneous  to  assert  that  every  individual  god 
who  had  the  name  of  Baal  was  worshiped  as  lord 
of  heaven;  still  more  so  to  hold  that  each  was 
specially  worshiped  as  a  sun-god,  or  that  Baal  was 
everywhere  and  at  all  times  so  represented. 

While  there  is  no  evidence  of  the  solar  meaning 
of  Baal,  it  is  certain  that  the  Phenicians  at 
times  attributed  to  their  Baal  or  Baals  some 
solar  characteristics.  As  generally  in  the  Phenician 
deities,  beneficent  and  destructive  powers  were  not 
separated  but  were  represented  as  being  combined 
in  one  and  the  same  deity,  so  it  was  with  Baal, 
so  far  at  least  as  both  powers  were  thought  of  as 
proceeding  from  heaven  or  more  particularly  from 
the  Sim.  That  Baal  bestows  natural  blessing, 
has  been  seen  above.  Names  like  Hannibal "  grace 
of  Baal,"  Asdmbal  "Baal  helps,"  Baal-ahama 
"  Baal  hears,"  Baalshamar  "  Baal  keeps,"  and  the 
Uke,  designate  him  as  a  benevolent  god.  That 
human  sacrifices  were  offered  to  Baal  can  not  be 
inferred  from  the  Old  Testament.  The  passages 
Jer.  xix,  5;  xxxii,  35  speak  of  children  who  were 
offered  to  Moloch,  and  the  Baal  mentioned  there 
is  only  a  general  designation  of  the  idol.  That  the 
Baal-prophets  cut  themselves  in  the  service  of  their 
god  (I  Kings  xviii,  28)  can  not  be  regarded  as  a 
substitute  for  human  sacrifice.  The  representative 
animal  of  Baal  was  the  bull,  which  also  represented 
the  ancient  god  of  the  Hebrews. 

Certain  Baals  are  named  in  the  Old  Testament 
with  epithets  which  designate  them  more  exactly: 

(a)  Baal-BerUh,  worshiped  by  the  Shechemites 
(Judges  ix,  4;  cf.  verse  46;  viii,  33),  denotes 
probably  the  protector  of  a  definite  covenant  or 
"  the  Baal  before  whom  agreements  are  made." 

(b)  Baal-Peor  (Num.  xxv,  3,  5;  Deut.  iv,  3; 
Hos.  ix,  10;  Ps.  cvi,  28),  also  simply  Peor  (Num. 
xxv,  18;  xxxi,  16;  Josh,  xirii,  17;  cf.  the  name 
of  a  Moabite  city  Beth-Peor,  "  temple  of  Peor," 
Deut.  iii,  29;  iv,  46;  xxxiv,  6;  Josh,  xiii,  20),  was 
a  god  of  the  Moabites  (Num.  xxv,  1-5)  or  of  the 


Midianites  (Num.  xxv,  18,  xxxi,  16),  worshiped  on 
Mount  Peor,  where  the  Israelites  committed  whore- 
dom with  the  daughters  of  Moab  (Num.  xxv,  1)  or 
Midian  (Num.  xxv,  8).  (c)  Baal-Zebub,  see  Beelze- 
bub. Certain  place-names  compounded  with  Baal 
(not  necessarily  all,  cf.  II  Sam.  v,  20)  were  orig- 
inally god-names,  the  word  bdh  ("  temple  ")  being 

understood  in  the  place-name.    Baals 

4.  Special  known  from  such  place-names  are:  (d) 

Baals  in    BaalrGad  (Josh,  xi,  17;  xii,  7;  xiii,  5), 

the  Old     the  "  fortune-bringing  Baal."  Gad  (Isa. 

Testament  Ixv,  11;  perhaps  also  Gen.  xxx,   11) 

occurs  independently  as  a  name  of 
a  deity  (see  Gad),  (e)  BaaJ^Hermon  (Judges  iii,  3; 
I  Chron.  v,  23),  usually  identified  with  Baal-Gad, 
the  designation  of  the  Baal  worshiped  on  Moimt  Her- 
mon.  (f )  Baal^Meon  (Num.  xxxii,  38;  Ezek.  xxv,  9; 
I  Chron.  v,  8),  the  god  of  a  Moabite  (Reubenite) 
city,  the  full  name  of  which  reads  Beth-Baal-Meon 
(Josh,  xiii,  17),  contracted  into  Beth-Meon  (Jer. 
xlviii,  23),  i.e.,  "  temple  of  the  Baal  of  Meon."  (g) 
It  is  possible  that  BaaLZephon  (Exod.  xiv,  2, 9;  Nimi. 
xxxiii,  7),  the  name  of  a  station  of  the  Israelites  on 
the  Red  Sea,  belongs  here.  Zephon,  or  more  cor- 
rectly Zaphon,  is  known  as  a  god-name  from  Egyp- 
tian, Phenician,  Carthaginian,  and  Assyrian  inscrip- 
tions. Baal-Tamar,  a  place  mentioned  in  Judg.  xx,  «33, 
may  also  be  derived  from  the  name  of  a  god,  and 
Baal-Hamon  (Song  of  Sol.  viii,  11),  Baal-Hazor 
(II  Sam.  xiii,  23),  Baal-Perazim  (II  Sam.  v,  20), 
and  Baal-Shalisha  (I  Sam.  ix,  4;  II  Kings  iv,  42) 
were  probably  designations  of  local  deities,  of  whom 
nothing  is  known. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that,  in  ancient  times, 
the  Hebrews  called  their  god  the  Baal,  whether 
they  used  this  name  to  designate  Yahweh,  or  a 

special   Baal   worshiped   beside  him. 

5.  The  Baal-  The  latter  can   not  be   proved;    the 

cult  in      former  is  indicated  by   names  of  the 

IsraeL      Davidic  time  compounded  with  Baal. 

The  worship  of  the  Canaanite  Baals 
in  opposition  to  the  Yahweh-worship  had  many 
adherents  among  the  Israelites  as  early  as  the 
time  of  the  Judges  (Judges  ii,  11,  13;  iii,  7;  vi, 
25  sqq.;  x,  6;  I  Sam.  vii,  4;  xii,  10).  There  is  no 
proof  that  the  Hebrews  upon  their  settlement  in 
Canaan  adopted  the  Baal-cult  practised  there, 
but  the  fact  can  hardly  be  doubted.  The  earUest 
certainty  comes  from  the  time  of  King  Ahab  of 
Israel,  who,  influenced  by  his  Phenician  wife, 
introduced  the  Phenician  Baal-worship,  erecting 
a  Baal-temple  in  Samaria  and  appointing  a 
niunerous  priesthood  (I  Kings  xvi,  31-32;  xviii, 
19).  Elijah  (q.v.)  vigorously  opposed  this  idolatrous 
cult  (I  Kings  xviii).  Jehoram,  Ahab's  son,  put 
away  a  Bflual-colunm  erected  by  his  father  (II 
Kings  iii,  2),  but  did  not  extirpate  the  cult. 
Jehu  abolished  the  worship  of  the  Phenician  god 
(II  Kings  X,  21-28).  But  in  the  eighth  century 
the  prophet  Hosea  speaks  of  Baal-worship  as  exist- 
ing in  Israel  without  stating  which  "  Baal "  or 
'*  Baals  "  are  meant.  Of  the  Baal-cult  in  Judah 
we  know  only  that  it  was  abolished  imder  the 
influence  of  Jehoiada  the  priest  (II  Kings  xi,  18). 
Probably  under  the  influence  of  Athaliah,  grand- 
mother of  Joash  and  daughter  of  the  Phenician 


Baba 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


899 


Jezebel,  Baal-worship  had  been  introduced  into 
Judah  (cf.  II  Chron.  xxiv,  7);  this  Baal  was  no 
doubt  Melkart  of  Tyre.  Not  much  reliance  can 
be  placed  upon  the  statement  (II  Chron.  xxviii,  2) 
that  Ahaz  worshiped  the  Baals  (but  cf.  II  Kings 
xvi,  3-^).  In  the  statement  (II  Kings  xxi,  3) 
that  Manasseh  reared  up  altars  ''  for  Baal  ** 
(better  "  for  the  Baals "),  Baal  may  be  a  gen- 
eral term  for  idol.  Whenever  Jeremiah  speaks 
of  the  Baal  (ii,  8;  vii,  9;  xi,  13;  xxii,  29),  he 
generally  means  "  the  idol  "  (so  also  II  Kings 
xvii,  16),  which  is  especially  evident  from  II 
Kings  xi,  13  (cf.  "  the  Baals,"  ii,  23;  ix,  14). 
In  Zephaniah,  too  (i,  4),  in  "  the  renmant  of  Baal  " 
the  word  Baal  is  equivalent  to  "  idolatry."  In 
the  time  of  Jeremiah  the  idolatrous  Judeans  wor- 
shiped the  sun,  the  moon,  and  the  host  of  heaven. 
All  these  powers  Jeremiah  calls  *'  the  Baal  "  or  "  the 
shameful  thing  "  (Jer.  xi,  13).  The  name  Baal  was  so 
obnoxious  to  the  later  scribes  that  they  substituted 
for  it  the  word  hoshethy  "  shame,"  a  word  used  as 
early  as  Jeremiah;  and  the  Alexandrian  Jews,  as 
Dillmann  has  shown,  read  in  their  Greek  text  the 
word  aischynS  instead  of  Baalf  which  explains  the 
use  of  the  feminine  article  before  Baal  (cf.  Dill- 
mann, Ueber  Baal  mU  dem  weiblichen  Artikel,  in  the 
MonaUberichie  der  Akademie  der  Wisaenschaften  zu 
Berlin,  phil.-hist.  Klasse,  1881). 

For  the  mode  of  worship  in  Israel  reference  can 
be  made  only  to  those  passages  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment  in   which   Baal-worship   is   undoubtedly  to 
be  understood  as  the  cult  of  the  Phenician  god. 
He  was  worshiped  with  sacrifices  and  burnt  offer- 
ings (II  Edngs  X,  24)  especially  of  bul- 
6.  Ceremo-  locks  (I  Kings  xviii,  23),  and  by  kiss- 
nies  of  the  ing  his  images  (I  Kings  xix,  18).     In 

Baal-wor-  the  Baal-temple  of  Samaria  the  pillar 
ship.  of  Baal  was  of  stone  (II  Kings  x, 
27).  Usually  a  Baal  was  worshiped 
in  conjunction  with  Astarte  (Judges  ii,  13;  x,  6; 
I  Sam.  vii,  4;  xii,  10).  A  Baal-altar  with  an 
Asherah  is  mentioned  in  Judges  vi,  25.  Accord- 
ing to  II  Chron.  xxxiv,  4,  the  hammanim  or  sun 
images  stood  on  or  beside  the  altars  of  Baal.  When 
the  statement  is  made  that  incense  was  offered 
upon  the  roofs  to  the  Baal  (Jer.  xxxii,  29;  cf.,  on 
the  "  burning  of  incense "  to  the  Baal  in  general, 
Jer.  vii,  9;  xi,  13),  not  Baal- worship,  but  wor- 
ship of  the  stars  is  meant  (Jer.  xix,  13;  Zeph. 
i,  5;  cf.  II  Kings  xxiii,  12).  In  the  time  of 
Ahab  there  were  many  priests  and  prophets  (about 
450)  of  Baal  (II  Kings  x,  19;  I  Kings  xviii, 
19).  The  prophets  worshiped  the  god  by  leaping 
around  the  altar  (I  Kings  xviii,  26)  and  by  cutting 
themselves  with  knives  and  lances  (verse  28). 
The  leaping  appears  to  have  been  a  means  of  in- 
ducing the  trance-state  (verse  29),  it  may  also 
have  been  a  part  of  the  cult.  The  "  vestry " 
mentioned  II  Kings  x,  22  probably  belonged  to  the 
royal  palace,  and  was  not  intended  for  the  official 
robes  of  the  priests.  See  Asherah  ;  Ashtoreth; 
High  Place. 
Bibliookapht:  Smith,    Rel.    of    Sent.,  pp.    93-113    (best); 

J.  Selden.  DediaSj/ris.  London,  1617;  F.  Munter,  Religion 

der  KarthoQer,  pp.  5-61.  Copenhagen,  1821;  F.  C.  Movers. 

Die  Phdnizier,  i.  169-190.  264-321,  385-498.  Bonn,  1841; 

R.  Rochette,  L'Hercule  Aaeyrien  et  PfUnicien,  in  Mimoires 


de  VacadSmie  de*  %n»criptuni»  et  bdlea-leUres^  new  Behm, 
▼ol.  xviii,  part  2  (1848).  9-374;  D.  Chwolsohn,  DimSmMm, 
ii,  165-171,  Leipsio.  1856;  L.  Diestel.  i  JahrhiUiur  fur 
deuUche  Theologie,  1860,  pp.  719-734;  H.  Ck>rt.  The  War- 
%hip  of  Baalim  in  larael,  from  the  Dutch  by  Coleos  .  Loo- 
don,  1865;  E.  Schrader,  Baal  and  Bel,  in  T8  ,  1874.  pp. 
335-343;  W.  W.  Baudiaain.  Jahve  et  MoUkK,  pp.  14-41. 
Leipaio.  1874;  B.  Stade,  in  ZATW,  vi  (1886).  303^-306; 
F.  Baethgen.  BeitrOge  mr  eemitiechen  RelioumatfeaekM^ 
pp.  17-29,  Gdttin«en,  1888;  R.  Pietachmann.  Pk^nixitr, 
182  aqq.,  Berlin,  1889;  Benainger.  ArchOoloaie,  oooaalt 
Index;  Nowack.  ArckOalooie,  ii.  301-305;  E.  Sachau.  Baalr 
Harran  in  einer  aliaram&iedien  IneckrifU  in  SiizunQtbenMt 
der  Berliner  Akademie,  1895,  pp.  119-122;  F.  Visouroux. 
Lea  Pretrea  de  Baal,  in  Revue  Biblique,  part  2,  1806.  227- 
240;  DB,  i,  209-211;  £B.  i,  401-409;  H.  Gunkd.  Eliaa, 
Jahve,  und  Baal,  TObingen,  1907. 

On  Baal-Peor:  E.  Kautsaoh  and  A.  Socin,  Die  Aedd- 
?ieit  der  moabitiachen  AUerthUmer  geprUft,  pp.  09-77,  Stn»> 
burg.  1876;  W.  Baudiasin.  Studien  ewr  eemitiecken  Re- 
lioumageachichie,  ii,  232,  Leipaio.  1878;  F.  Baetbgen,  Bei- 
>triioe  zur  aemitiacKen  ReHgtonageadiidite,  pp.  14-15,  261. 
Gdttingen.  1888.  On  Aglibol  and  Malachbel:  Lajard, 
Recherchea  aur  le  etUte  de  Cyprta,  in  MSmoirea  de  raeadeem 
dea  inacripHona  ei  beUea-lettrea,  new  aeriea,  vol.  xx,  part 
2  (1854).  39-40;  Levy,  in  ZDMO,  xviii  (1864),  99-103: 
M.  de  VogH^,  Syrie  centrale,  inacripHona  ahniUquea,  1868. 
pp.  62-65.  On  Baal  in  Hebrew  proper  names:  Geiger. 
in  ZDMO,  xvi  (1862).  728-732;  E.  Neatle.  Die  ieraeHHadu 
Eigennamen  und  ihre  rdigionageadiichUiche  Bede%Uung, 
Leipsic,  1876;  G.  B.  Gray,  Studiea  in  Hebrew  Proper 
Namea,  London,  1896. 

BAALBEK,  bal"bek':  A  city  of  Coele-Syria, 
celebrated  for  its  magnificence  in  the  first  centuries 
of  the  Christian  era,  and  famous  ever  since  for  its 
ruins.     It  is  situated  on  a  plain  near  the  foot  of 

the  Anti-Lebanus  range,  about  forty 

Location      miles    northwest    of    Damascus,    and 

and  His-      3,800  feet  above  sea-level.     Its  earlier 

tory.  name  was  Baalbek,  "  City  of  Baal/' 

changed  under  the  Seleucidse  to  Heli- 
opolis.  In  Egypt  there  was  a  Heliopolis  (also 
called  On;  see  On),  and  the  plausible  supposition 
has  been  offered  that  these  two  places  were  of  cofat- 
mon  origin.  In  proof,  the  saying  of  the  author  of 
De  dea  Syria,  that  in  the  great  temple  of  Heliopolis 
an  antique  idol  was  worshiped  which  had  been 
brought  from  Egypt,  is  quoted,  and  also  the  state- 
ment of  Macrobius  in  his  Saturnalia^  that  the  statue 
of  Jupiter  HeliopoUtanus  came  from  Egypt.  Sup- 
porting this  is  the  judgment  of  C.  A.  Rich,  quoted 
below,  that  the  substructure  of  the  ruins  at  Baalbek 
is  Egyptian,  at  least  in  part.  It  was  only  after 
Baalbek  was  made  a  Roman  colony,  under  the 
name  Colonia  Julia  Augusta  Felix  Heliopolitanay 
that  it  became  a  place  of  importance.  It  can  not 
be  identified  satisfactorily  with  any  Bible  locality. 
It  is  mentioned  by  Josephus  (Ant.,  XIV,  iii,  2), 
PHny  (Hist,  nat.,  v,  22),  and  Ptolemy;  and  coins 
of  the  city  have  been  found  of  almost  all  the  em- 
perors from  Nerva  to  Gallienus. 

Baalbek  contains  ruins  of  three  temples:  of  the 
sun,  of  Jupiter,  and  a  small  one  of  Venus;  also  of  a 
Christian  basiUca.  The  first  is  attributed  to 
Antoninus  Pius  (138-161)  by  John  Malala  (c.  525- 
600);  only  six  columns  and  their  entablature  and 
the  substructure  remain.    The  walls  of  the  temple 

of  Jupiter  are  standing,  but  the  roof  is 
The  Ruins,    gone.    C.  A.  Rich,  who  examined  the 

ruins  in  1894,  says  (American  Architect, 
xlvii,  1895,  pp.  3  sqq.)  that  the  substructure  of 
the  whole,  at  least  in  part,  is  Egyptian,  while  the 


393 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Baal 
Baba 


beveled  masonry  under  the  peristyle  of  the  t^imple 
of  the  Bun  is  Pheiiician*  The  Germans,  who  have 
in  hMid  the  examination  of  Baalbek,  have  made 
out  that  a  great  altar,  thought  at  6i^t  to  be  cut 
from  the  living  rock  and  pieced  out  with  masonry, 
but  subsequently  discovered  to  be  wholly  of  ma- 
fionry,  ii  the  center  of  tho  entire  group.  This  was 
surrounded  by  a  series  of  walla  built  up  ^o  as  to 
allow  the  superpoaition  of  a  platform  level  with 
the  base  of  the  altar^  forming  the  fioor  of  the  great 
court.  On  the  east,  west,  and  north  sides,  these 
walls  were  employed  to  make  passages  and  chain*' 
bers  beneath  the  platform.  To  the  east  of  the  plat- 
form was  a  hexagonal  courts  giving  aceesa  to  the 
great  court,  while  to  the  west  was  the  great  temple 
of  the  sun. 

The  temple  of  Jupiter  is  to  the  south  of  the  west 
end  of  the  great  court.,  distant  about  fifty  feet 
from  the  aouth  wall  of  the  latter.  Around  this 
court  on  three  sides,  also  around  the  hexagonal 
court,  was  carried  a  lofty  peristyle  on  a  stylobate 
of  three  steps.  Four  sides  of  the  hexagonal  court 
held  chapels,  the  other  two  sides  being  given  to  the 
entrances  to  the  courts.  The  nort^h  and  south 
sides  of  the  great  court  held  ^tcb  three  chapels 
and  two  niches,  most  richly  elaborated ^  the  east 
side  having  two,  one  on  each  side  of  the  entrance. 
On  the  floor  of  the  great  court  on  the  north  and  the 
south  sides  of  the  altar  were  two  targe  basins^ 
unfinished^  two  and  a  half  feet  deep,  with  waUs 
paneled  on  the  outside,  the  panels  decofated  with 
genii  and  festooned  flow^era.  Clear  traces  of  a 
Christian  basilica  have  been  found  on  the  great 
platform,  the  great  altar  being  the  center,  while 
the  hne  of  the  eastern  wall  of  the  temple  of  the  sun 
is  conterminous  with  the  west  wall  of  the  basilica. 
The  floor  of  the  latter  was  seven  and  a  half  feet 
above  the  court  pavement,  thus  preserving  intact 
the  grrmt  altar,  which  was  built  over. 

Of  the  temple  of  the  sun  the  two  most  marked 
features,  long  kno\Mi,  w^re  the  six  great  columns 
with  their  entablature  and  the  three  megalitha  at 
the  west  end,  two  of  the  ktter  measuring  sixty- 
three  feet  long  by  thirteen  square,  and  sixty-four 
feet  long  by  fourteen  square.  Another  stono 
still  lies  in  the  quarry  near-by  cut  out 
The  Great  from  the  rock,  and  measurea  sixty- 
Stones,  nine  and  a  quarter  feet  long  by  four- 
teen square.  The  colunms,  of  which 
there  were  originally  fifty-eight,  nineteen  at  each 
wde  and  ten  at  each  end,  were  seventy- five  feet 
in  height  with  a  diameter  of  seven  and  a  quarter 
feet,  and  the  entablature  was  fourteen  feet  in 
height.  These  columns  supported  the  roof.  The 
use  of  the  megaliths  was  only  recently  discovered. 
It  now  appears  that  they  were  carried  around  the 
south  side  of  the  base  of  the  temple,  and  it  is  possible 
that  they  will  l:>e  found  on  the  other  sides  as  well. 
It  appears  that  the  temple  was  built  on  an  arti^cial 
mound  of  earth,  and  that  the  great  stones  were 
employed  to  sustain  this  mass.  The  order  of 
architecture  is  the  Corinthian,  with  all  the  elabora- 
tion to  which  that  style  so  easily  lends  itself.  The 
floor  area  of  the  temple  of  the  sun  was  approxi- 
mately 290  feet  by  160, 
The  temple  of  Jupiter,  oka  of  the  Corinthian 


order,  227  by  1 17  feet,  was  8urroun<lpd  by  a  peristyle 
of  forty-two  plain  columns,  while  ten  fluted  ones 
were  in  the  vestibule.  The  entablature  was  of 
very  profuse  and  rich  ornamentation. 

The  whole  was  reached  from  the  east  by  a  mag- 
nificent  flight  of  steps  no  longer  standing,  150  feet 
in  breadth.  The  scope  of  the  entire  group  of 
structures  may  be  judg^  from  the  fact  that  from 
the  east  porch  of  the  hexagonal  court  to  the  west 
wall  of  the  temple  of  the  sun  is  £^00  feet,  while  the 
breadth  of  the  great  court  was  400  feet. 

In  connection  with  resent  study  of  these  ruina 
two  inten^ting  questions  have  boen  answered. 
On  the  soffit  of  the  temple  of  the  sun,  now  hidden 
by  the  braces  sustaining  it,  is  a  figure  in  relief  of 
an  eagle  carrying  in  his  talons  a  caducous  and  in 
his  beak  a  garland ,  t  he  ends  of  which  are  held  by  two 
putti.  It  is  believed  that  the  eagle  represents 
Jupiter,  the  caducous  Mercury,  and  the  putti 
represent  the  evening  and  morning  star,  i.e,,  Vemis, 
all  of  whom  received  womhip  at  the  place.  Mr. 
Rich  in  the  article  cited  ahow^s  that  great  masses  like 
the  megaliths  were  moved  by  a  sort  of  crane, 
V-shaped,  socketed  on  metal,  to  one  end  of  which 
was  attached  a  cradle  in  which  stones  were  put 
until  the  mass  to  be  moved  was  counterbalanced. 

Geo.  W.  Gilmore. 
Bibuooaai'St:  Wood  and  Di^wkin*  Th€  Ruin^  of  BaUtect 
Londdn,  175?  <ettik  very  valuable);  E,  liobiiuoti,  Lai^ 
Biblical  i?eJi«ircA*s.  605-527,  New  York.  ISSfi;  W.  M, 
ThoniHon,  The  Land  and  the  B&ok^  lii.  New  Yotk,  ISS6; 
H.  Frauberjff^ft  Bit  AkropaiU  von  BaaibdSt  Frankfort^ 
1892;  C,  A.  Eich,  iti  American  Arehiteet,  xlvti  (1805).  3 
aqq.;  M.  M.  Alouf,  OeachidiUf  Baalhek^,  Prague.  1896;  Jahr- 
tuck  ditB  kaitcrlichen  deultchen  arcA^ial&giichen  Initittitt^, 
xvi  U901),  133-160.  xvii  (1002),  87-123;  Biblia.  March. 
1903,  387-393;  Amarimn  Journal  of  Archmoloffy,  n«w 
mrUA,  iH  (1902).  34g~349,  vii  (1003).  364,  iriii  il&Oi); 
PEF,  Qaarttrltf  Staiemenit,  Jun,,  19(H.  58-^.  July,  1905, 
262-266. 

BAASHA,  b^*'a-sba:  Third  king  of  Israel,  952- 
930  B.c,  according  to  the  old  chronology  j  925-901, 
Duncker;  90^886,  Hommel;  914-891,  Kams>- 
hau^ii.  He  was  the  son  of  Ahijah  of  the  tribe  of 
Issachar,  apparently  of  a  family  of  little  repute, 
but  probably  ra-^i*  to  be  a  commander  in  the  army. 
When  Nadab,  king  of  Israel,  was  besieging  the 
Philistine  city  of  Gibbethon,  Baasha  conspired 
against  him,  slew  him^  and  then  procoeded  to 
establish  himself  on  the  throne  by  a  massacre  of 
the  entire  house  of  Jeroboam.  His  residence  waa 
at  Tirzah,  where  he  was  also  buried.  He  under- 
took to  fortify  Ramah,  on  the  frontier  between 
Israel  and  Judab,  two  hours  north  of  Jerusalem, 
thus  menacing  the  southern  kingdom,  but  desisted 
on  hearing  that  Benhadad  of  Damascus  had  in- 
vaded northern  Israel  instigated  by  Asa,  king  of 
Judah  (q,v,).  Whether  he  resisted  Benhadad  or 
made  terms  with  him  is  not  stated,  but  the  cities 
which  the  latter  is  said  to  have  captured  were  later 
in  Israera  possession  (II  Kings  xv,  29).  The 
religious  condition  of  Israel  under  Baosha  remained 
as  imder  his  two  predecessors.  His  history  is 
found  in  I  Kings  xv,  16-22,  27-34;  xvi,  1-6. 

(W,  LoTz,) 
Bibuoqk^fbt:  CodouH  the  works  raentioiied  uadw  Abab. 

BABA;  BABABATRA;  BABA  KAHMA;  BABA 
MEZIA.     See  Talmud. 


Baboock 
BabiBm 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


894 


BABCOCK,  MALTBIE  DAVENPORT:  Presby- 
terian; b.  in  Sjrracuse,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  3,  1858;  d.  in 
Naples,  Italy,  May  18,  1901.  He  was  graduated 
at  Syracuse  University,  1879,  and  from  Auburn 
Theological  Seminary,  1882;  he  became  pastor  of  the 
First  Presbyterian  Church,  Lockport,  N.  Y.,  1882, 
of  the  Brown  Memorial  Presbyterian  Church, 
Baltimore,  Md.,  1887,  and  of  the  Brick  Presbyterian 
Church,  New  York,  1900.  In  the  following  spring 
he  went  on  an  excursion  to  the  Holy  Land,  on  his 
way  back  contracted  Mediterranean  fever  and  died 
in  a  hospital  in  Naples.  His  comparatively  brief 
life  made  a  deep  impression  because  he  consecrated 
his  remarkable  powers  and  attainments  to  the  pub- 
lic service.  His  sermons  were  of  unusual  effect. 
They  were  unconventional,  sincere,  and  fervid, 
gjowed  with  a  spiritual  light,  and  held  the  attention 
of  even  the  most  indifferent.  His  loving  heart 
went  out  to  all  whom  he  met  and  his  single  desire 
was  to  do  them  good.  As  pastor  and  preacher 
he  will  long  be  remembered  and  spoken  of  in  \m- 
measured  terms  of  praise.  In  Baltimore  he  was 
counted  one  of  the  first  citizens  and  in  New  York 
he  bade  fair  to  repeat  his  personal  and  professional 
triimiph.  Book-making  was  not  his  aim  in  life 
and  the  publications  which  bear  his  name  were 
posthumous;  they  are:  Thoughts  for  Every  Day  Liv- 
ing (New  York,  1901),  a  volume  of  selections; 
Letters  from  Egypt  and  PaJestine  (1902),  written  to 
the  Men's  Association  in  the  Brick  Church;  Three 
Whys  and  their  Answer  (1902);  Hymns  and  Carols 
(1903);  and  The  Success  of  Defeat  (1905). 
Bxbuooraphy:  C.  £.  Robinaon,  MaWne  Davenport  Babcock, 

New  York.  1904. 

BABISM. 

Antecedents  of  Babism  (§1). 
Mirsa  Ali  Mohammed,  the  Bab  (§  2). 
Persecution  and  Death  of  the  Bab  (S  3). 
Doctrines  (S  4). 

Babism,  the  system  of  a  mystic  Mohammedan 
sect,  which  originated  in  Persia  about  the  middle 
of  the  nineteenth  century,  is  said  to  have  more 
than  1,(XX),(XX)  adherents  to-day  and  is  still  spread- 
ing, and  offers  in  its  history  some  striking  parallels 
to  the  origin  and  early  development  of  Christianity. 
Mohammedanism  is  a  religion  sharply  defined, 
even  iron-bound  in  its  doctrinal  precision,  dog- 
matic to  the  last  degree  in  its  essentials;  and  yet 
it  has  manifested  the  greatest  elasticity  in  politics, 
in  social  life,  in  philosophy,  and  in  religious  beliefs 
(see  Mohammed,  Mohammedanism).  Material  and 
expressed  in  material  terms,  its  theology  has  never- 
theless embraced  the  abstractions  of  Greek  phi- 
losophy, Persian  mysticism,  and  Hindu  pantheism 
and  incarnation  among  the  doctrines  held  by  its 
adherents.  Babism  and  its  precursors  most  com- 
pletely illustrate  these  anomalies.  The  roots  of 
the  sect  lie  in  the  early  doctrine  known 
I.  Antece-  as  Shiah,  which  has  flourished  most 
dents  of  prolifically  and  almost  solely  on  Per- 
Babism.  sian  soil.  The  foundation  of  Shiah 
teaching  is  the  doctrine  concerning 
the  Imam.  According  to  this  system,  the  Imam- 
ate  or  Calif  ate  is  not  elective  nor  is  it  to  be  usurped; 
it  is  of  divine  right  and  altogether  spiritual;  Ali, 
through  Ayesha's  guile  thrice  defeated  for  succes- 


sion to  Mohammed  and  finally  assassinated,  was 
the  first  Imam.  The  essence  of  the  Imamate  is  a 
light  which  passed  directly  from  Mohammed  to 
A^  and  parses  from  one  Imam  to  the  next.  By 
virtue  of  this  light  the  Imam  becomes  impeccable, 
omniscient,  divine,  an  incarnation  of  deity.  A 
philosophic  ground  of  this  doctrine  is  that  even  an 
infallible  book  like  the  Koran  to  be  effective  re- 
quires an  infallible  exponent,  which  is  furnished 
by  the  Imamate.  But  the  Imamate,  thou^  it  is  a 
succession,  is  not  unlimited,  and  of  the  two  main 
branches  of  Shiites  one  reckons  six  and  the  other 
twelve  Imams.  Both  branches  hold  the  mystical 
doctrine  that  the  last  Imam  did  not  die,  but  lives 
"  concealed  "  in  one  of  the  Arabic  Utopias,  Jabulka 
or  Jabulsa.  A  corollary  is  that  he  is  to  reappear, 
e.g.,  as  the  Mahdi  "  the  Guided,"  who  is  to  "  fill 
the  earth  with  justice  " — a  prophecy  and  a  hope 
which  naturally  lead  to  repeated  attempts  at  their 
fulfilment  and  realization  (see  Mahdi).  It  is 
further  held  that  there  were  two  degrees  of  "  con- 
cealment "  or  "  occultation,"  the  minor  and  the 
major.  During  the  former,  communication  with 
the  faithful  was  made  by  intermediaries  who  were 
called  Abwab  or  ''  Gates  "  (singular  bob).  When 
the  last  of  the  Abwab  died  (1021)  without  naming 
a  successor,  the  major  occultation  began  in  the 
entire  cessation  of  conununion  between  the  Imam 
and  the  faithful.  Naturally  the  Shiites  have  ever 
since  been  expecting  the  reopening  of  commu- 
nication with  the  Imam  and  a  period  of  enli^ten- 
ment  in  his  revealing. 

The  immediate  precursors  of  the  Babis  were  the 
Shaikhis,  followers  of  Shaikh  Ahmad  (1753-1826), 
a  Shiite  mystic,  ascetic,  and  thinker.  His  special 
teaching  was  that  the  Imams  were  personifications 
of  divine  attributes  and  that  of  these  personifica- 
tions AH  was  chief.  He  gathered  around  him  a 
great  company  of  believers,  the  leadership  of  whom 
passed  after  his  death  to  Hajji  Sayyid  Kazim,  still 
a  yoimg  man,  but  reserved,  mysterious,  and  ascetic 
to  a  degree,  under  whom  the  sect  multiplied  in 
numbers  and  came  to  include  many  of  the  nobility. 
Just  before  his  death  (1843)  Sayyid  Kasim  fox^ 
bade  his  followers  to  mourn  and  declared  that  it 
was  good  that  he  should  go  in  order  that  "  the  true 
one  should  appear."  He  died  without  appointing 
a  successor.  Among  his  disciples  had  been  a  cer- 
tain Mirza  AU  Mohanmied,   a  native   of  Shiras, 

who  was  only  twenty-three  years  of 

2.  Mirza  AU  age  when  Sayyid  Kazim  died.    Mirxa 

Mohammed,  Ali  was  met  by  Mullah  Husain,  one  of 

the  Bab.      the  searchers  for  a  successor  to  the  dead 

leader,  and  claimed  to  be  the  sought 
one,  the  **  true  one  who  was  to  appear  "  and  the 
Bab  or  ''  Gate."  He  also  claimed  inspiration, 
established  his  right  to  the  place  of  l«Euler  by 
revealing  undiscovered  meanings  in  the  Koran, 
and  convinced  the  searchers  that  their  quest  was 
ended.  This  claim  was  the  more  easily  allowed 
because  the  year  in  which  it  was  made  was  reck- 
oned as  the  one  thousandth  from  that  of  the  dis- 
appearance of  the  last  Imam.  Millenariamsm 
of  a  certain  kind  is  as  potent  in  its  influence  over 
Mohammedans  as  it  was  in  Christendom  in  the  year 
1000   of   the  Christian  era.    Adherents  came  in 


395 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Baboock 
Babimn 


by  the  hundred  when  the  news  that  the  Bab  had 
appeared  was  spread  abroad,  as  it  soon  was  in  the 
manner  peculiar  to  the  East.  To  the  personal 
attractiveness  of  the  young  leader  and  the  agree- 
ment of  his  pantheistic  teachings  with  the  mysti- 
cism held  by  most  Shiites  there  was  added  as  a 
compelling  force  driving  to  association  with  his 
following  the  great  evils  of  a  tyrannous  civil  and 
religious  administration,  so  that  the  Babis  soon 
became  a  large  and  important  body. 

The  next  year  (1843)  the  Bab  made  the  pilgrimage 
to  Mecca,  returning  confirmed  in  his  opposition  to 
the  mullahs  or  clergy.  He  attacked  them  in  his 
preaching,  and  when  they  sent  their 
3.  Persecu-  ablest  debaters  to  confute  him  and  his 
tion  and  claims,  these  partisans  were  either  si- 
Death  of  lenced  or  convinced.  They  then  se- 
the  Bab.  cmred  his  arrest  and  attempted  to 
assassinate  him,  but  were  prevented 
since  he  was  under  the  protection  of  the  gov- 
ernor. When  the  latter  died  (1847),  Mirza 
Ali  was  thrown  into  prison  in  Maku  and 
finally  taken  to  Tabriz,  where  his  confinement 
was  daily  made  more  rigorous.  All  the  time  he 
was  exceedingly  prolific  in  a  literary  way,  claiming 
indeed  as  evidence  of  his  inspiration  the  ability 
to  produce  1,000  lines  of  poetry  a  day.  His  mild- 
ness and  gentleness  won  the  hearts  even  of  his 
jailers,  and  converts  were  increased  as  accounts  of 
his  sufferings  were  made  public.  The  most  notable 
conversion  was  that  of  a  famous,  learned,  and  very 
beautiful  woman  to  whom  the  Bab  gave  the  name 
Jenab-i-Tahira,  "  Her  Excellency  the  Pure." 
She  was  permeated  with  mysticism,  and  by  her 
devotion  and  persuasiveness  during  her  life  and 
still  more  by  her  martyrdom  (1852),  she  gained 
large  numbers  as  adherents  of  the  faith.  Mean- 
while in  1848  the  late  Shah  was  crowned,  and 
selected  as  his  prime  minister  a  violent  opponent 
of  Babism.  Under  the  persecution  immediately 
instituted,  some  of  the  Babis  seized  arms  and 
proclaimed  the  Bab  sovereign,  a  proceeding  which 
he  discountenanced.  The  prime  minister  then 
had  the  Bab  executed,  July  8,  1850,  expecting 
that  his  death  would  cause  the  dissolution  of 
the  sect.  But  Mirza  AH  had  nominated  Mirza 
Yahya  his  successor  and  head  of  the  nineteen 
councilors,  and  continuity  was  secured.  On  as- 
suming leadership,  the  latter  took  the  names  of 
Sub-i-Ezel  and  Hazrat-i-E^l,  "  Dawn  and  Holi- 
ness of  Eternity." 

The  execution  of  the  Bab  exasperated  his  follow- 
ers, and  some  of  them  attempted  to  assassinate  the 
Shah.  This  involved  the  sect  in  new  persecutions 
and  in  wholesale  executions  in  public  in  which  the 
most  execrable  atrocities  were  perpetrated  (Count 
Gobineau  has  described  some  of  the  scenes  in  Les 
Relxgiona  et  les  pkilosaphieSf  pp.  301-303,  quoted  in 
Renan,  Les  Apdtres,  p.  378,  Eng.  transl.,  p.  201). 
As  a  result  there  was  a  great  exodus  of  the  adherents 
of  the  sect  to  Bagdad,  whence,  upon  Persian  of- 
ficial protest  against  their  continued  residence  so 
near  to  the  Persian  territory,  the  Turkish  govern- 
ment removed  them  to  Adrianople.  The  leader 
secluded  himself  very  persistently,  conducting 
affairs  through  his  half-brother  Beha.    The  latter 


suddenly  proclaimed  himself  the  one  foretold  by 
the  Bab  as  "  the  one  whom  God  shall  manifest," 
drew  after  himself  most  of  the  following,  and  spUt 
the  sect  mto  the  "  Ezelites  "  and  the  "  Behaites." 
Between  the  two  parties  hostilities  so  bitter  broke 
out  that  the  Tiu*ks  sent  Beha  to  Acre,  which  became 
the  headquarters  of  the  Behaites  and  the  center  of 
their  propaganda.  Ezel  was  removed  to  Cyprus, 
and  his  following  has  become  almost  extinct.  Beha 
was  almost  as  prolific  a  writer  as  the  Bab,  and  his 
works  are  extant  in  a  Bombay  edition.  He  died 
in  1892,  and  his  son  Abbas  Effendi  took  his  place 
and  is  the  present  leader.  The  number  of  Babis 
is  estimated  at  over  1,000,000,  and  they  carry  on 
a  propaganda  in  the  United  States  (described  in 
AJT,  Jan.,  1902).    See  Behaibm. 

The  doctrines  of  the  Babis  rest  on  two  bases: 

(1)  The  general  system  of  Shiah  in  its  pantheistic 

and  mystical  phases;  and  (2)  the  as- 
4.  Doc-  simiption  that  no  revelation  is  final, 
trinei.      but  represents  only  the  measure  of 

truth  the  stage  of  human  progress 
has  rendered  man  capable  of  receiving.  Hence, 
as  the  revelation  of  Moses  was  superseded  by  that 
of  Jesus,  and  his  by  Mohammed's,  and  his  in  turn 
by  the  Bab's,  so  the  latter 's  is  superseded  by  Beha's. 
But  Abbas  Effendi  has  tried  to  throw  a  log  under 
the  car  of  progress  by  declaring  that  "  whoever 
lays  claim  to  a  revelation  before  1,000  full  years 
have  passed  is  a  lying  impostor."  The  explicit 
teachings  are  (1)  the  veneration  of  the  Imams; 

(2)  the  fact  of  their  concealment  and  the  doctrine 
of  intermediaries;  (3)  the  reappearance  of  the  Imam 
as  a  reincarnation;  (4)  the  non-finality  of  any 
revelation;  (5)  the  incarnation  of  deity  as  an  avatar 
from  time  to  time  to  give  instruction  (Adam,  Noah, 
Abraham,  Moses,  David,  Jesus,  Mohammed,  and 
the  Bab  were  such  avatars,  alike  rejected  by  their 
hearers);  (6)  the  possibility  of  an  achievement, 
like  that  of  the  Buddhist  Nirvana,  of  unity  of  the 
individual  with  True  Being;  (7)  the  fact  of  a  final 
judgment;  (8)  the  system  of  numbers  based  on 
nineteen:  the  year  consists  of  nineteen  months, 
of  nineteen  days,  of  nineteen  hours,  of  nineteen 
minutes;  the  Bab  had  eighteen  associates,  he 
making  the  nineteenth  and  being  the  point  of  unity; 
the  square  of  nineteen  is  the  symbol  of  the  uni- 
verse; the  Bab  and  his  disciples  represent  God 
and,  each  of  these  having  nineteen  under  him,  make 
up  the  square  which  represents  perfection.  Com- 
mended for  practise  by  the  Babis  are:  abolition 
of  religious  warfare,  friendly  intercourse  with  all 
sects  and  people,  obedience  to  the  ruler,  submission 
to  law,  confession  of  sin  to  God,  acquisition  of  all 
knowledge  which  contributes  to  human  good,  and 
mastery  of  some  trade  or  profession.  Prayer  is 
three  times  (not  five  times)  a  day,  and  the  believer 
turns  his  face  toward  Acre,  not  toward  Mecca. 
The  Babi  fast  is  not  the  month  of  Ramadhan,  but 
the  last  month  of  the  Babi  year  and  lasts  nineteen 
days.  There  is  evident  in  all  this  a  determination 
to  mark  the  separation  of  the  sect  from  Moham- 
niedanism. 

The  Bab's  dictum  on  worship  is  worthy  of  quo- 
tation: "  So  worship  Crod  that  if  the  recompense 
of  thy  worship  of  him  were  to  be  the  fire,  no  altera- 


Babylonia 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


896 


tion  of  thy  worship  would  be  produced.  If  you  wor- 
ship from  fear,  that  is  unworthy  of  the  threshold 
of  the  holiness  of  God,  nor  will  you  be  accounted 
a  believer;  so  also,  if  your  gaze  is  on  Paradise 
and  you  worship  in  hope  of  that,  for  then  you  have 
made  God's  creation  a  partner  with  him.'' 

Geo.  W.  Gilmgre. 

Bzbuoobapht:  The  best  desoriptions  of  Babimn  are  in  the 
writings  or  translations  of  E.  Q.  Browne,  who  fa^ives  ma- 
terial gained  from  first-hand  knowledge  and  in  sympathetic 
▼ein.  as  follows:  TravelUr's  NanuHve,  toritten  to  ^uMtrate 
th€  Episode  of  the  Bab,  2  vols..  Cambridge,  1803;  A  Year 
amono  the  Pereiana,  London,  1893;  MitMa  Hueeyn  of  Hamor- 
dan,  Tarikh-i-Jadid,  or  the  New  Hietory  of  Mirza  Alt  Afu- 
hammad  the  Bab,  transl.  by  E.  Q.  B.,  New  York,  1892 
(dififuse.  but  full;  a  native  account  with  condensed  narra- 


tive and  valuable  notes);  Babiemt  in  Rdigioue  Syeiema  of 
the  World,  pp.  189  sqq.;  LUerary  Hietory  of  Pereia,  pa»- 
sim.  New  York,  1902.  Other  accounts  are  in:  J.  A.  da 
Gobineau,  Lee  Relioione  et  lee  philoeophiee  dane  FAeie 
Centrale,  pp.  141  sqq..  Pturis,  1865  (detaile  1  and  ssrmpa- 
thetio;  one  of  bis  pathetic  descriptions  of  the  persecution 
is  quoted  in  E.  Renan,  Lee  ApStree,  pp.  378  sqq^ 
Paris,  1866,  Eng.  transl.,  pp.  201-202.  London,  n.d.); 
Q.  N.  Curaon,  Pereia  and  the  Pereian  QtieaHon,  i, 
passim,  especially  pp.  496-604,  2  vols.,  London,  1892; 
A.  S.  Qeden,  Studiee  in  Comparative  Rdioion^  pp.  291 
sqq.,  ib.  1898  (concise  but  dear);  E.  Sell,  Eeeaye  o% 
lelam,  pp.  46  sqq.,  ib.  1901  (deals  with  the  antecedents  of 
the  sect);  AJT,  Jan.,  1902  (describes  the  American  prop- 
aganda); J.  E.  (Carpenter,  in  Studtee  in  Theology,  by  J. 
E.  C.  and  P.  H.  Wioksted,  London.  1903;  M.  H.  Phelps. 
The  Life  and  Teachinge  of  Abbae  Effendi,  New  York.  1903 
(gives  one  of  the  later  phases  of  the  development);  Beha- 
Ullah,  Lee  Priceptee  du  B&uiieme,  Paria,  1906. 


I.  The  Names.     Importance  of  Baby- 
lonia. 
Reasons  for  Interest  ({  1). 
II.  The  Land. 
Alluvial  (S  1). 

Influence  on  Life  and  Activities(§  2). 
The  Climate.  Faima.  and  Flora  ({  3). 

III.  Exploration  and  Excavation. 
Rich  and  Mignan  (§  1). 
Loftus  (§  2). 

Fresnel  and  Oppert  (§  3). 
De  Sarzec  (S  4). 
Rassam  (§  5). 

The    University    of    Pennsylvania 
Expedition  ($6). 

IV.  The  Cities. 

Origin  and  Development  (§1). 
Eridu  (5  2). 
Ur  (5  3). 
Larsa  (S  4). 
Erech  (5  5). 

Shirpurla  and  Lagash  (§  6). 
Isin  or  Nisin  ({  7). 
Girsu  (§  8). 
Nippur  ($  9). 
Kish  and  Cutha  ($10). 
Akkad  and  Sippar  ($  11). 
Babylon  (S  12). 
Borsippa  (S  13). 
Bit-Yakin  (§  14). 
V.  The  People.  Language,  and  Culture. 
The  Earliest  Inhabitants  Mongolian 

(M). 
Semitic  Immigrations  (J  2). 
The  Language.     Two  Forms  (J  3). 
The  Sumerian-Akkadian  Language 

(§4). 
The  Asssnrio-Babylonian  Language 

(§6). 


BABYLONIA. 

The  Literature  (§  6). 

The  Civilisation  (§  7). 

Slavery  and  the  Status  of  Women 

(§8). 
Occupations  ({  9). 
Science  ({  10). 
VI.  History. 

1.  Chronology. 
The  Data  (M). 

Value  of  Nabonidus's  Dates  (§  2). 

2.  The  Pre-Sargonic  Age.  4500-3800 

B.C. 

En-shag-kushanna  (§1). 

Urukagina  (§  2). 

Mesilim  (§3). 

Ur-Nina.  Akurgal,  Elannatum,  En- 

temena  ($  4). 
Alusharshid  (§5). 
Lugal-saggisi,    Lugal-kigubnidudu, 

Lugal-kisalsi  (§  6) 

3.  Sargon  to  Hanmiurabi.  3800-2250 

B.C. 

Sargon  (§  1). 
Naram-Sin  (§  2). 
Ur-Bau  and  Gudea  ($  3). 
Ur-gur  and  Dungi  (S  4). 
Nur-Ramman  and  Siniddina  (§  5). 

4.  The  Supremacy  of  Babylon.  2250- 

1783  B.C. 
The  Elamites.     Kudur-Mabug  and 

Eri-aku  ($  1). 
The    First    Babylonian    Dynasty. 

Hammurabi  (§  2). 
The  Second    Babylonian   Dynasty 

(5  3). 

5.  The   Kasshite   Period.    1783-1207 

B.C. 

Agumkakrime  (§  1). 
Later  Kasshite  Kings  (§  2). 


6.  The   Isin   and    Assyrian    Periods, 

1207-625  B.C. 
Nebuchadressar  I  and  his  Succes- 
sors (§  1). 

7.  The    Kaldu  or  Chaldean    Period. 

625-538  B.C. 
Nabopolaasar  (f  1). 
Nebuchadresiar  U  (f  2). 
Nabonidus   and    Belshaszar.     The 
Fall  of  Babylon  (f  3). 
VII.  The  Religion. 

1.  Historical  Development. 
Political  Factors  (§1). 

The   Philosophical-Priestly   Factor 

(§2). 
Decrease  in  the  Number  of  Deities 

(§  3). 
The    Earliest    Religion 

(§4). 
Spirits  and  Demons  (f  5). 
Magic  (§  6). 

2.  The  Gods. 
Anu  (§  1). 
Bel  (5  2). 
Ea  (5  3). 
Solar  Deities. 
Lunar  Deities. 
Adad  or  Ramman  (}  6). 
Ishtar  (S  7). 
Nergal  (S  8). 

Ninib.  Girru,  and  Tammua  (§  9). 
Marduk  (S  10). 
Nebo  (§11). 

3.  The  Priests  and  the  Epica. 
Influence  of  the  Priests  (§1). 
The  Gilgamesh  Epic  (f  2). 
The  Adapa  Epic  (§3). 
Marduk  and  Chaos  (f  4). 
Ishtar's  Descent  into  Hades  (§  5). 


Shamash  (f  4X 
Sin  (§  5). 


Babylonia  designates  the  country  extending 
from  the  head  of  the  Persian  Gulf  to  about  34" 
north  latitude  (approximately  the  latitude  of 
Beirut;  c.  75  m.  n.  of  Bagdad)  and  lying  between 
the  rivers  Tigris  and  Euphrates  or  immediately 
adjacent  to  them. 

L  The  Names.  Importance  of  Babylonia:  Baby- 
lonia was  the  Greek  name  for  the  country,  derived 
from  the  name  of  the  capital  city  Babylon,  this 
last  also  a  Grecized  form  from  the  Semitic  Bab-ilv, 
Heb.  Babel,  "  Gate  of  God."  By  the  earliest  in- 
habitants known  the  whole  land  was  called  EdiUf 
"  the  Plain."  In  Gen.  x,  10  the  name  given  it  is 
Shinar,  the  derivation  of  which  is  in  dispute.  The 
most  probable  origin  is  from  Sunffir,  a  variant  read- 
ing of  Girsu.  The  g  in  Sungir  represents  the  Semitic 
ghayin  which  could  be  represented  in  Hebrew  only 


by  ayin;  the  word  would  then  be  transliterated 
Sn'r  and  could  be  pronounced  Shinar.  The  land 
was  known  to  the  Hebrews  also  as  Eref  Kasdim^ 
"  Land  of  the  Kasdim,"  the  second  word  a  varia- 
tion for  KaldUy  Hebraized  Kaldim.  From  this  last 
came  the  Greek  form  Chaldea.  The  Kaldu  were 
the  race  which  controlled  the  country  about  610- 
538  B.C.  A  name  used  by  the  early  inhabitants 
now  called  Sumerians  or  Akkadians  was  Kengi- 
Uri,  Semitized  by  Sargon  and  others  into  Sumer- 
U'Akkad,  "  Sumer  and  Akkad."  Another  name, 
derived  from  a  Kasshite  source  and  appearing  in 
the  Amama  Tablets,  is  Kardnniyaah. 

The  reasons  for  the  great  interest  in  Babylonia 
are  twofold,  cultural  and  Biblical.  In  that  country 
have  been  revealed  the  certain  traces  of  the  earliest 
advanced  civilization  yet  discovered  as  well  as  that 


397 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Babylonia 


which  had  the  longest  continuous  existence.  The 
highest  estimates  place  the  beginnings  of  this 
civiUzation  between  8000  and  10000  B.C.;  at  a 
moderate  reckoning  it  seems  that  evidences  of 
culture  are  in  sight  dating  from  5000  B.C.  The 
Biblical  interest  centers  about  two  facts:  first, 
that  in  Genesis  the  origin  of  Abraham  is  traced 
to  Ur,  one  of  the  oldest  cities  in  Baby- 

I.  Reasons  Ionia;  and,  second,  the  fact  that 
for  In-  Babylonia  was  the  land  of  Israel's 
terest  exile  and  became  to  Israel  a  second 
home,  where  many  Israelites  settled 
permanently.  But  there  is  a  third  reason  for  inter- 
est. One  of  the  lessons  a  comparative  study  of 
history  teaches  is  that  Babylonia  represents  a 
principle  very  different  from  that  which  underUes 
Assyrian  history.  Assyria  stood  for  Semitic  material- 
ism, for  fighting  ability,  and  conquest  by  force  of 
arms.  Babylonia,  on  the  other  hand,  represented 
culture,  civilization,  hterature,  and  the  all-control- 
ling power  of  religion.  Its  force  in  this  respect 
is  notable  especially  for  the  way  in  which  its  civi- 
Uzation subdued  even  its  conquerors.  Its  Elamitic, 
Kasshite,  and  even  Assyrian  masters  came  under 
the  sway  of  its  reUgious  moods  and  its  literary 
methods.  Kasshite  and  Chaldean  kings  forgot 
to  write  of  their  wars  and  transmitted  almost 
solely  the  accounts  of  the  erection  and  adornment 
of  temples  and  the  making  of  canals. 

n.  The  Land:  Geologically,  Babylonia  is 
almost  wholly  alluvial.  The  thirty-fourth  parallel 
of  latitude  cuts  across  the  line  of  demarcation 
between  the  limestone  and  the  alluvium,  leaving 
in  the  northeast  a  slight  stretch  of  the  latter  to 
the  north  of  the  parallel,  and  on  the  southwest 
a  little  region  of  limestone  east  of  the  Euphrates 
to  the  south.  The  alluvium  on  the  west  is  nearly 
conterminous  with  the  Euphrates,  except  in  the 
extreme  south;  to  the  east  the  soil  made  by  the 
rivers  stretches  to  the  foothills  of  the 

I.  AlluviaL  Persian  mountains.  Its  narrowest 
part  is  where  the  rivers  make  their 
nearest  approach  to  each  other;  from  that  point 
northward  the  alluvium  is  only  between  the 
rivers,  while  below  it  immediately  widens  beyond 
the  Tigris  eastward  and  thence  to  the  Persian 
Gulf  maintains  its  width.  The  account  just  given 
involves  the  statement  that  in  prehistoric  times 
the  Persian  Gulf  stretched  north  to  a  point  just 
beyond  the  thirty-fourth  parallel,  and  that  before 
the  deposit  of  the  rivers,  its  waters  have  receded 
a  distance  of  425  miles.  The  rate  of  this  deposit 
is  known  for  a  part  of  this  period.  The  town 
known  as  Spasinus  Charax  in  the  time  of  Alexander 
the  Great  was  then  one  mile  from  the  Gulf.  In 
1835  Mohammera,  recognized  as  the  site  of  the 
town  just  mentioned,  was  forty-seven  miles  away. 
Thus  forty-six  miles  of  land  had  been  made  in  2,160 
years,  or  at  the  rate  of  over  110  feet  a  year.  It  is 
interesting  that  this  ascertained  rate,  supposing 
it  to  have  been  uniform  during  the  historic  period, 
corroborates  the  chronology  gained  from  other 
sources. 

To  the  character  of  the  land  as  alluviimi,  to  its 
subtropical  position,  and  to  the  elaborate  system 
of  irrigation  and  careful  agriculture,  and  the  abun- 


dant moisture,  was  due  its  wonderful  fertility, 
second  only,  if  it  were  second,  to  that  of  the  Nile 
valley.  To  these  characteristics  were  due  many 
important  consequences,  notable  among  them 
the  structure  and  material  of  the  buildings  and 
the  kind  of  governmental  and  popular  activities. 
It  was  inevitable  that  an  alluvial  land,  inimdated 
by  two  rivers,  the  periods  of  overflow  of  which 
were  not  quite  synchronous  but  in  part  successive 
(see    Assyria),    should    abound    in 

2.  Influence  marshes;  and    that    to    relieve    this 
on  Life  and  condition,  distribute  the  waters,  and 

Activities,  drain  the  land,  canals,  and  many  of 
them,  should  be  constructed.  And 
the  extent  of  country  thus  to  be  redeemed  being 
large,  the  making  of  canals  became  a  governmental 
function.  Again,  an  alluvial  district  provides 
neither  stone  nor  wood  for  building.  The  clay  of 
the  land  must  therefore  be  utilized  as  building 
material;  and  it  is  almost  inevitable  that  most 
of  the  bricks  be  sim-dried,  since  fuel  for  burning 
them  is  scarce  and  expensive.  Once  more,  it  is 
evident  that  since  the  inundations  were  annual, 
some  method  of  putting  human  habitations  beyond 
the  reach  of  the  waters  would  be  required,  and  it  is 
foimd  that  the  cities  were  built  upon  platforms  of 
bricks.  Thus  Babylonia  became  a  land  of  mounds 
and  of  canals,  the  construction  of  the  latter  being 
one  of  the  chief  activities  of  the  rulers.  The  "  rivers 
of  Babylon  "  were  a  feature  of  the  landscape,  and 
the  moimds  are  abimdantly  in  evidence. 

Of  the  fertility  varying  accounts  have  been 
transmitted.  Herodotus  (i,  193)  gives  the  increase 
of  cereals  as  200  to  300  fold;  Theophrastus  (Hist, 
plantarum,  viii,  7)  as  fifty  to  100;  Strabo  (xvi)  as 
by  report  300  fold;  and  Pliny  as  150  fold.  Herod- 
otus was  notoriously  credulous,  Strabo  and  Pliny 
got  their  reports  at  second  hand.  The  statement 
of  Theophrastus  is  not  beyond  belief. 

Knowledge  of  early  climatic  conditions  is  in  part 
a  matter  of  observation  in  modem  times  imder 
conditions  which  differ  greatly  from  earlier  con- 
ditions, and  in  part  of  inference  from  known 
effects.  The  temperature  reported  by  the  exca- 
vators runs  in  June  and  July  as  high  as  120°  F. 
in  the  shade.  And  this  heat  is  made  more  oppres- 
sive by  the  hot  winds  brought  by  the  sandstorms 
of  the  desert.  That  the  conditions  were  not  so 
severe    during    the    palmy    days    of 

3.  The  Cli-  Babylonia    is    almost    certain,    since 
mate,       the     abundant     canals     of     flowing 

Fauna,  and  water  must  have  reduced  the  tempera- 
Flora,  ture  and  so  have  modified  the  at- 
mospheric depressions  caused  by  rare- 
faction. The  fauna  and  flora  differed  Uttle  from 
those  of  Assyria  (q.v.).  Of  grains,  wheat,  bcu*ley, 
millet,  sesamum,  oats,  and  perhaps  rice,  were 
grown;  wheat  and  barley  were  probably  indig- 
enous. The  gourd  family  was  abundant,  legu- 
minous plants  were  in  great  variety,  and  the  leeks 
numerous.  Of  trees  the  apple,  fig,  apricot,  pis- 
tachio, almond,  walnut,  cypress,  tamarisk,  plane, 
acacia,  and  above  all  the  palm,  were  cultivated. 
The  waters  aboimded  in  fish,  the  carp  being  es- 
pecially plentiful.  The  water  fowl  were  naturally 
the  most  niunerous,  the  swan,  goose,  duck,  pelican, 


Balyylonia 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOa 


898 


crane,  stork,  heron,  and  gull  being  known.  Of 
land  birds  the  ostrich,  bustard,  partridge,  quail, 
pigeon,  turtle-dove,  and  ortalon  are  still  found. 
Birds  of  prey  are  the  hawk  and  the  eagle. 

in.  Exploration  and  Excavation:  Antiquarian 
interest  in  Babylonia  had  always  been  greater 
than  in  Assyria,  perhaps  because  the  region  had 
oftener  been  visited  and  described.  Bricks  with 
inscriptions  had  been  seen  and  sent  to  England  by 
the  East  India  Company's  agents  at  Bassorah; 
these,  however,  were  not  the  result  of  excavation 
but  of  purchase  or  of  superficial  search  of  the 
mounds.  They  served,  none  the  less,  to  awaken 
and  maintain  interest  in  the  coimtiy.  For  the  back- 
groimd  of  Babylonian  excavation  see  Abstria,  III. 
The  first  excavator  in  Babylon  was  Claudius  James 
Rich,  who  in  Deo.,  1811,  visited  Babil,  had  some 
Arabs  dig  at  the  top  of  the  mound,  foimd  layers 
of  inscribed  bricks,  and  purchased  others  from  the 
natives,  which  when  sent  home  proved  to  cany 

writing  of  the  same  general  character 

I.  Rich     as  that  of  the  Persepolitan  inscrip- 

and        tions.    In  182^-28  Capt.  Robert  Mig- 

Mlgnan.    nan  was  attached  to  the  East  Ind^ 

Company's  station  at  Bassorah,  in 
command  of  the  military  escort.  He  was  interested 
in  exploratory  work  and  particulariy  in  the  region 
between  Bagdad  and  Bassorah.  In  his  travels 
in  the  district  he  made  some  small  researches,  as 
for  instance  at  Kassr,  where  he  put  thirty  men  at 
work,  foimd  a  platform  of  inscribed  bricks,  a  num- 
ber of  seal  cylinders,  and  a  barrel  cylinder,  the 
first  ever  found  by  a  European,  and  some  remains 
of  the  Greek  age. 

Attached  as  geologist  to  the  Tiu*ko-PerBian 
Frontier  Commission  (1850-54)  was  William 
Kennett  Loftus.  In  the  course  of  a  ride  from  Bag- 
dad to  Mohammera  he  had  picked  up  or  bought 
a  number  of  small  antiquities,  and  proposed  to 
excavate  for  more  at  Warka.  Permission  from 
his  commanding  officer  was  obtained,  and  in  1850 
Loftus  set  to  work.  A  number  of  "  slippered  " 
coffins  were  secured  whole,  and  by  the  ingenious 
device  of  pasting  thick  layers  of  paper  inside  and 
out  three  were  kept  intact  and  sent  to  the  British 
Museum.  In  1854  Loftus  excavated  a  number 
of  buildings,  recovered  many  inscribed  bricks  but 

no  works  of  art,  in  which  he  was  most 
2.  Loftus.  interested.    The    finds   of    Botta   at 

Nineveh  (see  Assyria,  III,  3)  seemed 
so  great  in  comparison  with  his  own  that  he  became 
discouraged  even  with  his  success  in  finding  mor- 
tuary remains,  tablets  and  vases,  and  a  considerable 
number  of  contract  tablets  of  different  periods. 
He  removed  his  operations  to  Senkereh,  discovered 
there  the  temple  of  Shamash,  found  bricks  that 
brought  Hammurabi  into  light  and  recovered  the 
records  of  King  Ur-gur  (2700  B.C.)  and  other  objects 
relating  to  the  period  between  him  and  Nabonidus 
(539  B.C.).  Work  at  other  mounds,  as  at  Tell-Sifr, 
was  productive  of  inscriptions  dated  under  the  first 
dynasty  of  Babylon,  and  of  utensils  of  copper 
belonging  to  the  third  pre-Christian  millennium. 
During  this  same  period  Layard  and  Rassam  made 
an  essay  at  Tell-Mohanmied  near  Bagdad,  but  found 
little   of   interest   and   importance.    Excavations 


at  Babil,  Kassr,  and  elsewhere  were  also  resultless. 
At  Nififar  Uttle  besides  the  sUpper  cofiins  rewarded 
the  workers,  and  Layard  was  led  to  abandon  as 
unpromising  the  site  from  which  half  a  century  later 
the  great  finds  of  the  expedition  of  the  University 
of  Pennsylvania  were  recovered. 

The  FVench  expedition  under  Fulgence  Fresnel 
and  Jules  Oppert  began  work  at  Kassr,  Tell-Amran, 
and  elBewhere  near  Babylon  in  1852.  There 
were  considerable  results  from  the  gjeanings  of 
the  next  three  years,  the  most  valuable  being  the 
marble  vase  of  Naram-Sin.  Unfortunately  the 
whole  was  lost  in  the  Tigris  with  the  finds  which 
had  come  from  Assyria.  Under  the 
3.  Fresnd  direction  of  Rawlinson,  the  British 
and  vice-consul  at  BassonJi  undertook 
Oppert  work  at  Mugheir.  It  was  speedily  de- 
termined that  the  temple  there,  which 
had  never  wholly  collapsed,  belonged  to  the 
moon-god  Sin,  which  comprised  the  results  of  bufld- 
ing  operations  from  the  time  of  Ur-gur  (2700  B.C.) 
to  that  of  Nabonidus,  and  the  inscriptions  of  the 
latter  recording  his  work  of  restoration  were  found. 
Sufficient  was  unearthed  to  carry  the  history  of 
the  place  as  far  back  as  4000  B.C.,  but  the  site 
still  awaits  systematic  excavation.  Abu-Shahrein 
was  examined  and  foimd  to  be  unique  in  the  quan- 
tity of  stone  used  on  the  great  structures,  and 
evidences  were  also  discovert  which  implied  pre- 
Sargonic  date.  It  is  a  promising  site  for  future 
work.  At  Birs  Nimrud  examination  of  the  ruins 
was  imdertaken,  and  the  experience  of  Rawlinson 
enabled  him  to  point  out  the  exact  place  where 
cylinders  would  be  found  (which  proved  to  be  those 
of  Nebuchadrezzar),  in  the  comers  of  the  temple 
of  Nebo. 

For  about  twenty  years  S3rstematic  operatioiis 
were  suspended  while  scholars  at  home  were  exam- 
ining the  material  accumulated.  Meanwhile  Ernest 
de  Sarzec  had  been  appointed  vice-consul  for  the 
French  at  Bassorah.  He  secured  the  good-will 
of  Nasir  Pasha,  then  the  real  ruler 
4*  De  of  the  district,  and  began  a  series  of 
Sarzec.  campaigns  at  TeUoh  which  covered 
the  period  between  1877  and  1900, 
the  year  before  his  death.  The  net  results  of  the 
work  there  were  the  discovery  of  Gudea's  bricks 
and  of  the  temple  which  he  built;  nine  diorite  statues 
in  the  highest  form  of  Babylonian  art  yet  discovered, 
headless  indeed,  but  inscribed;  two  cylinders  with 
the  longest  inscriptions  in  Sumerian  yet  discovered; 
and,  in  1894,  a  treasure  of  30,000  tablets,  thousands 
of  which  were  stolen  by  the  Arabs  because  De 
Sarzec  was  unable  to  care  for  them.  The  temple 
of  Nin-Girsu  or  Ninib,  god  of  Lagash,  was  uncovered, 
also  the  celebrated  stele  of  vultures  which  rep- 
resents the  birds  carrying  away  from  Gishku  parts  of 
the  bodies  of  the  slain  enemies  of  King  Eannatum, 
art  objects  of  the  highest  finish  in  the  shape  of 
round  trays  of  onyx,  the  silver  vase  of  Entennna, 
beautifully  chased,  and  votive  statues.  The  tab- 
lets recovered  were  mainly  commercial  and  admin- 
istrative, the  series  running  from  c.  4000  B.C.  to 
about  2550  B.C.  The  additional  fact  was  devdoped 
that  by  4000  B.C.  the  writing  had  already  pa^ed 
beyond  the  stage  of  picture-writing. 


399 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Babylonia 


Between  1878  and  1882  Rassam  conducted 
excavations  for  the  English  at  Borsippa  and  in  the 
region  of  Babylon,  and  among  the  tablets  unearthed 
were  those  of  the  Egidi  firm  of  bankers.  Over 
60,000  were  discovered,  but  unfortunately  most 
of  them  were  ruined  by  moisture.  In  general 
they   were   of  a  business   character, 

5.  Rassam.  though  a  number  were  Uterary,  mytho- 

logical, and  religious,  and  one  was 
the  cylinder  of  Cyrus  describing  his  conquest  of  the 
city  of  Babylon.  Sippar  was  identified  with  Abu- 
Habba,  where  the  celebrated  tablet  of  the  sun-god 
was  recovered;  in  this  place  alone  Rassam  imcov- 
ered  130  chambers.  The  result  of  German  exca- 
vations at  Surghul  and  El-Habba  in  1887  was  a 
large  collection  of  mortuary  remains  and  more 
exact  knowledge  of  methods  of  disposing  of  the 
dead. 

The  next  noteworthy  attempt  at  excavation 
was  made  by  an   American  expedition  sent  out 

by  the    University  of    Pennsylvania 

6.  The  Uni-  (see  below,  IV,  9).  In  1884  an  asso- 
versity  of  ciation  of  scholars  in  America  was 
Pennsyl-    formed  to  forward  research  in  Baby- 

vania  Ex-  Ionia,  and  the  same  year  the  Wolfe 

pedition.  expedition  under  Dr.  Ward,  Mr. 
Hayncs,  and  Dr.  Sterrett  sailed  to 
make  a  preliminary  survey  and  recommend  a  site 
for  systematic  excavation.  Niffar  was  chosen, 
and  there,  beginning  in  1888,  the  most  systematic 
work  has  been  done  and  consequently  permanently 
valuable  results  have  been  there  obtained.  Aside 
from  the  recovery  of  over  50,000  tablets  and  art 
objects  of  various  sorts,  perhaps  the  most  significant 
consequence  is  the  approximate  determination  of 
the  period  of  occupation  of  the  site,  which  was 
accomplished  by  means  of  the  depth  of  the  debris. 
The  Parthian  fortress  was  seventeen  to  nineteen 
feet  above  the  pavement  of  Naram-Sin,  and  the 
interval  between  the  early  ruler  and  the  Parthians 
was  about  3,600  years.  From  the  pavement  to 
the  virgin  soil  was  about  thirty  feet,  for  twenty- 
five  of  which  continuous  evidences  of  human 
activity  were  found  in  the  shape  of  constructive 
works,  urns,  and  seal  impressions.  A  low  estimate 
would  place  the  city's  beginnings  then  as  early  as 
6000  B.C. 

A  German  expedition  has  been  working  since 
1899  on  the  mounds  which  cover  the  old  city  of 
Babylon  and  has  identified  Kassr  with  Nebuchad- 
rezzar's palace,  and  Tell-Amran  with  E-sagila. 

IV.  The  Cities:  Two  facts  differentiate  Baby- 
lonian from  Assyrian  cities.  (1)  The  former  re- 
ceived character  rather  from  their  temples  than 
from  their  palaces,  from  their  religion  than  their 
temporalities.  (2)  They  were  not  arbitrary  crea- 
tions like  most  of  the  Assyrian  cities.  Investiga- 
tions at  Nippur  and  careful  examination  of  the 
evidence  (as  by  C.  S.  Fisher,  Babylonian  Expe- 
dition of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania^  part  1, 
Philadelphia,  1905)  proves  that  the  location  of 
the  centers  of  life,  culture,  and  worship  were  the 
results  of  the  usual  play  of  natural  circumstances. 
With  the  plain  subject  to  periodical  inundations, 
the  highest  spots  were  occupied  by  the  earliest  in- 
habitants, reed  huts  were  built,  and  a  shrine  was 


erected.    The  character  of  the  materials  used  invited 
frequent  conflagrations  with  loss  of  Ufe,  which  ex- 
plains the  beds  of  ashes  next  to  virgin 

1.  Origin    soil  and  the  human  remains  found  wher- 
and  Devel-  ever  excavation  is  carried  far  enough. 

opment  With  increase  of  population  came  sys- 
tematic effort  to  escape  the  inundations 
by  elevating  the  original  mound,  further  elevation 
through  the  decay  of  the  structures,  which  was 
hastened  by  the  character  of  the  materials  used  as 
the  people  advanced  to  the  use  of  sun-dried  and 
burned  bricks,  and  finally  the  governmental  erection 
of  platforms  on  which  the  larger  cities  were  built. 

It  is  necessaiy  for  even  an  elementaiy  appre- 
ciation of  the  histoiy  of  Babylonia,  to  recognize 
the  early  existence  of  two  groups  of  cities,  one  in 
the  south  in  the  district  represented  by  the  general 
name  of  Sumer,  and  one  in  the  north  covered  by 
the  term  Akkad.  Midway  between  was  the  city 
of  Nippur.  At  the  opening  of  history  strife  b^ 
tween  the  north  and  the  south  is  in  evidence. 
Whether  this  was  due  to  the  incoming  of  Semites 
at  that  early  age  is  not  yet  certain,  though  the  possi- 
bilities are  that  way.  A  difference  in  the  language 
is  evident  in  that  early  time,  and  they  of  the  south 
claimed  the  purer  speech.  The  cities  of  the  south 
were  Eridu,  Ur,  Erech,  Girsu,  Larsa,  Shirpurla, 
and  Lagash,  and,  much  later,  in  the  extreme  south, 
Bit-Yakin.  North  of  Nippur  were  Kish,  Cutha, 
Agade,  Sippar,  and  in  later  days  Babylon  and  Bor- 
sippa. Of  these,  Eridu,  Ur,  Erech,  Larsa,  Nippur, 
and  Sippar  retained  their  eminence  almost  through- 
out history  because  of  the  celebrity  of  the  shrines 
and  of  their  deities.  Shirpurla,  Girsu,  Isin,  Kish, 
and  Agade  dropped  out  of  sight  in  the  later  period; 
Babylon  achieved  its  predominance  in  the  middle 
period  and  maintained  it  to  the  end. 

Eridu,  Siunerian  Erirdugga,  "  Holy  City,"  the 
modem  Abu-Shahrain,  "  Father  of  two  Mouths," 
was  the  southernmost  city  of  early  Babylonia, 
situated  then  on  the  Persian  Gulf,  now  130  miles 
inland.  This  fact,  on  the  basis  of  the  data  given 
for  the  rate  of  deposition  of  silt  by  the  rivers  in  the 
historical  period,  indicates  an  antiquity  of  close  to 
6000   B.C.    That    the    ruins   contain 

2.  Eridu.    the   remains  of   the   famous   temple 

E-sagil  is  certain,  since  the  city  was 
the  home  of  the  god  Ea,  who  was  said  to  come 
each  day  out  of  the  sea  to  teach  its  inhabitants 
the  useful  arts.  This  deity  remained  in  the  pan- 
theon till  the  last.  Among  the  reasons  for  the 
interest  in  this  site  is  the  fact  that  it  was  never, 
so  far  as  known,  a  poHtical  center.  It  was  the 
home  of  the  Adapa  legend,  the  fisherman  myth 
found  in  the  Amama  tablets  (cf.  Boscawen,  First 
of  Empires,  London,  1903,  pp.  69-77).  See  below 
VII,  2,  §3,  3,  §3. 

Ur,  Siunerian  Uru  or  Urimay  the  modem  Mu- 
gheir  (30  m.n.e.  of  Eridu),  is  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Euphrates.  The  ruins  form  a  rude  oval  1,000 
yards  by  800.  Its  position  made  it  probably  the 
greatest  mart  of  those  early  times.  It  was  located 
(1)  on  the  river,  easy  therefore  of  access  from  the 
Gulf  and  from  the  entire  north;  (2)  at  the  entrance 
of  a  wadi  which  leads  straight  into  the  heart  of 
Arabia  and  marks  the  caravan  route;  (3)  at  the 


Babylonia 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOQ 


400 


starting-point  of  the  road  across  the  desert  to  Egypt 

and  Africa,  a  route  early  provided  with  wells;  (4) 

just   a  little  below  where  the  Shatt- 

3.  Ur.         al-Kahr,  the  continuation  of  the  Shatt- 

al-Nil,  entered  the  Euphrates,  thus 
giving  access  to  central  Babylonia;  (5)  a  little 
above  the  Shatt-al-Hai,  which  gave  it  a  water- 
way to  the  Tigris.  Besides  these  great  advan- 
tages as  a  commercial  site,  Ur  was  the  locus  of  a 
pilgrim  shrine.  It  was  also  at  times  the  center  of 
pohtical  movements,  and  gave  several  dynasties 
to  the  land.  As  the  home  of  Sin,  with  his  celebrated 
temple  El-gishshirgal,  "  House  of  Great  Light," 
and  as  the  home  of  the  goddess  Nin-gal,  its  religious 
significance  was  hardly  less  than  its  commercial 
importance. 

Larsa,  the  Ellasar  of  Gen.  xiv,  the  modem  Sen- 
kereh,  was  situated  15  miles  e.  of  Erech,  probably 
on  the  Shatt-al-Nil.  It  was  a  home  of  the  smi-god 
whose  temple  took  its  Semitic  name,  BitShamashf 
Sumerian  E-habaTf  "  House  of  Light,"  from  the 

god   himself.    This  temple,   built   or 

4.  Larsa.    restored  by  Ur-gur  and  Dungi,  was 

restored  by  other  kings  at  frequent 
intervals.  Not  much  is  known  of  the  city  except 
that  it  was  the  head  of  a  small  state  and  was  the 
last  city  to  submit  to  Hammurabi  when  he  unified 
the  country,  c.  2250  B.C. 

Erech,  Sumerian  Unu  or  Unugj  "  Seat,"  Semitic 
Urvk  or  Arkuy  the  modem  Warka  and  the  Greek 
Orchoe,  probably  the  home  of  the  Archevites  of 
Ezra  iv,  9,  was  situated  between  the  Shatt-al-Nil 
and  the  Euphrates,  30  miles  n.  of  Ur.  The  ruins 
are  about  six  miles  in  circumference,  indicating 
a  large  population.  Erech  was  Sumerian  in  origin, 
one  of  the  most  sacred  of  Babylonian  cities  from 
early  times,  and  continued  to  stand  high  in  the 
esteem  of  the  people.  The  two  goddesses,  Ishtar 
and  Nana  or  Nina  or  Anunit,  had  their  seat  there 

in  the  two  temples  E^Umaah,  "  House 

5.  Erech.    of  the  Oracle,"  and  E-Ana,  "  House  of 

Heaven."  Besides  the  two  temples 
Erech  had  the  seven-staged  ziggurat  E-zipar-4mina. 
It  was  a  walled  city,  intersected  by  canals,  and  has 
yielded  to  the  spade  of  the  excavator  evidences 
of  the  activities  of  early  kings  of  the  Ur  dynasty, 
Dungi  and  Ur-Bau.  It  was  a  seat  of  learning  also, 
the  source  of  part  of  the  library  of  Asshurbanipal, 
the  locus  of  the  Gilgamesh  epic  and  of  a  creation 
story,  the  place  of  abode  of  the  wailing  priestesses 
of  Ishtar  who  celebrated  the  Ishtar-Tammuz 
episode.  It  was  therefore  rich  in  those  possessions 
which  were  dearest  to  the  Babylonians.  Later 
it  fell  into  decay  and  was  used  as  a  necropolis. 

Shirpurla,  the  modem  Telloh,  was  situated  east 
of  Erech.     In  the  opinion  of  modern  scholars  it 

was   originally   two   cities,    Shirpurla 

6.  Shir-     and    Lagash.     It    was   the   home   of 
purla  and    two    celebrated    kings,    Ur-Bau   and 

Lagash.  Gudea.  The  fish-goddess  Nina  had 
a  home  there,  and  the  temple  of 
Nin-sungir  was  also  located  in  the  place.  It  may 
have  been  the  Babylonian  Nineveh.  Its  inscrip- 
tions are  wholly  in  Sumerian,  and  the  ceremonies 
at  the  foimding  of  temples  are  best  known  from 
discoveries  made  at  this  city 


Isin  or  Nisin  is  one  of  the  lost  cities,  its  site 
not  yet  having  been  recovered  or  at  least  iden- 
tified.    It   was  in   aU    probability  a 

7.  Isin  or    Uttle  north  of  the  middle  of  the  line 
Nisin.       joining  Erech  and  Shirpurla.     It  con- 
tained the  ziggurat-temple  E-kharsa(h 

kalama,  "  Moimtain  of  the  Worid/'  belonging  to 
Ishtar-Nina. 

Girsu  is  another  of  the  lost  cities;  possibly  the 

modem  Tell-Id  covers  it.    At  any  rate  its  locaticm 

is  sought  a  few  miles  northeast  of 

8.  Girsu.    Erech.     It    was    very  early    a  seat 

of  government  but  was  soon  dwarfed 
by  its  more  prosperous  neighbors,  abandoned, 
and  then  lost  to  sight. 

Nippur,  the  modem  Niffar  (35  m.  s.e.  of  Babylon), 
revered  in  ancient  times  as  the  home  of  En-hl, 
the  earliest  Bel  of  Babylonia,  and  the  locus  of  his 
great  temple  E-kur,  "  Mountain  House,"  was  on 
the  Shatt-al-Nil  which  ran  through  the  city.  It 
is  the  site  of  the  epoch-making  excavations  of  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania  through  which  more 
of  light  on  early  conditions  has  come  than  from 

any    other    single    source.     It    con- 
9.  Nippur,   tained  the  chief  sanctuary  of  the  land 

in  the  early  and  middle  period,  and 
its  possession  was  always  coveted  by  the  rulers 
because  of  the  prestige  which  accrued,  but  its  pres- 
tige was  purely  religious.  Kings  of  the  north  and 
of  the  south  and  of  imited  Babylonia  vied  in  doing 
honor  to  its  god,  placing  there  votive  c^erings  to 
Bel.  Even  after  Babylon  had  attained  its  pre- 
dominance and  Marduk  had  seized  the  podticm 
and  attached  the  name  of  Bel,  the  Sumerian  En-Iil 
still  received  his  meed  of  worship.  The  topogrs^by 
of  Nippur  has  been  investigated  by  the  help  of  a 
native  map  dated  about  3000  B.C.  foimd  on  the  site 
(cf.  C.  S.  Fisher,  Babylonian  Expedition  of  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania^  part  1,  Philadelphia, 
1905).  Ur,  Erech,  and  Nippur  remained  for  mil- 
lenniums the  triad  of  most  holy  cities  of  the  land. 

North  of  Babylon  and  Borsippa  are  Kish  and 
Outha,  a  few  miles  apart  and  related  to  each  other 
as  were  Borsippa  and  Babylon.  Cutha  is  repre- 
sented by  the  modem  Tell-Ibrahim  (15  m.  s.e.  from 
Sippar  and  the  same  distance  n.e.  from  Babylon). 
It  was  the  seat  of  the  god  Nergal  and  the  site  of 
his  temple  E-ahidlantf  "  House  of  Shadow."    Its 

neighbor  Kish,  possibly  the  modem 

10.  Kish    Al-Ohaimer,   appears  in    the   records 

and  Cutha.  belonging  to  the  very  dawn  of  history. 

Not  improbably,  it  was  one  of  the 
early  seats  of  the  Semitic  settlers.  Its  king  Lug&l- 
zaggisi  in  the  fifth  pre-Christian  miUennium 
claimed  dominion  from  the  "  Lower  Sea  "  (Persian 
Gulf)  to  the  "  Upper  Sea  "  (Mediterranean  or  Lake 
Van?),  and  it  was  again  prominent  in  the  time  of 
Hammurabi,  who  had  a  palace  there,  and  built 
the  ziggurat  called  E-mUiuraag,  "  House  of  War- 
rior's Adornment." 

Akkad  and  Sippar  must  also  be  treated  together, 
for  it  is  believed  that  they  were  not  two  but  one. 
Akkad,  Smnerian  Agade,  was  the  city  of  Sargon  I 
and  the  capital  in  his  time  of  the  region  of  Akkad 
(the  Sumerian  Uri),  and  is  mentioned  Gen.  x,  1. 
Sippar  was  almost  certainly  a  dual  city,  located 


401 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Babylonia 


at   the  modem   Abu-Habba.    The  Hebrew   dual 

form  Sepharvaim  has  by  some  been  referred  to 

this  city.    The  displacement  of  Ishtar 

II.  Akkad  of  Akkad  by  Animit  goes  well  with 
and  Sippar.  the  hypothesis  of  the  oneness  of 
Akkad  and  Sippar,  and  equally  con- 
cordant is  the  long  continuance  in  importance  of 
Sippar  and  the  utter  loss  of  Akkad  as  a  city.  Akkad 
had  no  great  claims  to  importance  outside  of  its 
eminence  poh'tically  under  Sargon;  and  its  political 
eminence  was  utterly  lost  when  Babylon  assumed 
the  leadership  in  Babylonia.  On  the  other  hand, 
Sippar  always  had  claims  to  importance  on  accoimt 
of  its  deity  Shamash,  and  this  importance  would 
easily  permit  it  to  assimilate  and  absorb  its  less 
important  neighbor.  Thus  Sippar  lived  on,  its 
temple  of  Shamash,  E-harray  "  House  of  Brilliance," 
and  its  temple  of  Anunit,  E-^ulbar,  securing  its 
fame. 

Babylon  bore  also  the  name  Tiiv4ir,  "  Seat  of 
Life."  In  Gen.  x,  10  it  is  named  as  one  of  the  four 
cities  of  Shinar.  The  description  which  has  been 
current  in  Christendom  goes  back  to  the  narrative 
of  Herodotus  (i,  178-179;  transl.  in  Rogers,  His- 
tory of  Babylonia  and  Assyria,  i,  389-391,  where 
is  given  also  the  India  House  inscription  of  Nebu- 
chadrezzar describing  the  defenses  he  added  to 
the  city).  According  to  Herodotus,  Babylon  was 
a  great  square  fifty-four  miles  in  circuit,  enclosed 
by  a  moat  of  running  water  and  by  a  rampart  300 
feet  in  height  and  seventy- five  broad.  Ctesias 
gives  only  forty-one  miles  for  the  circuit.  The 
moimds  called  by  modem  Arabs  Jumjima,  Amran, 
Kassr,  and  BabU  are  recognized  as  covering  parts 
of  the  old  city.  The  origin  of  Babylon  as  a  city  is 
unknown,  as  it  does  not  appear  in  history  till 
just  before  the  time  of  Hammurabi, 

12.  Bab-  2250  b.c,  and  it  then  figures  as  his 
ylon.  capital.  The  prowess  of  that  king 
elevated  it  to  the  supreme  political 
position,  which  it  maintained  till  Persian  times. 
From  Hammurabi's  days  "  king  of  Babylon " 
was  one  of  the  proudest  titles  of  the  monarchs  of 
Western  Asia.  Though  destroyed  by  Sennacherib 
Babylon  was  restored  by  Esarhaddon  in  a  style  of 
still  greater  magnificence,  but  it  was  Nebuchad- 
rezzar who  elevated  it  to  its  pinnacle  of  greatness. 
It  was  he  who  completed  its  two  great  walls,  the 
outer  Nimitti-Bel,  "  Dwelling  of  Bel,"  and  its  inner, 
Imgur-Bel,  "  Bel  is  Gracious,"  and  dug  the  moat 
of  which  Herodotus  tells.  He  finished  the  two 
great  streets,  which  he  elevated  and  paved.  The 
walls  enclosed  spaces  not  occupied  by  dwellings, 
asserted  to  be  large  enough  to  raise  crops  ample 
to  support  the  inhabitants  during  a  siege,  making 
Babylon,  with  its  great  external  defenses,  im- 
pregnable against  a  foe  on  the  outside.  Its  great 
temple  for  Marduk,  E-sagila,  "  House  of  the  Lofty 
Head,"  and  its  ziggurat  E-temenanaki,  seven  stages 
in  height,  are  described  by  the  proud  builder  and 
beautifier  of  them.  The  temple  was  a  compoimd 
of  sanctuaries,  the  principal  one,  of  course,  Bel's, 
containing  the  splendid  statue  by  taking  the  hands 
of  which  year  by  year  the  kings  of  Babylon  con- 
firmed their  right  to  the  title.  Nebuchadrezzar's 
palace  was  also  there,  built  new  from  the  foimda- 
I.— 26 


tions.  Hardly  less  famous  than  walls  and  temples 
and  palace  were  the  great  gateways,  closed  by 
massive  bronze-covered  doors  guarded  by  huge 
colossi.  And  another  temple  or  z  ggurat,  E-kur, 
"  Moimtain  House  "  was  also  located  in  the  city. 
This  king  might  well  have  exclaimed:  ''  Is  not 
this  great  Babylon  which  I  have  built  for  the  royal 
dweUing-place,  by  the  might  of  my  power  and  for 
the  glory  of  my  majesty?"  (Dan.  iv,  30;  cf. 
D.  W.  McGee,  Zvr  Topographie  Babylons  auf 
Orund  der  Urkunden  Nabopolassars  und  Nebi^ 
kadnezars,  in  Beitrdge  zur  Assyriologie,  iii,  524-560.) 
Borsippa,  the  modem  Birs  Nimrud,  is  of  impor- 
tance only  as  the  suburb  of  Babylon  and  the  home 
of  Nebo,  the  prophet-god  of  the  coimtry.  There 
are  some  signs  that  its  origin  antedated  that  of 
Babylon,  as  for  instance  the  fact  that  on  his  yearly 
visit   to   Marduk   Nebo   was   accom- 

13.  Bor-     panied  by  Marduk  part  way  on  the 
sippa.       return   journey,    and    this    is   inter- 
preted as  an  indication  of  a  former 

precedence  which  was  abolished  when  Marduk 
became  supreme.  This  is  corroborated  by  the 
relationship  assigned  to  Nebo  as  the  son  of  Marduk, 
a  fiction  of  late  date.  The  famous  temple  of  the 
place  was  named  E-zida,  "  Established  House," 
sacred  to  Nebo.  The  temple  of  the  Seven  Spheres 
of  Heaven  and  Earth  was  also  located  there. 
Bit-Yakin  was  a  city  in  the  extreme  south,  the 
capital    of    the    £[aldu    before    they 

14.  Bit-     became  masters    of    Babylonia.     It 
Yakin.      had    been    the    home    of    Merodach- 

Baladan,  and  belonged  to  the  king- 
dom of  the  Sea  Lands. 

V.  The  People,  Language,  and  Culture:  Careful 
discrimination  with  respect  to  periods  must  be 
made  in  describing  the  population.  The  fertility 
and  the  wealth  and  culture  existent  in  the  coun- 
try made  it  the  natural  focus  of  efforts  at  sub- 
jugation. Different  races  came  in  and  settled  in 
the  land,  but  the  old  population  was  able  to  assimi- 
late the  new  elements  which  made  the  region  their 
home.  The  Babylonians  of  later  periods  were 
consequently  a  people  of  very  mixed  origin.  The 
earliest  inhabitants  were  a  non-Semitic  race,  almost 

certainly  Mongolian,  using  an  agglu- 

I.  The  Ear-  tinative  language   which   differed  in 

liest  Inhab-  its  vocabulary,  its  root    forms,  and 

itants  Mon-  its    granunar  from  the  Semitic  type 

golian.       (see    below,   §§   3-5).    This    earliest 

population,  dating  back  to  the  begin- 
ning of  the  fifth  pre-Christian  millennium,  is  shown 
by  statues  from  Telloh  now  in  the  Louvre  to  have  - 
been  short  of  stature  and  thick  set,  brachycephalic, 
with  high  cheek  bones,  flat  face,  broad  nose,  and 
almond-shaped  eyes,  and  to  have  been  either  beard- 
less or  to  have  had  the  head  and  face  shaven. 
Other  statues  of  the  same  period  seem  to  represent 
a  mixed  race  with  the  characteristics  just  noted 
somewhat  toned  down.  With  these  is  to  be  con- 
trasted the  type  shown  in  later  reliefs  and  statues, 
a  dolycephalic  race,  typically  slender,  with  aquiline 
features,  and  hair  and  beard  that  were  long  and 
wavy. 

Upon  the  earlier  Sumerians,  as  the  Mongolic 
people  is  named,  before  4000  B.C.,  came  in  the 


Babylonia 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


408 


Semites  as  conquerors  of  part  of  the  land,  which 

after  some  himdreds  of  years  was  wholly  under 

their  control.    Thus  a  second  element  was  added 

to  the  population.    Somewhere  about 

2.  Semitic  2500  B.C.  a  second  Semitic  immigra- 

Immigra-  tion  reenforced  the  first  and  marked 
lions.  the  completeness  of  Semitic  domina- 
tion. Elamites  and  Kasshites,  both 
probably  predominantly  Mongolian,  and  then 
Semites  again  followed  each  other  at  intervals. 
Still  another  Semitic  addition  to  the  population  is 
to  be  added  in  the  conquest  by  the  Kaldu;  while 
the  Assyrian  and  Chaldean  periods  added  other  ele- 
ments in  the  colonists  forcibly  introduced  from 
subjected  coimtries.  In  the  Chaldean  period,  there- 
fore, the  population  had  become  exceedin^y  het- 
erogeneous in  res{>ect  to  origin. 

Modem  knowledge  of  the  tongues  of  Babylonia 
has  come  entirely  from  a  study  of  native  sources, 
viz.!  The  inscriptions  on  bricks  out  of  which  struc- 
tures were  built  or  streets  or  squares  paved,  on 
door-sockets,  on  votive  offerings  of  various 
materials,  on  record-tablets  of  clay  or  stone, 
on  statues,  on  cylinders  of  varying  form,  on 
cones,  vases,  and  bowls  (see  Inbcriptignb).  The 
writing  in  which  these  records  were  made  is 
called  cimeiform  or  wedge-shaped,  [from  the 
form  of  the  simple  elements  of 
3.  The  Lan-  which  most  of  the  characters  are 
guage.  Two  composed.  It  exists  in  two  varieties, 
Forms,  concerning  which  two  theories  have 
been  stated  and  defended.  One  is 
that  the  earlier  form  is  not  a  language  in  the  sense 
of  a  distinct  speech,  but  is  a  cryptic  or  artificial 
method  of  writing,  corresponding  loosely  with  the 
hieratic  of  Egypt.  Along  with  this  may  go  the 
hypothesis  that  there  was  no  pre-Semitic  race  in 
Babylonia,  and  that  the  whole  civilization  was 
Semitic  in  origin  and  development.  The  second 
theory  is  that  this  method  of  writing  was  a  distinct 
tongue,  belonging  to  a  non-Semitic  family,  akin  to 
the  Mongol-Tataric  group.  For  a  number  of  years 
modem  students  of  Babylonian  inscriptions  were  in 
two  camps  nearly  equally  divided  in  numbers  and 
authority.  But  within  the  last  twenty-five  years 
the  advocates  of  the  second  theory  have  become 
the  more  numerous,  until  at  the  present  day  Hal^vy 
in  France,  McCurdy  in  Canada,  and  Price  and  Jas- 
trow  in  the  United  States  are  the  only  scholars  of 
high  rank  who  support  the  first  theory.  A  reason 
for  the  long  debate  is  that  the  cuneiform  is  exceed- 
ingly complex  and  its  acquisition  difficult.  The 
signs  are  conventional,  not  natural.  Different 
forms  exist  for  the  same  sound,  and  the  same  char- 
acter may  have  different  values,  syllabic  or  ideo- 
graphic, and  may  therefore  be  pronounced  in  a 
number  of  ways  and  may  also  carry  more  than  one 
meaning. 

The  facts  which  have  abundantly  established 
the  reality  of  a  Sumerian-Akkadian  language  may 
be  summed  under  two  heads*  (1)  The  character  of 
the  writing.  As  already  noted  above,  the  Sumerian 
differs  in  vocabulary,  root-forms,  and  grammar  from 
the  Semitic  type.  It  has  not  the  triliteral,  tri- 
consonantal  roots  of  the  latter,  lacks  the  accidence 
of  gender,  is  not  inflectional,  is  fond  of  compounded 


words,  has  a  imique  numeral  system,  uses  poetpoa- 

tions    instead    of    prepositions,    while   dependent 

clauses    precede    major    clauses  and 

4.  The  Su-  causal  particles  follow  their   clauses. 
merian-Ak-  (2)  Facts  in  history.     The   existence 

kadian      of  two  languages  is  presupposed  by 
Language,  the  ethnology  of  the  land,  a  Mongolian 

people  gradually  conquered  by  a  Sem- 
itic. Hanunurabi  entrusted  his  records  to  both 
methods  of  writing,  this  proceeding  being  exactly 
what  would  be  expected  of  a  king  ruling  a  dual 
realm  whose  subjects  were  of  different  races  and 
tongues.  The  texts  are  often  bilingual  in  alternate 
lines,  and  Sumerian-Semitic  dictionaries  or  s^dla- 
baries  are  found.  Moreover,  religious  formulas, 
ritualistic  and  magical,  are  in  the  Sumerian  lan- 
guage and  persist  so  down  to  the  latest  times. 
This  is  in  accord  with  the  universal  law  of  religions, 
according  to  which  ritual  and  other  formulae  are 
retained  in  use  long  after  the  language  has  ceased 
to  be  imderstood.  Further,  the  employment  of  the 
Sumerian  language  was  provincial;  its  home  was 
in  the  south  and  there  it  lingered  longest.  This 
tallies  with  what  is  but  the  other  face  of  the  sanoe 
fact,  viz.,  that  the  south  was  the  region  latest  sub- 
dued by  the  conquering  Semites.  Moreover,  the 
antagonism  between  the  north  and  the  south  which 
study  of  the  history  discloses  is  in  part  explained 
by  difference  in  race,  which  in  this  case  accom- 
panies difference  in  speech.  Add  to  the  foregoing 
that  a  tablet  in  the  Semitic  tongue  mentions  by 
name  the  Akkadian,  stating  that  in  a  "  great  tablet 
house  "  (library)  the  "  tongue  of  Akkad  is  in  the 
third  [room]."  Akkadian  and  Sumerian  were  di^ 
lectical  varieties  of  the  same  speech. 

The  other  language,  the  Assyrio-Babylonian,  was 
of  the  common  Semitic  type,  inflectional,  its  roots 
were  triliteral  and  triconsonantal,  and  it  belonged 

to  the  north    Semitic  branch  which 

5.  The  As-  included  the  Aramaic,  Phenician,  and 
syrio-Baby-  Hebraic    families.     It    presents    few 

Ionian  difficulties  to  the  average  scholar  in 
Language.  Semitic,  apart  from  those  offered  in 
the  reading  of  the  character  itself. 
The  twofold  method  of  writing  goes  back  to  about 
4000  BC.  But  after  the  final  conquest  by  the 
Semites,  c.  2250  B.C.,  the  use  of  the  Sumerian  tongue 
was  almost  entirely  confined  to  matters  religious 
or  magical.  To  the  world-speech  it  has  given  one 
word  at  least  of  value,  "  Sabbath." 

In  one  or  the  other,  sometimes  in  both,  of  these 
languages  the  literature  of  Babylonia  was  written. 
In  the  earliest  period,  and  in  the  south  down  to  the 
middle  period,  records  were  entirely  in  the  Sumerian. 
The  substance  of  the  literature  is  very  varied.    It 
may    be    comprised    under   six    heads:  histx>rical, 
diplomatic,   scientific,   religious,  conunercial,  and 
legal.     (1)  The    historical    material    includes   the 
record  of  the  operations  of  government.     Notice- 
able is  the  fact  that  the  records  of  the  kings  of  the 
land  deal  largely  with  temple-building 
6.  The       or  the  excavation  of  canals  or  beauti- 
Literature.  fication  of  cities — a  striking  contrast 
to  the  record  of  martial  exploits  which 
so  nearly  fill  Assyrian  annals.     (2)  Diplomatic  in- 
tercourse is  suggested  by  the  Amama  correspoDd- 


403 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Babylonia 


ence  (see  Amarna  Tablets).  (3)  The  scientific 
writings  include  books  on  history,  geography,  as- 
trology, astronomy,  medicine,  mathematics,  and 
linguistics.  (4)  Religious  texts  include  the  epics, 
myths,  folk-tales,  and  the  ritual  of  prayer,  psalmody, 
incantation,  and  magic.  (5)  The  commercial  texts, 
forming  by  far  the  greatest  bulk  of  the  inscriptions 
recovered,  are  usually  inventoried  imder  the  name 
"  contract  tablets,"  a  term  which  is  far  too  narrow 
to  describe  accurately  the  great  variety  of  these 
documents.  They  are  oftener  records  of  transac- 
tions completed  than  statements  of  agreements  to 
be  carried  out.  They  cover  every  phase  of  social, 
even  of  family,  life,  and  deal  with  marrying  and 
purchase,  renting  of  land  and  hiring  of  persons, 
with  crops  and  merchandise  and  handicrafts.  (6) 
For  the  legal  literature  see  Hammttbabi  and  his 
Code. 

The  writing  of  this  literature  was  often  micro- 
scopic and  had  to  be  read  with  the  help  of  a  magni- 
fying-glass.  It  is  interesting  to  note  in  this  con- 
nection that  a  lens  (of  crystal)  evidently  used  for 
such  a  purpose  is  now  in  the  British  Museum. 
Long  works  appeared  on  a  series  of  tablets,  and  the 
order  in  the  series  was  indicated  by  marginal  notes 
such  as  are  made  on  modem  sheets  intended  as 
copy  for  the  printer  or  as  employed  in  commercial 
correspondence.  Copying  of  old  tablets  was  often 
most  faithfully  done,  and  some  late  documents 
exist  which  record  that  in  the  exemplar  followed 
by  the  scribe  there  was  a  hiatus  in  the  text.  The 
poetry,  like  that  of  the  Hebrews,  was  character- 
ized by  parallelism,  and  the  strophical  structure  is 
often  evident. 

Nippur  is  the  only  place  where  systematic  exca- 
vations have  been  carried  down  to  the  stratum 
manifesting  the  beginning  of  the  city  in  the  colle<v 
tion  of  inflammable  reed  huts  so  often  burned 
down  with  evident  loss  of  life  Written  records 
began  much  later.  According  to  the  chronology 
assumed  by  this  article,  the  earliest  documents 
date  back  to  about  4500  b.c  At  that  time  there 
were  cities  which  possessed  an  advanced  civiliza^ 
tioD,  where  the  social  fabric  was  already  complex, 
and  where  the  strife  for  empire  was  already  violent. 
Public  works  were  carried  on  by  the  government, 
and  division  of  labor  had  been  accomplished.  The 
condition  was  such  that  a  long  antecedent  devel- 
opment is  necessarily  assumed.  Thus  it  is  known 
that  Nippur  had  four  navigable  canals,  possibly 
one  of  them  the  regular  channel  of  the  Euphrates 
of  the  time.  It  was  not  so  very  long  before  the 
two  great  canals,  the  Shatt-al-Nil  (probably  the 
Chebar  of  Ezekiel)  and  the  Shatt-al-Hai  were  in 
existence.  The  former  branched  off  from  the  Eu- 
phrates above  where  Babylon  stood  later,  struck 
out  toward  the  interior  of  the  country  and,  after 
running  south  over   100  miles,  joined   the  same 

river  nearly  opposite  Ur.    The  Shatt- 

7.  The      al-Hai    started    from    the   Euphrates 

Civilization,  a   little   below    Ur   and   crossed   the 

country  in  a  northeasterly  direction 
till  it  joined  the  Tigris.  In  the  extreme  north, 
just  below  Sippar,  another  canal  imited  the  two 
rivers.  Besides  these  great  channels  others  are 
known  to  have  existed  and  in  many  cases  their 


courses  may  still  be  traced.  By  3000  b.c.  these 
works  had  made  Babylonia  the  land  of  many 
waters.  As  a  further  evidence  of  the  advance  of 
civilization  it  is  shown  that  as  early  as  4000  B.C., 
tin  and  antimony  were  used  to  harden  copper  and 
to  make  it  more  fusible.  Another  indication  of 
culture  are  the  many  testimonies  to  an  early  com- 
merce which  embraced  probably  all  Arabia,  the 
Sinaitic  peninsula,  Egypt,  and  the  Mediterranean 
coast  region;  and  a  remarkable  fact  is  startling  to 
learn,  namely,  that  the  Nippur  arch  is  placed  by 
Hilprecht  prior  to  4000  B.C.  (Nippur,  p.  399) 
The  corbeled  arch  shown  in  the  same  work  (p.  420) 
is  not  a  true  arch,  but  is  similar  to  the  Mycensan 
gateways  formed  of  stones  beveled  so  as  to  meet 
at  the  top.  This  period,  therefore,  was  one  of  regu- 
lated oonuperce,  advanced  public  works,  and  large 
international  intercourse.  Cadastral  surveys  were 
made  by  the  government  in  the  fifth  pre-Christian 
millennium  as  a  basis  for  taxation  and  for  the  regu- 
lating of  sales  of  land.  Civilized  methods  of  gov- 
ernment were  therefore  employed. 

The    legal  provisions  are  also  of  value  in  reveal- 
ing the  type  of  civilization.    Slavery  is  in  evidence 
during  all  periods.    Slaves  were  of  two  classes, 
private  and  public;  in  the  latter  case 
8.  Slavery    they  might  belong  to  the  government  or 

and  the      to  the  temples.    Public  slaves  were 
Status  of    doubtless  employed  on  the  great  public 

Women,  works;  temple  slaves  were  used  in  the 
usual  menial  offices  about  the  temples, 
and  also  in  tilling  the  temple  lands.  Even  in  Siuner- 
ian  times  the  law  protected  the  slave  from  ill-treat- 
ment. The  servitor  was  often  apprenticed  to  a  handi- 
craft that  his  labor  might  be  more  profitable  to  his 
owner.  But  he  might  engage  in  trade  on  his  own 
accoimt  and,  if  fortunate,  even  purchase  his  freedom. 
Records  are  known  where  a  slave  lent  his  master 
money  and  at  the  usual  interest.  The  whole  im- 
pression given  by  usages  respecting  slavery  is  there- 
fore that  of  a  mild  and  comfortable  culture.  This 
impression  is  heightened  by  the  tendency  of  law 
and  custom  respecting  marriage.  While  the  usage 
was  theoretically  polygamous,  the  many  protections 
thrown  around  the  wife  and  her  dower,  the  hindran- 
ces to  divorce  and  the  penalties  for  it,  and  the  mutual 
agreements  contrary  to  polygamy  indicate  that  the 
practise  was  predominatingly  monogamous.  Not 
opposed  to  this  general  appearance  is  the  showing 
made  by  the  status  of  woman.  She  could  hold 
property,  could  trade,  and  might  maintain  and 
defend  actions  at  law.  Partnership  of  man  and 
wife  in  conduct  of  business  is  often  in  evidence. 
The  freedom  of  woman  is  one  of  the  noteworthy 
features  of  Babylonian  life. 

In  full  accord  with  the  indications  already  given 
is  the  diversity  of  the  activities  of  the  early  popu- 
lation.   Besides  the  agricultimst  and 

9.  Occu-    shepherd,    there    were    weavers    and 

patioDB.  fullers  and  dyers — Babylonian  gar- 
ments in  a  later  period  were  in  high 
repute — brickmakers  and  potters,  smiths  of  various 
sorts  and  carpenters  and  stonecutters,  goldsmiths 
and  jewelers  and  carvers  in  wood  and  ivory.  The 
learned  professions  included,  besides  the  priests 
who  gave  tone  to  society,  scribes  who  acted  as 


Babylonia 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


404 


teachers  and  librarians  and  publishers  and 
notaries,  physicians  and  astronomers  and  mu- 
sicians. Gold,  silver,  copper,  and  ivory,  and 
later  bronze,  glass,  and  lapis  lazuli,  were  worked 
and  employed  in  the  useful  and  ornamental 
arts. 

It  is  not  improbable  that  the  high  scientific 
attainments  of  the  first  pre-Christian  millennium 
have  been  mistakenly  read  back  into 
xo.  Science,  much  earlier  times.  Doubtful  is  the 
claim  that  eclipses  were  correctly  pre- 
dicted before  the  Assyrian  age;  though  by  that  time 
the  periodicity  of  these  events  was  well  known  and 
records  of  ecUpses  and  obscurations  were  kept  at 
Borsippa  and  Sippar.  Science  was  inaccurate, 
the  fallacy  of  post  hoc  propter  hoc  being  character- 
istic of  this  as  of  all  early  civilizations,  most  evident 
in  the  doctrine  of  omens. 

The  civilization  thus  described  is  Siunerian- 
Akkadian,  not  Semitic,  as  the  preponderating 
weight  of  scholarship  now  affirms.  The  Semites 
came  in  upon  this  civilization  and  adopted  and 
adapted  it  so  that  its  ideals  became  theirs, — even 
the  theology  was  taken  over  and  remolded  in  the 
Semitic  consciousness. 

VL  History.  1.  Chronolory:  Babylonian  chro- 
nology rests  upon  the  same  general  facts  as 
that  of  Assyria  (q.v.).  The  absolute  datum  is 
the  eclipse  of  the  year  763  B.C.  The  other  dates 
depend  upon  synchronisms,  either  stated  or  com- 
puted by  means  of  comparison  of  native  documents 
such  as  the  King-list  or  the  Babylonian  Chronicle, 
or  upon  individual  statements  respecting  date, 
genealogy,  and  the  like.  Besides  these  data,  the 
form  of  the  characters  in  the  documents  often 
gives  a  clue  to  the  relative  age  of  certain  documents 
and  therefore  of  the  maker.  The  King-list  gives 
the  names  of  kings  c.  2400-625  B.C.  A  second 
King-list  gives  the  first  and  second  d3maBties  of 
Babylon.  The  Babylonian  Chronicle  refers  to 
members  of  the  first,  fifth,  sixth,  and  seventh 
dynasties,  and  another  Chronicle  gives  parts  of 
three  dynasties,  furnishing  a  check 
upon  the  first.  The  most  important 
isolated  data  are  the  following.  A 
king  named  £^(dingir)nagin  calls  himself  a  son 
of  Akurgal;  Entena  is  named  son  of  En-anna-tum 
and  descendant  of  Ur-Nina,  while  En-anna-tum 
II  is  son  of  Entena;  and  the  daughter  of  Ur-Bau 
is  called  the  wife  of  Nammaghani.  These  items 
give  the  succession  in  a  djmasty.  Bumaburiash 
is  shown  by  the  Amama  Tablets  (q.v.)  to  have 
been  a  contemporary  of  Thothmes  III  and  IV  of 
Egypt,  and  he  is  stated  by  Nabonidus  to  have 
reigned  700  years  after  Hanmiurabi.  This  datum 
places  Hammurabi  about  2100  B.C.,  which  comes 
within  a  century  of  the  date  obtained  from  other 
sources.  A  king  named  Shagarakti-buriash  is 
placed  by  Nabonidus  c.  800  years  before  his  own 
time,  a  date  which  agrees  well  with  the  character 
of  the  name  and  with  other  indications.  A  boimd- 
ary-stone  of  the  foiuth  regnal  year  of  Bel-nadin- 
apli  (1118  B.C.)  asserts  that  from  Gulkishar,  king 
of  the  Sea  Lands,  to  Nebuchadrezzar  I,  was  696 
years,  which  item  locates  Gulkishar  c.  1818  B.C. 
Sennacherib  asserts  that  418  years  before  689  B.C., 


1.  The 
Data. 


Marduk-hadin-ahi  of  Babylon  carried  off  two 
images  from  Assyria;  this  datum  fixes  the  year  of 
the  victory  as  1107  B.C.,  while  the  beginning  of 
Marduk-nadin-ahi's  reign  is  settled  as  1117  by  tk 
stone  telling  of  a  victory  over  Assyria  in  his  tenth 
regnal  year.  Asshurbanipal  relates  that  in  a  cer- 
tain year  (known  to  be  640  B.C.)  he  brou^t  bade 
from  Mam  an  image  carried  thither  1,635  years 
earlier  by  Kudur-nanhimdi,  an  Elamite,  thus  pla- 
cing the  Elamite  invasion  c.  2275  B.C.  This  fits 
in  exceedingly  well  with  the  datum  about  the  date 
of  Hammurabi  referred  to  above.  Nabonidus 
states  in  the  inscription  in  which  he  dates  Shag- 
arakti-buriash (ut  sup.)  that  he  found  the  comer- 
stone  of  the  temple  of  Shamash  at  Nippur  laid  by 
Naram-Sin  3,200  years  earlier,  thus  placing  Naram- 
Sin  about  3750  B.C.,  and  giving  the  date  by  whidi 
to  locate  early  events. 

There  have  been  in  recent  years  attempts  to  re- 
duce the  age  of  Sargon  and  Naram-Sin  by  from  318 
to  about  1,000  years.  For  the  shorter  reductioo 
alone  is  there  positive  indication,  the  fact  being 
that  a  dynasty  which  reigned  318  years  is  some- 
times repeated,  and  it  is  supposed  that  Nabonidus 
included  in  his  reckoning  this  doubled  period.  The 
round  niunbers  which  appear  in  Nabonidus's  state- 
ments are  also  the  objects  of  suspicion.  But  there 
are  certain  facts  which  lead  to  the 
2.  Value  of  conclusion  that  Nabonidus  was  not 
Nabonidus's  far  out  of  the  way.  In  the  first  place, 
Dates,  he  was  very  much  the  antiquarian, 
very  little  the  king.  His  very  care  in 
going  to  the  foimdations  of  buildings  he  was  ea- 
gaged  in  restoring  and  his  evident  pride  in  record- 
ing his  archeological  discoveries  is  a  prima  facie 
testimony  to  his  good  faith.  Moreover,  the  state- 
ments he  makes  are,  in  general,  consistent  with 
each  other  and  with  the  results  from  other  sources. 
Throwing  light  upon  antiquarian  methods  in  the 
time  of  this  king  is  a  squeeze  of  a  tablet  of  Sargon 
I,  i.e.,  an  impress  with  raised  letters  reading  back- 
ward. It  is  an  example  of  scientific  work  d<»ie 
about  550  B.C.  Moreover,  as  suggesting  sources 
for  the  calculations  of  this  king  in  records  preserved 
till  his  time,  there  was  found  at  Nippur  a  coUec- 
tion  of  tablets  of  different  periods  from  the  assumed 
date  of  Sargon  to  615  b.c,  this  collection  sealed  up 
in  a  jar.  It  is  not  beyond  the  boimds  of  proba- 
bility, therefore,  that  Nabonidus  had  access  to  doc- 
uments similar  to  these  upon  which  he  based  his 
calculations.  Inasmuch  as  there  is  no  positive 
evidence  against  the  date  for  Sargon  furnished  by 
Nabonidus,  and  objections  to  it  come  principally 
from  a  distrust  of  statements  involving  high  an- 
tiquity, and  taking  into  accoimt  the  indications 
derived  (a)  from  depth  of  debris,  (b)  from  the 
changes  in  the  character  of  the  writing,  and  (c) 
from  allusions  to  Eridu  as  once  situated  on  the 
Gulf,  the  probability  is  suggested  that  no  great 
change  is  likely  to  be  required  in  the  general  system 
of  dates  now  adopted  tentatively  for  eariy  Baby- 
lonia. 

2.  The  Pre-Sarffonic  A^e,  4600-3800  B.a 
History  opens  with  the  mention  of  En-^hag-kmdir 
anna,  who  names  himself  king  of  Kengi^  the  name 
for  South  Babylonia  or  Sumer.     He  also  calls  him- 


405 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Babylonia 


self  patesi  *  of  En-Hl  of  Nippur.  He  is  doubtless  a 
Sumerian,  as  is  shown  both  by  his  name  and  his 

region;  but  that  the  Semite  is  already 

1.  En-shaff-  in  the  land  and  even  among  the  king's 

kuBhanna.  subjects  is  clear.  With  this  first  of  the 

known  kings  of  the  land  comes  also 
knowledge  of  the  strife  between  North  and  South. 
Other  cities  are  in  existence,  and  the  relations  are 
not  friendly.  Girsu  and  Kish  are  named,  and 
hostilities  had  been  carried  on  by  En-shag-kush- 
anna  with  the  latter,  for  he  names  it  "  the  wicked 
of  heart  ";  and  he  must  have  conquered  it,  for  he 
presented  spoil  from  it  at  Nippur.  Not  far  from 
the  time  of  this  king  another  is  heard  of  from  Shir- 
purla  whose  name  is  Uru-kagina,  and  his  title  of 

king  indicates  that  his  city  was  then 
2.  T7ru-  the  head  of  the  district.  He  is  known 
ka^lna.     by  several  inscriptions,  which  reveal 

him  building  tconples  and  digging 
canals.  The  preeminence  of  the  south  is  still  in- 
dicated, for  soon  after  the  ruler  of  Kish  is  the  patesi 
U-dug,  perhaps  contemporary  with  En-ge-gal,  who 
is  called  king  of  Girsu.  Yet  how  quickly  the  for- 
tune of  war  changes  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  the 
next  ruler  of  Kish  is  Mesilim,  named  as  lord  para- 
mount, who  intervenes  to  fix  the  boimdaries  be- 
tween two  cities,  Gishban  and  Shirpurla,  while  the 
ruler  of  the  latter  receives  the  title  patesi.    That 

the  lordship  of  Mesilim  was  more  than 
3.  Mesilim.  nominal  appears  from  the  mention  of 

Ush  who  is  patesi  of  Gishban,  while 
the  ruler  of  Girsu  has  the  same  title;  and  that  the 
hegemony  was  not  temporary  is  proved  by  the  fact 
that  the  succeeding  ruler  of  Kish,  named  Lugal- 
da-ag  (?),  bore  the  title  king.  But  with  the  names 
which  appear  next  the  leadership  reverts  to  the 
south  with  the  dynasty  of  Shirpurla  in  control.  Of 
the  names  of  eight  persons  connected  with  this  dy- 
nasty the  first  two,  Gursar  and  Gunidu,  seem  only 
ancestors  of  the  later  rulers.    The  rest  follow  in 

the  order  Ur-Nina,  Akurgal,  father  of 
*iiSt'"^^'  Eannatum  and  Enannatum  I,  the 
^jj^j^l^^  latter  the  father  of  Entemena  and 
Entemena.'  grandfather  of  Enannatum  II.    The 

third,  fourth,  and  fifth  of  these  had  the 
title  king,  the  others  were  patesis.  Ur-Nina  is 
known  as  a  constructor  of  temples  and  canals, 
bringing  wood  for  his  temples  from  Arabia,  sug- 
gesting either  conquest  or  conmierce.  His  time 
and  that  of  his  son  Akurgal  seem  peaceful;  but 
with  his  grandson  the  Semites  are  once  more  ag- 
gressive. It  is  from  Eannatum  that  the  celebrated 
stele  of  vultures  comes,  recording  his  victory  over 
the  Semites,  from  whom  he  delivered  Ur  and  Erech. 
The  results  were  so  great  and  the  confidence  gained 
so  decided  that  Eannatmn  invaded  EHam  and  made 
Sumerian  supremacy  seem  assured.  From  his 
nephew  Entemena  comes  the  celebrated  silver  vase, 
the  most  beautiful  of  the  objects  of  high  antiquity. 

*  The  term  "  pateai  "  is  used  in  different  ways:  a  man 
may  be  a  patesi  of  a  god,  of  a  city,  of  a  king,  of  men.  and  of 
a  festival.  These  different  ways  of  using  the  word  seem  to 
be  equivalent,  rtsspectively.  to  the  words  priest,  subordinate 
ruler,  viceroy,  shepherd,  and  director.  It  indicates  subor- 
dinate rank,  therefore,  and  seems  to  be  used  politically  in 
contradintinction  to  the  term  king;  though  the  king  of  the 
land  may  be  at  the  same  time  the  pateai  of  a  god. 


After  the  reign  of  Enannatmn  II  there  is  a  gap, 
and  the  next  ruler  of  Shirpurla  claims  only  the  tiUe 
patesi. 

From  his  time  down  to  about  3850  b.c.  a  num- 
ber of  Semitic  kings  of  Kish  are  known,  the  last  of 
whom,  Alusharshid,  claimed  to  be  "  king  of  the 
world."  This  king  invaded  Elam  and  presented 
at  the  temples  of  Nippur  and  Sippar  the  ''  spoil  of 
Elam "    in    the    shape    of    inscribed 

6.  Ala-      marble  vases.    The  Semites  are  thus 

■harahid.  shown  advancing  to  control.  The 
Semitic  wedge  meantime  had  been 
driven  as  far  as  Gutium,  while  a  Semitic  kingdom 
of  Lulvbi  is  known  in  the  moimtain  regions  of  the 
lower  Zab.  These  notes  are  interesting  as  showing 
the  course  and  development  of  the  growing  power 
of  the  people  from  Arabia.  Their  entry  must  have 
been  made  into  the  region  between  the  two  rivers 
about  the  point  where  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates 
make  their  nearest  approach.  There  the  wedge 
was  inserted,  the  point  penetrating  beyond  the 
Tigris.  Semitic  power  developed  both  to  north 
and  to  south,  the  latter  the  locality  which  resisted 
longest  and  where  the  Sumerian  civilization  re- 
mained unsubdued. 

About  4000  B.C.  the  patesi  Ukush  of  Erech  had 
a  son  Lugal-zaggisi  (the  names  are  Sumerian)  who 
became  king  of  Kish  and  Gishban,  and  seems  to 
have  made  Erech  the  capital  of  a 
^ittT^'^'  united  Babylonia.  He  lauded  En-lil 
iSffubnidS^u,  *®  bestower  of  the  kingship  of  the 
T.w gf^Ti j\f^\ pfti tri.  world,  and  claimed  rule  from  the 
rising  of  the  sim  to  its  setting,  from 
the  "  lower  sea  "  (Persian  Gulf)  to  the  "  upper  sea  " 
(Mediterranean  or  Lake  Urumiah?).  About  3900 
B.C.  there  was  a  king  of  Erech  named  Lugal-kigub- 
nidudu,  known  to  be  easier  than  Sargon  because 
the  latter  used  his  blocks  at  the  gates,  but  what 
part  he  and  his  son  Lugal-kisalsi  took  is  unknown. 
The  names  of  a  number  of  rulers  of  other  cities  of 
this  period  appear  in  inscriptions  as  diggers  of 
canals  or  builders  of  temples,  or  as  making  offer- 
ings to  the  gods,  and  as  bearing  title  either  of  king 
or  patesi.  The  pre-Sargonic  period  therefore  re- 
veals the  Semites  in  Northern  Babylonia,  striving 
for  control  of  the  whole  land,  at  times  achieving  it 
only  to  be  pushed  back.  Meanwhile  they  record 
their  victories  in  the  Sumerian  tongue.  The  land 
had  already  become  a  region  of  canals,  commerce 
had  won  its  empire,  and  communication  with  the 
far  west  seems  abready  established. 

8.  Sarffon  to  Hammurabi,  8800-^260  B.O.  Sar- 
gon's  name  was  till  about  a  decade  ago  the  high 
mark  of  antiquity.  This  king  is  best  known  by  the 
name  just  given,  though  he  appears  on  the  inscrip- 
tions as  Shargani-ehcar-ali,  An  eighth  century  tablet, 
claimed  to  be  a  copy  of  an  early  one, 
1.  Sarffon.  tells  his  life-story  to  the  effect  that 
he  was  bom  of  poor  parents,  that  his 
mother  put  him  in  an  ark  of  reeds  and  bitumen 
and  oonunitted  him  to  the  river  which  brought  him 
to  one  Akldl,  an  irrigator,  who  reared  him  as  a 
gardener,  and  that  Ishtar  made  him  king.  Another 
tablet  asserts  that  he  mastered  the  Elamites  and 
conquered  Martu  or  Syria.  His  historical  character, 
once  seriously  questioned,  is  now  beyond  doubt, 


Babylonia 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


406 


and  his  name  is  linked  with  that  of  his  son,  Naram- 
Sin,  in  journeys  of  conquest  as  far  as  the  Mediter- 
ranean,  while  both  brought  back  wood  from  Leb- 
anon for  their  temples.  Sargon  speaks  of  forming 
all  coimtries  into  one,  by  which  is  doubtless  meant 
an  attempt  at  organizing  the  whole  realm  so  that 
the  alternations  of  government  which  had  been 
the  rule  should  cease.  The  capital  was  Akkad 
or  Agade.  His  son  was  as  famous  as  himself,  both 
as  warrior  and  builder.  Nippur  owed 
*•  gff*°^"  to  liini  its  great  wall  eighteen  feet 
wide,  laid  on  foimdations  in  trenches 
that  were  sunk  fifteen  feet  for  security  and  built  of 
bricks  that  bore  his  name.  He  claimed  to  be  king 
of  Sumer  and  Akkad  and  of  "  the  four  quarters 
of  the  world,"  a  title  often  assumed  by  later  rulers. 
Confirming  the  claim  to  control  of  the  region  is  the 
fact  that  Lugal-ushum-gal  appears  as  contemporary 
of  both  Sargon  and  his  son,  and  is  patesi  (not  king) 
of  Shirpurla.  He  it  is  who  calls  Naram-Sin  "  the 
mighty  god  of  Agade,''  and  a  seal  from  far-away 
Cyprus  seems  to  indicate  that  even  during  his  hfe 
Naram-Sin  was  deified.  During  this  period  Syria 
was  under  a  governor  named  Uru-malik  (a  Canaan- 
itic  name),  who  ruled  for  the  Babylonian  overlord. 
A  post  was  instituted,  and  literature  was  encouraged. 
Sargon  had  books  of  omens  and  of  history  compiled. 
In  spite  of  the  promise  this  Akkad  dynasty  seemed 
to  show,  after  the  reign  of  Sargon's  grandson,  Bin- 
gani-shar-ali,  it  sank  out  of  sight.  Its  significance 
was  its  dominance  for  the  time  and  its  testimony 
to  the  ability  of  the  Semites  to  carry  on  campaigns 
in  as  distant  points  as  Elam  and  the  Mediter- 
ranean. 

With  the  fall  of  Akkad,  Shirpurla  once  more 
comes  into  prominence,  but  the  exact  period  can 
not  be  fixed  within  300  years.  Between  3500  and 
3200  B.C.  appears  Ur-Bau  with  the  title  patesi, 
followed  by  a  son-in-law  Nammaghani,  also  patesi, 
and  he,  after  an  interval,  by  Gudea.  The  first- 
and  last-named  of  these  were  the  rulers  for  whom 
were  made  the  beautiful  statues  of  diorite  men- 
tioned above.    The  inscriptions,  particularly  those 

of  Gudea,  tell  of  his  building  opera- 

*•  "D^'-B*^  tions  in  which  he  was  inspired  by  the 

Gkudea.     g^<i®®^  Nina.     His  statues  show  the 

hands  clasped  in  reverential  attitude 
and  in  one  case  he  is  studying  the  plan  of  a  building 
which  is  represented  on  a  tablet  j^l&ced  on  his 
knees.  From  Magan  and  Meluhha  he  brought 
dolerite  and  gold  and  gems,  from  Amanus  cedar 
logs  105  feet  long,  and  choice  building  stones  from 
other  regions.  Here  again  is  the  suggestion  of 
great  conmiercial  operations  or  else  of  widely  ex- 
tended powers. 

Who  held  the  leadership  in  the  time  of  these 
patesis  is  not  known,  but  their  successors  recognized 
the  suzerainty  of  the  kings  of  Ur.  Besides  them  a 
number  of  rulers  of  Shirpurla  are  known,  but  the 
succession  is  not  completely  made  out.  Gudea's 
successor  was  Ur-Ningirsu,  then  at  intervals  Akurgal 
II,  Lukani,  and  Galalama,  the  date  of  the  last  being 
about  3100  B.C.  The  significance  of  this  period 
is  the  renascence  of  Sumerian  power.  Ur  shows 
the  next  attempt  for  supremacy,  and  the  dating 
here  also  is  still  sub  judice.    The  question  is  whether 


there  were  two  pairs  of  kings  bearing  the  names 
of  Ur-gur  and  Dimgi;  if  so  they  must  be  put 
about  450  years  apart.  Then  Ur-gur  I  and  Duiogi 
I  must  be  placed  c.  3200-3150  b.c. 
4.  TJT^gux  and  Ur-gur  II  and  Dungi  II  2700- 
J^^  2G50  B.C.  An  accumulation  of  indi- 
^'"*'^*  cations  suggest  four  of  these  kings 
and  not  two.  The  period  under  Ur-gur  I  was 
evidently  one  of  Semitic  decline  similar  to  those 
seen  in  Assyria,  for  this  king  not  only  left  moao- 
ments  of  himself  in  the  shape  of  temples  at  Ur, 
Erech,  Larsa,  and  Nippur,  but  he  was  in  control 
of  North  Babylonia.  Dungi  caUs  himsdf  king  of 
the  four  quarters,  implying  complete  mast^. 
It  is  once  more  characteristic  that  of  the  wars  whidi 
must  have  been  waged  to  construct  this  empire, 
not  a  word  is  said;  the  inscriptions  deal  with  peace- 
ful matters,  mainly  religious.  The  length  of  this 
d3maBty  is  not  known.  A  new  aspirant  for  honors 
appears  in  the  dty  of  Isin  under  a  Semitic  dynasty, 
the  kings  whose  names  are  certain  being  Ur-Ninib, 
Libit-Anunit,  Bur-Sin,  and  Ishme-Dagan.  It  will 
be  noted  that  the  second  element  in  each  of  these 
names  is  the  name  of  a  deity.  Reversal  comes 
with  the  son  of  Ishme-Dagan,  Enannatum,  who 
acknowledges  himself  a  vassal  of  the  king  of  Ur. 
But  his  predecessors  had  control  of  Ur,  Eridu, 
Erech,  and  Nippur,  the  great  religioiis  centers, 
as  weU  as  of  Cutha,  the  temples  in  all  these  places 
being  restored  by  either  Ur-gur  or  Dungi. 

The  "  second  Ur  dynasty  "  is  a  matter  of  grave 
debate.  Radau  names  Gungunu  and  Ur-gur  II, 
in  which  he  is  alone;  generally  accepted  are  Dungi 
II,  Bur-Sin  II,  Gamil-<7in,  and  Ine-Sin;  but  Radau 
interjects  a  Dimgi  III  after  the  second  of  the  name, 
and  Ur-Bau  II  after  him,  and  Idin-Dagan  after 
Ine-Sin.  The  decision  must  wait.  The  old  title 
of  Sargon  is  still  in  use,  "  king  of  the  four  quarters," 
and  the  Mediterranean  region  was  visited  either 
in  trade  or  hostility. 

The  downfall  of  this  djmasty  brought  Laisa 
to  the  fore,  the  kings  of  which  signified  their  su- 
premacy   by    using    the    customaiy 

6.  Kor-     title    of    Sargon.      Only    two    kings 

suttd^^    appear  here,   Nur-Ramman   and   has 

Siniddina.  son    Siniddina,  the  latter  a  conteod- 

poraiy   of .  Hammurabi.    Temples  in 

Ur  and  in  Larsa,  the  wall  and  a  canal  for  the  latter 

city  are  among  their  constructive   achievements. 

The  supremacy  of  this  city  was  cut  short  by  an 

invasion  of  the  Elamites,  the  mention  by  Asshur- 

banipal  of  the  theft  of  the  idol  placing  this  raid 

about  2285  B.C. 

4.  The  Supremacy  of  Babylon,  8260-1788  B.O. 
Even  if  the  Elamitic  raid  had  not  taken  place, 
another  cause  would  have  shortened  the  control 
by  Larsa.  A  new  people,  of  Arabian  origin,  had 
come  to  reenforce  Semitic  control.  Under  them 
Babylon  had  been  growing  in  power, 
1.  The      and    was   ready     to     assert     itself. 

K^JS^-Ma-  "^^    **^**^    ®^     ^^^    Elamites  un- 

bu^and*"  doubtedly   made  easier    the    assault 

Eri-akn.     of  the  Semites.     The  leader  of  the 

former  was  Kudur-Mabug,  "a  prince 

of  the  Western  land"  Anshan,  which  centuries  later 

was  to  foster  Cyrus.    He  established  himself  in  South 


407 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Babylonia 


Babylonia,  conciliated  the  religious  by  erecting  a 
temple  for  Sin  at  Ur,  and  commended  to  that  deity 
his  son,  who  succeeded  him,  whose  name  is  read 
Eri-aku  and  Rim-Sin,  the  two  names  being  exact 
equivalents  (see  Elaji ).  Gen.  xiv  is  right  in  making 
Arioch  the  contemporary  of  Hanmiurabi  (Am- 
raphel?)*.  Over  this  Arioch  Hammurabi  claims 
a  victory  as  well  as  over  the  king  of  Western  Elam, 
which  is  the  indication  of  a  united  Babylonia  and 
marks  the  end  of  the  pohtical  importance  of  the 
Sumerians.    From  this  time  on  it  is  not  the  rivalry 

of  different  cities  which  is  responsible 

2.  The  First  for  the  clash  of  arms  in  the  region, 

Babylonian  ^^^  ^^^  attempt  of   nations  to    pos- 

■jJ^JJ";   sess  it.  The  first  dynasty  of  Baby- 

rabi.        loi^i  to  which  Hammurabi   (c.   2250 

B.C.)  belonged,  numbered  eleven  kings, 
five  before  and  five  after  him.  The  dty  had  taken 
no  part  in  large  politics.  Its  rulers  had  doubt- 
less been  cementing  their  position,  but  no  sign  of  it  has 
comedown.  The  only  thing  suggestive  is  the  fortifica- 
tion of  the  city  by  Sumu-larilu,  the  second  of  the 
dynasty,  while  Zabu,  his  successor,  had  built  a 
temple  in  Sippar  to  Anunit.  For  the  reign  of  Ham- 
murabi and  his  code  see  Hammurabi.  From  his 
successors  little  has  come  down.  His  son  carried 
on  the  usual  building  operations  in  Nippur  and 
elsewhere;  of  the  remaining  four  kings  the  only 
records  are  incidental  references  in  commercial 
tablets,  but  they  imply  peace  and  prosperity  in  the 
land. 

The  accoimt  of  the  next  or  second  dynasty  of 
Babylon  (2250-1783  B.C.)  foimd  in  the  King-lists 

is  under  grave  suspicion  on  account 

^'  d^tn?"  °^   *'^®  length  of  the  reigns  assigned 

^^lo^an  "  ^  *'^®  different  kings.    One  is  given 

Dynasty,    sixty  regnal  years,  another  fifty-six, 

another  fifty-five,  and  a  fotirth  fifty. 
From  the  period  as  yet  not  a  single  document  has 
come  to  light.  The  King-lists  give  only  the  names. 
Hommel  once  held  that  the  dynasty  did  not  exist, 
but  he  now  accepts  as  historical  the  first  six 
kings. 

6.  The  Kasshita  Period,  1788-1807  B.O.  The 
next  dynasty  was  foreign  and  came  from  the  E^ast. 
They  are  known  as  Kasshites  or  Kosshites,  and 
their  home  was  the  hill  coimtry  north  of  Elam 
and  between  Babylonia  and  what  became  Persia. 
The  movement  which  brought  them  into  the  land 
seems  hke  an  immigration  of  new  peoples,  virile 
and  active,  subduing  a  people  used  to  peace,  agri- 
culture, and  commerce  in  a  quietude  won  for  them 
by  the  great  Hanmiurabi.  Concerning  this  whole 
period  little  is  known.  There  is  only  one  inscription 
of  any  length  belonging  to  these  times,  and  the  name 
of  the  king  there  mentioned  is  not  given  in  the 


*The  identification  of  Eri-aku,  Kudux^Lagamur,  und 
Hammurabi  with  the  Ariooh,  Chedorlaomer,  and  Amraphel 
of  Gen.  xiv  has  been  made  to  do  illegitimate  Benrioe  in  lup- 
porting  that  chapter.  The  insoription  in  which  the  names 
were  thought  to  occur  belongs  to  the  period  of  the  Arsaddn 
and  does  not  contain  the  name  of  Ctiedorlaomer.  But  the 
"  Tidal  "  of  Qen.  xiv  is  probably  the  Ttid-^uia  of  the 
tablet  in  question,  and  "  Arioch  of  Ellasar  "  of  Genesis  is 
probably  Eri-aku,  son  of  Kudur-Mabug.  The  proba- 
bility is  now  acknowledged  that  Gen.  xiv  is  drawn  from 
very  late  sources,  of  which  this  tablet  may  have  been  one. 


King-lists,  which,  in  the  part  covering  this  period, 

are  much  mutilated.    There  is  a  votive  tablet  from 

the  first  known  of  the  rulers,  named 

1.  A«rum-  Gandish,  and  some  fragmentaiy    in- 
kakrlme.   scriptions.     The   seventh    ruler    was 

probably  Agum-kakrime,  one  of  whose 
inscriptions  was  copied  for  Asshurbanipal's  library. 
He  called  himself  "  king  of  Kasshu  and  Akkad, 
king  of  the  broad  land  of  Babylon."  Other  titles 
show  that  he  claimed  a  very  large  empire,  from 
the  frontiers  of  Persia  to  the  borders  of  Syria.  He 
restored  the  images  of  Marduk  and  Sarpanit,  which 
had  been  carried  away  by  a  people  in  the  northeast. 
That  the  sway  of  religion  had  lost  none  of  its  power 
to  enchant  and  enchain  is  shown  by  the  active 
building  operations  which  he  carried  on.  By  about 
1500  B.C.  light  breaks  again,  and  Karaindash  ap- 
pears as  n  ruler  who  is  devoted  to  the  deities  of  the 
land  and  arranges  his  titles  in  Babylonian  fashion. 
The  Synchronistic  History  throws  light  on  the 
period  and  reveals  friendly  relations  with  the  young 
Assyrian  empire.  The  two  nations  appear  as 
equals,  making  treaties  and  settling  boundaries. 
Only  a  little  later  a  king  is  known  as  Kallima-Sin 
(or,  as  it  is  proposed  to  read  his  name,  Kadashman- 

Bel),  and  he  is  foimd  corresponding 

2.  Z«ater    with    Amenophis    IV    (see    Amarna 
^yj^**    Tablets).    It   is  interestmg  to  find 

*  in  that  correspondence  discussion  of 
a  commercial  treaty  and  of  the  customs  duties  to 
be  exacted.  It  is  also  worth  noting  that  a  very 
close  chronology  is  attainable  here  through  the 
triple  synchronisms  from  Babylonia,  Assyria,  and 
Egypt.  Kurigalzu  I  (c.  1410  B.C.)  followed  Buma- 
buriash  I,  son  of  Kallima-Sin,  using  the  titles 
"  king  of  Sumer  and  Akkad,  king  of  the  four  quar- 
ters." Bumaburiash  II,  correspondent  of  the 
Pharaoh  Amenophis  IV  in  the  Amarna  series,  was 
next,  but  only  the  general  peace  of  the  world 
appears  in  his  times.  About  1370  Karahardash 
succeeded,  and  his  queen  was  the  daughter  of 
Asshur-uballit  of  Assyria.  His  son  succeeded  him, 
carried  on  a  war  with  the  Sutu,  a  nomadic  people 
in  the  northwest,  and  on  his  return  was  killed  by 
rebellious  Kasshites.  The  principal  events  which 
followed  are  given  in  the  article  on  Ass3nia.  Kuri- 
galzu II  was  placed  on  the  throne,  invaded  Elam 
and  captured  Susa,  as  a  votive  tablet  declares,  and 
foUowed  up  the  victory  by  defeating  Bel-nirari  of 
Assyria.  A  new  conflict  with  the  northern  power 
was  thus  begun,  in  which  the  Assyrians  were 
superior  and  for  a  time  held  Babylonia,  1285-69 
B.C.  Under  Ramman-shimi-usur  the  latter  began 
to  recover  its  own,  and  by  1211  B.C.  was  reestab- 
lished in  all  its  former  territory.  Four  years  later 
the  Kasshite  dynasty  came  to  an  end. 

e.  Thelainand  Assyrian  Periods,  1807-026  B.O. 
The  nominal  rulers  of  the  land  in  the  next  period 
were  the  members  of  a  dynasty  of  eleven  kings 
known  from  the  King-list  as  the  dynasty  of  IsijL 
Whether  this  city  was  the  one  active  in  politica 
1,700  years  earlier,  or  whether  it  was  a  part  of  the 
city  of  Babylon,  is  yet  under  debate.  The  names 
of  the  first  five  kings  are  lost,  the  sixth  was  Nebu- 
chadrezzar I,  c.  1135  B.C.  The  period  was 
marked  by  Assyrian  attacks.     Even  Nebuchad* 


Babylonia 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


408 


rezzar  was  twice  defeated,  though  he  was  a  war- 
rior of  great  ability  who  carried  his  arms  to  Syria 
on  the  west  and  to  Elam  on  the  east. 

1.  Kebu-  H®  ^^'^  followed  by  Bel-nadin-apal 
ohadrezzar  and   he  by  Marduk-nadin-ahi.     The 

I  and  his  latter  made  a  successful  attack  upon 
Snoceaaora.  Assyria  which  was  punished  later  by 
the  capture  of  Babylon  and  subjection 
of  the  whole  country  by  Tiglath-Pileser  I,  c.  1100 
B.C.  The  King-list  gives  a  succession  of  five 
dynasties,  one  that  of  the  "  Sea  Lands,"  the  place 
from  which  the  Chaldeans  were  later  to  issue,  a 
second  of  "  Bazi,"  another  of  Elam,  a  fourth  of 
Babylon,  and  still  another  of  the  Far  South,  of 
which  the  noted  Merodach-baladan  was  a  member. 
But  all  of  these  held  the  throne  either  by  sufferance 
or  appointment  of  Assyria  or  assimied  it  during 
the  temporary  quiescence  of  that  power. 

7.  The  Kaldu  or  Chaldean  Period,  625-688  B.C. 
The  many  attempts  made  by  Merodach-baladan 
to  gain  control  of  Babylon  (see  Assyria)  were 
important,  not  in  themselves  so  much,  as  for  the 
foreshadowing  of  the  rising  supremacy  of  the 
Chaldeans.  The  kingdom  of  the  Sea  Lands  had 
formed  aroimd  the  headwaters  of  the  Persian  Gulf, 
and  its  dominant  people,  fresh  from  Arabia,  were 
feeling  their  way  to  world  empire.  The  decay  of 
the  Assyrian  power  was  their  opportunity.  Nabo- 
polassar  made  himself  king  of  Babylon.  While 
he  was  absent  attacking  the  outskirts 

1.  Nabo-    of  his  kingdom  in  Mesopotamia,  the 

polaasar.  Assyrian  Sin-shar-ishkun  invaded 
Babylonia,  probably  610-609  B.C.,  and 
Nabopolassar  was  cut  off  from  his  base.  The 
Umman-Manda,  an  aggregation  of  tribes  gathered 
about  a  Median  nucleus,  brought  about  the  fall  of 
Assyria,  and  Nabopolassar  was  left  free  to  estab- 
lish himself.  Already  great  numbers  of  his  tribes- 
men had  entered  Babylonia,  and  the  possession 
of  the  capital  gave  him  the  needed  prestige  to  rally 
them  around  him.  The  native  Babylonians  were 
ready  to  receive  him  because  of  their  hatred  to  the 
Assyrian  oppressor,  so  he  succeeded  as  the  head 
of  Semitic  Asia.  Another  fact  had  doubtless  much 
to  do  with  the  ease  with  which  he  assumed  power. 
The  rehgious  interest  of  Babylonia  seems  to  have 
absorbed  his  attention,  and  he  acted  like  a  son  of  the 
soil  whose  heart  was  fully  in  accord  with  Baby- 
lonian ideals.  This  is  illustrated  by  the  fact  that 
though  the  events  of  his  reign  must  have  been  stir- 
ring and  important,  the  three  inscriptions  he  left  are 
concerned  with  building  of  temples  and  digging  of 
canals.  Among  the  great  events  was  the  defeat 
of  the  Egyptian  Necho  by  his  son  and  general, 
Nebuchadrezzar.  Necho  had  already  seized  the 
western  appanages  of  Assyria,  against  which 
doubtless  Nabopalassar  was  intending  to  operate 
in  his  Mesopotamian  campaign,  and  had  led  forth 
a  great  army  in  hope  of  gaining  a  still  larger  share 
of  the  defunct  Assyrian  empire.  The  two  armies, 
Egyptian  and  Chaldean,  met  at  Carchemish,  the 
Egyptians  were  defeated  and  pursued  to  the  very 
border  of  Egypt  by  the  victorious  Nebuchadrezzar. 
The  latter  there  received  tidings  of  the  death  of  his 
father,  and  the  very  newness  of  the  kingdom 
required  his  instant  presence  at  home. 


Nebuchadrezzar  II  (604-562  B.C.)  has  left  many 
inscriptions,  which,  like  his  father's,  tell  little  of 
battles  and  campaigns  and  much  of  his  constructive 
labors  on  the  city  of  Babylon,  his  pride.  The  stoiy 
of  his  campaigns  comes  largely  from 
^SliltS^^  other  sources,  partly  Biblical.  The 
oha^ezzar  ^£ygjj  q£  Jehoiakim  to  pay  tribute 
caused  Nebuchadrezzar  to  let  loose 
on  him  the  neighboring  hostile  tribes,  and  paved 
the  way  for  the  campaign  in  5d7  B.C.  in  which 
Jerusalem  was  taken  and  its  inhabitants  in  part 
deported.  Renewed  rebellion  stirred  up  by  the 
new  Pharaoh,  Hophra,  led  to  a  reoccupation  of 
Palestine;  Hophra  was  defeated,  Jerusalem  taken, 
and  its  defenses  destroyed  in  586  B.C.  Tyre  was 
assailed  and  a  siege  of  thirteen  years  resulted,  after 
which  terms  were  made.  Gvil  war  in  Egypt  gave 
Nebuchadrezzar  his  opportunity,  the  country 
was  invaded  and  plimdered  as  a  punishment  for  its 
intrigues  in  Palestine  and  Syria.  There  can  be 
little  doubt  that  the  alliance  of  the  Chaldean  with 
the  house  of  Media  in  his  marriage  of  Amuhia, 
daughter  of  Cyaxares,  did  much  to  cement  lus 
power.  It  hardly  seems  an  accident  that  the  force 
of  Media  should  have  been  spent  in  the  north, 
westward  into  Asia  Minor,  while  Nebuchadrezzar's 
operations  covered  the  regions  southward.  Some- 
thing of  Nebuchadrezzar's  building  operations  has 
been  told  in  the  description  of  Babylon  (see  above, 
IV,  §  12),  but  how  extensive  these  were  can  be 
appreciated  only  in  the  light  of  Rawlinson's  state- 
ment that  he  examined  the  ruins  of  not  less  than 
one  hundred  places  in  the  vicinity  of  Babylon 
and  in  very  few  were  there  not  foimd  traces  of 
Nebuchadrezzar's  activity.  In  a  land  whose  kings 
were  all  builders  not  one  of  the  rulers  had  ap- 
proached him  in  the  extent,  variety,  completeness, 
and  magnificence  of  his  buildings. 

Of  Nebuchadrezzar's  son,  Amil-Marduk  (562- 
560  B.C.),  only  II  Kings  xxv,  27  (where  he  is 
called  Evil-merodach)  and  Berosus  give  any 
information.  The  one  records  an  act  of  mercy, 
the  other  asserts  that  he  reigned  lawlessly.  He 
was  assassinated  and  the  chief  conspirator,  Nerig- 
lissar  (560-556  B.C.)  seized  the  throne.  Temples 
and  canals  absorbed  his  interest,  and  he  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Labashi-Marduk  who  reigned  nine 
months  and  was  assassinated.  Nabonidus  (555- 
538  B.C.)  was  the  last  Semitic  king  of 
8.  Kaboni-  Babylon.  He  was  a  pietist,  an  anti- 
*^*  **^*  ^®^- quarian,  and  a  temple-builder,  with 
The^SSTof  ^^*  ^*'^^®  aptitude  for  the  cares  of 

Babylon.  State  and  little  interest  in  them.  How 
he  contributed  to  present  knowledge 
has  been  told  in  the  section  on  chronology  in  this 
article  and  that  on  Assyria.  He  resided  most  of 
the  time  at  Tema,  a  place  not  otherwise  known. 
His  son  Belshazzar  may  have  been  associated  as 
regent  with  him,  though  there  is  no  authority  in  the 
inscriptions  for  calling  him  king.  Between  the 
time  of  Nebuchadrezzar  and  Nabonidus  relations 
with  the  Medes  had  been  broken  off.  Cyrus,  the 
king  of  Anshan,  had  enlarged  his  realm,  and  finally, 
having  defeated  Astyages,  had  assumed  the  title, 
king  of  Persia.  He  had  overthrown  Croesus,  and 
all  Asia  Minor  at  once  fell  into  his  hands.    His 


409 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Babylonia 


next  move  would  obviously  be  southward  to  Baby- 
lonia, but  Nabonidus  made  no  preparation  for  the 
crisis  that  was  coming.  When  the  war  finally 
broke  out,  he  collected  the  statues  of  the  gods  of 
Babylon,  left  the  command  of  the  army  to  Bel- 
shazzar,  and  when  the  latter  was  defeated  fled  into 
Babylon.  Gobryas  led  the  victorious  army  against 
the  capital,  where  a  sturdy  and  indeed  successful 
defense  might  have  been  expected.  The  walls  and 
gates  which  might  have  defied  the  best  that  Cyrus 
could  do  proved  no  protection,  and  though  there  is 
no  proof  that  such  is  the  fact,  historical  probability 
can  offer  no  explanation  of  the  speedy  capture  of 
the  city  other  than  that  Nabonidus 's  worst  enemy 
was  within,  and  that  from  within  the  gates  swung 
open  to  admit  the  captor.  Thus  the  rule  of  Asia 
passed  from  the  Semites  to  the  Aryans  to  hold  imtil 
at  the  end  of  a  millennium  Arabia  should  once  more 
discharge  its  hordes  and  in  the  Mohammedan  con- 
quest make  a  new  era.  See  Ctrub  the  Great; 
Persia. 

Vn.  The  Religion.  1.  Historical  Development: 
The  survey  of  the  political  geography  and  history 
of  Babylonia  shows  it  to  have  been  as  early  as  4500 
B.C.  what  it  continued  to  be,  a  land  of  cities.  His- 
tory shows  also  that  even  at  that  early  date  there 
was  a  tendency  toward  what  later  became  nation- 
alization, in  the  effort  of  one  or  another  city  to 
control  the  whole  land.  These  two  features  are 
reproduced  in  the  religion.  Each  city  had  a  deity 
who  claimed  the  worship  of  the  inhabitants;  fre- 
quently there  were  two,  generally  in  that  case  a 
god  and  a  goddess,  originally  in  all 
1.  Political  probability  not  spouse  and  consort. 

Factors,  but  independent.  And  in  the  pre-Sar- 
gonic  period  there  are  clear  evidences 
that  one  of  the  gods  of  one  of  the  cities  had  attained 
an  eminence,  not  indeed  of  kingship  over  the  gods, 
but  of  position  among  them.  The  general  disposi- 
tion of  kings  who  took  their  titles  from  cities  other 
than  Nippur  to  devote  their  spoil  to  En-lil  and  to 
deposit  it  in  his  temple,  suggests  for  him  a  general 
recognition  not  accorded  to  other  deities,  even  to 
Ea  of  Eridu.  While  no  specific  claim  of  lordship 
over  the  gods  was  made  for  En-lil,  not  only  was  he 
practically  the  chief  of  the  gods,  but  a  theoret- 
ical headship  is  implied  in  the  theological  fiction  by 
which  later  Marduk's  definite  claim  to  preemi- 
nence was  supported,  viz.,  that  En-lil  had  trans- 
ferred to  the  deity  of  Babylon  the  leadership  among 
the  gods  because  of  the  latter's  victory  over  Tia- 
mat,  the  demon  of  chaos,  though,  of  course,  the  real 
reason  of  Marduk's  supremacy  was  the  hegemony 
of  Babylon.  The  principle  of  centrab'zation,  of 
nationalization,  was  clearly  at  work  in  the  sphere 
of  religion  as  well  as  of  poUtics.  But  this  was 
limited  by  another  principle,  that  preeminence 
among  the  gods  did  not  involve  supersession  of 
other  gods  in  their  own  seats  of  worship.  En-lil 
was  ever  localized  only  in  Nippur,  Marduk  had  his 
seat  only  in  Babylon,  just  as  Asshur  never  set  up 
his  throne  and  temple  in  Babylon  even  during  the 
Assyrian  period.  The  poUtical  strife  between 
Sumerian  and  Semite  was  also  reflected  in  the  re- 
ligion. There  can  be  no  doubt  of  two  facts:  first, 
ths  Sumerians  had  a  decided  favoritism  for  female 


deities;  second,  Semitic  female  deities  were,  with 
the  single  exception  of  Ishtar,  but  the  pale  reflec- 
tion of  the  gods.  While  then  in  the  earUest  periods 
the  goddesses  were  numerous  and  prominent,  in 
later  times  they  either  faded  out  of  existence,  were 
made  the  consorts  of  the  gods  and  so  became  ec- 
lipsed, or  were  identified  with  Ishtar. 

In  the  development  of  the  religion,  besides  the 

political  principle,  there  became  operative  also  a 

philosoplucal-priestly  activity.    Out  of  this  grew 

the  semidetachment  of  certain  gods  from  extreme 

localization    and     connections    were 

OTO  hi    1     ^°™^®^  ^^^  them  having  cosmic  mean- 

Prieatly"   ^^^*     Noticeable    here  is  the  forma- 

Faotor.  ^^^  ^^  ^^®  ^^^  principal  triads:  Anu 
heaven-god,  Bel  or  En-lil  earth-god, 
Ea  water-god,  and  Sin  of  the  moon,  Shamash  of 
the  sun,  and  Ramman  (Adad)  of  the  storm  or 
cloud.  While  worship  of  these  gods  still  centered 
at  definite  temples,  in  invocations  they  were  ad- 
dressed more  generally.  Their  association  with 
larger  phenomena  made  them  accessible  to  a  larger 
clientele,  just  as  Nebo's  association  with  prophecy 
made  him  the  object  of  a  larger  circle  of  worshipers 
than  was  rightly  his  in  his  position  as  god  of  Bor- 
sippa.  And  the  philosophical  principle  worked 
also  in  the  reduction  of  the  mmiber  of  the  deities, 
particularly  of  the  goddesses.  The  notion  of  iden- 
tification was  particularly  insistent,  so  that  many 
of  the  Sumerian  goddesses  were  in  time  pronoimced 
the  same  as  Ishtar,  and  that  deity  made  her  way 
to  her  imique  position  as  the  one  great  goddess  of 
Babylonia. 

This  reduction  in  number  of  deities  is  completely 
proved.  In  the  period  from  c.  2250  B.C.  on,  be- 
sides the  eight  great  gods  already 
f*  ^^^w***  named,  only  Marduk,  Ninib,  Nergal, 

*r^    ^"and    Nusku    have    any   prominence. 

Deities,  '^'^unmuz  might  perhaps  be  added, 
but  it  is  possible  to  maintain  that  in 
his  worship  Ishtar  was  the  central  figure.  Yet  in 
earlier  times  the  number  of  the  deities  was  very 
much  greater.  Bianirtusu,  an  early  king  of  Kish, 
mentions  about  fifty  deities.  The  incantation 
texts,  coming  from  an  earlier  stratum  of  thought 
and  practise,  increase  the  number  greatly,  one 
series  alone  giving  150  god-names.  There  can  be 
no  doubt  that  the  sun-gods  of  the  various  cities 
were  originally  separate,  thou^.the  priestly  philos- 
ophy regarded  them  as  the  same;  this  can  be  said 
also  of  the  moon-deities,  who  became  one  in  Sin. 

Etymology  enables  the  investigator  to  go  still 

farther  back  and  posit  for  earliest  Babylonia  an 

animistic  worship  when  spirits  were 

4.  The  Bar-  numerous,  some  of  whom  rose  to  high 

i^^A^mimr  P^^°^  *^^  became  great  gods. 
lonAnuma-  j^^^  ^  demonstrable  in  the  cases  of 

En-lil  ("  Lord  of  Spirits  "),  Ea,  and 
Damkina,  the  consort  of  Ea,  and  is  practically  cer- 
tain in  several  other  cases.  Secondly,  the  entire 
syst«m  of  magic  and  inca  station  is  the  surest  proof 
that  animism  preceded  polytheism  in  old  Baby- 
lonia. To  illustrate  the  belief  in  spirits,  mention 
may  be  made  of  the  Siunerian  «,  "  the  Uving  thing," 
having  about  the  same  connotation  as  **  spirit " 
I  in  animistic  usage.    The  lU  were  ghosts,  subter- 


Babylonia 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOQ 


410 


ranean  spirits  of  tho  darkness  and  storm,  sexless, 
attended  by  vampires.  En4U  means  "  Lord  of 
Ghosts,"  and  he  was  the  destroyer 
imd  De-  ^  *^®  ^®^"«®'  Utukku  meant  "  de- 
mons.' nion,"  a  ghost  escaped  from  the  dead; 
and  another  name  for  demon  was 
ekimmUf  a  being  which  took  delight  in  obsessing 
the  living.  The  demons  were  numberless,  had 
their  dwelling  in  the  desert,  and  were  malign  in 
their  activities,  working  harm  in  all  relations  of 
life.  So  of  other  spirits  it  might  be  said  that  they 
swarmed — on  the  earth,  in  the  air,  mider  the  earth, 
in  the  waters;  there  were  spirits  for  every  sort  of 
existence  and  they  controlled  or  might  affect  for 
good  or  ill  every  deed,  even  the  thoughts  and 
dreams,  of  men.  The  actions  of  even  the  good 
spirits  might  be  inimical;  the  bad  spirits  must 
ever  be  guarded  against.  Hence  there  had  grown 
up  in  the  earliest  times  known  an  empirical  magic, 
a  routine  of  enchantment,  a  ritual  of  spells,  the 
forms  and  practise  of  which  are  vouched  for  by  hun- 
dreds of  tablets.  Since  sickness,  disease,  and  mis- 
fortime  were  often  believed  to  be  due  to  the  malig- 
nity of  evil  powers,  self-determined  or  directed  by 
the  evilly  disposed  among  men,  the  means  of 
release  lay  in  charms  or  enchantments 
6.  Kaffio.  which  included  the  employment  of 
formulas,  or  which  used  fire,  water, 
herbs,  or  metals  without  magical  sayings.  Series 
of  incantation  rituals  have  been  discovered,  named 
from  the  demons  they  aim  to  foil  or  from  the  parts 
of  the  body  affected  by  illness,  or  from  the  means 
used  in  the  exorcism.  And  these  remained  potent 
throughout  the  existence  of  Babylonia  as  a  realm 
and  then  continued  their  power  in  the  West  whither 
they  were  transplanted.  Other  signs  of  the  animism 
once  existent  are  found  in  the  animal  forms  of  the 
gods,  while  the  ritual  of  worship  led  the  worshiper 
to  figure  forth  his  relationship  to  the  god  by  assu- 
ming raiment  which  typified  animal  or  other  forms 
of  life.  This  is  Simierian;  the  development  under 
Semitism  was  anthropomorphic.  On  the  other 
hand,  man  was  himself  deified— this  was  the  case 
with  Naram-Sin,  while  Gudea  and  Gimil-Sin  erected 
temples  to  their  own  godhead. 

The  transition  to  polytheism  never  involves 
complete  dissolution  of  the  prior  animism.  Sur- 
vivals of  the  older  faith  ever  perpetuate  ancient 
practise.  The  gods  of  Babylonia  evolved  from 
the  spirits;  in  some  cases  the  process  can  almost 
be  measured,  but  the  spirits  lived  on.  By  4500 
B.C.,  however,  there  were  already  great  deities 
whose  majesty  was  acknowledged  beyond  their 
own  cities. 

2.    The  Ooda:    The   deities   who   were   earliest 
grouped  in  a  triad  were  Anu,  Bel  (En-lil),  and  Ea. 
Of  these  Anu  (Sumerian  Ana)^  or  Bel-shamajrim, 
"  Lord  of  heaven,"  as  he  came  to  be  considei-ed, 
appears  to  have  been  first  localized  at  a  place  called 
Der,  not  otherwise  known,  and  subsequently  wor- 
shiped at  Erech.     He  was  the  nearest  to  an  ab- 
straction   of    all    Babylonian    deities 
1.  Ann.     and  the  first  to  be  disassociated  from 
local    connections    and    universalized 
(fourth    millennium    B.C.).     Perhaps    because    of 
this  disassociation  he  was  the  oftener  invoked  in 


prayer  and  incantation.  The  asdgnnient  of  a 
supramimdane  region  of  control  mArks  the  begin- 
ning of  priestly  philosophy.  Lugal-zaggiai  daimed 
to  be  Ann's  priest,  and  it  was  this  king  who  first, 
so  far  as  is  yet  known,  united  in  a  triad  the  three 
gods  just  mentioned.  Anu  was  often  known  as 
flu,  the  god  par  exceUence,  with  whom  other  deities 
took  refuge.  He  was  called  the  father  of  Ishtar, 
and  his  consort  was  Antum  (Semitic  Anat),  per- 
haps remembered  in  the  birthplace  of  Jereniiah, 
Anathoth. 

Of  Bel  or  En-h'l,  god  of  Nippur,  much  has  already 
been  said.  His  commanding  position,  compelling 
homage  from  hostile  kings,  was  gained  before  the 
making  of  the  first  records  which  have  so  far  been 
recovered.  Bel's  Sumerian  ideograph 
2.  BeL  represents  the  ram  (suggesting  a 
totemistic  connection),  while  the  mean- 
ing of  his  name,  "  Lord  of  Spirits,"  or  "  demons," 
has  already  been  noted.  In  an  inscription  of  En- 
shagkushanna  Bel  is  named  ''  King  of  the  Lands," 
the  one  explicit  statement  of  his  eminence  among  the 
gods.  In  accordance  with  his  name  he  was  lord 
of  the  underworld,  and  as  such  was  especially  con- 
cerned with  incantations.  His  consort  was  the 
Simierian  goddess  Nin-harsag,  the  "  Lady  of  the 
Mountain "  (Semitic  Bdit),  and  his  temple  was 
E-kur,  "  Mountain-House."  The  preeminence  he 
had  was  lost  to  Marduk  when  Babylon  became  the 
chief  city  and  its  god  assumed  the  principal  pLace 
in  the  pantheon. 

The  third  member  of  the  triad  and  god  of  Eridu, 
Ea  (Sumerian  En-ki,  "Lord  of  the  Country"), 
had  the  waters  as  his  division  of  the  universe. 
The  earliest  traditions  connect  him  with  the  Persian 
Gulf,  whence  he  used  to  emerge  daily  to  instruct 
his  people  in  the  civilizing  arts.  As  associated 
with  the  deep,  he  became  god  of  the  river  Euphrates, 
and  then  of  the  river  which,  according  to  Baby- 
lonian cosmography,  encircled  the 
8.  Ea.  earth.  As  a  water-deity  he  was  a  god 
of  knowledge,  therefore  of  culture, 
light,  beneficence,  and  healing.  And  by  these 
same  attributes  he  was  also  a  god  of  cunning  and 
beguiled  the  first  man  out  of  immortality.  His 
oracles  came  by  the  roar  of  the  surf  on  the  shore. 
He  was  depicted  also  as  half  man,  half  fiish,  and  his 
worshipers  are  pictured  in  robes  which  mimic  the 
skin  of  a  fish,  again  suggesting  totemism,  an  indi- 
cation not  lessened  by  the  fact  that  his  ideograph 
stands  also  for  "  antelope."  As  god  of  wisdom 
it  was  inevitable  that  Ea  should  have  part  in  incan- 
tations. His  attitude  toward  humanity  is  generally 
beneficent,  and  he  is  called  the  creator  of  men. 
His  consort,  Damkina,  a  Sumerian  deity,  was 
originally  independent.  They  are  credited  with 
a  son  Asari,  with  whom  Marduk  was  identified  in 
order  to  legitimate  his  claim  to  the  chief  place 
among  the  gods.  Each  of  the  three  deities  asso- 
ciated with  Eridu  can  be  traced  backward  to 
animistic  origins. 

The  second  triad  consisted  of  Shamash  (sun-god), 
Sin  (moon-god),  and  Ramman  or  Adad  (thunder- 
or  cloud-god).  That  the  sun  could  not  escape 
worship  in  such  a  land  as  Babylonia  is  a  foregone 
conclusion,  and  that  the  deity  of  the  sun  should 


411 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Babylonia 


take  different  names  was  almost  as  inevitable.  So  of 
sun-gods  there  were,  e.g.,  Utu  in  Larsa,  Shamash 
in  Sippar,  Nergal  in  Cutha,  Zarmal-mal  in  Kish. 
Marduk  was  originally  solar.  That  the  sun's 
activity  should  be  viewed  in  different  ways  is  also 

natural,  hence  some  of  the  deities 
^  ®?^'  mentioned  remained  distinct.  But 
Shamash.   ^^^  ^^^  ^^  different  cities  having 

similar  aspects  should  be  identified 
was  to  be  expected  in  accordance  with  the  laws 
of  religious  evolution.  So  Shamash  came  to  be 
worshiped  in  different  centers,  the  sun-deities  of 
those  places  being  identified  with  him,  while  others 
like  Ninib  and  Nergal  were  differentiated  and 
given  special  functions  as  sim-gods  of  the  morning 
and  springtime  or  of  noon  and  summer.  The  pow- 
ers attributed  to  Shamash  in  his  two  principal 
seats  of  Sippar  and  Larsa  were  such  as  belonged  to 
the  kindly  god  of  light, — ^powers  of  healing  and 
revelation,  as  weU  as  of  protection  by  detection 
and  punishment  of  crime.  He  was  given  as  con- 
sort Nin-A,  a  Sumerian  deity  originally  male,  who 
under  Semitic  misimderstanding  was  made  to 
change  his  sex.  Another  explanation,  less  prob- 
able, is  that  the  change  of  sex  is  a  sign  of  subordina- 
tion of  the  Sumerian  to  the  Semitic  god. 

If  the  worship  of  sim-deities  was  notable,  not 
less  so  was  that  of  moon-gods.  Both  Semites 
and  Sumerians  encouraged  the  cult,  but  there  are 
many  signs  that  among  the  latter  it  was  a  favorite. 
So  En-zu, " Lord  of  Wisdom,"  and  Nan-nar,  "Giver 

of  Light,"  were  names  the  Sumerians 
'^^'•^  bestowed  on  this  deity.  Nan-nar's 
^a^^^'    principal  seat  was  at  Ur,  connected 

with  Abraham  in  the  Biblical  narra- 
tive. As  Sin,  a  Semitic  deity,  he  was  located  at 
Harran,  also  associated  with  Abraham,  and  he 
gave  its  name  to  the  moimtain  and  peninsula  of 
Sinai.  It  is  noteworthy  that  at  Harran  the  god's 
image  took  the  form  of  a  conical  pillar,  and  this 
suggests  another  phase  of  animism,  that  of  the 
phallic  cult.  With  Nannar-Sin  also  was  connected 
the  attribute  of  imparting  wisdom,  giving  knowl- 
edge, particularly  of  measures. 

The  third  member  of  this  triad  was  Adad  (also 
read   Ramman,   the  Rimmon   of  Syria),   god  of 

storms.    This  is  the  one  deity  whose 

6.  Adad  or  localization  never  seems  to  have  been 

BamTnan.  effected.    He  seems  to  have  developed 

out  of  the  storm-spirits.  His  nature 
led  him  to  be  regarded  both  as  beneficent  and 
malevolent.  The  rains  brought  destruction,  and 
also  fertilization,  to  the  fields.  So  he  was  invoked 
to  bring  blessing  to  friends  and  misfortime  to  foes. 
Perhaps  this  led  to  his  association  with  Shamash 
in  the  fimction  of  punishing  evil-doers.  His  con- 
sort was  Shala,  never  an  important  deity,  and  her 
ideograph  could  represent  also  a  milch-goat. 

A  deity  sometimes  displacing  Adad  as  third 
member  of  this  triad  was  the  great  Ishtar.  In 
Arabia  and  Moab  Athtar  was  male.  In  one  case 
in  Babylonia  a  male  god  was  identified  with  her, 
and  androgyny  is  there  in  sight.  She  was  patroness 
of  Erech,  and  had  shrines  in  many  towns.  She 
was  too  strong  a  personality  to  be  the  mere  consort 
of  a  deity.    The  attempt  was  made  to  wed  her; 


but  it  involved  either  that  her  consort  should  be 
subordinate  because  of  her  greatness,  a  thing  im- 

thinkable  for  Semites,  or  that  she  should 
?•  Zshtar.   be  reduced  to  passivity,  which  that 

same  greatness  forbade.  She  is  noted 
for  the  absorption  and  comprehension  in  her  being 
of  all  the  noted  goddesses  of  old  Babylonia.  Nin- 
harsag  of  Erech  (the  great  mother),  the  war-deity 
Nana  of  Erech,  Nina  of  Shirpurla,  Anunit  (Simierian 
Anuna)  of  Sippar,  all  yielded  up  their  personalities 
to  Ishtar  as  she  grew  in  greatness,  and  her  name 
came  to  be  a  sjmonym  for  "  goddess."  She  even 
disdained  the  feminine  termination  ah  in  her  name, 
and  she  was  the  Belit,  "  Mistress,"  as  Marduk  was 
'Bel, "  Lord,"  of  the  land.  At  her  principal  temple 
at  Erech  impure  worship  was  a  part  of  her  ritual. 

Nergal,  already  mentioned  as  personifying  the 
sun's  destructive  action,  was  worshiped  at  Cutha 
in  the  temple  E-shidlam, "  House  of  Shade,"  at 
least  from  the  time  of  Dungi  till  c.  700  B.C.  He 
was  a  god  of  the  dead  in  conjunction  with  Allatu, 

this  flowing  natiurally  from  his  office 
8«  Kergal.  as  destroyer.    He,  too,  absorbed  other 

deities  (e.g.,  Ira,  a  fire-god)  and  took 
others  as  his  servitors  (e.g.,  Namtar,  the  plague- 
god).  His  consort  as  god  of  the  dead  was  Eresh- 
Ki^,  as  a  god  of  the  living  Laz.  The  pantheon 
of  the  dead  was  a  late  scholastic  development. 

Ninib  and  Girru   (Assyrian  Nusku)  were  two 

deities  who  had  absorbed  a  number  of  earlier  gods. 

9  Ninib    "^^  former  was  connected  with  agri- 

(Mrra  and  <^^^^^^  ^^^  ^^»  ^^®  latter  with  the 

qyni"«"i.    ^^^  '^^  ^^^   ^^'    Girru  was  also 

a  victor  over  demons,  and  as  such  was 
much  invoked  in  incantations.  Tanunuz  (Su- 
merian Dumu-n)  was  originally  a  sun-god,  son  of 
Ea  and  bridegroom  of  Ishtar,  a  culture  god  of 
Eridu,  of  note  chiefly  because  of  his  being  the 
cause  of  Ishtar's  descent  into  Hades  which  is  the 
theme  of  one  of  the  epics.  In  Syria  he  was  Adonai, 
"  my  lord,"  and  gave  the  Greeks  their  Adonis 
(cf .  on  the  name  Ninib,  J.  D.  Prince,  in  JBL,  xxiv, 
1905,  part  1,  p.  54). 

Marduk,  the  youngest  of  Babylonian  deities, 
supreme  in  Bablyonia  from  c.  2250  till  the  fall  of 
the  Semitic  power,  owed  his  position  first  to  the 
political  preeminence  of  Babylon,  secondly  to 
priestly  ingenuity  which  connected  him  with  En- 
lil  and  then  manufactiu^  the  fiction  that  because 

of  Marduk's  victory  over  Tiamat  En- 
10.  Xardnk.  lil  resigned  to   him   his   supremacy. 

To  clear  the  way,  Marduk  was  iden- 
tified with  Asari,  son  of  En-lil.  He  was  probably  a 
sun-god,  though  his  name  seems  to  come  from  Amar- 
dugguj  *'  good  heifer,"  a  title  of  Asari.  Hammurabi 
seems  to  have  been  the  first  to  declare  his  supremacy. 
Nabonidus  appears  to  have  attempted  to  carry 
this  supremacy  a  step  further  and  to  have  been 
thwarted  by  the  priesthood.  As  it  was,  Marduk 
was  never  to  Babylonia  what  Zeus  was  to  Greece. 
Nebo  (from  the  same  root  as  Hebrew  nabhif 
"  prophet ";  Sumerian  Dim-Mr,  "Wise  Scribe"), 
god  of  Borsippa,  originally  superior  to  Marduk, 
was  subjected  to  the  latter  by  being  made  his  son. 
He  was  god  of  utterance,  wisdom,  revelation, 
writing,  and  culture.    There  appears  to  have  been 


Babylonia 
Baoner 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


41d 


a  connection  with  Ea  of  Eridu,  but  exactly  what 
is  not  yet  made  out.  As  the  god  of  wisdom  Nebo 
was  readily  dissociated  from  local  con- 
11.  Kebo.  nections,  aud  was  even  adopted  in  As- 
syria. Indeed  he  too':  on  universal 
functions  as  the  god  of  prophecy.  As  such  he  was 
kindly,  and  none  of  the  dread  which  attached  to 
thoughts  of  other  deities  appears  in  mention  of 
him. 

8.  The  Priests  and  the  Epics:    The  type  of  wor- 
ship has  already  been  indicated  in  the  article  on 
Assyria.    Among    the    kingly    fimctions    sacrifice 
continued.  The  priests  were  numerous,  and  though 
they  appear  little  in  the  texts,  their  influence  can 
always  be  read  between  the  lines.     The  ill-starred 
attempt  of  Nabonidus  to  make  Marduk  more  than 
he  had  been,  to  set  him  in  a  place 
*  of  ttie^^  ^®  *'^**  ^^  Asshur's  in  Assyria,  was 
Priests,      doubtless  frustrated  by  priestly  opH 
position.     As  the  scribes,  the  teach- 
ers, the  molders  of  theology  and  myth,  in  a  country 
so  devoted  to  a  religion  of  set  forms,  the  priests 
had  an  influence  which  can  hardly  be  exaggerated. 
The  cosmogony  which  is  most  in  evidence  is  mani- 
festly of  their  make  and  postdates  the  rise  of  Baby- 
lon to  preeminence,  since  in  it  Marduk  b  conqueror 
of  the  rebeUious  TiamcU,  "  chaos,"  and  out  of  her 
rent  body  creates  the  universe  and  then  himian 
kind. 

The   three  epics   contain   earlier  material   and 
doubtless  took  form  before  Semitism  laid  its  hands 
upon  them.    The  Gilgamesh  epic  is  the  earliest 
which  contains  the  world-wide  thought  of  a  means 
of  escape  from  death.     In  this  case  it  is  a  tree,  and 
after  obtaining  a  scion  and  curing  his 
own  mortal  illness  Gilgamesh  lost  the 
scion  while  on  his  way  home,  it  being 
stolen  from  him  by  a  serpent  as  he 
was  drinking  from  a  spring.    Here  occur  elements 
of  comparison  with  the  Genesis  tree  of  life  in  the 
midst  of  the  garden  (not  the  tree  of  knowledge  of 
which  the  first  pair  ate),  and  the  serpent  is  also  in 
evidence.     A  further  point  for  comparison  is  that 
Gilgamesh  was  in  opposition  to  deity  in  the  person 
of  Ishtar,  not  indeed  by  eating  of  the  fruit  of  the 
tree  but  by  slaying  of  a  sacred  bull.    The  eleventh 
tablet  of  the  series  contained  the  Babylonian  deluge 
narrative  (see  Noah).    A  second  epic  connected 
with  Eridu  tells  the  story  of  the  first 
8.  The      man,  Adapa  (which  name  it  has  been 
Adapa  Epie.  proposed  to  read  Adamu,  cf .  Exposi- 
tory Times,  June,  1906,  p.  416-417), 
and  how  he  too  just  missed  inmiortality  through 
the  guile  of  Ea.     He  was  summoned  to  heaven  to 
answer  for  breaking  the  wings  of  the  south  wind. 
Ea  warned  him  not  to  partake  of  food  while  there, 
and  by  his  obedience  he  failed  of  the  immortality 
that  the  "  food  of  Ufe,"  which  was  offered  him,  would 
have  bestowed  (see  Adam,  II,  §  5).    The  third  epic, 
dealing  with  Marduk's  contest  witl  the 
4.  Marduk  demon,  Chaos,  has  two  points  of  inter- 
and Chaos,  est:  first,  it  bears  upon  its  face  its  date, 
not  earlier   than  Hanmiurabi,   under 
whom  it  probably  took  form;  second,  it  is  manifestly 
a  plagiarism  from  a  much  earlier  story  in  which  Ea 
was  the  hero  who  vanquished  Apsu,  **  the  deep,'' 


2.  The  GKl- 

flramesh 

Epio. 


and  then  became  creator  and  protector  of  men. 
A  fotirth  narrative,  which  hovers   between   epie 

and  ritual,  concerns  the  bereaval  of 

6.  Ishtar>s   Ishtar  in  the  loss  of  her  bridegroom 

Descent  In-  Tanmiuz,  to  recover  whom  she  de- 

to  Hades,    scends  into  Hades.    This  narrative  ii 

late,  its  description  of  the  environment 
of  the  underworld  exhibiting  the  refinements  oi 
Semitic  elaboration.  Geo.  W.  Gilmorb. 

Bxblioorapht:  The  works  dted  under  Abstrxa  (q.T.)  gea- 
erally  deal  alao  with  Babylonia  and  should  be  consulted. 
General  works  are  F.  Lenormant.  SuuUm  ctmUformta, 
5  parts,  Paris,  1878-80;  J.  Menant,  Nineveh  et  Bahyi<m,  tb. 
1887;  H.  Hilpreoht.  Aaevriaea,  Bine  Ntuhlem  OMf  dem 
Oebie*e  der  Atevriologie,  Halle,  1894;  C.  Fossey.  Mamtd 
d'AMvriologie,  vol.  i,  Paris,  1004  (on  explorations,  de- 
cipherment, and  origin  and  history  of  the  cuneifmm); 
B.  Meissner,  Aaeyriolooieche  Studien,  1-3.  Berlin,  190^ 
05.  Additional  sources  are:  P.  Haupt,  Die  ntmeriaeken 
Familiengeeetze,  Leipsic,  1870;  J.  Hal^ry,  DocumentB  n- 
ligieux  de  VAuvrie  et  de  la  BabvUmie,  Paris,  1882;  toL 
iii  of  E.  Sohrader's  KeiHnedirifUiche  BUdioihek,  Berlin. 
1800-02,  contains  historiea]  inscriptions  from  Urukae- 
ina  to  Cyrus;  H.  Hilprecht,  BabyUmian  Expedition  of 
the  Univeraity  of  Pennaylvania^  Seriee  A,  Cuneiform 
TexU,  vol.  i.  parts  1-2,  vol.  ix,  Philadelphia.  1803-08: 
L.  W.  King,  Letter*  and  InecriptionM  of  Hammurairi  .  .  . 
and  otJier  Kinge  of  (he  Firet  Dynaaiy  of  Babylon,  3  vob., 
London,  1808-1000  (vol.  iii  contains  translations);  J.  A. 
Craig,  Aeeyrian  and  Babylonian  Religume  Texte,  vols.  i« 
ii,  Prayer;  Oradee,  Hymne,  Leipsic.  1805-07;  idem.  A»- 
trological-Aetronomical  Tablet;  ib.  1800;  I.  M.  Price,  The 
Oreat  Cylinder  Inecriptione  A  and  B  of  Gudea  tnxn^itertUed 
and  tranaUUedf  Leipsic,  1800;  F.  Martin.  Texiee  reUgieuz 
Aaeyriene  et  Babyloniena,  Paris.  10(X)  (contains  tran- 
scription, transl.,  and  commentary);  V.  Scheil,  Textea 
ilamitea,  3  vob.,  ib.  1001-04;  C.  H.  W.  Johns.  An  Ae- 
eyrian  Doomaday  Book  or  Liber  ceneualia,  Leipsic,  1001; 
idem,  Babylonian  and  Aaeyrian  Lawe^  Contracte  and  Le^ 
tere,  Edinburgh.  1004;  R.  F.  Harper,  Aaeyrian  and  Baby- 
lonian Lettera,  (Chicago,  1002-04;  G.  A.  Barton,  Harer- 
ford  Library  Collection  of  Cuneiform  TaJbUte  .  .  .  from 
.  .  .  TeUoK  Philadelphia.  1005;  8.  Langdon,  Building 
Inacriptiona  of  the  Neo-Babylonian  Bmjrir;  part  1.  Nabo- 
polaaaar  and  Nebuchadreaaar,  Paris.  1005  (transliteration, 
transl.,  and  introduction). 

On  exploration  consult  the  works  of  Rogers  (vol.  i)  and 
Hilprecht  {Exploraiiona)  mentioned  under  Assyria,  that 
of  Fossey,  ut  sup.,  and  J.  P.  Peters,  Nippur;  or,  Explony- 
tiona  and  Adventurea  on  the  Euphratea,  2  vote..  New  York, 
1807;  A.  Billerbeck,  Oeographiache  Unterauchunoen,  Ber- 
lin. 1898. 

On  the  people:  G.  HOsing.  Elamieche  Studien,  Berlin. 
1808;  H.  Ranks,  Die  Peraonnamen  in  den  Urkunden  der 
Hammurabidynaaiie,  Munich,  1002;  H.  WinckJer.  Die 
Vdlker  Vorderaaiena,  Leipsic,  1800.  On  the  cuneiform 
writing:  J.  Menant,  Le  SyUabaire  Aaayrien,  expoaS  da 
iUmente,  2  vols.,  Paris.  1860-73;  T.  N6ldeke,  Some 
Characteriatica  of  the  Semitic  Race,  in  Sketchea  from 
Eaatem  Hiatory,  New  York,  1802;  F.  Delitssoh.  Dm  Snt- 
etehung  dee  dUeaten  Schriftayatema,  2  parts.  Leipsic.  1807- 
08;  F.  Thureau-Dangin,  Recherchea  aur  Vorigitte  die  Vicri- 
ture  cunHforme,  part  1,  Formea  arduiique;  Pftria,  1886; 
F.  E.  Peiser,  Studien  aur  orientaliachen  AUertumakunde. 
Daa  aemitiache  Alphabet,  Berlin,  1000;  A.  Amiaud  et  L. 
Mechineau,  Tableau  eompari  dea  Serituree  Babyloniewte  et 
Aaayrienne,  2d  ed.,  Paris.  1002.  For  lexicography  con- 
sult: Fr.  Delitsach.  Aaayriachea  WSrterbueh,  Leipeic,  1888- 
00;  R.  E.  Bninnow,  Claaaified  Liat  of  .  .  ,  Ideographt, 
Leiden,  1880;  £.  Scheil,  SyUabatrt,  RecueQ  de  aigmea 
archaiquea  .  .  .  ,  Paris,  1808;  J.  D.  Prince,  Materiala  for 
a  Sumerian  Lexicon,  Leipsic,  1005.  On  grammar  con- 
sult J.  Menant,  Manuel  de  la  langue  Aaayrienne,  Puis, 
1880.  On  the  Sumerian  question:  E.  de  Choasat,  Ri- 
pertoire  Sumirien,  Lyons,  1882;  F.  Hommel.  in  Journal 
Royal  Aaiatic  Society,  1886;  idem,  Sumeriadte  Leaealfictt. 
Munich,  1804;  J.  Hal^vy,  Notea  Sumhiennee,  in  Reeue 
ehnitique,  i-x  (1803-1002);  F.  H.  WeiaOiach,  Die  a$h 
meriache  Frage,  Leipsic,  1808;  T.  G.  Pinches  and  C.  P. 
Tiele,  AlAadian  and  Sumerian,  in  Journal  Roual  Aaiatic 


413 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Babylonia 
Baoner 


Sod^tlf,  3DLXU  (1000),  75-96,  343^344,  551-^2;  E.  Babe- 
Ion.  La  Lan&ue  mtmirvmna,  ia  Annaitt  d*  philotophi^ 
Chritienfw,  vii,  36  57.  171-189. 

On  thfi  civitisation  &nd  iU  infiueDcxa  oonault:  F.  S. 
Feiaef,  S*«w  dim-  fidnrfoniKs^cJi  OtmdlKhafL  Berlin.  iS^fi; 
A.  S.  P&Jmert  ^o^fcnuin  Infiugncg  tm  iAd  ^ij^^  and  P^fp- 
uiar  BtlicfE,  »  .  ,  a  Compariiiit)*  Studtf  of  Gen.  i-ii.  Lon- 
don. 1807;  A.  H,  Bayce.  £fcjAy tonioi*  ayid  AMwyrian  hi^m 
afid  Cujtomi.  New  York.  t&99i  I.  M.  Prioo.  ThM  Mtmw 
mentM  and  the  O.  7".*  Chicago.  1900:  H.  Zimroem,  TA* 
Babylonian  arui  iAe  Hebrew  Generii^  Locidqti^  lOOl;  H. 
WinckJer,  Die  ba5v''!>ni«f/ie  Kultur  in  ^ren  BtiitJtuneen 
tu  unMri&en,  Leipaic.  1002;  H.  Zimoiern,  KeUinMchrLfim 
und  Eibel,  Bertjn.  1003;  R  KQchJer,  fl*ift^flfl«  eur  K*nrtl- 
nu  der  ,  .  ,  Mtditin^  Lfipsic,  1904;  C.  F.  LehnuuiEi» 
Biibylonitn'a  KuUuTminion»  ib*  IP05:  W*  St.  C,  I^scawcn^ 
PreAiitorMT  Civilizatuin  of  Bdb^f Ionia.  In  /cfurnaf  Anfhra- 
patoffieal  IntHtuie,  vil.  21-36;  and  the  titerature  in  the 
"  BabeUBibei  "  coatFOTVTvy. 

For  the  history  booka  aTaJlablA  mni  C.  Nlebuhf,  Bk 
Chr<moh^  .  .  ,  mm-700  vor  ChrtatuM,  LeljiHlc  1806; 
Hh  Winpkbr*  Dif  bsivj/fam^c-Af  iLa«n(£*uJtJ^na«fw,  Lb.  1804; 
idem.  Die  palilitahe  Entwickeluno  B^yloni^na  und  A*9vri- 
m**  lb.  1900;  F.  Hommel,  AncieTU  Hebrew  Tradihcn, 
LondoD*  1807;  G.  8.  Goodapeed,  Hittory  of  Babyl&nianM 
.  .  .  ,  New  York,  1002;  B.  Radau,  Eca-iv  Bohvhnian 
Hi*t0Ty.  New  York.  1900  (of  the  very  highest  value,  h&sed 
on  first-hand  itudy  of  texts):  W.  St,  a  Bote* wen.  Firtt 
of  Emptrea,  New  York,  1905  (susK&stive.  but  slovenly  in 
its  refererices);  T.  Friedrich.  AWtai^ylonUi^  Urkun^en 
auf  Si>poro,  LeipBio,  1906  (frftsh,  initmetire).  Special 
pubjecta  retftted  to  the  history  an  treated  in:  J.  N.  Stra^N 
majer,  f njcAnyAm  twn  Naboniduv^  4  partit  Leipmc,  1887- 
80:  0.  F.  I^hnumiit  BhamoMhahutnuMTt,  lb.  1S92;  B. 
M^iijaQer,  BriJtra^  turn  nWniliylomtchtn  Privair€ch(,  ib. 
1S03;  H-  Wintkler.  AUorientaliache  ForsdtunffviK  vi  and 
viii.  2,  ib  1890  (ded  mth  Nebuehadrea»ar);  I,  M.  Price, 
Some  Literary  Remain*  fff  RimSin  {AHodi),  c.  MMM, 
Chicago.  1904;  Nehucbjidrea*H.r  iDJcriptioofl  are  found  m 
PSBA,  X,  87-129,  a58'36S.  and  in  Schrader.  KB.  iii,  port 
2,  10--45;  At*i/f«m  and  Babyhninn  Liieraturt,  SeUsted 
TranMktHom.  New  York^  1901,  eontaku  InMriptiotv  of 
both  Nebufihadpeiiars,  Nabupalidiii,  NnbopoLaiisar,  Nabo- 
nidus,  the  SynchroRouH  History,  the  Bshyloman  chron* 
iclei  most  of  the  epit^l  fra^nienta.  magical  and  other-  text^, 
pr9.yer%,  hjrmnAv  penjtentjal  pttalirui,  lawa,  and    proverbii. 

On  the  ReliKiojit  A*  Jetemiaa,  Die  babutoniich-aMyri- 
icAcn  VcTMieUunoen  «oin  L«&en  nocA  detn  Tode^  Letpflic, 
1SS7;  idem.  The  Bahylomian  CoTweption  of  Hmiven  and 
Heii,  in  Aitcient  East^  No.  4.  London.  1902;  H.  Zimmem^ 
B^ylanitiJig  Bumepfalmen^  Leipsic,  1685;  idem.  BeHr^g* 
mtr  K^nntni*  da"  ^byhniadu^  Reli^n,  3  partii,  ib.  1S96~ 
1900;  G.  A.  Barton.  Semitic  iMhttir  Cull,  in  Hdwowa.  Apr.- 
July,  18g3;  Oct.,  1803-Jan.  1894;  J.  A.  Kuudtcon,  At- 
tyriKheVebete  an  den  BonnengoU,  2  VoIb.<  ih.  1893;  L.  W. 
Kin^.  Babylonian  RetitriQn  and  Mufh&leQU.  London^  1890; 
F.  Hrosny,  SumeriMfh-bahylxmiadiM  Mythen  f^mn  dem  Gott^ 
Nimroij  (Ninib),  Berlin.  1903;  by  far  the  be«t  treatiee  on 
the  religion  ifl  by  Jaatrow^  in  DB,  Supplemeotary  VoJmoe. 
pp.  531-584.  On  Maid^t  A.  Laurent,  La  Majgia  tt  (a 
divination  cft«x  Um  Chaldie^Awgiflienw,  Fwie,  1804:  L.  W. 
Kina^  Babvhnian  Mofficand  5arpsrir,  Londoa,  1S90:  /?#- 
portw  t}f  ike  Moffictan*  and  Atirotog^a  €ff  .  .  .  Babylon^ 
voL  i,  Text,  vol.  it,  TVuiuf..  ib.  1000;  C.  Fo»ey,  La  Magic 
Atsyrienfm^  Farm  1902.  Oa  the  epiia:  F.  Baupt,  Bahy- 
lonimehM  NvHWodepM,  2  partA,  Leipdc,  1884-01;  M.  Ja»- 
trow.  A  Froffmeni  of  ihe  Babylonian  "  Dtbarra  "  Epic, 
Philadelphia*  1891;  A.  Jeremiad,  Itdubaar-Nimrod,  Leip- 
tic,  1891;  P.  Jenjfen,  AttyriKh-habyianiachs  Myihen  und 
Epen.  in  KB.  Berlin,  1900--01:  idemp  Dom  QiliiamsthrEpm 
in  der  WeiUiterabtr,  vol.  t,  SirashiirK,  1006;  L.  W. 
Kwg,  Seven  TabUtg  of  Creation  .  ,  .  ,  London,  1902;  B. 
Keisaoer,  Ein  ,  ,  .  Fragment  de»  OOffam&tvpo**  Berlio. 
1902. 

BABYLONIAIf  EXILE:  1.  Of  the  Hebrewa. 
See  Ibkael.     2^  Of  the  popes«     8ee  Ayionon, 

BACCAlfARISTS.    See  Paccakari,  Nioolo. 

BACH,  baR,  JOHAirif  SEBASTIAN:  MuBician; 
b*  at  Eisenach  Mar,  21,  1685;  d.  at  Leipsic  July 
28,  1750,    He  belonged  to  a  family  which  through 


several  generations  had  distingubhed  itaelf  by  mu- 
sical talent;  lost  his  parejits  early;  and  had,  from 
hm  fourteenth  year,  to  provide  for  hia  own  eduea- 
tion.  In  1703  he  was  appointed  court-muaidan  in 
Weimar;  and  in  1723,  already  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  musicians  of  the  time,  he  was  made 
cantor  and  direetor  of  church  music  at  Leipmc. 
His  celebrity  duiing  his  lifetime  he  owed  mainly 
to  his  skill  as  an  organist  and  pianist;  Ins  compo- 
sitions were  not  appreeiated  tilt  a  later  age»  They 
consist  chiefly  of  church  mu^c,  oratorios,  massesi 
etc.,  for  organ  and  orchestra^  for  inatrumenta  na 
we!!  aa  for  the  human  voice;  after  bis  death  the 
manuscripts  were  divided  amotig  his  sons,  and  re- 
mained uimotioed  till  the  time  of  Mendelssohn.  See 
Music,  Sacred, 

BiBt.iooRA.PHT^  P.  Spitta,  Johann  Evbattian  BatAr  2  vob., 
Leipaic  1373-80.  En^.  tranal..  3  voli,,  London,  1884-88; 
C.  F,  A.  WilliaoiH.  Bach,,  in  Afaeter  Mueietarai  aerie«,  New 
York,  1900;  H,  Harth,  Jifhann  SebaaHan  Bach,  ein  Lebenu' 
biU,  Berlin.  1902^  A.  Firro,  Johann  Eebaatian  Baeh,  Ac 
Organist,  and  Am  11^ or**,  from  the  FnemA.  New  York, 
1903;  A.  8<;hweitter.  /.  S.  Bach,  le  miteicien  poite,  Leipaio, 
1905;  PkiJipp  Wolf  rum,  J&hann  Bebatiian  Badit  Berlin, 
1906. 

BACHj  JOSEPHS  Roman  Catholic;  b,  at  Ais- 
lingen  (22  m,  n.w.  of  Augsburg),  Bavaria^  May  4, 
1833;  d.  at  Muiuch  Sept,  22,  1901,  He  studied 
philosophy  and  theology  in  the  University  of 
Munich;  became  privat-docent  there ^  1865;  pro- 
fessor extraordinary  of  theology,  1867;  ordinary 
professor  of  philosophy  of  religion  and  pedagogics, 
and  university  preacher,  1872,  He  wrote:  Die 
Siebensahl  der  Sacramente  (Regensburg,  1864); 
Afeisfcr  Eckhart  (Vienna,  1S64);  Propst  Gerhoch 
von  Reichersberg  {1S65);  Die  DogmengeschickU  dea 
MiUelalterA  vom  christotogiscken  Standpunkief  oder 
die  miUelalterliche  Chrisiologie  torn  S.  bis  16.  Jahf' 
hundert  (2  vols.,  1873-75);  Joseph  von  Gfttres 
(Freiburg,  1876);  Des  Alberius  Magnus  Verh^t^ 
niss  zur  Erkenninisdehre  der  Griechtn,  Lateinerj 
Araber,  und  Juden  (Vienna,  1881);  Ueber  das  Ver^ 
hdiinisa  d&b  Systhne  de  la  Nattire  mr  Wisaenschafi 
der  Gegenwart  (Cologne,  1884);  Der  heilige  Rock  *u 
Trier  (Frankfort,  1891);  Die  Trierer  HeUigtums- 
fahrt  im  Jahre  1891  (Strasburg*  1892). 

BTBLioofyLPOV:  A.  Schmidf  LebtnA-B^  des  .  .  .  JottpK 
Back,  Kempten,  1902. 

BACHER,  bOH'er,  WCLHELM ;  Hungarian  Jew- 
iah  Orientalist;  b.  at  Lipt6-S2ent-Mikl6s  (OS  m* 
s,w.  of  Craeow)j  Hungary «  Jan.  12,  1850.  He  was 
educated  at  the  Evangelical  Lyceum  of  Pre^burg, 
and  the  universities  of  Budapest,  Brealau,  and 
Leipsic  (Ph,D.,  1870),  He  was  graduated  from  the 
Jewish  Tlieologic^  Seminary  of  Breslau  as  rabbi 
in  1S76  and  was  appointed  to  the  rabbinate  of 
Szegedin.  In  the  following  year,  however,  the 
Hungarian  government  chose  him  to  be  one  of  the 
profesSBora  of  the  new  LandesrabbinerschuU  at  Buda- 
pest, where  he  has  since  taught  on  a  great  variety 
of  subjects.  In  1S78  he  waa  a  field-chaplain  in 
the  Austro^Hungarian  army  of  occupation  in  Bos- 
nia. Seven  years  lat^r  he  was  appointed  director 
of  the  Talmud  Torah  school  in  Budapest,  an  insti- 
tution  with  which  he  is  still  connected.  In  1894 
he  was  one  of  the  founder  of  the  Jewish  literary 
sodety  iuaeliJUk  Mag^for  jTodami  Tdrmdat^  gl  which 


Baohiarlnfl 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOa 


414 


he  was  elected  vice-president  four  years  later.  His 
chief  works,  in  addit  on  to  numerous  contributions 
to  scientific  periodicals  and  various  encyclopedias, 
are  Nudmi'a  Leben  und  Werke,  und  der  zweiU  TheU 
de$  NUdmi'achen  Alexanderbuchea  (Leipsio,  1871); 
Mualicheddtn  Sa'ad^a  Aphoriamen  und  Sinnge- 
dichie,  zum  ersten  Mate  heramgegeben  vnd  Hberaetzt 
(Strasburg,  1879);  Die  Agada  der  babyUmiachen 
Amarder  (1878);  Die  Agada  der  Tannatten  (2  vols., 
1884-00);  Leben  und  Werke  dea  AbultoaKd  Merwdn 
ibn  OanOi  und  die  Quellen  aeiner  Sckrifterklarung 
(1885);  Die  Agada  der  paldatiniachen  Amorder  (3 
vols.,  1892-99);  Die  hdfrdiache  Sprachwiaaenachaft 
vom  xehnten  bia  zun  eechzeknten  Jahrhundert  (Treves, 
1892);  Die  Bibelexegeae  der  fOdiachen  ReHgionaphi- 
loaaphen  dea  MUtelaltera  var  MaimUni  (Strasburg, 
1892);  Die  Anfdnge  der  hebrdiachen  Grammatik 
(1895);  Die  Bibelexegeae  Maimiini'a  (1896);  Die 
dUeate  Terminologie  der  jUdiachen  Schriftaualegung 
(2  vols.,  1899-1905);  Ein  hebrdiach-peraiachea  W&r- 
terbuch  aua  dem  vierzehnten  Jahrhundert  (1900); 
and  Aua  dem  WCrterbuch  Tanchum  Jeruachalmi*a 
(1903).  In  1884  he  and  Joseph  Bdn6c£i  founded 
the  Idagyar  Zaidd  Szemle,  which  they  edited  for 
seven  years,  and  which  is  still  the  only  Jewish  re- 
view in  Hungary. 

BACHIARIUS,  bak-i-&'ri-T7s:  An  author,  pre- 
sumably a  monk  (cf .  Gennadius  of  Marseilles,  Script, 
ecd.f  xxiv),  to  whom  are  ascribed  two  writings: 
(1)  a  Liber  de  fide,  in  which  he  defends  his  ortho- 
doxy against  attacks,  probably  of  the  Priscillian- 
ists  (cf.  Priscillian,  ed.  G.  Schepss,  CSEL,  xviii, 
1889,  index,  p.  167);  and  (2)  a  Liber  de  reparor- 
Hone  lapai  ad  Januarium,  in  which  he  takes  the 
part  of  a  monk  whose  offenses  against  morality  had 
been  treated  with  extreme  rigor  by  his  abbot. 

G.  KrOoer. 
Bzbuoorapht:  The  works  are  in  MPL,  xx.  Consult  Fese- 
ler-Jungmann.  InatUutUmea  peUrologicB,  vol.  ii,  part  1.  418- 
427  Innsbruck,  1802;  8.  Berger,  HUtoire  de  la  Vuloate, 
p.  28,  Nancy.  1803;  O.  L.  Hahn.  BtMiothek  der  Svmbole, 
f  208,  Leipsic,  1807;  F.  Kattenbuseh,  Dae  apoetoluche 
Symbol,  i-il,  passim,  Leipsic,  1804-1000. 

BACHMAim,  bOH'man  (GEORG),  PHttlPP:  Ger- 
man  Protestant;  b.  at  Geislingen  (34  m.  s.e.  of 
Stuttgart)  Oct.  13,  1864.  He  was  educated  at  the 
University  of  Erlangen  (Ph.D.,  1887)  and  the  semi- 
nary for  preachers  at  Munich  (1888).  He  was  a 
lecturer  at  Erlangen  in  1888-90,  and  pastor  at 
Urfersheim  in  1890-92,  after  which  he  was  a  teacher 
of  religion  at  Nuremberg  until  1902,  when  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  systematic  theology  at 
£h*langen.  He  has  written  Die  peradidiche  Heila- 
erfahrung  (Leipsic,  1889);  Die  augaburgiache 
Confeaaion  (1900);  Sittenlehre  Jeau  (1904);  and 
Kommentar  zu  I  Korinther  (1905). 

BACHMANN,  JOHANNES  FRANZ  JULIUS: 
Lutheran;  b.  at  Berhn  Feb.  24,  1832;  d.  at  Ros- 
tock Apr.  12,  1888.  He  studied  at  Halle  and 
Berlin,  became  privat-docent  at  Berhn,  1856, 
ordinary  professor  of  theology  at  Rostock,  1858, 
also  university  preacher,  1874.  In  his  student 
days  Tholuck  and  Hengstenberg  attracted  him 
most,  and  it  was  in  large  measure  the  learning, 
ingenuity,  and  firmness  of  the  latter  in  defending 
tradition   which  influenced  Bachmann  to  devote 


himself  especially  to  the  investigation  of  the  Old 
Testament.  His  theological  position  may  be  thus 
characterised:  The  conception  of  prophecy  seoned 
to  him  determined  by  the  mode  of  its  fulfilmoit; 
for  this  reason  he  beJieved  that  the  spiritual,  not 
the  literal,  exposition  of  the  Old  Testament  shodd 
be  followed.  Nevertheless,  he  tried  to  avoid  the 
one-sided  spiritualism  which  Hengstenberg  espoused 
in  his  earlier  works.  His  schoburship  in  his  chosen 
field  is  evident  in  two  works.  Die  Featgeaetze  dea 
Pentateucha  aufa  neue  krUiach  untersuc^  (Beriin, 
1858),  in  which  he  endeavors  to  prove,  against 
Hupfeld,  the  harmonious  unity  of  the  festival  laws 
of  the  Pentateuch;  and  in  his  unfinished  commen- 
tary on  the  Book  of  Judges  (Berlin,  1868),  upon 
which  he  had  spent  years  of  labor.  Of  this  work 
George  F.  Moore  remarks  (Commentary  on  Judgea, 
New  York,  1895,  1):  "  By  far  the  fuUest  recent 
conmientary  on  Judges  is  that  of  J.  Bachmann, 
which  was  imfortunately  never  carried  beyond  the 
fifth  chapter.  The  author's  standpoint  is  that  of 
Hengstenberg,  and  he  is  a  stanch  opponent  of 
modem  criticism  of  every  shade  and  school;  but 
in  range  and  accuracy  of  scholarship,  and  exhaust- 
ive thoroughness  of  treatment,  his  volume  stands 
without  a  rival."  Bachmann  also  wrote  with 
reverence  and  learning  a  biography  of  his  teacher 
Hengstenberg  (2  vols.,  Giltersloh,  1876-80). 

E.  K6NIG. 

Biblxoorapht:  H.    Behm,    Johannea  Bachmavui,  Rostock. 
1888  (by  his  ■on-in-law). 

BACIUERI,        b<l''cht-li-«'ri,     BARTOLOMEO: 

Cardinal-priest;  b.  at  Breonio  (near  Verona), 
Italy,  Mar.  28,  1842.  He  was  educated  at  Verona 
and  the  Collegio  Capranica,  Rome,  and  after  long 
service  in  the  priesthood,  was  consecrated  titular 
bishop  of  Nyssa  in  1888,  at  the  same  time  being 
appointed  bishop  coadjutor  of  Verona.  Three 
years  later  he  became  bishop  of  the  latter  see,  and 
in  1901  was  created  cardinal-priest  of  San  Bartolo- 
meo  all'Isola.  He  is  a  member  of  the  congrega- 
tions of  the  Lidex  and  of  Indulgences  and  Rehcs. 

BACON,  BENJAMIN  WISNER:  Congregatioii- 
ahst;  b.  at  Litchfield,  Conn.,  Jan.  15,  1860.  He 
was  graduated  at  Yale  in  1881  and  the  Yale 
Divinity  School  1884,  and  held  successive  Congre- 
gational pastorates  at  Old  Lyme,  Conn.  (1884- 
89),  and  Oswego,  N.  Y.  (1889-96).  In  1896  he 
became  instructor  in  New  Testament  Greek  in  the 
Yale  Divinity  School,  and  in  1897  Buckingham 
professor  of  New  Testament  criticism  and  inter- 
pretation. In  addition  to  numerous  briefer  con- 
tributions and  a  translation  of  Wildeboer's  Hd 
Ontataan  van  den  Kanon  dea  Ouden  Verbonda  (Gronin- 
gen,  1889)  under  the  title  The  Griffin  of  the  Canon 
of  the  Old  Teatament  (London,  1895),  he  has  written 
The  Geneaia  of  Geneaia  (Hartford,  1891);  Triple 
Tradition  of  the  Exodua  (1894);  Introduction  to 
the  New  Teatament  (New  York,  1900);  The  Sermon 
on  the  Mount  (1902);  and  The  Story  of  St,  Paul 
(Boston,  1905). 

BACON,  FRANCIS:  English  philosopher  and 
statesman;  b.  in  London  Jan.  22,  1561,  son  of  Sir 
Nicholas  Bacon  (b.  1509;  d.  1579),  Lord  Keeper 


416 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Baohlarlfui 
Baoon 


of  the  Great  Seal  under  Elizabeth;  d.  at  Highgate, 
near  London,  Apr.  9,  1626.  He  studied  at  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge,  1573-76,  and  in  1676  waa 
admitted  to  Gray's  Inn.  He  entered  parliament 
in  1584,  became  one  of  the  leading  lawyers  of  Eng- 
land, and  rose  through  various  posts  in  the  publio 
service  imtil  he  reached  the  Lord  Chancellorship 

in    1618.    The    same    year    he    was 
Life.       raised  to  the  peerage  as  Baron  Veru- 

1am,  and  three  years  later  was  made 
Viscoimt  St.  Albans.  In  1621  he  was  charged 
with  accepting  bribes,  and  was  tried  and  foimd 
guilty;  his  offices  were  taken  from  him,  he  was 
sentenced  to  a  fine  of  £40,0CX),  to  imprisonment 
during  the  king's  pleasure,  and  was  disabled  from 
sitting  in  parliament  and  coming  within  twelve 
miles  of  the  court.  Feeling  his  disgrace  keenly, 
he  went  into  retirement  and  devoted  the  remainder 
of  his  life  to  study  and  literary  work.  The  par- 
liamentary sentence,  however,  was  not  imposed, 
for  the  king  (James  I)  practically  remitted  his 
fine  and  in  1622  he  was  allowed  to  come  to  London. 
As  philosopher  and  man  of  letters  Bacon's  fame 
is  in  bright  contrast  to  his  sad  failure  in  public  life. 
His  philosophy  is  contained  chiefly  in  the  various 
parts  and  fragments  of  a  work  which  he  called 
Instauratio  magna  and  which  he  left  incomplete; 
the  most  important  part  is  the  Novum  organum 
(published  1620).  His  philosophy  is  a  method 
rather  than  a  system;  but  the  influence  of  this 
method  in  the  development  of  British  thought 
can  hardly  be  overestimated.  As  Luther  was 
the  reformer  of  religion,  so  Bacon  was  the  reformer 
of  philosophy.  Luther  had  claimed  that  the  Scrip- 
ture was  to  be  interpreted  by  private  judgment, 
not  by  authority.  The  problem  of  Bacon  was  to 
suggest  a  method  of  interpreting  nature.  The 
old  method  afiforded  no  fruits.  It  "  flies  from  the 
senses  and  particulars  "  to  the  most  general  laws, 

and    then    applies    deduction.    This 

Bacon's      is  the  "  anticipation  of  nature."    To 

Philosophy,   it  Bacon  opposes  the  **  interpretation 

of  nature."  Nature  is  to  be  inter- 
preted, not  by  the  use  of  the  deductive  syllogism, 
but  by  the  induction  of  facts,  by  a  gradual  ascent 
from  facts,  through  intermediate  laws  called 
"  axioms,"  to  the  forms  of  nature.  Before  begin- 
ning this  induction,  the  inquirer  is  to  free  his  mind 
from  certain  false  notions  or  tendencies  which 
distort  the  truth.  These  are  called  "Idols" 
(idola),  and  are  of  four  kinds:  "  Idols  of  the  Tribe  " 
(idola  tribus),  which  are  common  to  the  race; 
''  Idols  of  the  Den "  (idola  specua),  which  are 
peculiar  to  the  individual;  '*  Idols  of  the  Market- 
place "  (idola  fori)f  coming  from  the  misuse  of 
language;  and  "  Idols  of  the  Theater "  (idola 
theairi),  which  result  from  an  abuse  of  authority. 
The  end  of  induction  is  the  discovery  of  forms, 
the  ways  in  which  natural  phenomena  occur,  the 
causes  from  which  they  proceed.  Nature  is  not 
to  be  interpreted  by  a  search  after  final  causes. 
"  Nature  to  be  commanded  must  be  obeyed." 
Philosophy  will  then  be  fruitful.  Faith  is  shown 
by  works.     Philosophy  is  to  be  known  by  fruits. 

In  the  application  of  this  method  in  the  physical 
tnd  moral  world.  Bacon  himself  accomplished  but 


little.  His  system  of  morals,  if  sjrstem  it  may  be 
called,  is  to  be  gathered  from  the  seventh  and  eighth 
books  of  his  Z>e  augmerUis  acientiarum  (1623;  a 
translation  into  Latin  and  expansion  of  an  earlier 
English  work,  the  Advancement  of  Learning,  1606), 
and  from  his  Easaya  (first  ed.,  10  essays,  1697; 
ed.  with  38  essays,  1612;  final  ed.,  68  essays,  1626). 
Moral  action  means  action  of  the  human  will. 
l*he  will  is  governed  by  reason.  Its  spur  is  the 
passions.  The  moral  object  of  the 
Ethics,  will  is  the  good.  Bacon,  like  the 
ancient  moralists,  failed  to  distinguish 
between  the  good  and  the  right.  He  finds  fault 
with  the  Greek  and  Roman  thinkers  for  disputing 
about  the  chief  good.  It  is  a  question  of  religion, 
not  of  ethics.  His  moral  doctrine  has  reference 
exclusively  to  this  world.  Duty  is  only  that  which 
one  owes  to  the  community.  Duty  to  God  is  an 
affair  of  religion.  The  cultivation  of  the  will  in  the 
direction  of  the  good  is  accomplished  by  the  for- 
mation of  a  habit.  For  this  Bacon  lays  down 
certain  precepts.  No  general  rules  can  be  made 
for  moral  action  under  all  circumstances.  The 
characters  of  men  differ  as  their  bodies  differ. 

Bacon   separates   distinctly   religion   and   phi- 
losophy.   The  one  is  not  incompatible  with  the 
other;  for   *'  a   little   philosophy   in- 

Relation    clineth  man's  mind  to  atheism,  but 

Between    depth  in  philosophy  bringeth  men's 
Philosophy  minds    about    to    reUgion."    Bacon 

and  Re-  has  been  sometimes  regarded  as  a 
Ugion.  defender  of  unbelief,  because  he 
opposed  the  search  after  final  causes 
in  the  interpretation  of  nature.  But  it  is  one 
thing  to  discourage  the  search  after  final  causes 
in  science,  it  is  another  thing  to  deny  the  exist- 
ence of  final  causes.  "  I  had  rather  believe,"  he 
says,  "  all  the  fables  in  the  Legend  and  the  Tal- 
mud and  the  Alcoran  than  that  this  universal 
frame  is  without  a  mind  "  (Eaaay  on  Atheiam), 
The  object  of  scientific  inquiry  should  be  the 
"form,"  not  the  final  cause. 

While  philosophy  is  not  atheistic  it  does  not 
inform  religion.  Tertullian,  Pascal,  and  Bacon 
agree  in  proclaiming  the  separation  of  the  two 
domains.  Tertullian  and  Pascal  do  it  to  save 
religion  from  rationalism;  Bacon  does  it  to  save 
philosophy  from  the  "  Idols."  Credo  quia  abaur- 
dum  is  expressed  in  the  following  words:  "  But  that 
faith  which  was  accoimted  to  Abraham  for  right- 
eousness was  of  such  a  nature  that  Sarah  laughed 
at  it,  who  therein  was  an  image  of  natural  reason. 
The  more  discordant,  therefore,  and  incredible,  the 
divine  mystery  is,  the  more  honor  is  shown  to 
God  in  believing  it,  and  the  nobler  is  the  victory 
of  faith  "  (De  augmentia,  bk.  ix).  Religion  comes, 
therefore,  not  from  the  light  of  nature,  but  from 
that  of  revelation.  "  First  he  breathed  light 
upon  the  face  of  the  matter,  or  chaos,  then  he 
breathed  light  into  the  face  of  man,  and  still  he 
breatheth  and  inspireth  light  into  the  face  of  his 
chosen "  (Eaaay  on  TruDi),  One  may  employ 
reason  to  separate  revealed  from  natiiral  truth, 
and  to  draw  inferences  from  the  former;  but  we 
must  not  go  to  excess  by  inquiring  too  curiously 
into  divine  mysteries,  nor  attach  the  same  authority 


Bacon 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


416 


to  inferences  as  to  principles.  If  Bacon  was  an 
atheist,  as  some  claim,  his  writings  are  certainly 
not  atheistic.  He  must,  in  that  case,  have  been  a 
hypocrite  in  order  to  be  a  flatterer,  and,  if  a  flatterer, 
a  most  foolish  one.  Yet  the  inductive  method 
has  given  natural  theology  the  facts  wliich  point 
most  significantly  to  God. 

Biblxoorapht:  Bacon's  religious  works  are  thus  enumer- 
ated by  Prof.  Thomas  Fowler:  (1 )  the  Medxtationes  sacroB 
(published  with  the  Easaya,  1507);  (2)  A  Confeanon  of 
Faiih  (written  before  1603.  published  1648);  (3)  a  Trana- 
lotion  of  Certain  PacUma  into  Engliah  Verae  (composed 
during  a  fit  of  sickness  1624,  published  1625);  (4)  three 
prayers,  The  Student'a  Prayer,  The  Writer'a  Prayer,  and 
a  third  composed  during  his  troubles  (1621).  The  most 
complete  and  best  edition  of  Bacon's  Worka  is  by  J.  Sped- 
ding,  R.  L.  Ellis,  and  D.  D.  Heath.  7  vols.,  London,  1857- 
59,  new  ed.,  1870,  which  is  supplemented  by  Spedding's 
Lettera  and  Life,  7  vols.,  1861-74;  abridged  ed.,  2  vols., 
1878.  Of  nmnerous  editions  of  special  works,  mention 
may  be  made  of  The  Advancement  of  Learning  by  W. 
Aldis  Wright.  4th  ed.,  Oxford.  1891;  the  Eaaaya  by  Arch- 
bishop Whately.  London.  1856.  6th  ed.,  1864;  by  W.  Aldis 
Wright,  Cambridge,  1862;  and  by  E.  A.  Abbott.  2 
vols..  London,  1876;  and  the  Novum  organum,  translation 
and  text  by  G.  W.  Kitchin,  Oxford.  1855;  text  with  in- 
troduction, notes,  etc.,  by  Thomas  Fowler,  2d  ed.,  ib. 
1889.  For  the  life  of  Bacon  and  criticism.  cons\ilt 
Macaulay's  famous  essay  (handy  ed.,  by  Longmans,  1004). 
which,  however,  is  considered  incorrect  and  unfair; 
Thomas  Fowler,  Francia  Bacon,  in  the  series  of  Engliah 
PhUoaophera,  London.  1881;  idem,  in  DNB,  ii.  328- 
360  (the  best  sunmiary);  R.  W.  Church,  in  the  Engliah 
Men  of  Lettera,  London.  1884;  E.  A.  Abbott,  Francia  Bacon: 
Account  of  hia  Life  and  Worka,  ib.  1885;  J.  Nichol,  Francia 
Bacon,  hia  Life  and  Philoaophy,  f  vols.,  ib.  1888-89,  re- 
issued, 1901. 

BACON,  LEONARD:  Congregationalist;  b.  in 
Detroit,  Mich.,  Feb.  19,  1802;  d.  in  New  Haven, 
Conn.,  Dec.  24,  1881.  He  was  graduated  at  Yale 
in  1820,  studied  theology  at  Andover,  became  pas- 
tor of  the  First  (Center)  Church  in  New  Haven  in 
1825,  and  retained  his  connection  with  the  church 
during  his  life,  after  1866  as  pastor  emeritus.  He 
was  instructor  in  revealed  religion  in  the  Yale  Di- 
vinity School,  1866-71,  and  lecturer  on  church 
polity  and  American  church  history,  1871  till  his 
death.  He  was  one  of  the  foimders  and  early  edi- 
tors of  The  New  Englander  (1843)  and  of  The 
New  York  Independent  (1848).  His  published  books 
include  a  life  and  selections  from  the  works 
of  Richard  Baxter  (2  vols.,  New  Haven,  1830); 
Thirteen  Historical  Disburses  on  the  Completion  of 
Two  Hundred  Years  from  the  Beginning  of  the  First 
Church  in  New  Haven  (1839);  Slavery  Discussed  in 
Occasional  Essays  from  1833  to  1846  (New  York, 
1846);  The  Genesis  of  the  New  England  Churches 
(1874).  He  possessed  a  marked  individuality  of 
character  and  was  an  able  and  influential  leader 
in  his  denomination.  He  was  prominent  in  the 
slavery  contest,  and  was  a  prolific  writer  and  fre- 
quent speaker  upon  all  topics  of  social  and  political 
reform. 

BACON,  LEONARD  WOOLSEY:  Congregation- 
alist; b.  at  New  Haven,  Conn.,  Jan.  1,  1830;  d.  at 
Assonet,  Mass.,  May  12,  1907.  He  was  educated  at 
Yale  (B.A.,  1850);  he  studied  theology  at  Andover 
and  Yale  (1854),  and  medicine  at  Yale  (M.D.,  1855). 
He  was  pastor  of  St.  Peter's  Presbyterian  Church, 
Rochester,  N.  Y.,  in  1856-57  and  of  the  Congrega- 
tional Church  at  Litchfield,  Conn.,  in  1857-60.     He 


was  missionary  at  large  for  Connecticut  in  1861-82, 
and  then  held  successive  pastorates  at  Stamford, 
Conn.  (1863-65),  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  (1865-70),  and 
Baltunore,  Md.  (1871-72).  From  1872  to  1877  he 
was  in  Europe,  and  after  his  return  to  the  United 
States  was  pastor  at  Norwich,  Conn.  (1878-82), 
Philadelphia  (1883-86),  and  Augusta,  Ga.  (1886- 
88).  Since  1901  he  has  been  pastor  of  the  Congre- 
gational Church  at  Assonet,  Mass.  He  has  edited 
Congregational  Hymn  and  Tune  Book  (New  Haven, 
1857);  The  Book  of  Worship  (New  York,  1865); 
The  lAfey  Speeches^  and  Discourses  of  Faiher  Hyoh 
cinthe  (1872);  The  Hymns  of  MaHin  Luther  Set  to 
their  Original  Melodies,  urUh  an  English  Version 
(1883);  and  The  Church  Book  :  Hymns  and  Timet 
(1883).  He  has  also  written  The  Vatican  Cmor 
cil  (New  York,  1872);  Church  Papers:  Essays  on 
Subjects  Ecclesiastical  and  Social  (1876);  The  Sm- 
plicity  that  Is  in  Christ  (1885);  Irenics  and  PoUm- 
ics  (1898);  History  of  American  Christianity  (1898); 
and  Story  of  the  Congregationalists  (1904). 

BACON  (BACO),  ROGER:  The  famous  Fran- 
ciscan theologian,  called  doctor  mirabilis  ;  b.  at  or 
near  Ilchester  (31  m.  s.  of  Bristol),  Somersetshire, 
1214;  d.  at  Oxford  June  11,  1294.  He  studied 
first  at  Oxford,  then  at  Paris,  where  he  took  the 
degree  of  doctor  of  holy  scripture  in  1248  and 
joined  the  order  of  St.  Francis, — ^probably  imme- 
diately after  receiving  his  degree.  In  taking  this 
step,  he  followed,  it  is  said,  the  advice  of  the  famous 
bishop  of  Lincoln,  Robert  Grosseteste  (q.v.);  but  it 
is  more  probable  that  his  countryman  Adam  of 
Marsh  {de  Marisco)  from  Bath,  himself  a  Francis- 
can and  professor  of  philosophy  at  Oxford  (d.  about 
1260),  induced  him  to  join  that  order  (cf.  J.  Fdten, 
Robert  Grosseteste,  Freiburg,  1887,  94  sqq.).  Baoon 
now  taught  in  Oxford  and  Paris,  though  it  can  not 
be  stated  how  long  he  stayed  in  either  place. 

On  account  of  his  deep  insight  into  the  realm  of 
natural  science,  which  was  then  little  known,  and 
because  of  the  astonishing  effects  which  his  phys- 
ical experiments  produced  upon  pupils  and  other 
contemporaries,  he  was  suspected  of  being  a  *'  nur 
gician  "  and  astrologer,  busying  himself  with  illicit 
arts.    Some  accidental  remarks  of  his  on  the  inflo- 
ence  of  the  stars  upon  human  destiny  may  have 
furnished  occasion  for  this  surmise.    There  is  no 
doubt  that  he  was  himself  the  scholar  of  whom  he 
narrates  that  he  was  fined  for  making  a  burning- 
glass   (Op.  maj,,  iii,    116).    The  many  vexations 
which  he  experienced,   especially  tt 
Suspected  the  hands  of  the  friars,  induced  him  to 
and  Perse-  write  to  Pope  Clement  IV  (formeriy 
cuted  as  a   Guido    Foulques),    who    as    cardinal- 
Magician,    legate  in  Franee  and    EngjUmd  had 
shown  a  friendly  disposition  toward 
him.    Clement  answered  from  Viterbo  (Aug.  22, 
1266)  in  a  kindly  manner,  and  requested  Bacon  to 
send  some  of  his  works.    Acoordin^y  he  soit  his 
Opus  majus  to  Rome,  and  between  1266  and  1268 
also  the  Opus  minus  and  Opus  tertium.    A  pupil  of 
Bacon,  the  London  magister  John,  seems  to  have 
taken  an  important  part  at  that  time  in  interpret- 
ing these  works  to  the  pope,  and  probably  also 
produced  and  explained  some  instruments  made  by 


417 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDL\ 


Baoon 


his  teacher.  The  first  investigation  was  favor- 
able to  the  genial  scholar,  but  a  renewed  charge 
which  was  brought  against  him  by  the  general  of 
the  Franciscans,  Jerome  of  Ascoli,  during  the  pon- 
tificate of  Nicholas  III  (1277-81),  especially  on 
account  of  the  treatise  De  vera  astronomia,  ended 
with  Bacon's  imprisonment  in  a  monastery  either 
in  Paris  or  at  some  other  place  in  France.  Ten 
years  he  thus  spent  behind  the  walls,  but  when 
Jerome  had  become  Pope  Nicholas  IV,  Bacon  ob- 
tained his  liberty  through  the  recommendation  of 
influential  friends  and  was  permitted  to  return  to 
England. 

Bacon  belongs  to  those  scientists  of  the  Middle 
Ages  who  approached  modem  methods.  On  this 
account  he  criticizes  sharply  the  scholastic  method 
of  instruction.  In  his  Compendium  stvdii  philoao- 
phice  he  speaks  disparagin^y  of  Aristotle,  Albert 
the  Great,  and  Thomas  Aquinas,  whose  "  boyish  " 
learning  and  effort  he  censures,  also  of  the  great 
Franciscan  theologian  Alexander  of  Hales.  The 
attacks  upon  the  latter  explain  in  part  the  hostil- 
ities which  he  experienced  from  his  fellow  friars. 
In  the  Opus  majus  (treating  in  six  sections  "  of  the 
hindrances  of  philosophy;  of  the  relation  between 
theology  and  philosophy;  of  the  study  of  languages; 
of  mathematics;  of  optics;  of  experimental  knowl- 
edge ")  his  decidedly  antischolastic  standpoint  is 
also  evident.     No  less  do  we  find  this 

Anticipa-  in  his  Opiu  minus,  which  endeavors 
tion  of  Mod-  to  reproduce  the  contents  of  the  Opus 
em  Methods  principale  in  an  abbreviated  form,  and 

and  Dis-    in  the  Opus  tertium,  in  which  the  prin- 

coveries.  cipal  theses  of  both  works  are  repro- 
duced in  a  more  aphoristic  form 
(clothed  in  a  more  elegant  diction  to  make  their  un- 
derstanding easier  and  more  acceptable  to  his  papal 
protector  Clement  IV).  In  his  theological  works, 
of  which  two  only  have  been  preserved.  Bacon 
also  appears  as  representative  of  an  antischolastic 
tendency.  The  Epistola  de  laude  Scripturce  Sacras 
(ed.  Wharton,  in  Ussher* a  Historia  dogmatica  de  Scrip- 
turiSf  London,  1699)  is  permeated  by  a  reforma- 
tory spirit.  He  emphasizes  the  sentence:  Tata 
acientia  in  Bibliie  contenta  eat  principaliter  et  fonta^ 
liter  ;  he  insists  upon  the  residing  of  the  Bible  in 
the  original  (and,  if  possible,  also  by  the  laity);  he 
emphasizes  in  a  critical  spirit  the  need  of  Correcting 
the  Vulgate  and  cautions  against  the  implicit  con- 
fidence of  the  expositors  in  the  authority  of  the 
Church  Fathers.  In  the  last  of  his  works,  the 
Compendium  atudii  theologici  (composed  in  1292), 
he  appears  rather  as  a  representative  of  church 
tradition,  and  denoimces  the  "  gross  errors  '*  of  a 
Parisian  theologian,  the  sententiarian  Richardus 
Comubiensis.  The  advanced  character  of  his 
theological  thought  and  teaching  is  evident  also  in 
his  works  on  natural  philosophy;  for  example,  he 
speaks  in  the  Opua  minua  of  the  "  seven  principal 
sins '  in  theological  study,  including  the  neglect  of 
the  original  languages  of  the  Holy  Scripture,  the 
corruption  of  the  traditional  text,  and  the  wrong 
confidence  in  the  authority  of  the  Fathers.  With 
regard  to  the  future  progress  and  triumphs  of 
natural  science,  Bacon,  in  bold  anticipation,  fore- 
saw and  predicted  many  things,  which  assiure  to 
L— 27 


him  the  repute  of  a  prophet,  just  as  he  discovered 
the  principles  of  the  telescope  and  microscope,  was 
able  to  outline  the  laws  of  refraction  and  reflection, 
and  penetrated  more  deeply  into  the  laws  of  cos- 
mology than  any  other  scholar  of  the  Middle  Ages. 
His  proofs  that  the  Julian  calendar  needed  correc- 
tion, and  the  ways  and  means  which  he  indicated 
to  accomplish  this  end,  and  for  which  he  was  praised 
by  Copernicus,  must  also  be  mentioned. 

Of  Bacon's  writings  the  most  are  philosophical, 
or  rather  physical.  The  most  important  works 
of  this  class,  especially  the  Opua  majua,  remained 
in  manuscript  till  toward  the  end  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  The  Opera  chemica  Rogeri  Baconia,  which 
was  published  in  folio  in  1485,  was  followed  by  a 
few  minor  writings  pertaining  to  alchemy  and 
mathematics.  Of  these  the  most  interesting  is 
the  tractate  on  the  secret  powers  of  art  and  nature 
(first  published  at  Paris,  1541,  under  the  title, 
De  mirabili  poteatate  artia  et  naturce ;  often  issued 
since  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century 
with  the  title:  De  aecretia  operibua  artia  et  naiurcB). 

His  principal  work,  Opua  majua  ad 
Writings.    Clemintem   IV,   was    first    published 

in  the  eighteenth  century  by  Samuel 
Jebb  (London,  1733),  and  not  before  1859  were 
his  philosophical  and  physical  works,  which  sup- 
plement his  main  work,  issued  (Fr.  R,  Baconia 
opera  qucedam  hactenua  inedUa,  acU.  Opua  tertium, 
Opua  minua,  Compendium  atudii  philoaophifB,  De 
nitllitate  magics,  De  aecretia  natures  operibua,  ed. 
J.  F.  Brewer,  Rolls  Series,  No.  15).  Two  other 
woricB  followed  this  publication:  the  tractate  De 
philoaophia  morcdi,  which  Bacon  composed  as  part 
vii  of  his  Opua  majua  (Dublin,  1860),  and  De  multu- 
plicatione  apecierum,  which  was  pubb'shed  in  1897 
as  an  addition  to  J.  H.  Bridges's  new  edition  of 
the  Opua  majua  (The  Opua  majua  of  R.  Bacon, 
edited  with  introduction  and  analytical  table,  2  vols., 
Oxford,  1897),  which  gives  for  the  first  time  the 
complete  text,  including  also  the  seventh  part, 
of  moral-philosophical  contents.  His  Greek  Oram- 
mar  and  a  Fragment  of  hia  Hebrew  Grammar,  edited 
from  the  manuscript,  with  notes  by  E.  Nolan  and 
S.  A.  Hirsch,  appeared  in  1902  (London),  and  a 
Greek  tragedy  was  first  published  in  the  same 
year  by  the  Cambridge  press.  In  manuscript  are 
still  the  Computua  naturalium  (3  books  pertaining 
to  the  calendar  and  chronology),  the  Communia 
naturalium,  and  the  Communia  maihematica. 

O.  ZdCKLEHf. 
Bibliographt:  For  the  life  Jebb's  preface  to  hie  edition  of 
the  Ofma  maju9,  ut  sup.;  M.  le  Clerc,  in  the  HUtoire  lil- 
Uraire  <U  la  France,  vol.  xx,  Paris.  1842;  E.  Charles,  Roger 
Bacon,  ea  vie,  eee  ouvragee,  eea  doctrinee,  Paris,  1861  (**a 
model  of  industry,  skill,  and  intelligence  ");  L.  Schneider, 
Roger  Bacon,  eine  Monographie  zur  OeedtuJUe  der  Phi- 
loaophie  dee  dreixehnten  JaJirhunderte,  Augsburg,  1873; 
DNB,  ii.  374-378;  J.  H.  Bridget,  in  the  introduction 
to  his  edition  of  the  Opue  majue,  ut  sup.  (this  and 
Charles  are  the  best  sources);  H.  Hurter,  Theohgia  ear- 
tholica  iempora  medii  cevi,  pp.  310-312,  Innsbruck,  1899. 
On  Bacon  as  scientific  investigator  consult:  K.  Werner, 
Die  Peychologie,  Erkenntnielehre  und  Wieeenechaftetdiredee 
Roger  Baeo,  and  Die  Koemologie  und  allgemeine  Naturlehre 
dee  Roger  Baeo,  both  Vienna.  1879.  For  his  significance 
as  forerunner  of  the  evangelical  doctrine  of  scripture  and 
as  Bible-critic,  F.  A.  Gasquet.  Englieh  Bible  Criticiem  in 
the  Thirteenth  Century,  in  The  Dublin  Review,  cxxii  (1898), 
1-22. 


Baden 
BacTBhawe 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


418 


BADEN,  ba'den:  A  grand  duchy  in  the  south- 
western part  of  the  German  Empire,  bounded  on 
the  north  by  Hesse  and  Bavaria,  on  the  east  by 
Wdrttemberg  and  Hohenzollem,  on  the  south  and 
west  by  the  Rhine,  which  separates  it  from  Switzer- 
land, Alsace,  and  the  Rhine  Palatinate  (Rhenish 
Bavaria);  area,  5,281  square  miles;  population 
(1900),  1,867,944,  of  whom  1,131,639  (60.6^) 
are  Roman  Catholics;  704,058  (37.7jJ),  Evan- 
gelical Protestants,  partly  Lutherans,  and  including 
some  of  the  Reformed  conmiunion,  especially  near 
the  Swiss  border,  and  several  flourishing  Methodist 
congregations,  which  have  received  help  from 
America;  5,563,  other  Christians;  26,132  (1.4^), 
Jews;  and  552,  otherwise  classified.  In  late  years, 
owing  to  immigration  and  emigration,  the  number 
of  Roman  Catholics  has  decreased,  while  that  of 
Protestants  has  increased. 

In  the  eye  of  the  law  the  Evangelical  and  Roman 
Catholic  Churches  are  public  corporations  with  the 
right  of  holding  public  divine  services.  Other 
bodies  are  restricted  to  privileges  specially  granted. 
Congregations  manage  their  own  afifairs  and  the 
right  of  patronage  is  imknown.  Ecclesiastical 
property  is  administered  by  Church  and  State 
jointly.  No  religious  order  can  be  introduced 
without  consent  of  the  government.  Invested 
funds  for  the  benefit  of  the  sick  and  the  poor,  as 
well  as  for  education,  have  generally  been  with- 
drawn from  ecclesiastical  boards. 

The  Evangelical  Protestant  Established  Church 
is  a  luiion  of  diverse  elements,  consequent  upon 
territorial  changes,  accomplished  in  1821.  As 
now  constituted  the  grand  duke  is  at  the  head. 
All  permanent  residents  of  a  parish  are  regarded 
as  members  of  the  congregation,  and  the  active 
members  choose  a  representative  committee, 
which  has  a  voice  in  the  selection  of  the  pastor 
and  important  financial  questions,  and  selects 
the  Church  Council.  The  latter  with  the  pastor 
has  the  general  charge  of  the  congregation.  Con- 
gregations are  united  into  dioceses,  and  diocesan 
synods,  consisting  of  all  pastors  and  an  equal 
number  of  elders  meet  yearly.  Diocesan  affairs 
are  in  the  hands  of  a  dean  and  a  diocesan  com- 
mittee of  two  clerical  and  two  lay  members  elected 
by  the  synod.  A  general  synod  meets  every  five 
years;  it  consists  of  the  Prelate,  seven  members 
named  by  the  grand  duke,  and  one  clerical  and  one 
lay  delegate  from  each  synod.  It  cooperates  in 
ecclesiastical  legislation,  approves  the  church 
budget,  has  the  right  of  complaint  against  the 
Upper  Church  Council,  and  chooses  a  synodal 
committee  to  work  with  the  latter.  The  Upper 
Church  Council  is  appointed  by  the  grand  duke. 
Church  revenues  are  supplemented,  when  necessary, 
by  taxation,  equal  sums  being  appropriated  for 
the  Evangelical  and  Roman  Catholic  Churches, 
although  the  latter  has  declined  such  aid  under  the 
condition  imposed  binding  the  bishop  to  accept  all 
laws  and  ordinances  of  the  State.  Ministers  receive 
salaries  ranging  from  1,600  to  4,000  marks,  graded 
according  to  years  of  service.  Religious  instruc- 
tion is  obligatory  in  all  schools  and  a  (Protestant) 
theological  faculty  is  maintained  at  Heidelberg. 

The  Roman  Catholic  Church  of  Baden  belongs 


to  the  province  of  the  Upper  Rhine  and  forms  the 
archbishopric  of  Freiburg.  The  relations  between 
Church  and  State,  particularly  the  questions  of  the 
position  of  the  bishops,  the  appointment  of  priests, 
the  maintenance  of  independent  Roman  Catholic 
schools,  the  right  of  establishing  religious  sodetieB 
and  institutions,  and  the  management  of  church 
property,  have  been  in  almost  continusd  dispute 
between  the  government  and  the  curia,  and  pro- 
tracted negotiations  have  not  led  to  a  permanent 
settlement.  Wilhelm  Gobts. 

BADEN  (IM  AARGAIJ),  CONFERENCE  OF:  An 

early  attempt  to  check  the  Reformation  in  Switier- 
land.  It  met  at  Baden  in  Aargau,  May  21, 1526, 
and  closed  Jime  8.  The  assembly  was  large  and 
brilliant,  the  cities,  with  the  exception  of  Zurich, 
having  very  generally  sent  their  delegates  and  theo- 
logians. The  chief  speakers  for  the  Refonnati<m 
wero  (Ecolampadius  and  Berthold  Haller;  for  tbt 
Roman  Catholics  Eck,  Faber,  and  Mumer.  The 
entire  conduct  of  the  assembly  was  in  the  hands  of 
the  opponents  of  the  Reformation  and  its  dedsion 
against  the  latter  was  a  foregone  conclusion.  Its 
decrees,  however,  had  little  influence  on  the 
popular  mind,  and  indiscreet  efforts  to  give  them 
practical  effect  brought  them  still  further  into 
disfavor.  The  acts  wero  published  by  Mumer 
(Lucerne,  1527). 

Bibuoorapht:  Scha£F,  ChritUan  Church,  vii,  08-102»  Nov 
York.  1892. 

BADEN  (IN  BADEN),  CONFERENCE  OF,  1589. 

See  PiBTORius. 

BADER,  ba'der,  JOHANN:  Leader  of  the 
Reformation  at  Landau  in  the  Palatinate  (18  m. 
n.w.  of  Carlsruhe);  b.,  probably,  at  ZweibrQcken 
(50  m.  w.  of  Speyer),  Rhenish  Bavaria,  about 
1470;  d.  at  Landau  shortly  beforo  Aug.  16,  1545. 
Of  his  early  years  ahnost  nothing  is  known.  He 
seems  to  have  studied  at  Heidelberg  in  1486  and 
succeeding  years  and  then  appears  as  chaplain  in 
ZweibrUcken,  where  he  was  also  tutor  to  Duke 
Ludwig  (b.  1502).  In  1518  Bader  was  called  as 
minister  to  Landau,  where  he  labored  till  his  deatL 
From  1522  he  openly  opposed  Roman  abuses  and 
especially  auricular  confession.  Called  to  appear 
before  the  spiritual  court  at  Speyer,  he  followed 
the  sununons  and,  after  many  proceedings,  was 
bidden,  July  17,  1523,  to  preach  in  future  the  bdtj 
gospel  only  and  to  obey  the  imperial  mandates. 
As  he  believed  that  he  had  been  preaching  the  pure 
gospel,  he  did  not  feel  called  upon  to  c^nge  his 
former  manner,  and,  upheld  by  the  confidence  of 
his  congregation,  he  opposed  the  teachings  of  the 
Church  the  more,  and  openly  attacked  the  doo- 
trine  of  purgatory,  mass  for  the  dead,  invocation 
of  the  saints,  monastic  vows,  and  fasts.  For  this 
he  was  again  siunmoned  to  Speyer,  Mar.  10,  1524. 
His  proposal,  to  prove  his  teachings  from  the  New 
Testament,  was  rejected,  and  he  was  exoommo- 
nicatcd.  Not  in  the  least  intimidated,  he  appealed 
to  a  future  council,  published  his  appeal  with  all 
the  documents,  and,  supported  by  the  dty-eoundl, 
steadfastly  continued  his  reformatory  work.  He 
devoted  great  care  to  the  instruction  of  the  youth, 


419 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Baden 
BftgBhftW 


and  aAsemhied  the  "  young  people  "  of  the  city 
mid  intjtructed  them  m  the  Chrktian  laith.  About 
Easter,  1526,  he  publiihed  Im  GesprdchsbuMein, 
which  may  be  regarded  as  the  oldest  evangehcal 
catechiim*  In  this  be  gives  an  exposition  of  the 
Lord's  Prayer,  the  Apostles'  Creeds  the  doctriue 
of  baptism^  and  the  ten  comm andm ents.  In  1527 
be  opposed  the  Anabaptists^  but  afterward  he  was 
strongly  influenced  by  Schwenckfeld,  as  appears 
especially  in  his  Kaiiehismus  published  in  1544, 
a  new  edition  of  his  earlier  workf  oontoining  a 
treatraent  of  the  Lord's  Supper  not  found  in  the 
Gesprdchsbt'ichlein,  He  states  that  where  the  prin- 
cipal requisite  for  a  true  celebration  of  the  Lord's 
Supper — a  church  of  true  believers — is  lacking, 
it  is  better  not  to  celebrate.  And  indeed,  after 
]541,  Bader  could  no  more  be  indueed  to  celebrate 
the  Lord's  Supper  at  Landau,  because  be  did  not 
regard  the  congregation  there  as  sufEeiently  holy, 

JuLiua  Net, 

Bf  euao B A pht:  J.  P.  Gelbert.  Afoi^tter  Johann  Bad^ra  L^ben 
uniii^chrijten,  !^eu»ta.dt,  1808*  Fur  a  full  ■.€«5(Jiuit  of  the  de- 
bate on  infu,nt  bftptiim  at  Lai^day,  Jon.  20,  1527.  between 
HAtm  Detik  and  B»il«r»  cf^  Badier'fl  Broderiickt  W^cmitno 
far  den  newm  AbffOtUMdun  Orden  dsr  Widermuffer  (1527), 
of  whieh  «>piAi  are  to  bA  found  in  Mumob  atid  in  tbe  ti- 
brary  of  the  University  of  CLodiealer.  Bader  ttronely 
opposed  Decik  at  the  tirae,  but  lat«r  he  adopted  mjosl  of 
hJA  viewti;  cL  L.  Ktiller,  Ein  Apoti^  dtr  WisUri&ufer^  pp. 
19&-200,  Leipnid.  1SS2. 

BAENTSCH,  b§Dtsh,  BRUTTO  JOHAKHES  LEO^ 

POLD:  German  Lutheran;  b.  at  Ha!le  Mar.  25, 
1S59.  He  was  educated  at  the  gymnasium  and 
imiversity  of  his  native  city,  and  held  sucoesaive 
pastorates  at  Rothenburg  on  the  Baale  (18S6-SS) 
and  Erfurt  (1888-93),  In  1893  be  became  privat- 
docent  of  Old  Testament  science  at  the  University 
of  Jena,  where  he  was  appointed  a&soeiate  professor 
in  1899  and  full  professor  two  years  later.  In 
theology  he  in  an  adherent  of  the  historico-critical 
sehooL  He  has  been  a  member  of  the  K&nigliche 
Akademie  QCTneinnuiziger  Wissenschafien  since  1891, 
and  has  written  Dus  Bundestmchf  Ex,  xx,  MS-xxiii, 
33  (Halle,  1892);  Die  modeme  Bihdkritik  und  die 
Aut&ritai  des  Gotieswortea  (Erfurt,  1892);  Da* 
HciligkeiUgeseUt  Lev,  Tvii-xxvif  eine  hisiorisch- 
krUUcke  Unierstichung  (1893)?  OeachichlsconniruC' 
tion  Oder  Wigsen»chaft  f  (Halle,  1896)  \  DU  BUcher 
Exodus  f  Lemticuaf  Numeri  •Ctbersetii  und  erkidTi 
(2  vols.,  Gdttingeo,  1900-03  )j  H,  SL  Chamberlaim 
Vorstetlungen  iiber  die  Religion  der  Semiten  (Lan- 
gensalza,  1905);  und  AU&rientaliseher  UTid  israeliti- 
seher  Monoth^iamus  (TQbingen,  1900). 

BAERWUfKEL,  FRIEDRICH  WILHELM  RICH- 
ARD :  German  Lutheran ;  b.  at  Dallmin  (a 
village  near  Perleberg,  77  m.  n,w,  of  Berlin) 
July  3,  1S40.  He  was  educated  at  the  univeraities 
of  Boan  and  Halle  from  1859  to  1SS2  (Ph.D.,  Jena, 
1864),  and  after  passing  his  theological  exami- 
nations in  1862  and  1865,  being  at  the  same  time 
a  private  tutor,  was  a  teacher  in  a  real^chool  in 
Halle  from  1863  to  1868.  Since  the  latter  year  he 
haa  been  pastor  of  the  Regie rkirche  in  Erfurt, 
where  he  h  also  superintendent  and  senior  of  the 
Evangelical  Ministerium,  as  well  as  a  member  of 
the  local  academy  of  seiencea  ainee  1891,  being 
likewise  a  member  of  ita  aeoate  bIdcc  1905.    Ha  baa 


been,  moreover,  a  member  of  the  governing  board 
of  the  EvangelUcher  Bund  since  its  establishment  In 
lS86j  and  m  a  member  of  the  synodical  cxjuncil  of 
the  Prussian  General  Synod,  besides  being  president 
of  several  ecclesiastical  committees.  He  ia  a  me- 
diating theologian,  fmd  an  advocate  of  the  *'  mod- 
em theology  of  the  ancient  faith."  He  has  written 
Luther  in  Erfurt  (Erfwi,  1868);  Ueber  den  reiigi^aen 
Wert  von  Reuter's  "  Ui  min  Stromtid  "  (1S76);  and 
Im  Gfxrten  Goiks  (1900),  aa  well  as  many  briefer 
pamphlets r  particularly  in  the  Flugschriften  de9 
evangeliBchtn  Bunder, 

BAETHGEIf,  bStb'gen.  FRIEDRICH  WILHELM 
ADOLF:  Protestant  theologian;  b,  at  Lachem 
(a  village  near  Hameln,  25  m.  s.w,   of   Hanover) 

Jan.  16,  1849;  d.  at  Rohrbach  (a  village  near 
Heidelberg)  Sept.  6,  1905.  He  studied  at  G^t^ 
ttngen  and  Kiel,  and  served  in  the  German  army 
in  the  war  against  France,  1870-71*  He  was  in 
Russia,  1873^76;  in  Berlin,  1876-77,  and  in  the 
British  Museum,  1878.  He  became  privat-docent 
at  ICiel  in  187S,  and  associate  professor  of  theolo^ 
in  1884.  From  1881  to  1884  he  was  also  adjunctus 
minisimi  m  Kiel.  In  18^  he  was  called  to  Halle 
in  the  same  capacity,  but  in  the  following  year 
was  appointed  regular  professor  of  theology  at 
Greifswald,  where  he  also  became  counselor  and 
member  of  the  Pomeranian  consistory.  In  J  895 
he  was  called  to  Berlin.  He  was  the  author  of 
Uniersuchungen  ^ber  dw  Psalmen  nach  drr  Pe- 
achi^a  (Kiel,  1878);  Sindban  oder  die  eieben  meisen 
Meister  (Leipsic,  1879);  Syrtache  GrammGiik  dee 
Mat  Etias  von  Tirhan  herausgcgeben  und  ubersetM 
(1880);  Anmulh  und  Wurde  in  der  atiieetament- 
lirhen  Poesie  (Kiel,  1880,  a  lecture);  Fragntenie 
syriecher  und  arabiacher  HisUrriker  herauggegeb^i 
und  itbeTBeUt  (Leipsic,  1884);  Evangelien/ragwienie  : 
der  griechische  T^t  deji  Cureton'echen  Sgrers  wieder~ 
herge^eUi  (1885);  Bmir^qe  tur  semitiechen  Rdi- 
gionsgeaehii^  :  der  GoU  Israels  und  die  G&tter  der 
Heiden  (Berlin,  I888>;  Die  Psalmen,  iiberselxt  und 
erkldrt  (Gettingen,  1897);  &udHiob  vbersetxt  (1898); 
in  addition  to  preparing  the  second  edition  of 
Riehra's  Handwi^rUrbu^h  dee  biblischen  AUcrtums 
(2  vols.,  Bielefeld,  1893-94). 

BAGSHAWE,  EDWARD  GILPIN :  Roman  Cath- 
olic titular  archbbhop  of  Seleucia  Trachea;  b,  at 
London  Jan.  12,  1829.  He  was  educated  at  Lon- 
don University  College  School  and  at  St*  Mary'a 
CoUcge,  Oscott,  near  Birmingham  (B^.,  London 
UniverBity,  1848),  In  1849  he  joined  the  Congre- 
gation of  the  Oratory  of  St,  Philip  Neri,  London, 
and  in  1852  was  ordained  priest  by  Cardinal  Wise- 
man, After  a  pri^tbood  of  twenty  years  he  was 
consecrated  Roman  Catholic  bishop  of  Nottingham 
by  Archbishop  Manning  (Nov.  12,  1874),  but 
resigned  in  1901,  In  the  following  year  he  was 
appointed  titular  bishop  of  Hypa^pa,  and  in  1904 
was  elevated  to  the  titular  archdiocese  of  Seleu- 
cia  Trachea.  In  addition  to  a  number  of  briefer 
pamphlets,  he  has  written  Ni^es  on  Chrislian  Doc- 
irine  (London,  1896;  originally  a  series  of  lectured 
delivered  before  the  Hammersmith  Training  College 
for  Teachers);  7"^  Breviary  HyninM  and  Mi$s<U 
Sequiencetin  Engliih  Verm  (1900);  The  Psalms  and 


Bahrdt 
Baird 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOa 


4M 


CcinHde^  in  English  Fer««  (1903);  and  Doctrinal 
Hymns,  wilk  the  Life  of  Our  Lord  in  iks  Maas 
(1906). 

BAHRBTp  bOrt.  KARL  FRIEDRICH:  A  carica- 
ture of  tbe  vulgar  rationalism  of  the  eighteenth 
century;  b.  at  Biechofswerda  (20  m.  e.n.e.  of 
Drestlen),  Saxony,  Aug.  25,  1741;  d.  at  Halle  Apr. 
23,  1792.  He  waa  the  son  of  a  Lutheran  pastor 
who  afterward  became  professor  at  Leipsic,  and 
commenced  hb  studies  at  Leipsic  when  quite  young. 
In  spite  of  \m  many  pranks  he  was  promoted  os 
magister  and  appointed  catechist  at  St.  Peter^s. 
Being  devoted  to  Biblico^xegctieal  studies  under  the 
influence  of  the  learned  Ernest! ,  be  was  made  ex- 
traordinary professor  in  Bibhcal  philology  1766^  but 
waa  diemtBsed  in  1768  for  immoral  life.  At  the 
Bame  time  he  abandoned  the  orthodox  stand  pointy 
which  he  probably  never  had  held  seriously.  From 
now  on  his  life  is  that  of  a  dissolute  adventurer. 
He  appears  first  at  Erfurt,  afterward  at  Giessen 
(1771),  where  he  managed  to  obtain  a  theologies 
professorship.  Here  he  published  (1772)  a  silly 
'*  Mimterre vision  "  of  the  Bible,  entitled  Neueste 
Offenbamngen  GoUes  in  Brief  en  und  Erssdhlungenj 
which  even  Goethe  ridiculed  (in  his  Prolog  zu  den 
neue^ten  Offenbamngen  OoUes),  The  enlightener 
waa  dismiH^d  from  his  ofHce  in  Giessen  in  1775. 
lie  then  tried  his  luck  aa  director  of  a  philanthro- 
picum  in  the  Grisons,  then  us  superintendent-gen- 
eral m  the  Palatinate,  finally  as  privat-dooent  at 
Halle.  That  he  was  received  here,  was  due  to  the 
liberal  government  of  King  B^redcrick  11  of  Prussia, 
whose  free-thinking  miniater  of  ecclesisatical  af- 
fairs and  of  public  instruction,  Zedlitz,  procured 
for  Bahrdt  the  rmiia  legendu  He  attracted  great 
attention  r  not  so  much  by  his  lectures  as  by  his 
eurprifiiugly  prolific  literary  pro<luctivity.  With 
reckless  brutality  be  attacked  every  kind  of 
belief  in  revealed  religion.  His  System  dtr  morali' 
m^n  Rdigi&n  (Berlini  1787)  advocates  open 
naturalism;  Christ  is  to  him  the  greatest  natural- 
ist* Having  ruined  bis  religious  and  moral  reputa- 
tion, he  finally  opened  an  inn  in  a  vineyard  near 
Halle,  and  thus  sought  to  attract  the  interest  of 
students  of  the  university.  Meanwhile  the  Prus- 
sian government  had  taken  a  different  eourse; 
Frederick  II  wa^  succeeded  by  the  reactionary 
Frederick  William  H  (1786-97),  whose  minister  of 
worship,  Wei  liner,  in  1788  endeavored  to  restore 
orthodoxy.  Bahrdt  did  not  hesitate  to  ridicule 
(anonymously)  W6 liner's  religious  edict  in  a  com- 
edy. For  this  he  was  imprisoned  in  the  fortreea 
of  Magdeburg  in  1789.  During  the  year  which  he 
spent  here  he  wrote  smutty  stories  and  his  auto- 
biography»  a  mixture  of  falsehood,  hypocrisy,  and 
impudent  self-abasement.  In  1790  he  again 
opened  his  inn  lell  ill  in  1791,  and  died  of  disease 
induccii  by  a  too  free  use  of  mercury  in  the  attempt 
bo  effect  a  eelf-cure.  In  Halle  the  report  -wtm 
spread  that  he  died  of  an  unclean  disease.  Highly 
giftcdj  Bahrdt  never  yielded  to  moral  .discipHne, 
and  thus  iunk  into  the  deepest  basen^s;  in  his 
later  years  he  seenos  to  have  lost  every  trace  of 
decency;  the  flood  of  writings  winch  he  sent  out 
into  the  world  is  altogether  worthless;  be  is  in 


every  respect  merely  a  representative  of  a  whel^ 
demoraliseed  rationalism.  Paul.  TacBACK^BT. 

BiBLioaRAPSY;  D,  Pott.  Ltherir  MtdnuniffnundSiJiickuaUdm 
C.  F.  Bahrdt^  auM  Urkurtd^n  gctogcn^  4  pArt«,  Berlin,  1 76(^ 
91;  Q.  Frank,  ia  Raumer*  HiMtoriMehe  Tu»eAenb»dk,  mL. 
4,  7ql.  viit  1S66,  203-370,  eBpeditly  346  tiig. 

BAIER^  bd'er,  JOHAIVIT  WILHEUf :     Lutheran 

theologian  of  the  seventeenth  century;  b.  at  Ni^ 
remberg  Nov.    11,    1647;  d.  at  Weinnar  Oct,  19, 
1595.    He  studied  philology,  especially  Oriental, 
and  philosophy  at  Altdorf  from  1664  to  1669,  in 
which  year  be  went  to  Jena  and  became  a  disciple 
of  the  celebrated  MtisieUB,  the  representative  of  the 
middle  party  in  the  syncrettstic  controversy,  whose 
daughter  be  married  in  1674.     Taking  his  doctoral 
degree  the  same  year^  he  became  in  1&75  professoc 
of  chureb  history  in  the  universityp  and  lectured 
with  great  success  on  several  different  branches  of 
theology.     In  1682  he  w^as  chosen  to  represent  tbe 
Protestant  iide  in  the  negotiations  with  the  papal 
legate  Steno^  bishop  of  Tina,  for  reunion  of  the 
Churches.     He  was  three  times  rector  at  Jena  be- 
fore he  was  called  by  the  elector  Frederick  III,  in 
1694  p  as  professor  and  provisional  reetcr  to  tbt 
new  university  of  Halle,    Here   his   devotion  to 
strict  orthodoxy  brought  him  into  confUet  with 
some  of  his  colleagues,  and  the  pietistic  movement 
also  gave  him  trouble,  so  that  after  a  year  he  wm 
glad   to   aeeept   tbe  combined  positiona  of   chiif 
court    preacher,    superintendent,    and    pastor    aJt 
Weimar — which,    however,    he    held    only    a    few 
montl^.    He  left  a  name  in  the  history  of  tbeolo^, 
esp>ecially   by    hie   dogmatic  compendium,    wbidi 
itill    preserves    the    early    Protestant    traditioiM 
among   High    Lutherans,    especially    in    America. 
The  Jena  tbeologiane,  and  MusaMLS  in  particular, 
had  been  asked  by  Ernest  the  Pious  to  draw  up 
such  a  work,  to  take  the  place  of  the  aiitiquated 
Hotter,  and  Musseus  urged  bis  son-in-law  to  do  it 
The  firat  edition  appeared  in  1686,  the  second,  en- 
larged, in  1601,  and  it  haa  been  frequently  reprinted 
since.    It  was  commended  for  general   uae  as  i 
text-book  by  its  method,  its  conciseness,  and  it» 
absence  of  mere  polemics.    It  was  obviously,  bow- 
ever,  intended  by  its  author  as  a  vindication  of  tbe 
Jena  theology,  which  hod  been  aharply  attacked 
from  Wittenberg,  and  lay  under  some  suspicion  d 
syncretism.     Its  dependence  upon  Musifus  is  really 
the  distinguishing  fcatiu^  of  tbe  book,  which  ii 
largely   a   <s>mpilation    from    him*     Baler'a  otha' 
works  include   polemical   writings  against  Ejh&' 
mann,   a  convert   to   Roman  Catholicism  and  s 
Jesuit,  and  against  the  Quakers;  and  three  otha 
oompendiums,  published  after  his  death  (I69S),  oQe 
of  exegctical,  and  one  of  moral  theology,  as  well 
as  one  of  the  history  of  dogma,     Hia  real  sigmfi- 
cance  lies  in  the  fact  that  he  handed  on  and  popu- 
larized the  theology  of  Muss&us;  and  his  work  wai 
continued  by  Buddeus,  whom  be  left  at  Halle  a^ 
professor  of  moral  philosophy. 

(JOSANNXS  EofEE.) 

BiBuooaAPaY:  G.  A.  Will,  NQmberffUekts  GettkrUidfjiktm. 
i,  47'B3,  V,  39,  Nurembenc,  1755;  W.  Sebrader.  G<J<Aidte 
dn-  Friednchtumvertimt  ttt  Halle,  i  49-50.  IWrlin,  UM. 
C.  Btansc,  Di€  mfititmoHKhen  Pr^naptm  in  dar  T^kff4 
dct  Mutdi^,  Halk,  1S95. 


421 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Balizdt 
Baizd 


BAIER,  JOHANNES:  Gennan  Roman  Catho- 
lic; b.  at  Hctzles  (a  suburb  of  Erlangen)  Oct. 
16,  1852.  He  was  educated  at  the  Lyceum  of 
Bamberg  and  the  University  of  Munich  (D.D., 
1885),  and  was  ordained  to  the  priesthood  in 
1877.  From  that  year  until  1882  he  was  a  tutor 
in  the  archiepiscopal  seminary  for  boys  at  Bam- 
berg and  also  assistant  lecturer  in  dogmatics  at 
the  lyceum  of  the  same  city,  besides  being  assist- 
ant parish  priest  at  Bamberg  and  Nuremberg  in 
the  siunmer  of  1877  and  at  Hersbruck  in  1879-80. 
In  1882-86  he  was  a  teacher  of  religion  at  the  nor- 
mal school  at  Bamberg,  where  he  became  Oher- 
lehrer  and  tutor  in  the  latter  year,  and  where  he 
has  been  professor  since  1901.  Since  1906  he  has 
been  headmaster  of  the  same  institution,  and  in 
the  same  year  was  made  an  honorary  Austin  friar. 
In  theology  "  he  belongs  to  the  conservative  party 
and  is  a  friend  of  rational  sound  progress."  Be- 
sides many  contributions  to  theologicfiJ  and  philo- 
sophical periodicals,  and  in  addition  to  numer- 
ous poems,  he  has  written,  frequently  under  the 
pseudonym  of  Dr.  Johannes  Scholasticus,  Die 
Naturehe  (Regensburg,  1886);  Die  religidse  Unter^^ 
weiaung  in  der  VoUcsachtUe  (Wtlraburg,  1890);  Der 
heUige  Bruno,  Bischof  von  WUrtburg,  ala  Katechet 
(1891);  Dae  aUe  AugusHnerkhster  in  WUriburg 
(1894);  Die  Stellung  der  Religioneunterricht  zur 
Philosophie  Herbarta  (1895);  Dr,  Martin  Luthera 
Aufenthalt  in  WUrzburg  (1895);  Die  Oeachichte  dea 
Ciaterzienaerkloatera  Langheim  mit  den  WaUfahrta-' 
orten  Vierzehnheiligen  und  Marienweiher  (1895); 
Die  Oeachichte  der  beiden  KarmelUenkldater  und  dea 
Reurerinnenklostera  im  WUrtburg  (1900);  SaHera 
Buck  iiber  Erziehung  fUr  Ertieher  (Freiburg,  1901); 
Analyse  und  Syntheae  im  Religionaunterricht  (Wdn- 
burg,  1902);  Sailer  in  aeinem  VerhOUnia  gur  moder- 
nen  Pddagogik  (1904);  Die  WiUenabildung  (Kemp- 
ten,  1905);  and  Methodik  dea  Religionaunterrichta 
in  Volka-  und  MiUelachulen  (Leipsic,  1906). 

BAILEYy  HENRY  i  Church  of  En^and,  canon 
of  St.  Augustine's,  Canterbury;  b.  at  North  Lever- 
ton  (13  m.  n.w.  of  Linoohi),  Notts.,  Feb.  12,  1815. 
He  was  educated  at  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge 
(BA.,  1839).  He  was  Crosse  University  Scholar 
in  1839  and  Tyrwhitt  Hebrew  University  Scholar, 
1st  class,  two  years  later,  while  he  was  elected 
fellow  of  his  college  in  1842  and  Hebrew  lecturer 
in  1848.  From  1850  to  1878  he  was  warden  of 
St.  Augustine's  College,  of  which  he  has  been  hon- 
orary iellow  since  1878,  and  after  1863  was  honorary 
canon  of  Canterbury.  He  was  also  rector  of  West 
Tarring,  Sussex,  from  1878  to  1892  and  was  rural 
dean  of  Storrington  in  188&-92.  He  was  twice 
appointed  Select  Preacher  at  Cambridge  and  was 
Proctor  in  Convocation  in  1886-92.  Since  1888 
he  has  been  canon  of  St.  Augustine's.  He  has 
written  Rituale  AnglO'Catholicum  (London,  1847); 
Manual  of  Devotion  for  Clergy  (1890);  and  Ooapel 
of  the  Kingdom  (1902). 

BAILLET,  ba"y6',  ADRIEN:  Roman  Catholic; 
b.  at  Neuville,  near  Beauvais  (54  m.  n.n.w.  of  Paris), 
June  13,  1649;  d.  in  Paris  Jan.  21,  1706.  He  was 
educated  in  the  Seminary  of  Beauvais;  became  a 
priest  1675  and  obtained  a  small  vicarage;  in  1680 


he  was  appointed  secretary  to  Lamoignon,  presi- 
dent of  the  Parliament  of  Paris,  and  spent  the  rest 
of  his  life  in  unremitting  devotion  to  study.  His 
most  important  works  were:  JugemerUa  dea  aavanta 
aur  lea  principauz  ouvragea  et  auteura  (9  vols.,  Paris, 
1685-86);  Lea  viea  dea  aainta  (3  vols.,  1695-1701); 
Vie  de  Deacartea  (2  vols.,  1691);  Hiatoire  de  Hoi- 
lande,  a  continuation  of  Grotius  (4  vols.,  1693). 
He  was  favorable  to  the  Jansenists  and  has  been 
called  hypercritical.  A  monograph,  De  la  divotion 
d,  la  Sainte  Vierge  et  du  cuUe  qui  lui  eat  dH  (1693) 
was  thought  to  attack  the  doctrine  and  practise 
of  the  CJhurch  and  put  upon  the  Index,  and  a  like 
fate  befell  the  first  and  second  volumes  of  the  Viea 
dea  aainta,  which  were  said  to  contain  remarks 
little  short  of  slanderous.  The  first  volume  of 
the  Amsterdam  edition  (1725)  of  the  JugemerUa 
dea  aavanta  contains  an  Abrigi  of  his  Ufe. 

BAILLIE,  ROBERT:  Presbyterian;  b.  at  Glas- 
gow 1599;  d.  there  July,  1662.  He  studied 
at  his  native  city,  and  was  made  professor  of  divinity 
there  in  1642,  and  principal  of  the  university  in 
1661.  He  was  a  fine  scholar  and  took  an  active 
part  and  wrote  much  in  all  the  church  controversies 
in  his  time.  His  Lettera  and  Joumala  (ed.  David 
Laing,  3  vols.,  Edinburgh,  1841-42,  with  a  notice 
of  his  writings  and  a  description  of  his  life)  are  of 
great  historical  interest.  To  him  we  owe  a  graphic 
description  of  the  Westminster  Assembly  of  Divines, 
to  which  body  he  was  sent  as  one  of  the  five  Scotch 
clergymen  in  1643,  and  sat  in  it  for  three  years. 

Bibuoorapbt:  Biographia  Brilanmea^  ed.  A.  KippiB,  i, 
510-515.  London.  1778;  T.  Carlyle,  BaOlis  ih€  Covenanter, 
in  Weeiminftet  Renew,  zxxvii.  43.  reprinted  in  hie  Af t»- 
cellaniee  (a  remarkable  paper);  DNB,  ii,  420-422. 

BAIRD,  CHARLES  WASHINGTON:  Presby- 
terian; b.  at  Princeton,  N.  J.,  Aug.  28,  1828,  son 
of  Robert  Baird  (q.v.);  d.  at  Rye,  N.  Y.,  Feb.  10, 
1887.  He  was  graduated  at  the  University  of  the 
City  of  New  York,  1848,  and  at  Union  Theological 
Seminary,  1852;  was  chaplain  of  the  American 
Chapel  at  Rome,  Italy,  1852-54;  agent  of  the 
American  and  Foreign  Christian  Union  in  New  York 
1854-55;  pastor  of  the  Reformed  (Dutch)  Church 
on  Bergen  Hill,  Brooklyn,  1859-61;  of  the  Pres- 
byterian Church  at  Rye,  N.  Y.,  1861-87.  He  pub- 
lished Eulaxia,  or  the  Preabyterian  Liturgiea  (New 
York,  1855;  revised  and  reprinted  as  A  Chapter 
on  LUwrgiea^  with  preface,  and  appendix.  Are 
Diaaentera  to  Have  a  Liturgy  t  by  Thomas  Binney, 
London,  1856);  A  Book  of  Public  Prayer  compiled 
from  the  authorized  formulariea  of  worahip  of  the 
Preabyterian  Church  aa  prepared  by  the  Reformera 
Calvin,  Knox,  Bucer,  and  othera  (New  York,  1857); 
A  Hiatory  of  Rye,  Weateheater  County,  N.  Y.  (1871); 
A  Hiatory  of  the  Huguenot  Emigration  to  America 
(2  vols.,  1885,  new  ed.,  1901;  left  incomplete  at  his 
death). 

BAIRD,  HENRT  MARTYN:  Presbyterian,  author 
of  the  authoritative  history  of  the  Huguenots; 
b.  at  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Jan.  17, 1832,  son  of  Robert 
Baird  (q.v.);  d.  at  Yonkere,  N.  Y.,  Nov.  11,  1906. 
He  was  educated  at  New  York  University  (B.A., 
1850),  the  University  of  Athens,  Greece  (1851-52), 


Baird 
Baker 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


499 


Union  Theological  Seramajy  (1853-55),  and  Prince- 
ton Theo  logical  Seminary  (1856),  A  [tcr  be  i  ng  tutor 
in  the  College  of  N(»w  Jersey  from  1865  to  1&59. 
he  was  appomted  professor  of  the  Greek  language 
and  literature  in  the  Univenjity  of  the  City  of  New 
York,  and  beramc  professor  emeritus  in  1902, 
He  Wflja  corresponding  aecrtstary  of  the  American 
and  Foreign  Christian  Union  in  1873-nS4.  and  was 
the  firrt  vice-prefiident  of  the  American  Society 
of  Chureh  Hit^tory.  hi  adflition  to  being  a  member 
of  the  board  of  the  Sod^t^  de  1  Hiatoire  du  Protca- 
tantkme  Fran^ais,  honorary  member  of  the  Hugue- 
not Society  of  America,  honcrary  fellow  of  the 
Hug:uenot  Society  of  London,  and  a  member  of 
various  hiatorieat  aBBormtiona,  He  published 
Modem  Greece  (New  York.  1856);  Rige  of  the 
Huguenots  o/  France  (2  vols*,  1.S79):  The  Hugue- 
noU  and  Henry  of  A^avarre  (2  vols.,  1886)  j  The 
HuguewAs  and  the  Revocation  of  the  Edii^  of  Nantee 
(2  vola.,  1895);  and  Theodare  Beza*  the  Couneellor 
of  the  French  Eefonnatiov  (1899), 

BAIRD  LECTURES '  A  lectureship  on  a  foundar 
tion  established  by  Mr,  Jiunefi  Baird  (d*  1876)  a 
wealthy  Scotch  ironmaster,  member  of  Parliament 
1851-57  who  was  greatly  intereated  in  reUgioui^ 
and  educational  affairs.  While  the  Baird  Lec- 
tures bad  tbeir  incseption  in  187  L  their  realisation 
was  made  possible  when  in  1873  Mr.  Baird  estab- 
lished the  "  Baird  Trust  and  ^ave  into  its  care 
£500,000  to  be  used  for  aggressive  Christian  work. 
A  part  of  the  income  of  tlii^  fund  provides  for  a 
series  of  lectures  each  year  at  Glasgow  and  atso, 
if  required,  at  one  otlier  of  the  Scotch  university 
towns.  Each  tiourse  must  consist  of  not  fewer 
than  six  lectures  and  must  be  delivered  by  a  minis- 
ter of  the  Church  of  Scotland,  who  may  be  reap- 
pointed. Since  1883  each  lecturer  has  held  the 
position  fo^  two  years  with  the  exception  of  Rev. 
William  Milligan.  who  lectured  in  1S91  only.  The 
most  noteworthy  contributions  are  the  series  by 
Professor  Robert  Flint  in  1876-77  on  Theimn  and 
AnH-TheMie  Theories  (Edinburgh,  1877-79),  and 
that  by  J.  Marshall  Lang  in  1901-02  on  The  Church 
and  tie  Sochi  Mi$$ian  (1902).  A  full  list  of  the 
lecturers  and  theii  subjects  may  be  found  in  L.  H. 
Jordan,  Comparaiive  Religion  (New  York,  1905), 
pp.  56S-566. 

BADtD,  ROBERT*  Preebyterian;  b.  near 
Union  town,  Fayettt  County,  Pennsylvania ,  Oct. 
6,  1796;  d.  at  Yonkers,  N.  Y.,  Mar.  15,  1863,  He 
was  grafluatcd  at  Jefferson  College,  Canonsburg, 
Penn.,  ISlS,  and  at  Princeton  Seminary  in  1822; 
was  ordained  in  1828  atjd  thenceforth  devoted  his 
bfe  to  the  cause  of  Uitfil  abstinence,  education, 
and  the  effort  to  spread  Protostantism  in  Roman 
Catholic  countries.  He  resided  in  Europe  as  agent 
of  the  French  Asfloeialion  nnd  of  its  successor,  the 
Foreign  Evangelical  Society,  from  1835  to  18^43, 
and  continued  in  the  service  of  the  society  in  the 
United  States  1843-46;  from  ia49  to  1855  he  was 
corresponding  secretary  of  the  American  and 
Foreign  Christian  LTnion  and  again,  1861  to  his 
death;  hia  ninth  mission  to  Europe  was  made  in 
I86L  He  wrote  Hietmrt  dee  aociHls  de  tempe- 
rance   dee    h^de^Unie    d'Amiriqm   (Park,   1836); 


Religion  in  the  United  Staies  of  Ameri^  (Glaagmr, 

1844);  Sketches  of  ProtesianHem  vt  ftoiy  (Boitoo, 

1845). 

Bt^LtodHAFHT:  H.  M.  Baird,  lAfa  of  An.  Robrri  Bovii,  N«v 

York,  ISUa  (by  bifl  wotk). 

BAJUS,  ba"yTJS,  MICHAEL  (MICHEL  DE  BAT): 

Theologian  of  Lou  vain;  b.  at  Melin  (arrondisse- 
ment  of  Ath,  14  m.  n.w.  of  Mons),  Hainault,  ISIB; 
d.  at  Lou  vain  Sept,  15,  1589,  He  was  educated 
in  the  University  of  Lou  vain,  where  he  became 
m  agister  1535.  head  of  the  Standondf  college  and 
member  of  the  faculty  of  arts  1540,  and  doctor  of 
theology  1550.  When  four  Lou  vain  profeisoTf 
were  summoned  to  Trent  at  the  reopening  of  the 
council  there  in  1551  Bajui  and  hi  lijce-minded 
colleague  Johannes  Hessels  (q.v*)  filled  the  va- 
cancies by  lecturing  on  the  Holy  Script  urea.  Bajui 
was  soon  appointed  professor  in  ordinary. 

Being  convinced  that  the  queationf  of  faith  whidi 
were  started  by  the  Reformation  oould  not  be  suf- 
ficiently answered  by  the  scholastic  method,  Bajna 
endeavored  to  found  the  study  of  theology  more 
upon  the  Scriptures  and  the  Fathers,  especially 
upon  Auguatine.  whose  works  be  is  said  to  have 
read  nine  times.  But  soon  a  great  controversy 
arose,  and  in  1560  his  opponenta  secured  the  con- 
demnation by  the  Sorbonne  of  eighteen  propoei- 
tiona  extracted  from  the  lecturew  of  B^us.  Bajus 
defended  himBclf,  complained  of  unfair  treatment, 
and  declared  that  he  was  ready  to  submit  to  the 
holy  see  and  the  council.  After  a  few  yeai^  the 
controversy  began  anew  oaused  by  a  number  o( 
dogmatic  tractates,  the  first  of  which  (De  Itbero 
arbitriot  I?e  jusliiiat  De  justificaiionet  and  othei?) 
were  published  in  the  beginning  of  1563,  others 
(De  merilie  operum,  De  prima  hominie  justiiia,  Da 
virluttbus  impioruMj  etc.)  in  1564.  and  a  general  col- 
lection {Opuscula  omnia)  in  156$, 
The  Contro-  Ba jus's  opponenta  induced  the  new 
versy  Con-  pope,  Pius  V.  in  1567  in  the  bull  £c 
cerniag  omnibue  afflicHonibus  to  condemn 
Bajus'a  seventy-nine  propositions  from  hii 
Orthodoiy,  writings  a^  heretical ^  false ^  euapiciora, 
bold,  scandalous,  and  offensive  to 
pious  ears,  without  stating,  however,  which  of  the 
propositions  deserved  the  one  or  the  other  epithet 
and  without  mention  of  Bajus'i^  name.  The  buM^ 
written  in  the  usual  form  without  punctuation, 
says:  Quue  quidem  sententim  stricto  coram  nda 
examine  ponderaias  quanquam  nonnuUae  ^upa 
pado  euetineri  poisent  in  rigare  ti  propria  verbonm 
scmu  ab  mBert&rihue  intcnio  harelicae  etroneaa  ,  -  , 
damnamus  j  etc.  I  f  a  comma  be  i  nsertcd  after  in^nto, 
aa  was  done  by  the  Lou  vain  theologians  and  afte^ 
ward  by  the  Janaenista,  the  buU  contains  the  con- 
cession that  some  propositions  in  the  strict  sense 
intended  by  the  authors  are  perhaps  permifisiblejbul 
if,  with  the  Jesuits,  the  comma  is  put  after  eusHem 
poseentf  the  contrary  meaning  is  imparted,  that 
some  propositions  which  may  perhaps  be  inter- 
preted in  an  orthodox  sense,  are  nevertheless  con- 
demned as  meant  by  their  authors,  Heuoe  MXtm 
the  later  controversy  about  the  emnma  Pianum. 
A  papal  brief  (May  13^  1560)  sustained  the  ocffl- 
demnation^  and  Bajus  submitted  and  was  absolved. 
Lti  his  lectureiS  (Apr«  17,  1570)  he  expre^ed  himsiif 


423 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Baizd 
Baker 


oncse  more  in  the  sense  of  hie  apology.  The  bull 
agjtinst  him  wm  now  first  mado  public.  The  Loy- 
vain  faculty  made  explanatioDB.  which  wene  satb- 
fiictory  in  forait  but  the  taajority  still  adhered  to 
the  Augustinian  system.  Bajus  remained  in  hia 
prominent  position,  aud  wna  made  chancellor  of 
the  University  and  dean  of  the  Cdllegiate  Church 
of  St.  Peter  in  1575.  He  founded  in  the  univer- 
sity a  Collegiurn  Sandi  Auguslini,  to  which  his 
nephew  Jaeob,  who  acted  as  his  executor^  gave  the 
name  oi  Colkgium  Baianum. 

The  propositions  of  Bajus  which  were  attacked 
and  condemned  by  the  papal  bull  rest  entirely  on 
the  fundamental  Auga^titiiati  idea  of  the  entire  de- 
pravity of  man  through  original  ein,  of  the  abso- 
lute moral  iuabihty  of  the  fallen  man  to  do  good, 
and  of  utterly  unconditional  and  irresistible  grace* 
To  retain  and  carry  out  the  Auguatinian  idea,  he 
believed  it  necessary  to  oppose  the  scholastic  (and 
Tri dentine)  notion  of  the  original  state  of  man.  He 
will  not  admit  that  the  original  nature  of  man  con- 
sisted in  the  so-called  pura  TMz/ura,  to 
HisBoubt-  which  came  at  an  additional  gift 
ful  Teach-  {donum  mperaiMitum,  mipematufcdia 
ingB.  dona)  ths justiiia  crr^'nofts,  whieh  lifts 
man  above  hiii  nature  and  quali  &es  him 
for  sal  vation ,  He  thinks  that  the  etahu  pur  ce  naiwcB 
est  impossiinliM.  According  to  Scriptm^j  Christ 
fir^jt  brought  grace.  From  this  point  of  view  the 
state  of  fallen  man  appears  as  essential  corruption 
of  human  nature  according  to  the  Augustinian 
presentation,  which  especially  precludes  free  will 
in  the  sense  of  power  of  choice.  Libcrum  arbiinum 
hominia  non  valH  ad  oppomta.  There  exists  in- 
deed a  certain  freedom  of  choice  with  reference  to 
things  which  are  not  tmder  conjsideration.  but  no 
condition  of  religio-moral  indifference.  Finally 
B^jus  follows  Augustine  aa  a  matter  of  course  in 
the  assertion  that  in  the  justified  person  original 
sin  does  indeed  not  rule  ajs  concupiBcenco. but  still 
actSj  and  adopts  the  inantt  Gciu,  prmierU  reatu.  As 
the  whole  man  is  corrupted  by  sin,  so  also  is  all 
humanity. 

In  all  these  points  Bajus  coincides  very  closely 
with  the  Augustinianism  of  the  Reformers*  and 
only  in  a  few  points  does  he  make  a  not  very  auo- 
cessful    effort    to    explain  away  certain  harsh  ex- 
pressions (e.g.,  oonoeming determinism}  and  charge 
them  to  the  Reformers  only*     But  he  stops   far 
short  of  making  the  decided  deviation  which  the 
Reformers  made  from  Augustine  with  regard  to  the 
doctrine    of    justification,    Grace    justifies    man. 
Since  no   man  on   earth   can  attain 
Relation     active  pjcrfection  in  this  life,  our  rights 
to  the       eousness  will  rest  more  upon  the  fo^ 
Reformers,  givcncss  of  sin%  than  upon  our  virtue. 
It  IS  cbaracterifltic  how  the  forgive- 
ness of  ems  comes  in  here  like  a  makeshift.    Si 
proprie  loqut  velimuMf  remismo  peccoiorum  jttstUia 
non  erU^  quia  juaHtia    praprie  legis  ohedieniia  tsi 
sivG  intua  in  valurUate  iive  foru  in  &pere,  ,  ,  ,  Sed 
in  scripiuris  sacrU  peceaiorum  Tertiissia  ideo  €tiam 
nomine  justilitr  iTdeUigitw,  quia  licet  proprie  non  sitf 
iamen  opud  deum  pro  jttstiiia  rtputatur.    Justifi- 
cation meaufi  to  make  righteous  and  have  forgive^ 
neas  of  mmi  but  it  is  the  former  above  all. 


The  bull  against  Bajua  is  very  Instructive  for  the 
history  of  doctrinal  theology,  because  the  Augus- 
tinian  theology  is  here  censured  with  all  plainness. 
Thus,  condemnation  is  pronounced  upon  the  fol- 
lowing propositions:  that  every  sin  deserves  ever- 
lasting punishment  (20);  that  all  works  of  the  un- 
believers are  sin  (25);  that  the  will  without  the  help 
of  grace  can  only  sin  (27);  that  concupiscence,  even 
where  it  acts  unwillingly,  is  sin  (51 );  that  the  sinner 
is  not  animated  and  moved  by  the  absolving  priest 
but  only  by  God  (58);  that  the  merit  of  the  re- 
deemed is  given  to  them  freely  (8);  that  tem- 
poral sine  can  not  be  atoned  for  by  one's  own 
doings  ds  condigno^  but  that  their  abolition,  like 
the  resurrection,  must  be  ascribed  in  a  proper  sense 
to  the  merit  of  Christ  (77,  10). 

R.  Seeberg. 

BisuooftAPBT:  Midael  Baii  opera:  aim  buUis  ponHficum 
*i  tiliU  ip9iu»  cnumm  tpect^ntihut  .  .  .  ecdUcta  .  .  . 
wiudio  A.  F.  theot&ffi  [Q.  Gerb«roti],  Cologoe,  1096;  J.  B. 
P.  du  Cbesn?,  H^toin  du  Majanirmf,  E)ouai,  1731;  F.  X. 
LiQienmana,  i^ichaet  Bajiit  tinJ  dis  GruruUeffung  de9  Jan- 
iiitni^mtm,  Tabingein,  1867;  L.  E.  dii  Pla.  NouvtUe  InbRo- 
thii^ua,  xri;  E.  Seebers,  in  ThonukNua,  Dogmenoetchichte, 
VOL  ii,  part  2,  718  sqq,.  LeipfUc.  1889;  A.  Hamaok.  Dog- 
memjeM^ichte,  iii,  628  SQq.,  Freihurg,  IB90,  Eng.  traDsI.. 
vij,  86-93. 

BAKER,  DAIOEL:  Presbyterian ;  b.  at  Midway, 
Liberty  Comity^  Ga.,  Aug.  IT,  1791 ;  d.  at  Austin, 
Texas,  Dec.  ]0>  ISoT*  He  studied  at  Hampden 
Sidney  College,  Va.,  1811-13  and  was  graduated 
at  Princeton,  IB^5;  was  licensed  (1816)  and  or- 
dained (ISIS)  in  Virginia;  was  pastor  in  Washing- 
ton, 1822-28;  in  Savannah,  1828-31;  after  a  note- 
worthy reviv^  season  in  his  church  there,  resigned 
and  spent  the  rest  of  his  life^  with  the  exception  of 
brief  pastorates^  traveling  through  the  southern 
States  as  evangelist  and  mif^sionary;  became  general 
missionary  in  Texas  of  the  Board  of  Missions  in 
184S,  was  one  of  the  founders  of  Austin  College 
(Presbyterian),  at  Hunts ville,  Texas,  in  1849, 
and  age^^  of  the  eollege  tilL  his  death.  While  in 
Washington  he  published  A  Scriptural  View  of 
Baptism,  afterward  revised  and  enlarged  as  A  Plain 
and  Scriptural  View  of  Baptism  (Philadelphia, 
1853);  he  also  published  two  series  of  Revival 
Sermona  (1854-57). 

Bibuoorapht:  W.  M.  Bftiker,  Lift  and  Labon  of  Rev.  Dan, 
Bak^r,  FbitmdQlplum  1858. 

BASER,  SIR  HEITRT  WILLIAMS:  Hymnolo- 
gist;  b.  in  London  May  27,  1821;  d.  at  Monkland, 
near  Leominsteri  Herefonishire,  Feb.  12,  1877. 
Hq  took  his  B.A.  degree  at  Cambridge  (Trinity 
Coltcgo)  1844;  bec^miie  vicar  of  Monkland  1851; 
succeeded  his  father,  Vice- Admiral  Sir  Henry 
Loraine  Baker,  as  baronet  1S59.  He  wrote  certain 
tracts  and  prayers,  and  hymns  of  no  slight  merit 
(including  the  version  of  Psalm  xxiii.  The  King  of 
Love  my  shepherd  ie).  He  was  one  of  the  most 
prominent  compilers  of  HymnSj  AncierU  and  Mod' 
em  (London,  1861;  Appendix ^  1868;  revised  and 
enlarged  edition^  1875),  one  of  the  most  successful 
of  modem  hymnalSi  to  which  he  contributed  some 
twenty-five  hymns,  original  and  translated. 

BiBLiooRAPirr;  S.  W.  I>iiflS«ld^  Sngivih  Hymna,  p.  77  et 
PAHimt  N«w  Yark«  1S8€;  JuUmi,  Hymwhgy,  p.  107;  DNB^ 

ML  IL 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


424 


BALAAM,  b^lcan:  A  non-Israelitic  prophet 
or  soothsayer,  son  of  Beor,  from  Pethor  (Assyrian 
Pitru,  of.  E.  Schrader,  KAT,  i,  38;  F.  Delitzsch, 
Wo  lag  dca  Parodies,  Leipsic,  1885,  p.  269;  J.  Hal^vy, 
Mdangea  d'Spigraphie  et  d*  Archdologie  Sdmitiques, 
Paris,  1874,  p.  77;  Max  MUller,  Asien  und  Europa 
nach  aUdgyptischen  DenkmGlern,  Leipsic,  1893, 
p.  291),  a  city  of  northern  Mesopotamia,  not  far 
from  the  Euphrates.  He  seems  to  have  been 
known  as  a  sorcerer  throughout  a  wide  region, 
and  according  to  Nimi.  xxii,  5  sqq.,  was  engaged  by 
Baiak,  king  of  the  Moabites,  to  curse  Israel  in  the 
name  of  the  God  whom  Israel  served.  But  the 
God  in  whose  name  Balaam  practised  his  magical 
arts,  is  a  living  God  who  could  interfere  with  and 
govern  Balaam's  doings.  And  such  an  interference 
took  place  when  Baiak  called  Balaam.  By  this 
means  his  divination  became  real  prediction. 

Balaam,  moved  by  desire  for  reward,  accepted 
Baiak's  invitation,  which  aroused  Yahweh's  anger. 
That  he  accepted  the  invitation  gladly 
The  Biblical  may  be  seen  from  the  anger  which 
Narrative,  seized  him  as  his  animal  suddenly 
shied  on  the  way  and  refused  to  pro- 
ceed. His  own  eyes  were  held  so  that  he  did  not 
perceive  the  apparition  in  his  path.  He  would 
have  seen  it  if  he  had  gone  with  the  disposition  of 
a  prophet  of  Yahweh,  for  he  would  then  have  had 
an  eye  open  to  that  which  his  God  sent  him.  The 
irrational  animal  which  carried  him  became  the 
instrument  to  set  him  right.  Its  resistance  changed 
into  intelligible  speech.  For  the  animal  spoke  in 
the  same  manner  as  the  wife  of  the  first  man  heard 
the  serpent  speak.  In  neither  case  need  one  think 
of  an  act  of  divine  omnipotence,  granting  to  the 
speechless  animal  the  momentary  fimction  of  human 
organs  of  speech.  The  act  concerned  rather  the 
ear  of  the  prophet  and  for  him  the  animal's  plain- 
tive tone  became  articulate  utterance.  The  prophet 
could  be  brought  to  his  senses  and  aroused  from  a 
mental  disposition  intent  only  upon  gain  by  some- 
thing extraordinary,  which  was  the  reason  why 
the  animal  refused  to  proceed.  Now  he  also  saw 
the  apparition  which  had  startled  his  beast,  and 
the  horror  of  it  made  him  even  willing  to  turn  back, 
still  more  to  speak  only  that  which  should  offer 
itself  to  him  as  God's  word. 

After  Balaam  had  arrived  in  the  mountainous 
part  of  Moab,  near  the  sources  of  the  Amon  between 
the  Amon  and  the  Jabbok,  Baiak,  after  offering 
sacrifices  to  predispose  Yahweh  in  his  favor,  three 
times  assigned  to  Balaam  a  station  (Num.  xxii,  41; 
xxiii,  14,  28),  that  from  the  high  place  he  might 
curse  Israel  which  was  encamped  before  his  eye. 
But  three  times,  overcome  by  Yahweh's  spirit, 
the  prophet  blessed  the  people  (Num.  xxiii,  7-10; 
18-24;  xxiv,  3-9),  first  giving  the  reason  which 
made  it  impossible  for  him  to  curse  Israel,  viz., 
that  it  differed  entirely  from  other  nations,  being 
richly  favored  by  God;  he  then  expanded  the  bless- 
ing briefly  indicated  in  this  first  parable,  and  in  a 
third  deliverance  finally  described  the  glorious 
prosperity  of  Israel  and  its  dominion  as  well  as  the 
fearful  power  of  this  people  which  should  crush  all 
enemies,  having  been  set  for  a  curse  and  a  blessing 
to  the  nations.    Baiak  was  greatly  enraged  and 


dismissed  the  seer  who,  according  to  Num.  xxiv, 
15-24,  spoke  to  the  king  more  fully  of  the  future 
which  awaited  Israel  during  its  rule,  and  of  the 
mighty  commotions  which  should  destroy  nations. 
Under  the  figure  of  a  star  and  scepter  he  sees  in  the 
distant  future  a  king  coming  forth  from  Israel, 
whose  glorious  power  none  may  resist,  and  the 
ruin  of  the  world-powers  one  after  the  other  and 
one  through  the  other. 

It  can  not  be  denied  that  there  is  something 
strange  in  Balaam's  utterances  foretelling  worid- 
historical  events  to  a  remote  future.  But  to  have 
recourse  to  the  expedient  that  we  have  here  a 
prophecy  after  the  event,  or  that  the  originally 
transmitted  prophecy  of  Balaam  has  been  enlarged 
in  later  time  in  accordance  with  the  course  of  his- 
tory, is  to  deprive  Balaam's  whole  appearance  of 
its  essential  meaning  in  connection  with  Old  Testa- 
ment prophecy.  Balaam's  importance 
Significance  consists  in  just  this,  that  from  the 
of  Balaam's  time  when  Israel  first  appeared  among 
Prophecies,  the  nations,  the  future  of  the  nations 
and  world-powers  was  disclosed  not 
to  one  of  its  own  prophets  but  to  one  outside  of  it. 
And  the  knowledge  of  the  history  of  future  cen- 
turies which  was  there  oommimicated  to  the  people 
served  to  comfort  them  in  the  midst  of  threatening 
world-movements  till  Daniel's  revelations  came 
and  continued  the  knowledge  of  the  futiune  from 
the  point  where  Balaam  left  it.  The  great  im- 
portance of  Balaam's  prophecy  finds  its  expresmon 
also  in  this,  that  whenever  the  Israelitic  prophets 
of  later  times  speak  of  the  relations  of  Israd  to 
the  world-nations,  we  hear  his  words  ringing  through 
their  utterances.  As  a  matter  of  course,  this  refer- 
ence of  the  origin  of  the  oracles  of  Balaam  to 
Mosaic  times  applies  only  to  the  essential  cont^its, 
not  to  the  form  of  expression  as  it  now  exists. 
The  latter  must  be  attributed  to  the  narrator. 

Balaam's  condemnation  in  the  New  Testament 
(II  Pet.  ii,  15-16;  Rev.  ii,  14)  is  foimded  upcm  the 
notice  Num.  xxxi,  16,  according  to  which  he 
advised  Baiak  to  seduce  Israel  to  the  soisusi 
cultus  of  Baal-Peor.  The  contradiction  in  which 
this  later  and  additional  notice  seems  to  stand 
with  Num.  xxiv,  25,  which  passage  at  the  fiist 
glance  every  one  imderstands  to  mean  that  Balaam, 
after  his  parting-word  concerning  Israel,  returned 
to  his  home,  is  easily  reconciled  by  the  suppodtioQ 
that  Balaam  actually  left  Baiak,  but  stayed  with 
the  Midianites,  who  wei%  allied  to  the  Moabites 
(Num.  xxii,  4,  7),  in  order  to  serve  Israel's  enemies 
and  to  await  the  success  of  his  plan  to  lead  them 
astray.  In  the  war  of  revenge  which  broke  out 
against  Midian  (Num.  xxv,  16-19),  the  divioe 
punishment  overtook  him  (Num.  xxxi,  8;  Josh, 
xiii,  22).  His  giving  to  the  Midianites  the  advice 
so  fatal  to  Israel  in  its  consequences  can  be  ex- 
plained from  the  irritation  which  took  hold  of  him 
when  he  foimd  himself  deprived  of  the  reward 
which   he   desired.  W.  Voixacf. 

The  fascinating  and  somewhat  perplexing  stoiy 
of  Balaam  as  given  in  Numbers  becomes  less  pui- 
zling  when  it  is  analyzed  and  traced  to  ita  sources. 
The  whole  story  is  an  episode  of  the  history  of  the 
tribes  of  Israel  at  the  close  of  their  wanderings  after 


426 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


the  Exodus.  The  main  contmuous  narrative,  as 
we  now  have  it,  is  found  in  Num.  xxii-xxiv  and 
contains  two  well-defined  elements:  a  prose  por- 
tion or  the  narrative  proper,  and  a  poetical  portion 
comprising  four  oracles  uttered  by  the  hero  of  the 
story. 

The  incidents  are  in  brief  as  follows:  Balak, 
king  of  Moab,  alarmed  at  the  numbers  and  strength 
of  the  Hebrews,  sends  for  the  noted  seer  and  wizard, 
Balaam  of  Pethor  (Assyrian  Pitru)  on  the  Euphrates 
in  Mesopotamia,  to  bring  a  curse  upon  them. 
Balaam  would  not  answer  the  messengers  till  he 
had  consulted  God  as  to  what  he  should  do.  God 
at  first  forbade  him  to  go;  but  after  he  was  again 
approached  by  an  embassy  from  Balak  with  greater 
gifts  and  more  urgent  appeab,  he  was 

The  liar-  granted  permission  upon  the  condition 
rative      that  he  should  utter  only  God's  direct 

Analyzed,  message  (Num.  xxii,  5-21).  He  at 
once  sets  out  for  Moab  with  the 
princes  of  the  embassy,  and  on  meeting  Balak  he 
assures  him  that  at  best  he  can  act  only  as  God's 
mouthpiece  (Num.  ^pdi,  35-38).  Then  Balak 
takes  him  to  Bamoth-Baal  EV,  **  the  high  places 
of  Baal "),  not  far  south  of  the  Amon.  Here 
elaborate  sacrifices  were  prepared,  and,  when 
Balaam  retired  for  consultation,  God  appeared  to 
him  and  gave  him  a  message  which  foretold  the 
greatness  and  blessedness  of  Israel  (Num.  xxii,  39- 
xxiii,  10).  After  a  bitter  remonstrance  from  Balak 
a  similar  transaction  took  place  upon  the  summit 
of  Pisgah  followed  by  an  oracle  in  which  Israel's 
purity  of  worship  and  its  valor  are  extolled  (Num. 
xxiii,  11-24).  Balaam  was  next  transferred  by 
Balak  to  Peor — apparently  another  height  of  Nebo, 
commanding  a  specially  good  view  of  the  Dead  Sea 
desert  (Jeshimon),  where  Israel  was  encamped. 
At  this  stage  Bsdaam,  instead  of  going  into  the 
solitude,  uttered  his  oracle  from  immediate  inspi- 
ration (as  "  the  spirit  of  God  came  upon  him  ") 
with  a  glowing  description  of  the  beauty  and  fer- 
tility of  the  promised  land  and  a  forecast  of  the 
military  triumphs  of  Israel  (Num.  xxiii,  25-xxiv,  9). 
Finally  Balak  in  anger  dismisses  the  prophet,  who 
without  the  advantages  of  the  prescriptive  sacri- 
fices spontaneously  delivers  himself  of  a  prophecy 
in  which  Israel  is  pictured  as  victorious  over  Moab 
itself  as  well  as  over  the  peoples  to  the  south  of 
Palestine.  Balaam  then  returns  to  his  distant 
home  (Num.  xxiv,  10-25).  Embedded  in  this  main 
narrative  is  the  story  of  Balaam's  being  confronted 
by  the  angel  of  Yahweh,  when  on  his  way  to  Moab, 
and  of  the  speaking  she-ass  who  sees  this  divine 
messenger  invisible  to  the  prophet  (Num.  xxii, 
22-34). 

A  reference  to  the  last-named  section  may  best 
introduce  a  brief  analysis  of  the  sources.  It  is 
evident  at  a  ^ance  that  this  section  contradicts 
the  preceding  part  of  the  present  nar- 
Its  In-  rative.  Verse  22a  directly  contravenes 
consisten-  verse  20a,  and  verses  22  sqq.,  which 
des.  make  Balaam  to  have  traveled  pri- 
vately, are  inconsistent  with  verse  20b 
(cf.  verses  35  and  36,  where  the  main  story  is 
resumed).  Moreover,  the  incident  of  the  angel 
and   the   clairvoyant  and  speaking  ass  is  out  of 


place  and  inconsequent.  There  was  no  occasion 
that  Balaam  should  leam  that  it  was  useless  to 
resist  the  will  of  Yahweh  (cf.  verse  32)  since  it 
was  in  accordance  with  the  divine  command  that 
he  had  entered  upon  his  journey.  The  marvel  of 
an  animal  endowed  with  human  speech  has  many 
parallels  in  folk-lore  from  the  earliest  times,  and 
adds  nothing  to  the  dignity  and  force  of  the  narra- 
tive but  rather  detracts  from  it.  In  fact,  if  chap, 
xxii,  22-35  be  removed  we  have  a  consistent  and 
instructive  allegory  of  the  historico-prophetic  order. 

This  single  and  separate  episode  of  the  journey 
to  Moab  belongs  to  J,  and  the  rest  of  the  narrative 
in  chap,  xxii  belongs  to  E.  Chaps,  xxiii  and  xxiv 
are  probably  the  work  of  a  redactor 
The  Sources,  using  materials  from  both  of  these 
great  sources.  More  particularly,  it  is 
apparent  that  the  oracles  of  chap,  xxiii  bear,  on 
the  whole,  an  Elohistic  and  those  of  chap,  xxiv  a 
Jehovistic  stamp.  In  the  narrative  proper  E  pre- 
dominates throughout.  Indeed  the  journey  epi- 
sode is  almost  all  that  we  have  from  J  in  the  prose 
portions  of  the  story.  Hence  it  is  now  impossible 
to  say  what  his  conception  was  of  the  original 
attitude  of  Balaam  toward  his  mission.  The 
variations  of  the  story,  however,  do  not  obscure 
the  essence  of  it  as  far  as  it  concerns  the  personality 
and  doings  of  Balaam.  In  the  remote  background 
there  appears  the  figure  of  a  famous  Aramean  seer 
of  the  twelfth  oentiuy  b.c.  who  among  the  contend- 
ing tribes  and  peoples  of  Palestine  discerned  special 
elements  of  greatness  and  power  in  the  Hebrew 
tribes  and  in  the  religion  of  Yahweh,  and  had  some 
prevision  of  their  future,  to  which  he  gave  official 
utterance.  There  is  no  reason  why  such  a  belief 
may  not  have  had  a  foundation  in  fact.  It  must 
be  remembered  that  the  chief  proximate  an(5estor8 
of  the  Hebrews  were  Aramean  (Deut.  xxvi,  5), 
and  that  no  small  portion  of  the  narrative  of 
Genesis  consists  of  cherished  traditions  of  Aramean 
associations.  Moreover,  the  twelfth  oentiuy  was 
the  epoch-making  period  of  emigration  and  travel 
from  western  Mesopotamia  across  the  Euphrates 
and  southward. 

The  oracles  are  of  course  the  significant  element 

of  the  Balaam  story.    Their  underlying  motive  is 

to    vindicate    the    rightful    predomi- 

The        nance  of  Israel  over  its  rivals  to  the 

Qrades.  east  and  south.  It  is  this  motive 
Their  Mo-  which  has  diverted  the  tradition  of 

tive  and  Balaam  from  its  original  scope  and 
Date.  employed  it  to  justify  the  remorseless 
border  wars  waged  by  southern  Israel 
in  the  days  of  the  monarchy.  In  the  natiure  of  the 
case  the  poems  were  composed  not  more  than  a 
very  few  generations  after  the  events.  Now  since 
the  oracles  of  chap,  xxiii  are  essentially  Elohistic 
and  had  their  origin  in  the  northern  kingdom, 
the  events  which  suggested  them  took  place  before 
the  schism,  not  later  than  the  warlike  days  of 
David.  Indeed  it  is  generally  agreed  that  the 
subjugation  of  Moab  and  Edom  (cf.  xxiv,  17,  18), 
which  took  place  in  his  time,  formed  the  central 
point  of  practical  interest  for  the  whole  series.  The 
literary  period  of  Solomon  may  have  been  the  start- 
ing-point.   But  the  process  of  enlargement  and 


BaU 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


486 


refinement  in  the  individual  poems  must  have 
lasted  till  the  eighth  century. 

An  appendix  to  the  oracles  is  found  in  chap, 
xxiy,  20-24,  which  must  have  been  composed 
originally  at  a  late  date,  since  deportations  by  the 
Assyri^ms  are  referred  to  (verse  22),  and  perhaps 
also  even  the  Macedonian  conquests  of  the  fourth 
century  (verse  24).  This  poem  should  of  course 
be  separated  from  the  others  in  our  texts. 

Quite  apart  from  the  main  current  of  tradition 

and  its  idealization  is  the  use  made  of  the  Balaam 

story  by  the  priestly  writer  in  Num. 

The  Story    xxxi,  8,  16.     He  connects  the  prophet 

in  P  and  with  the  Midianitish  seductions  de- 
Later  Lit-   scribed  (also  by  P)  in  Num.  xxv,  6-18. 

erature.  The  statement  that  Balaam  suggested 
the  corruption  of  Israel  by  sensual 
allurements  and  suffered  death  in  the  ensuing  holy 
war,  is  out  of  harmony  with  the  original  conception 
of  the  prophet,  which  is  retained  throughout  the 
older  accounts.  The  notion,  however,  gained  con- 
tinually in  popularity,  and  is  recalled  in  the  later 
literature  even  in  New  Testament  times  (cf.  II 
Pet.  ii,  15,  Jude  11;  Josephus,  Ant.,  IV,  vi,  6). 
Prejudice  is  already  shown  in  Josh,  xxiv,  9;  Deut. 
xxiii,  4,  5;  but  a  more  just  sentiment  is  displayed 
in  Mic.  vi,  5.  A  historical  example  of  the  influ- 
ence of  the  tradition  may  be  seen  in  Neh.  xiii,  1,  2. 

J.  F.  McCURDT. 

Biblioorapht:  For  review  of  literature  up  to  1887  consult 

F.  Delitsech,  Zur  neuesten  Literatur  Hber  den  AbachnUt 
Bileant,  in  ZKW,  1888.  On  the  general  subject  F.  A.  O. 
Tholuck.  Die  Oeachichte  Bileama,  in  his  VermiadUe  Schrif- 
ten,  i,  406-432,  Hamburg.  1830;  E.  W.  Hengstenberg. 
Oeachichte  BiUanu  und  seine  Weiaeagungen,  Berlin,  1842; 
H.  Oort,  DiaptUatio  de  Num.    xxii-xxiv,  Leyden,  1860; 

G.  Baur,  Oeschiehte  der  aUteatamenUichen  Weiaaagunoen, 
pp.  329  sqq.,  Giessen,  1861;  A.  Kuenen,  in  TkT,  xviii 
(1884),  497-540;  A.  Dillmann,  consult  on  the  passage  his 
commentary  in  Kurzgefaaatea  exeoetiachea  Handbuch  turn 
Alien  Tuktment,  Strasburg.  1887;  A.  H,  Sayoe,  Balaatn'a 
Prophecy*  Num.  xxiv,  17-£4,  and  the  Qod  Seth,  in  Hebraica, 
iv  (1887),  1-6;  A.  van  Hoonacker,  ObaervaHona  aritiquea 
aw  lea  riciia  concemani  BUeam,  in  Le  Muaion,  Lyons, 
1888;  J.  Hal^vy.  in  Revite  SSmxtique,  1894,  201-209; 
DB,i,  232-234;  EB.  i,  461-464;  T.  K. Cheync.  in Expoaitory 
Timea,  1899,  399-402.  Bishop  Butler's  celebrated  sermon 
on  the  character  of  Balaam  is  in  vol.  ii  of  his  works,  Ox- 
ford, 1844. 

BALAN,  balon,  PIETRO :  Roman  Catholic  church 
historian;  b.  at  Este  (17  m.  s.s.w.  of  Padua),  Italy, 
Sept.  3,  1840.  He  was  educated  in  the  seminary 
at  Padua,  where  he  was  appointed  professor  in  1862. 
He  was  director  of  the  Venetian  La  Libertd.  Catto- 
lica  in  1865  and  of  the  Modenese  Diritio  CaUolico 
in  1867.  In  1879  he  became  subarchivist  of  the 
Vatican,  but  retired  on  account  of  ill  health  four 
years  later,  and  has  since  resided  at  Pregatto  in  the 
province  of  Bologna.  He  was  nominated  chamber- 
lain by  Leo  XIII  in  1881,  and  domestic  prelate 
in  the  following  year,  while  in  1883  he  was  appointed 
referendary  of  the  Papal  "  segnatura."  In  the 
latter  year  he  was  also  created  a  commander  of 
the  order  of  Francis  Joseph  He  is  the  author  of 
Siudi  md  Papato  (Padua,  1862);  Tommaso  Becket 
(1864);  Storia  di  S.  Tommaso  di  Cantorbery  e  dei 
suoi  tempi  (2  vols.,  Modena,  1867);  /  Precursori 
del  razionalispw  modemo  fino  a  Lutero  (2  vols., 
Parma.   1867-68);  Romani  e  Longohardi  (Modena, 


1868);  UEcanomia,  la  Chieaa  e  gli  umanUari  (1869); 
Pio  IX,  la  Chiesa  e  la  Rivoluzione  (2  vols.,  1869); 
DanU  ed  i  Papi  (1870);  Chiesa  e  Staio  (1871); 
SuUe  Legazioni  compitUe  net  paesi  nordici  da  Gugti- 
elmo  vescovo  di  Modena  nd  secolo  XIII  (1872);  R 
Vescovo  di  Modena  Alberto  Boschetti  (1872);  Sloria 
di  Oregorio  IX  e  dei  suoi  tempi  (3  vols.,  1872-73); 
Storia  d* Italia  dai  primi  tempi  fino  al  1870  (7  vols., 
1875-^);  Storia  del  pontificato  di  Papa  Gionamn 

VIII  (1876);  Storia  deUa  Lega  Lombarda,  eon 
documenti  (1876);  Memorie  storiche  di  Tenearda 
nd  Padovano  con  documenti  inediti  (1876);  Storia 
deUa  Chiesa  Cattolica  durante  il  pontificato  di  Pio 

IX  (3  vols.,  Turin,  1876-86);  Memorie  deUa  B, 
Beatrice  I  di  EsU  (1877);  Roberto  Boschetti  e 
r Italia  dei  stun  tempi  (2  vols.,1878-^);2>t8Corn(eni^* 
nd  quinto  Congresso  Cattolico  in  Modena  (Bologna, 
1879);  SuU'Autenticitd,  dd  diploma  di  Enrico  II  di 
Germania  a  Papa  Benedetto  VIII  (Rome,  1880); 
S.  Catterina  da  Siena  e  U  Papato  (1880);  La  Politiea 
italiana  dal  1863  al  1870,  secondo  gli  tUtimi  docw- 
menti  (1880);  La  Storia  d' Italia  e  gli  arckivi  aegreti 
ddla  Santa  Sede  (1881);  Le  Bdazioni  fra  la  Chiesa 
Cattolica  e  gli  Slavi  meridionali  (1881);  /  Papi  ed 
i  vespri  siciliani,  con  documenti  (1881);  II  Processo 
di  Bonifazio  VIII  (1881);  La  Politiea  di  ClemenU 
VII  fino  al  sacco  di  Roma  (1884);  Roma  capUale 
d' Italia  (1884);  Monumenta  reformationis  Luthe- 
rancB  ex  tabtdariis  Sancti  Sedis  secretis,  1621-26 
(Regensburg,  1884);  and  Clemente  VII  e  V Italia 
dd  sue  tempo  (Milan,  1887). 

BALDACHIN:  A  canopy-like  ornament  id 
stone  or  bronze  over  the  altar  in  some  Roman 
Catholic  chiu*ches,  designed  originally  td  protect 
the  Eucharist  from  objects  that  might  fall  on  it 
from  above.  The  name  is  derived  from  Baldacco, 
an  old  Italian  form  of  Bagdad,  and  owes  its  use  in 
this  connection  to  the  fact  that  Bagdad  was  a  rich 
soiu-ce  of  the  precious  cloths  which  were  frequentlj 
employed  in  decorating  the  protecting  ornament 
over  altars.  In  spite  of  legislation  of  the  Congre- 
gation of  Rites  requiring  a  baldachin  over  every 
altar,  the  contrary  practise  is  common  everywhere 
at  the  present  day,  even  in  Rome.  FormeHy  the 
baldachin  was  called  a  ciborium  because  the  dbo- 
rium  or  vessel  containing  the  Eucharist  was  sus- 
pended from  it.  A  splendid  example  of  the  balda- 
chin is  seen  in  the  bronze  masterpiece  of  Bernini 
over  the  main  altar  of  St.  Peter's  in  Rome.  A 
portable  baldachin  is  held  over  the  sacrament  of 
the  altar  when  it  is  borne  in  procession  or,  in  some 
places,  when  it  is  carried  to  the  sick.  A  baldachin 
should  be  erected  also  over  a  bishop's  throne. 

John  T.  Crkagh. 

BALDE,  bol'da,  JAKOB:  German  Jesuit,  dis- 
tinguished as  a  scholar,  poet,  and  preacher;  b.  at 
Ensisheim  (55  m.  s.s.w.  of  Strasburg),  Alsace,  Jan. 
4,  1604;  d.  at  Neuburg  (29  m.  n.n.e.  of  Augsburg), 
Bavaria,  Aug.  9,  1668.  He  was  destined  for  a 
legal  career,  and  was  educated  by  the  Jesuits  in 
his  native  town,  at  Molsheim,  and  at  Ingolstadt 
In  1624  he  renounced  the  worid  and  entered  the 
Society,  still  continuing  his  classical  studies,  and 
teaching  rhetoric  at  Munich  and  Innsbruck.  In 
1633  he  was  ordained;  from  1635  to  1637  he  was 


427 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


B&laam 
BaU 


professor  of  rhetoric  in  the  University  of  Ingol- 
stadt;  and  from  1638  to  1640,  after  the  death  of 
Jeremias  Drexel,  court  preacher  to  Maximilian  I 
in  Munich.  Here  he  remained  as  historiographer 
of  the  duchy  for  ten  years  longer,  but  won  more 
renown  by  the  poetical  compositions  of  the  years 
1637-46.  His  work  in  this  period  was  lyrical 
{Lyrica,  Munich,  1638-42;  SylvoB,  1641^5),  but 
after  1649  he  turned  rather  to  satire  and  elegy. 
His  health  forced  him  to  leave  Munich  in  1650, 
and  after  three  years  at  Landshut  and  one  at  Am- 
berg,  he  settled  at  Neuburg  on  the  Danube,  where 
he  spent  his  last  years  in  the  peaceful  dignity  of 
the  office  of  chaplain  to  the  count  palatine  Philip 
William.  His  memory,  which  had  to  a  great  ex- 
tent died  out,  was  revived  at  the  beginning  of  the 
nineteenth  century  by  Herder,  Orelli,  and  others, 
and  his  name  has  since  been  increasingly  honored, 
especially  by  the  efforts  of  the  Munich  society, 
foimded  in  1868,  which  bears  it.  He  well  deserves 
this  renown  from  more  than  one  point  of  view. 
He  was  a  great  classical  scholar,  a  positive  rein- 
carnation of  Roman  antiquity.  As  a  Latin  poet 
(his  small  body  of  vernacular  work  is  far  inferior) 
he  displays  a  wonderful  array  of  excellent  qualities 
— vivid  imagination,  depth  of  thought  and  feeling, 
brilliant  invention  and  composition,  and  mastery 
of  the  most  difficult  forms.  The  characteristic 
universal  scholarship  of  his  age  is  best  shown  in 
his  Urania  Victrix  (1663),  which  touches  every 
branch  of  knowledge.  Besides  the  works  already 
mentioned,  and  some  epics  belonging  to  his  first 
period,  his  PhUomela  (1645),  full  of  devotion  to  the 
Crucified,  his  Elegies  varice  (1663),  and  his  amusing 
satires  on  quack  doctors  and  other  impostors  in 
MedicincB  gloria  (1649)  may  be  named. 

(F.  List.) 

Biblioorapht:  HIb  oolleoted  works  were  first  published  in 
eomplete  form  at  Munich,  1729,  the  earlier  editions  at 
Cologne,  1660  and  1718,  being  defective;  his  Carmina 
lyriea  appeared,  ed.  B.  MQlIer,  Regensburg,  1884.  Con- 
sult L.  Bninner,  J.  Balde,  le  grand  po^te  de  I'Altace.  Notice 
hiatorique  et  littiraire,  Ouebwiller,  1865;  J.  Bach,  Jacob 
Balde,  der  neulateinieche  DiefUer  dee  Eleaeeee,  Strasburg, 
1885;  F.  Tauchert,  Herder'e  oriechieche  und  morgenUkndi- 
eehe  Antholoffie  und  eeine  Uebereeteungen  von  J.  Balde^  p. 
176,  Munich,  1886. 

BALDENSPERGER,  WILHELM:  German  Prot- 
estant; b.  at  MUlhausen  (63  m.  8.s.w.  of  Stras- 
burg), Alsace,  Dec.  12,  1856.  He  was  educated 
at  the  universities  of  Strasburg,  GOttingen,  and 
Paris,  and  in  1880  was  appointed  supply  at  Stras- 
burg. Two  years  later  he  was  chosen  assistant 
pastor  and  secretary  of  the  editorial  board  of  the 
Journal  du  Protestantisme  frangais  at  Paris,  where 
he  remained  until  1884.  From  1886  to  1890  he  was 
vicar  at  Mundolsheim  (a  suburb  of  Strasburg)  and 
Strasburg,  but  in  the  latter  year  was  appointed 
associate  professor  of  New  Testament  exegesis  at 
the  University  of  Giessen,  becoming  full  professor 
two  years  later.  He  was  created  a  knight  of  the 
first  class  of  the  Order  of  Philip  the  Magnanimous 
in  1904.  In  addition  to  many  briefer  studies  and 
his  contributions  to  the  Brunswick  edition  of  the 
works  of  Calvin,  he  has  written  Das  SeWatbevmsst- 
sein  Jesu  im  Lichte  der  mesaianischen  Hoffnung 
aeiner    Zeit     (Strasburg,     1888);  L'Influence    du 


dilettantiame  artistique  sur  la  morale  et  la  religion 
(1890);  Karl  August  Credner,  sein  Leben  und  seine 
Theologie  (Leipsic,  1897);  Der  Prolog  der  vier 
EvangeHen  (Giessen,  1898);  and  Das  spdUre  Juden- 
thum  als  Vorstufe  des  ChristerUhums  (Giessen,  1900). 

BALDWIN:  Archbishop  of  Canterbury;  d.  at 
Acre  Nov.  19,  1190.  He  was  bom  at  Exeter  in 
humble  circumstances,  but  received  a  good  educar- 
tion;  became  archdeacon  of  Exeter,  but  resigned 
to  enter  the  Cistercian  monastery  of  Ford,  Devon- 
shire, and  within  a  year  was  made  abbot;  became 
bishop  of  Worcester,  1180,  archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury, 1184.  He  engaged  in  a  quarrel  with  the 
monks  of  Canterbury,  and  successfully  asserted 
his  preeminence  among  the  bishops  of  England; 
with  King  Henry  II  he  had  much  influence;  he 
crowned  Richard  I  in  1189,  and  attended  him  to 
the  Holy  Land  the  next  year.  His  works  (edited 
by  B.  Tlssier)  are  in  the  Bibliotheca  pcUrum  Cister- 
ciensium,  v  (Paris,  1662),  from  which  they  are 
reprinted  in  MPL,  cciv. 

BALE,  JOHN:  En^h  polemical  writer  of  the 
Reformation  period;  b.  at  Cove,  near  Dunwich, 
Suffolk  (25  m.  n.e.  of  Ipswich),  Nov. 21, 1495;  d.  at 
Canterbury  Nov.  1563.  He  was  educated  in  the 
Carmelite  monastery  at  Norwich,  and  at  Jesus 
College,  Cambridge;  embraced  the  Reformation, 
married,  and  had  to  seek  refuge  in  Germany  in 
1540;  returned  under  Edward  VI,  was  made 
Bishop  of  Ossory,  in  Ireland,  1552,  and  tried  to 
introduce  reformed  doctrines  and  practise  with  an 
intemperate  zeal;  fled  to  the  Continent  after  the 
accession  of  Mary,  and  lived  for  some  years  at 
Basel;  returned  under  Ehzabeth,  and  was  made 
prebendary  of  Canterbury  in  1560.  He  wrote 
much  and  with  a  coarseness  and  bitterness  in  con- 
troversy which  gained  him  the  name  of  "  Bilious 
Bale."  His  principal  work  is  lUustrium  majoris 
BrilannicB  scriptorum  summarium  (Ipswich,  1548; 
enlarged  editions,  Basel,  1557  and  1559);  he  also 
became  noted  as  a  writer  of  miracle  plays  in  which 
he  violently  attacked  the  Roman  Church.  His 
play  Kynge  Johan  has  been  published  by  the 
Camden  Society  (1838);  and  the  Parker  Society 
has  published  a  selection  of  his  works  (1849),  with 
biographical  notice  by  H.  Christmas. 

Biblioorapht:  The  fullest  account  of  hia  life  is  in  C.  H. 
Cooper,  Aihence  Cantabriffienaeet  London,  1858. 

BALL,  JOHN:  Puritan  and  Presbyterian;  b.  at 
Cassington  (5  m.  n.w.  of  Oxford)  Oct.  1585;  d.  at 
Whitmore  (4  m.  s.w.  of  Newcastle-imder-Lyme), 
Staffordshire,  Oct.  20, 1640.  He  was  educated  at 
Brasenose  College  and  St.  Mary's  Hall,  Oxford, 
and  in  1610  became  minister  at  Whitmore.  He  was 
one  of  the  fathers  of  Presbyterianism  in  England, 
and,  as  Richard  Baxter  says,  "  deserving  as  high 
esteem  and  honor  as  the  b^t  bishop  in  England." 
His  Small  Catechism  containing  the  Principles  of 
Religion  (London)  reached  an  eighteenth  impression 
in  1637;  and  his  larger  catechism,  entitled  A  Short 
Treatise,  containing  All  the  Principal  Grounds  of  Chri^ 
tian  Religion,  a  fourteenth  impression  in  1670.  They 
were  published  anonymously.  His  Treatise  of 
Faith   (London,    1631;  3d  edition,  corrected  and 


Ballanohe 
Balmes 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


488 


enlarged  1637,  with  an  introductiari  by  Richard 
Sibba)  is  divided  into  two  partSt  the  first  ehowiQg 
the  naturej  ami  the  eecond  the  hfe  of  faith. 
It  is  an  exceedingly  valuable  and  eomplete 
discusaioD.  But  his  chief  work  was  pub^bhcd 
after  hk  death  by  his  friend  Simeon  Ashe,  with  an 
introduction  signed  by  five  Westminster  divines, 
entitled  A  Trc^Uise  of  the  Covenant  of  Grace  (1645), 
Tbia  is  of  gnmt  importance  as  exhibiting  that  view 
of  the  covenants  which  found  expreeaioti  in  the 
Westminater  symbols.  Important  also  is  A  tryaU 
of  the  New-Church  way  in  New  England  and  in  Old 
(1644).  Accortiing  to  Thomas  Blake^ ''  hia  purpose 
was  to  apeak  on  tbia  subject  of  the  covenant  all 
that  he  had  to  say  in  all  the  whole  body  of  divinity. 
That  which  he  hath  left  behind  gives  us  a  taste  of 
it."  In  this  he  anticipated  Coceeius  and  the  Dutch 
Federal  Theology,  but  hia  view  of  the  cove- 
nants is  somewliat  diflerent  from  theirs.  Simeon 
Ashe  also  it^uod  several  other  works  of  Ball  of  a 
practical  and  controversial  character. 

C.  A.  Briggb. 

Bibij:ooba.fiit:  A.  k  WcKid.  Aihsnm  Oxonienrnt,  ji^  570.  ed^ 
l\  Bliaa*  4  vol*.,  Loudon,  1813-20;  BNB.  iii.  74^76. 

BALLAHCHEj  b§"laiiah%  PIERRE  SIMON: 
French  theocratic  philosopher  of  the  Restoration^ 
an  intimate  member  of  the  circle  which  gathered 
around  Chateaubriand  and  Matlame  H^camier; 
b,  at  Lyons  Aug.  4,  1776j  d.  in  Paris  Aug.  7, 1847. 
Hia  great  work^  the  Paling{nisie  godale  (Paris, 
1830),  is  an  attempt  to  oonstruct  the  philosophy 
of  history  on  the  basis  of  revelation;  only  the 
first  of  three  part«  projected  was  completed;  a 
fragment  of  the  third  part,  the  Vision  d'Hibal 
(1841),  attempts  in  a  vague  way  to  predict  the 
future.  Ballanche*s  thought  was  unsystematic 
and  hia  style  obscure.  He  was  elected  to  the 
Academy  in  1S4K  A  collected  edition  of  his 
works  was  begun  in  1830,  but  only  four  volumes 
of  the  nine  planned  appeared. 

Bibliouhaphy:  Smiste  Beuve,  PoriratiM  cafittm-potainM,  voL 
ij,  Pmia,  1846;  J.  S.  Ampere,  P.  BatlaivAe,  Parin.  ISAB; 
G.  FraJtinet,  E»»ai  tuf  la  philfjaophie  d^  P.  S.  Bt^i^mJ^^ 
Paris.  1002. 

BALLANXmE,  bal'an-tain,  WILLIAM  GAY: 
Coagregationaliat;  b.  at  Washington,  D.  C,  Dec. 
7,  1848,  He  was  graduated  at  Marietta  College, 
Marietta.  O,  (1868),  and  Union  Theological  Semi- 
nary {J872).  Ho  studied  at  Lei^isic  in  1872-73, 
and  in  the  following  year  was  a  member  of  the 
American  Pfilcstlne  Exploring  Expedition,  He 
was  then  successively  professor  of  chemistry  and 
natural  science  in  Ripon  College  (1874-76),  assist- 
ant profcttiaor  of  Greek  m  the  University  of  Indiana 
(1876-78),  prof^sor  of  Greek  and  Hebrew  in  the 
same  institution  (1878-81),  and  professor  of  Old 
Testament  language  and  literature  in  Oberlin 
Theological  Seminary  (1881-01).  From  1891  to 
1S96  he  was  president  of  the  latter  institution^ 
but  resigned  and  studied  in  Greece  until  in  1897  he 
was  appointed  instructor  In  Bible  at  the  Interna- 
tional Y.  M.  C,  A.  Training  School,  Springfield, 
Masi.  He  was  an  editor  of  the  BibKotheca  *?(MTa 
in  1884-91,  and  hjis  written  Philippian^f  the 
Model  Letter  (New  York,  1808);  Christ  in  the 
Go^pd   of   Mark   (1898);  InduUive   Bibh  Biydies, 


Mark  and  Ads  (1898);   Lnke   and   John   (1899); 

and  Mmhew  (1900), 

BALLAKD,   ADDISON;  Congregatlooaliat;  b,  at 

Framingham,  Mass,,  Oct,  IS,  1822.  He  wns 
educated  at  Wilhams  College  (B.A.,  1842),  and 
was  succciisively  principal  of  Hopkins  Academy, 
Hadley,  Mass.  (1842-43),  tutor  in  WilUania  College 
(1843— 44)>  and  principal  of  the  academy  at  Grand 
Rapids,  Mich.  (1845-46).  In  1846-47  he  was  a 
home  missionary  in  Grand  River  Valley,  Mieh.p 
and  was  then  prpfessor  of  Latin  in  Ohio  Univemty 
(1848-54),  professor  of  rhetoric  in  Williams  CoUe^ 
(1854^55),  and  professor  of  mathematics,  natural 
philosophy,  and  astronomy  at  Iklarietta  CollcgB 
(1855-57).  He  has  held  eucoessive  pastorateA  at 
the  First  Congregational  Church,  WEliamfitowiiy 
Mass.  (1857-65),  the  Congregational  Church  at 
North  Adams,  Mass.  (18d5H&6;  stated  supply), 
and  the  First  Congregational  Church,  Detroit, 
Mich.  (1866-72).  He  was  professor  of  Christiai] 
Greek  and  Latin  and  of  moral  philoaophy  azal 
rhetoric  at  Lafayette  College  in  1874-^93,  and  of 
logic  in  New  York  Univeraity  from  18M  to  1904, 
He  m  an  honorary  member  of  the  London  Society 
of  Science,  Letters,  and  Art,  and  in  theology  is  an 
advocjite  of  the  doctrine  of  jiMifieation  by  faith* 
He  has  written  Arrows^  or  the  True  Aim  in  Teachr^ 
ing  and  Slitd^  (Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  1890);  From  Talk 
to  Text  (New  York,  1904);  Through  the  Sieve 
(1907), 

BALLEj  bane,  TOCOLAI  EDINGER:        Bishop 

of  Zealand  J  b.  at  Veatenskov,  near  Nakskov  (oa 
the  w,  coast  of  the  island  of  Laaland,  80  m.  s.w,  of 
Copenhagen),  Denmark,  Oct.  12,  1744  j  d,  in  C^o- 
pcnhagen  Oct.  19,  1816,  He  studied  at  Copen- 
hagen, Tjcipsic,  Halle,  and  Gtittingen;  in  1770-71 
he  gave  lectures  at  Copenhagen  on  church  history 
and  philology,  and  then  accepted  a  pastorate  in 
the  bishopric  of  Aalborg;  in  1772  he  returned  to  the 
university,  was  made  court  preacher  and  doctor  of 
theology  in  1774,  first  professor  of  theology  ia 
1777,  assistant  to  Bishop  Harboe  of  Ze^and  in 
1782,  and  finally  his  successor  in  1783;  he  resipied 
as  bishop  in  1808.  Balle  lectured  and  wTtitc  on 
almost  all  theological  branches,  but  church  history 
was  his  specialty  J  and  in  1790  he  published  a  Hi&- 
toria  eccle^iiE  ChristiantFf  reaching  to  the  Refonna- 
tion.  Hb  Theses  iheologici  (1770),  the  last  work 
on  dogmatics  written  in  Denmark  in  the  Latin 
tongue,  was  used  at  the  universities  of  Kiel  and 
Wittenberg.  He  opposed  rationalism  and  free- 
thinking,  and  when  the  candidate  Otto  Horrebow 
started  a  publication,  Jema  og  Fomuften  {"  Jasua 
and  Reason  ^'),  Balle  replied  with  Biblen  fantxa-er 
^ig  seh  (*'  The  Bible  Defending  Itself  ")*  He  intro- 
duced weekly  Bible  readings  in  the  capital,  advo- 
cated the  public  school,  and  beUeved  in  special 
training  for  teachers.  In  1701  he  published  a 
primer,  which  contains  supranaturahstic  as  wdl 
aa  rationalising  viewa,  and  in  179S  a  new  hymn- 
book.  Both  these  works  served  their  time,  but 
were  finally  superseded  on  the  revival  of  (Chris- 
tian and  church  life  in  Denmark.  Balle' a  position 
among  the  bishop®  of  Denmark  is  an  important 
and  honorable  one.     In  recognition  of  hia  labors. 


420 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Ballanohe 


the  citizens  of  Denmark  presented  to  him  in  1798 
a  gold  medal  with  the  inscription:  "  To  the  friend 
of  religion,  to  the  friend  of  the  State,  Matt,  x,  32." 
The  pastors  of  Zealand  erected  a  monument  over 
his  grave,  and  a  bas-relief  in  the  garrison  church 
where  he  explained  the  Bible  represents  him  with 
the  Bible  in  his  hand.  (F.  Nielsen.) 

Biblioqrapht:  L.  Koch,  Biahop  N.  E.  Balle,  Copenhagen, 
1876;  F.  Nielsen,  Bidrag  til  den  evanoeli»k-kruteliQe 
Paalmdioga  HUtorie,  ib.  1895. 

BALLERINI,  bOl'la-ri'nl,  METRO  and  GIRO- 
LAMO:  Brothers,  of  Verona,  distinguished  by 
their  joint  labors  in  church  history  and  canon  law; 
b.,  the  former,  Sept.  7,  1698,  the  latter,  Jan.  29, 
1702;  d.,  Pietro,  Mar.  28,  1769,  Girolamo,  Apr.  23, 
1781.  Both  were  educated  in  the  Jesuits'  school 
in  Verona  and  became  secular  priests.  Pietro  for 
a  time  was  at  the  head  of  the  Accademia  delle  belle 
lettere  in  Verona  and  spent  eighteen  months  in 
Rome  (1748-50)  as  counselor  to  the  Venetian  am- 
bassador there,,  during  which  time  he  made  good 
use  of  exceptional  opportunities  for  investigation. 
Both  brothers  devoted  the  greater  part  of  their 
lives  to  studies  in  common  and  produced,  with 
other  works,  editions  of  the  Sermonea  of  St.  Zeno 
of  Verona  (Verona,  1739;  in  MPL,  id);  of  the 
Summa  theologica  of  St.  Antoninus  of  Florence  (4 
vols.,  Verona,  1740);  of  the  Summa  de  pcenitentia 
of  St.  Raymond  of  Pennaforte  (1744);  of  the  Opera 
of  Pope  Leo  the  Great  (3  vols.,  Venice,  1753-57; 
MPL,  liv-lvi),  one  of  the  most  important  pieces 
of  editorial  work  of  the  eighteenth  century,  with 
an  appendix  on  the  collections  of  canons  before 
Gratian;  and  of  the  Opera  of  Ratherius,  Bishop  of 
Verona  (Verona,  1765;  MPL,  cxxxvi).  Pietro 
also  participated  in  literary  controversies  of  his 
time  and  defended  the  absolute  papacy  with  learn- 
ing and  zeal.  His  two  last  works,  De  potestaie  eo- 
desiastica  sanctorum  pontificum  et  conciliarum  gene- 
rahum  .  .  .  contra  opus  J.  Febronii  (1765)  and 
De  vi  ac  ratione  primatus  pontificum  (1766),  have 
been  edited  by  E.  W.  Westhoff  (Mttnster,  184S- 
47),  and  an  appendix  to  the  former  on  papal  infalli- 
bility was  translated  into  German  by  A.  J.  Bin- 
terim  (DUsseldorf,  1843).  K.  Benrath. 

Bibliography:  G.  M.  Mazsuchelli,  OH  Scrittori  d'ltaUa,  vol. 
il,  part  1,  178-185.  6  parts,  Brescia,  1753-65;  L.  Federid, 
Elogi  Utorici  de'  piu  iUtuiri  eedenastici  Veronetit  iii,  09- 
120,  Verona,  1819. 

BALLOU,  ba-lQ',  HOSEA:  American  Univer- 
salist;  b.  at  Richmond,  N.  H.,  Apr.  30,  1771;  d. 
at  Boston  June  7,  1852.  He  was  the  son  of  a  poor 
Baptist  minister  and  had  to  strug^e  for  an  educa- 
tion; began  to  preach  at  the  age  of  twenty,  and 
was  ordained  at  the  Universalist  convention  of 
1794;  settled  at  Dana  (then  called  Hardwick), 
Mass.,  the  same  year;  removed  in  1803  to  Barnard, 
Vt.,  in  1809  to  Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  in  1815  to  Salem, 
Mass.,  and  in  1818  to  Boston,  where  he  took  charge 
of  the  Second  (School  Street)  Universalist  Society. 
In  1819  he  assisted  in  foimding  and  became  editor 
of  the  Univerealist  Magazine  (later  called  The 
Trumpet,  The  Univeraaliat,  and  The  Christian 
Leader),  the  first  Universalist  newspaper  in 
America;  in  1831,  of  The  Universalist  Expositor 
(afterward    The     Universalist   Quarteiiy  Review), 


He  wrote  Notes  on  the  Parables  (Randolph,  Vt., 
1804);  A  Treatise  on  the  Atonement  (1805);  Exam- 
ination of  the  Doctrine  of  Future  Retribution  (Bos- 
ton, 1834) ;  and  several  volumes  of  sermons. 
BiBUOOfiAPHY:  M.  M.  Ballou,   Life  Story  of  Hotea  BiUlou, 
for  the  Youno,  Boston,  1854;  T.  Whittemore,  L4fe  of  Hoaea 
BeUlou,  2  vols.,  ib.  1854;  O.  F.  Safford,  Hoeea  Ballou  ;  a 
Marvelloua  Life  Story,  ib.  1880. 

BALLOU,  HOSEA,  2d:  American  Universal- 
ist, grand-nephew  of  Hosea  Ballou;  b.  at  Guil- 
ford, Vt.,  Oct.  18,  1796;  d.  at  Somerville,  Mass., 
May  27,  1861.  He  assisted  his  uncle  in  school- 
teaching  at  Portsmouth;  was  first  settled  as  pas- 
tor at  Stafford,  Conn.,  in  1821  was  called  to  Rox- 
bury,  Mass.,  and  in  1838  to  Medford;  in  1853 
became  first  president  of  Tufts  Cbllege.  He  helped 
the  elder  Hosea  Ballou  as  editor  of  denominational 
periodicals  and  wrote  The  Ancient  History  of  Uni- 
versalism  (Boston,  1829). 
Bibliookapht:  H.  S.  Ballou,  Hoaea  Ballou  Bd,  first  Prtai- 

dent  of  TuftM  CoUegt;  h%»  Origin,  Life,  and  Letters,  Boston, 

1806. 

BALM:  The  rendering  in  both  English  versions 
of  the  Hebrew  fori  (Gen.  xxxvii,  25  and  xliii,  11, 
where  R.  V.  has  "  mastic  "  in  the  margin;  Jer.  viii, 
22;  xlvi,  11;  li,  8;  Ezek.  xxvii,  17).  An  impor- 
tant product  of  Palestine,  particularly  of  the  East- 
Jordan  country,  is  evidently  referred  to,  and  the 
transparent,  yellowish-white,  fragrant  gum  of  the 
mastic-tree  (Pistacia  lentiscus,  L)  is  probably 
meant.  Pliny  mentions  the  Judean  mastic  (Hist, 
nat.,  xiv,  122  sqq.).  The  substance  was  prized  by 
the  ancients  as  a  medicine  (Pliny,  xxiv,  32  sqq.). 
The  identification  of  fori  with  balsam  by  Jewish 
tradition  is  not  correct;  such  a  tropical  or  sub- 
tropical product  would  hardly  be  foimd  on  the 
mountains  of  Gilead.  In  Song  of  Sol.  v,  1,  basam 
may  be  the  true  balsam  (so  R.  V.,  margin;  text  and 
A.  v.,  "  spice  ";  cf.  "  bed  of  spices,"  v,  13;  vi,  2). 
It  grew  in  the  Ghor,  and  the  balsam  gardens  of  Jer- 
icho were  famous  (Josephus,  Ant.,  IX,  i,  2;  XIV, 
iv,  1,  and  many  others).  Pompey  is  said  to  have 
carried  it  thence  to  Rome,  and  Josephus  thought 
the  Queen  of  Sheba  brought  it  to  Palestine  (Ant., 
VIII,  vi,  6;  cf.  I  Kings  x,  10).  There  are  several 
varieties,  of  which  the  chief  is  the  Amyris  Gileaden- 
sis,  L,  the  true  Arabian  or  Mecca  balsam.  It  is  a 
low,  berry-producing  tree,  with  small  blossoms,  and 
imparipinnate  leaves.  The  balsam  exudes  from 
the  ends  of  the  twigs.  Myrrh  also  belongs  to  the 
balsamodendra  and  probably  bdellium;  see  Mtrrh; 
Bdellium.  I.  Benzinoeb. 

BALMES,  bOl^'mte',  JAIME  (LUCIANO).  Spanish 
politico-religious  writer;  b.  at  Vich  (37  m.  nji.e.  of 
Barcelona),  Catalonia,  Aug.  28,  1810;  d.  there 
July  9,  1848.  He  studied  at  his  native  place  and 
at  the  University  of  Cervera,  and  was  ordained 
priest  1833;  became  teacher  of  mathematics  at 
Vich  1837.  After  1840  he  acted  as  associate  editor 
of  La  Civilizacion  and  sole  editor  of  La  Sociedad, 
journals  of  Barcelona,  in  which  he  had  oppor- 
tunity to  express  his  political  views;  visited 
France  and  England  1842,  and  after  returning  to 
Spain  settled  in  Madrid,  where  from  Feb.,  1844, 
to  Dec.    71,  1846,  he    published  El  Penscaniento 


Baloffh 

Baltimore  OonnoUs 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


480 


de  la  Nacion  in  the  interest  of  the  Catholic  party. 
He  hailed  the  accession  of  Pius  IX  and  the  last  thing 
he  published  was  a  brilliant  work  in  his  praise 
{Pio  IX,  Madrid,  1847).  He  gained  his  greatest 
fame  by  his  Protestantismo  comparado  con  d  Cato- 
licismo  en  sua  relaciones  con  la  civilizacion  europea 
(4  vols.,  Barcelona,  1842-44;  Eng.  transl.,  from 
the  French,  by  C.  J.  Hanford  and  R.  Kershaw, 
Protestantism  and  Catholicity  Compared  in  their 
Effects  on  the  Civilization  of  Europe,  London,  1849; 
3l8t  American  edition,  Baltimore,  1899),  a  work 
modeled  on  Guizot's  History  of  Civilization,  and  an 
able  presentation  from  the  Roman  Catholic  point 
of  view.  He  also  wrote  La  Religion  deniostrada  cd 
alcance  de  los  nifios  (Barcelona,  1841,  Eng.  transl., 
by  Canon  Galton,  The  Foundations  of  Religion 
Explained,  London,  1858);  Cartas  d  un  esceptico  en 
materia  de  religion  (Madrid,  1845;  Eng.  transl., 
by  W.  M'Donald,  Letters  to  a  Skeptic  on  Religious 
Matters,  Dublin,  1875);  El  Criteria  (Madrid,  1845; 
Eng.  transl.,  Criterion  :  or  how  to  detect  error  and 
arrive  at  truth.  New  York>  1875);  FUosofia  funda- 
mental (4  vols.,  Barcelona,  1846;  Eng.  transl.,  by 
H.  F.  Brownson,  2  vols..  New  York,  1856);  Curso 
de  FUosofia  elemental  (4  vols.,  Madrid,  1847).  He 
published  a  collected  edition  of  his  political  writings 
at  Madrid,  1847. 

Biblioobapht:  B.  Garcia  de  los  Santos,  Vida  de  Balmet, 
eBtrado  y  anoMtia  de  eua  obrae,  Madrid,  1848;  A.  de  Blanche- 
Baffin,  Jacquea  Bcdrnke,  aa  vie  et  aee  ouvragee,  Paris,  1840. 

BALOGH,  FERENCZ:  Hungarian  Reformed; 
b.  at  Nagy  V^rad  (140  m.  s.e.  of  Budapest)  Mar. 
28,  1836.  He  was  educated  at  the  gymnasiimi  of 
his  native  city  and  at  the  Reformed  theological 
seminary  of  Debreczin  (1854-58),  where  he  remained 
nine  years  in  various  capacities.  He  visited  Paris, 
London,  and  Edinburgh  for  the  purpose  of  further 
study  in  1863-65,  and  in  1866  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  church  history  in  the  Reformed  theological 
seminary  of  Debreczin,  where  he  has  since  remained 
and  of  which  he  has  been  rector  five  times.  He 
has  been  an  elder  in  the  session  of  the  Reformed 
Church  since  1860,  and  an  ecclesiastical  councilor  for 
life  in  the  Transtibiscan  superintendency  of  the 
same  religious  denomination  since  1883.  He  was 
a  delegate  of  the  Hungarian  Reformed  Church 
to  the  general  councils  of  the  Presbyterian  Alliance 
at  Edinburgh  (1877)  and  London  (1888),  and  was 
a  member  of  the  national  synod  of  Debreczin  in 
1881-82.  He  has  been  a  member  of  the  committee 
of  the  Hungarian  Protestant  Literary  Society 
since  1890,  and  an  honorary  member  of  the  British 
and  Foreign  Bible  Society  since  1904.  In  theology 
he  is  a  strict  adherent  of  the  Helvetic  Confession. 
His  numerous  works  include  the  following  in 
Hungarian:  " Peter  Melius,  the  Hungarian  Calvin" 
(Debreczin,  1866);  *'  History  of  the  Hungarian 
Protestant  Church"  (1872);  "General  Church 
History  to  the  Present  Time"  (5  vols.,  1872-90); 
"  History  of  Dogma  up  to  the  Reformation " 
(1877);  "Principal  Points  of  Modem  Theology" 
(1877),  a  polemic  against  the  German  Evangelical 
Union;  '*  Literature  of  Hungarian  Protestant 
Church  History  "  (1879);  "  Specific  Illustrations  of 
the  most  Recent  Unitarian  History"  (1892); 
"  Phenomena  of   the  History  of  Dogma  in   the 


Eighteenth  and  Nineteenth  Centuries"  (1894); 
and  ''  History  of  the  Reformed  College  of  D^ree- 
zin  "  (1905).  He  likewise  wrote  in  Rngjish  History 
of  the  Creeds,  which  appeared  in  the  Report  of  the 
Proceedings  of  the  Presbyterian  Alliance  (Philik 
delphia,  1880),  and  is  the  author  of  numeraus 
minor  contributions  in  Hungarian,  FreDch,  and 
German,  while  in  1875  he  founded  at  Debreczin 
the  Hungarian  weekly  "  Evangelical  Protestant 
Gazette,"  which  he  conducted  for  three  years  in 
a  successful  crusade  against  the  Budapest  "  Protes- 
tant Union." 

BALSAM.    See  Balm. 

BALSAHON,  bOl'sa-men,  THEODOROS:  Greek 
writer  on  church  law;  b.  in  Constantinople;  d.  there 
about  1200.  He  was  chosen  patriarch  of  Antioch  in 
1193,  but,  as  the  patriarchate  was  in  the  hands  of 
the  Latins,  remained  in  Constantinople.  The  most 
important  of  his  writings  is  the  commentary  on 
the  Nomocanon  and  Syntagma  of  Photius,  in  which 
he  helped  to  make  general  the  view  that  in  matters 
of  the  Greek  canon  law,  not  the  Justinian  compila- 
tion, but  the  Basilica  were  authoritative.  Balsa- 
mon's  ^*  Answers  "  to  the  patriarch  Mark  of  Alex- 
andria and  his  eight ''  Dissertations  "  (Gk.  meletai) 
are  of  great  importance  for  the  canon  law  of  the 
Greeks.  Philipp  Meter. 

Biblioorapht:  The  best  edition  of  his  juridical  writings  is 
found  in  Rhalles  and  Potles.  Svvrayf&«  rmw  ^^imw  col  Upmw 
KCLv6v*»v,  6  vols.,  Athens,  1852-50;  Krumbaeher,  6s- 
echichUt  passim. 

BALTHAZAR,  bartha-zar,  OF  DERlfBACH 
AND  THE  COUNTERREFORMATION  IN  FULDA: 

Balthazar  of  Dembach,  abbot  of  Fulda  157(V- 
1606,  was  bom  about  1548;  d.  at  Fulda  Mar.  15, 
1606.  He  came  of  an  old  Hessian  family,  and 
though  his  parents  were  Protestants,  took  the  Catho- 
lic side  as  a  boy.  In  1570,  young  as  he  was,  he 
was  elected  prince-abbot  of  Fulda,  and  became  the 
leading  champion  of  the  Coimterreformation  there. 
The  territory  \mder  his  jurisdiction,  adjoining 
Protestant  Hesse  and  Saxony,  seemed  practi- 
cally lost  to  Rome.  The  chapter,  jealous  of  its 
rights,  was  willing  rather  to  join  with  the  enemies 
of  the  Church  than  to  support  a  strict,  determiDed 
abbot;  the  upper  classes  were  striving  for  both 
temporal  and  spiritual  independence;  the  citizens 
stood  by  the  Augsburg  Confession.  Balthazar 
took  a  decided  stand  against  all  three  classes.  His 
first  task  was  the  enforcement  of  ecclesiastical 
discipline,  the  appointment  of  Catholic  officials, 
and  the  suppression  of  popular  demands  for  the 
appointment  of  a  Lutheran  preacher  and  the 
erection  of  a  Protestant  school.  He  called  the 
Jesuits  to  his  aid;  in  1571  they  started  a  school 
and  the  next  year  a  college.  The  chapter  were 
much  annoyed  by  the  privileges  granted  to  the 
newcomers,  and  as  a  movement  hostile  to  the  abbot 
grew,  Protestant  princes  took  a  hand.  As  sdfish 
motives  actuated  the  chapter  and  the  gentiy,  so 
they  played  a  part  with  the  Landgrave  of  Hesse, 
who  joined  the  Elector  of  Saxony  and  the  Margrave 
of  Brandenburg-Ansbach  (Oct.,  1573)  in  sendinf 
an  embassy  to  demand  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuit! 
and  the  abandonment  of  anti-Protestant  measures. 


431 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Ball 


ireCkmnolU 


The  demands  did  not  move  the  abbot,  though  they 
strengthened  his  opponents;  a  formal  alliance  was 
made  between  the  chapter  and  the  gentry.  Bal- 
thazar gained  time  by  politic  delays,  and  foimd 
support  from  his  fellow  Catholics;  the  Curia  and 
Duke  Albert  of  Bavaria  sought  to  influence  the 
emperor  in  his  favor.  After  some  hesitation, 
Maximilian  took  his  side,  and  rebuked  the  princes 
(Feb.,  1574)  for  their  interference.  Dissensions 
sprang  up  between  the  allies;  and  the  chapter 
Anally  made  peace  with  their  abbot.  He  proce^ed 
more  diligently  than  ever  to  assert  his  jurisdiction 
and  to  keep  down  the  new  faith.  In  1576  the  three 
classes  joined  once  more  in  opposition,  and  this 
time  the  chapter  were  willing  to  consider  the  depo- 
sition of  their  chief.  Bishop  Julius  of  WUrzburg 
was  destined  as  his  successor,  and  justified  the  part 
he  played  as  the  only  means  of  saving  Roman 
Catholicism  in  the  district.  He  promised  religious 
freedom  to  the  country  gentry,  while  refusing  it 
to  the  towns,  and  observance  of  all  the  rights,  both 
of  the  gentry  and  the  chapter — practically  the 
restoration  of  the  conditions  previous  to  1570. 
Balthazar  was  in  Hanmielburg,  supervising  the 
restoration  of  Catholicism  there,  which  had  been 
previously  imsucoessful.  On  June  20  the  forces 
of  his  opponents  entered  the  town,  followed  the 
next  day  by  Bishop  Julius.  They  numbered  about 
200  horsemen,  and  Balthazar  had  made  no  pro- 
vision for  defense.  On  the  23d  he  was  forced  to 
abdicate;  compensation  in  both  money  and  bene- 
fices was  offered  to  him,  on  condition  that  he  would 
write  to  the  emperor  and  other  princes,  assuring 
them  that  the  proceedings  had  been  freely  agreed 
to  by  him.  A  few  days  later,  Julius  was  formally 
chosen  administrator  of  Fulda.  But  it  was  not 
possible  long  to  conceal  the  real  facts.  The  em- 
peror immediately  addressed  a  stem  mandate  to 
Julius,  annulling  the  agreement,  and  Balthazar 
recalled  his  forced  consent.  Julius  lost  the  sup- 
port of  the  Roman  Catholic  princes  when  the  facts 
were  known,  and  the  Protestants  had  little  confi- 
dence in  him.  Long  legal  proceedings  followed. 
The  Diet  of  Regensburg  provided  a  temporary 
administrator,  who  was,  however,  a  vassal  of  the 
Bishop  of  WUrzburg.  Yet  from  1579  onward 
Catholicism  made  steady  progress,  largely  through 
the  tireless  labors  of  the  Jesuits,  which  Balthazar, 
living  at  Bieberstein  near  Fulda,  supported  to  the 
extent  of  his  power.  To  him  also  was  owing  the 
erection  of  a  seminary  at  Fulda  in  1584.  When, 
therefore,  in  1602  the  final  decision  was  rendered 
in  his  favor,  his  return  in  December  met  with  no 
opposition  from  the  new  generation,  and  the  Coun- 
terreformation  made  still  more  rapid  strides 
during  the  remaining  four  years  of  his  activity, 
until  at  his  death  the  Roman  Catholic  faith  was 
restored  in  practically  the  whole  district,  with  the 
exception  of  the  country  gentry.  This  earliest 
case  of  the  successful  resistance  of  a  minority  to 
the  Reformation  had  a  great  importance  as  showing 
what  could  be  done  and  inspiring  the  Catholic 
party  to  take  the  offensive  in  reconquering  territory 
which  they  seemed  to  have  lost.    Waltzr  Gobtz. 

Bibuoorapht:  Komp,   Flkratabt  BaUhaxar  von  Fulda  und 
dU  SttfUnbellion  von  1670,  in  HiMkrriuhrpoiitUehe  BUU- 


ter,  Ivi,  1865  (contains  rich  collection  of  sources);  H. 
Egloffstein,  FHwtabl  BaltKoMor  von  Dembach  und  di$ 
kathdiache  ReatauroHon  im  Hochatifte  Fulda,  1670-1606, 
Munich,  1890;  H.  Morits.  Die  Wahl  Rudolfa  II,d€rReieh»- 
tag  tu  Regenaburg  und  die  Freietellungsbeweouno,  pp.  28, 
347,  411  sqq..  Marburg,  1805;  K.  Schellhass,  Nuntiatwrbo- 
richte.'m,  3,  Berlin,  1806;  W.  E.  Schw&TM,  NunUaturkomB- 
pondenM  Oroppere,  Paderbom,  1808. 

BALTIMORE  COUNCILS:  A  name  given  to 
ten  assemblies  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in 
the  United  States  held  during  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury. The  first  independent  episcopal  see  of  the 
Church  created  in  the  American  Republic  was  that 
of  Baltimore  (erected  in  1790),  and  the  same  dio- 
cese was  made  the  first  metropolitan  see  of  the 
UniJbcd  States  in  1808.  On  account  of  this  priority 
in  point  of  time  the  archdiocese  of  Baltimore  en- 
joys a  quasiprimatial  dignity  conferred  upon  |it 
by  the  pope,  and  hence  that  city  has  been  the  place 
of  meeting  of  the  various  assemblies  of  the  Ameri- 
can hierarchy.  The  first  of  these  assemblies  was 
held  under  the  presidency  of  Most  Rev.  James 
Whitfield,  fourth  archbishop  of  Baltimore,  in  Oct., 
1829.  This  council  and  the  six  following  ones, 
held  respectively  in  1833,  1837,  1840,  1843,  1846, 
and  1849,  belong  to  the  category  designated  canon^ 
ically  as  provincial  councils;  i.e.,  assemblies  of  all 
the  bishops  of  a  territory  known  as  an  ecclesiastical 
province,  and  presided  over  by  the  metropolitan 
or  archbishop.  Three  other  Baltimore  Councils 
(held  in  185^2,  1866,  and  1884)  are  called  plenary 
or  national,  by  which  is  meant  an  assembly  of  all 
the  bishops  of  a  country,  convoked  and  presided 
over  by  the  primate  or  some  other  dignitary  com- 
missioned thereto  by  the  pope.  At  the  time  of  the 
first  cotmcil,  the  province  of  Baltimore  was  the  only 
one  in  the  United  States,  comprising,  besides  its 
own  see,  the  sees  of  Boston,  New  York,  Bardstown 
(Kentucky),  Charleston,  and  Cincinnati,  and  only 
the  incumbents  of  these  dioceses  with  their  coad- 
jutors constituted  the  voting  members  of  the  coun- 
cil. The  decrees  drafted  were  thirty-seven  in 
number,  and  they  were  confirmed  by  a  papal 
rescript  of  Oct.  16, 1830.  They  embody  the  earliest 
attempt  at  a  uniform  legislation  in  church  matters 
in  the  United  States,  and  they  deal  with  the  most 
urgent  needs  of  a  time  when  church  forces  were 
scattered  and  without  organization.  Thus,  among 
other  things,  means  are  taken  to  regularise  the 
credentials  and  the  ministrations  of  the  small 
number  of  available  clergy,  and  to  obviate  the 
abuses  arising  from  lay  interference  in  ecclesiastical 
matters,  particulariy  that  known  as  **  trusteeism." 
The  Douai  version  of  the  English  Bible  was  recom- 
mended, and  various  regulations  were  formulated 
with  reference  to  the  administration  of  the  sacra- 
ments, because  in  the  generally  prevailing  circum- 
stances, it  was  impossible  to  cany  out  in  full  the 
prescriptions  of  the  Roman  ritual.  The  six  suo- 
oeeding  councils,  which  continued  to  frame,  as 
circiunstances  required,  the  local  canonical  legis- 
lation of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  the  United 
States,  were  similar  in  purpose,  form  of  procedure, 
and  general  results. 

The  First  Plenary  Council  of  Baltimore  was  held 
in  May  1852,  and  was  presided  over  by  Arch- 
bishop Kenrick,  who  had  been  i^ppointed  to  that 


Baltimore  CkmnoUs 
Bainpton  lieoturas 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


488 


function  by  Pope  Pius  IX.  There  were  present 
six  archbishops  and  twenty-four  bishops  with  a 
large  number  of  theologians  and  canonists,  who 
acted  as  consultors.  The  decrees  of  the  fonner 
councils  of  Baltimore  were  confirmed  and  extended 
to  all  parts  of  the  country;  certain  enactments 
were  made  concerning  the  canonical  administra- 
tion of  dioceses,  the  publication  of  marriage  banns, 
the  establishment  of  ecclesiastical  seminaries,  etc. 
The  council  suggested  to  the  Roman  authorities 
the  erection  of  a  metropolitan  see  in  San  Francisco 
and  the  establishment  of  ten  new  dioceses  in  vari- 
ous parts  of  the  coimtxy.  The  suggestion  was  acted 
upon  by  Pius  DC  who  continued  the  decrees  of  the 
council  by  a  rescript  dated  Sept.  26,  1852. 

The  Second  Plenary  Coimcil  of  Baltimore  was 
held  in  Oct.,  1866,  imder  the  presidency  of  the 
Most  Rev.  M.  J.  Spalding,  archbishop  of  Baltimore; 
there  were  present  seven  archbishops,  thirty-eight 
bishops,  thiee  mitered  abbots,  and  120  theologians. 
The  motives  for  calling  the  council  and  the  topics 
discussed  were  in  the  main  the  same  as  those  per- 
taining to  the  previous  assemblies,  but  in  particular 
it  was  deemed  useful,  "  at  the  close  of  the  great 
national  crisis  which  had  acted  as  a  dissolvent  upon 
all  sectarian  ecclesiastical  organizations,  to  reaffirm 
solemnly  the  bond  of  imion  existing  between  the 
Catholics  of  all  parts  of  the  republic,  and  to  deliber- 
ate on  the  measures  to  be  adopted  in  order  to  meet 
the  new  phase  of  national  life  which  the  result  of 
the  war  had  just  inaugurated."  Besides,  it  was 
felt  to  be  an  urgent  duty  on  the  part  of  the  heads 
of  the  Church  to  discuss  the  future  status  of  the 
newly  emancipated  yet  very  dependent  negro. 
Among  the  results  of  the  council  may  be  men- 
tioned the  erection  of  ten  new  dioceses  and  the 
drafting  of  a  scheme  for  the  selection  of  bishops, 
which,  having  been  approved  in  Rome,  remained  in 
force  until  amended  in  the  Third  Plenary  Coimcil. 

This  last  and  most  important  of  the  Baltimore 
Councils  was  held  Nov.  fif-Dec.  7,  1884,  under  the 
presidency  of  the  Most  Rev.  James  Gibbons,  who 
had  been  appointed  to  that  office  by  Pope  Leo  XIII. 
The  number  of  prelates  who  took  part  in  the  council 
was  fourteen  archbishops,  sixty  bishops,  five  visit- 
ing bishops  from  Canada  and  Japan,  seven  mitered 
abbots,  one  prefect  apostolic,  eleven  monsignors, 
eighteen  vicars-general,  twenty-three  superiors  of 
religious  orders,  twelve  rectors  of  ecclesiastical 
seminaries,  and  ninety  theologians.  The  object  of 
the  coimcil  was  to  provide  efficient  means  of  organ- 
ization for  the  needs  of  the  rapidly  growing  Church 
of  the  United  States,  and  to  prepare  the  way  for 
the  gradual  introduction  of  the  more  useful  ele- 
ments of  canon  law  into  the  administration  of 
religious  affairs  in  this  country.  The  decrees  of  the 
council,  which  were  approved  by  Pope  Leo,  Sept. 
10,  1885,  comprise  eleven  tituli  or  sections,  and 
each  one  of  these  is  divided  into  several  chapters. 
This  body  of  legislation  touches  successively  upon 
the  prerogatives  and  duties  of  bisliops  and  the 
inferior  members  of  the  clergy,  on  divine  worship, 
the  administration  of  the  sacraments,  the  training 
of  the  clergy,  Catholic  schools,  ecclesiastical  courts, 
church  property,  etc.  Since  the  promulgation  of 
these  decrees  in  1885  they  constitute  the  norm  of 


ecclesiastical  law  as  applied  within  the  juriBdictioD 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  the  United  States. 

James  F.  Driscoll. 

Bxblioobapht:  Concilia  provineialia  Baltimari  habiia  th 
anno  1899  %uq^€  ad  annum  1840,  Baltimore.  1842;  Com- 
eilium  pUnarium  toHua  Atneriea  ^optenirionaliM  ftedmaim 
habiium  anno  1862^  ib.  1853;  ConeUii  pUnarii  BaUimnh 
renH9  II.  ada  et  decreta,  ib.  1808.  2d  ed..  1877;  ThiniPk^ 
ary  CouncU  of  BaUimore,  1884,  New  York.  1885;  Momo- 
rial  Volume  of  the  Third  Plenary  Council  of  Battmorv. 
Baltimore.  1885;  Ada  et  decreta  concilii  plenarii  Balti- 
moreneie,  ib.  1886;  J.  Q.  Shea.  Hiet  of  the  Catholic  Churdi 
in  the  United  Statee,  vols,  iu-iv.  New  York,  1892:  T. 
O 'Gorman.  American  Church  Hietory  Seriee,  ix,  340  eqq.. 
New  York,  1896. 

BALTUS,  bOl^'tas',  JEAN  FRAS^JS:  French 
Jesuit;  b.  at  Metz  June  8,  1667;  d.  at  Reims,  as 
librarian  of  the  college,  Mar.  19,  1743.  He  joined 
the  Jesuits  in  1682,  and  taught  in  several  schools  in 
France;  became  censor  of  books  in  Rome,  1717. 
He  distinguished  himself  by  a  number  of  literary 
and  theological  works,  of  which  the  most  important 
are,  R&ponse  h  rhistoire  des  oracles  de  M.  de  Fon- 
tenetle  (2  vols.,  Strasburg,  1707;  Eng.  transl., 
London,  1708),  in  which  he  maintains  that  the 
ancient  oracles  were  not  mere  frauds  on  the  part 
of  the  priests,  but  utterances  imder  demoniacal 
influence;  and  Difenae  des  Saints  Ptres  aceusis 
de  plaUmisme  (Paris,  1711),  in  which  he  vindicates 
the  originality  of  the  Fathers  and  their  complete 
independence  of  the  ancient  philosophy. 

BALTZER,  JOHANIf  BAPTISTA.  See  Hermes, 
Geobo. 

BALUZE,  bOflilf^,  ETIEIfNE:  Roman  Catholic 
canonist  and  historian;  b.  at  Tuile  {TtUela  Lemo- 
vicum,  45  m.  s.s.e.  of  Limoges),  in  Limousin,  France, 
Nov.  23,  1630;  d.  at  Paris  June  28,  1718.  He  be- 
longed to  a  family  of  famous  jurists  and  studied 
first  with  the  Jesuits  at  Tulle.  In  1646  he  was 
sent  to  Toulouse,  where  he  remained  till  1654, 
attending  the  philosophical  lectures  at  St.  Martisl, 
the  Jesuit  college  there.  While  still  in  school  he 
showed  an  inclination  for  old  parchments  and 
historical  documents.  As  his  father  made  him 
study  civil  law,  he  could  only  devote  himself  in 
secret  to  his  favorite  studies  in  the  library  of  Charies 
of  Montchal,  bishop  of  Toulouse.  Exceptional 
acumen  and  persevering  application  made  his 
critical  method  a  safe  one  and  he  soon  became 
known  among  the  scholars  of  his  time.  His  studies 
made  it  necessary  for  him  to  become  either  a  monk 
or  a  priest,  or  to  enter  the  service  of  some  eccle- 
siastical dignitary.  He  received  the  tonsure  and 
looked  for  a  patron,  whom  he  found  in  the  successor 
of  Montchal,  Peter  of  Marca,  afterward  archbishop 
of  Paris,  who  also  showed  him  how  to  utilise  his 
extensive  historical  studies  for  the  canon  and 
civil  law.  After  Marca's  death  (1652)  different 
bishops  and  archbishops  tried  to  attach  him  to 
themselves.  For  a  short  time  he  remained  with 
the  Archbishop  of  Auch,  and  Le  Tellier,  the  chan- 
cellor, who  appointed  him  canon  of  Reims.  In 
1667  the  minister  J.  B.  Colbert  made  him  his 
librarian,  and  Baliuse  occupied  this  position  until 
compelled  to  resign  by  advanced  age  after  thirty- 
three  years'  service.  He  collected  hundreds  of 
dociunents  from  abbeys  and  monasteries  and  copied 


433 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Baltimore  Ooonoils 
Bampton  I«eotureB 


a  large  number.  In  1T07  Loub  XIY  appointed 
him  inspector  of  the  Callage  rpyal,  where  he  had 
been  professor  of  canon  law  since  1689.  In  this 
position  he  corresponded  and  had  personal  int4^r^ 
course  with  acholars  of  different  countriea.  A 
history  of  the  house  of  Auvergne,  which  he  edited 
dunng  this  time  with  the  help  of  Cardinal  Bouillon^ 
obliged  him  to  leave  Paris  after  the  flight  of  his 
ambitious  protector  (1710).  Tho  ugh  eighty  years  of 
age,  Baluze  was  obliged  to  go  from  plajce  to  place 
and  finally  settled  at  DrMans,  where  he  remained 
till  1713.  The  family  of  Bouilloa  being  received 
agjirn  by  the  king  after  the  Peace  of  Utrecht,  Balu^ 
was  able  to  return  to  Paris,  Deprived  of  all  means, 
he  was  obliged  to  devote  liimself  entirely  to  literary 
activity,  and  he  died  without  completing  liia  biatoiy 
of  Tulle.  He  wrote:  R^^m  Franearum  capilu- 
laria  (1677^  new  edition  by  de  Chinjac^  3  vols., 
fol.,  1780);  Episiolw  Innoc^ntii  pap<B  III  (1682); 
Concitiorum  nova  adkdio  (16S3p  fol,);  VUm  papa- 
rum  Avemonrnisium  (1G93);  Hisioria  Tidelensia 
(1717);  Cyprianiop^a  (1726);  BtbliUheca  Balud- 
ana  (1719);  MiMeUanea  (7  vols,,  1677-1713), 

G.  BONET'lLiURY. 

B[Bua4iiiA.PHT:  Hid  autobicseraphy  is  in  tbe  SibtiothecQ 
BaluMiana,  FftHa,  1719.  Consult  L,  E.  Du  Pin,  B%bliothiQji.e 
dtM  auteur^  tcd^J^at<£giJbei,  xix,  1-6.  47  vol^..  Paha,  1686- 
©5;  NicseroD,  Mhrnnm,  U  459-471;  Vitrae,  ^iog*  d^ 
BaliiM£,  Ih^  1777;  M^  I>eltii?h0^  ^.  Baiuze^  Kt  vit  ei  ten 
aeutreM.  ib.  1856;  L.  Delitsle,  l^e  Cobir^t  dea  Trusnutcriia  de  la 
B<hlwthi^ium  NaHomde,  I  364-367,  443^75,  ib.  1868; 
Bulletin  d^  la  aodeJi  dtt  Uttret  dt  la  Corrc^,  iji  (1831 ),  93 
ami  4S7,  iv  (1882),  513,  V  (1883),  160.  vi  (iSS*),  646,  m 
(1887),  100-lB3p  X  (ISSS);  A.  Lefrane,  fiuttnrv  du  Col- 
Um  da  Fmnrr^  Paria.  1893  s  E.  Ffl«e,  j£.  Balua,  <a  vie, 
«r4  ouvrages^  Mon  tsiU^  §a  dij^fus.  ib.  1899. 

BAMBERG,  BISHOPRIC  OF:  A  see  founded 
in  1007  by  King  Henry  II  in  the  city  {citntas 
Papinherc)  which  Otho  II  bnd  given  to  Henry's 
father,  Duke  Henry  of  Bavaria,  in  &73,  As 
Henry  II  had  no  children,  his  idea  was  to  leave 
this  poBs^irion  to  God,  at  the  same  time  aiding 
in  the  Enal  conquest  of  paganism  in  the  district. 
But  the  territory  of  the  Wends  on  the  upper  Main^ 
the  Wiesent,  and  the  AJscb  had  belonged  to  the 
diocese  of  WQraburg  since  the  organixation  of  the 
Middle  Gennaa  bishoprica  by  St.  Bonifaee,  so  that 
no  new  diocese  could  be  erected  without  the  con- 
sent of  the  occupant  of  that  see.  He  raised  no 
objection  to  parting  with  some  of  his  territoryi 
especially  as  the  king  promised  to  have  WQraburg 
raised  to  an  archbishopric  and  to  give  him  an 
equivalent  in  Meiningen,  The  consent  of  Pope 
John  XVII  was  obtained  for  this  arrangemeBt; 
but  the  elevation  of  Wtintburg  to  an  archbishopric 
proved  impracticable,  and  its  bishop  withdrew 
bis  consent.  The  king  persiited,  however,  and  had 
the  erection  of  the  new  diocese  confirm^  at  the 
great  Synod  of  Frankfort,  subsequently  naming 
his  chancellor^  Eberhard,  the  first  bishop.  [The 
next  seven  bishops  were  named  by  the  empjerors, 
after  which  free  canonical  ekction  waa  the  rule, 
EbiThard's  immediate  eucceasor,  Suidger  of  Mor»- 
leben,  became  pope  in  1046  as  Clement  II.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century  the  dioceae 
gradually  became  a  territorial  principality,  and  its 
bishops  took  secular  precedence  ne^  aft«r  the 
L— 28 


archbishops.  The  fortieth  bishop,  George  III  of 
Limburg  (1505-22),  was  inclined  toward  the  Refor- 
mation, which  caused  a  violent  social  outbreak 
under  hie  successor  Weigand  (1522-56),  and  the 
city  suffered  severely  in  the  Margraves'  War 
(1552-54),  as  well  aa  in  the  Thirty  Yearn'  War, 
when  it  was  placed  under  the  jurisdiction  of  Ber- 
nard^ the  new  Duke  of  Franconia.  At  the  Peace  of 
Westphalia  (1648),  the  bishops  recovci^  their 
possessions;  but  these  were  ovemin  by  the  French 
revolutionaiy  armies,  and  in  1S02  annexed  to  Ba- 
varia. From  1S08  to  1817  the  diocese  was  vacant]; 
but  by  the  Bavarian  Concordat  of  the  latter  year 
it  waa  made  an  archbishopric,  with  WQraburg, 
Speyer,  and  Eichstidt  as  suffragan  sees.  The  pres- 
ent diocese  comprises  Upper  Franconla  and  the 
northern  half  of  Middle  Franconia, 

(A,  HauckO 

Biblioqrafht:  Ad&lbert,  Vita  Iltinrici,  ed.  G*  H.  Ferti,  in 
MGH,  Script,  iv  C1S41>.  787  m^'.  A-  tJflwrnuuin*  Ej?i^ 
copciits  Bamberge7iMi»t  BlAiae,  1302;  F.  J&S6.  Monumenia 
Bambergentia,  Berlin.  I860;  KL,  i,  t915-2S  (very  fuU); 
J.  hcKxbhoTn,  Geachv^Ui  dtM  Bistum*  BamA^fff^  6  vo!i„ 
Munich,  1S8C-1900  (an  exbauative  hierlory)^  Hauek,  KB, 
iii,  41&-428, 

BAMPTOH  LECTURES:  A  series  of  eight  lec- 
tures or  sermons  instituted  at  the  University  of 
Oxford  by  the  Rev,  John  Bampton,  M.A.,  of  Trin- 
ity College,  Canon  of  Salisbury  (b,  I6S9;  d.  1751), 
who  left  his  entire  estate  for  the  purpose.  By  the 
terms  of  the  founder's  wiU  they  ehall  be  preached 
on  Sunday  mornings  in  Term,  "  between  the  com- 
mencement of  the  last  month  in  Lent  Term  [the 
day  before  Palm-Sunday]  ^id  the  end  of  the  third 
week  in  Act  Term  [the  day  before  Whitsunday— 
the  Saturday  after  the  first  Tuesday  in  July,  or 
later,  if  continued  by  Congregation],  upon  either  of 
the  following  subjects — to  confirm  and  establish 
the  Christian  Faith*  and  to  confute  all  heretics  and 
schismatics — upon  the  divine  authority  of  the  holy 
Scriptures— upon  the  authority  of  the  writings  of 
the  primitive  Fathers,  aa  to  faith  and  practise  of 
the  primitive  Church— upon  the  Divinity  of  our 
Lord  and  Savior  Jesus  Christ — upon  the  Divinity 
of  the  Holy  Ghosts— upon  the  Articles  of  the  Chris- 
tian Faith,  aa  comprehended  in  the  Apostles'  and 
Nicene  Creede."  The  publication  of  the  lectures 
is  obligatory.  The  lecturer  is  chosen  by  the  heads 
of  colleges  and  mu«^t  be  at  least  a  master  of  art^  of 
Oxford  or  Cambridge;  no  one  can  be  selects  a 
second  time.  The  first  course  was  given  in  1780; 
since  1895  lectures  have  been  suspended  in  alter- 
nate years  because  of  diminution  in  the  income 
provided  by  the  endowment  fund.  At  present  the 
estate  produces  £120  to  each  lecturer. 

A  lint  of  iCTTturers  niid  Bubjecta    in  giTun  in  The  Hi*" 

*(iru3oi   Regitier   of   the    Vnivefftitu     of    Ox/ond     (Oxford. 

1000);  abo,  down  to  1S93.  in  J.  F.  Hurst,  Ltteraiure  of 

The^toffy  (New  York.   I80e)j  thm  ooatiaiiaiicia  from  the 

hktUsr  date  ia  m  foUows: 

1894.  R*yv.   John  Richardson  IHinyirortli*  Faraomtliijf. 

Human  and  Divine,  pp.  xv,  274,  Svo,  London,  Macnulbwn, 

1S&6,  ^    . 

18»6-  Very    Rev.    TbomM    Banki    Strong*    Chruhan 

Ethia.  pp.  xxvik  3S8,  Bva,  London,  LoiiKinuia*  tSftO. 
18tJ7.  Bcv.  Robert  Lawreiioc  Ottley.  A»p&^tt  ^f  fht  Old 

TeatatnejU,  pp.  xii,  448,  Svo.  London,  Lonffmnna,  1807. 
IS09.  Rer.  William  HaJph  Inge,  ChriaiiAn  My*ti£\Mm, 

pp.  3tr.  aSO,  »vo,  London,  Methueo,  IS09. 


Ban 
Baptism 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOQ 


484 


1001^  Ear,  Archibald  H^bertesoti.  Rtffnum  Dei,  pp,  xix, 
402,  SvOp  Londont  MethucsQ.  1901. 

lOOG.  Iterv.  WiUiam  Holden  Hutton,  THm  iniiu^nee  of 
Chrittiamti/  xipon  Natwnai  Ckarcu^i^^  iUurfrolsd  bj/  JAa 
Jjiva  ^nd  L0o^Ttd»  of  th$  Enoli^  Saintt^  pp,  xiv^  12^  3S5t 
gvo^  London .  Wi*U».  Gardner.  Diirton  dt  Co.,  1&03. 

1005.  R«v.  Ffijdcrick  William  BuH»f?l»  ChHMian  TA*- 
oidfTi/  and  ScfCtal  Progresa,  Loudon,  MetbueSp  I0O7. 

BAH;  In  the  civil  law  of  the  old  German  Em- 
pirej  a  declaration  of  outla\\Ty;  in  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury adopted  by  the  church  aa  the  eotumon  name 
for  a  declaration  of  excommunication  (q.v.)- 

BAHCROFT,  RICHARD  r  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury j  b.  at  Fam worthy  Lancashire,  1544;  d.  in 
Lambeth  Palace,  London ,  Nov,  2^  1610.  He  was 
educated  at  Cambridge  (B.A.,  1567;  D.D.,  15S5), 
wa3  made  rector  of  Teverelmm,  near  Cambridge, 
1576,  and  rose  steadily  till  he  became  Bishop  of 
London  in  1597  and  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  in 
1604.  He  waa  a  HLgh-churchman,  asserting  that 
the  episcopal  authority  is  baaed  upon  a  divine  right, 
and  most  violently  opposed  to  the  Puritana,  whl>m 
he  often  attacked  in  his  sermons.  As  president  of 
the  Convocation,  he  presented  for  adoption  the 
Book  of  Canons  now  in  force ^  and  as  Archbishop 
he  was  "  the  chief  overseer  "  of  the  authorized  ver- 
sion of  the  Bible »  which  he  had  opposed  as  a  Puri- 
tan proposition  at  the  Hampton  Court  Conference 
(1604).     His  literary  remains  are  unimportant. 

BANES,  ba"n^,  DOMINGO :  Spanish  theologian; 
b.  either  at  Mondragon  (65  m.  s.e.  of  Bayonne, 
France),  Biscaya,  or  at  Valladolid  Feb,  28,  1528; 
d.  at  Medina  del  Campo  Oct,  21,  1604.  He  studied 
at  Salamanca;  joined  the  Dominicans  1544;  lec- 
tured on  theology  at  Avila,  Alcala,  Valladotid,  and 
Salamanca,  At  Avila  he  became  the  confessor  of 
St,  Theresa  and  remained  her  friend  till  his  death. 
He  was  one  of  the  greatest  of  the  e:spounders  and 
defenders  of  Thomism  (see  THosiAa  Aqcinas, 
Saint)  and  contributed  much  to  the  condemnatioii 
of  Molina*  His  chief  work  waa  his  commentary  on 
the  Summa  iheohgim  of  Thomas  Aquinas  (4  vols., 
Salamanca,  1584-94). 

BANGORIAN    controversy.     See  Hoadlet, 

Benjamin. 

BANKS,  JOHN  SHAW:  English  Wesleyan;  b. 
St  Sheffield  Oct,  8,  1835.  He  waa  educated  at 
King  Edward^s  School,  Birmingham^  and,  after 
being  a  missionary  in  southern  India  from  1856 
to  1864,  was  a  minister  of  his  denomination  in 
Plymouth,  Dewsbury,  London,  ^Canchester,  and 
Glasgow  until  ISSO.  Sinco  the  latter  year  he 
has  been  professor  of  theology  in  Headingley  Col- 
lege, Xiecds.  He  was  president  of  the  Wesleyan 
C<jnference  in  1902,  and  haa  written  Three  Indian 
Heroes  :  Misdonaty^  Siaiesmanj  Soldier  (Loo don, 
1874);  Martin  Luther,  the  Prophet  of  Germany 
(1877);  Our  Indian  Empire ,  its  Rim  and  Growth 
(1880);  Manual  of  Chrislian  Doctrine  (1S87); 
Scripture  and  its  Witnesses ,  Outtines  of  Christian 
Evidence  (1896);  The  Tmidenciea  of  Modern  The- 
dhgy  (1897);  Dm>€lopment  of  Doctrine  in  the  Early 
Church  (1899);  Development  of  Doctrine  from  the 
Early  Middle  Ages  to  the  Refcnnaiion  (1901),  in 
addition  to  translating  F*  A,  Fhilippi'a  "  Commen- 


tary'' on  St.  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Romana  "  (2  voLk, 
Edinburgh,  1878^79);  D.  G-  Monrad**  "The 
World  of  Prayer''  (London,  1879);  and  I.  A.  Dor- 
ner^s  "System  of  Christian  Doctrine''  (in  collab* 
oration  with  A.  Cave,  4  vols.,  Edinbui^,  1S80- 
B2),  as  well  aa  a  number  of  less  important  Geimia 
theological  works. 

BAHKS,   LOUIS  ALBERT:     Methodist   Epiaco^ 

paUan;  b.  at  Comwallis,  Ore.,  Nov.  12^  1855.  He 
was  educated  at  Philomath  OoUegie,  Philomjitb, 
Ore.,  and  Boston  University,  but  did  not  take  a 
degree.  He  has  held  pastorates  at  the  HaU  Street 
Church,  Portland,  Ore.,  Vancouver  and  Seattle, 
Wash.,  Bois€  City,  Ida.,  Trinity  Church,  Cincin- 
nati, O.,  First  Church,  Cleveland,  O.,  Han^oa 
Place  Church,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  St.  John's  Church 
and  Firit  Church,  Boston,  Mass.,  Grace  Churdv 
New  York  City,  and  Trinity  Church,  Denver,  CoL 
He  was  Prohibition  eandidate  for  governor  of  Bla^ 
eacbusetta  in  1S9S,  and  is  now  an  evang^elist  for 
the  American  Antisaloon  League.  In  theology 
he  is  an  orthodox  Methodist,  He  has  writtcfi  Tki 
People's  Christ  (Boston,  1891);  The  White  Shm 
(1892);  The  Revival  Quiver  (1893);  Anecdotes  ami 
Morals  (New  York,  1894);  Common,  Fotks'  Rdigim 
(Boston,.  1894);  Honeycomb  of  Ldfe  (New  York, 
1895);  Heavenly  Trade  Winds  (1895);  The  Chrid 
Dream  (1896);  Christ  and  his  Friend*  (1S96); 
Paul  and  his  Friends  (1896);  The  Sal^an'Kmper'M 
Ledger  (1896);  The  Fisherman  tmd  his  FrimdM 
(1897);  Seven  Times  around  Jericho  (1897);  Her^ 
Totes  from  Sacred  Story  (1897);  The  Christ  Broth- 
erhood: Heroic  Personalities  (1898);  The  Vnet- 
ptcted  Christ  (1898);  Imrrwrial  Hymns  end  Thtir 
Story  (Cleveland,  1898);  Sermon  Stories  far  B^ 
and  Girla  (New  York,  1898);  Immort€d  Song*  of 
Camp  and  Field  (Cleveland,  1899);  The  Great  SiA- 
ners  of  the  Bible  (New  York,  1899);  A  Yearns  Prayer 
Meeting  Talks  (New  York,  1899);  ChaU  tuith  Yout)9 
Chnstians  (Cleveland,  1900);  David  and  kis  Frietidt 
(New  York,  1900);  The  Lord's  Arrows  (1900); 
Fresh  Bait  for  Fishers  of  Men  (aeveland,  1900); 
Poetry  and  Morals  (New  York,  1900);  Htddm 
WelU  of  Comfort  (1901);  The  Great  Saints  of  tk§ 
Bible  (1901);  Unused  Rainbows  (Chicago,  1901); 
The  Motherliood  of  God  (1901);  The  King's  Sti^ 
crd*  (New  York,  1902);  Life  of  Rev.  T.  DeWiit  fd- 
mage,  D,D.  (1902);  Youth  of  Famous  Amerit^u 
(1902);  Windows  for  Sermons  (1902);  The  He^^ 
of  Souls  (1902);  The  GtecU  Portraits  of  ike  Bihk 
(1903)1  Soul-Winning  Stories  (1903);  Tf^ffym 
Revival  Sermons  (1904);  The  Religious  Life  of  Fa- 
mous Amerieans  (1904);  and  Great  Promises  of  tk 
Bible  (1905). 

BANNS:  A  publio  announcement  of  an  intended 
marriage,  made  in  church  during  service.  Ust 
word  ia  a  plural  of  ban,  mauling  an  autboritiiim 
proclamation.  The  singular  in  the  modem  mam 
occurs  in  the  fifteenth  century;  sinee  then  tlifi 
plural  only  is  found.  Banns  really  have  no  tat 
nection  either  with  the  professiones  of  the  eii^f 
Church,  alluded  to  by  Ignatius  and  TertuUian,  or 
with  the  provision  made  in  the  Carotingian  capita 
lary  of  802  for  investigation  by  the  deigy  *od 
seniores  in  order  to  avoid  incest uoua  murui^ 


435 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Ban 
BaptlB 


The  public  announcement  seems  to  have  become 
customary  first  in  France,  then  in  England  (where 
the  Synod  of  Westminster,  1200,  decreed  that  no 
marriage  should  be  contracted  without  banns 
thrice  published  in  the  church),  and  were  pre- 
scribed for  the  whole  Church  by  Innocent  III  in  the 
Lateran  Coimcil  of  1215.  According  to  the  pro- 
visions of  the  Coimcil  of  Trent  the  proclamation 
must  be  made  in  the  place  of  residence  of  both 
parties  on  three  consecutive  Sundays  or  feasts  of 
obligation.  The  bishop  may  disp^Eise  from  this 
rule,  and  in  case  of  need  the  parish  priest  may  dis- 
regard it;  in  any  case  its  observance  does  not 
affect  the  validity  of  the  marriage.  The  evangel- 
ical churches  of  Germany  retain^  this  custom,  as 
involving  investigation  of  possible  impedmients 


and  intercession  of  the  congregation  for  the  couple, 
and  most  secular  laws,  where  marriage  in  church 
is  required,  have  also  sanctioned  it,  as  a  prelim- 
inary to  ecclesiastical  marriage.  [In  the  Church  of 
England  the  Prayer-book  requires  the  publication 
of  banns  on  three  successive  Simdays,  after  the 
second  lesson  at  morning  or  evening  prayer.  This 
may  be  avoided  by  the  procuring  of  a  special  licence 
from  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  In  the  United 
States  banns  are  published  only  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  and  certain  minor  denominations.] 

(E.  Friedberq.) 
BzBZiXOORAPHT:  Bingham,  Oriffine;  book  sndi,  chap,  ii,  |  2; 
£.  Mart^ne,  De  antiquia  ecdeaitB  riHbu9,  book  ii,  ehap. 
iz.  art.  V,  8  vols..  Antwerp,  1736-37;  J.  Fessler,  Der 
Kirehenbcmn  und  9eine  Fdtgen^  Vienna,  1862;  Schilling, 
Der  Kirdksnbann  nach  kanoniachen  Rwhi,  Leipdo,  18G0. 


I.  Biblical  Doctrine. 

1.  Origin  and  Practine. 

2.  Significance    of    Chrietian 


Bap- 


II.  Church  Doctrine. 

1.  Patristic  Teaching. 
Primitive  Period  ($  1). 
Fourth  Century  ($  2). 
Augustine  (S  3). 

2.  Roman     Catholic     and    Eastern 

Teaching. 
Scholasticism  and  Later    Roman 

Catholicism  ($1). 
The  Eastern  Church  ($  2). 

3.  Teaching  of  the  Reformers. 
Lutheran  ($  1). 
Reformed  (S  2). 

Modem  Developments  (S3). 
III.  Liturgical  Usage. 

1.  General  Development  to  the  Refor- 
mation. 
Original  Forms  (S  1). 
The  Subapostolic  Age  (9  2). 
In  Tertuman  (S  3). 
Lines  of  Development  (S  4). 


BAPTISM. 

2.  Development  of  the  Ritual  in  Vari- 
ous Parts  of  the  Church. 

Syria  (§  1). 

Asia  Minor  and  Constantinople  (  f  2). 

Egsrpt  and  Ethiopia  (S  3). 

Rome  (S  4). 

Spain  and  Africa  (S  6). 

Milan  and  North  Italy  (S  6). 

Gaul  (§  7). 
8.  The  Baptismal  Service  in  the  Refor- 
mation Churches. 

Three  Main  Types  (|  1). 

Later  Development  ($  2). 

4.  The  Biinister  of  Baptism. 

5.  The  Time  for  Baptism. 

6.  The  Place  of  Baptism. 

7.  Sponaora. 

IV.  DiscusiioB  of  Controverted  Points. 
1.  The  Argument  against  the  Neoee- 
■ity  of  Immersion. 
Immersion,  even   if    the  Original 
Form,  a  Circumstantial  Detail 
(§1). 
The  ApostoUe  Practise  not  Certain 
(S2). 


Philologioal  Considerations  (S  3). 
Archeological  Considerations  ($  4). 
Considerations     from    Symbolism 

(§6). 
The  Mode  of  Applying  the  Water 

Unessential  (S  6). 
2.  The  Baptism  of  Infants. 
Arguments  against  Infant  Baptism 

(§1). 
Argiunents  in  Reply  (S  2). 
Origin  of  Infant  Baptism  (f  3). 
Patristic  Testimony  ($  4). 
The  Schoolmen  and  the  Reforma- 
tion Period  (S  6). 
8.  The  Baptist   Position  Concerning 

Immersion  and  Infant  Baptism. 
True  Baptism  a  Burial  in  Water 

(Jl). 
The  Testimony  of  Cyprian  (f  2). 
Origin  of  Affusion  ((  3). 
The   Argument    from    Symbolism 

(§4). 
Objeetiona    to     Infant    Baptism 

(16). 


X.  Biblical  Doctrine. — 1.  Griffin  and  Practise : 
Gonybeare  has  tried  to  prove  that  the  original  text  of 
Matt,  xxviii,  19  did  not  contain  the  baptismal  com- 
mand or  the  Trinitarian  formula,  which  were  interpo- 
lated, according  to  him,  at  the  beginning  of  the  third 
century.  But  since  the  investigations  of  Riggen- 
bach,  the  ordinary  reading  may  be  considered  the 
original.  Jesus,  however,  can  not  have  given  his 
disciples  this  Trinitarian  order  of  baptism  after  his 
resurrection;  for  the  New  Testament  knows  only 
baptism  in  the  name  of  Jesus  (Acts  ii,  38;  viii,  16; 
xix,  5;  Gal.  iii,  27;  Rom.  vi,  3;  I  Cor.  i,  13-15), 
which  still  occurs  even  in  the  second  and  thiid 
centuries,  while  the  Trinitarian  fonnula  occurs 
only  in  Matt,  xxviii,  19  and  then  only  again  Didache 
vii,  1  and  Justin,  ApoL,  i,  61.  It  is  imthinkable 
that  the  Apostolic  Church  thus  disobeyed  the  ex- 
press command  of  the  Lord,  which  it  otherwise 
considered  the  highest  authority.  Occurrences 
like  those  of  Acts  xix,  1-7  ought  to  have  shown 
that  the  prescribed  formula  of  baptism  could  not 
have  been  shortened  to  **  the  name  of  the  Lord 
Jesus,"  if  the  character  of  baptism  was  to  be  re- 
tained as  conmianded.  Judging  from  I  Cor.  i, 
14-17,  Paul  did  not  know  Matt,  xxviii,  19;  other- 
wise he  could  not  have  written  that  Christ  had  sent 
him  not  to  baptise,  but  to  preach  the  gospel.  More- 


over, had  it  been  known  at  the  Apostolic  Council, 
the  missionary  spheres  oould  not  have  been  so 
separated  that  Peter  was  recognized  as  the  apostle 
of  the  circumcision,  Paul  and  Barnabas  as  apostles 
of  the  heathen  (Gal.  ii,  7-8);  rather  wotdd  the 
original  apostles  have  claimed  the  universal  apo»- 
tolate  for  themselves.  Finally,  the  distinctly 
liturgical  character  of  the  formida  Matt,  xxviii,  19 
is  strange;  it  was  not  the  way  of  Jesus  to  make 
such  formulas.  Nevertheless  this  baptismal  com- 
mand contains  the  elements  which  constitute 
Christian  baptism;  for  the  activity  of  the  Son  in 
baptism  implies  the  immediate  cooperation  of  the 
Father;  and  from  the  beginning  Christian  baptism 
has  been  considered  the  mediating  agency  of  the 
Holy  Spirit.  Therefore  while  the  formal  authen- 
ticity of  Matt,  xxviii,  19  must  be  disputed,  it  must 
still  be  assumed  that  the  later  congregations  recog- 
nized as  the  will  of  their  Lord  that  which  they 
experienced  as  the  effect  of  baptism  and  traced  it 
back  to  a  direct  word  of  Jesus. 

If  Matt,  xxviii,  19  can  not  be  considered  as  a 
baptismal  command,  we  have  no  direct  word  of 
Jesus  which  institutes  baptism;  for  Mark  xvi,  16 
belongs  to  the  spurious  appendix  of  the  Gospel  and 
is  dependent  upon  Matt,  xxviii,  19.  But  from  the 
very  beginning  the  Christian  Church  has  universally 


Baptism 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


436 


practised  baptism  (Acts  ii,  38;  viii,  36,  38;  x,  48; 
I  Cor.  xii,  13;  Gal.  iii,  27;  Eph.  iv,  5;  John  iii,  5), 
and  must  therefore  have  been  convinced  that  it 
was  acting  according  to  the  will  of  the  Lord.  The 
origin  of  baptism  may  perhaps  be  explained  as 
follows:  the  word  of  Jesus  in  Acts  i,  5  repeats  John 
the  Baptist's  prophecy  of  spiritual  baptism  (Mark 
i,  8).  Moreover,  the  farewell  discourses  in  John 
and  the  expression  epangelia  tou  pneumatoa  y  which. 
occurs  like  a  technical  term  in  Acts  ii,  33;  Gal.  iii, 
14;  Eph.  i,  13,  postulate  an  utterance  of  Jesus 
concerning  the  gift  of  the  Spirit  to  the  disciples. 
But  Jesus  had  spoken  of  baptism  as  a  symbol  of 
the  gift  of  the  Spirit.  Being  filled  with  the  Spirit 
was  for  him  the  antitype  of  the  baptism  of  John. 
When  the  disciples,  after  the  completion  of  the  Mes- 
sianic work,  took  up  again  the  baptismal  rite  which 
they  had  formerly  practised  at  his  command  (John 
iii,  22;  iv,  1,  2)  as  a  preparation  for  admission  into 
the  Messianic  congregation,  and  the  Holy  Spirit 
descended  upon  the  baptized,  they  came  to  the 
conviction  that  they  were  acting  according  to  the 
will  of  their  Master  and  now  combined  the  above- 
mentioned  words  concerning  the  Spirit  and  Chris- 
tian baptism.  Christian  baptism  has  its  real  root 
in  the  baptism  of  John,  not  in  the  sphere  of  mys- 
terious initiations  and  lustrations  of  Greek  religious 
societies,  or  in  the  great  wave  of  Babylonian  bap- 
tism which  poured  over  the  civilized  countries  of 
that  time  from  the  East. 

2.  Signifloance  of  Ohristian  Baptism:  The  Greek 
phrase  baptizein  en  or  epi  iOi  onomati  lesou  means 
that  the  act  of  baptism  takes  place  with  the  utter- 
ance of  the  name  of  Jesus;  baptizein  eis  to  onoma 
lesou  means  that  the  person  baptized  enters  into 
the  relation  of  belonging  to  Christ,  of  being  his 
property.  All  three  formulas  are  alike  in  so  far  as 
the  baptized  are  subjected  to  the  power  and 
efficacy  of  Jesus,  who  is  now  their  Lord.  Accord- 
ing to  Paul  (Rom.  vi,  1-11;  Col.  ii,  11,  12;  Gal. 
iii,  26,  27;  I  Cor.  xii,  13;  vi,  11;  Eph.  v,  26;  Tit. 
iii,  5),  baptism  secures  purification  from  sins,  the 
putting  off  of  the  sinful  body  of  the  flesh,  morti- 
fication of  sin,  renewal  of  life,  regeneration,  the 
power  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  communion  with  the 
life  of  Christ,  incorporation  into  the  mystical  body 
of  Christ,  the  Church.  Everywhere  baptism  is 
represented  as  the  mediating  agency  of  real  objec- 
tive effects,  with  God  as  their  cause,  and  not  as  a 
merely  sjmabolical  act.  Paul's  teaching  on  baptism 
is  not  a  transition  from  pagan  cults,  but  his  mystical 
doctrine  concerning  Christ  and  the  Spirit  are  to  be 
explained  from  his  religious  experience,  which  he 
objectifies  in  a  manner  conditioned  by  the  history 
of  his  time.  The  Book  of  Acts  does  not  contain 
theological  reflections  on  baptism  like  those  of 
Paul's  epistles,  but  simple  views  of  the  congrega- 
tions, and  tlie  connection  with  the  baptism  of 
John  is  here  plainer  (Acts  xxii,  16;  ii,  38)  than  in 
Paul.  It  is  true,  we  find  also  in  Acts  the  relation 
of  the  gift  of  the  Spirit  to  baptism  (Acts  ii,  38; 
viii,  13-17;  xix,  6;  in  ix,  17-18;  x,  44-48  the  gift 
of  the  Spirit  precedes  baptism),  but  this  connection 
is  looser  than  in  Paul,  and  in  some  passages  (viii, 
13-17;  xix,  6)  it  is  only  external.  Baptism  is 
mentioned  in  the  New  Testament  also  in  I  Pet.  iii, 


21;  Heb.  x,  22;  vi,  2;  John  iii,  5;  xiii,  10.  The 
act  was  often  performed  immediately  after  the 
recognition  of  the  Messiahship  of  Jesus  and  the 
decision  to  join  the  Messianic  congregation  with* 
out  further  preparation  (Acts  ii,  41;  viii,  38;  ix, 
18;  X,  33-48;  xvi,  33).  A  detailed  baptismal 
profession  of  faith  was  still  wanting;  but  baptism 
in  the  name  of  Jesus  was  equivalent  to  such  a 
profession.  P.  Fedte. 

II.  Church  Doctrine— 1.  Patrlstio  Taachlnr 
The  expressions  of  the  Fathers  on  the  subject  u« 
vexy  indefinite,  the  symbolical  and  realistic  featurei 
not  clearly  distinguished.  It  is  perhaps  not  to  be 
taken  seriously  when  Justin  (/  Apol.,  Ixi)  compares 
regeneration  by  the  water  of  baptism  with  natund 
generation   as   its  proper  coimterpart;    but  with 

Tertullian  speculation  concerning  the 

I.  Primitiye  general    cosmic    signification    of   the 

Period,      water,  its  inner  natural  relation  to  the 

spirit  of  God  (Gen.  i,  2),  goes  so  fsr 
that  he  undoubtedly  thinks  of  some  sort  of  real 
connection  of  the  Spirit  with  the  water  of  ba(.tism. 
He  probably  imagines  that  the  Holy  Spirit  after 
the  invocation  of  God  makes  his  "  abode  "  in  the 
water  (De  bapHsmo,  iii-v).  But  it  is  not  dear 
how  God  or  the  Spirit  is  supposed  to  act  upon  man 
through  the  water  or  out  of  the  water,  how  far 
through  the  agency  of  the  body  or  how  far  through 
will  and  thought. 

Since  the  earliest  days  two  ideas  have  been 
characteristic  of  the  estimate  of  baptism— the 
view  that  it  forms  the  sure,  and,  as  a  rule,  the  odIj 
entrance  to  the  congregation  of  Christ  and  its 
blessings,  i.e.,  to  salvation;  and  the  belief  that 
while  its  effects  may  be  lost,  it  can  not  be  repeated. 
To  the  former  view  there  was  only  one  exception, 
the  belief  that  martyrdom,  the  baptism  of  blood, 
could  replace  baptism  with  water.  Baptism  of 
blood  was  even  to  be  preferred  in  so  far  as  it  ad- 
mitted directly  and  irrevocably  into  the  heavenly 
congregation  of  Christ.  Why  it  was  considered 
impossible  to  repeat  baptism  with  water  is  not 
quite  intelligible.  It  is  certain,  however,  that  this 
view  was  soon  felt  to  be  a  heavy  burden.  The 
more  highly  baptism  was  valued,  the  more  was  the 
loss  of  its  grace  dreaded,  and  thus  a  tendency  gre* 
up  to  postpone  it  to  the  end  of  Ufe.  None  the  less, 
as  early  as  the  second  century  the  custom  developed 
of  baptizing  children,  if  not  infants  in  arms  at  least 
those  of  "  tender  age  "  (see  below,  IV,  2).  Ter- 
tullian disapproved  of  this,  being  of  the  opinion  that 
baptism  should  be  postponed  to  the  period  of  a  fuller 
development.  He  is  also  the  first  to  mention  the 
institution  of  sponsors  (see  below,  III,  7).  All  the 
blessings  of  the  Church  are  brought  into  connection 
with  baptism — forgiveness  of  sins,  renewal  of  life 
(regeneration),  reception  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  proper 
knowledge  of  God  ("  illumination  "),  assurance  of 
eternal  life  (incorruptibility  of  soul  and  body).  In 
course  of  time,  the  different  acts  of  baptism  were 
separated — the  immersion  in  water  from  the 
anointing  and  laying  on  of  hands,  which  had  been 
added,  it  is  uncertain  how  early.  It  was  then 
thought  that  immersion  or  ablution  signified  puri- 
fication from  sin,  and  the  other  acts  equipment 
with  the  Spirit  and  bestowal  of   eternal  life.    Is 


437 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Baptisni 


practise,  however,  these  theoretical  distinctions 
were  never  strictly  kept  apart.  Tertullian  re- 
quired that  as  a  rule  only  the  bishop,  or  a  presbyter 
or  deacon  delegated  by  him,  should  perform  the 
act  of  baptism;  only  in  case  of  necessity  was  a  lay- 
man authorized  to  perform  it  (Z>e  baptismOf  xvii). 
Cyprian  goes  so  far  as  to  say  that  a  priest  {sacerdaa) 
"  must  '*  (oportet)  "  purify  and  hallow  "  the  water 
(Epist.,  Ixx,  1). 

In  the  fourth  century  the  doctrine  of  baptism 
was  treated  by  Cyril  of  Jerusalem  in  his  third 
catechetical  lecture  (AfPG,  xxxiii,  425  8qq.)f  by 
Gregory  Nazianzen  in  his  **  Discourse  on  Holy 
Baptism  "  (Orat.,  xl,  MPG,  xxxvi,  360  sqq.),  and 
by    Gregory    of    Nyssa     ("  Greater 

2.  Fourth  Catechetical  Oration,"  xl,  Af  PG,  xlv. 
Century.     101;     and    "Address   to   those   who 

Postpone  Baptism,"  MPO,  xlvi,  1). 
Both  Gregory  of  Nyssa  and  Gregory  Nazianzen 
desire  an  "  early  *'  baptism,  at  any  rate  no  "  pro- 
crastination." Baptism  is  here  spoken  of  as  a 
power  of  prime  importance  as  an  aid  to  man  in 
his  temptations.  It  is  so  necessary  that  even  a 
child  can  not  be  saved  without  it.  Gregory  Na- 
zianzen "  recommends  ''  that  a  child  shall  be  bap- 
tized in  the  "  third  year  of  his  life.'  That,  in  spite 
of  the  opposition  to  which  Tertullian  witnesses, 
baptism  of  children  became  soon  more  and  more 
a  general  custom,  is  evident  from  the  fact  that 
Origen  C"  On  Romans,"  bk.  v)  considers  it  an 
apostolic  tradition.  The  motive  for  its  enforce- 
ment differs  with  different  authors.  In  fact,  the 
general  notions  as  to  the  meaning  of  baptism 
vary  so  widely  that  there  was  evidently  not  yet 
any  recognized  "  church  doctrine  "  in  the  strict 
sense  of  the  word.  Not  a  few  ideas  from  the  anal- 
ogous rites  of  pagan  mysteries  crept  into  the  teach- 
ing of  theologians. 

The  first  who  developed  a  really  dogmatic  theory 

of  baptism  was  Augustine,  imder  the  stress  of  his 

controversy    with    the    Donatists    (see    Heretic 

Baptism).    His  most  important  early 

3.  Augu»-  writing  on  the  subject  is  the  com- 
tine.        prehensive  work  De  hapHamo  contra 

Donatistas  lUbri  vii  {MPL,  xliii),  with 
which  may  be  coupled  the  smaller  treatise  De 
unico  baptiamo  contra  PetUianum  (ibid. ).  He  makes 
a  sharp  distinction  between  aacramentum  and  rea 
aacramentu  It  is  possible,  according  to  him,  to 
obtain  the  aacramentum  without  the  rea,  the  grace 
of  which  the  sacrament  is  a  sign.  He  also  taught 
originally  that  one  might  obtain  the  rea  without 
the  aacramentum,  but  later  he  abandoned  this  view, 
at  least  in  regard  to  baptism.  The  older  he  grew, 
the  more  firmly  he  was  convinced  that  baptism  was 
indispensable  for  salvation,  since  men  could  be 
saved  only  within  the  Church,  to  which  baptism 
was  the  only  entrance.  It  is  true,  he  was  thinking 
in  this  connection  primarily  of  adults;  but  even  in 
their  case  he  was  of  the  opinion  that  God  would  be 
gracious  if  by  any  chance  a  catechumen  should  die 
without  baptism  by  no  fault  of  his  own.  Later, 
however,  he  believed  that  even  children  dying  un- 
baptized  could  not  be  saved,  although  they  would 
meet  only  the  smallest  degree  of  condemnation 
(cf .  De  peccatorvm  meriOa  et  remiaaume  et  de  bap- 


tiamo  parmdorum  libri  tit,  MPL,  xliv).  In  the 
controversy  with  Pelagius,  Augustine  had  fre- 
quent occasion  to  deveiop  and  justify  his  views  on 
the  baptism  of  children  (cf.  especi^ally  his  Epiat, 
ad  Dardanum,  EpiaL,  clxxxvii,  MPL,  xxxiii).  It 
was  Augujtine  especially  who  developed  the  theory 
that  baptism  had  reference  to  original  sin.  It  is 
tme  he  laid  more  emphasis  originally  on  sin  in 
general  than  on  original  sin  as  the  obstacle  to  be 
removed  by  baptism.  But  the  more  the  idea  of 
the  baptism  of  children  began  to  occupy  his  mind, 
so  much  the  more  original  sin  became  the  central 
point  of  his  interest,  coupled  with  the  question 
of  the  importance  to  be  attached  to  faith  in  con- 
nection with  baptism.  He  taught  not  that  the 
children  themselves  had  faith,  but  that  the  faith 
of  the  Church  benefited  them.  Since  the  Church 
presents  the  children  to  God  in  baptism,  making  a 
confession  of  faith  in  their  stead,  God  grants  them 
real  forgiveness  and  power  for  a  real  ''  conversion 
of  the  heart "  when  they  grow  older  (cf.  especially 
his  EpiaL  ad  Bonifacium,  Epiat,  xcviii,  MPL, 
xxxiii).  But  at  this  point  his  views  on  predestina- 
tion come  in,  and  with  them  his  distinctions  within 
the  sacrament,  according  to  which  baptism  does  not 
suffice  for  salvation  if  one  is  not  predestined. 

2.  Boznan  Oatholio  and  EastomTeaohinff:  Scho- 
lasticism on  the  whole  only  elaborated  and  systema- 
tized the  doctrine  of  Augustine  (cf .  Peter  Lombard, 
Sent.,  IV,  dist.  iii-vii,  and  Thomas  Aqui- 

z.  Scholar-  JiaB,Summa,  III,  quasst.  Ixvi-lxxi).  The 
tidsm  and  views   expressed  in  the   Catechiamua 

Later  Ro-  Romanua  (part  II,  chap,  ii)  and  in  Bel- 
man  Cathol-  larmine's  treatise  De  baptiamo  (Diapur 
idsm.  tationea  de  controveraiia  Chriatiance  fidei, 
II,  ii,  1)  rest  upon  the  same  basis. 
It  became  customary  among  the  scholastics  to 
explain  the  doctrine  of  the  sacraments  by  the 
distinction  of  the  conceptions  materia  and  forma. 
Everything  in  the  sacrament  rests  upon  divine 
institution  and  therefore  can  not  be  altered  even 
by  the  authority  of  the  Church.  The  Church  can 
not  abolish  a  sacrament,  and  is  boimd  to  observe 
its  matter  and  form,  but  may  be  assured  of  possess- 
ing and  transmitting  everything  that  the  sacrar 
ment  ought  to  contain  and  offer  according  to  the 
divine  will.  If  matter  and  form  are  properly  con- 
nected, the  sacrament  produces  its  effects  ex  opera 
operato.  The  matter  of  baptism  is  water  only; 
its  form  is  the  words,  "  I  baptize  thee  in  the  name  of 
the  Father  and  of  the  Son  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost." 
In  baptism  all  sins  are  forgiven,  in  the  child  original 
sin,  in  adults  actual  sins  also.  With  special 
reference  to  original  sin  Thomas  teaches  that  it  is 
taken  away  only  reaiu,  i.e.,  in  regard  to  its  guilt 
(which  is  great  enough  to  exclude  one  from  the 
bliss  of  heaven),  but  not  actu.  The  latter  expres- 
sion means  that  "  concupiscence  "  still  remains  as 
a  "  tinder  "  (Jomea)  from  which  at  any  moment 
sin  may  be  kindled  into  flame.  Peter  Lombard 
emphasizes  the  idea  that  natiiral  concupiscence  is 
"weakened."  The  Coimcil  of  Trent  {Seaaio  V) 
teaches  that  it  is  not  sin  in  the  proper  sense.  Real 
conversion  follows  baptism,  but  rests  partly  upon 
the  grace  which  it  bestows  and  which  only  needs 
to  be  used  by  our  free  will.    Great  significance  is 


Baptism 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


438 


attached  to  tbe  teaching  of  Thomas  especially  con- 
cerning the  "  character "  which  baptism  confers. 
This  also  goes  back  to  Augustine,  who  touches  this 
idea  briefly  in  order  to  establish  the  validity  of 
the  baptism  of  heretics.  Baptism  incorporates  us 
with  Christ  imder  all  circumstances.  It  confers 
the  "  character  "  of  belonging  objectively  to  Christ, 
to  his  "  body,"  the  Church.  This  character  is 
indelible,  and  depends  only  upon  the  due  adminis- 
tration of  the  sacrament  as  to  matter  and  form. 
Thus  baptism  brings  every  one  into  actual  contact 
with  the  flow  of  grace  emanating  from  Christ. 
Whoever  "  interposes  an  obstacle  "  by  not  receiving 
baptism  in  the  subjectively  right  disposition  (for 
instance,  as  a  heretic)  does  not  experience  this 
immediate  contact  with  grace  as  justification  imtil 
he  subsequently  removes  the  obstacle  (as,  in  the 
case  supposed,  by  returning  to  the  faith  of  the 
Church).  The  character  conferred  in  baptism 
carries  with  it  the  right  and  capacity  to  receive 
the  other  sacraments,  and  at  the  same  time  in- 
volves the  duty  of  obedience  to  the  Church.  In 
practise  it  is  the  sacrament  of  penance  which  sub- 
sequently makes  the  character  of  the  baptized 
heretic  or  hypocrite  efficacious  for  salvation.  On 
the  basis  of  its  theory  of  character,  the  Roman 
Church  acknowledges  "  in  principle  "  the  baptism 
of  Protestants,  but  practically  is  often  in  doubt 
whether  the  Protestant  Churches  perform  baptism 
with  due  regard  to  matter  and  fonn.  Converts 
are  thus,  where  any  uncertainty  exists,  baptized 
hypothetically  with  the  form,  "  If  thou  art  not 
already  baptized,  I  baptize  thee,"  etc.  In  one 
essential  point  scholasticism  differed  from  Augus- 
tine, at  least  from  the  Augustine  of  the  later, 
stricter  period,  by  acknowledging  not  only  the 
"  baptism  of  blood,"  but  the  "  baptism  of  the  Holy 
Spirit  "  or  "  of  desire  "  as  conve3ring  grace.  Ac- 
cording to  Peter  Lombard  and  especially  Thomas 
Aquinas,  an  adult  may  even  before  baptism  antic- 
ipate in  faith  the  effects  of  baptism  upon  the  heart 
(conversio  in  the  proper  sense);  he  may  so  effi- 
caciously desire  salvation  as  to  be  incorporated  with 
Christ  mentalUer  and  possess  the  rea  aacramenti 
without  the  aacramerUumf  so  that  if  he  should  die 
suddenly,  the  votum  aacramenti  would  be  sufficient 
to  secure  him  salvation.  The  Roman  Church  still 
denies  salvation  to  unbaptizcd  infants;  the  whole 
tradition  on  that  point  was  so  firmly  established 
that  scholasticism  did  not  dare  to  think  differently. 
According  to  this  doctrine  unbaptized  infants  do 
not  go  to  hell,  but  they  do  not  get  into  heaven; 
they  remain  in  a  special  place,  the  limbua  infarUium 
(see  LiMBUs). 

Not  much  need  be  said  of  Eastern  teaching  in 

medieval    and    modem    times.     The    later    Greek 

mind  seems  to  have  found  other  "  mysteries,"  not 

indeed  more  important,  but  more  interesting  and 

more  in  need  of  exposition.     Of  course,  however, 

this  sacrament  could  not  be  omitted 

2.  The      from  the  considerations  of  mystagogic 

Eastern      theology  (q.v.).    From    the   time  of 

Church.     Cyril  of  Jerusalem  and  the   pseudo- 

Dionysius   the    baptismal  ceremonies 

have  had  their  fixed  place  in  these  discussions;  but 

a  much  larger  place  is  given,    especially  in   the 


Byzantine  period,  to  the  Eucharist.  The  most 
exhaustive  treatment  of  the  subject  after  the  An- 
opagite  is  that  of  Nikolaos  KaJ>airi1aw,  metropol- 
itan of  Thessalonica  (d.  1371),  particulariy  in  his 
treatise  "On  Life  in  Christ."  The  Greeks  em- 
phasize  the  ideas  of  regeneration  and  illumination, 
and  conceive  both  under  such  aspects  as  are  attain- 
able by  specific  philosophical  (Aristotelian)  methods. 
The  notion  of  a  new  birth  is  carried  through  by 
means  of  the  terms  "  matter  "  and  "  form  ";  and 
the  doctrine  of  a  transference  from  the  Idngdom 
of  darkness  or  sin  into  that  of  light  or  truth  is 
easily  illustrated  by  the  relation  long  supposed  to 
exist  between  darloiess  and  matter,  between  light 
and  form  or  the  true  "  idea  "  or  image  of  God  in 
man.  The  conception  of  original  sin  was  current 
also  among  the  later  Greeks.  The  theologiana  of 
the  seventeenth  century  considered  Protestant 
views  a  corruption  of  the  truth,  which  they  found 
in  an  unconditional  realism  as  to  the  value  of  the 
baptismal  ceremony.  Baptism  to  them  is  not 
merely  the  forgiveness,  but  the  abolition,  the  ex- 
tinction, of  sin — although  it  is  sometimes  hard  to 
seize  the  precise  shade  of  meaning  intended  to  be 
conveyed  by  their  rhetorical  expressions.  They 
require,  in  opposition  alike  to  Rome  and  to  Prot- 
estantism, a  threefold  immersion,  although  the 
Russian  Church  has  formally  abandoned  the  prac- 
tise of  rebaptizing  Westerns.  They  teach  that 
children  dying  without  baptism  can  not  be  saved, 
although  Mesoloras,  for  example,  lays  stress  upon 
the  lightness  of  the  penalty  in  their  case. 

8.  Teaohinff  of  the  Beformers:  In  order  to  un- 
derstand correctly  Luther's  attitude  toward  bap- 
tism, it  is  necessary  to  grasp  his  idea  of  grace,  which 
forms  the  central  distinction  between  the  conception 
of  the  sacraments  in  Protestantism  and  Roman 
Catholicism.     Luther  defined  grace  no  longer  in 

the  sense  of  divine  power  (rtrfta), 
I.  Lutheran,  but  as  a  sign  or  token  of  the  divine 

disposition — ^in  the  older  Latin  sense 
as  the  divine  favor.  He  also  considered  baptism 
necessary  for  salvation,  believing  unconditionally 
in  the  command  of  Christ,  Matt,  xxviii,  19.  He 
did  not  seek  for  the  reason  of  this  conmiand,  for 
its  **  necessity  "  in  a  rational  sense,  seeing  in  it 
simply  an  expression  of  the  love  of  Christ,  who 
desires  to  convince  us  through  baptism  of  God's 
favor  and  thereby  to  awaken  "  faith  "  (fides  in  the 
sense  of  fiduda).  In  baptism  we  experience  the 
actual  bestowal  of  the  favor  of  God,  which,  without 
it,  does  not,  or  at  least  does  not  indubitably,  descend 
on  man.  Luther  does  not  understand  the  necessity 
of  baptism  for  salvation  in  the  sense  that  the  grace 
of  God  is  included  in  the  sacrament  in  an  objective 
sense,  but  that  while  one  can  not  be  entirely  cer- 
tain of  grace  without  the  sacrament,  in  virtue  of  it 
one  may  be  ''  always  "  assured  of  the  grace  of  God 
in  faith.  The  preaching  of  the  gospel  addresses 
itself  too  much  to  humanity  in  general;  the  sacra- 
ment applies  itself  to  the  individual  as  such,  and 
thus  gives  him  the  assurance  of  grace,  and  in  case 
of  doubt  it  is  the  only  full  guaranty  that  he  is  in 
God's  favor.  Luther  does  not  follow  the  Roman 
idea  of  **  character  "  as  conferred  by  baptism,  but 
applies  his  new  definition  of  grace  to  the  ccmtent 


439 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Baptism 


of  baptism  in  order  to  establish  the  fact  that  bap- 
tism possesses  validity  for  the  whole  life,  validity 
as  a  real  offer  of  grace.  He  seeks  in  baptism  nothing 
but  grace.  Throughout  the  whole  life  that  is 
realized  which  God  in  baptism  makes  known  to  us 
as  his  will  through  the  aignum^  the  act  perfonned 
by  means  of  water.  Luther's  idea  of  baptism  was 
identical  with  his  idea  of  the  sacraments  in  general — 
that  they  make  plain  and  confirm  the  "  Word." 
Like  the  Word,  baptism  can  only  be  efficacious  if 
it  finds  faith  or  establishes  faith  by  its  power. 
But  in  faith  one  can  always  look  back  on  it,  in 
order  to  know  that  he  possesses  God's  grace. 

As  in  regard  to  Luther's  view  of  the  sacraments 
in  general,  three  periods  may  be  distinguished  in 
his  exposition  of  baptism,  which,  however,  are 
characterized  by  their  mode  of  expression  rather 
than  by  a  development  of  thought.  From  the 
first  period  originated  the  "  Sermon  on  the  Sacra- 
ment of  Baptism"  (1519;  "  Works,"  Erlangen  ed., 
xxi,  229-244).  Here  he  distinguishes  especially 
between  the  "  sign  "  and  that  which  it "  signifies," 
to  establish  the  fact  that  it  is  faith  which  appro- 
priates to  man  what  the  sign  signifies.  Immersion 
in  water  in  the  name  of  God  denotes  death  to  sin 
and  resurrection  to  grace.  The  second  period 
begins  in  1520  and  is  characterized  especially  by 
the  work  De  captiuitate  BabyUmica  ("  Works," 
Erlangen  ed..  Opera  varii  arffumenii,  v,  55  sqq.). 
Here  he  puts  all  the  emphasis  upon  the  "  promise  " 
which  the  order  of  baptism  contains.  In  reality, 
the  Word  is  everything  in  the  sacrament,  immersion 
in  the  water  is  only  the  seal  which  confirms  the 
Word  and  makes  it  fully  certain.  In  the  third 
period  also,  that  of  his  controversy  with  the  fanat- 
ics, Luther  emphatically  proclaimed  that  the 
Word  is  the  principal  thing  in  the  sacrament.  He 
maintained,  at  times  almost  in  the  spirit  of  the 
law,  that  baptism  is  based  upon  a  "  command  "  of 
Christ.  On  the  other  hand,  he  enthusiastically 
pointed  to  the  fact  that  through  the  Word  the  water 
becomes  a  "  divine,  heavenly,  sacred  "  element. 
This  must  be  imderstood  in  the  same  way  as  his 
attribution  of  a  divine  character  to  parents  and 
authorities.  In  the  last  analysis  he  only  wishes  to 
establish  firmly  and  show  plainly  the  unconditional 
authority  of  baptism  as  a  representation  of  the 
divine  will  over  us.  His  words  are  not  to  be  under- 
stood in  the  sense  of  a  theosophical  speculation. 
To  the  last  period  belongs  the  Larger  Catechism, 
the  treatise  Von  der  Wiedertaufe,  an  zwei  Pfarr- 
herm  (1528;  "Works,"  Erlangen  ed.,  xxvi,  254 
sqq.),  and  a  niunber  of  sennons  on  baptism,  espe- 
cially that  of  1535  ("  Works,"  2d  Erlangen  ed.,  xix). 

Melanchthon's  doctrine  is  identical  with  Luther's. 
He  says  that  God  inscribes  "  by  means  of  the  water 
his  promise  "  in  a  certain  sense  "  upon  our  bodies." 
The  Reformers  were  convinced  that  children  must 
be  baptized  in  order  to  be  saved;  for  on  account  of 
original  sin  they  also  need  pardoning  and  reno- 
vating grace.  But  if  baptism  must  awaken  faith 
in  order  to  save  the  children,  it  was  a  great  problem, 
at  least  for  Luther,  whether  that  could  really  be 
said  to  take  place.  He  believed  that  it  might,  in 
consideration  of  the  almightiness  of  the  Word  of 
God,  which  could  even  change  the  heart  of  the 


impious,  and  a  fortiori  could  bring  a  child  to  faith. 
The  different  representatives  of  Lutheranism  dif- 
fered in  the  form  of  their  teachings  concerning 
baptism,  especially  the  baptism  of  children,  but 
in  the  matter  itself  they  agreed  (cf.  H.  Heppe, 
Doffmaiik  des  deiUschen  Protestantismus  im  16. 
Jahrhunderty  iii,  Gotha,  1857).  In  the  orthodox 
period  of  Lutheranism  baptism  was  always  under- 
stood as  a  kind  of  representation  of  the  Word 
{verhum  visibile),  in  accordance  with  the  statement 
of  the  Apology  of  the  Augsburg  Confession  (vii) 
that  the  sacraments  have  no  other  content  and 
therefore  no  other  effect  than  the  Word.  But  the 
doctrine  was  no  longer  sustained  by  the  vivid 
intuition  of  Luther.  When  he  spoke  of  the  Word, 
he  always  had  before  his  eyes  the  living  personality 
of  Christ  as  the  incarnate  Word  of  God;  he  "  saw  " 
in  the  Spirit  how  God  graciously  inclines  to  man. 
For  the  theologians  of  the  orthodox  period,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  Word  of  God  was  simply  the  Bible, 
and  the  sacrament  a  constituent  part  of  the  Word 
because  it  represents  a  scriptural  institution. 
They  were  sure  that  it  was  an  especially  powerful 
"  word  ";  but  they  were  no  longer  able  to  explain 
in  what  its  power  consisted  and  how  it  produced  its 
effects.  Quenstedt  made  regeneration  and  reno- 
vation, including  that  of  children,  dependent  upon 
baptism.  Regeneration  was  for  him  transposition 
into  the  state  of  adoption  which  is  brought  about 
by  God's  bestowing  in  baptism  the  power  of  faith 
(vires  credendi).  Since  the  baptized  person,  in 
virtue  of  this  power,  turns  to  God,  he  is  also  en- 
abled to  assiune  the  mrea  operandi  and  to  enter 
thereby  on  the  process  of  moral  "  renovation," 
which  continues  throughout  the  whole  life. 

Zwingli  and  Calvin  also  devoted  much  of  their 
thought  to  the  question  of  baptism.  Zwingli,  who 
became  interested  in  it  especially  through  the 
Anabaptists,  wrote  several  special  treatises  on  it. 
According  to  him,  it  is  not  the  function  of  baptism 
to  mediate  grace,  since  that  could  be 
2.  Reformed,  accomplished  only  internally  and  im- 
mediately through  the  Spirit  of  God; 
but  baptism  has  its  value  as  a  means  of  setting 
children  apart  for  God,  and  as  a  sign  for  them  that 
they  belong  to  the  congregation  of  Christ  and  are 
bound  to  his  service.  Calvin  was  influenced  more 
than  any  other  Reformer  by  Augustine's  distinction 
of  sacramentum  and  res  aacramenti,  because,  like 
Augustine,  he  always  has  predestination  in  mind, 
especially  in  connection  with  the  baptism  of  chil- 
dren. In  regard  to  the  elect  he  believes,  with 
Luther,  in  a  real  "  bestowal "  or  "  sealing "  of 
grace  through  baptism.  The  sacrament  signifies 
for  them  the  beginning  of  the  development  of  the 
"  new  life  "  in  the  Church.  It  is  a  peculiarity  of 
Calvin  that  he  rejects  private  baptism.  The  other 
Reformers  hardly  touched  this  subject;  its  position 
was  established  from  ancient  times.  But  Calvin 
thought  that  baptism,  like  all  ecclesiastical  func- 
tions, was  a  matter  of  the  ministerium  ecdeaiasti- 
cum.  A  child,  numbered  among  the  elect,  who 
dies  without  baptism,  suffers  no  harm  in  God's  sight. 
It  is  evident  that  Calvin  counts  baptism  only  among 
the  normal  means  of  grace  which  bind  the  elect 
to  the  Church,  as  they  undergo  their  development 


Baptimi 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


440 


on  earth;  but  his  reason  can  not  be  clearly  seen. 
The  orthodox  dogmaticians  of  the  Reformed  Church 
continued  the  thoughts  of  Calvin  (cf .  A.  Schweizer, 
Die  Glavbenslehre  der  evangelisch-reformirten  Kirche, 
ii,  Zurich,  1847;  H.  Heppe,  Dogmatik  der  evange- 
liach^eformirten  Kirche^  Elberfeld,  1861). 

The  age  of  pietism  and  rationalism  showed  no 
interest  in  baptism.     Schleiermacher  {Der  christ- 

liche  Glaube,  §§  136-138)  treats  bap- 

3.  Modem    tism   as  the  solcnm  act  of  reception 

Develop-    into  the  "  community  of  believers," 

ments.       in   which   alone    the   individual    can 

attain  real  communion  with  Christ. 
Baptism  of  children,  according  to  him,  has  no  mean- 
ing unless  Christian  education  follows,  and  it  is 
ozily  an  ''  incomplete  "  baptism  if  it  does  not  lead 
to  a  later  act  of  confession  of  faith  (confirmation). 
In  the  course  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  re- 
awakened life  of  Lutheranism  produced  new,  but 
on  the  whole  not  healthy  tendencies  in  the  doc- 
trine of  baptism.  Scheel  distinguishes  three  tend- 
encies. The  first  is  one  which  tries  to  give  to  the 
sacraments  as  a  whole  and  to  baptism  especially  a 
special  import  apart  from  the  Word.  Some  small 
beginnings  of  this  tendency  may  be  noticed  even  in 
the  old  orthodoxy,  especially  in  the  teachings  of 
Leonhard  Hutter.  In  our  modem  time  it  is  repre- 
sented by  Norwegian  (Danish)  and  German  Luther- 
an theologians,  among  the  fonner  especially  by 
G.  W.  Lyng  and  Krogh-Tonning,  among  the  lat- 
ter chiefly  by  the  Erlangen  theologians  Hofling, 
Thomasius,  and  others.  Baptism  is  here  explained 
as  a  natural  power  of  the  spirit  which  by  means  of 
the  body  renovates  and  "  regenerates  "  the  whole 
man.  Theosophical  speculations  on  the  relation 
of  body  and  soul  form  the  background  of  this  theory. 
Quite  different  is  the  second  tendency,  which  is 
represented  especially  by  H.  Cremer  of  Greifswald 
and  P.  Althaus  of  Gdttingen.  In  opposition  to  the 
former  theory,  the  stress  is  here  again  laid  upon 
the  Word  in  the  sacrament.  Here  also  baptism  is 
considered  a  bath  of  regeneration,  but  it  is  explained 
as  neither  natural  nor  "  moral,"  but  as  purely 
religious  or  "  soteriological."  Baptism  is  a  "  trans- 
position "  into  a  new  life,  into  the  real  life.  It  is 
assurance  of  grace,  and  as  such  salvation  from  the 
judgment  and  death  which  we  have  deserved. 
Its  moral  effects  follow  as  a  natural  result  of  justi- 
fication. Faith  is  produced  in  the  degree  in  which 
man  becomes  conscious  of  what  God  has  done  for 
him  and  assured  him  in  baptism.  In  the  child 
baptism  denotes  exactly  the  same  thing  as  in 
the  adult.  It  is  necessary  because  the  Lord 
has  instituted  it  and  made  the  effects  of  grace  de- 
pendent upon  it.  The  third  tendency  is  chiefly 
represented  by  A.  von  Oettingen  (Dorpat)  and 
takes  a  middle  ground  between  the  two  other  tend- 
encies. Here  baptism  is  thought  of  as  not  only 
**  convincing "  like  the  preaching  of  the  Word, 
but  in  an  especial  manner  as  both  "  generating  " 
through  assurance  of  grace  and  also,  through  a 
"  realistic  "  transformation  of  the  nature  of  man, 
"  regenerating."  Emphasis  is  once  more  laid  upon 
the  thought  of  Luther  that  baptism,  as  distin- 
guished from  the  general  preaching  of  the  gospel, 
assures  the  individual  as  such  of  his  salvation. 


It  is  true,  in  baptism  it  is  the  "  Word  "  which  pro- 
duces all  effects,  but  it  produces  them  in  a  hidden 
and  often  mysterious  manner. 

Among  recent  works  on  baptism  is  that  of  Gott- 
schick,  who,  impelled  by  certain  events  in  Bremen, 
investigated  the  doctrine  of  the  Reformers  with  a 
view  to  determining  how  far  the  Trinitarian  for- 
mula is  a  constituent  part  of  baptism.  Scheel  con- 
cludes his  work  also  with  a  detailed  dogmatic  dis- 
cussion. These  writers,  with  M.  K&hler  (Die 
SacramerUe  ale  Gnadenmittel,  BestefU  ikre  Tefar- 
matorieche  ScMtzung  noch  zu  Recht  t  Leipsic,  1903), 
are  nearly  related  to  each  other  in  their  interpre- 
tation of  baptism.  They  go  back  to  the  living 
intuition  of  Luther,  who  saw  the  whole  CSirist 
standing  behind  the  order  of  baptism,  thus  con- 
sidering it  not  merely  as  of  legal  authority.  Scheel 
shows  especially  that  the  proper  act  or  rite  of  bap- 
tism can  not  be  fully  appreciated  dogmatically, 
but  only  from  the  standpoint  of  the  psychology 
of  religion.  Dogmatically  he  considers  baptism 
only  as  the  presentation  of  the  Word  or  gospel 
All  three  regard  baptism  of  children  as  an  arbitrary, 
but  blameless  custom,  which  is  removed  alike  from 
dogmatic  justification  and  from  dogmatic  criticism; 
the  empirical  efficacy  of  the  "  Word,"  they  say,  is 
incalculable.  F.  Kattenbuscel 

m.  Liturgical  Usage. — 1.  Oeneral  Bevelopment 
to  the  Beformation:  The  origin  of  Christian  bap- 
tism seems  closely  connected  with  the  Jewish  cus- 
tom of  baptizing  proselytes,  which  was  based  on 
the  wide-spread  idea  of  attaining  ritual  purity  by 
ablutions,  found  in  practically  all  the  andent 
religions.  Whether  Christian  baptism  be  founded 
on  a  specific  command  of  Christ  or  not  (see  above, 
I,  1),  there  is  no  doubt  that  it  soon  became  a  uni- 
versal Christian  custom.  If  there  had 
I.  Original  been  no  other  reason,  it  would  have 
Forms,  seemed  obviously  fitting,  in  the  interest 
both  of  the  oommimity  and  of  the  new 
converts,  that  their  entrance  should  be  marked  by 
a  special  rite.  As  soon  as  definite  sacramental 
ideas  wero  connected  with  the  rite — and  this  must 
have  been  very  early — it  spread  throughout  the 
Christian  organizations.  It  is  an  attractive  theory, 
supported  by  Cyprian's  express  statement  (EpisL, 
Ixiii,  17),  that  the  Jews  and  the  Gentiles  in  the 
apostles'  time  had  a  different  manner  of  baptizing; 
that  among  the  Jewish  Christians  a  single  immer- 
sion was  the  rule,  in  the  name  of  Christ  alone,  on  the 
analogy  of  the  Jewish  proselyte  baptism,  while  the 
threefold  immersion  in  the  threefold  name,  which 
had  its  counterpart  in  the  heathen  lustrations,  was 
the  rule  among  the  Gentile  Christians.  It  is  unce^ 
tain  whether  the  later  rite  with  which  Jewish  prose- 
lyte baptism  was  performed  (see  Proselyte)  waa 
in  existence  at  the  foimdation  of  the  Christian 
Church;  but  if  so,  it  is  most  likely  that  the  Christian 
rite  was  a  free  adaptation  of  it.  It  is  possible  that 
the  analogy  of  the  reading  of  the  oommandments 
and  the  proselyte's  promise  to  keep  them  sug- 
gested the  similar  vow  on  the  part  of  the  Christian 
catechumen  (Clement,  Horn,,  xiii,  10;  Justin,  / 
ApoL,  Ixi;  Tertullian,  De  epectaculie,  iv),  although, 
of  course,  it  may  have  originated  independently. 

The  early  course  of  the  developmenit  made  out  of 


441 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Baptism 


a  simple  symbolic  action  a  complex  ritual  consisting 
of  various  ceremonies,  quite  in  accord  with  the 
natural  tendency  of  a  sacramental  conception. 
The  first  step  was  to  add  the  la3ring  on  of  hands. 
Baptism  must  not  only  signify  entrance  into  the 
Christian  fellowship  and  communion  with  Jesus, 
the  forgiveness  of  sins  and  liberation  from  the 
power  of  evil,  but  also  confer  the  gift  of  the  Holy 
Spirit,  imparted,  indeed,  by  baptism  itself,  but  more 
surely  and  definitely  by  the  imposition  of  hands. 
The  Didache  and  Justin  do  not  mention  this  rite, 
but  that  does  not  prove  that  it  did  not  exist.  The 
importance  attached  to  it  is  shown  by  the  fact  that 
in  the  two  places  in  the  Acts  where  it  is  mentioned 
(viii,  16;  xix,  6)  it  is  performed  by  apostles.  Ac- 
cording to  the  entire  mental  attitude  of  the  period, 
it  was  undoubtedly  looked  upon  as  not  merely  sym- 
bolic but  sacramental. 

For  the  subapostolio  age  the  main  authorities 
are  Justin  (/  Apol.,  Ixi,  2;  Ixv,  1)  and  the  Didache 

(vii),    the     former    representing    the 

a.  The  Sub-  practise  of  Rome,  the  latter  that  of 

apostolic    western  Syria.    Yet  they  agree  in  all 

Age.        essentials.    For   both   baptism   is    a 

complete  immersion  in  the  open  air; 
if  the  Didache  permits  still  water  to  be  used  in 
place  of  running,  and  affusion  in  place  of  immer- 
sion, the  local  conditions  are  obviously  taken  into 
account — the  probably  frequent  scarcity  of  water 
in  a  Syrian  siunmer.  Both  have  the  Trinitarian 
formula,  which  involves  a  threefold  dipping  or 
pouring.  It  is  clear  from  the  Didache  and  prob- 
able from  Justin  that  la3anen  were  authorized  to 
administer  the  rite.  Both  agree  in  requiring  the 
candidate  to  be  fasting,  in  which  other  brethren 
specially  interested  are  to  join.  It  is  a  safe  assmnp- 
tion  from  both  that  baptism  was  inmiediately  fol- 
lowed by  participation  in  the  Lord's  Supper. 
Thus  by  the  middle  of  the  second  century  the  ad- 
ministration of  baptism  would  seem  to  have  been 
alike  in  essentials  throughout  the  whole  Church. 
The  laying  on  of  hands  may  not  have  been  imiver- 
sal  (Heb.  vi,  2  shows  that  it  was  known  in  places 
outside  of  Rome  and  Syria);  and  here  and  there  a 
formal  profession  of  faith  may  have  been  in  use. 
Nothing  is  yet  heard  of  any  consecration  of  [the 
water,  or  of  fixed  seasons  for  baptism. 

The  first  completely  developed  baptismal  ritual 
{^pears  in  Tertullian.    The  forms  already  seen  in 

Justin  and  the  Didache  are  clearly  to 

3.  In  Ter-    be  recognized,  but  it  is  likely  that  not 

tullian.      a  few  customs  sprang  up  about  the 

middle  of  the  second  century  for  which 
the  earliest  evidence  is  found  in  Tertullian.  The 
most  striking  of  these  is  the  renunciation  of  the 
devil,  which  was  a  solenm  ceremony  full  of  meaning, 
and  practically  an  essential  feature  in  the  territory 
of  the  Gentile  Church.  To  judge  from  Tertullian's 
most  detailed  account  in  the  De  hapHsmOj  there 
was  a  period  of  preparation,  marked  by  frequent 
prayers,  fasting,  vigils,  and  confession  of  sin.  The 
baptism  proper  begins  with  the  invocation  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  upon  the  water  (see  Epiklesis);  next 
follows  apparently  the  renimdation,  and  then  the 
threefold  inmiersion  in  the  name  of  the  Father  and 
of  the  Son  and  of  the  Holy. Ghost,  with  a  profession 


of  faith  in  the  form  of  answers  to  the  interrogations 
of  the  minister;  then  the  anointing,  and  the  la3ring 
on  of  hands  with  prayer.  That  the  reception  of 
the  Eucharist  still  followed  the  baptism  is  clear 
from  several  passages;  after  this  the  newly  bap- 
tized, clothed  in  white  garments,  join  in  prayer  with 
the  "brethren,"  and  milk  and  honey  are  given 
them.  For  a  week  after  baptism  they  abstain 
from  the  usual  daily  bath  (De  corona,  ixi). 

Although  this  ritual  gives  the  basis  of  the  de- 
velopment of  the  next  few  centuries,  it  must  not 

be    forgotten   that   this  development 

4.  Lines    varied  considerably  in  different  parts  of 

of  Develop-  the  Church.    There  is  not  space  here 

ment      to  follow  out  the  ways  in  which  the 

East  differed  from  the  West,  and  one 
province  from  another.  One  main  distinction 
between  East  and  West  is  the  greater  richness  of 
the  rite  in  the  former,  while  the  latter  held  closely 
to  primitive  simplicity  and  even  in  course  of  time 
actually  shortened  the  form — though  later  it  was 
once  more  added  to.  This  enrichment  is  to  be 
explained  along  the  lines  of  the  preparation  for 
the  definite  and  final  act  of  baptism  by  varied 
ceremonies  of  dedication  and  exorcism  patterned 
after  the  ancient  pagan  mysteries  (see  fbcoR- 
cibm).  The  catechumen  was  considered  to 
have  crossed  the  boundary  which  divided  the 
kingdom  of  darkness  from  that  of  light  with  the 
first  of  these  initiatory  ceremonies.  It  is  thus 
easily  understood  how  the  lines  separating  these 
preparatory  ceremonies  from  baptism  proper  were 
fluctuating.  On  the  one  hand,  things  which  had 
originally  been  part  of  the  main  rite  were  pushed 
bade  into  the  preparation,  as  in  Jerusalem  and 
Rome  the  renunciation  and  profession  of  faith  took 
place  in  the  outer  court  or  vestibule,  while  the  bap- 
tism proper  began  with  the  blessing  of  the  water 
in  the  baptistery.  On  the  other,  the  process 
which  had  once  taken  weeks  was  now  compressed 
into  an  hour,  and  thus  such  things  as  the  recitation 
of  the  creed,  the  giving  of  the  name,  the  adminis- 
tration of  salt,  etc.,  became  part  of  the  baptismal 
ceremony.  The  close  connection  between  bap- 
tism and  the  Eucharist  made  it  possible  for  large 
sections  of  the  latter  service  to  be  fused  with  the 
baptismal  in  places,  as  among  the  Nestorians, 
Copts,  and  Armenians.  Thus,  once  more,  certain 
actions  originally  part  of  the  baptismal  fimction 
gradually  separated  from  it  into  independent  rites, 
as  the  blessing  of  oil  and  water,  and  the  imction 
after  baptism,  which  developed  into  confirmation 
under  hierarchical  influence.  The  decisive  elements 
in  the  development  may  be  simmied  up  in  the 
following  points:  the  increasing  prevalence  of  in- 
fant baptism;  the  gradual  decay  of  the  catechu- 
menate  through  this  and  through  the  large  numbers 
coming  to  baptism;  the  tendency  to  imitation  which 
brought  in  new  customs,  especially  those  followed 
by  a  dominant  church  with  a  definite  ritual  like 
Rome  or  Antioch;  and  finally  the  abbreviation  of 
the  ceremonies  for  the  benefit  of  parents  and 
sponsors. 

2.  Development  of  the  Ritual  in  Variona  Parts 
of  the  Ohuroh:  For  eastern  Syria  (the  territory  of 
the  Syriac  language,  with  its  center  at  Edessa  in 


Baptism 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


44d 


Osrhoene),  some  infonnation  may  be  gained  from 

the  Acts  of  Thomas,  which,  although  of  heretical 

origin,  probably  do  not  differ  from  the  orthodox 

rites  on  this  point.    These  mention 

z.  Syria,  imposition  of  hands  and  prayer,  anoint- 
ing with  consecrated  oil,  baptism  in 
the  name  of  Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Ghost  (under 
certain  conditions  by  immersion  only),  the  service 
closing  with  the  celebration  of  the  Eucharist.  This 
Syrian  Church  appears  to  have  maintained  its 
liturgical  independence  until  Bishop  Rabbula  of 
Edessa  (d.  435)  introduced  the  customs  of  the  Greek 
churches,  especially  of  Antioch;  but  there  may 
have  been  earlier  influences  from  that  source; 
the  later  Syrian  Jacobites  have  essentially  the  same 
baptismal  rite  as  is  foimd  in  the  Eastern  Church  at 
large,  especially  Constantinople. 

Coming  to  western  Syria  (with  Antioch  for  its 
center)  and  Palestine  (Greek-speaking  districts),  the 
primary  authority  for  Coele-syria  is  the  Syriac  Di- 
daacalia  (third  century),  from  which  the  following 
order  may  be  deduced:  possibly  first  the  renun- 
ciation and  profession  of  faith;  anointing  with 
imposition  of  hands;  baptism  proper;  imposition 
of  hands  by  the  bishop  and  further  anointing. 
This  agrees  with  what  may  be  inferred  for  An- 
tioch from  the  Apostolic  Constitutions  (middle  or 
latter  half  of  the  4th  cent.),  in  which  the  seventh 
book,  dealing  with  baptism  and  undoubtedly  derived 
from  an  older  source,  is  of  especial  value.  Accord- 
ing to  this  the  order  is  as  follows:  in  the  anteroom, 
or  outside  the  baptistery,  the  renimciation,  the  act 
of  allegiance  to  Christ,  the  Trinitarian  confession 
of  faith,  recited  by  the  candidate,  the  consecration 
of  the  oil,  and  the  unction;  in  the  baptistery,  a 
prayer  of  thanksgiving  and  blessing  of  the  water, 
baptism  in  the  threefold  name,  blessing  of  the 
balsam,  imposition  of  hands  and  unction,  Lord's 
Prayer,  and  prayer  of  the  newly  baptized.  In  its 
essential  points  this  ritual  is  found  also  in  Cyril  of 
Jerusalem  (d.  386);  the  main  differences  are  that 
the  first  anointing  takes  place,  according  to  him, 
within  the  baptistery,  and  that  he  does  not  mention 
the  blessing  of  the  water  (though  there  is  reason  to 
think  that  he  knew  it),  the  prayer  of  thanksgiving, 
or  the  Lord's  Prayer.  Thus  it  is  clear  that  the 
type  of  baptismal  rite  in  western  Syria  and  Jeru- 
salem was  substantially  the  same  in  the  fourth  cen- 
tury, and  relatively  simple,  which  speaks  for  its 
antiquity.  The  next  glimpse  afforded  by  tradition, 
about  a  century  later,  is  in  Dionysius  the  Arcop- 
agite  {De  hierarchia  ecclesiastical  ii-iii,  MPL,  iii, 
393  sqq.).  This  is  much  more  richly  developed; 
the  incQvidual  acts  are  in  some  cases  repeated 
three  times,  the  blessing  of  the  water  has  more 
formality,  and  imposition  of  hands  occurs  after  the 
profession  of  faith,  while  nothing  is  said  of  the 
second  anointing. 

In  the  territory  including  Asia  Minor  and  Con- 
stantinople, between  350  and  450  a  baptismal 
ritual  must  have  grown  up  and  spread  widely  which 
did  not  differ  essentially  from  the  present  Eastern 
usage.  That  of  the  Syrian  Jacobites  agrees  with 
it,  not  only  in  general  structure  but  even  in 
the  text  of  prayers — and  since  they  separated 
from  the  Church  in    451    (finally    in  519),  they 


must  have  had  it    before  their  separation.    The 

oldest  version  of  this  liturgy,  which   the   Jacobites 

traced  back  to  James  the  Apostle,  is 

2.  Asia     probably  that  which  bears  the  name  ci 

Minor  and  Basil  the  Great,  and  it  is  possible  that 

Constanti-  it  originated  with  this  liturgically  ac- 
nople.  tive  bishop.  Both  types  agree  in  {fa- 
cing the  act  of  reception  of  catechumens 
and  the  last  exorcism  before  baptism,  and  the  reading 
of  the  Scriptures  comes  before  the  actual  baptism. 
Here  again,  as  in  the  Apostolic  Constitutions  and 
Cyril,  the  first  act  of  the  real  baptismal  ceremony 
is  the  blessing  of  the  water.  The  Byzantine  liturgy 
has  only  one  anointing  with  oil  before  baptism, 
while  the  Jacobite  forms  have  two  before  and  one 
with  chrism  after.  Little  is  certainly  known  of  the 
Nestorian  and  Armenian  liturgies,  but  both  have 
much  less  connection  with  theGreek  than  has  that 
of  the  Syrian  Jacobites. 

The   Egyptian  liturgy  has  peculiarities  which 

mark  it  off  from  the  Syrian.     It  may  be  reocm- 

structed    from    the    prayer-book    of 

3.  Egypt    Bishop  Serapion  of  Thmuis  (c  350) 
and        in  the  following  form:   blessing  of  the 

Ethiopia,  water;  prayer  for  the  catechumens, 
renunciation,  prayer  before  anointing, 
anointing,  confession  of  faith,  prayer;  presentation 
of  catechmnens  by  the  deacon  to  the  bishop,  prayer, 
baptism,  imposition  of  hands  with  prayer,  conse- 
cration of  chrism,  anointing  with  it.  The  main 
differences  between  this  and  the  rite  of  the  Apos- 
tolic Constitutions,  which  originated  about  the 
same  time,  lie  in  the  different  positions  assigned 
to  the  blessing  of  the  water  of  the  first  unction 
and  in  the  fact  that  the  imposition  of  hands  after 
baptism  is  distinguished  from  the  anointing  in  the 
Egyptian,  and  closely  connected  with  it  in  the 
Syrian.  The  later  approximation  of  the  two  is 
attributable  to  the  influence  of  the  Syrian  upon  the 
Egyptian.  The  sixth  century  liturgy  known  under 
Baumstark's  name  places  the  blessing  of  the  water 
(as  well  as  of  oil  and  chrism)  within  the  main 
action  instead  of  before  it.  Some  later  Egyptian 
liturgies  place  before  the  renunciation  the  anointing 
which  formerly  followed  it.  The  Coptic  liturgy 
ultimately  had  three  imctions.  That  after  the 
baptism  separated  into  two — one  by  the  priest 
immediately  after  baptism,  the  other  by  the  bishop 
in  the  church  (as  in  Rome).  The  later  Egyptian 
liturgies  (Baumstark's  Alexandrian,  the  Coptic, 
and  the  Ethiopian)  have  a  section  at  the  beginning 
which  is  clearly  the  earlier  reception  of  catechu- 
mens, containing  the  giving  of  a  name,  imction 
with  the  oil  of  catechumens,  imposition  of  hands 
and  exorcism,  and  wholly  free  from  the  Syrian 
influence. 

For  the  investigation  of  the  Western  develop- 
ment, Rome  is  of  the  greatest  importance,  as  tend- 
ing to  influence  the  provinces,  which 
4.  Rome,     at  first  had  peculiarities  of  their  own, 
though  they  agreed  in  general  type 
Unfortunately   the   information   as    to    the  early 
Roman  development  is  very  fragmentary.    Jus- 
tin's testimony  has  been  already  referred  to;  but 
there  is  no  doubt  that  a  more  formal  ritual  existed 
than  his  words  directly  cover.    That  the  Roman 


448 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bi^E^timi 


Church  had  an  anointing  after  baptism  is  perhaps 
the  only  thing  to  be  safely  concluded  from  Hippoly- 
tus.  Two  centuries  later,  under  Innocent  I  (402- 
419),  this  anointing  had  been  divided  between  the 
priest  and  the  bishop,  whether  the  latter  was 
present  at  the  time  or  not,  and  the  bishop  claimed 
the  right  of  consecrating  the  chrism  and  imposition 
of  hands.  From  Leo  I  (440-461)  the  following 
order  may  be  worked  out:  renunciation,  profession 
of  faith  in  God,  blessing  of  the  water,  threefold 
immersion,  anointing  with  chrism,  and  signing  with 
the  cross.  From  the  sixth  century  the  rite  known 
as  the  scrutinies  developed  in  preparation  for 
baptism,  taking  place  in  seven  special  masses  in 
the  last  weeks  before  Easter,  to  which  the  cate- 
chumenate  period  had  now  been  reduced.  At 
this  time  the  Sacramentary  of  Gelasius  and  the 
first  Roman  Ordo  show  no  essential  changes  from 
the  order  under  Leo  I.  After  the  last  scrutinies 
have  taken  place  in  the  vestibule  of  the  baptistery, 
including  renunciation  and  profession  of  faith, 
clergy  and  people  enter  the  baptistery  singing  a 
litany,  and  the  blessing  of  the  water  follows;  the 
**  symbol "  is  recited  at  the  time  of  the  actual 
baptism  in  the  form  of  three  questions  and  an- 
swers; then  the  presbyter  anoints  the  candidate 
with  chrism  on  the  back;  the  procession  moves  to 
the  cansignatarium,  where  confirmation  or  consig- 
nation is  administered  by  the  bishop,  consisting  of 
signing  with  the  cross  on  the  forehead  and  impo- 
sition of  hands;  and  another  litany  leads  to  the 
eucharistic  celebration.  This  form  may  have  been 
used  until  the  ninth  century;  but  finally  a  tendency 
sets  in  to  fuse  the  acts  belonging  to  catechumens 
and  competerUeSf  in  a  shortened  form,  with  the  bap- 
tism, while  the  confirmation  is  more  completely 
separated  from  it.  By  the  fusion  of  the  Qrdo  ad 
catechumenum  faciendum  with  the  actual  baptismal 
ceremony  is  formed  the  present  Roman  rite,  which 
in  its  final  form  dates  from  Paul  V  (1614).  It  has 
two  different  rites,  one  for  infants  and  one  for 
adults.  The  latter,  representing  more  closely  the 
ancient  S3rstem,  has  the  following  parts:  preparation 
by  the  clergy  in  the  church,  the  candidates  waiting 
without,  including  reading  of  Psalm  xli,  perhaps  a 
survival  of  the  ancient  reading  of  Scripture;  at 
the  church  door,  the  giving  of  the  name,  renun- 
ciation and  profession  of  faith,  threefold  blowing 
in  the  face,  signing  with  the  cross  on  forehead  and 
breast,  prayer,  more  signs  of  the  cross,  imposition 
of  hands,  blessing  and  administration  of  salt, 
another  imposition  of  hands,  and  exorcism — dis- 
tinct traces  of  the  old  catechiunenate  oeremionies; 
in  the  church,  confession  of  faith,  imposition  of 
hands  and  exorcism,  symbolic  opening  of  the  ears, 
renunciation,  and  anointing — the  ancient  reddiiio 
symboli  with  its  consequent  exorcism;  in  the  bap- 
tistery, baptism  proper  and  confirmation.  Rome 
endeavored  constantly  to  spread  its  baptismal 
liturgy  and  customs  through  the  other  provinces. 
The  scrutiny-masses  were  introduced  into  Gaul 
and  the  Franldsh  kingdom  in  the  seventh  and 
eighth  centuries.  In  Spain  the  Synod  of  Braga 
(561)  made  the  Roman  rite  binding  on  a  whole 
province;  it  probably,  though  not  certainly,  spread 
into  Africa,  and  Milan  showed  a  tendency  to  accept 


it.  The  question  as  to  what  rites  were  used  in  these 
provinces  before  the  Roman  can  not  be  answered 
completely,  but  some  important  points  may  be 
set  down. 

It  would  seem  that  the  ancient  customs  sur- 
vived longer  in  Spain  than  anywhere  else  in  the 
West.    The  witnesses,   however,   are' 

5.  Spain    late,    beginning    with    Isidorus    His- 
and        paliensis   (d.   636),   whose  De  offidia 

Africa.  eccleaiasticU  makes  it  possible  to 
establish  the  following  order:  blessing 
of  the  water;  renunciation,  pronounced  by  the 
candidate  standing  in  the  water;  confession  of 
faith  in  three  parts,  probably  in  the  form  of  question 
and  answer;  baptism  in  the  threefold  name,  but 
probably  by  a  single  inunersion;  anointing  with 
chrism  and  imposition  of  hands,  performed  only  by 
the  bishop.  The  rite  is  somewhat  further  developed 
as  it  appears  in  Toledo  with  the  De  cognUiane  fiap- 
tismi  of  ndefonsus  (d.  667).  Here  the  blessing  of 
the  water  is  more  ceremonious  (a  wooden  cross  is 
used);  the  single  immersion  is  clearly  shown;  and 
after  the  entire  ceremony  the  Lonl's  Prayer  is 
recited  and  thus  delivered  to  the  new-made  Chris- 
tian, as  it  was  among  the  Syrian  Jacobites.  An- 
other ancient  rite  preserved  in  Spain  was  the  foot- 
washing  after  baptism  (attested  by  the  Synod  of 
Elvira,  306);  and  many  of  these  old  customs  were 
retained  in  the  missale  mixtum  of  the  Mozarabic 
liturgy.  For  Africa  we  get  substantially  the  same 
accoimt  in  the  earliest  witness,  TertuUian,  as  in 
Cyprian,  in  Optatus  of  Mileve,  and  in  Augustine, 
showing  that  Uttle  change  had  come  about  in  two 
centuries. 

For  Milan  and  North  Italy,  the  principal  source 
is  the  De  myeteriia,  still  generally,  though  not  cer- 
tainly,  ascribed    to    Ambrose.     Here 

6.  Milan    the  order  was:   the  symbolic  opening 
and  North  of  the  ears  and  imction  on  ears  and 

Italy.  nose,  in  the  antechamber;  in  the 
baptistery,  renunciation,  blessing  of 
the  water,  profession  of  faith  by  the  candidate 
standing  in  the  water,  in  the  form  of  three  ques- 
tions and  answers,  one  immersion  following  each 
answer,  imction  on  the  head,  foot-washing,  clothing 
in  white  garments,  probably  imposition  of  hands, 
and  the  Eucharist.  With  this  in  the  main  agree 
the  four  addresses  of  Maximus  of  Turin  to  the 
neophytes  (fifth  century;  MPLj  Ivii,  771),  and 
the  pseudo-Ambrosian  De  eacramentie.  The  latter, 
however,  has  an  additional  unction  before  the 
renunciation,  which  is  retained  in  the  later  Milanese 
usage,  as  mentioned  by  Archbishop  Odilbert  (d. 
814).  This  ritual  is  characterized  by  the  com- 
bination of  the  ceremonies  belonging  to  catechu- 
mens and  compeUnUs  into  one  service  with  the 
baptism  proper,  and  in  general  is  closely  allied  to 
that  of  the  Franldsh  Church  of  the  ninth  century 
and  to  the  later  Roman  ordo. 

In  Gaul,  according  to  the  sacramentaries  which 

are  here  the  first  definite  authorities,  the  service 

began  with  a  solemn  blessing  of  the 

7.  Gaul,     water  in  the  absence  of  the  candidates; 

in  the  antechamber  followed  the  re- 
nunciation; in  the  baptistery,  threefold  confession 
and  immersion;  in  another  place,  confirmation  by 


Baptism 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


444 


the  bishop,  clothing  in  white,  foot-washing — 
speaking  generally,  a  simple  and  very  ancient  form 
of  service.  It  contained  only  one  imction,  with 
chrism;  but  in  the  Sacramentarium  Gallicanum  a 
second  is  added,  before  the  renunciation,  with  oil, 
on  ears,  nose,  and  breast,  following  an  exorcism. 
This  ancient  ritual  was  either  influenced  or  re- 
placed by  the  Roman.  The  development  reached 
by  the  time  of  Charlemagne  is  visible  in  the  in- 
structions sent  by  him  to  the  bishops  of  his  domin- 
ions in  the  last  years  of  his  reign,  not  later  than  812, 
and  obviously  based  on  the  Roman  ordo.  No 
absolute  uniformity  was,  however,  attained,  so  that 
even  in  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries  it  is 
impossible  to  speak  of  one  single  baptismal  ritual 
for  Germany  or  for  France;  but  they  agree  fairly 
closely  in  the  prayers  and  in  the  formula  for 
exorcism. 

8.  The  Baptismal  Service  in  the  Reformation 
Ohurohes:  The  transition  stage  was  marked  by 
simple  translation  of  the  current  older  ritual  with- 
out essential  alterations,  as  in  the  service  put  forth 
by  Thomas  MUnzer  in  1524,  though  made  in  the 
previous  year,  and  that  of  Luther  in  his 

I.  Three  TaufbucMein  verdeuUchl,  also  1523. 
Main  Luther  omitted  the  exorcism  of  salt 
Types.  and  the  opening  of  the  ears,  short- 
ened the  initial  exorcisms,  omitted 
the  profession  of  faith  by  the  sponsors,  and  used 
the  Lord's  Prayer  as  a  prayer,  instead  of  the  earlier 
usage  of  reciting  it  in  the  hearing  of  the  newly 
baptized  for  their  instruction.  This  service,  com- 
paratively little  different  from  the  Latin  forms, 
was  widely  used  or  imitated.  The  first  thorough 
recasting  of  the  service  was  made  at  Strasburg  in 
1525,  and  in  the  next  year  appeared  a  new  edition 
of  Luther's  book;  these,  with  Zwingli's  order  of 
1525,  form  the  three  points  of  departure  for  the 
later  development.  Luther's  is  divided  into  two 
parts.  Outside  the  church  or  in  the  vestibule 
occurred  an  exorcism,  signing  with  the  cross  on 
forehead  and  breast,  prayers,  another  exorcism, 
reading  of  Mark  x,  13-16,  imposition  of  hands,  and 
recitation  of  the  Lord's  Prayer.  At  the  font: 
salutation,  renunciation  and  profession  of  faith, 
request  for  baptism,  also  made  by  the  sponsors, 
baptism  by  threefold  immersion,  giving  of  the 
chrisom-cloth.  The  exorcism,  deliberately  retained 
by  Luther,  aroused  opposition  and  controversy 
even  in  the  sixteenth  century.  The  Strasburg  rit- 
ual, drawn  up  under  Butzer's  influence,  left  much 
less  of  the  pre-Reformation  service.  It  was  com- 
posed of  an  exhortation  ending  with  a  prayer,  the 
Lord's  Prayer,  Apostles'  Creed,  reading  of  Matt, 
xix,  pledge  of  sponsors  to  bring  up  the  child  in 
the  Christian  faith,  baptism  by  pouring,  and  final 
prayers.  Slight  alterations  were  made  in  1537  and 
later,  but  the  service  has  remained  in  this  essen- 
tially evangelical  form.  Zwingli's  service  consisted 
of  an  introductory  formula,  questions  to  sponsors, 
prayer,  reading  of  Mark  x,  13-16,  request  for 
baptism,  baptism,  giving  of  chrisom-cloth.  It  is 
thus  obvious  that  the  Zwinglian  and  Strasburg 
services  differ  from  Luther's  in  the  omission  of 
the  exorcisms  and  renunciation,  considered  as  in- 
appropriate to  the  baptism  of  a  child  of  Christian 


parents,  and  in  the   substitution  of  pouring  for 
inmiersion. 

These  three  forms  have  had  dedsive  influence 

on  the  development  of  the  Evangelical  Churches. 

Luther's  was  the  stsmdard  for  the  old 

a.  Later    Lutheran  established  Churches,  with 

Develop-  the  omission  here  and  there  of  the 
ment  signing  with  the  cross  and  the  ex- 
orcisms. That  of  Strasburg  had  a 
powerful  influence,  through  the  cooperation  ol 
Butzer  and  Hedio  with  Melanchthon,  on  the 
''  Cologne  Reformation "  of  1543  and  a  number 
of  other  Gennan  services,  and  more  than  the 
Zwinglian  on  that  of  Calvin,  so  that  it  gradually 
influenced  the  entire  Reformed  community  with 
the  exception  of  Gennan  Switzerland,  where 
Zwingli  was  followed.  The  Church  of  England 
service  has  features  of  both  Lutheran  and  Reformed 
types,  the  former  predominating. 

The  baptismal  formularies  of  the  German  evan- 
gelical churches  remained  more  or  less  on  the  old 
model  until  the  age  of  rationalism,  when  the  exor- 
cisms (to  which  Spener  had  already  objected) 
were  removed  together  with  the  meaningless  ques- 
tions to  the  child,  and  in  many  places  the  renun- 
ciation; immersion  was  also  generally  discontinued. 
Even  where  the  old  service-books  remained  offi- 
cially in  force;  the  ministers  frequently  disregarded 
them  and  made  use  of  private  compositions,  com- 
posed in  thoroughly  eighteenth  century  style, 
and  imsuited  to  the  taste  of  the  nineteenth.  The 
movement  for  the  reform  of  the  services  which  set 
in  between  1810  and  1820  showed  an  inclination  to 
return  to  the  older  formularies,  not  indeed  restor- 
ing the  exorcisms,  but  frequently  including  onoe 
more  the  questions  to  the  child  and  the  renun- 
ciation. 

4.  The  DCinieter  of  Baptism:  It  would  seem  that 
the  original  S3rstem  allowed  any  baptized  persoQ 
to  baptize  others;  at  least  it  is  impossible  to  assert 
that  only  the  apostles  or  those  commissioned  by 
them  could  administer  the  sacrament  (cf.  I  Cor. 
i,  14-17;  Acts  vi,  5;  viii,  12,  38).  The  same  in- 
ference may  be  drawn  from  the  Didache  (vii)  and 
Ignatius  {Ad  SmyrncooHj  viii,  2).  Tertullian  al- 
lows lay  baptism  in  the  absence  of  a  cleric  {Dt 
baptismo,  xvii),  though  the  natural  minister  is  the 
bishop — a  view  which  became  more  and  more 
prevsdent,  so  that  baptisteries  were  found  only  in 
episcopal  sees.  But  the  practical  difficulty  of  en- 
forcing this  principle  led  bishops  to  conmiissioD 
others,  especially  presbyters.  The  natural  ri^t 
of  the  bishop  was  still  expressed  in  the  fact  that  it 
was  he  who  consecrated  the  oils  used,  and  gave  the 
unction  and  la3ring  on  of  hands  after  baptism. 
The  scholastic  theologians  supplied  a  theory  to  fit 
this  already  ancient  practise,  asserting  that  the 
right  belonged  to  the  bishop,  but  that  he  might 
delegate  it.  The  right  of  the  priest  was  dogmat- 
ically declared,  following  Thomas  Aquinas  {Stanma, 
III,  Ixvii,  2),  by  Eugenius  IV:  "  the  minister  of  this 
sacrament  is  the  priest,  who  has  ex  officio  the  right 
to  baptize"  {Decretum  pro  instructione  Armenionmt 
1439).  The  CaUchismus  Romanus  (II,  ii,  18) 
asserts  that  priests  exercise  this  fimction  jure  mo. 
so  that  they  may  baptixe  even  in  the  presence  d 


446 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Baptism 


the  bishop.  Deacons,  however ,  were  only  allowed 
to  baptize  by  commission  of  a  bishop  or  priest. 

Yet,  although  thus  the  right  to  baptize  was 
appropriated  to  officials  of  the  Church,  the  old 
practise  of  lay  baptism  was  maintained  by  the 
doctrine  of  the  necessity  of  baptism  to  salvation. 
The  validity  of  lay  baptism  is  dogmatically  asserted 
by  Augustine  {Contra  Parmenianum,  II,  xiii,  29; 
Epistf  ccxxviii),  but  only,  of  course,  in  the  absence 
of  a  presbyter  and  in  danger  of  death.  The  Synod 
of  Elvira  (306)  decreed  (canon  xxxviii)  that  on  a 
journey  by  sea  or  in  any  case  where  no  church  is 
accessible,  a  layman,  so  long  as  he  had  not  lost  his 
baptismal  grace  by  apostasy  or  bigamy,  might 
baptize  a  catechumen  in  mortal  illness,  though  the 
bishop  was  afterward  to  give  the  laying  on  of  hands, 
if  possible.  These  principles  (with  the  exception 
of  the  restriction  as  to  the  moral  quality  of  the 
baptizer)  became  generally  accepted.  Both  the 
CatechismtLs  Romanus  and  the  RUuale  Romanum 
permit  both  men  and  women,  even  imbelievers  or 
heretics,  to  administer  baptism  in  case  of  neces- 
sity, provided  they  use  the  proper  formula.  The 
Lutheran  Church  recognizes  lay  baptism  as  per- 
missible in  case  of  necessity.  The  Reformed 
Churches,  on  the  other  hand,  denying  the  necessity 
of  baptism  to  salvation,  forbid  it  as  a  usurpation 
of  the  ecclesiastical  ministry. 

The  right  of  women  to  baptize  has  a  separate 
history.  There  is  no  evidence  that  they  baptized 
in  the  primitive  age,  though  it  is  conceivable  that 
the  right  was  conceded  to  prominent  women. 
Tertullian  recognizes  no  such  right  {De  baptismo, 
xvii),  condemns  the  Gnostics  who  had  the  custom, 
and  protests  energetically  when  a  woman  appears 
in  Carthage  teaching  and  baptizing.  In  the  acts 
of  the  martyrs,  however,  there  are  some  cases  of 
both  teaching  and  baptizing  by  female  martyrs, 
such  as  Domitilla  and  Chryse;  and  nothing  but 
the  existence  of  pushing  women  who  claimed  both 
this  right  and  that  of  administering  the  Eucharist 
would  explain  protests  like  those  in  the  Apos- 
tolic Constitutions  (iii,  9)  and  Epiphanius  {Hcer., 
Ixxix).  That  women,  especially  "  clerical  "  wom- 
en (widows  and  deaconesses)  assisted  at  baptisms, 
especially  in  the  unction  of  female  candidates  is 
evident  from  the  Syriac  Didascalia  ;  but  this  did 
not  involve  the  concession  of  the  right  to  baptize. 
The  modem  Roman  Catholic  custom  can  scarcely, 
then,  be  a  survival  of  ancient  practise,  as  it  is  first 
sanctioned  by  Urban  II  (1088-99;  cf.  Af PL,  cli, 
529).  Thomas  Aquinas  justifies  it  on  dogmatic 
grounds  (Summa,  III,  Ixvii,  4);  but  it  is  only  per- 
mitted now  in  the  absence  of  a  man.  The  Lutheran 
Church  retained  the  practise,  Luther  expressly 
declaring  such  baptism  valid,  and  the  Lutheran 
agenda  giving  the  right  especially  to  midwives. 

6.  The  Time  for  Baptism:  No  special  season 
was  observed  in  the  apostolic  age,  nor  is  such  limi- 
tation ever  mentioned  in  the  oldest  Christian  litera- 
ture. But  before  the  end  of  the  second  century 
Elaster  must  have  been  recognized  as  the  appropri- 
ate time.  The  fixing  of  a  special  season  was  the 
natural  consequence  of  the  great  nimiber  of  can- 
didates and  of  the  catechimienate  system,  which 
led  up  through  common  instruction  to  common 


reception  of  the  sacrament.  The  choice  of  Easter 
was  determined  not  only  by  the  feeling  that  heav- 
enly grace  was  more  abundant  at  that  time,  but 
also  by  Paul's  connection  of  baptism  with  the  death 
and  resurrection  of  Christ  (Rom.  vi,  3;  Col.  ii,  12; 
iii,  1).  The  increasing  number  of  candidates  led 
to  the  addition  of  Pentecost,  for  which  again  there 
was  an  intrinsic  appropriateness.  These  two  sea- 
sons were  widely  adopted,  and  the  popes  enforced 
them  zealously  against  innovators  (e.g.,  Siricius, 
385,  AfPL,  xiii,  1134;  Celestine  I,  A/PL,  1,  536; 
Leo  I,  429,  AfPL,  liv,  696,  1209;  Gelasius  I,  AfPL, 
lix,  52;  Gregory  II,  AfPL,  Ixxxix,  503,  533;  Nicho- 
las I,  Ad  conauUa  Bulgarorum,  Ixix).  The  oldest 
of  these  papal  utterances  passed  into  the  collec- 
tions of  decretals  and  thus  gained  universal  sanc- 
tion. The  first  break  in  the  practise  came  from 
the  E^t,  where  it  became  customary  to  baptize 
at  the  Epiphany  also;  Leo  I  asserts  that  in  Sicily 
more  people  were  baptized  then  than  at  Easter. 
The  second  Irish  synod  under  Patrick  (canon  xix, 
Hefele,  Conciliengeachichte,  ii,  678)  puts  the  Epiph- 
any on  a  level  with  Easter  and  Pentecost.  Then 
it  became  customary  to  baptize  also  at  Christmas, 
the  evidence  for  which  goes  back  to  the  sixth  cen- 
tury, and  on  the  feasts  of  martyrs,  apostles,  and 
John  Baptist.  Infant  baptism  made  it  all  the 
more  impossible  to  adhere  to  the  few  ancient  days. 
Even  Pope  Siricius  had  admitted  that  children  and 
the  sick  might  be  baptized  at  any  time.  Attempts 
were  made  to  enforce  the  old  restriction  in  the  ninth 
century  (synods  at  Paris,  829;  Meaux  or  Paris, 
845,  846;  Mainz,  847);  but  in  the  tenth  it  began 
to  disappear.  Thomas  Aquinas,  though  he  still 
prefers  Easter  and  Pentecost  for  adult  baptism, 
recommends  that  infants  shall  be  baptized  im- 
mediately after  birth.  The  Rituale  Romanum 
speaks  of  the  vigils  of  Easter  and  Pentecost  as  the 
most  fitting  times  for  the  solenm  administration  of 
the  sacrament;  but  almost  the  only  trace  of  the 
ancient  custom  is  the  blessing  of  the  baptismal 
font  on  those  two  days  as  part  of  the  regular  cere- 
monies. From  the  eleventh  century  no  more 
attention  was  paid  in  the  East  to  the  old  seasons. 
6.  The  Plaoe  of  Baptism:  Primitive  Christi- 
anity had  complete  freedom  also  in  regard  to  the 
place.'  Running  or  sea  water  was,  indeed,  preferred; 
and  the  open  air  was  the  usual  place  (Victor  I,  d. 
202,  still  presupposes  this  as  the  norm,  MPG,  y, 
1485).  But  perhaps  even  while  this  was  still  the 
custom,  the  atrium  was  used  for  the  ceremony 
which  conferred  entrance  to  the  Church,  until 
finally  special  baptisteries  began  to  be  built  in  con- 
nection with  the  episcopal  churches  (see  Bap- 
tistery). The  restriction  of  baptism  to  the  ecde- 
9i(E  bapHsmalea  was  frequently  attempted,  but 
with  diminishing  success.  By  the  present  Roman 
Catholic  and  Greek  usage,  baptism  in  private 
houses  is  permitted  only  in  case  of  necessity.  The 
same  rule  was  laid  down  by  the  Reformers,  but  in 
the  seventeenth  ^^ntury  the  custom  of  baptizing 
healthy  infants  at  home  came  up,  and  in  the  eight- 
eenth became  the  normal  practise  in  some  Lutheran 
communities,  especially  among  the  upper  classes, 
who  considered  it  a  distinction  of  rank;  and  the 
Reformed  and  Roman  Catholic  practise  was  par- 


Baptism 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


446 


tially  influenced  by  this  tendency.  The  Anglican 
Prayer-book  requires  children  who  have  been 
privately  baptized  to  be  brought  to  their  parish 
church  as  soon  as  possible  thereafter  for  a  solemn 
ceremony  of  formd  "  reception  into  the  Church." 

7.  Sponsora:  The  institution  of  godfathers  and 
godmothers  is  not  coeval  with  infant  baptism,  but 
originated  in  the  custom  of  requiring  an  adult  pagan 
unknown  to  the  bishop  to  be  accompanied,  when 
he  came  to  seek  baptism,  by  a  Christian  who  could 
vouch  for  him,  and  who  was  also  boimd  to  watch 
over  his  preparation  and  instruction.  It  is  worth 
noting  that  in  the  Eleusinian  mysteries  the  can- 
didate to  be  initiated  had  a  similar  sponsor,  known 
as  mystagogos.  The  date  of  the  Christian  function 
is  imknown.  Since  Tertullian  is  the  first  witness 
for  sponsors  at  infant  baptism  {De  bapHsmOf  xviii), 
the  custom  must  have  been  established  before  his 
time;  and  its  existence  may  possibly  be  inferred 
from  Justin  (/  Apol,  Ixi,  2).  But  the  duties  at- 
tached in  modem  times  to  the  office  of  sponsor  are 
rather  those  which  would  be  connected  with  infant 
baptism.  The  sponsor  was  obliged  to  represent 
the  child,  since  the  oldest  baptismal  formularies, 
drawn  up  for  adults,  were  used  without  change 
for  infants,  who  could  not  answer  questions,  make 
the  rcnimciation,  or  recite  the  profession  of  faith. 
This  is  clearly  brought  out  in  the  oldest  Egyptian 
baptismal  ritual,  where  the  parents  are  regarded  as 
the  most  natural  sponsors.  Augustine  takes  the 
same  view  (EpisL,  xcviii,  6);  but  he  also  contem- 
plates the  bringing  of  children  of  slaves  by  their 
masters  and  of  orphans  or  foundlings  by  other 
benevolent  persons.  Attempts  have  been  made  to 
prove  that  the  sponsorship  of  parents  continued 
the  usual  custom  down  to  the  eighth  century,  and 
that  an  innovation  is  represented  by  the  Synod 
of  Mainz  (813);  but  it  is  usually  the  case  that  such 
synodal  decisions  have  a  long  previous  history  and 
raise  to  the  rank  of  laws  things  already  established 
as  customs.  Thus  the  seventh  Roman  Ordo  speaks 
simply  of  godfathers  and  godmothers,  and  mentions 
the  parents  only  in  connection  with  the  oblation, 
and  then  in  addition  to  the  sponsors.  Csesa- 
rius  of  Aries  speaks  clearly  of  the  spiritual  relation- 
ship into  which  the  sponsors  enter  with  the  child 
in  a  way  which,  taken  in  connection  with  Augustin- 
ian  ideas,  would  soon  tend  to  exclude  the  parents 
from  this  office.  Another  consequence  of  the  notion 
of  spiritual  affinity  was  the  prohibition  of  marriage 
between  sponsors,  which  appears  as  early  as  the 
Code  of  Justinian  (V,  iv,  26).  The  Trullan  Council 
(canon  liii)  absolutely  forbids  marriage  between  a 
child's  godfather  and  its  mother.  By  the  thir- 
teenth century  this  view  had  extended  so  far  as  to 
prohibit  marriages  between  the  baptizer  and  the 
baptized  or  the  latter's  parents,  between  the  spon- 
sors themselves,  between  them  or  their  children 
and  the  baptized  person,  or  even  between  a  god- 
father's widow  and  the  godson  or  his  natural  parent. 
The  Council  of  Trent  diminished  these  restrictions, 
so  that,  according  to  the  Catechismus  Romanua  (II, 
ii,  21),  marriage  is  now  forbidden  only  between 
baptizer  or  sponsor  and  the  baptized  person,  and 
between  the  sponsors  and  parents. 

The  close  relation  between  sponsors  and  child 


was  considered  to  lay  a  grave  responsibility  upon 
the  former.  Having  renounced  the  devil  and  pro- 
fessed the  faith  on  the  child's  behalf,  they  were 
bound  to  see  that  these  vows  were  carried  out 
This  is  emphasized  in  the  instructions  of  Csesarius 
of  Aries  and  in  those  issued  for  the  Prankish  mis- 
sion, where  Chariemagne  insisted  that  the  sponsors 
should  know  the  creed  and  the  Lord's  Prayer 
thoroughly.  This  insistence  tended  to  diminish, 
though  Thomas  Aquinas  still  presupposed  the 
instruction  of  children  by  their  godparents  {Summa, 
III,  Ixxi,  4);  but  the  Catechismus  Romanus  oom- 
plains  that  "  nothing  more  than  the  bare  name  of 
this  function  remains/'  and  attempts  to  enforce 
its  duties. 

Originally  there  was  but  one  sponsor,  but  with 
the  admission  of  parents  to  the  office  this  prindj^ 
was  broken  through.  A  tendency  to  increase  the 
number  as  much  as  possible  is  attested  by  synodal 
decrees  of  the  early  Middle  Ages,  which  place  the 
proper  number  at  two,  three,  or  four.  The  Council 
of  Trent  allows  only  one  sponsor  of  the  same  sex 
as  the  candidate,  or  at  most  two  of  different  sexes. 
According  to  Roman  Catholic  law,  a  sponsor  must 
have  been  baptized  and  preferably  confirmed;  the 
Rituale  Ramanum  excludes  infidels  and  heretics, 
those  laboring  under  excommunication  or  inter- 
dict, notorious  criminals,  the  insane,  and  those 
ignorant  of  the  rudiments  of  the  faith;  monks  and 
nims,  since  their  separation  from  theworid  makes  it 
difficult  for  them  to  perform  the  duties,  are  not 
supposed  to  undertake  them. 

The  institution  of  sponsors  was  retained,  with 
infant  baptism,  by  the  Evangelical  Churches  at 
the  Reformation.  Though  parents  were  still  ex- 
cluded, the  notion  of  spiritual  affinity  was  dropped, 
and  any  baptized  Christian  is  now,  though  it  was  not 
usual  at  first,  permitted  to  take  the  office  without 
regard  to  his  creed — a  latitude  which  would  be 
illogical  if  the  function  carried  with  it  the  duty  of 
religious  instruction,  as  it  does  not  at  present. 
Some  among  those  who  recognise  that  it  is  prac- 
tically an  empty  form  are  in  favor  of  abolishing  it 
altogether,  while  others  would  have  it  reformed 
and  made  once  more  a  living  reality.  [Tlie  Angjd- 
can  baptismal  office  (which  contemplates  two  god- 
fathers and  one  godmother  for  a  boy,  and  vice 
versa)  contains  a  solemn  charge  to  them  as  to  their 
duties,  including  spiritual  instruction  and  bringing 
the  child  to  confirmation  at  the  proper  time.] 

(P.  Drews.) 

IV.  Discussion  of  Controverted  Points. — 1.  The 
Arfimment  against  the  Neoesaity  of  Immersion: 
In  the  view  of  those  who  do  not  practise  im- 
mersion, baptism  is  a  "  washing  with  water  in  the 
name  of  the  Father,  and  of  the  Scm,  and  of  the 
Holy  Ghost,"  in  which  the  "  dipping  of  the  person 
into  the  water  is  not  necessary; "  but  it  may  be 
"rightly  administered  by  pouring  or  sprinlding 
water  upon  the  person "  {Westminster  Shorter 
Catechism,  Q.  xciv,  and  Confession,  xxviii,  3). 
"  We  must  bear  in  mind,"  said  Walafrid  Strabo  a 
thousand  years  ago  {De  rebus  ecd.,  xxvi,  MPL,  cxiv, 
959),  "  that  many  have  been  baptized  not  only  by 
immersion  but  by  affusion,  and  may  yet  be  so 
baptized  if  necessary."    "  Whether  the  person  who 


447 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Baptiam 


is  baptised/'  says  John  Calvin  ("  Institutes,"  IV, 
XV,  19  end),  "  be  wholly  immersed,  or  whether 
thrice  or  once,  or  whether  water  be  only  poured 
or  sprinkled  upon  him,  is  of  no  importance."  "  The 
mode  of  applying  water  as  a  purifying  medium," 
says  Charles  Hodge  {Systematic  Theology,  iii,  526), 
"  is  unessential." 

This  Lb  the  position  occupied  also  by  Thomas  Aquinas,  Sum- 
ma^  III,  Ixvi  7;  CaUehimniM  ex  deento  Concilii  TridetUini^ 
Leipsic  ed.,  1853,  p.  136  (Eng.  transl.  by  J.  Donovan,  Lon- 
don. 1833,  p.  165);  Dominicus  a  Soto,  Dutinc.,  Ill,  i,  7; 
Durandus,  In  9enientia»t  IV,  iii,  4;  William  Lyndwood, 
ProvinciaUt  iii,  25;  Giovanni  Penrone,  PrcUeetionM  theo- 
logiccB,  vi,  10;  C.  Pesoh,  PrcUectioneB  theologteas^  vol.  vi, 
Freiburg,  1900,  pp.  150-151;  T.  M.  J.  Qousset.  Thiologie 
doffmaHque^  vol.  ii,  Paris,  1850,  p.  412;  H.  von  Hurter,  Theo- 
logioB  dogmatieoB  compendium,  vol.  iii,  p.  210,  §  324;  P. 
Hinges,  Compendium  theolooias  dogmtUiea  apecialia,  part  ii, 
Munich,  1901,  p.  45;  J.  Dalponte,  Compendium  iheologia 
doomatica  apecialie,  Trent,  1890,  VII,  i.  814,  p.  565;  R. 
Owen,  Dogmatic  Theology,  London.  1887,  p.  405;  Darwell 
Stone,  Holy  BapHem,  Oxford,  1899,  pp.  135  sqq.;  H.  E. 
JacolM,  Summary  of  Chrietian  Doctrine,  Philadelphia,  1905, 
pp.  329  sqq.;  H.  L.  J.  Heppe,  DogmaUk  der  evanifeli^Jin 
reformirten  KircKe,  Elberfeld,  1861,  p.  441;  B.  de  Moor, 
Commentariue  in  J.  Marckii  compendium  tkeologias,  7  parts, 
Leyden,  1761-78,  XXX,  iz.  vol.  v,  p.  413;  J.  J.  van  Ooster- 
see,  Chr  Mtian  DogmaHce,  New  York,  1874,  p.  749;  H.  Ba- 
vinck,  Qereformeerde  DogmaHek,  vol.  iv,  Kampen,  1901,  p. 
273;  A.  Gr^tillat,  Expoei  de  thSologie  eyetimatiqus,  vol.  iv, 
Neuohfttel,  1890.  p.  493;  R.  L.  Dabney.  SyUabue  and  Notee, 
p.  764;  E.  D.  Morris,  Theology  of  the  Weetmintter  SymboU, 
Cincinnati,  1901,  pp.  678  sqq.;  R.  V.  Foster,  SyetemaHe 
Theology,  Nashville,  1898,  pp.  749  sqq.;  W.  B.  Pope,  Com- 
pendium of  Chrietian  Theology,  vol.  iii,  London,  1879,  p.  322; 
Miner  Rasrmond,  SyetemaHe  Theology,  vol.  iii,  Cincinnati, 
1877,  p.  359;  John  Miley,  Syetematic  Theology,  vol.  ii.  New 
York.  1894,  p.  397;  N.  Burwash,  Manual  of  Chrietian  Theology, 
vol.  ii.  London.  1900,  p.  359;  H.  C.  Sheldon,  Syetem  of  Chrie- 
tian Doctrine,  Cincinnati,  1903,  pp.  520  sqq.;  J.  W.  Etter, 
Doctrine  of  Chrietian  Baptiem,  Dayton,  Ohio,  1888,  p.  121; 
J.  Weaver,  Christian  Theology,  Dayton,  Ohio,  1900,  p.  250. 

It  is  important  to  keep  in  mind  the  exact  point 
which  is  in  debate.  This  is  not  whether  the  Greek 
word  which  was  adopted  to  designate  this  sacra- 
ment, and  which  has  passed  into  English  as  "  to 
baptize/'  means  "  to  immerse."  Nor  is  it  whether 
the  early  Christians,  or  even  the  apostles,  baptized 
by  immersion.  It  is  whether  so  slender  a  circum- 
stance as  the  mode  of  applying  the  water  can  be  so 
of  the  essence  of  baptism  that  nothing  can  be  bap- 
tism except  an  immersion. 

The  contention  that  immersion  alone  can  be 
baptism  is  usually  based  on  the  presumption  that 
baptism  was  originally  administered  by  immersion. 
It  does  not  appear,  however,  that,  granting  the 
fact,  the  inference  from  it  is  stringent.  Its  assump- 
tion throws  baptism  out  of  analogy  with  all  other 
Christian  usages,  with  the  sister  sacrament  of  the 
Lord's  Supper,  and  with  itself  in  other 
I.  Immer-  particulars.    Probably    no    one    im- 
Bion,  even   agines  that  the  validity  of  the  Lord's 
if  the       Supper  depends  upon  painfully  con- 
Original     forming  in  the  mode  of  its  celebration 
Form,  a    to  all  the  circumstantial  details  of 
Circumstan-  its  first  celebration.    The  Lord's  Sup- 
tial  DetaiL  per  was  instituted  at  an  evening  meal, 
as  a  part  of  a  household  feast  which 
was  itself  the  culn^nating  act  of  an  annual  festival, 
from    which   it    derived   deep   significance;  in   a 
private  gathering,  of  men  alone,  who  received  the 
elements  in  a  reclining  posture.    No  one  seeks  to 
reproduce  any  of  these  things  in  the  manner  of 


its  celebration.  Even  the  use  of  unleavened  bread, 
which  might  be  thought  a  more  intimate  circum- 
stance, is  treated  as  a  matter  of  indifference  by  a 
large  part  of  Christendom.  If  primitive  baptism 
were  by  immersion,  it  will  scarcely  be  doubted 
that  it  was  administered  to  completely  nude 
recipients.  The  Jews,  in  their  parallel  rite  of 
proselyte  baptism,  insisted  upon  this  to  such  an 
extent  that  "  a  ring  on  the  finger,  a  band  confining 
the  hair,  or  anything  that  in  the  least  degree  broke 
the  continuity  of  contact  with  the  water,  was  held 
to  invalidate  the  act "  (C.  Taylor,  The  Teaching 
of  the  Twelve  Apostles,  Cambridge,  1886,  pp.  61,  62). 
The  allusions  of  the  early  Fathers  imply  a  like 
nudity  in  their  method  of  celebrating  the  Christian 
rite  (Bingham,  Origines,  XI,  xi,  1;  DC  A,  i,  160). 
Few  would  demand  that  this  usage  should  be 
imitated.  In  the  midst  of  so  much  freedom  in 
the  circumstantials  of  Christian  ordinances,  it 
is  not  obvious  that  the  mode  of  applying  the 
water  must  be  treated  as  of  the  essence  of  the 
sacrament. 

Nor  is  it  easy  to  be  sure  what  the  mode  of  apply- 
ing the  water  employed  by  the  apostles  was;  or 
whether  indeed  it  was  uniform.     No 
2.  The       mode  of  applying  the  water  is  pre- 

Apostolic     scribed  in    the    New  Testament.    In 
Practise  not  the  record  the  New  Testament  gives 

Certain,  of  acts  of  baptism,  the  mode  in  which 
the  water  was  applied  is  never  de- 
scribed. It  is  never  even  implied  with  a  clearness 
which  would  render  differences  of  interpretation 
impossible.  Nor  does  what  we  may  think  the 
most  natural  suggestion  seem  in  all  instances  to  be 
to  the  same  effect.  If  we  are  inclined  to  fancy 
the  phrase  ''  to  baptize  in  water  "  (Gk.  baptizein 
en  hydati,  Matt,  iii,  11;  John  i,  26,  31,  33)  sug- 
gestive of  immersion,  we  can  not  fail  soon  to  recall 
that  it  may  just  as  well  mean  "  with  water  "  and 
that  it  is  varied,  even  in  parallel  passages,  to  the 
simple  dative  of  cause,  manner,  means,  or  instru- 
ment (Mark  i,  8;  Luke  iii,  16;  Acts  i,  6;  xi,  16). 
If  "  baptizing  in  the  river  Jordan  "  (Matt,  iii,  6; 
Mark  i,  5),  varied  even  to  what  some  unidiomat- 
ically  render  "  baptizing  into  Jordan  "  (Mark  i,  9), 
strikes  us  as  intimating  immersion,  we  are  bound 
to  bear  in  mind  that  both  phrases  may  just  as  well 
be  translated  "  at  Jordan  "  (Thayer's  Lexicon,  s.v. 
h,  I,  l,c;  cf.  esp.  Luke  xiii,  4,  and  F.  Blass,  Orammar 
of  New  Testament  Greek,  Eng.  transl.,  London, 
1898,  p.  122);  just  as  we  are  bound  to  bear  in  mind 
of  those  passages  which,  in  our  English  Bible, 
speak  of  going  "  down  into  the  water  "  to  be  bap- 
tized and  coming  ''  up  out  of  the  water  "  after 
baptism  (Mark,  i,  10;  Acts  viii,  38,  39),  that  they 
may  just  as  well  be  rendered  going  "  down  (to  the 
water  "  and  "  coming  up  from  the  water  ";  and 
just  as  we  are  bound  to  bear  in  mind  in  the  pres- 
ence of  all  such  passages  that  there  are  other  man- 
ners of  baptizing  besides  immersion,  which  require 
for  their  accomplishment  going  into  and  coming 
out  of  the  water.  If  we  read  of  a  locality  being 
selected  for  baptizing  ''  because  there  was  much 
water,"  or,  possibly  better,  "  because  there  were 
many  waters,"  that  is,  numerous  pools,  or  springs, 
or  rivulets  there  (John  iii,  23),  we  read  also  of  the 


Baptlflm 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


448 


adminifltration  of  baptism  in  circumstances  in 
which  there  is  no  likelihood  that  "  much  water  " 
was  available — ^for  example,  in  a  private  house 
(Acts  X,  47,  where  the  water  almost  seems  to  have 
been  something  to  be  brought  and  expended  in 
the  act;  cf.  Acts  ix,  18;  xxii,  16),  or  even  in  the 
noisome  jail  at  Philippi  (Acts  xvi,  33).  Candor 
would  seem  to  compel  the  admission  that  not  only 
is  there  no  stress  laid  in  the  New  Testament  on 
the  mode  of  applying  the  water  in  baptism,  but 
that  all  the  allusions  to  baptism  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment can  find  ready  explanation  on  the  assumption 
of  any  of  the  modes  of  administration  which  have 
been  widely  practised  in  the  Churches. 

In  these  circmnstances  it  is  not  strange  that 
appeal  should  be  made  to  subsidiary  lines  of  inves- 
tigation, in  the  hope  that  by  their  means  at  least  a 
probable  judgment  may  be  reached  as  to  the  mode 
in  which  baptism  was  administered  in  apostolic 
times.  Of  these,  most  frequent  appeal  has  been 
made  to  these  three:  the  philology  of  the  term 
employed  in  the  New  Testament  to  designate 
baptism;  the  archeology  of  the  rite  as  practised 
in  the  Churches;  the  inherent  symbolism  of  the 
sacrament.  It  must  be  confessed  that  the  results 
of  this  threefold  appeal  are  less  decisive  than  could 
have  been  wished. 

It  is  of  course  true  that  the  term  "  to  baptize  " 
goes  back  to  a  root  which  bears  the  sense  of  "  deep  " 
(cf.  W.  W.  Skeat,  Eti^mological  Dictionary  of  the 
English  Langitage,  Oxford,  1882,  p.  733,  no.  89). 
Its  immediate  primitive,  the  Greek  verb  baptein, 
from  which  it  is  formed  by  adding  the  termination 
-izein,  which  gives  it  a  repetitive  or  intensive 
meaning  (cf.  Jelf's  Greek  Orammar,  i,  331,  §  330), 
naturally,  therefore,  has  the  sense  "  to  dip,"  while 
"  baptize "     itself     would     primarily 

3.  Philo-  mean  "  to  dip  repeatedly"  or  "to 
logical  Con- dip  effectively."  Even  the  primitive 
siderations.  verb,  baptein,  of  course,  acquired 
secondary  senses  founded  on  its 
fundamental  implication  of  "  dipping,"  but  ulti- 
mately leaving  it  out  of  sight.  Thus,  as  iron  is 
tempered  by  dipping,  when  applied  to  iron  baptein 
came  to  mean  "  to  temper  ";  as  garments  are  dyed 
by  dipping,  baptein  came  to  mean,  when  applied 
to  garments,  "  to  dye  ";  and  it  soon  passed  on  to 
mean  simply,  without  any  implication  of  the  mode 
by  which  it  is  accomplished,  "  to  temper,"  "  to 
dye,"  "  to  steep,"  "  to  imbue,"  and  the  like. 
When,  for  example,  the  Greek  bully  threatened 
his  fellow  that  he  would  "  dye  [baptein]  him  with 
the  dye  of  Sardis  " — a  place  famous  for  its  red  dye — 
he  meant  precisely  what  the  English  bully  means 
when  he  threatens  his  fellow  "  to  give  him  a  bloody 
coxcomb,"  and  was  as  far  as  possible  from 
impljring  that  the  effect  would  be  produced  by  a 
process  of  dipping.  So  when  we  read  in  the  com- 
mon Greek  version  of  Dan.  iv,  30  (35);  v,  21,  that 
Nebuchadnezzar  was  "  wet  \baptein]  with  the  dew 
of  heaven,"  there  is  no  implication  whatever  of 
the  mode  of  the  application  of  the  dew  to  his  per- 
son. The  derivative,  baptizein,  of  course,  lent  itself 
even  more  kindly  to  the  development  of  these 
secondary  senses,  because,  as  an  intensive  form, 
it  naturally  emphasized  the  effect.    Accordingly 


it  is  rarely  used  more  literally  than  of  the  sinking 
of  ships  by  storm  or  by  war,  with  the  implicatioii, 
of  course,  of  their  destruction;  or  of  the  bathing  of 
persons  (Eubulus,  Nausicaa,  1),  with  the  implicatioa, 
of  course,  of  their  cleansing.  It  passes  freely  over 
into  such  metaphorical  usages  as  when  a  drunkard 
is  spoken  of  as  baptized  with  wine,  a  profligate  m 
baptized  with  debt,  a  city  as  baptized  with  sleep, 
a  hapless  youth  as  baptized  with  questions,  or  as 
when  the  prophet  (Isa.  xxi,  4,  LXX)  is  made  to 
say  he  is  baptized  with  iniquity;  the  English 
equivalent  in  such  cases  being  something  like 
"overwhelmed,"  "steeped,"  or  the  like.  Such  a 
term  obviously  lay  close  at  hand  for  application 
to  the  Jewish  ceremonial  lustrations,  in  which, 
not  the  mode,  but  the  effect  of  the  application  of 
the  water  receives  the  stress.  In  the  Greek  Old 
Testament  it  has  not  yet,  indeed,  obtained  the 
position  of  the  technical  designation  of  these  lu»- 
trations.  But  the  beginnings  of  such  a  usag^ 
are  already  traceable  there  (Ecdus.  xxxi,  30  [xxxiv, 
25];  Judith  xii,  7;  cf.  II  Kiags  v,  14);  and  by  the 
time  the  New  Testament  was  written  it  seems  to 
have  supplanted  the  term  commonly  employed 
in  the  Greek  Old  Testament  [lottesthaQ  for  this 
purpose  (cf.  Cremer,  s.v.,  and  J.  A.  Robinson,  in 
JTS,  Jan.,  1906,  vii,  26,  187-189).  At  least  that 
term  occurs  in  the  New  Testament  only  once  of  a 
ceremonial  lustration,  and  then  only  in  oonnecdon 
with  baptizein  as  explaining  its  effects,  while  bap- 
tizein  occurs  quite  naturally  in  this  sense  (Mark 
vii,  4;  Luke  xi,  38;  Heb.  ix,  10)  and  is  the  term 
adopted,  probably  from  such  a  preceding  use,  to 
designate  the  symbolical  washing  proclaimed  by 
John  the  Baptist,  and  the  Christian  rite  which  is 
called  "baptism.'.'  In  these  drcimistances  it 
seems  very  rash  to  assume  that  the  word  was 
applied  to  the  Christian  rite  in  its  primitive  meaning 
of  "  to  dip  ";  or  indeed  that  any  implication  of  that 
primitive  meaning  still  clings  to  it  in  this  application. 
The  presumption  is  very  strong  that  even  in  its 
preliminary  use  of  the  Jewish  lustrations,  it  had 
already  "  lost  its  earlier  significance  of  '  dipping/ 
or  '  immersing  '**  and  "  acquired  the  new  religious 
significance  of  '  ceremonial  cleansing  by  water  **' 
(J.  A.  Robinson,  ut  sup.;  cf.  EB,  i,  473;  DB,  i,  238). 
In  any  event  the  stress  of  the  word  in  its  application 
to  the  Christian  rite  is  not  upon  the  mode  in  which 
the  water  is  applied  in  it,  but  to  its  effect  as  a  sym- 
bolical cleansing.  The  etymology  of  the  word,  in 
short,  throws  no  clear  light  on  the  mode  of  applying 
the  water  in  baptism  in  the  usage  of  the  apostles. 
Nor  does  archeology  lend  much  more  aid.  It  is, 
indeed,  true  that  the  present  divergences  in  the 
practise  of  the  Churches  are  the  result  of  growth, 
and  that  behind  them  lies  what  without  much 
straining  may  be  called  a  universal  usage  of  at  least 
theoretical  immersion.  And  it  is  true  that  the 
earliest  clear  intimation  which  has  come  down  to 
us  of  the  manner  in  which  Christians  baptiaed, 
belonging  probably  to  about  the  middle  of  the  second 
century  (found  in  the  seventh  chapter  of  the  DidacheX 
contemplates  normal  baptism  as  by  immersion. 
But  it  is  equally  true  that  throughout  the  whole 
patristic  period  no  one  ever  doubted  the  entire  va- 
lidity  of  baptism  administered  in  other  modes  of 


440 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Baptism 


applying  the  water.    The  Didache  makes  provision 

for  baptism  by  affusion  whenever  water  in  sufficient 

quantity  for  inmiersion  is  not  at  hand 

4.  Archeo-    (of.  A.  Hamack,  Lehre  der  zwGlf  A  postel, 

logical  Leipsic,  1884,  pp.  23-24;  F.  X.  Funk, 
Considera-  Doctrina  duodecim  apoatolorum,  Tilb- 
tions.  ingen,  1887,  p.  3);  and  Cyprian  {EpisL, 
Ixxv  Pxix],  12-14;  iliVi^,  v,  401 )  argues 
the  whole  case  out  with  respect  to  the  baptism  of  the 
sick  by  afTusion.  No  contrary  voice  is  ever  raised; 
but  in  various  ways  a  full  body  of  testimony  is  borne 
to  the  unhesitating  acceptance,  throughout  the  early 
Church,  of  baptism  by  affusion  as  equally  valid 
with  that  by  immersion.  And  despite  the  consen- 
tient testimony  of  the  literature  of  the  period  to 
inmiersion  as  normal  baptism,  the  entire  testimony 
of  the  monuments  is  to  the  opposite  effect  (cf. 
C.  F.  Rogers,  Baptism  and  Christian  Archciiogy, 
in  the  Oxford  Stvdia  Biblica  el  Ecdesiastica,  IV, 
v;  also  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  Oct.,  1896,  pp.  601-644). 
This  monumental  evidence  comes,  it  is  true,  from 
only  a  single  section  of  the  Church, — that  which 
had  its  center  at  Rome;  but  it  makes  it  clear  that 
from  the  second  century  down  to  a  comparatively 
late  date  baptism  as  actually  administered,  in  that 
region  at  least,  was  not  an  immersion  but  an  af- 
fusion, although  ordinarily  apparently  affusion  upon 
a  nude  recipient  standing  in  shallow  water.  When 
we  realize  that  this  was  the  actual  mode  of  baptism 
in  the  early  Roman  Church,  we  catch  apparent 
allusions  to  it  in  the  literature  of  other  portions 
of  the  Church  also,  and  begin  to  suspect  it  may 
have  been  prevalent  elsewhere  too.  Indeed,  we 
are  deterred  from  confidently  ascribing  it  to  the 
Apostolic  Church  itself  chiefly  by  the  gulf  of  a 
century's  width  which  separates  the  Apostolic 
Church  from  our  earliest  evidence,  literary  or 
monumental.  This  is  not  a  century  over  which 
we  may  lightly  leap.  During  its  course  the  church 
usages  for  which  we  have  both  first  and  second 
century  evidence  changed  greatly;  and  all  the  con- 
ditions for  a  development  of  new  usages  with  re- 
spect to  the  mode  of  baptism  were  present  in  the 
circumstances  of  the  times.  Nor  can  we  be  helped 
over  the  gulf  by  the  analogy  of  the  Jewish  proselyte 
baptism.  For,  in  the  first  place,  the  points  of 
departure  of  the  two  usages  were  different.  The 
Jewish  rite  was  rooted  specifically  in  the  bath 
preliminary  to  sacrifice;  the  Christian  took  hold 
through  the  command  of  our  Lord  and  the  baptism 
of  John  of  the  entire  lustration  system  and  tradition. 
And  in  the  next  place,  the  Jewish  usage,  just  because 
a  development  of  the  presacrificial  bath,  owed  its 
elaboration  into  a  separate  rite,  to  the  cessation  of 
the  sacrifices,  which  threw  the  bath  into  an  im- 
portance it  could  not  have  had  in  their  presence; 
it  is  therefore  too  late  in  its  origin  to  have  served  as 
a  model  for  Christian  baptism 

We  are  left,  therefore,  to  the  essential  symbol- 
ism of  the  rite  to  indicate  how  it  must  needs  be 
admimstered,  and  how,  therefore,  the  apostles  must 
have  administered  it.  If,  indeed,  it  could  be  estab- 
lished that  the  essential  symbolism  of  the  rite  is 
burial  and  resurrection  with  Christ,  an  application 
of  the  water  in  such  a  manner  as  to  suggest  this 
might  well  be  thought    necessary  to  its  proper 


administration.  There  are  many  who  take  this 
view,  and  seek  support  for  themselves  in  the  con- 
nection instituted  between  baptism 
5.  Consid-  and  dying  and  rising  again  with  our 
erations  Lord  in  Rom.  vi,  3-5;  Col.  ii,  12. 
from  Sym-  The  Church  Fathers  from  a  compara- 
bolism.  tively  early  date  (certainly  from  the 
fourth  century — Cyril  of  Jerusalem, 
Basil,  Gregory  of  Nyssa,  Chrysostom)  were  accus- 
tomed to  speak  familiarly  of  the  Christian  enacting 
in  baptism  the  drama  of  redemption  through  death 
and  burial  and  resiurection.  But  the  Church 
Fathers  never  lost  sight  of  the  fact  that  the  funda- 
mental symbolism  of  the  rite  was  cleansing;  to 
them  it  was  before  all  else  the  bath  in  which  sins 
were  washed  away.  And  certainly  the  passages 
cited  from  the  New  Testament  can  scarcely  be 
fairly  adduced  as  implying  that  in  its  very  mode 
of  administration  baptism  signified  for  the  Apos- 
tolic Church  burial  and  resurrection  with  Christ. 
Their  reference  is  not  to  the  mode  of  baptism  but 
to  its  effects.  So  little  docs  Paul  depend  upon  the 
very  mode  in  which  baptism  is  administered  to 
suggest  biuial  and  resiurection  with  Christ,  that 
he  actually  labors  to  make  his  readers  connect 
their  baptism  with  the  death  and  resurrection  of 
Christ  by  the  aid  of  another  mediating  thought; 
viz.,  that  their  baptism  was  with  respect  to  Christ's 
death  for  their  sins.  He  repeats  the  heavy  clause, 
"  through  baptism  unto  death  "  (Rom.  vi,  4)  in 
order  to  prevent  them  from  missing  a  point  which, 
if  baptism  in  its  very  mode  symbolized  burial  and 
resurrection  with  Christ,  they  could  not  in  any 
event  miss.  This  may  not  prove  that  baptism 
as  known  to  Paul  was  not  by  inmiersion.  But  it 
seems  to  indicate  that  its  symbolism  to  him  was  not 
burial  and  resurrection  with  Christ.  And,  indeed, 
it  is  hard  on  other  grounds  to  maintain  that  this  is 
the  inherent  symboUsm  of  immersion  as  a  religious 
rite.  Few  will  maintain  that  this  is  the  inherent 
symbolism  of  the  Jewish  lustrations.  Few  will 
maintain  even  that  the  baptism  of  John  the  Bap- 
tist, which  most  advocates  of  inmiersion  as  the  only 
valid  form  of  baptism  will  suppose  to  have  been 
by  immersion,  was  charged  with  this  symbolism. 
It  seems  clear  enough  that  baptism,  the  matter 
of  which  is  nature's  great  detergent,  has  as  its 
essential  symbolism  just  cleansing.  And  this  being 
so,  there  seems  nothing  in  the  essence  of  the  sacra- 
ment to  demand  one  mode  of  applying  the  water 
above  another,  within  the  limits  of  this  symbolism. 
And  we  can  not  forget  that  our  Lord  Jesus  himself 
said  on  a  memorable  occasion :  "  He  that  is  bathed 
needeth  not  save  to  wash  his  feet,  but  is  clean  every 
whit ";  and  that  the  Lord  Jehovah  declared  through 
his  prophet  that  he  would  "  sprinkle  clean  water 
upon  his  people  and  they  should  be  clean  "  from 
all  their  filthiness.  From  which  we  may  perhaps 
infer  that  out  of  the  circle  of  ideas  of  neither  the 
Old  Testament  nor  the  New  Testament  would 
it  be  imaginable  that  a  complete  bath  were  necessary 
in  order  to  symbolize  a  complete  cleansing. 

It  would  hardly  appear  probable  that  the  mode 
of  applying  the  water  in  baptism  can  enter  into  the 
very  essence  of  the  sacrament,  when  it  is  so  diffi- 
cult to  obtain  certainty  as  to  what  that  mode  was 


Baptism 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


460 


in  the  hands  of  the  apostles.     Each  of  us  may 
properly  cherish  an  opinion  of  his  own  as  to  what 

that  mode  was.    The  opinion  of  the 

6.  The  Mode  writer  of  this  article  is  that  it  was 

of  Applying  probably  by  pouring  water   on  the 

the  Water    head  of  the  recipient,  standing,  or- 

Unessen-    dinarily  perhaps,  but  apparently  not 

tial.        invariably,  in  a  greater  or  less  depth 

of  water.  But  he  would  not  like  to 
insist  that  no  mode  of  administering  baptism  but 
this  is  valid.  Certainly  the  New  Testament  lays 
no  stress  on  the  mode  of  applying  the  water;  and 
even  were  it  established  that  it  was  rather  by  im- 
mersion that  the  apostles  were  accustomed  to 
administer  it,  it  is  not  apparent  that  no  other 
modes  of  administering  it  are  valid.  It  might 
even  be  granted  that  the  term  ''  baptism  "  means 
nothing  but  "  immersion,"  and  that  H  was  applied 
to  this  rite  because  it  meant  "  inunersion,"  and 
just  in  order  to  describe  it  as  a  rite  of  "  immersion  "; 
and  still  it  would  not  follow  that  the  rite  can  be 
validly  administered  only  by  "  immersion."  As  in 
the  case  of  the  sister  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  Sup- 
per, in  which  the  term  "  supper,"  in  its  English 
form  and  in  the  Greek  of  the  Lord's  time,  means 
an  evening  meal  and  was  given  to  this  ordinance 
because  it  meant  an  evening  meal  and  to  signalize 
the  fact  that  the  feast  at  which  it  was  instituted 
was  an  evening  meal,  so  in  the  case  of  baptism,  it 
may  be  altogether  conceivable  that  the  name  of 
the  ordinance  is  derived  from  a  prominent  external 
drcimistance  connected  with  its  first  administra- 
tion, and  yet  as  far  as  possible  from  forming  an 
integral  element  of  the  sacrament  itself.  What- 
ever may  have  been  the  primitive  meaning  of  the 
term  which  was  adopted  to  designate  it,  and  how- 
ever the  rite  was  customarily  administered  in  the 
first  days  of  its  use,  the  thing  is  a  washing  with 
water  for  the  sake  of  cleansing  to  symbolize  the 
cleansing  of  the  sinner  by  the  blood  of  Jesus  Christ. 
And  the  main  matter  is  therefore  not  the  mode 
of  washing,  but  the  fact  of  washing. 

Benjamin  B.  Warfibld. 
8.  The  Baptism  of  Inlknts:  A  large  section  of 
Protestant  Christendom,  especially  in  the  United 
States,  dissents  from  the  practise  of  infant  bap- 
tism. It  includes  the  various  denominations  of 
Baptists,  Disciples  of  Christ,  the  Dunkers,  Men- 
nonites,  Winebrennerians,  and  other  Christian 
bodies.     These  Christians  and  their  sympathizers 

in  pcdobaptist  denominations,  ground 

I.  Argu^     their  dissent  (1)  upon  the  absence  of  a 

ments       positive  command  of  Christ,  or  of  any 

against     account  of  apostolic  procedure  which 

Infant  Bap-  expressly  favors  the  practise;   (2)  they 

tlsm.        hold  infant  baptism  to  be  a  violation 

of  the  very  idea  of  baptism,  since 
baptism  presupposes  conversion  and  an  intelligent 
profession  of  faith,  which  can  not  be  expected  from 
infants. 

To  these  argimients  it  is  replied  in  general  that, 
while  no  positive  command  for  baptizing  infants 
is  given  by  Christ  or  his  apostles,  the  pages  of  the 
New  Testament  offer  a  strong  probability  that  in- 
fants were  baptized  from  the  beginning;  and  the 
testimonies  of  Irenseus,  Origen,  and  Tertullian  con- 


firm this  impression.    The  argument  in  detafl  ib 

as  follows:  (1)  The  general  conmiand  to  baptise  sD 

nations,  naturally  interpreted,  inchides 

2.  Argu-    the  baptism  of  infants;  and  the  men- 
ments  in    tion  of  the  baptism  of  whole  house- 
Reply,      holds  (Acts  X,  48;  xvi,  15,  33;    I  Cor. 

i,  16;  xvi,  15)  implies  the  presence 
of  children;  at  least  their  presence  in  some  house- 
holds is  far  more  probable  than  their  absence  in 
all.  If  to  these  considerations  be  joined  the  re- 
iterated assertion  that  the  promise  of  the  remisBion 
of  sins  and  of  the  Holy  Spirit  was  to  the  believen 
and  their  ehUdren  (Acts  ii,  38;  cf.  ill,  25),  we  have 
a  strong  probability,  to  say  the  least,  that  infants 
were  baptized  by  the  apostles.  (2)  Christ's  treat- 
ment of  children,  whom  he  blessed  and  pronounced 
to  be  members  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven  (Matt, 
xviii,  3;  xix,  14)  shows  that  children  are  fit  sub- 
jects for  the  kingdom  of  heaven;  are  they  not  then 
also  fit  recipients  of  the  initiatory  rite,  which  ib 
baptism  with  water  7  All  ^baptism  is  in  idea  an  in- 
fant baptism,  and  requires  to  begin  life  anew  in  a 
truly  childlike  spirit,  without  which  no  one  can 
enter  the  kingdom  of  God.  (3)  The  analogy  of 
circimicision,  which  began  with  adult  Abraham 
and  then  extended  to  all  his  male  children,  favors 
the  baptism  of  infants.  Baptism  is  the  initiatory 
rite  of  introduction  into  the  Christian  Church,  and 
the  sign  and  seal  of  the  new  covenant,  as  circum- 
cision was  the  sign  and  seal  of  the  old  covenant 
(Rom.  iv,  11).  The  blessing  of  the  old  covenant 
was  to  the  seed  as  well  as  to  the  parents;  and 
the  blessing  of  the  new  covenant  can  not  be  leas 
comprehensive.  Infant  baptism  rests  upon  the 
organic  relation  of  Christian  parents  and  chil- 
dren (I  Cor.  vii,  14).  It  is  a  constant  testi- 
mony to  the  living  faith  of  the  Church,  which 
descends,  not  as  an  heirloom,  but  as  a  vital 
force,  from  parent  to  child. 

No  time  can  be  assigned  for  the  beginning  of  the 
practise  of  infant  baptism.     If  it  had  been  an  in- 
novation, it  seems  likely  that  it  would 

3.  Origin    have    provoked    a    violent    protest 
of  In-       No  traces  of  this  can  be  found  except 

f  ant  Bap-  in  Tertullian,  who,  alone  in  the  early 
tism.  Church,  denies  the  expediency  of  in- 
fant baptism.  The  requirement  of  re- 
pentance and  faith,  which  the  apostles  made  a  caa- 
dition  of  baptism,  was  to  be  expected  when  it  k 
remembered  that  their  exhortations  were  addressed 
to  adults.  This  will  always  be  the  mode  of  procedure 
when  the  gospel  is  first  preached  to  a  people.  Adult 
baptism  always  comes  first  in  every  missionaxy 
Church.  Infant  baptism,  it  is  reasonable  to  as- 
sume, arose  naturally  from  the  very  beginning,  as 
Christianity  took  hold  of  family  life  and  training. 

The  three  earliest  witnesses  to  the  prevalence  of 

infant  baptism  are  Irenseus,  Origen,  and  Tertullian. 

The  testimony  of  Irenseus,  though  not  unequivocal, 

leans  strongly  in  favor  of  the  apoe- 

4.  Patristic  tolic  usage.    Bom  probably  between 

Testimony.  120  and  130,  a  disciple  of  Polycarp,  one 

of  John's  disciples,  he  was  surely  an 

excellent  witness.    He  says,  **  Christ  came  to  save 

through  means  of  himself  all  who  through  him 

are   bom   again   [regenerated]   to    God,    infantt, 


461 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Baptism 


and  chfldren,  and  boys,  and  youths,  and  old  men  " 
(Hcer.,  II,  xxii,  4).  The  phrase  "bom  again  to 
God  "  refers  plainly  to  baptism;  in  Irenseus's  usage 
(cf.  I,  xxi,  1)  baptism  is  "  being  bom  to  God,"  and 
(III,  xvii,  1)  "  the  power  of  regeneration  unto  God." 
Origen,  who  was  himself  baptized  in  infancy,  dis- 
tinctly derives  the  custom  from  the  apostles.  ''  The 
Church,"  he  says  (on  Rom.  v,  9),  "  has  received 
the  tradition  from  the  apostles  to  give  baptism  to 
little  children."  He  also  speaks  of  infant  baptism 
as  a  "  custom  of  the  Church  "  {Horn,,  on  Lev.  viii, 
MPO,  ii,  496).  The  opponents  of  the  practise 
make  much  use  of  Tertullian  (close  of  the  second 
century).  In  his  De  baptismo  (xviii)  he  counsels 
delay  of  baptism,  particularly  in  the  case  of  in- 
fants. But,  when  the  passage  is  investigated,  it  is 
found  that  his  motive  is  not  the  impropriety,  but 
the  inexpediency  of  infant  baptism,  on  the  ground 
that  it  involved  the  great  risk  of  forfeiting  forever 
the  remission  of  sins  in  the  case  of  relapse.  The 
very  argument  proves  not  only  the  existence,  but 
the  prevailing  practise  of  infant  baptism.  Tertul- 
lian does  not  even  hint  at  its  being  a  postapostolic 
innovation.  His  opposition  is  due  to  his  peculiar 
theory  of  the  magical  effect  of  baptism  in  washing 
away  the  guilt  of  past  sins,  and  is  by  no  means 
antipedobaptist.  Loofs  {Dogmengeachichte,  Halle, 
1893,  p.  137)  sententiously  sums  up  the  early  his- 
toric evidence  in  these  words:  "  The  rite  of  infant 
baptism  can  be  traced  in  Irenseus,  was  contested  by 
Tertullian,  and  was  for  Origen  an  apostolic  usage." 

The  practise  of  the  third  century  is  uncontested. 
Cyprian  (d.  258)  says  (EpisL,  Ixiv)  an  infant  should 
be  in  no  case  denied  grace  and  baptism.  The  Synod 
of  Carthage  in  252  rejected  the  opinion  that  bap- 
tism should,  like  circiuncision,  be  deferred  to  the 
eighth  day  i^ter  birth  (cf .  Hefele,  ConcUiengeschichte, 
i,  115).  But  that  the  custom  was  not  universally 
followed  is  evident  from  the  cases  of  Augustine, 
Gregory  Nazianzen,  and  Chiysostom,  who  had 
Christian  mothers,  but  were  not  baptized  till  they 
were  converted  in  early  manhood;  and  Constantino 
the  Great  put  off  his  baptism  till  his  death-bed. 
Gregory  Nazianzen  recommended  that  the  baptism 
of  children  be  put  off  till  they  were  three  years  old, 
unless  there  was  danger  of  death.  This  delay  was 
recommended  by  church  teachers  because  of  the 
prevailing  doctrine  of  the  effects  of  baptism,  which 
was  r^arded  as  washing  away  original  sin  and  all 
actual  transgressions  conuaoitted  before  the  admin- 
istration of  the  rite. 

The  Schoolmen,  following  the  later  Fathers, taught 
that  children  are  proper  subjects  of  baptism  be- 
cause they  are  imder  the  curse  of  Adam,  and  bap- 
tism washes  away  the  guilt  of  original  sin.  As  the 
mother  nourishes  her  offspring  in  the  womb  before 
it  can  nourish  itself,  so  in  the  bosom  of  mother 
Church  infants  are  nourished  and  re- 
5.  The      ceive  salvation  through  the  act  of  the 

Schoolmen  Church.     It  is  not  a  question  of  faith 

and  the     but  of  the  definite  sponsorial  and  fos- 

Ref ormation  tering  act  of  the  Church;   so  Thomas 

Period.  Aquinas  (Summa,  III,  Ixviii,  9,  ed. 
Migne,  iv,  646:  "  Children  receive  sal- 
vation not  of  themselves  but  by  act  of  the  Church  ") 
and  Bonaventiutt  (Breviloquium,  vii,  ed.  Peltier, 


vii,  320A).  A  chfld  can  not  be  baptized  before  it 
is  bom,  but  if  its  head  appear  it  may  be  baptized, 
for  the  head  is  the  seat  of  the  inmiortal  agent  (Peter 
Lombard,  Sent.,  IV,  vi,  2;  Thomas  Aquinas,  Sunv- 
ma,  III,  Ixviii,  11).  Thomas  Aquinas  (Summa,  III, 
Ixviii,  10)  and  most  of  the  Schoolmen  pronoimced 
it  unlawful  to  baptize  the  children  of  Jews  and  in- 
fidels without  their  parents'  consent,  but  Duns 
Scotus  took  the  opposite  view  (cf.  R.  Seeberg,  Duna 
Scoiua,  Leipsic,  1900,  p.  364).  The  baptism  of  infants 
was  expressly  conunended  by  the  Council  of  Trent 
(Session  vii,  de  baptismo,  canon  xiii).  It  was  also 
commended  by  the  Protestant  Confession  of  the 
Reformation  period;  the  Augsburg  Confession  (art. 
ix,  with  an  anathema  against  the  Anabaptists); 
the  Second  Helvetic  Confession  (xx,  3,  also  with  an 
anathema  against  the  Anabaptists);  the  Heidel- 
berg Catechism  (question  Ixxiv);  the  Galilean  Con- 
fession (xxxv);  the  Belgic  Confession  (xxxiv);  the 
Thirty-nine  Articles  (xxvii);  the  Scotch  Confession 
(xxiii);  and  the  Westminster  Confession  (xxviii). 

It  must  be  admitted  that  adult  baptism  was  the 
rule  and  infant  baptism  the  exception  in  the  apoe« 
tolic  age,  and  not  imtil  the  fifth  century,  when  the 
Church  was  widely  established  in  the  Roman  Em- 
pire, was  infant  baptism  general.  It  continued  to 
be  the  universal  rule,  with  some  exceptions,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  Cathari,  until  the  Protestant  Refor- 
mation, when  **  believers'  baptism  "  came  to  be  in- 
sisted on  by  some  leaders  in  Switzerland.  Holland, 
etc.  Infant  baptism  has  no  meaning  apart  from 
the  Christian  family  and  without  the  guaranty  of 
Christian  education.  Hence  the  Church  has  always 
insisted  on  catechetical  instruction,  and  most 
Churches  practise  confirmation  as  a  subjective 
supplement  to  infant  baptism.  Compulsory  in- 
fant baptism  was  unknown  in  the  ante-Nicene  age; 
it  is  a  profanation  of  the  sacrament,  and  one  of  the 
evils  of  the  union  of  Church  and  State,  against 
which  Baptists  have  a  right  to  protest. 

(Philip  ScHAFrf)  D.  S.  Schafp. 
8.  The  Baptist  Position  Oonoeminff  Immersion 
and  Iniknt  Baptism:  The  Greek  word  bapHzein 
means  *'  to  dip,"  "  to  submerge."  When  we  read 
in  the  Septuagint  (II  Kings  v,  14)  that  Naaman 
went  down  into  the  Jordan  and  "  baptized  himself  " 
(Gk.  ebaptisato),  we  are  compelled  to  understand 
a  dipping;  and  there  is  cited  from  Greek  literature 
not  a  single  instance  of  the  use  of  the  word  in  which 
the  idea  of  submersion  is  not  involved. 

I.  True  Wherefore  it  is  held  that  the  rite  of 
Baptism  a  baptism  as  spoken  of  in  the  New  Tes- 
Burial  in    tament  was  always  a  burial  in  water 

Water,  and  that  the  command  to  baptize  is 
a  command  to  immerse.  The  burial 
in  water  has  always  been  the  practise  of  the  Greek 
Church,  its  older  patriarchates  holding  that  there 
is  no  other  baptism  (Stanley,  Eastern  Church,  Lec- 
ture i).  The  Baptists  and  some  other  bodies  in 
Western  Christendom  hold  rigidly  to  this  view. 
Immersion  is  the  only  eatholic  act  of  baptism, 
the  only  one  whose  validity  is  recognized  semper  et 
ubique  et  ab  omnibua.  The  burial  in  water  contin- 
ued to  be  the  standard  usage  of  the  Roman  Church 
for  more  than  a  thousand  years.  Thomas  Aquinas 
I  speaks  of  it  as  "  the  more  common  "  usage.     It  was 


fittptirai 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


468 


the  practise  in  Britain  till  the  reign  of  Elizabeth, 
and  is  still  demanded  in  the  order  of  the  Church 
of  England  for  the  baptism  of  infants  imless  the 
parents  shall  certify  that  the  child  is  weak.  Though 
pouring  or  sprinkling  is  now  employed  rather  as  a 
matter  of  convenience,  afifusion  was  for  many  cen- 
turies resorted  to  only  in  case  of  necessity. 

The  first  extended  discussion  of  the  question  is 
found  in  the  epistle  of  Cyprian  to  Magnus  written 
about  the  middle  of  the  third  century.  Being 
asked  whether  those  can  be  deemed  legUimi  Chris- 
Hani,  "  Christians  in  full  standing,"  who,  being 
converted  in  sickness  are  non  loti  sed  perftisi,  ''  not 

inmiersed  in  the  water  but  having  it 

2.  The  Tea-  simply  poured  over  them,"  he  gives  an 

timony  of    affirmative  opinion  but  does  so  with 

Cyprian,     the    very    greatest    hesitation.    His 

words  are:  "  So  far  as  my  poor  ability 
comprehends  the  matter; "  and  "  I  have  answered 
your  letter  so  far  as  my  poor  and  small  ability  is 
capable  of  doing; "  and  ''  So  far  as  in  me  Ues  I  have 
shown  what  I  think."  He  disclaims  any  intention 
of  saying  that  other  officials  should  recognize  afifu- 
sion as  baptism  and  even  goes  so  far  as  to  suggest 
that  those  who  have  thus  received  affusion  may  on 
their  recovery  from  sickness  be  inmiersed.  But, 
citing  various  sprinklings  in  the  Mosaic  ritual,  he 
gives  the  view,  that  necessitate  cogente,  inmiersion 
being  out  of  the  question,  those  who  have  been 
poured  upon  may  be  comforted  by  being  told  that 
they  have  been  truly  baptized  (Cypriani  epist.,  Ixxv 
[Ixix],  12-14;  ANF,  v,  400-401).  This  epistle 
makes  it  clear  beyond  all  controversy  that  in  the 
third  century  the  ordinary  baptism  was  inmiersion, 
and  that  even  in  the  Latin  Church  there  were  those 
who  declared  it  the  only  baptism.  It  further  ap- 
pears with  equal  clearness  that  affusion  was  never 
practised  in  the  Apostolic  Church,  for  had  the  apos- 
tles resorted  thereto  even  in  a  single  instance  Cyp- 
rian would  certainly  have  known  the  fact  and  would 
never  have  presented  so  mild  an  apology  for  a 
usage  which  had  apostolic  precedent,  nor  indeed 
would  any  one  have  taken  exception  to  the 
practise. 

For  a  thousand  years  the  resort  to  the  use  of  affu- 
sion was  justified  only  on  the  ground  of  necessity. 
And  the  supposed  necessity  existed  in  the  idea  that 
baptism  was  essential  to  salvation  and  so  that 
when  immersion,  the  established  rite,  was  out  of 

the  question,  something  must  be  put 

3.  Origin  of  in  its  place  or  the  soul  would  be  lost. 

Affusion.    The  use  of  affusion  would  never  have 

been  thought  of  except  for  the  idea 
that  water  baptism  was  essential  to  salvation.  But 
those  who  deny  that  salvation  is  conditioned  on 
baptism,  who  regard  baptism  as  merely  a  token  of 
a  salvation  already  wrought,  see  no  necessity  for  a 
resort  to  affusion.  They  will  continue  to  adminis- 
ter immersion  whenever  it  is  practicable,  and  where 
it  is  not  they  will  let  the  convert  die  without  any 
water  baptism  whatever.  They  condemn  the  use 
of  affusion  not  only  as  unnecessary  but  as  based 
on  a  gross  superstition. 

To  the  declaration  that  baptism  is  simply  a  wash- 
ing, it  is  answered  that  Jesus's  baptism  of  suffering 
was  not  a  washing  but  a  submersion  beneath  the 


tide  of  wo  and  that  the  baptism  of  the  Holy  Spirit 
is  a  whelming  in  the  waves  of  divine  influenoe, 
while  many  of  the  Fathers  regarded 
4.  The      the  baptism  of  fire,  not  as  a  purifica- 
Argument    tion,  but  as  a  swallowing  up  of  the 
from  Sym-  wicked   in   waves   of   burning.    And 
holism,     granting  that  originally  the  immer- 
sion was  but  a  lustration,  the  apostles 
point  out  in  it  another  image;  viz.,  that  of  burial 
and  resurrection.    The  act  of  affusion   contains 
nothing  whatever  of  purely  Christian  symbolism, 
for  simple  lustration  is  found  in  the  Mosaic  and 
even  in  heathen  ritual.    The  burial  in  water  is  the 
only  distinctively  Christian  baptism,  for  it  alone 
sets  forth  the  death  and  resurrection  of  our  Lord, 
which  is  the  central  fact  of  the  Christian  system. 
To  the  idea  that  the  purpose  of  the  "  apostohc  "  im- 
mersion was  simply  a  washing  and  that  this  can  be 
attained  just  as  well  by  a  pouring  or  sprinkling,  it 
may  be  added  that  the  purpose  of  the  pouring  is 
simply  a  profession  of  faith,  which  can  be  given 
just  as  well  by  word  of  mouth,  and  thus  that  aJl 
use  of  water  may  be  dispensed  with.     Those  who 
abandon  the  ''  apostohc  "  immersion  simply  on  the 
groimd  of  convenience  leave  the  way  clear  for  the 
adoption  of  the  position  of  the  Society  of  Fri^ds, 
the  abandonment  of  water  baptism  entirely. 

As  to  the  subjects  of  the  rite,  the  Baptists  hold 
that  it  should  be  administered  only  on  profession 
of  faith.    There  is  found  in  Scripture  no  instance 
of  the  baptism  of  an  unconscious  infant  nor  will  a 
fair  exegesis  discover  in  any  text  the  remotest  ref- 
erence to  such  a  usage.     On  the  con- 
5.  Objec-    trary,  it  stands  in  direct  antagonism 
tions  to  In-  to  the  New  Testament  idea  of  the 
fant  Bap-  Church.     The     baptism    of    infants 
tisra.        arose  from  the  idea  that  in  baptism 
one    is    regenerated    and    christened, 
that  is,  made  a  Christian.     But,  as  they  grow  up, 
no  difference  appears  between  the  baptized  child 
of  Roman  Catholic  or  Episcopalian  and  the  unbap- 
tized  offspring  of  the  pious  Quaker  or  the  Baptist, 
or  indeed  of  the  unbeUever. 

The  Presbyterians  baptize  infants  on  the  ground 
that  the  Church  is  to  consist  {Westminster  Confes- 
sion, XXV,  2),  not  of  the  converted  alone,  but  of  be- 
lievers "  together  with  their  children."  The  sons 
of  believers,  however,  may  grow  up  unbelievers, 
even  atheists,  and  thus  the  Church,  the  bride  of 
Christ,  come  to  be  made  up  in  part,  possibly  the 
greater  part,  of  the  unregenerate,  perhaps  the  im- 
moral. When  a  child  is  "  dedicated  "  to  Christ, 
to  baptize  it  without  awaiting  its  hoped-for  con- 
version is  not  only  as  unreasonable  as  it  would  be 
to  ordain  the  infant  to  the  ministry  on  faith  that 
he  will  yet  be  another  Jonathan  Edwards,  but  it  is 
also  to  introduce  an  impenitent  element  into  the 
Church.  As  well  might  the  missionary  baptise 
at  the  start  the  whole  heathen  tribe,  who,  he  has 
faith  to  beheve,  will  be  converted. 

If  an  infant  may  be  baptized  on  the  ground  that 
it  is  pure  and  sinless,  then,  since  the  babe  of  Tuik 
or  pagan  is  as  pure  as  the  child  of  the  Christian, 
there  is  no  reason  why  all  infants,  even  the  whole 
race  of  man,  should  not  be  baptized  into  the  Church. 
The  Church  is  based  on  the  idea  that  there  is  a 


463 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bftptimi 


difference  between  the  disciples  of  Christ  and  men 
at  large.  But  there  is  no  theory  of  infant  baptism 
which  does  not  freely  introduce  the  impenitent  into 
the  Church,  thus  wiping  out  all  distinction  between 
the  Church  and  the  world.  The  burden  of  John's 
preaching  was  that  the  new  kingdom  was  not  simply 
a  continuance  of  the  Jewish  conmionwealth,  that 
though  all  could  be  circiuncised  and  introduced  into 
the  latter  who  could  say,  "  We  have  Abraham  to 
our  Father,"  baptism  and  membership  in  the  for- 
mer were  given  not  on  parental  faith  but  only  on 
personal  repentance.  That  baptism  was  given  on 
different  grounds  from  circumcision  is  seen  in  the 
fact  that  the  believing  Jews  continued  to  have 
their  infants  circumcised  (Acts  xxi,  20),  that 
Timothy  who  had  been  baptized  was  nevertheless 
circumcised,  and  that  it  was  demanded  that  the 
Gentile  converts  be  circiuncised  though  they  had  all 
been  baptized.  Norman  Foxf. 

Biblioorapht:  On  I:  H.  Holtsmann,  in  ZWT,  xxii  (1879), 
401  sqq.;  J.  H.  Soholten,  Die  Tauffortnel,  Qotha,  1885; 
£.  Haupt,  Zum  VeratandntM  dee  AjhmUjIoU  im  N.  7*.,  pp. 
38  sqq.,  Halle,  1896;  A.  C.  McGiffert.  The  Apoetolic  Age, 
New  York,  1897;  P.  Althaus.  Die  HetUbedeutung  der 
Taufe  im  N.  T.,  GQtenloh,  1897;  F.  C.  Conybeare.  in 
ZNTW,  ii  (1901),  276  »qq.;  W.  HeitmOUer,  Im  Namen 
Jeeu,  Gdttingen,  1903;  idem,  Taufe  und  Abendmahl  bei 
PauZiM,  ib.  1903;  idem,  in  TSK,  Ixxviii  (1905),  461  sqq.; 
£.  RigKenbach,  Die  trinitarie(^  Taufbefehl,  MatL  xxviii, 
19,  GQtersloh,  1903;  E.  von  Dobschats,  in  TSK,  Ixxviii 
(1905),  i  sqq.;  F.  M.  Rendtorff,  Die  Taufe  im  UrehrUien- 
tum,  Leipsio,  1905  (gives  the  present  status  of  the  inquiry); 
A.  Seeberg.  Die  Taufe  im  N.  7*.,  Liohtenfelde,  1905; 
DB,  i.  238-245:  EB,  i,  471-476;  and  the  works  on  N.  T. 
theology  by  Weiss,  Beyschlag,  and  others. 

On  II-III,  ,1:  The  history  of  baptism  includes  as  a 
section  which  has  created  a  literature  of  its  own  the  treat- 
ment of  baptism  in  the  frescoes,  etc.,  of  the  catacombs. 
On  this  consult:  G.  B.  de  Rossi.  Roma  eotterranea,  2  vols., 
Rome,  1861-67,  reproduced  in  Eng.  by  Northcote  and 
Brownlow,  London,  1878-80;  R.  Garrucci,  Storia  dell' 
arte  crieHana,  6  vols.,  Prato,  1872-81;  BuUetHno  di  arOie- 
ologia  erietiana,  1876;  F.  X.  Kraus,  RealeneyklopOdie 
der  chrieaidien  AlterthUmer,  "  Taufe,"  "  Neophyten," 
Freiburg,  1881-86;  T.  Roller,  Lee  Caiaeombee  de  Rome, 
2  vols.,  Paris,  1881;  J.  Strsygowski,  Ikonographie  der 
Taufe  Chrieti,  Munich,  1885;  Archctology  of  the  Mode  of 
BapHem,  in  Bibliotheea  Sacra,  1896,  pp.  601-644;  A.  de 
Waal,  Die  Taufe  ChrieH  auf  conatanHniechen  GemOlden 
der  Katakomben,  in  Rdmieche  Quartalechrift,  1896;  J.  Wil- 
pert.  Die  MaUreien  der  Sakramentekapellen,  Freiburg, 
1903;   Le  Pitture  delle  eatacombe,  Rome,  1903. 

Further,  on  the  archeology  and  the  history  of  the  rite 
consult:  E.  Mart^ne,  De  antiquie  eecleeice  ritibue,  vol.  i, 
Antwerp,  1736;  J.  C.  W.  Augusti,  ArchAologie  der  Taufe, 
in  DerJcwQrdiakeiten,  vol.  vii,  Leipsic,  1825  (valuable, 
contains  bibliography  of  older  works);  M.  Schnecken- 
burger,  Ueber  doe  Alter  der  jUdiechen  Taufe,  Berlin,  1828; 
A.  J.  Binterim,  DenkvrQrdiokeiten,  i.  part  1,  ii,  part  1,  pp. 
2-34.  7  vols..  Mains,  1837-41;  J.  W.  Hfifling,  Dae  Sakra- 
merU  der  Taufe,  2  vols.,  Erlangen,  1846-48  (has  great 
value,  especially  on  the  liturgical  side);  G.  L.  Hahn,  Die 
Lehre  von  den  Sakramenten  in  ihrer  geaehuJUlidien  Ent- 
vndceluno,  Breslau,  1864  (learned  and  useful);  F.  Probst, 
Sakramente  und  Sakramenialien  der  S  ereten  Jahrhun- 
derte,  TObingen.  1872;  S.  M.  Merrill,  Chrietian  Baptiem, 
%i$  Subjecte  and  Modee,  Cincinnati,  1876;  J.  Corblet,  Hiet, 
,  ,  ,  du  eaerement  de  bapt&me,  2  vols.,  Paris,  1882;  M. 
Usteri,  in  T8K,  Iv  (1882),  205  sqq.,  Ivi  (1883),  155  sqq., 
610  sqq.,  730  sqq.,  Ivii  (1884),  417  sqq.,  456  sqq.  (these 
worthful  articles  set  forth  the  doctrine  of  Zwingli,  C)ecolam- 
padius,  the  Reformed  Church,  Calvin,  Butser,  and  Capito); 
P.  Althaus,  Die  hietoriechen  und  dogmoHechen  Orund-  \ 
Jagen  der  lutherietAen  Tauflitwrgie,  Hanover,  1893;  idem, 
Die  HetUbedeutung  der  Taufe  im  N.  T.,  ib.  1897  (deals 
also  with  modem  Lutheran  orthodox  doctrine);  G.  An-  | 
rich,  Dae  anlike  Myeterienweeen  in  eeinem  Einflueeeauf  | 
doe  Chrietentum,  Gdttingen,  1894;    Q.  Wobbermin,  Die  t 


Beeinflueeuno  dee  Chrieteniume  durth  dae  antike  Myeterien- 
tDeaen,  Berlin,  1896;  F.  E.  Warren,  Liturgy  and  Ritual  of 
the  Ante-Nicene  Church,  London,  1897;  A.  Raschenbusch, 
Die  Entetehung  der  Kindertaufe  im  3.  Jahrhundert,  Ham- 
burg, 1898;  F.  Wiegand.  Die  SteUung  dee  apoetoliechen 
Symbole  tm  .  .  .  Mittelalter,  vol.  i,  Leipsic,  1899;  L. 
Duchesne,  Originee  du  cuUe  chritien,  pp.  294  sqq.,  Parisl 
1903;  V.  Ermoni,  Le  Bapthne  dane  Vigliee  primitive, 
Paris.  1904;  T.  F.  Fotheringham.  in  PHnceton  Review, 
1905;  O.  Scheel,  Die  dogmatiache  Behandlung  der  Tauf^ 
lehre  in  der  modemen  poeiUven  Theoloffie,  Tdbingen. 
1906  (learned  and  critical);  the  works  on  the  History  of 
Doctrine  by  Hamack,  Seeberg,  Loofs  (4th  ed.,  Halle. 
1906);  also  W.  HeitmOller,  ut  sup.,  I. 

On  III,  2,  §§  1-7:    Apoetolic  Conetitutione,  vii,   39-45 
(latest  ed.,  F.  X.  Funk.  2  vols.,  Paderbom,  1906);    an 
anonymous  form  is  reproduced  in  J.  A.  Assemani,  Codex 
litwrgicue  ecdeeics,  i,  219  sqq.,  13    vols.,  Rome,  1749-66, 
and  in  H.  J.  D.  Densinger,  Ritue  Orientalium,  Coptorum, 
Syrorum,  Armenorum,  i,   267  sqq.,   2  vols.,   W'lrsburg, 
1863-64;   the  **  Apostolic  Baptismal  Liturgy  "  of  Severus 
of  Antioch  (Jacobitic),  in  Assemani,  ii,  261  sqq.,  and  in 
Densinger,  i,  302  sqq.;    another  ascribed  to  Severus  of 
Antioeh,  in  Densinger,  i,  309  sqq.;   the  liturgy  of  Jacob  of 
Edessa,  in  Assemani,  i,  240  sqq.,  ii,  226  sqq.,  iii,  152  sqq.; 
a  liturgy  translated  into  Syriac  from  Basil  the  Great,  in 
Assemani,  iii,  199  sqq.,  and  Densinger,  i,  319  sqq.;   Cyril 
of  Jerusalem,  in  MPO,  xxxiii,  331  sqq.;    and  Dionysius 
the  Areopagite,  MPO,  iii,  393  sqq.     For  the  Greek  Ortho- 
dox liturgy  consult:  Assemani,  i,  130  sqq.,  ii,  129  sqq.,  iii. 
226  sqq.;    H.  A.  Daniel,  Codex  liturgicue,  iv,  492  sqq., 
Leipsic,  1854;  J.  Qobt,  Euchologion,  pp.  274  sqq.,  287  sqq., 
Venice,  1730;    F.  C.  Conybeare.  Rituale  Armenorum,  pp. 
399  sqq.,  Oxford,  1905.     For  the  Nestorians:  Assemani, 
i.l74  sqq.,  ii,  211  sqq..  iii,  136  sqq.;  Densinger,  i,  364 sqq.; 
G.  P.  Badger,  The  Neetoriane  and  their  Rituale,  pp.  195- 
212,    London,    1852;     Liturgia    eanctorum    apoatolorum 
Ad<Bi  et  Marie,  Urmia,  1890,  Eng.  transl.  in  The  Liturgy 
of  the  Holy  Apoetlee  Adai  and  Mari,  London,  1893;    G. 
Diettrich,  Die  neetorianieche  Taufliturgie,  Giessen,  1903*. 
For  the  Armenians  consult:  C!onybeare,  ut  sup.,  pp.  xxxi 
sqq.;    Assemani,  i,  168  sqq.,  ii,  194  sqq.,  iii,  118  sqq.; 
Densinger,  i,  384  sqq.;  and  for  another  version,  Assemani, 
ii.  202  sqq.,  iii,  124  sqq.;   Densinger,  i,  391  sqq.;   and  for 
the  Eng.  transl.,  Conybeare,  ut  sup.,  pp.  86  sqq.     For 
Egjrpt   and   Ethiopia  consult:     for   the   Euchologium  of 
Serapion  of  Thmuis,  TU,  xvii  (1899),'3b;  Brightman,  in 
JTS,  i  (1900),  88  sqq.,  247  sqq.;   F.  X.  Funk,  Didaecalia 
et  Conetitutionee  Apoatolorum,  ii,   158  sqq.,   Paderbom, 
1905.     An  Arabic  liturgy  is  in  Oriena  Chriatianua,  i,  32 
sqq.,  Rome,  1901.     The  Coptic  order  is  in  Assemani,  i, 
141  sqq.,  ii,  150  sqq.,  iii,  82  sqq.;    Densinger,  i,  192  sqq. 
The  Ethiopio  order  is  in  MPL,  cxxxviii,  929  sqq.;   Den- 
singer, i,  222  sqq.;   and  the  Baptismal  Book  of  the  same 
is  in  Tmmpp,  in  AM  A,  Philosophisch-philologische  Klasse, 
xiv  (1878),  3,  pp.  149  sqq.;    cf.  for  another,  G.  Homer, 
Statutee  of  the  ApoaUea,  pp.  162  sqq.,  London,  1904.     For 
the  West:    Sacramentarium  Gelaaianum,  ed.  Wilson,  pp. 
78   sqq.,    Oxford,    1894;     Sacramentarium   Gregorianum, 
J.  Mabillon,  Muaeum  Itetlicum,  ii,  26,  sqq.,  82  sqq.;  Ritu- 
ale Romanum  Pauli  V.,   Regensburg,  |1881;    Daniel,  ut 
sup.,  i,  171  sqq.     For  Spain.  Isidore  of  Seville,  De  offieiie 
ecdeaiaaticia,  ii,  25;    Ildephonsus  of  Toledo,  Adnotationea 
de  cognitione  baptiemi,  MPL,  xcvi.  111  sqq.     For  Milan, 
Manuale  Ambroeianum,  ed.  Magistretti,  i,  143  sqq.,  ii. 
466  sqq.,  Milan,  1905.     The  early  Fren<^  ritual  is  found 
in  the  Miaaale  Oothicum,  MPL,  Ixxii,  274-275;    Miaaale 
GaUicanum,  ib.pp.  367 sqq.;    SacramentariumOiMicanum, 
ib.    pp.    500-501;    consult  further:    M.  Gerbert,   Vetue 
liturgica  Allemanica,  i,  80  sqq.,  ii,  1  sqq.,  St.  Bias,  1776; 
A.  Frans.  Dae  Rituale  von  St.  Florian,  pp.  65  sqq.,  Frei- 
burg, 19()4.     For  the  period  of  the  Reformation,  E.  Seh- 
ling.  Die  evangeliechen  Kirehenordnunaen  dee  16.  Jahrhun- 
derte,  i,  470  sqq.,  Leipsic,  1902  (for  the  form  of  MQnser); 
Daniel,  ut  sup.,  ii,  185  sqq.;  F.  Hubert,  Die  Straa^nurger 
liturgiadien  Ordnungen,  pp.  25  sqq.,  G5ttingen,  1900  (for 
the  Strasburg  form);  and  Daniel,  ut  sup.,  iii,  112  sqq.  (for 
the  Zwinglian  form). 

On  IV,  1-2:  W.  Wall,  Hiet  of  Infant  Baptiem,  new  ed., 
London,  1862  (an  old  classic);  J.  W.  Dale,  Inquiry  into  the 
Meaning  and  Uaage  of  the  Word  Baptize,  4  vols.,  vis.: 
Uaage  of  Claaaical  Greek  Writera,  Philadelphia.  1867;  Ju^ 
date  Baptiem,  Boston.  1873;  Johannic  Baptiem,  Phila- 
delphia. 1872;  Chriatie  and  Patriatie  Baptiem,  ib.  1874; 


Baptiflm 
Baptistlnea 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


454 


W.  R.  Powers,  Irenaua  and  Infant  BaptiMtn,  in  American 
PrMbifterian  and  Theolooical  Review,  1867.  pp.  239-267; 
W.  Hodgefl,  Baptiem  Teeted  by  Scripture  and  Hiet.,  New 
York,  1874;  J.  A.  Blartigny,  Dietionnaire  dee  antiquitie 
chritiennee,  "  Bapttoie,"  "  Fidfeles,"  Paris,  1877;  J.  Ck)r- 
blet.  Hieioire  dogmatique,  liturgique  et  arch6olooique  du 
eacrement  du  bapthne,  2  toIb..  Paris,  1881-82  (contains 
a  copious  bibliography);  H.  M.  Dexter,  The  True  Story 
of  John  Smyth  the  Se-Baptiat,  Boston,  1881;  A.  P.  Stanley. 
Christian  Inetitutiona,  London,  1884;  P.  Schaff,  The  Old- 
est Church  Manual,  pp.  29-67,  New  York.  1886;  C.  W. 
Bennett,  Christian  Archoulogy,  pp.  389-416,  London, 
1896;  L.  Duchesne,  Autonomies  ecdisiastiques,  Eglises 
siparies,  p.  93,  Paris,  1896;  idem,  Les  Origines  du  cuUe 
chritiefi,  ib.  1898.  Eng.  transl.,  London,  1903;  W.  H. 
Whitsitt,  A  Question  in  Baptist  History,  Louisville,  1896; 

B.  Ddrholt,  Das  Taufsymbolum  der  alien  Kirehe  nach  Ur- 
sprung  und  Entwieklung,  Paderbom,  1898;  H.  Maruechi, 
EUmenU  d'archSologie  chritienne,  i,  282.  Brussels,  1899; 
J.  8.  AxtoU,  The  Mystery  of  Baptism,  New  York,  1901; 

C.  F.  Rogers,  Early  Hist,  of  Baptism,  in  Studia  Biblica  et 
Ecdesiastica,  v,  4,  Oxford,  1903;  F.  M.  Rendtorff,  Die 
Taufe  im  Urchristentum,  Leipsic,  1906;  Schflrer,  Oeschichie, 
ii,  129  sqq.,  Eng.  transl.,  II.  ii,  319  sqq.  (deals  with  Judaic 
baptism);  DC  A,  i,  160-178  (condensed,  but  lucid);  the 
works  on  church  hist,  and  hist,  of  doctrine;  Schaff, 
Creeds,  toIs.  ii.  iii  (for  credal  statements). 

On  IV,  3,  the  following  may  be  cited:  A.  Carson, 
Baptism  in  its  Mode  and  Subjects,  Philadelphia,  1867 
(an  extended  discussion  with  replies  to  various  writers);  T. 
J.  Ck>nant,  Meaning  and  Use  of  Baptitein,  New  York,  1860 
(an  exhaustive  list  of  passages  in  Greek  literature);  J.  C. 
Chrsrstal.  Hist,  of  the  Modes  of  Christian  Baptism,  Philadel- 
phia. 1861  (argues  for  trine  immersion);  R.  Ingham,  A 
Handbook  on  Christian  Baptism,  2  parts,  London,  1866- 
71;  W.  Cathcart,  The  Baptism  of  the  Ages,  Philadelphia, 

1878  (citations  from  docimients  of  different  periods); 
H.  S.  Burrage,  The  Act  of  Baptism,  ib.  1879  (collection 
from  all  the  centuries  showing  the  usage  of  each  period); 

D.  B.  Ford,  Studies  on  the  Baptismal  Question,  Boston. 

1879  (reviews  Dale's  works,  ut  sup.);  N.  Fox,  Rise  of  the 
Use  of  Pouring  for  Baptism,  in  Baptist  Quarterly  Review, 
Oct..  1882;  A.  P.  Stanley,  ut  sup.,  chap.  1;  J.  M.  Frost, 
Pedo-BapHam,  is  it  from  Heaven  or  of  Men  t  Philadelphia, 
1889;  A.  H.  Newman,  Hist,  of  Anti-Pedobaptism,  ib. 
1896;  A.  Rauschenbusch,  Die  Entstehung  der  Kindertaufe 
im  S  Jahrhundert  und  die  WiedereinfUhrung  der  biblischen 
Taufe  im  17  Jahrhundert,  Hamburg,  1898. 

BAPTISM  FOR  THE  DEAD:  A  custom  men- 
tioned by  Paul  in  I  Cor.  xv,  29.  It  probably  con- 
sisted in  the  vicarious  baptism  of  a  living  Christian 
for  a  catechumen  who  had  died  unbaptized,  the 
latter  being  thereby  accounted  as  baptized  and  so 
received  into  bliss.  It  is  doubtful  if  the  custom 
was  ever  widely  prevalent  and  it  seems  soon  to 
have  died  out  in  the  Church,  although  kept  alive  by 
Marcionites,  Montanists,  and  other  heretics  (cf. 
Chrysostom,  Horn.,  xl,  on  I  Cor.;  Epiphanius,  Ha?r., 
xxviii,  6).  The  sixth  canon  of  the  Synod  of  Hippo 
in  393  forbade  the  practise.  It  is  observed  by  the 
Mormons  at  the  present  day. 

Objection  is  made  to  this  interpretation  on  the 
ground  that  Paul  would  not  have  referred  to  such 
a  practise  with  even  a  tacit  approval,  and  that  the 
practise  is  in  sheer  contradiction  to  Paul's  doc- 
trine of  justification  and  baptism.  Epiphanius, 
Calvin,  Flacius,  Estius,  and  others  interpreted  the 
Greek  huper  tOn  nekrdn  in  the  passage  mentioned 
to  mean  "  when  about  to  die,"  "  on  their  death- 
bed." 

Another  interpretation  regards  tdn  nekrGn  as 
referring  to  bodies,  the  baptism  of  which,  on  the 
supposition  that  they  are  mortal,  would  be  use- 
less. Another  ingenious  interpretation  refers  hu- 
per ton  nekrOn  to  the  imminent  danger  of  violent 


death  at  the  hands  of  unbelieving  persecutors  in- 
curred by  those  making  a  public  profession  of  their 
faith  in  baptism.  ''  What  is  the  use  of  incurring 
such  danger  if  there  is  to  be  no  resurrection?" 

Bibuoorapht:  R.  J.  Cooke,  in  Methodist  Review,  zlix(1880X 
100;  J.  W.  Horsley,  in  Newbery  House  Maoaeine^  Juns, 
1889;  DB,  i.  245;  and  the  commentaries  on  I  Cor.  zr.  29. 

BAPTISM  BY  HERETICS.  See  Hxretic  Bap- 
tism. 

BAPTISM  WITH  THE  HOLY  GHOST  AHD 
WITH  FIRE:  A  figurative  expression  used  by 
John  the  Baptist  (Matt.  iii»  11;  Luke  iii,  16)  and 
understood  to  refer  to  the  descent  of  the  Holy 
Spirit  on  the  Day  of  Pentecost  (Acts  ii,  1  sqq.;  ef. 
i,6). 

BAPTISMAL  REGENERATION.    See  Rbgxneb- 

ATION. 

BAPTISTERY:  A  building  or  a  portion  of  a 
church  used  for  administering  baptism.  The  his- 
tory and  institution  of  baptisteries  is  naturally 
connected  with  the  development  of  the  baptismal 
form.  Lnmersion,  which  was  customary  in  the 
ancient  Church,  required  a  basin  of  the  requisite 
depth,  and  the  custom  of  solenm  seasons  for  bap- 
tism made  necessary  a  considerable  space  for  the 
reception  of  the  numerous  neophjrtes.  The  atrium 
and  impluvium  of  the  antique  dwelling,  in  which 
divine  service  was  held  for  nearly  two  centuries  (see 
ARcmTECTURE,  ECCLESIASTICAL,  I,  §  2),  appeared 
first  of  all  as  fit  for  it  and  were  used  in  the  be^nning 
for  the  performance  of  the  rite  (cf .  Schultze,  p.  51). 
The  neophyte,  after  having  received  baptism,  was 
led  from  the  atrium  to  the  congregation  assonbled 
in  the  adjoining  space.  But  when  the  atrium 
became  merely  the  vestibule  of  the  basilica,  being 

an  open  court  besides,  buildings  were 

Early  Bap-  erected  as  early  as  the  fourth  century 

tisteries.     exclusively  for  the  administiration  of 

baptism  (Gk.  hctptiaUria,  phOtttOria, 
Lat.  fonteSf  fontes  baptislerii).  As  a  rule  these 
buildings  were  near  the  choir  (as  in  St.  Sophia  in 
Constantinople,  and  the  baptisterium  of  the  Lateran 
basilica),  or  toward  the  west  (orthodox  baptis- 
terium at  Ravenna),  or  on  the  west-front  (Grado, 
Parenzo).  Sometimes  a  location  in  the  immediate 
neighborhood  of  the  church  was  not  considered 
necessary  or  could  not  be  obtained  from  local 
reasons  (Arian  baptisterium  at  Ravenna).  An 
open  or  covered  gsdlery  often  connected  the  two 
buildings  (Torcello,  Aquileia,  and  elsewhere). 

Baptisteries  are  almost  exclusively  buildings 
with  central  arrangement  of  circular  or  polygonal 
plan;  the  rectangular  form  is  rare.  The  walls 
were  supplied  with  recesses,  or  a  lower  passage-way 
surrounded  an  elevated  central  structure  supported 
by  colunms  and  roofed  with  a  dome.  The  devdop- 
ment  of  the  baptismal  rite  from  the  fourth  century 

and  practical  considerations  in  general 
Form  and  necessitated  the  addition  of  other 
Structure,    rooms,   as  a  vestibule  (Gk.  vroauiiM 

oikos,  esGteroa  oikoSt  Lat.  atrium ;  Lat- 
eran,  Nocera),  a  dressing-room,  and  more  especially, 
a  school-room  (Gk.  katichoumenon).   In  sudi  rooms 


466 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Baptlnii 
BaptUtinM 


episcopal  meetings  were  occasionally  held.  An 
apse  or  complete  choir  was  also  sometimes  sup- 
plied. In  the  center  of  the  baptistery  was  the  basin 
(Gk.  kolymbitkra,  Lat.  piscina,  fons),  polygonal 
or  circular,  seldom  cruciform,  and  artifically  sup- 
plied with  water  (cf .  J.  von  Schlosser,  Schriftquellen 
xuT  Kttnstgeschichle  der  Karolingerzeit,  Vienna,  1802, 
no.  232).  Low,  ornamented  barriers  surroimded 
it,  with  openings  for  going  down  and  coming  up. 
Three  steps — symbolically  referring  to  the  holy 
Trinity,  in  the  name  of  which  the  baptism  was 
performed — ^led  down  and  up  {gradus  descensionia, 
and  cacensiania).  Curtains  covered  the  basin 
and  seats  stood  along  the  walls.  The  arts  were 
employed  chiefly  in  the  mosaic  decorations  of  the 
dome,  but  reliefs  in  stucco,  marble  ornamentation, 
and  artistic  pavements  were  also  used.  As  sub- 
jects for  pictorial  representation  the  baptism  of 
Christ  and  the  hart  panting  after  the  water  brooks 
(Ps.  xlii,  1),  representing  the  longing  after  baptism, 
commended  themselves  (cf.  Schultze,  pp.  205  sqq., 
228  sqq.,  240-241 ).  Inscriptions  were  also  not  lack- 
ing, telling  of  the  purpose  of  the  building  and  the 
blessing  of  the  baptismal  grave  (Holtzinger,  pp.  219- 
220;  Schlosser,  U.S.,  no.  910). 

Most  of  the  extant  baptisteries  of  early  Christian 
time  (which  were  freely  dedicated  to  John  the  Bap- 
tist) are  in  Italy  (cf .  O.  Mothes,  Die  BaukunH  des 
MitUlaltera  in  Italien,  i,  Jena,  1882,  125  sqq.). 
In  the  East  some  samples  have  recently  been  dis- 
covered and  more  may  be  looked  for.  In  general 
the  number  was  limited,  since  the  right  of  baptism 
was  connected  with  the  episcopal  churches  {eccU' 
sicB  baptiamales),  and  was  only  gradually  granted 
to  the  parochial  churches.  The  discontinuance  of 
the  baptism  of  adults  was  not  in  itself  a  reason 
for  the  abolition  of  baptisteries;  only  the  inner 
arrangement,  as  the  form  of  the  basin,  was  influ- 
enced thereby.  However,  for  practical  reasons, 
the  tendency  grew  stronger  to  substitute  for  the 
detached  buildiuig  an  addition,  or  rather  a  separate 
room  in  the  church  itself;  during  the  Middle  Ages 
the  detached  buildings  became  exceptional.  In 
these  baptismal  chapels  the  font  or  basin  took  the 
place  of  the  piscina.  In  the  old  plan 
Superseded  of  St.  Gall  belonging  to  the  ninth 
by  Baptis-  century,  the  christening-font  is  already 
mal  Fonts,  in  the  interior  of  the  church  (F.  Keller, 
Baurisa  des  Kloatera  von  St.  Gallen, 
Ziuich,  1884,  plan  and  p.  18).  Immersion,  which 
was  sUll  customary  during  the  Middle  Ages,  re- 
quired a  large  basin  (cf .  the  instructive  illustrations 
from  the  ninth  century  in  J.  Strzygowski,  Icono- 
graphie  der  Taufe  Ckriati,  Munich,  1885,  plate  viii, 
4-7).  The  material  was  generally  stone,  but 
sometimes  bronze  or  brass.  The  round  or  polyg- 
onal form  may  perhaps  be  looked  upon  as  a  sur- 
vival of  the  antique  piscina.  As  the  latter  was 
adorned  by  art,  so  also  ornamentations  and  figura- 
tive representations  are  found  on  the  outside  of  the 
baptismal  fonts,  such  as  the  apostles  executing  the 
baptismal  command  of  Christ  and  the  baptism  of 
Jesus.  Sometimes  the  four  rivers  of  Eden  per- 
sonified or  lions  served  as  supports;  in  Li^ge 
there  were  oxen,  an  imitation  of  the  molten  sea  in 
the  court  of  the  priests  of  Solomon's  temple.    In 


the  Gothic  period  the  broad,  massive  form  of  the 
older  time  becomes  more  slender,  and  the  archi- 
tectural ornamentations  occupy  a  larger  space. 
Connected  with  the  Roman  Catholic  rite  of  conse- 
crating the  baptismal  water  is  the  use  of  a  covering, 
which  in  its  artistic  shaping  is  in  harmony  with  the 
whole,  and  often  develops  into  a  high  superstructure. 
In  the  Middle  Ages  enactments  were  passed  by  the 
Church  concerning  the  material  and  other  matters 
(RUucde  romanum,  de  aacramento  bapHamatia,  30; 
cf.  V.  Thalhofer,  Handbuch  der  kaiholiaehen  Li- 
twrgik,  i,  Freiburg,  1883,  816  sqq.).  When  immer- 
sion ceased  to  be  practised  in  the  Roman  Church 
the  baptismal  fonts  became  smaller. 

The  Protestant  Church  knows  of  no  consecration 
of  the  baptismal  water.  In  order  to  connect  as 
closely  as  possible  the  two  sacraments  which  were 
recognised,  the  baptismal  font  was  at  first  placed 
near  the  altar,— a  custom  which  in  modem  times 
has  rightly  been  increasingly  disregarded.  As  to 
baptism  and  baptisteries  in  the  catacombs,  noth- 
ing can  be  positively  asserted,  and  all  probability 
is  against  it.  The  water  reservoirs  which  are  spo- 
radically found  there,  have  no  connection  with  bap- 
tism. ViCTOB  SCHUUTZB. 

Bibuoorapht:  H.  HoHnnger,  HandbuA  der  aUdtriaaidk»» 
Archit^tur.  Form^  Einriektufig  und  Au»9eh'm&dcuno  der 
aUdirieaiehenKirchen,  BapHeterien  ....  Stuttsart,  1889; 
Binghmn,  Originee,  book  viii,ch*p.vii,  §§  1-4;  ELMart^ne,  De 
antiquieeedeeiariHlnu,pp.  i,  135, 163,  Antwerp,  1736;  DC  A, 
i,  173-178;  F.  X.  Kraut.  Real-Eneyklopildieder  durieaiehen 
AUerthUmer,  art.  Taufkircke,  vol.  ii.  Freiburg.  1880-86: 
H.  Otte,  HandbuA  der  kiretUidte»  KuneiardUU)loffie  dee 
deuiedten  AfiUdaUert,  ii,  303  sqq.,  Leipaio,  1883;  V. 
Sohultie,  ArdUlolooie  der  aUchrietlidten  Kunet,  pp.  75 
■qq.,  928qq..  Munich,  1805;  T.  Beaudoire,  Oeniee  de  la  trup- 
toiaraphieapo^oUqueet  de  I'ardiiteetwre  ritueUe  du  premier 
aueixihneei^de.  Baptietiree,  btmliquee  .  .  .  ,  Paris,  1903. 

BAPUSTDfES  (BATTISTnfl,  BATTISTINE):  A 
religious  order  for  both  sexes,  named  after  its  patron 
saint,  John  the  Baptist.  The  male  branch  (Con- 
gregatio  aaeerdotum  acscularium  miaaionariorum  de 
S.  Johanne  Baptiaia)  was  founded  at  Genoa  by  the 
pious  priest  Dominico  Francesco  Olivieri  (d.  1766) 
and  received  papal  approval  from  Benedict  XIV 
in  1755.  Its  special  purpose  was  to  perform  mis- 
sionary work,  which  was  carried  on  in  Bulgaria, 
RumeUa,  and  China.  The  female  order  was  in- 
stituted by  Giovanna  Bfaria  Battista  Solimani  (d. 
1758),  who  established  a  community  at  Moneglia 
(33  m.  e.s.e.  of  Genoa)  as  early  as  1730.  Olivieri 
became  their  spiritual  director.  In  1736  they  re- 
moved to  Genoa  and  in  1744  were  confirmed  by 
Benedict  XIV  imder  the  official  name  of  Hennitesses 
of  St.  John  the  Baptist.  Each  member  took  the 
name  Battista,  whence  arose  the  popular  designa- 
tion of  BaUiatine,  They  follo'^ed  a  rigidly  ascetic 
life,  marked  in  particular  by  strict  fasting,  and  de- 
voted themselves  to  works  of  charity.  The  male 
Baptistines  ceased  toward  th'^  end  of  the  eighteenth 
centuiy,  but  the  female  branch  continued  in  Genoa, 
Rome  (where  a  convent  was  founded  in  1755),  and 
elsewhere  in  Italy  till  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  O.  Z6cKLEBt. 

Biblioobapht:  G.  Moroni,  Diaionario  di  erudisione  ttorieo- 
eedeeiaeHoa,  8.v.  J9a«i«te,  Rome,  1831-32;  Heimbuchei; 
Orden  und  KongrtgaUonen,  ii,  807-306,  375. 


BaptiBts 


THE  NEW  SCHAPF-HERZOG 


456 


Origin  of  the  Name  ((  1). 
Precursors  of  the  Baptists  (§  2) . 
I.  The  English  Baptists. 

1.  Rise  of  the  General  Baptists. 
John  Smyth  and  his  Congregation 

They  Organize  a  New  Church  ((  2). 

Smsrth  Excommunicated  by  his 
Church  (S  3). 

Attempts  to  Join  the  Mennonites 
(*4). 

Smyth's  Declaration  of  Faith  (S  6). 

His  Last  Utterances  ($  6). 

Helwys  Returns  to  London  (S  7). 

His  Doctrines  ($8). 

Baptist  Publications  ((  9). 

Further  Traces  of  Baptists  in  Eng- 
land (S  10). 

2.  Rise  of  the  Particular  (Calvinistic) 

Baptists. 
Congregations  in  London  (S  !)• 
Confession  of  1644  ($  2). 

3.  General   Baptists  from    1641  On- 

ward. 
Organization  and  Polity  (S  1)> 
Revival  at  Barton  (S  2). 
The  New  Connection  (8  3). 
In  the  Nineteenth  Century  (84). 

4.  Particular  Baptists  from  1644  On- 

ward. 

To  the  Restoration  ($1). 

Cooperation  and  Union  (S  2). 

To  1717  (8  3). 

To  1776  (J  4). 

Andrew  Fuller.  Missionary  Enter- 
prise (J  6). 

Baptist  Union  (S  6). 


BAPTISTS. 

Charles  Haddon  Spurgeon  (§  7). 
The  Welsh  Baptists  ((  8). 
Alexander  Carson  and    the    Lish 

Baptists  (S  9). 
Scotch    Baptists.      The  Haldanes 

(§  10). 
II.  Baptists  in  the  United  States. 

1.  To  1740. 

Roger  Williams  ((1). 

The  Providence  Church  ({  2). 

The  Newport  Church  (J  3). 

Baptists  in  Massachusetts  ((  4). 

In  South  Carolina  ((  5). 

In  Virginia,   North  Carolina,  and 

Connecticut  ((  6). 
In  New  York  (J  7). 
In  the  Quaker  Colonies  ({  8). 

2.  From  1740  to  1812. 

The  Great  Awakening  (S  1). 

The  Philadelphia  Association  ((  2). 

Rhode  Island  College  (Brown  Uni- 
versity) (8  3). 

Southern  Associations  (8  4). 

Evangelistic  Work  of  Steams  and 
Marshall  (8  5). 

Separate  Baptists  in  Virginia  (8  6). 

Baptists  and  Religious  Liberty  (87). 

3.  From  1812  to  the  Present  Time. 
Lack  of  an  Educated  Ministry  (81). 
Missionary  and  Educational  Work 

(8  2). 
Opposition  and  Difficulties  (83). 
Theological  Seminaries  (8  4). 
Universities,  Ck>lleges,  and  Schools 

(8  6). 
The  Home  Mission  Society  (8  6). 
The  Publication  Society  (8  7). 


The  Southern  Baptists  (8  8). 

The  Baptist  Congreaa  and  Toong 
People's  Union  (8  9). 

Colored  Baptists  (8  10). 

German  Baptists  (8  11). 

Scandinavian  BaptisU  (8  12). 
4.  Minor  Baptist  Parties  in  the  Uni- 
ted States. 

(a)  Six-Principles  Baptists. 

(b)  Seventh-Day  Baptists, 
(e)  Free-Will  Baptists. 

((/)  Original  Free-Will  Baptists. 

(e)  General  Baptists. 

if)  Separate  Baptists. 

((7)  United  Baptists. 

(A)  Primitive  ("  HardsheU  ")  Bap- 
tists. 

(i)  The  Old  Two-Seed-in-tbe.Spirit 
Predestinarian  Baptists. 

ik)  The  Baptist  Church  of  Christ. 
III.  Baptists  in  the  British  Possessions. 
1.  The  Dominion  of  Canada. 

The  Maritime  Provinoes  (8  1). 

Ontario  and  Quebec  (8  2). 

The  Northwest  and  British  Colum- 


bia (I  3). 
itralia,! 


Australia,  Tasmania,  and  New  Zea- 
land. 

3.  The  British  West  Indies,   Central 

America,  and  Africa. 

4.  India,  Ceylon,  Burma,  and  Assam. 
IV.  Baptists  in  Mission  T«anda. 

V.  Baptists  on  the  Continent  of  Europe. 

1.  (3ermany  and  Gennan  Missions. 

2.  Scandinavia. 

3.  France  and  Italy. 


The  use  of  the  term  "Baptist"  as  a  denomi- 
national designation  is  of  comparatively  recent 
origin,  first  appearing  about  the  year  1644. 
Its  Gennan  equivalent  (Tdufer)  was  applied  by 
Zwingli  and  others  to  the  antipedobaptists  of 
their  time,  expressing  their  opinion  that  the  lat- 
ter laid  undue  stress  on  believers'  baptism;  and 
the  [terms  "  Anabaptist  "  and  "  Katabaptist  " 
(Wiedertdufer  and  Widertdufer)  were  used  impljring 
repetition  and  perversion  or  destruction  of  the 
infant  baptism  that  for  many  centuries  had  been 
practised  (see  Anabaptists).  These  designations 
were  of  course  repudiated  as  opprobrious  by  anti- 
pedobaptists, who  were  content  to  call  themselves 
"  Christians,"  "  Apostolic  Christians,"  "  Brethren," 
"  Disciples  of  Christ,"  "  Believing  Baptized  Chil- 
dren of  God,"  etc.  Early  English  antipedobaptists 
were  stigmatized  as  "  Anabaptists,"  with  the  worst 
continental  implications,  by  their  op- 
I.  Origin  of  ponents,  and  were  much  concerned  to 
the  Name,  disown  this  designation.  In  the  earli- 
est Particular  (Calvinistic)  Baptist 
confession  of  faith  (1644)  the  churches  concerned 
designate  themselves  as  "  those  churches  which  are 
commonly  (though  falsely)  called  Anabaptists,"  and 
in  the  appendix  to  the  confession  (1646)  they  call 
themselves  "  Baptized  Believers."  In  the  confes- 
sion of  1688  Baptist  churches  are  designated  "  con- 
gregations of  Christians  baptized  upon  profession 
of  their  faith "  and  "  baptized  congregations." 
Other  common  designations  (1654,  etc.)  are  "  Bap- 
tized Churches,"  "  Baptized  Christians,"  and 
"  Churches  of  Christ  in  England,  Scotland,  and 
Wales. "  "  Churches  of  Christ  in  London,"  "  Churches 


of  Christ  in  Ireland,"  etc.,  are  expressions  that 
occur  in  docimients  of  165^57.  As  a  sort  of  com- 
promise between  "  Anabaptists  "  and  "  baptised 
believers,"  "  baptized  people,"  etc.,  the  term  "  Bap- 
tists "  was  gradually  adopted  (1670  or  earlier).  In 
1672  it  is  used  in  a  royal  license. 

Baptists  have  always  professed  to  base  their  doc- 
trine and  practise  exclusively  upon  New  Testament 
precept  and  example.  If  they  have  failed  to  realise 
their  aim,  it  has  been  due  to  imperfect  understand- 
ing of  the  New  Testament  Scriptures  or  to  the  im- 
perfection inherent  in  human  nature.  Baptists 
find  their  spiritual  ancestry  in  all  individuals  and 
parties  that  during  the  early  Christian  centuries, 
the  Middle  Ages,  and  the  Reformation  time,  in  the 
spirit  of  obedience  and  loyalty  to  Christ,  sought  to 
stay  the  tide  of  incoming  pagan  and  Judaizing 
error,  or  in  times  of  general  apostasy  endeavored 
to  restore  Christianity  to  its  primitive  purity  and 
simplicity.  They  find  rejection  of  infant  baptism 
and  insistence  on  believers'  baptism  among  the  an- 
cient, medieval,  and  modem  Paulicians  (Thon- 
draki;  see  Paulicians),  with  the  conmion  (if  not 
exclusive)  practise  of  inmiersion  and 
2.  Precur-  the  most  strenuous  effort  to  realize 
sors  of  the  regenerate  membership,  which  so  far 

Baptists,  identifies  them  with  Baptists;  but  with 
their  adoptionist  Christology  and  sec- 
tarian exclusiveness  modem  Baptists  have  little 
sympathy.  In  the  Petrobrusians  of  the  twelfth 
century  (see  Peter  op  Bruys)  Baptists  find  their 
principles  almost  completely  embodied,  but  there 
is  no  indication  that  the  former  insisted  upon  im- 
mersion as  the  exclusively  valid  act  of  bi^tism. 


467 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Baptists 


Many  of  the  Waldenses  and  the  Bohemian  Breth- 
ren (qq.v.)  rejected  infant  baptism  and  practised 
believers'  baptism,  but  they  seem  not  to  have  dis- 
fellowshiped  their  pedobaptist  brethren  and  laid 
no  stress  upon  inmiersion;  while  in  the  rejection 
of  judicial  oaths,  magistracy  as  allowable  for  a 
Christian,  capital  punishment,  and  warfare,  they 
put  an  interpretation  on  the  Scriptures  that  mod- 
em Baptists  do  not  approve.  The  historical  rela- 
tions of  modem  Baptists  to  the  Anabaptists  of  the 
sixteenth  century  are  close  and  direct.  English 
Puritanism  and  Brownism*  (see  Browne,  Robert), 
from  which  English  Baptists  sprang,  were  them- 
selves products  in  part  at  least  of  the  Anabaptist 
movement.  A  still  more  direct  influence  was 
exerted  by  the  Mennonites  of  the  Netherlands 
upon  the  English  refugees  that  there  became  anti- 
pedobaptist  (1609  onward).  Anabaptists  were  the 
forerunners  of  modem  Baptists  in  rejection  of  in- 
fant baptism  and  insistence  on  believers'  baptism, 
in  insisting  on  the  sole  authority  of  the  Scriptures, 
in  their  efforts  to  secure  and  maintain  regenerate 
church  membership,  in  pleading  for  liberty  of  con- 
science and  the  separation  of  Church  and  State; 
but  nearly  all  Anabaptists  rejected  oaths,  magis- 
tracy, warfare,  and  capital  punishment,  all  were 
anti-Augustinian  in  their  anthropology,  many  were 
chiliastic,  many  were  antitrinitarian,  some  were 
pantheistic  and  antinomian,  many  were  commu- 
nistic, and  none  (so  far  as  is  known)  insisted  on 
immersion  as  the  exclusively  valid  act  of  baptism 
(see  Anabaptistb). 

L  The  English  Baptists. — 1.  Bias  of  the  General 
Baptists:  John  Smyth  (q.v.)  became  a  Puritan 
as  early  as  1590  but  continued  in  the  Established 
Church  until  1606,  when  he  led  in  the  organization 
of  a  separate  congregation  at  Gainsborough,  the 
members  of  which  covenanted  together  "  to  walk 
in  all  his  [God's]  ways,  made  known  or  to  be  made 
known  unto  them,  according  to  their  best  endeav- 
ors, whatsoever  it  might  cost  them,  the  Lord  as- 
sisting them."  In  1606  or  1607  they  fled  from  per- 
secution and  settled  in  Amsterdam.  They  did  not 
unite  with  the  older  Puritan  church  in  Amsterdam, 
of  which  Francis  Johnson  and  Henry  Ainsworth 
(qq.v.)  were  pastor  and  teacher,  but  were  on  terms 
of  fellowship  with  this  body.  In  his  reply  to  Rich- 
ard Bernard's  Separatists'  Schism^  published  some 
months  after  his  arrival,  Smyth  expressed  the  pro- 
foundest  aversion  to  "  Anabaptists," 
n4^  A^H  w^om  he  classed  with  Papists,  Arians, 
and  "  other  heretics  and  anti-Chris- 
tians," whose  "  prayers  and  religious 
exercises  "  could  not  be  acceptable  to 
God.  By  this  time  he  had  reached  convictions  in 
favor  of  pnre  Congregationalism  as  against  the 
presbyterial  practise  of  Johnson.  He  soon  took 
issue  with  "  the  Ancient  Brethren  of  the  Separa^ 
tion  "  as  regards  the  use  of  the  book  [Bible]  in  read- 
ing, prophesying,  and  singing  in  church  meetings, 
declaring  it  to  be  "  no  part  of  spiritual  worship  " 
and  hence  "  unlawful  ";  he  objected  to  the  "  tri- 
formed  presbytery  "  (pastors,  teachers,  and  rulers) 
as  "  none  of  God's  ordinance  but  man's  device"; 
and  insisted  that  ''  in  contributing  to  the  church 
treasury,  there  ought  to  be  both  a  separation  from 


Smyth  and 

his  Oonffre- 

ffation. 


them  that  are  without,  and  a  sanctification  of  the 
whole  action  by  prayer  and  thanksgiving."  He  is 
reported  by  some  of  his  contemporaries  to  have 
objected  to  the  use  of  translations  of  the  Bible  and 
to  have  insisted  "  that  teachers  should  bring  the 
originals,  the  Hebrew  and  Greek,  and  out  of  them 
translate  by  voice."  He  had  evidently  become  hy- 
persensitive regarding  anything  that  savored  of 
human  additions  to  divine  prescriptions. 

Prejudice  against  the  Anabaptists  seems  for 
some  time  to  have  hindered  the  application  of 
Smyth's  principle  to  infant  baptism,  but  late  in 
1608  or  early  in  1609  it  was  borne  in  upon  him 
that  if  the  Church  of  England  was  apostate  (as  his 
Separatist  brethren  agreed),  then  its  ordinances 
were  invalid,  and  that  infant  baptism  was  wholly 
without  Scripture  warrant  and  so  in  any  case  to  be 
rejected.  Accordingly  he  and  his  followers  dis- 
solved their  church,  disowned  their  baptism  (Smyth 
repudiating  also  his  ordination),  resolved  to  intro- 
duce anew  believers'  baptism  and  to  effect  a  com- 
pletely new  church  organization  with  the  New 
Testament  as  their  only  guide.  Smyth  seems  to 
have  first  administered  the  ordinance  to  himself 
and  then  to  the  rest  of  the  company.  Then  as 
baptized  believers  they  effected  a  new  organization 
with  Smyth  as  pastor.  They  now  felt 
O  «m^M^a  "^P®^®^  ^  protest  against  the  church 
'^Sw  ^^  Johnson  and  Ainsworth  as  "  a  false 
Church.  church,  falsely  constituted  in  the  bap- 
tizing of  infants,  and  their  own  unbap- 
tized  estate."  When  charged  with  inconsistency 
and  changcableness,  Smyth  insisted  that  a  change 
for  the  better  is  always  in  order,  and  that  not  to 
change  so  long  as  complete  conformity  to  Scrip- 
ture has  not  been  attained  "  is  evil  simply;  and 
therefore  that  we  should  proceed  from  the  profes- 
sion of  Puritanism  to  Brownism,  and  from  Brown- 
ism to  true  Christian  baptism,  is  not  simply  evil 
and  reprovable  in  itself,  except  it  be  proved  that 
we  have  fallen  from  true  religion."  In  answer  to 
the  charge  of  ''  Se-baptism  "  he  claims  that  there 
is  as  much  warrant  for  believers  baptizing  them- 
selves as  there  is  for  setting  up  a  true  church  (which 
his  Separatist  opponents  professed  to  have  done), 
inasmuch  as  a  "  tme  church  can  not  be  erected 
without  baptism,"  and  that  '*  any  man  raised  up 
after  the  apostasy  of  Antichrist  "  may  "  in  the  re- 
covering of  the  church  by  baptism,  administer  it 
upon  himself  in  communion  with  others."  He 
further  justifies  self-administered  baptism  on  the 
ground,  among  others,  that  "  in  the  Old  Testament 
every  man  that  was  unclean  washed  himself;  every 
priest  going  to  sacrifice  washed  himself .  .  .  .  Every 
master  of  a  family  ministered  the  Passover  to  him- 
self and  all  of  his  family."  He  adds:  "  A  man  can 
not  baptize  others  into  the  church,  himself  being 
out  of  the  church.  Therefore  it  is  lawful  for  a  man 
to  baptize  himself  together  with  others  in  commu- 
nion, and  this  warrant  is  a  plerophory  for  the  prac- 
tise of  that  which  is  done  by  us." 

As  Puritans,  Separatists,  and  Mennonites  prac- 
tised affusion  at  this  time  and  as  no  issue  was  raised 
in  the  controversial  literature  called  out  by  this 
new  movement  among  English  Separatists  or  in 
the  later  negotiations  between  these  English  anti- 


Baptist* 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


458 


pedobaptista  and  the  Mennonitcs  respecting  the  act 
of  baptism,  it  seems  highly  probable  that  Smyth 
practised  affusion.  Deep-seated  prejudice  against 
Anabaptistfij  unfamilianty  with  the  Dutch  language^ 
and  the  attitude  of  aloofnesa  aesuined  by  the  Men- 
ponites,  furnish  a  sufficient  explanation  of  the  fail^ 
ure  of  these  EngUah  antipedobaptists  to  secure 
baptism  at  the  hands  of  the  Dutch  brethren  with 
whom  they  had  io  much  in  common* 

Shortly  before  or  shortly  after  the  introduction 
of  bet  Severe*  baptism ,  in  sympathy  with  the  Ar- 
minian  movement  then  current  and  with  the  S^- 
cinianiied  Mennonism  of  the  timCf  Smyth  adopted 
SociniaD  (Pelagian)  views,  denying  original  or  he- 
reditary sin  and  the  redemption  of  infanta  by  Christ- 
He  also  adopted  the  Mennonite  view  that  Chriat 
did  not  derive  "  the  firet  matter  of  his  Besh  '*  from 
Mary,  that  "  an  elder  of  one  church  is  an  elder  of 
all  the  churches  in  the  world,*'  and  that  "  magis- 
trates may  not  be  members  of  Christ ^i  church  and 
retain  their  magistracy,"  Smyth's  churchy  led  by 
ThomfW  Helwy^  and  John  Murton,  then  exeom* 
municated  him  and  his  followers  because  of  their 
de|>arture  from  the  principles  on  which  the  church 
had  been  constituted.     These  (thirty- 

8.  Bmytb    ^[ireo  jn  uuriiber)  now  sought  admis- 

^J^*^°"^'*"  sion  into  the  fellowship  of  the  Men* 
by  his       nonite  church  in  Amsterdam  of  which 

Oliuroh.  Lubbert  Gcrrits  was  pastor.  In  their 
application  they  *'  confess  this  their 
error,  and  repent  of  the  same,  viss.:  that  they  under- 
took to  baptize  themselves  contrary  to  the  order 
laid  down  by  Christ/'  and  express  the  desire  '*  to 
get  back  into  the  true  church  of  Christ  as  speedily 
as  may  be/'  Helwys  and  his  associateB  besought 
the  Mennonites  to  take  *'  wise  couhsel^  and  that 
from  God*s  word,"  how  they  should  deal  '*  in  this 
cause  betwixt  us  and  those  who  are  justly,  for  the*r 
Bins,  cast  out  from  ua.  And  the  whole  cause  in  ques- 
tion being  succession,  ,  ,  ,  consider,  we  beseech 
you,  how  it  is  Antichrist's  chief  hold,  and  that  it  is 
Jewish  and  ceremonial,  an  ordinance  of  the  Old 
Testament,  but  not  of  the  New."  They  cite  the 
case  of  John  the  Baptist  to  prove  that  an  unbap- 
tized  person  may  inaugurate  baptism.  They  claim 
that  "  whosoever  shall  now  be  stirred  up  by  the 
same  Spirit  to  preach  the  same  word,  and  men 
thereby  being  converted,  may,  according  to  John's 
example,  wash  them  with  water,  and  who  can  for- 
bid ?  And  we  pray  tha  t  we  may  speak  f  reel  y  here  in , 
how  tlare  any  man  or  men  challenge  unto  them- 
selves a  preeminence  herein,  as  though  the  Spirit  of 
God  was  only  in  their  hearts,  and  the  word  of  God 
now  only  to  be  fetched  at  their  mouths,  and  the 
ordinance  of  God  only  to  be  had  from  their  hands, 
except  they  were  apostles?  Hath  the  Lord  thus 
restrained  his  Spirit,  his  word,  and  ordinances,  as 
to  make  particular  men  lordly  over  them,  or  keep- 
ers of  them  ?  God  forbid.  This  is  contrary  to  the 
liberty  of  the  gospel,  which  is  free  for  all  men,  at 
all  times  and  in  all  placses*  .  *  ,  And  now  for  the 
other  question,  that  eiders  must  ordain  elders;  or  if 
this  be  a  perpetual  rule,  then  from  whom  is  your 
eldership  come  ?  And  if  one  church  might  once  or^ 
dain,  theo  wny  not  all  churches  always  ?  " 

It  might  have  been  expected  that  the  Meunonitea 


to  Jotn  tho 

Hennon- 

Ste»* 


of  Amsterdam  would  ret^ive  with  open  Arms  theso 
English  brethren  who  were  seemingly  so  thoroughly 
at  one  with  tbem  in  doctrine  and  practise.  Several 
considerations  led  them  to  hesitate.  The  connect 
tional  church  order  of  the  Mennonites  made  it  neees- 
sary  for  the  Amsterdam  church  to  secure  the  ap- 
proval of  other  churches  in  fellowship.  An  unwise 
act  might  easily  rend  the  entire  brother- 
***^^l^Ji*  ^*^^*^'  ^^  unhappy  experiencea  in  the 
past  had  abundantly  demonstrated 
The  Amsterdam  Mennonite  congrefy- 
tion  found  Smyth's  party  so  thor* 
oughJy  in  accord  with  themselves  that  they  were 
prompted  to  express  to  their  brethren  at  Lc^wa^ 
den  the  opinion  that  *'  these  English,  without  beiiif 
baptised  again,  must  be  accepted/'  Yet,  if  tba 
Leeuwardcn  brethren  thought  otherwise,  Smyth 
and  his  associates  were  willing  to  accept  and  the 
Amsterdam  brethren  to  administer  a  new  baptiim, 
if  it  could  bo  proved  from  Scripture  and  reason  to 
be  necessary.  The  Leeuwardcn  brethren  eould  not 
be  induced  to  commit  themselves  as  to  the  validity 
of  Smyth's  baptism  or  to  assume  any  responsibility 
for  what  their  Amsterdam  brethren  might  do  in 
the  premises.  One  of  the  Mennonite  brethren  fur* 
nished  Smyth's  party  with  a  meeting-place  in  tbQ 
Great  Cake  House;  but  they  were  not  reoeived  into 
full  fellowship  until  16I5|  three  years  after  Smyth'i 
death. 

tn  1011  Smyth  and  hiji  followiers  put  farth  a  dfidjirfttioii 
of  iheir  faith  in  one  buodrfid  artidea^  The  confcaaion  leti 
fortb  just  vi«wii  ils  to  the  nature  of  iaviug;  kuoirkKi^  of 
God  A9  JnvoLi^iiis  coDfarixiJty  in  c.h&racter  to  God's  AlCTibaleL 
ArmJni^Ei  views  nrb  difiarly  and  moderately  «et  fortli  wilh 
respect  to  God 'ft  rel&tioa  to  the  fall  and  to  humaa  so. 
*'  Adam  Ymug  fallen  did  not  loM  any  n^tunl  poww  m 
faculty,  .  ,  .  and  th^jneiforc  .  ,  ,  atill  retained  ftvcdom  ^ 
will  "  (17).  "  Original  Bin  **  i»  declared  to  be  *'  an  idle 
t«nn,"  ther«  being  **  bO  fiueh  thing  an  men  in  tend  by  iht 
term.  ,  .  .  becBuee  God  threateoed  djeath  only  to  Adun. 
not  to  his  posterity,  juid  becAUae  Ood  creaied  the  ■mil'* 
(IS).  It  ia  acoordJDgily  mai  itained  that  '*  infatita  an  vm- 
oeiwd  an  bor  i  in  innpccney  wit  bout  uln  ^'  (30).  It  it  a^ 
aprted  that  "  Ad«n  being  fallen,  God  did  not  hate  hioi,  bH 
loved  him  it  ill  and  sought  hia  good  *'  (23),  ''  Tbe  kt 
creaturB  which  ia  begotten  of  God  nAedetli  not  the  outwaid 
ScsriptiirciiH  creatuiiefs.  or  ordinanc«a  of  the  iirhurch,  .  ,  .  yt* 
be  c&a  do  notliins  acainat  the  Law  or  Ssip- 
B,  Smyth*»  tnrea^  but  mther  all  hi^  doings  shall  aerre  tfl 
DecL&tatlon  the  con  lirming:  and  establishicc  of  the  La*  ' 
of  Faith.  (fll-B-^).  "  The  outward  church  visible  "  ii 
declared  to  eooalst  **  of  penitent  |xmM 
only,  and  of  Auch  aa  b^beying  in  Chriat  bring  forth  &qid 
worthy  of  Ame  dment  of  life"  (€5),  "  Alt  pemtent  and 
faithful  Christiana  are  \  rethren  in  the  eommunion  ol  tbi 
Qiitwoi-d  chuf  eh^  ,  «  ,  tbough  compaaBed  with  never  so  tniJii' 
igrnorancvd  and  infirmities;  and  we  saJute  them  all  with  « 
holy  kiast  being  heartily  grieTed  that  we  which  follow  aftff 
one  faith,  and  one  spirit,  one  Lord,  and  oiie  (ik>d,  one  bodri 
and  one  baptism,  should  be  rent  into  ao  many  aeeti  asi 
Hchisma;  and  that  onl  for  matters  of  le^  moment  "  CW)t 
It  iii  taushC  "  that  the  outward  baptism  of  water  ia  to  bt 
adminiatered  only  upon  a  eh  penitent  and  faitbful  persoos 
B3  art  [aforesoi  1,  and  not  upon  innoeent  inf&nta,  or  *iek*d 
p«rBQua  "  (70);  th  t  "in  the  outward  aupper  which  onjf 
baptised  persona  muat  partake,  there  i^  preiaented  aad 
fiKuned  before  the  e^yen  of  the  penitent  uid  faithful  lliil 
api ritual  supper  which  Chriat  makeih  of  hia  flesh  uid  Uood: 
which  IB  i^Ticified  and  ahed  for  the  remisaion  of  sins  ,  .  - 
and  which  m  eaten  and  drunlten  .  .  «  only  by  tbo<«  whidi 
are  f1e«h  of  hia  fleah  and  bone  of  hia  hotm^  ia.  the  conunimioa 
of  the  t^me  npirit  "  (72 )r  that  "  there  fa  tio  aueeeanma  ia 
the  outward  chureb,  but  that  alt  the  Fuec«wiioa  m  Enun 
beav^a,  and  thAt  the  new  creatune  only  hath  the  tbii^^ 
nififld  and  tmbatamoe*  whereof  the  outwiard  chuit^h  and  cn^ 
diiiancea  an  diadows,  and  thArefora  be  mk^na  hath  pofwor 


460 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bapttsta 


and  knoweth  aright  how  to  administer  in  the  outward 
church,  for  the  benefit  of  others:  yet  God  is  not  the  author 
of  confusion  but  of  order  and  therefore  we  are  in  the  out- 
ward church  to  draw  as  near  the  first  institution  as  may 
be  in  all  things;  .  .  .  therefore  it  is  not  lawful  for  every 
brother  to  administer  the  word  and  sacraments "  (81). 
The  following  declaration  on  liberty  of  conscience  is  espe- 
cially noteworthy:  **  That  the  magistrate  is  not  by  virtue 
of  his  office  to  meddle  with  religion  or  matters  of  conscience, 
to  force  or  compel  men  to  this  or  that  form  of  religion  or 
doctrine,  but  to  leave  Christian  religion  free  to  every  man's 
oonsdenoe.  .  .  .  That  if  the  magistrate  will  follow  Christ 
and  be  his  disciple,  he  must  deny  himself,  take  up  his  cross, 
and  follow  Qurist:  he  must  love  his  enemies  and  not  kill 
them,  he  must  pray  for  them  and  not  pimish  them,  he  must 
feed  them  and  give  them  drink,  not  imprison  them,  banish 
them,  dismember  them,  and  spoil  their  goods  .  .  ."  (84- 
85).  Going  to  law  before  civil  magistrates,  marriage 
with  unbelievers,  and  the  taking  of  oaths  are  forbidden  to 
C^istians.  Community  of  goods  in  times  of  need  is  recom- 
mended. 

Smyth  died  in  Aug.,  1612,  after  a  long  period  of 
decline  during  which  he  manifested  a  wonderful 
degree  of  charity  toward  all  true  believers.  He 
expressed  the  profoundest  regret  for  his  bitterly 
censorious  writings  against  the  Church  of  England, 
the  Separation,  and  Helwys,  and  showed  the  ut- 
most aversion  to  everything  controversial.  In  his 
Retractation  of  his  Erron  and  the  Confirmation  of 
the  TnUh,  published  a  year  or  two  after  his  death, 
along  with  the  confession  of  faith  from  which  ex- 
tracts have  been  given,  and  a  brief  accoimt  of  his 
life  and  death,  he  restates  the  points  at  issue  in  the 
controversies  in  which  he  had  been  engaged,  and 
in  a  thoroughly  judicial  and  irenic  spirit  indicates 
what  he  is  stiU  constrained,  without  controversy, 
to  maintain,  as  well  as  what  he  feels 
6.  His  liaat  inclined  to  surrender.  Helwys  had 
TJttaranoea.  been  so  intemperate  as  to  charge  him 
with  sinning  against  the  Holy  Ghost 
in  receding  from  the  position  he  had  reached  re- 
garding the  independent  inauguration  of  baptism 
and  church  organization.  The  point  at  issue  was 
not  the  necessity  of  succession  in  the  administrar 
tion  of  baptism  and  the  organization  of  churches, 
but  whether  "  although  there  be  churches  already  ea- 
tablished,  ministers  ordained,  and  sacraments  ad- 
ministered orderly,  yet  men  are  not  boimd  to  join 
these  former  churches  established,  but  may,  being 
as  yet  unbaptized,  baptize  themselves  (as  we  did) 
and  proceed  to  build  churches  of  themselves,  dis- 
orderly (as  I  take  it)."  Smyth  points  out  that 
Helwys's  contention  would  involve  a  recognition 
of  the  right  of  any  two  or  three  private  persons 
(even  women),  in  a  community  where  rightly  con- 
stituted churches  abound,  to  disregard  these 
churches  and  baptize  and  organize  themselves. 
"  Concerning  succession,  briefly  thus  much:  I  deny 
all  succession  except  in  the  truth;  and  I  hold  we 
are  not  to  violate  the  order  of  the  primitive  church, 
except  necessity  lU'ge  a  dispensation;  and  there- 
fore it  is  not  lawful  for  every  one  that  seeth  the 
truth  to  baptize,  for  then  there  might  be  as  many 
churches  as  couples  in  the  world,  and  none  have 
anything  to  do  with  other,  which  breaketh  the 
bond  of  love  and  brotherhood  in  churches;  but,  in 
these  outward  matters,  I  dare  not  any  more  con- 
tend with  any  man,  but  desire  that  we  may  follow 
the  truth  of  repentance,  faith,  and  regeneration, 
and  lay  aside  dissension  for  mint,  comin,  and  anms 


seed."  Helwys  understood  Smyth  to  deny  with 
the  Mennonites  that  Christ  received  his  flesh  from 
Mary.  He  now  points  out  that  while  once  inclined 
to  distinguish  between  the  first  and  second  flesh 
of  the  infant  in  the  womb  and  to  hold  that  the 
former  was  not  derived  while  the  latter,  the  prod- 
uct of  nourishment,  was  derived  from  Maiy,  he 
has  now  reached  the  conviction  that  it  is  better  to 
attribute  his  flesh  to  Mary  without  going  beyond 
the  Scriptures  in  curious  inquiry  "  whereof  Christ's 
natural  flesh  was  made."  He  thinks  it  far  more 
important  that  "  we  should  search  into  Christ's 
spiritual  flesh,  to  be  made  flesh  of  his  flesh,  and 
bone  of  his  bone,  in  the  communion  and  fellowship 
of  the  same  spirit." 

By  1611  Helwys  and  his  associates  reached  the 
conviction  that  ^ght  in  persecution  and  voluntary 
exile  were  absolutely  unjustifiable.  Late  in  1611 
or  early  in  1612  they  returned  to  England  and  set- 
tled in  London.  Helwys  was  not  content  to  cany 
out,  with  his  company,  his  own  con- 
7.  Helwys  victions;  he  published  (1612)  A  Short 
Betnma  to  Declaration  of  the  Mystery  of  Iniquity, 

Ifondon.  in  which  "  in  great  confidence  and 
passion  "  (Robinson)  he  held  up  to  re- 
proach all  the  English  dissenting  refugees  in  the 
Netherlands,  charging  that  in  seeking  to  avoid 
being  "  sheep  in  the  midst  of  wolves  "  the  false- 
hearted leaders  had  fled  into  strange  coimtries  to 
save  their  lives  and  had  drawn  other  people  after 
them,  leaving  the  true  believers  who  could  not  thus 
save  their  lives  without  leadership  and  leaving  their 
native  land  without  gospel  testimony. 

In  A  DedaraHon  of  Faith  of  English  People  Re- 
maining at  Amsterdam  in  Holland  (1611),  set  forth 
by  Helwys  and  his  associates,  while  Christ's  right- 
eousness is  said  to  be  imputed  to  all  (general  re- 
demption), men  are  declared  to  be  "  by  nature  the 
children  of  wrath,  bom  in  iniquity,  and  in  sin  con- 
ceived .  .  .  even  so  now  being  fallen,  and  having 
all  disposition  unto*  evil,  and  no  disposition  or  will 
imto  any  good,  yet  God  giving  grace,  man  may 
receive  grace,  or  may  reject  grace.  .  .  ."  It  is 
further  taught,  "  That  God  before  the  foimdation 
of  the  world  hath  predestinated  that  all  that  be- 
lieve in  him  shall  be  saved,  and  all  that  believe  not 
shall  be  damned;  all  which  he  knew 

8.  F"*^  before.  And  this  is  the  election  and 
Dootrinea.  reprobation  spoken  of  in  the  Scrip- 
tures, concerning  salvation  and  con- 
demnation; and  not  that  God  hath  predestinated 
men  to  be  wicked,  and  so  to  be  damned,  but  that 
men  being  wicked  shall  be  danmed."  It  is  taught 
"  That  man  may  fall  away  from  the  grace  of  God, 
and  from  the  truth.  .  .  .  That  a  righteous  man 
may  forsake  his  righteousness,  and  perish."  Civil 
magistracy  is  recognized  as  "  a  holy  ordinance  of 
God  "  and  magistrates  "  may  be  members  of  the 
chureh  of  Christ,  retaining  their  magistracy." 
From  this  confession,  as  well  as  from  Helwys's 
Proof  that  God*s  Decree  is  not  the  Cause  of  any  Man's 
Sin  or  Condemnation,  published  the  same  year,  it 
appears  that  Helwys  held  to  a  moderate  tjrpe  of 
Arminianism,  while  Smyth  had  become  almost  So- 
cinian  in  his  doctrine. 

Little  is  known  of  the  careers  of  Helwys,  Murton, 


Baptists 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


460 


and  their  associates  after  their  repatriation.  In 
1614  a  zealous,  clear-headed  antipedobaptist, 
Leonard  Busher  by  name,  addressed  to  King  James 
and  the  High  Court  of  Parliament  a  treatise  en- 
titled Religious  Peace  :  or  A  Plea  for  Liberty  of 
Conscience,  the  first  work  on  the  subject  published 
in  English.  Among  the  more  striking  sentences 
are  the  following:  "  It  is  not  only  unmerciful,  but 
imnatural  and  abominable;  yea,  monstrous  for  one 
Christian  to  vex  and  destroy  another  for  difference 
and  questions  of  religion.''  ''  I  do  affirm,  that 
through  the  unlawful  weed-hook  of  persecution, 
which  your  predecessors  have  used,  and  by  your 
majesty  and  parliament  is  still  continued,  there  is 
such  a  quantity  of  wheat  plucked  up,  and  such  a 
multitude  of  tares  left  behind,  that  the  wheat  which 

remains   can  not  yet  appear  in  any 

P^llfai!    "S^^   ^^^^®   congregation."     "  With 

tions.      •  •  •  Scripture,  and  not  with  fire  and 

sword,  your  majesty's  bishops  and 
ministers  ought  to  be  armed  and  weaponed."  Hav- 
ing shown  that  even  in  the  Old  Testament  time 
"  the  Lord  would  not  have  his  offerings  by  con- 
straint," he  proceeds:  "  So  now  in  the  time  of  the 
gospel,  he  will  not  have  the  people  constrained,  but 
as  many  as  receive  the  word  gladly,  they  are  to  be 
added  to  the  church  by  baptism.  And  therefore 
Christ  commanded  his  disciples  to  teach  all  nations 
and  baptize  them;  that  is,  to  preach  the  word  of 
salvation  to  every  creature  of  all  sorts  of  nations, 
that  are  worthy  and  willing  to  receive  it.  And 
such  as  willingly  and  gladly  receive  it,  he  hath 
commanded  to  be  baptized  in  the  water,  that  is, 
dipped  for  dead  in  the  water."  The  last  sentence 
would  seem  clearly  to  identify  Busher  with  the 
Baptists  as  regards  his  conception  of  the  subjects 
and  mode  of  baptism;  but  whether  he  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  little  Helwys  company  or  a  disconnected 
antipedobaptist  we  are  not  informed.  The  follow- 
ing year  (1615)  there  was  published  Objections  an- 
sweredhyway  of  Dialogue fWhereinisfToved  .  .  .  that 
no  man  ought  to  he  persecuted  for  his  religion ,  so  he 
testifie  his  allegiance  by  the  Oath,  appointed  by  Law, 
By  ChrisVs  unworthy  Witnesses,  His  Majesty*8  faith- 
ful Subjects:  Commonly  (but  most  falsely)  called 
Anabaptists  This  somewhat  elaborate  and  thor- 
oughgoing plea  for  liberty  of  conscience  proceeded 
from  the  Helwys  company  and  has  been  attributed 
to  John  Murton,  as  has  also  A  Most  Humble  Sup- 
plication of  many  of  the  King's  Majesty's  Most  Loyal 
Subjects  .  .  .  who  are  persecuted  (only  for  differing 
in  religion),  contrary  to  divine  and  human  testimonies 
(1620).  According  to  an  early  tradition  recorded 
by  Roger  Williams,  the  latter  treatise  was  written 
with  milk  brought  daily  in  a  bottle  with  a  fresh 
sheet  of  paper  each  day  rolled  up  for  a  stopper  and 
the  written  sheet  returned  as  stopper  of  the  empty 
bottle  to  be  deciphered  by  a  friend 

Helwys  seems  to  have  died  a  few  years  after  re- 
turning to  England.  Murton  was  thenceforth 
leader  of  the  party.  By  1624  or  1626,  as  is  learned 
from  correspondence  of  members  of  Murton's  con- 
nection with  the  Mennonites  of  Amsterdam  pre- 
served in  the  archives  of  the  latter  (B.  Evans,  Early 
English  Baptists,  ii,  London,  1862,  pp.  21-22),  there 
were,  besides  the  congregation  at  Newgate,  Lon- 


don, small  congregations  at  Lincoln,  Tiverton,  Salis- 
bury, and  Coventry,  aggregating  about  150  mem- 
bers. Differences  had  by  this  time  arisen  among 
the  brethren  and  a  minority,  led  by  Elias  Tookey, 
had  been  excommunicato.  Both  sides  sought 
the  moral  support  and  the  fellowship  of  the  Amster- 
dam Mennonite  church.  As  usual,  the  Mennonite 
brethren  were  extremely  cautious,  and  required  to 
be  accurately  informed  on  many  points  before  com- 
mitting themselves  to  either  party.  Tookey  failed 
to  satisfy  the  Mennonites  on  a  mmnber  of  points: 
he  and  his  party  thought  it  right  to  celebrate  the 
Supper  in  the  absence  of  an  ordained  minister; 
were  not  willing  to  refuse  oaths  or  military  service; 
while  none  of  them  denied  the  deity  of  Christ, 
there  was  difference  of  opinion  as  to  what  was  in- 
volved in  his  deity.  They  wished  the  Mennonites 
to  write  to  Murton  and  his  friends  on  their  behalf 
''  in  order  to  augment  peace  and  welfare.'*  In 
1626  two  commissioners  from  the  five  churches  of 
Murton's  connection  visited  the  Mennonites  of 
Amsterdam  with  a  view  to  fellowship.  These  also 
were  disposed  to  defend  oaths  as  almost  necessary 
at  the  time  in  England  and  to  insist  that  Oirist 
had  his  flesh  from  Mary.  Against  the 
^  m  ^^'^^^  practise  of  the  Mennonites  they  were 
Ba  ti^tBin  ^^^^7   hiclined   to   perpetuate  the 

England,  '^^^^y  celebration  of  the  Supper. 
They  acknowledge  that  the  minister- 
ing of  the  sacraments  is  inseparably  united  with 
the  ministering  of  the  word,  but  insist  that 
without  ordination  servants  of  the  church  may 
"  preach,  convert,  baptize,  and  perform  other  pub^ 
lie  actions  with  the  consent  of  the  church,  when  the 
bishops  are  not  present."  They  crave  the  indul- 
gence of  their  Dutch  brethren  in  a  difference  of 
opinion  regarding  the  right  of  a  Christian  to  exer- 
cise magistracy.  They  insist  upon  the  right  of 
Christians  to  bear  arms  for  national  and  local  de- 
fense. The  Mennonites  treated  both  parties  kindly 
but  refused  to  enter  into  organic  imion  with  either. 
Two  letters  addressed  to  the  Mennonites  in  1630- 
31,  the  one  by  the  church  at  Lincoln,  the  other  by 
that  at  Tiverton,  in  answer  to  letters  of  reproof 
occasioned  by  their  overreadiness  to  exercise  severe 
discipline  even  to  the  wasting  and  scattering  of 
their  constituencies,  turn  the  tables  upon  their 
somewhat  patronizing  counselors,  justify  their 
efforts  to  purge  themselves  of  evil  by  abundant  ci- 
tation of  Scripture,  rebuke  the  Mennonites  for  their 
laxity,  which  if  they  had  known  before  they  applied 
for  union  (1626)  they  would  first  have  sought  to 
reform,  and  blame  them  for  refusing  union  oo 
grounds  that  can  not  be  shown  to  be  Scriptural 
One  of  the  matters  of  complaint  was  that  the  Eng- 
lish antipedobaptists  disciplined  members  for  at- 
tending the  services  of  the  Established  Church. 
There  is  no  indication  of  difference  of  opinion  re- 
specting the  act  of  baptism. 

John  Murton  seems  to  have  died  about  1630. 
when  his  widow  returned  to  Amsterdam  and  united 
with  the  Mennonite  church. 

Somewhat  vague  traditions  of  the  existence  of 
Baptist  churches  about  this  time  (in  some  cases 
considerably  earlier)  at  Stony  Stratford,  Ashford, 
Biddenden,  Eyethome,  Hill  Cliffe,  Booking,  Cante^ 


461 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Baptists 


bury,  and  Amersham  are  still  current  in  England. 
Attempts  to  confirm  these  traditions  by  antiqua^ 
rian  research  have  so  far  failed.  Some  of  the  Bap- 
tist churches  that  claim  early  foundation  may  have 
grown  out  of  Anabaptist,  Lollard,  or  Separatist 
congregations  of  the  earlier  time.  Little  further 
is  Imown  of  English  antipedobaptist  life  until  about 
1640-^2,  when  in  common  with  the  Calvinistic  anti- 
pedobaptists,  they  became  convinced  that  immer- 
sion alone  is  baptism. 

2.  Bise  of  the  Particular  (Oalvinistic)  Baptists: 
In  1616  Henry  Jacob,  a  learned  Puritan  minister, 
who  for  some  years  had  been  pastor  of  an  English 
congregation  at  Middelburg,  Zealand,  and  who 
had  published  a  number  of  works  against  the 
English  establishment,  after  much  conference  with 
his  Separatist  brethren  in  the  Netherlands  and  in 
England  and  much  fasting  and  prayer  with  his 
associates,  reached  the  conviction  that  duty  re- 
quired him  to  return  to  England  and  to  "  venture 
himself  for  the  kingdom  of  Christ's  sake."  Such 
of  his  members  as  chose  to  return  with  him  he 
organized  anew  at  Southwark,  London,  all  cov- 
enanting together  "  to  walk  in  all  God's  ways  as 
he  had  revealed  or  should  make  known  to  them." 
The  congregation  proceeded  to  choose  and  ordain 
Jacob  pastor  and  ''  many  saints  were  joined  to 
them."  After  about  eight  years  of  heroic  service 
and  suffering,  Jacob  emigrated  to  America.  After 
an  interval,  John  Lathrop  became  pastor  and  with 
many  of  the  members  spent  much  of  the  time  in 
prison.  Finding  it  impossible  to  labor  in  England 
Lathrop  also  sailed  for  America  (1634).  In  1633, 
differences  of  opinion  having  arisen  as  to  recog- 
nition of  the  parish  churches,  a  number  of  the 
brethren  were  peaceably  dismissed  to  form  an 
independent  congregation,  "  Mr.  Eaton  with  some 
others  receiving  a  further  baptism."  John  Spils- 
bury's  name  does  not  appear  among 
1.  Oonsrre-  the  seceders  of  1633,  but  some  time 
nations  in  between  this  date  and  the  second 
liondon.  aecession  of  1638  he  had  become  the 
pastor  of  an  antipedobaptist  congre- 
gation; whether  this  was  distinct  from  Eaton's 
congregation  does  not  clearly  appear.  The  record 
reads*  ''  These  also  being  of  the  same  judgment 
with  Sam  Eaton  and  desiring  to  depart  and  not  be 
censured,  our  interest  in  them  was  remitted  with 
prayer  xnade  in  their  behalf,  June  8,  1638,  they 
having  just  forsaken  us  and  joined  with  Mr.  Spil»- 
bury."  Shortly  before  or  shortly  after  this  seces- 
sion William  Kiffin,  then  a  young  man  of  twenty- 
two,  afterward  till  1701  one  of  the  most  influential 
leaders  of  the  Particular  Baptists,  united  with 
Eaton.  The  learned  and  zealous  Henry  Jessey 
had  become  pastor  of  the  Jacob-Lathrop  church  in 
1637  In  1640  the  conviction  that  "  dipping  the 
body  into  the  water"  is  the  only  valid  baptism 
f  oroed  itself  upon  a  number  of  the  members  and  the 
matter  was  much  agitated  in  antipedobaptist 
circles.  As  a  result  of  conferences  on  this  matter 
Richard  Blount,  who  understood  Dutch,  was  sent 
to  Holland  where  the  Collegiants  of  Rhynsburg 
(see  Colleoiantb)  were  practising  inmiersion,  and 
received  baptism  at  the  hands  of  J.  Batte,  a  teacher 
among  them.  This  party  had  arisen  about  1619, 
1—29 


but  its  immersion  may  have  been  derived  from  the 
Polish  (Socinian)  antipedobaptists.  On  his  return 
Blount  immersed  Blacklock,  and  they  two  bap- 
tized large  numbers  (1641).  The  immersionist 
antipedobaptists  had  by  this  time  formed  them- 
selves into  two  companies.  Spilsbuiy  insisted  that 
"  baptizedncss  is  not  essenti^d  to  the  administra- 
tor "  of  baptism  and,  with  a  number  of  adherents, 
discountenanced  Blount's  method  of  restoring 
baptism.  As  the  agitation  had  been  going  on  for 
some  months  before  Blount's  journey  to  Holland, 
it  is  not  unlikely  that  Spilsbuiy  and  his  adherents, 
including  Kiffin,  had  some  time  before  introduced 
immersion  independently.  Spilsbury's  argument 
against  the  necessity  of  succession  in  baptism  pre- 
vailed. In  1643  friendly  discussion  of  the  question 
of  infant  baptism  was  renewed  in  the  congregation 
of  which  Jessey  was  pastor.  Hanserd  Knollys, 
a  university  graduate  and  Puritan  preacher,  who 
had  spent  some  time  in  New  England  and  had  found 
himself  out  of  harmony  with  the  theocracy,  was 
at  this  time  a  member  of  Jessey's  church.  Accord- 
ing to  the  ancient  records  "  H.  K.,  our  brother, 
not  being  satisfied  for  baptizing  his  child,  after 
it  had  been  endeavored  by  the  elder  and  by  one  or 
two  more,  himself  referred  to  the  church  then  that 
they  might  satisfy  him  or  he  rectify  them,  if  amiss 
therein,  which  was  well  accepted.  Hence  meetings 
were  appointed  for  conference  about  it  .  .  .  and 
each  was  performed  with  prayer  and  much  love." 
An  interesting  outline  of  the  arguments  pro  and 
con  by  Jessey  and  Knollys,  in  which  other  brethren 
(Kiffin  among  them)  joined,  is  given  in  the  record. 
A  considerable  number  were  convinced  with  Knollys 
against  the  baptism  of  infants,  and  the  church 
after  taking  the  advice  of  the  elders  and  brethren 
of  other  churches  (including  Praisegod  Barebone, 
Dr.  Parker,  Thomas  Goodwin  Philip  Nye,  Simpson, 
and  Burrows),  several  of  whom  had  recently 
returned  from  exile  in  the  Netherlands  and  were 
to  become  prominent  members  of  the  Westminster 
Assembly,  it  was  decided,  that  inasmuch  as  the 
antipedobaptist  brethren  had  absented  them- 
selves, not  from  obstinacy,  but  from  tender  con- 
science and  holiness,  and  in  order  to  avoid  dis- 
turbing the  proceedings  of  the  church,  that  the 
church  would  not  ''  excommunicate,  no,  nor  ad- 
monish, which  is  only  to  obstinate,  to  count  them 
still  of  our  church  and  pray  (for)  and  love  them," 
and  to  ''  desire  conversing  together  so  far  as  their 
principles  permit  them."  By  this  time  Kiffin 
had  become  pastor  of  a  church  and  some  of  those 
who  left  Jessey's  church  on  this  occasion  joined 
with  him,  while  others  organized  themselves  into 
a  new  church  with  Knollys  as  pastor  (1644). 

By  October  1644,  the  Calvinistic  antipedobap- 
tists of  London  who  had  adopted  inmiersion  as  the 
exclusively  valid  form  of  baptism  "  had  become 
seven  churches,"  At  this  time,  in  order  to  defend 
themselves  against  charges  of  Arminianism,  oppo- 
sition to  civil  government,  etc.,  usually  associated 
with  the  name  "  Anabaptist "  and  slanderously 
urged  against  themselves,  representatives  of  these 
churches  united  in  a  confession  of  faith  in  fifty-two 
articles,  wherein  along  with  Calvinistic  teachings 
on  theology,  Christology,  and  anthropology,  are 


Baptista 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


468 


set  forth  Baptist  views  of  baptism  and  the  Supper 
(the  "  dipping  or  plunging  of  the  body  "  of  the 
believer  "  under  water,"  the  Supper 
2.  Oonfes-  to  be  partaken  of  after  baptism), 
^64^'  magistracy,  oaths,  etc.,  and  a  vigor- 
ous statement  of  the  doctrine  of 
liberty  of  conscience.  "  But  if  any  man  shall 
impose  upon  us  anything  that  we  see  not  to  be 
commanded  by  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  we  should 
in  his  strength  rather  embrace  all  reproaches  and 
tortures  of  men,  to  be  stripped  of  all  outward  com- 
forts, and,  if  it  were  possible,  to  die  a  thousand 
deaths,  rather  than  do  anything  against  the  least 
tittle  of  the  truth  of  God,  or  against  the  light  of  our 
own  consciences."  This  confession  was  signed  by 
fifteen  brethren  representing  the  seven  churches. 
The  name  of  Kiffin  stands  first,  those  of  Spibbury, 
Skippard,  Gunne,  Webb,  Hobson,  and  Phelps,  are 
first  in  the  other  groups.  In  the  second  edition 
(1646)  a  French  church  represented  by  Le  Barbier 
and  Le  Duret  is  added,  and  the  names  of  Hanserd 
Knollys,  Benjamin  Cox,  and  Thomas  Holms  ap- 
pear for  the  first  time. 

The  following  record,  written  apparently  by 
Jessey,  dates  from  1644:  "  After  that  H.  Jessey  was 
convinced  also,  the  next  morning  early  after  that 
which  had  been  a  day  of  solemn  seeking  the  Lord 
in  fasting  and  prayer  (That  if  infant  baptism  were 
unlawful  and  if  we  should  be  further  baptized,  etc., 
the  Lord  would  not  hide  it  from  us,  but  cause  us 
to  know  it).  First  H.  Jessey  was  convinced  against 
pedobaptism  and  then  that  himself  should  be 
baptized  (notwithstanding  many  conferences  with 
his  honored  and  beloved  brethren  Mr.  Nye,  Mr. 
Th.  Goodwin,  Mr.  Burroughs,  Mr.  Greenhill,  Mr. 
Cradock,  Mr.  Carter,  etc.,  etc.  .  .  .),  and  was 
baptized  by  Mr.  Knollys,  and  then  by  degrees  he 
baptized  many  of  the  church,  when  convinced 
they  desired  it."  Several  who  had  left  the  church 
to  become  Baptists  now  returned.  Jessey  long 
continued  to  minister  to  a  mixed  congregation. 
Baptists  and  pedobaptists  mutually  tolerating 
each  other.  In  the  general  religious  ferment  which 
set  in  with  the  opening  of  the  Long  Parliament 
(Nov.  3,  1640)  and  the  greater  freedom  which  was 
then  allowed,  many  who  had  doubted  the  pro- 
priety of  infant  baptism  felt  free  to  avow  and 
propagate  their  principles. 

8.  G-eneral  Baptists  from  1641  Onward:  It  is 
probable  that  most  or  all  of  the  antipedobaptist 
churches  of  the  Helwys-Murton  connection  sur- 
vived the  Laudian  persecutions  and  others  may 
have  arisen  after  1632.  Thomas  Lamb  was  arrested 
at  Colchester  for  disseminating  heresy  some  time 
before  1640.  After  his  release  he  resumed  his 
ministry  in  London  and  is  said  to  have  become 
familiar  with  nearly  every  prison  in  London  and 
its  vicinity.  At  the  beginning  of  this  period  he 
was  pastor  of  a  congregation  in  Bell-alley,  which 
became  a  fruitful  mother  of  churches.  In  1643 
he  was  reenforced  by  Henry  Denne,  who  had  been 
educated  at  Cambridge  and  was  instnmaental, 
with  Lamb  and  several  other  zealous  evangelists, 
in  the  conversion  of  multitudes  in  Huntingtonshire, 
Cambridgeshire,  Lincolnshire,  Kent,  and  elBewhere. 
Lamb's  church  became  a  missionary  society  which 


sent  forth  evangelists  into  various  parts  of  Engjand 
and  into  Wales.  Between  1641  and  1640  about 
ten  associations  are  supposed  to  have  been  estab- 
lished, with  quarterly,  half-yearly,  or  annual 
meetings,  for  edificatory,  disciplinary,  and  mis- 
sionary purposes.  Possibly  from  early  ooimeetion 
with  the  Meimonites,  the  General  Baptists  emphsr 
sized  coimectional  church  government  rather  than 
church  independency.  Several  years  before  1671 
a  General  Assembly  of  the  churches  of  the  entire 
coimection  had  been  formed,  which 
1.  Orvan-  usually  met  in  London.  The  General 
Isationand  Baptist  churches  exercised  a  rigorous 
Polity.  discipline  over  their  membership  in 
matters  of  doctrine  and  life.  Per- 
sistence in  Calvinistic  teaching  (as  in  denial  of  the 
universality  of  the  atonement)  was  a  groimd 
of  excommunication.  Divisive  controversies  on 
church  singing  and  on  the  imposition  of  hands 
occupied  a  large  share  of  attention.  Quakers  and 
Ranters  invaded  the  congregations  and  in  some 
cases  were  responsible  for  decimating  their  member- 
ship. Divided  congregations,  ch\u?ches  at  variance 
with  neighboring  churches,  and  even  aggrieved 
individuals  could  appeal  to  the  associations.  The 
General  Assembly  became  virtiially  a  court  of 
appeal  from  churches  and  associations.  An  ag- 
grieved member  of  a  church  might  appefd  to  two 
or  more  neighboring  churches,  which  were  under 
obligation  to  hear  and  judge  the  case.  From  such 
a  judgment,  appeal  might  be  made  to  the  asso- 
ciation and  from  this  to  the  General  Assembly. 
Thus  every  local  difficulty  was  likely  to  pervade 
the  entire  connection.  Thus  equipped  with  a 
system  of  graduated  courts  of  appeal,  the  connec- 
tion came  to  feel  the  need  of  general  executive 
officers,  and  found  the  New  Testament  prototype 
of  what  they  wanted  in  the  apostolate.  Th^ 
officials  were  called  "  messengers  "or  "  bishops." 
According  to  the  Orthodox  Creed  (1678),  "The 
bishops  have  the  government  of  those  churches 
that  had  suffrage  in  their  election,  ordinarily, 
as  also  to  preach  the  word  to  the  world."  Thomas 
Grantham  (in  Christianismua  PrimUivus,  London, 
1678),  a  chief  defender  of  Baptist  episcopacy, 
thus  defined  the  office:  "1.  To  plant  churches 
where  there  are  none;  2.  To  set  in  order  such 
churches  as  want  officers  to  order  their  aSaiis; 
and  3.  To  assist  faithful  pastors  or  churches  against 
usurpers  and  those  that  trouble  the  peace  of  par- 
ticular churches  by  false  doctrines."  Grantham 
expressed  the  wish  that  representatives  of  all  the 
baptized  churches  in  the  world  might  meet  occa- 
sionally in  a  great  consistory  to  consider  matters 
of  difference  among  them.  The  Lincolnshire 
Association  in  1775  gave  still  more  ample  powers 
to  the  "  messenger,"  who  is  said  to  have  "  full 
liberty  and  authority,  according  to  the  Gospel, 
to  freely  inquire  into  the  state  of  the  churches 
respecting  both  the  pastor  and  people,  to  see  that 
the  pastors  do  their  duty  in  their  places,  and  the 
people  theirs;  he  is  to  exhort,  admonish,  and 
reprove  both  the  one  and  the  other,  as  occasion 
calls  for.  In  virtue  of  his  office,  he  is  to  watch 
over  the  several  fiocks  committed  to  his  care  and 
charge,  ...  to  labor  to  keep  out  innovations  in 


468 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Baptlsta 


doctrine,  worship,  and  discipline,  and  to  stand  up 
in  defense  of  the  Gospel." 

The  General  Baptists  were  greatly  prospered 
during  the  Civil  War,  in  which  they  heartily  par- 
ticipated, and  during  the  Cromwellian  period. 
Along  with  other  dissenters  they  suffered  severely 
under  Charles  II.  After  the  Revolution  (1688-89), 
owing  in  part  to  the  disciplinary  system  already 
described  and  still  more  to  the  pervasive  influence 
of  Socinianism,  disintegration  set  in.  The  process 
was  accelerated  by  their  resistance  to  the  evan- 
gelical revival  led  by  the  Wesleys  and  Whitefield. 
By  1770  they  had  dwindled  to  small  proportions 
and  most  of  those  that  remained  had  become 
imitarian. 

In  1743  a  religious  revival  occurred  in  the  vicinity 
of  Barton.  After  a  time  the  converts  became  im- 
pressed with  the  importance  of  immer- 
2.  Revival  fiion  and  brought  a  large  tub  into  the 
at  Barton,  meeting-house  for  the  dipping  of 
infants.  Without  any  knowledge  of 
Baptists  they  became  convinced  (1755)  that 
believers  only  should  be  baptized  and  they  pro- 
ceeded to  introduce  baptism  anew,  Donithrope 
baptizing  Kendrick,  who  in  turn  baptized  his 
baptizer,  and  the  two  baptized  between  sixty  and 
seventy  others.  Those  who  did  not  feel  the  need 
of  a  fiurther  baptism  were  allowed  to  remain  in 
commimion.  Their  numbers  multiplied  imtil  by 
1770  six  Baptist  churches  with  near  a  thousand 
members  and  ten  ordained  pastors  had  resulted 
from  the  movement. 

In  1762  Dan  Taylor  (q.v.),  a  young  man  of 
twenty-four,  who  had  recently  been  converted  in 
the  Wesleyan  meetings  and  had  been  engaging  suc- 
cessfully in  evangelistic  work  in  Yorksh^e,  became 
convinced  independently  of  the  unscripturalness  of 
infant  baptism,  left  the  Wesleyans,  and  associated 
himself  with  four  others  who  had  had  a  similar  ex- 
perience at  Heptonstall.  Having  reached  Bap- 
tist convictions  and  having  learned  of  some  General 
Baptists  in  Lincolnshire,  one  hundred  and  twenty 
miles  distant,  Taylor  journeyed  in  the  midst  of  win- 
ter and  was  baptized  by  Jeffries,  pastor  of  the  Gam- 
ston  church.  Taylor  proved  himself  a  master  work- 
man and  by  1770  he  had  founded  or  rescued  from 
decay  fifteen  churches,  which  united  in  forming 
a  **  New  Connection  of  General  Baptist  churches, 
with  a  design  to  revive  experimental 
Hew  Con-  ^^^io^  or  primitive  Christianity  in 

neotion. '  ^^^^  ^^^  practise."  The  brief  arti- 
cles of  faith  combine  evangelical  Ar- 
minianism  with  insistence  on  believers'  baptism 
(immersion)  as  indispensable.  Socinian  views  of 
the  person  of  Christ  and  hyper-Calvinistic  antino- 
mianism  are  explicitly  condemned.  The  New 
Connection  rigorously  excluded  from  membership 
General  Baptists  of  the  older  type  who  would  not 
sign  their  confession  and  whose  mim'sters  failed  to 
come  up  to  their  standard  of  personal  religious  ex- 
perience. By  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century 
the  New  Connection  had  an  academy  for  the  train- 
ing of  ministers,  had  engaged  in  Simday-school 
work,  and  had  started  a  magazine.  Their  mem- 
bership had  grown  to  about  four  thousand.  It  is 
probable  that   the  General  Baptist   churches  of 


the  older  type  had  about  the  same  number  of 
members  at  Uie  same  time. 

During  the  m'neteenth  century  the  denomin^ 
tion  grew  in  numbers,  educational  and  literary  en- 
terprise, and  in  missionary  activity.  In  1816  they 
formed  a  missionary  society  and  entered  upon 
foreign  work.  Their  most  influential  leader  at  this 
time  was  J.  G.  Pike.  For  many  years  the  General 
Baptists  had  joined  with  the  Particular  Baptists 
in  the  Baptist  Union  and  there  had  been  a  free  in- 
terchange  of  pulpits  and  members.  In 
'l^  *^®  1891  a  union  of  General  and  Particular 
te^th      ®8.ptists  was  effected.     Until  recent 

Century.  ^^^  ^^®  General  Baptists  had  almost 
uniformly  practised  restricted  com- 
munion and  rigorously  excluded  Calvinistic  Bap- 
tists from  the  Supper.  During  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury their  views  on  this  matter  became  assimilated 
to  those  of  the  great  majority  of  the  Particular 
Baptists. 

4.  PartiLonlar  Baptista  from  1644  Onward:  From 
the  date  of  the  signing  of  the  confession  of  1644r-46, 
Baptists  of  the  Calvinistic  type  went  forward  by 
leaps  and  bounds.  Through  the  evangelistic  efforts 
of  John  Myles  and  Vavasour  Powell  Baptists  early 
gained  a  firm  footing  in  Wales.  In  1651  four 
churches  met  at  Carmarthen  to  consider  the  ques- 
tions of  singing  of  psalms  and  the  laying-on  of  htmds, 
and  a  year  earlier  three  of  the  churches  had  gath- 
ered for  consultation  on  missionary  business.  The 
meeting  of  1650  had  voted  that  each  church  should 
raise  ten  pounds  for  the  dissemination  of  the  gospel. 
From  this  time  onward  the  Welsh  Baptists  made 
much  of  associations  and  these  were  the  prototypes 
of  the  Philadelphia  Association  in  America  (see  be- 
low, II,  1,  §  8).  The  London  churches  were  active 
in  evangelizing  the  provinces,  leading  ministers 
spending  much  time  in  this  kind  of 

Bestora!  ^^^^-  Baptists  of  both  types  were 
tion.  ^^^^  numerous  in  the  Parliamentary 
army,  many  of  whose  officers  were  of 
this  persuasion  (Fleetwood,  Cromwell's  son-in-law 
and  Lord  Deputy  of  Ireland,  Major  General  Har- 
rison, Col.  Hutchinson,  Major  Paul  Hobson,  and 
others).  Baptist  officers  were  in  several  cases 
effective  preachers  and  most  of  them  gave  every 
encouragement  to  Baptist  preaching  and  the  estab- 
lishment of  Baptist  churches  in  the  neighborhood  of 
the  camps.  The  efforts  of  the  Westminster  As- 
sembly and  of  the  Presbyterian  Parliament  to  check 
the  spread  of  Baptist  principles  proved  ineffective, 
and  Baptists  and  Independents  became  so  power- 
ful in  the  army  that  they  were  able  to  dissolve  the 
Assembly  and  to  cast  out  the  Presbyterian  mem- 
bers of  Parliament.  Baptists  encouraged  Crom- 
well to  assume  the  headship  of  the  state;  but  they 
soon  grew  weary  of  his  military  government.  It 
seems  well  established  that  their  determined  op- 
position prevented  Cromwell  from  accepting  the 
royal  title  when  it  was  pressed  upon  him  by  others. 
Harrison,  who  had  been  active  in  the  trial  and  exe- 
cution of  Charles  I,  became  Cromwell's  bitter  op- 
ponent. He  embraced  socialistic  and  millenarian 
ideas.  John  Milton  advocated  Baptist  principles 
and  was  a  stanch  antipedobaptist,  but  there  is  no 
evidence  that  he  was  ever  a  member  of  a  Baptist 


Baptiats 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


464 


church.  Among  Cromwell's  "  Tryers,"  appointed 
to  pass  upon  the  qualifications  of  candidates  for 
the  pulpits  of  endowed  churches  were  Henry  Jessey, 
Daniel  Dyke,  and  John  Tombes,  a  highly  educated 
collegian  who  wrote  and  disputed  against  infant  bap- 
tism. These  and  about  twenty-two  other  Baptist 
ministers  thought  it  right  to  accept  appointments  as 
pastors  of  endowed  churches,  a  majority  of  the 
parishioners  in  each  case  petitioning  for  their  serv- 
ices. Hanserd  KnoUys  and  many  other  Baptist 
ministers  protested  against  the  Court  of  Tryers  as 
too  much  like  the  High  Commission  Court  of  Laud's 
time.  Besides  being  one  of  the  most  influential 
and  devoted  pastors  of  his  time,  William  Kiffin  was 
a  successful  man  of  affairs  and  by  the  liberal  use  of 
his  wealth  promoted  the  Baptist  cause. 

It  has  been  noticed  that  the  first  Particular  Bap- 
tist congregations  were  formed  by  peaceable  with- 
drawal from  a  pedobaptist  church  and  that  Jessey 
remained  pastor  of  a  mixed  church.  Open  com- 
munion was  from  the  first  practised  by  most  of  the 
churches.  Controversy  between  Kiffin  and  Bunyan, 
in  which  the  latter  denied  that  differences  of  opin- 
ion and  practise  respecting  an  external  rite  should 
be  allowed  to  hinder  the  manifestation  of  Chris- 
tian love  and  brotherhood  in  the  Supper,  left  the 
question  an  open  one. 

In  1653  several  churches  in  Ireland  that  had  been 
formed  through  the  labors  of  London  ministers  ad- 
dressed a  letter  to  their  brethren  in  London  sug- 
gesting the  desirability  of  "  brotherly  correspond- 
ence "  with  them  and  through  them  "  with  all 
the  rest  of  the  churches  of  Christ  in  England,  Scot- 
land, and  Wales."  They  requested  that  two  or 
more  suitable  brethren  "  visit,  comfort,  and  con- 
firm all  the  flock  of  our  Lord  Jesus  that  are,  or 
have  given  up  their  names  to  be,  under  his  rule  and 
government,  in  England,  Scotland,  and  Wales." 
The  London  brethren  accepted  the  suggestion  and 
messengers  were  sent  out  to  visit  the  churches. 
Jessey  "  was  sent  by  divers  churches  to  visit  about 
thirty-six  congregations  in  Essex,  Sussex,  Norfolk, 
Middlesex."  In  the  same  year  a  cir- 
2.  Ooop-  cular  letter  was  addressed  by  many 
eration  churches  in  London,  Wales,  etc.,  to 
T7nion.  other  churches,  suggesting  the  sending 
of  messengers  to  a  meeting  with  a 
view  to  harmonizing  doctrine  and  practise  among 
the  churches  and  arranging  for  the  approval  and 
sending  out  of  teachers.  The  Western  Association 
was  formed  the  same  year,  the  Midland  Association 
in  1655.  The  Western  Association  in  1655  ap- 
pointed and  ordained  Thomas  Collier,  its  most  in- 
fluential leader,  "  General  Superintendent  and 
Messenger  to  all  the  Associated  Churches."  In 
1656  this  association  adopted  a  confession  of 
faith  (the  "  Somerset  ")  in  which  the  duty  of  the 
churches  individually  and  collectively  to  "  preach 
the  gospel  to  the  world  "  is  asserted,  and  special 
recognition  is  made  of  obligation  to  labor  for  the 
conversion  of  the  Jews.  It  may  be  worthy  of  note 
that  Henry  Jessey,  who  was  an  enthusiastic  He-, 
braist,  was  deeply  interested  in  the  Jews  of  his  time 
and  raised  a  considerable  amount  of  money  for 
the  relief  of  the  persecuted  and  distressed. 
Particular  Baptists  as  well   as  General,  though 


probably  not  to  so  large  an  extent,  suffered  much 
from  the  intrusion  of  Familists,  Seekers,  Ranters, 
and  Fifth  Monarchy  Men. 

Baptists  promoted  the  restoration  of  Charies  II 
and  accepted  in  good  faith  his  assurances  of  tolera- 
tion. The  uprising  of  the  Fifth  Monarchy  Men 
(q.v.),  led  by  Henry  Venner  (1661),  was  tbeoccaaon 
of  an  outbreak  of  persecution.  Twenty-ox  Bap- 
tist ministers  who  had  held  benefices  under  the 
Cromwellian  regime  were  deposed  through  the 
execution  of  the  Act  of  Uniformity  (1662),  the 
least  regrettable  of  the  results  of  the  Restoration. 
These  ministers,  it  will  be  remembered,  had  been 
educated  in  the  Established  Church  and  no  doubt 
justified  themselves  in  abetting  a  union  of  Qiurch 
and  State  by  the  practical  consideration  that  the 
funds  were  available  for  the  support  of  a  ministiy 
and  that  it  was  bettter  for  them  to  do  the  service 
to  which  they  were  invited  rather  than  to  leave 
the  people  destitute  or  with  inferior  pastors.  The 
Bill  of  Indulgence  (1675)  opened  the  way  for  efforts 
to  strengthen  the  ministry  of  dissenting  churches. 
In  the  same  year  the  Particular  Baptist  ministers 
of  London  requested  the  churches  in  England 
and  Wales  to  send  representatives  to  meet  in  Lon- 
don the  following  May,  with  a  view  to  taking 
measures    for    "  providing    an    orderly    standing 

ministry  in  the  church,   who  might 
8.  To  1717.  give  themselves  to  reading  and  study, 

and  so  become  able  ministers  of  the 
New  Testament."  The  meeting  seems  not  to  have 
occurred  till  1677,  when  a  confession  of  faith,  that 
of  the  Westminster  Assembly  with  necessary  modi- 
fications, was  adopted  and  formally  promulgated. 
In  1689  (just  after  the  Revolution  and  the  pro- 
mulgation of  the  Act  of  Toleration)  representatives 
of  about  a  hundred  churches  assembled  for  the 
expression  of  fellowship  and  the  reaffirming  of  the 
confession  of  1677.  The  meeting  was  most  har- 
monious, scarcely  a  note  of  dissent  being  beard. 
A  dearth  of  properly  qualified  pastors  is  lamented 
During  the  Civil  War  and  Conmionwealth  times 
many  highly  educated  ministers  from  the  Estab- 
lished Church  had  joined  the  Baptist  ranks.  This 
source  of  supply  had  failed.  Failure  "  to  make  gos- 
pel-provision for  their  maintenance  "  is  thought 
to  be  one  of  the  reasons  why  so  few  competent  men 
devote  themselves  wholly  to  the  work.  For  remedy- 
ing this  defect  it  was  decided  to  raise  "  a  public  stock 
or  fund  of  money,"  "  first  by  a  free-will  offering 
to  the  Lord;  and  secondly,  by  a  subscription, 
every  one  declaring  what  he  is  willing  to  give  weekly 
monthly,  or  quarterly  to  it."  "A  general  fast 
in  all  the  congregations  "  was  arranged  for,  a  list 
of  "  evils  to  be  bewailed  and  mourned  over"  is 
given,  and  special  prayer  is  to  be  offered  for  the 
conversion  of  "  the  poor  Jews."  The  assembly 
was  careful  to  disclaim  "  superiority  and  superin- 
tendency  over  the  churches  "  and  determined  that 
in  future  assemblies  no  differences  between  churches 
and  persons  should  be  debated.  Nine  London 
brethren  were  entrusted  with  the  collection  and 
the  administration  of  the  fund  for  the  assistance  of 
weak  churches,  the  sending  forth  of  missionaries, 
and  the  assistance  of  gifted  and  sound  men  ''in 
attaining  to  the  knowledge  and  understanding  of 


465 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Baptists 


the  languages,  Latin,  Greek,  and  Hebrew."  The 
question  of  open  or  restricted  communion  was 
left  to  the  churches,  each  to  act  in  the  matter  "  as 
they  have  received  from  the  Lord."  The  assembly 
of  1691  was  made  up  of  representatives  of  a  hun- 
dred churches  belonging  to  twelve  associations. 
In  1692  it  was  decided  to  divide  the  assembly, 
one  portion  to  meet  in  London  and  the  other  in 
Bristol,  at  different  seasons  of  the  year,  these 
assemblies  not  to  be  accountable  to  each  other 
and  each  to  send  messengers  to  the  other.  At 
this  time  a  grievous  controversy  was  raging  on  the 
question  ''  whether  the  praises  of  God  should  be 
simg  in  public  assembUes,"  Kiffin,  Keach,  Cox, 
Steed,  and  other  leading  brethren  being  involved. 
It  was  decided  to  refer  the  matter  to  seven  breth- 
ren appointed  by  the  assembly,  who  adminis- 
tered a  scathing  rebuke  to  the  offenders,  which 
was  taken  in  good  part.  The  Bristol  meeting 
prospered,  but  the  London  meeting  declined. 
The  Broadmead  church,  Bristol,  was  one  of  the 
earliest  and  strongest  of  the  Particular  Baptist 
Churches  outside  of  London  and  the  importance 
of  Bristol  as  a  Baptist  center  was  greatly  enhanced 
by  the  endowment  left  by  Edward  Terrill  (d.  1686) 
with  the  Broadmead  church  for  ministerial  educa- 
tion, which  became  available  in  1717.  Out  of  this 
foundation  grew  the  theological  college  that  from 
its  inception  has  been  one  of  the  chief  factors  in 
the  progress  of  the  denomination. 

In  1717  the  London  ministers  inaugurated  another 
missionaiy  fimd.  The  great  leaders  of  the  past 
century  had  all  passed  away,  and  there  had  been 
a  marked  decline  in  the  Baptist  cause.  The  older 
assembly  with  its  fund  seems  to  have  become 
extinct.  Benjamin  Stinton,  pastor  of  one  of  the 
wealthier  churches,  and  the  Hollis  brothers,  wealthy 
business  men,  who  while  contributing  Uberally 
for  the  support  of  Baptist  work  regularly  attended 
Presbyterian  services,  urged  that  General  Baptists 
be  invited  to  cooperate  in  the  raising  and  admin- 
istration of  the  fund  and  to  participate  in  its  use. 
This  cooperation  was  refused,  but  there  was  in 
London  at  this  time  a  strong  sentiment  in  favor 
of  Baptist  union.  The  fund  was  to  be  administered 
by  representatives  of  the  contributing  churches, 
to  be  appointed  in  numbers  propor- 
4.  To  1776.  tioned  to  their  contributions,  and 
individual  contributors  not  members 
of  contributing  churches  participated  in  the  man- 
agement. John  Hollis  was  for  years  treasurer 
of  the  fund  and  left  it  a  large  legacy.  It  may  be 
observed  that  to  the  Hollis  family  Harvard  Univer- 
sity was  indebted  for  endowment  and  equipment. 
In  opposition  to  this  imionistic  movement,  a 
"  Society  of  Ministers  of  the  Particular  Baptist 
Persuasion  "  was  formed  172^24,  which  for  many 
years  exerted  a  powerful  and  wide-spread  influence. 
By  way  of  reaction  against  the  Socinian  teachings 
that  were  pervading  the  Established  Church  and 
all  the  dissenting  bodies.  Particular  Baptist  theo- 
logians like  John  Gill  and  John  Brine  promulgated 
a  high  type  of  Calvinistic  teaching  that  in  the  minds 
of  the  uncultured  easily  degenerated  into  fatalism 
and  antinomianism.  Many  Particular  Baptist 
ministers  went  to  the  extreme  of  considering  it  an 
1.-30 


impertinence  to  preach  to  the  unregenerate  or  to 
pray  for  them,'an(l  many  churches  excluded  from  fel- 
lowship any  who  dissented  from  their  fatalistic  views. 
By  1753  there  had  been  such  a  decline  that  JohnRy- 
land,  who  made  a  careful  inquiry,  could  find  only 
4,930  Particular  Baptists  in  England  and  Wales. 
They  opposed  the  evangelical  revival  with  almost 
fanatical  zeal.  In  the  London  and  Bristol  centers 
there  remained  a  number  of  more  moderate  pastors 
and  churches.  In  general  it  may  be  said  that  pas- 
tors educated  at  Bristol  rarely  carried  their  doc- 
trine and  practise  to  the  fatalistic  and  antinomian 
extreme. 

The  conversion  of  Andrew  Fuller  (q.v.)  to  evan- 
gelical views,  chiefly  through  the  reading  of  a  pamph- 
let by  Jonathan  Edwards  on  the  importance  of  a 
general  union  of  Christians  in  prayer  for  a  revival 
of  religion,  and  through  the  influence  of  the  evan- 
gelical revival  in  England,  marks  an  epoch  in  the 
history  of  the  Particular  Baptists.  For  a  few  years 
before  1792  ministers  of  the  Northamptonshire 
Association,  under  Fuller's  leadership,  held  monthly 
prayer-meetings  for  the  extension  of  the  gospel. 
In  May,  1792,  William  Carey  (q.v.)  having  become 
deeply  impressed  with  the  destitution  of  the 
heathen  and  the  duty  of  Christians  to  carry  out  the 

great  commission,  preached  a  sermon 

*'i^?'*^  on  the  topic:  "Expect  great  things 

MiMi       '      from  God;  attempt  great  things  for 

jjj^^y^      God,"   which   made  a  profound   im- 

prise.       pression  and  led  to  the  organization, 

a  few  months  later  (Oct.  2),  at  Ketter- 
ing (Fuller's  church)  of  the  Baptist  Missionary 
Society.  From  this  time  onward  Fuller  devoted 
much  of  his  time  and  effort  to  the  diffusion  of  the 
missionary  spirit  throughout  his  denomination 
and  among  dissenters  and  churchmen.  He 
visited  from  time  to  time  all  parts  of  Britain 
in  the  interest  of  Carejr's  mission.  His  popular 
but  profound  publications  disseminated  moderate 
Calvinistic  views  suffused  with  missionary  en- 
thusiajsm.  Not  since  the  Cromwellian  age  were 
Baptist  principles  brought  to  the  attention  of  the 
religious  public  in  so  acceptable  a  manner.  Closely 
associated  with  Fuller  was  John  Ryland  (q.v.), 
who  in  1783  became  pastor  of  the  Broadmead 
church,  Bristol,  and  Principal  of  the  Baptist  College. 
For  thirty  years  he  exerted  a  wide-spread  influence 
as  pastor  and  teacher.  Among  the  students  that 
went  forth  from  the  college  were  John  Foster  and 
Robert  Hall  (qq.v.).  Fuller's  cuief  Baptist  oppo- 
nents were  Abraham  Booth,  who  from  being  a 
General  Baptist  became  a  Particular  Baptist  of 
the  more  rigorous  type  and  wrote  largely  in  defense 
of  believers'  baptism,  restricted  communion,  and 
high  Calvinism  ("  Reign  of  Grace  "),  and  Alexander 
Maclean,  leader  of  the  Scotch  Baptists.  The 
successful  inauguration  of  missionary  work  in 
India  and  Carey's  achievements  in  the  acquisition 
of  Oriental  languages  and  in  Bible  translation  gave 
the  denomination  a  prestige  and  popular  accept- 
ance that  it  had  not  before  enjoyed.  By  1801 
the  Particular  Baptists  had  increased  to  29,000. 

The  work  of  the  denomination  in  Foreign  Mis- 
sions was  greatly  prospered,  and  commanded 
enthusiastic  support.    India,  Ceylon,  China,  Palee- 


Baptists 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


466 


tine,  Africa,  the  Bahamas,  Trinidad,  San  Domingo, 
Turk's  Island,  and  Italy  are  the  present  bene- 
ficiaries. At  an  eariier  date  Jamaica  was  evan- 
gelized by  this  body.  The  present  annual  income 
of  the  Foreign  Missionary'Society  is  about  £100,000. 
It  supports  about  three  hundred  missionaries  and 
evangelists  and  has  about  20,000  members  in  its 
mission  churches. 

About  1812  a  conviction  was  expressed  by  a 
writer  in  the  Baptist  Magazine  that,  while  numer- 
ically strong,  the  Baptists  of  England  and  Wales 
excited  little  influence  because  of  their  lack  of 
union.  "  Union  of  the  most  extensive,  firm,  and 
durable  nature  "  was  earnestly  advocated  by  him. 
A  number  of  brethren  met  in  London  the  same 
year  to  plan  for  a  union.  Particular  Baptists 
contended  much  more  strenuously  than  General 
Baptists  for  church  independency,  and  the  recog- 
nition of  the  fullest  independence  of  the  local 
churches  was  indispensable.  Among  the  principal 
promoters  of  the  enterprise  were  Joseph  Ivimey,  the 
historian,  Drs.  Ryland  and  Rippon,  of  London,  and 
James  Hinton,  of  Oxford.  The  imion  did  not  at 
once  take  firm  hold  on  the  denominational  life  or 
become  a  marked  success.  But  the  great  relig- 
ious and  political  upheaval  of  the  third  and  fourth 
decades  of  the  nineteenth  century  (Re- 
6.  Baptist  form  bills,  Catholic  Emancipation, 
TTnion.  abolition  of  Corporation  and  Test  Acts, 
Hampden  Controversy,  Tractarian 
Controversy,  etc.)  aroused  Baptists  anew  to  the 
importance  of  making  their  influence  felt  and  the 
Union  grew  in  importance.  The  determined  and 
successful  Romanizing  propaganda  of  the  Oxford 
school  and  the  disruption  (1843)  of  the  Scottish 
Church  encouraged  English  dissenters  to  believe 
that  disestablishment  was  possible  in  England 
and  led  to  concerted  efforts  for  religious  equality. 
At  the  formation  of  the  Anti-State-Church  Asso- 
ciation (1844)  Baptists  were  the  only  religious  body 
represented.  In  the  recent  agitation  against  the  edu- 
cation act,  Dr.  John  Clifford  (q.v.)  was  the  recognized 
leader  and  to  him  and  his  free  church  coadjutors 
was  largely  due  the  victory  of  the  Liberal  party  in 
1906. 

Through  the  enthusiastic  advocacy  of  Robert  Rob- 
inson and  Robert  Hall,  and  other  favoring  influen- 
ces, open  communion  became  widely  prevalent  in 
England  early  in  the  nineteenth  century.  In  Wales, 
however,  restricted  communion  has  always  prevailed. 
In  1845  a  nimiber  of  "  Strict  Baptist "  churches 
formed  the  Baptist  Evangelical  Society  under 
the  leadership  of  Dr.  John  Stock.  This  society 
imdertook  missionary  work  in  Germany  and  founded 
a  theological  college  at  Manchester.  The  most 
eminent  English  Baptist  leaders  of  the  present 
day  carry  their  liberality  so  far  as  to  practise  open 
or  mixed  membership.  Alexander  Maclaren,  the 
famous  Manchester  preacher  was  for  many  years 
pastor  of  a  mixed  church.  The  same  is  true  of  Dr. 
Clifford.  F.  B.  Meyer,  president  of  the  Baptist 
Union,  1905-06,  was  for  some  years  pastor  of  a 
pedobaptist  congregation  in  London. 

The  coming  of  Charles  Haddon  Spurgeon  to  the 
pulpit  of  New  Park  Street  Church,  London,  in  1854, 
marks  an  epoch  in  the  history  of  British  Baptists. 


Within  a  few  years  he  became  recognized  as  one  of 
the  greatest  of  preachers.  That  he  built  up  a 
church  of  six  thousand  members,  preached  regu- 
larly in  the  Metropolitan  Tabernacle  to  7,000 
people  with  a  large  overflow,  that  he  reached 
through  his  published  sermons  millions  of  people 
throughout  the  worid,  represent  only  a  small  i^rt 
of  his  beneficent  activity.  From  his  Pastor's 
College  hundreds  of  young  men  went  forth  as  pas- 
tors into  all  parts  of  Britain  and  throughout  the 
world,  and  it  is  estimated  that  considerably  over 
a  hundred  thousand  have  been  added  to  churches 
pastored  by  Spurgeon's  students.  The  StockweU 
Orphanage  founded  by  Spurgeon  has 
7.  Charles  ^^  ^^  example  to  Baptists  and  othen 
Haddon  in  practical  philanthropy.  His  Book 
Spuxveon.  Fund  supplied  the  needs  of  multi- 
tudes of  pastors.  His  magazine  and 
his  popular  writings  multiplied  his  influence.  The 
last  years  of  Mr.  Spurgeon  (1884-92)  were  some- 
what embittered  by  a  controversy  in  which  he 
became  engaged  with  the  Baptist  Union  because 
of  its  toleration  of  liberal  views  on  the  Scriptures, 
the  person  of  Christ,  the  atonement,  future  pun- 
ishment, etc.  His  own  Puritan  convictions  made 
him  incapable  of  seeing  anything  but  the  abomi- 
nation of  desolation  in  less  rigorous  modes  of 
thought  that  had  become  widely  prevalent. 
When  the  Union  refused  to  exclude  from  its 
fellowship  those  whose  teachings  he  regarded  as 
unsound  he  severed  his  connection  with  this  body 
and  was  followed  by  many  of  his  former  students 
and  the  churches  to  which  they  ministered. 

The  Baptists  of  Wales  suffered  much  during  the 
first  half  of  the  eighteenth  century  from  hyper- 
Calvinism,  but  the  religious  fervor  of  the  race  was 
too  great  to  be  completely  quenched.  More 
promptly  than  the  English  Baptists,  they  responded 
to  the  quickening  influences  of  the  evangelical  re- 
vival, especially  to  the  Calvinistic  phase  of  it  rep- 
resented by  Whitefield.  During  the  latter  part  of 
the  century  Sandemanianism  and  Socinianiwn 
made  some  headway  among  them.  The  teachings 
of  Andrew  Fuller  finally  prevailed,  and 
w  1  h  *^®  spirit  of  evangelism  attained  to  a 
Baptists  ^^^^^^  among  Welsh  Baptist  preachers 
rarely  surpassed.  Christmas  Evans 
(q.v.)  was  from  1791  onward  by  far  the  greatest 
evangelizing  force.  Anglesea  was  the  chief  scene 
of  his  labors,  but  he  is  said  to  have  traversed  Waks 
forty  times  on  preaching  tours  and  to  have  preached 
one  hundred  and  sixty-three  associational  sermons. 
Many  other  men  of  power  carried  forward  through- 
out Wales  the  work  in  which  Evans  was  the  chirf 
prophet.  Pontypool  College  (1836)  grew  out  of 
earlier  efforts  at  ministerial  education.  Haverford- 
west College  was  founded  in  1839  and  LlaboUen 
College  in  1862.  Like  the  English  denominational 
colleges  these  are  small  institutions  in  which  two 
or  three  teachers  instruct  twenty  or  thirty  students 
for  the  ministry.  The  Welsh  churches,  while  re- 
taining for  home  work  a  liberal  share  of  scholarly 
ministers,  have  sent  to  England  and  America  many 
of  their  brightest  and  best.  The  Philadelphia  As- 
sociation has  profited  largely  by  Welsh  talent  and 
consecration.    The  Welsh  Baptists  at  present  num- 


467 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Baptists 


ber  nearly  150,000,  nearly  30,000  having  been  added 
within  the  past  year  and  a  half  as  a  result  of  the 
great  revival  of  1904-05. 

The  Baptist  churches  planted  in  Ireland  in  the 
Cromwellian  time  by  Thomas  Patient  and  other 
London  Baptists  either  became  entirely  extinct  or 
survived  in  a  very  feeble  way.  About  1803  Alex- 
ander Carson  (q.v.),  who  had  been  graduated  a  few 
years  before  from  the  University  of  Glasgow  and 
was  pastor  of  a  Presbyterian  church  at  Tubbermore 
with   ample    state   support,    reached 

9.  Alexan-  convictions  in  favor  of  congregational 
derOarson  church  government  and  believers' 
I^^Bap-    ^^.ptism  so  strong  that  he  gave  up  his 

tuts.  '  living  and  the  prospect  of  a  Glasgow 
professorship.  With  a  few  like-minded 
believers  he  organized  a  Baptist  church  which  dur- 
ing his  forty  years  of  service  grew  to  a  membership 
of  500.  His  best-known  work  is  his  treatise  on 
baptism,  but  his  doctrinal  and  controversial  wri- 
tings are  numerous.  He  is  said  to  have  contributed 
the  scholarship  to  Haldane's  commentary  on 
Romans.  He  was  closely  associated  with  the  Hal- 
danes.  Like  the  Scottish  Baptists,  Carson  practised 
weekly  communion.  He  also  followed  the  Scrip- 
tural injunction  ''  salute  one  another  with  a  holy 
kiss,"  himself  Idssing  one  of  the  deacons,  and  others 
following  his  example.  After  the  sermon  the 
brethren  were  encouraged  to  exhort.  He  was  fre- 
quently called  to  Scotland  and  England  for  ser- 
mons and  addresses.  Since  Carson's  time  English 
Baptists  have  devoted  much  e£fort  to  the  propaga- 
tion of  Baptist  principles  in  Ireland  with  small 
numerical  results. 

In  Scotland  also  the  Baptist  movement  that 
flourished  in  Cromwell's  time  failed  of  maintenance. 
In  the  eighteenth  century  Sir  William  Sinclair  of 
Keiss,  Caithness,  who  had  been  baptized  while 
visiting  England,  gained  a  number  of  adherents  in 
his  own  neighborhood,  whom  he  baptized  and  or- 
ganized into  a  church  (about  1750).  This  is  the 
oldest  Baptist  church  in  Scotland.  In  1765  Robert 
Carmichael,  a  Sandemanian  minister  of  Glasgow, 
was  baptized  in  London  by  John  Gill.  He  bap- 
tized several  members  of  his  former  church  and 
organized  them  into  a  Baptist  church.  Archibald 
McLean,  who  had  been  a  member  of  Carmichael's 
church  in  Glasgow,  joined  his  former  pastor  in 
Edinburgh,  was  baptized  by  him,  became  his  co- 
laborer,  and  succeeded  him  (1769)  with  Dr.  Robert 
Walker  as  coelder.  McLean  was  a  vigorous  and 
somewhat  voluminous  writer,  and  his 

10.  Sootoh  works  (published  in  seven  volumes, 
Baptlata.  1805)  have  exerted  a  profound  influ- 
TheHal-    ence    on    Scottish    Baptist    life    and 

danes.  thought.  By  far  the  most  important 
factor  in  the  history  of  Scottish  Bap- 
tists was  the  conversion  to  evangelical  principles, 
and  then  to  Baptist  views,  of  Robert  and  James 
Alexander  Haldane  (qq.v.).  The  former  was 
deeply  interested  in  religious  and  philanthropical 
matters  from  1793  onward,  and  in  fifteen  years 
spent  $350,000  in  educating  and  supporting  evan- 
gelists, building  chapels,  circulating  religious  litera- 
ture, etc.  In  1799  James  became  pastor  of  an  In- 
dependent church  in  Edinburgh  and  in  1801  his 


brother  built  for  the  church  a  large  tabernacle  in 
which  he  ministered  for  fifty  years.  In  1808  both 
became  avowed  Baptists,  and  from  this  time  on- 
ward, while  conducting  their  work  on  somewhat 
broad  lines,  were  highly  influential  in  the  propaga- 
tion of  Baptist  principles.  Christopher  Anderson 
was  converted  imder  the  ministry  of  James  Haldane 
(1799).  Through  the  influence  of  English  Baptist 
students  at  the  University  of  Edinburgh  he  became 
a  Baptist,  and  was  exduded  therefor  from  Hal- 
dane's  church.  He  was  persuaded  by  Andrew 
Fuller  to  enter  the  ministry  and  in  1806  led  in  the 
founding  of  a  regular  Baptist  church  in  Edinburgh, 
where  he  soon  preached  to  overflowing  congrega- 
tions. His  ministry  of  thirty  years  greatly  strength- 
ened the  Baptist  cause  in  Scotland.  Anderson's 
church  practised  restricted  commimion  and  did  not, 
like  most  Scottish  Baptist  churches,  have  plurality 
of  elders  or  weekly  commimion.  Among  the  most 
noted  preachers  of  the  Scottish  Baptist  churches, 
some  of  whom  labored  exclusively  in  Scotland  while 
others  did  so  in  England,  may  be  named  Drs.  Pat- 
terson, Landels,  Culross,  and  Alexander  Maclaren. 
Scottish  Baptists  have  never  gained  great  nu- 
merical strength,  their  present  membership  being 
less  than  21,000.  The  Baptists  of  Great  Britain 
number  at  present  about  500,000,  which,  in  view 
of  the  constant  drain  upon  the  membership  by 
emigration,  is  a  very  creditable  showing.  This 
estimate  takes  account  of  about  400  unassociated 
churches.  One  of  their  greatest  achievements  was 
the  raising  of  the  £250,000  Twentieth  Century  Fund 
for  home  and  foreign  work. 

n.  Baptists  in  the  United  States.— 1.  To  1740: 
About  March,  1638,  Roger  Williams  (q.v.),  having 
been  banished  from  Massachusetts  two  years  be- 
fore because  of  agitation  against  the  charter,  advo- 
cacy of  extreme  Separatist  views,  insubordination 
on  conscientious  grounds  to  the  theocratic  author- 
ities, etc.,  and  having  settled  on  Narragansett  Bay, 
felt  it  his  duty,  in  cooperation  with  a  dozen  like- 
minded  men  and  women  who  had  followed  him 
from  Massachusetts,  to  introduce  believers'  baptism 
anew  and  to  organize  independently  a  new  church 
on  the  apostolic  model.  Ezekiel  Holliman  first 
baptized  Williams,  who  in  turn  baptized  Holliman 
and  the  rest  of  the  party.  Winthrop  attributes 
Williams's  antipedobaptist  views  to  the  influence 
of  the  wife  of  Richard  Scott,  a  sister  of  Mrs.  Anne 

Hutchinson,  the  antinomian  agitator 
1.  "Roger  (see  Antinomianism  and  Antino- 
Williams.   mian  Controversies,  II,  2).    He  waa 

already  familiar  with  the  opinions 
of  the  Mennonites  and  probably  also  with  those 
of  the  followers  of  Smyth  and  Helwys  and  the 
contemporary  Calvinistic  antipedobaptists  of  Lon- 
don. He  had  reached  the  conviction  that  the  or- 
dinances and  church  order  of  the  apostolic  time 
had  been  lost  by  apostasy  and,  for  the  time,  he  was 
persuaded  that  a  company  of  true  believers  had 
the  right  to  restore  them;  but  he  did  not  long  rest 
in  this  conviction.  To  the  end  of  his  life  he  main- 
tained that  true  churches  could  only  be  constituted 
of  regenerate  members  baptized  upon  a  profession 
of  their  faith,  and  on  many  occasions  expressed 
the  conviction  that  in  doctrine  and  practise  the 


BaFttoto 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


468 


/ 


Baptists  were  nearer  than  others  to  the  apostolic 
norm;  yet  after  a  few  months  of  experience  he 
became  so  doubtful  as  to  the  warrantableness  of 
what  he  had  done,  that  he  felt  constrained  to  with- 
draw from  the  fellowship  of  the  church  he  had 
founded  and  to  spend  the  rest  of  his  life  as  a 
"  Seeker  "  (q.v.).  Nothing  short  of  a  miraculously 
given  commission  to  restore  the  ordinances  would 
thenceforth  meet  his  requirement.  It  was  after  he 
had  assimied  this  position  that  he  gained  immor- 
tality of  fame  as  an  advocate  of  liberty  of  con- 
science and  as,  in  cooperation  with  John  Clarke 
(q.v.),  the  founder  of  a  state  in  which  this  doctrine 
was  embodied  to  an  extent  never  before  known. 

For  some  years  little  is  known  of  the  career  of 
the  little  church.  The  principle  of  individualism 
O  was  so  emphasized  in  the  Providence  community 
that  complete  harmony  among  the  members  of  the 
church  could  hardly  have  been  expected.  Within 
a  few  years  several  who  had  been  members  of  anti- 
pedobaptist  churches  in  England  (probably  of  the 
Arminian  type)  seem  to  have  reenforced  the  con- 
stituent members  and  to  have  introduced  elements 
of  discord.  Among  the  Arminian  members,  after- 
ward to  become  somewhat  prominent,  were  William 
Wickenden,     Gregory     Dexter,     and 

2.  The  Chad  Brown,  who,  like  many  of  the 
Providence  English     General     Baptists     insisted 

Chnroh.  upon  the  laying-on  of  hands  after 
baptism  as  a  Christian  ordinance 
and  an  indispensable  qualification  for  church- 
fellowship.  Williams  himself  regarded  the  laying- 
on  of  hands  as  an  ordinance  of  Christ.  Thomas 
Olney,  one  of  the  constituent  members,  prob- 
ably succeeded  Williams  in  leadership,  and  by 
1652  was  coelder  along  with  the  brethren  named. 
By  thisttime  diversities  of  opinion  as  to  the  extent 
of  Christ's  redemptive  work  and  the  laying-on  of 
hands  had  become  so  pronounced  as  to  occasion 
a  schism.  Olney  led  the  faction  that  opposed 
the  laying-on  of  hands  as  an  ordinance  and  prob- 
ably insisted  on  limited  redemption,  while  Brown, 
Wickenden,  and  Dexter,  on  the  basis  of  Heb.  vi, 
1-2,  led  the  party,  probably  a  majority,  that  in- 
sisted on  the  laying-on  of  hands  as  one  of  the  "  Six 
Principles."  The  fact  that  Olney's  party  did  not 
survive  as  a  church  has  led  to  the  claim  on  behalf 
of  the  Newport  church,  organized  some  years  later 
than  the  original  Providence  church,  of  priority 
among  surviving  churches.  But  the  party  led  by 
Brown  and  the  others  seems  equally  entitled  to  be 
regarded  as  the  original  church.  Wickenden 
extended  his  labors  to  New  York  State,  where  he 
was  imprisoned  (1656)  for  baptizing  and  adminis- 
tering the  Lord's  Supper.  By  1669  his  Arminianism 
had  developed  into  Socinianism  greatly  to  the  alarm 
of  Williams.  He  died  in  1670.  Gregory  Dexter, 
who  had  printed  Williams's  Key  to  the  Indian  Lan- 
guage (1643)  in  London,  removed  to  Providence 
about  1644.  He  was  probably  a  General  Baptist 
before  his  emigration.  He  became  one  of  the  most 
prominent  men  in  the  colony  (President,  1653). 
Brown  was  for  about  twenty-five  years  a  pillar 
among  the  Providence  Baptists.  He  is  of  special 
interest  as  the  ancestor  of  the  Browns  who  gave 
their  name  to  the  first  Baptist  College  in  America 


and  have  done  so  much  for  its  endowm^it  and 
equipment  (see  below,  II,  2,  §  3). 

The  First  Baptist  Church  of  Newport  owes  iu 
origin  to  John  Clarke  (q.v.),  an  educated  English- 
man who  arrived  at  Boston  in  Nov.,  1637,  and 
cast  in  his  lot  with  a  company  of  AntinomianB 
(Anne  Hutchinson,  Wheelwright,  Coddington,  and 
others),  who  were  leaving  Massachusetts  for  con- 
science' sake  and  who  through  Williams's  good 
offices  secured  from  the  Indians  the  island  of  Aquid- 
neck  (Rhode  Island),  where  they  organized  a  colony 
(Mar.,  1638)  with  recognition  of  Jesus  Christ  as 
King  of  Kings  and  Lord  of  Lords.  The  first  agree- 
ment was  theocratic,  but  in  1641  a  distinctly  demo- 
cratic constitution  with  full  provision  for  liberty 
of  conscience  was  adopted.  Clarke  was  equally 
prominent  with  Williams  in  the  later  political  his^  y 
tory  of  the  united  colonies  that  became  Rhode ' 
Island,  and,  like  Williams,  spent  mudi 

Iff         tl*.    ^"^®   ^   En^and    in  the  public  in- 

Governor  John  Winthrop  designated 
Clarke  as  "  a  physician  and  preacher  to  those  of  the 
island."  By  1640-41  strife  had  arisen  between  Clarice, 
Lenthall,  Harding,  and  others,  and  E^ton,  Cod- 
dington, Coggeshall,  and  others,  the  latter  main- 
taining the  antinomian  views  of  Anne  Hutchinson, 
the  former  repudiating  these  views  and  probably 
at  this  time  objecting  to  the  baptism  of  infants. 
Winthrop  wrote  of  the  presence  of  "  professed 
Anabaptists  "  on  the  island  in  1641.  There  is  no 
direct  proof  of  the  organization  of  Clarke's  followers 
on  a  Baptist  basis  until  1644  or  a  little  later.  Mark 
Lukar,  who  was  among  those  baptized  by  Blount 
and  Blacklock  in  London  in  1641-42,  was  for  many 
years  one  of  the  most  influential  members  of  the 
Newport  church.  The  date  of  his  arrival  has  not 
been  ascertained.  If  he  arrived  in  1644,  as  seems 
probable,  he  may  have  been  a  constituent  member 
and  have  led  in  the  introduction  of  believers' 
baptism.  Samuel  Hubbard,  a  friend  of  Roger 
Williams  and  a  man  of  intelligence  and  force  of 
character,  removed  from  Connecticut  in  1648, 
where  he  had  adopted  antipedobaptist  views  and 
was  baptized  into  the  fellowship  of  the  chmtjh. 
In  1665  Stephen  Mumford,  an  EInglish  Seventh- 
Day  Baptist,  became  a  member  of  this  church  and 
won  to  his  views  Hubbard,  Hiscox,  and  others. 
Failing  to  carry  the  majority  of  the  church  for 
Sabbatarianism,  they  withdrew  in  1671  and  formed 
a  separate  congregation.  In  1649  Obadiah  Holmes 
of  Seekonk,  Mass.,  near  the  Rhode  Island  border, 
was  baptized  into  the  fellowship  of  the  church  and 
with  a  number  of  other  persons  attempted  to  cany 
on  Baptist  work  in  the  Seekonk  neighborhood. 
Civil  interference  with  their  meetings  led  them 
to  remove  to  Newport.  In  1651  Clarke,  Holmes, 
and  Crandall  visited  Lynn,  Mass.,  to  minister  to 
some  antipedobaptists  there.  They  were  im" 
prisoned,  heavily  fined,  and  Holmes,  for  refusing 
on  principle  to  pay  the  fine,  was  cruelly  whipped- 
In  1652  Clarke  published  in  England  IU  News  fro^ 
New  England,  a  full  account  of  this  act  of  persecu- 
tion with  a  somewhat  elaborate  argument  for  lib- 
erty of  conscience.  The  division  of  sentiment 
among  the  Providence  Baptists  on  the  laying-on 


46G 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Baptista 


of  hands  extended  to  the  Newport  church,  which 
had  been  strictly  Calvinistic.  William  Vaughan, 
a  member  of  the  church,  went  to  Providence  in 

1652  and  submitted  to  the  rite.  Wickenden  and 
Dexter  accompanied  him  to  Newport  and  a  num- 
ber were  convinced  in  favor  of  the  "  Six  Principles." 
In  1656  a  division  occurred.  From  this  time  on- 
ward imtil  the  Great  Awakening  Baptist  progress 
in  New  England  was  almost  confined  to  the  Gen- 
eral (Six  Principles)  type.  Several  churches  were 
formed  in  Rhode  Island,  Connecticut,  and  southern 
Massachusetts,  and  associational  meetings  were  held 
among  them  early  in  the  eighteenth  centiuy. 

In  Massachusetts  a  rigorous  law  was  enacted 
(1644)  against  "  Anabaptists,"  whose  presence  was 
supposed  to  imperil  ci^  and  religious  order,  ban- 
ishment being  the  penalty  for  openly  condemning 
or  opposing  the  baptism  of  infants  or  secretly 
propagating  Anabaptist  principles.  The  law  was 
put  into  execution  in  a  number  of  cases  before  the 
persecutions  at  Seekonk  and  Lynn  mentioned 
above.  In  1646  Winslow  stated  that  in  one  of  the 
churches  of  the  Plymouth  settlement  (presumably 
that  of  Chauncy  at  Scituate)  the  pastor  "  waiveth 
the  administration  of  baptism  to  infants."  Re- 
monstrance on  the  part  of  the  synod  seems  to  have 
led  to  the  resimiption  of  infant  baptism,  though  this 
future  president  of  the  college  at  Cambridge  con- 
tinued to  insist  upon  inunersion.    About  1652  or 

1653  Henry  Dimster,  the  highly  efficient  first  presi- 
dent of  the  college  at  Cambridge  (1640  onward), 
became  so  profoundly  impressed  against  infant 
baptism  that  he  did  not  feel  at  liberty  longer  to 
keep  his  views  in  abeyance,  and  after  many  confer- 
ences with  the  overseers  and  ample 

4.  BaptistB  warning  he  was  obliged  at  great  sac- 
in  Masaa-  rifice  of  sentiment  and  material  good 
ohusetts.  to  relinquish  his  position.  The  pa- 
tience of  the  authorities  and  their 
willingness  for  him  to  continue  in  the  office  pro- 
vided he  would  cease  to  agitate  against  infant 
baptism  speak  well  for  their  tolerant  spirit.  The 
influence  of  Dimster  is  clearly  manifest  in  the  move- 
ment for  the  foimding  of  the  First  Baptist  church  of 
Boston  under  the  leadership  of  Thomas  Gould  (1655). 
In  1663  John  Myles,  a  Welsh  Baptist  minister 
who  had  acted  as  one  of  Cromwell's  Tryers  for 
Wales,  driven  from  his  post  by  the  Act  of  Uni- 
formity (1662),  came  with  his  congregation  to 
Massachusetts  and  secured  a  tract  of  land  in  Reho- 
both,  near  the  Rhode  Island  border.  Partly  be- 
cause of  their  remoteness  from  churches  of  the 
standing  order  and  partly  perhaps  because  they 
were  less  aggressive  than  most  Baptists  in  their 
condemnation  of  the  union  of  Church  and  State, 
they  suffered  little  molestation  until  1667  and  even 
then  they  were  permitted  to  continue  their  worship 
on  condition  of  holding  their  meetings  at  a  greater 
distance  from  the  Rehoboth  congregational  meet- 
ing-house. Myles  proved  himself  a  man  of  power 
and  built  up  at  Swansea  in  Rehoboth  a  vigorous 
chiuxh  of  the  Calvinistic  type.  He  also  gave  valu- 
able assistance  to  the  Boston  brethren  after  they 
had  secured  a  measure  of  toleration.  Organiza- 
tion was  not  effected  by  the  Boston  antipedobap- 
tists  until  1665,  when  Thomas  Gould  and  three 


others  were  baptized  and  joined  with  Richard 
Goodall  and  four  others  who  had  been  baptized  in 
England.  In  spite  of  persecution  this  faithful 
body  grew  to  considerable  size.  Even  after  the 
Act  of  Toleration  (1689)  had  come  into  force  in  Eng- 
land, intolerance  held  sway  in  Boston.  In  1680 
John  Russel,  an  officer  of  the  church,  published  in 
London,  with  an  "  Address  to  the  Christian  Read- 
er "  by  Kiffin,  Dyke,  Collins,  KnoUys,  Harris,  and 
Cox,  A  Brief  Narrative  of  some  considerable  passages 
concerning  ihe  first  gathering  and  further  progress  of 
a  Church  of  Christ,  in  Gospel  Order,  in  Boston  in 
New  England,  commonly  (though  falsely)  called  by  the 
name  of  Anabaptists,  for  clearing  their  innocency 
from  the  scandalous  things  laid  to  their  charge  (re- 
printed in  Wood's  History  of  the  First  Baptist  Church 
in  Boston).  English  Congregationalists,  and  Eng- 
lish Baptists,  protested  in  vain  against  the  intoler- 
ance of  the  Massachusetts  authorities  in  dealing  with 
the  Boston  Baptists,  partly  because  of  the  justi- 
fication that  it  would  seem  to  furnish  to  the  home 
government  for  the  persecution  of  non-conformists. 
A  Six  Principle  church  was  formed  at  Swansea 
in  1693,  and  in  1732  a  Baptist  church  was  formed 
in  Rehoboth  by  John  Comer,  the  able  pastor  of  the 
original  Newport  church,  who  had  left  his  charge 
because  of  his  adoption  of  the  doctrine  and  practise 
of  laying-on  of  hands,  but  had  remained  a  Calvin- 
ist.  Indian  Baptist  churches  were  formed  by  1694 
on  Martha's  Vineyard  and  Nantucket  Island  through 
the  labors  of  Peter  Foulger,  of  the  First  Baptist 
church  of  Newport,  and  others.  In  1735  through 
the  influence  of  Comer  a  church  was  organized  at 
Sutton,  Mass.,  from  which,  by  friendly  division, 
the  Leicester  church  was  formed  in  1738.  The 
Brimfield,  Mass.,  church  was  gathered  and  organ- 
ized through  Ebenezer  Moulton  in  1736. 

In  1682  some  members  of  the  Boston  church  who 
had  settled  at  Kittery,  Me.,  sought  and  obtained 
the  cooperation  of  the  church  in  the  organization 
of  a  new  church  at  that  place.  The  leaders  were 
Humphrey  Churchwood  and  William  Screven. 
The  latter  was  approved  as  a  minister  by  the  parent 
church  and  became  pastor  of  the  new  body.  Per- 
secution soon  broke  up  the  Kittery  church.  In 
1683  or  1684  Screven  made  his  way  to  South  Caro- 
lina, accompanied  or  followed  by  several  of  the 
members,  and  settled  on  the  Ashley  river,  a  short 
distance  from  the  place  where  Charleston  was 
about  to  be  foimded.  About  1683  a  colony  of  Brit- 
ons, among  whom  were  several  Baptists,  had  set- 
tled on  Port  Royal  island.  At  about  the  same 
time  a  large  company  from  Somerset- 
6.  In  South  shire,  England,  including  several  Bap- 
Oarolina.  tists  of  intelligence  and  social  rank 
(Lady  Blake  and  Lady  Axtell),  settled 
in  the  Charleston  neighborhood  and  became  mem- 
bers of  the  church  at  Somerton  with  Screven  as 
pastor.  In  1693  the  church  was  removed  to 
Charleston,  which  was  assuming  conmiercial  im- 
portance. Screven  died  in  1713  leaving  the  church 
with  a  membership  of  nearly  a  hundred.  Through 
his  zeal,  preaching  stations  had  been  established  at 
a  number  of  points  and  something  practical  had 
been  done  for  the  evangelization  of  the  negro  slaves. 
In  1733  a   schism  occurred   that  resulted   in  the 


Baptists 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


470 


organization  of  a  General  Baptist  church,  and  in 
1736  members  residing  in  the  Ashley  river  com- 
munity withdrew  to  form  a  church  of  their  own. 
This  greatly  weakened  the  Charleston  church  and 
by  the  close  of  the  present  period  it  had  become 
almost  extinct.  In  1737  a  company  of  Welsh 
Baptists  from  Welsh  Tract,  Pa.  (now  Delaware), 
settled  on  the  Peedee  river,  S.  C,  and  formed  the 
Welsh  Neck  church. 

In  1714,  in  response  to  an  appeal  from  some 

Baptists  in   Isle  of  Wight  County,  Va.,   Robert 

Nordin  was  sent  out  by  the  General 

6.  In  Vir-    Baptists  of   London.    He   succeeded 

f^^^       in  organizing  a  church  at  Burleigh 

1^1  a^dT"^"*^  another  in  Surrey  county.  In 
Cozmeoti-  ^^27  a  Baptist  church  was  formed 
QTxt,  ^  northern  North  Carolina  imder  the 
leadership  of  Paul  Palmer,  who  had 
been  a  member  of  the  Welsh  Tract  church  and  who 
was  presumably  Calvinistic.  In  Connecticut, 
through  the  labors  of  Valentine  Wightman,  Stephen 
Gorton,  and  others,  General  (Six  Principles)  Bap- 
tist churches  were  constituted  at  Groton  (1705), 
New  London  (1726),  Wallingford  (1735),  and 
Farmington  (now  Southington)  a  little  later. 
These  were  closely  associated  with  the  General 
Baptist  churches  of  Providence,  Newport,  South 
Kingston,  and  Dartmouth,  R.  I. 

In  1643  Lady  Moody,  who  had  become  a  zealous 
antipedobaptist,  left  Massachusetts  and  settled 
at  Gravesend,  N.  Y.  On  her  way  she  spent  some 
time  in  New  Haven,  where  she  won  to  her  views  the 
wife  of  Theophilus  Eaton,  first  governor  of  the 
colony  and  daughter  of  an  English  bishop .  For  many 
years  religious  services  were  held  by  Lady  Moody 
without  regular  church  organization.  Francis 
Doughty,  driven  from  Massachusetts  on  account 
of  antipedobaptist  views,  labored  for  a  while  at 
Flushing  and  left  for  Virginia  in  1656  without 
effecting  a  church  organization.  In  1656  William 
Wickenden,  of  Providence,  preached,  baptized,  and 
celebrated  the  Lord's  Supper  at 
7.  In  New    Flushing,  but  was  driven  away  after 

Tork.  imprisonment  and  an  attempt  to 
collect  from  him  a  heavy  fine.  From 
1711  onward  Valentine  Wightman,  of  Connecticut 
(General  Baptist),  frequently  visited  New  York 
on  the  invitation  of  Nicholas  Eyres,  a  prosperous 
brewer,  who  with  others  was  baptized  by  Wightman 
in  1714.  Eyres  became  pastor  of  the  congregation. 
He  was  ordained  and  the  church  recognized 
by  brethren  from  Rhode  Island  and  C;k)nnecticut 
in  1724.  This  church  became  involved  in  debt 
and  controversy  (Arminianism  vs.  Calvinism)  and 
was  extinct  before  the  close  of  this  period. 
At  Oyster  Bay,  L.  I.,  there  were  Baptists  from 
1700  onward.  A  Baptist  church  (probably  General) 
was  constituted  a  little  later. 

The  Quaker  colonies  furnished  an  attractive 
field  for  Baptist  effort.  The  first  Baptist  church 
founded  in  this  section  was  that  at  C])old  Spring 
(16S4)  through  the  labors  of  Thomas  Dimgan,  an 
Irish  minister  who  had  been  a  member  of  the  First 
Church,  Newport.  This  church  became  extinct 
by  1702.  The  Lower  Dublin,  or  Pennepek,  church 
followed  in  1688.    Several  families  of  Welsh  Bap- 


tists, with  one  Irish  and  one  English  Baptist,  had 
settled  in  the  neighborhood  two  years  earlier. 
Elias  Keach,  the  prodigal  son  of  the  famous  Benja- 
min Keach,  of  London,  was  converted  while  prac- 
tising imposture  upon  the  brethren  and  became 
a  preacher  of  power.  Under  his  leadership  the 
Pennepek  church  was  organized  in  1688,  and  in  a 
few  years  through  his  evangelistic  efforts  baptized 
believers  were  to  be  found  at  t)ie  Falls,  Cold  Spring, 
Burlington,  Cohansey,  Salem,  Penn's 

8.  In  the     Neck,  Chester,  Philadelphia,  and  other 
Quaker      places,  who  continued  to  be  members 

Oolonies.     ©f    the    Pennepek    church    enjoying 
occasional     preaching     services    and 
gathering  quarterly  at  different  places  for  evan- 
gelistic services  and  communion.     Keach  returned 
to  England  in  1692.    Here  also  controversy  arose 
respecting  the  laying-on  of  hands  and  occasioned 
Keach's  withdrawal  in  1689  from  the  pastorate  of 
the  church.    The  laying-on  of  hands  became  the 
common  practise  of  the  churches  of  the  Phila- 
delphia Association,  but  was  never  a  term  of  com- 
munion.    Churches  were  formed  in  the  following 
places:  Piscataqua,  N.  J.  (1689),  Middletown,  N.  J. 
(1688),  Cohansey,  N.J.  (1691),  Philadelphia  (1698), 
Welsh  Tract,  Del.  (1703),  Great  Valley,  Pa.  (1711). 
The  Welsh  element   prevailed,  but  many  of  the 
members  of  the  churches  were  En^'sh  and  not  a  few 
had  had  New  England  experience.     Many  Men- 
nonites  settled  in  this  region  and  reenforced  the  anti- 
pedobaptist life;    so   also  the  Dimkers.    Baptista 
in    Philadelphia   were    considerably    strengthened 
(1692-1700)  by  the  conversion  to  their  views  of  a 
number  of  Keithian  Quakers.    Some  of  these  were 
constituent  members  of  the  church  and  in  1707  the 
Keithians  invited  the  Baptists  to  share  the  use  of 
their  meeting-house.    Seventh-Day  Baptists  early 
appeared  in  this  region  and  churches  were  oi^- 
ized  by  them  at  Piscataqua  (1705),  Newtown  (1700), 
and  Shiloh  (1737).    In  1707  churches  which  from 
the  beginning  had  held  general  meetings  together 
joined  in  organizing  the  Philadelphia  Association, 
than  which  no  agency  has  been  so  potent  in  the 
unification  and  extension  of  the  denominatioDAl 
life.    The   adoption,   with   modifications,  by  the 
Association    of    the    English    Particular    Baptist 
Confession  of  Faith  of  1689  tended  to  fix  the  do^ 
trinal  type  of  what  was  long  the  most  aggressive 
aggregation  of  Baptists  in  America.     Before  the 
Great  Awakening  the  Baptists  of  the  Philadelphia 
Association  were  carrying  on  successful  missionaiy 
work. 

2.  Prom  1740  to  1821 :  A  Sodnianized  Arminiao* 
ism  long  before  the  beginning  of  this  period  had 
wrecked  a  number  of  the  older  Calvinistic  Baptist 
churches.  As  in  England,  so  in  America,  evan- 
gelical religion  was  at  a  low  ebb  during  the  first 
third  of  the  eighteenth  century.  The  Great 
Awakening  (see  Revivals  of  Religion)  found  the 
Baptists  wholly  imprepared  to  cooperate.  The 
Arminian  Baptists  were  repelled  by  the  Calvinistic 
teachings  of  the  great  evangelists,  while  Baptists 
of  all  parties  had  suffered  so  much  at  the  hands  of 
pedobaptists  that  they  would  have  been  disinclined 
to  join  heartily  in  any  general  Christian  movement. 
Yet    no    denomination  profited    more  largely  by 


471 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


BaptiBto 


the  revival  of  religion.  A  considerable  number 
of  "  New  Light "  churches  which  had  been  formed 
by  way  of  separation  from  churches  of  the  standing 
order  that  opposed  the  revival,  or  in  new  conmiu- 
nities  from  the  products  of  the  new  evangelism, 
came  to  feel  that  the  practise  of  infant  baptism 
was  inconsistent  with  their  demand  for  regenerate 
-  membership.      In  many  cases  "  New 

^1^*      Light "  churches  were  divided  in  opin- 

Awaken-  ^^^  respecting  infant  baptism  and  mu- 
iji^.  tual  toleration  of  each  others'  opinions 
was  agreed  upon.  Convictions  proved 
too  strong  to  allow  mixed  churches  long  to  persist 
and  separation  proved  inevitable.  Among  the 
most  valuable  accessions  to  the  Baptist  ranks 
from  this  source  was  Isaac  Backus  (d.  1806),  who 
was  for  many  years  the  champion  of  the  denomi- 
nation in  the  cause  of  religious  equality  and  wrote 
a  meritorious  history  of  the  New  England  Baptists. 
Hezekiah  Smith  (d.  1805)  after  his  graduation  at 
Princeton  (1762)  wrought  as  an  evangelist  in  South 
Carolina  and  more  largely  in  New  England.  While 
pastor  of  the  Haverhill  (Mass.)  church  he  devoted 
a  large  share  of  his  time  to  evangelistic  effort  and 
to  the  collection  of  funds  for  the  support  of  Rhode 
Island  College.  The  First  Church  of  Boston,  imder 
the  influence  of  Jeremy  Condy  (pastor  1739-65), 
had  become  Arminian  (Socinian)  in  sentiment 
and  strongly  opposed  the  revival.  Under  the  well- 
educated  and  eloquent  Samuel  Stillman  (pastor 
after  1765)  the  church  regained  its  evangelical  seal 
and  its  high  standing  among  the  churches.  In 
1769  the  membership  of  the  church  was  more 
than  doubled.  Under  the  influence  of  the  Great 
Awakening  a  number  of  brethren  led  by  Ephraim 
Bound  formed  a  second  Baptist  church  (1743). 
Valentine  Wightman,  one  of  the  very  few  Baptists 
of  the  older  sort  who  had  entered  heartily  into  the 
revival  movement,  assisted  in  the  ordination  of 
Bound.  The  Swansea  and  Rehoboth  churches 
held  resolutely  aloof  from  the  revival  movement 
and  would  have  no  fellowship  with  the  New  Light 
brethren  until  1771  when  several  hundred  were 
added  to  their  membership  through  evangelistic 
effort.  Some  of  the  converts  formed  a  new  church 
at  Rehoboth  which  practised  open  conununion. 
At  about  the  same  time  the  **  New  Light "  Congre- 
gational church  of  Rehoboth  suffered  schism, 
Elhanan  Winchester,  a  baptized  evangelist,  be- 
coming pastor  of  the  antipedobaptist  party  which 
organized  on  an  open  communion  basis.  Win- 
chester refused  to  admim'ster  the  Supper  to  any  but 
baptized  believers  and  was  excommimicated.  He 
afterward  became  a  Universalist  leader.  A  third 
open  communion  church  was  formed  in  this  region 
in  1777. 

The  churches  of  the  Philadelphia  Association 

had  reached  a  position  of  assured  strength  that 

enabled  them  to  assert  their  principles 

2.  The  Phil-  ^nth  the  utmost  decision  wlule  main- 

^*2JJ~  taining  the  most  friendly  relations 
""^  ^  ^^^  ^^^  brethren  of  other  denomi- 
nations. The  growth  of  the  churches 
of  Pennsylvania  and  New  Jersey  during  this  period 
was  only  normal.  The  Philadelphia  Association, 
being  long  the  only  body  of  the  sort  among  the 


tion. 


Calvinistic  Baptists,  had  by  1762  extended  its 
influence  so  as  to  embrace  churches  in  New  England, 
New  York,  Virginia,  and  Maryland.  At  this  time 
the  association  comprised  only  twenty-nine  churches 
with  a  membership  of  1,318.  The  territory  of  the 
association  was  covered  by  the  evangelizing  activity 
of  the  Tennents  and  the  Presbyterian  discipline 
was  so  effective  that  few  of  the  converts  became 
Baptists.  In  1756  measures  were  taken  by  the  asso- 
ciation for  the  establishment  of  a  granunar-school 
imder  the  care  of  Isaac  Eaton,  at  Hopewell,  N.  J. 

About  1762,  members  of  the  association  under 
the  leadership  of  Morgan  Edwards  began  to 
agitate  and  plan  for  the  establishment  of  a  Bap- 
tist College.  The  graduation  of  James  Manning 
and  Hezekiah  Smith  at  this  time 
T^i  ^]?*nlo  ^^°^  Princeton  and  the  availability 
IslaAd  Ool-  ^£   ^Yie  former   for  educational  work 

(Brown     "^^^  h&ve  brought  the  matter  to  an 

TTnlver^  issue.  Rhode  Island  was  selected  as 
■ity).  the  most  promising  location  for  a  col- 
lege because  of  its  men  of  eminence, 
its  central  position,  its  lack  of  a  college,  and 
its  devotion  to  civil  and  religious  liberty.  In 
1663  Manning  was  sent  to  Rhode  Island  to  con- 
fer with  leading  brethren  there.  In  1764  a 
charter  was  seciured,  which,  while  giving  control 
to  the  Baptists,  provided  for  the  participation  in 
the  government  of  the  institution  of  Quakers, 
CongregationaUsts,  and  Episcopalians.  The  charter 
provides:  "  Into  this  liberal  and  catholic  institu- 
tion shall  never  be  admitted  any  religious  tests. 
But,  on  the  contrary,  all  the  members  hereof  shall 
forever  enjoy  full,  free,  absolute,  and  uninterrupted 
liberty  of  conscience;  and  the  places  of  professors, 
tutors,  and  all  other  officers,  the  president  alone 
excepted,  shall  be  free  and  open  for  all  denominar 
tions  of  Protestants  .  .  .  and  that  sectarian  dif- 
ferences shall  not  make  any  part  of  the  public  and 
classical  instruction."  The  trustees  and  fellows 
included  the  most  prominent  men  of  the  various 
denominations.  Morgan  Edwards  visited  England 
on  behalf  of  the  college  and  Hezekiah  Smith  made 
a  canvass  of  the  South.  It  was  arranged  that 
pending  the  raising  of  funds  Manning  should  min- 
ister to  a  few  Baptist  families  at  Warren  and  con- 
duct there  a  grammar-school  (1764).  In  1765 
Manning  was  appointed  president  and  in  1769  seven 
young  men  received  the  bachelor's  degree — ^the 
first  academic  degrees  ever  conferred  by  a  Baptist 
institution.  In  1804  Rhode  Island  College  became 
Brown  University  and  imder  this  name  has  steadily 
grown  in  equipment  and  influence.  Among  its 
presidents  have  been  Francis  Wayland,  Bamas 
Sears,  Alexis  Caswell,  E.  G.  Robinson,  E.  B.  An- 
drews, and  W.  H.  P.  Faimce. 

As  a  result  of  the  influence  of  the  Baptists 
of  the  Philadelphia  Association,  the  Warren 
Association  was  formed  in  1767.  The  moving 
spirits  were  James  Manning  and  Hezekiah 
Smith.  Only  four  churches  participated  in  its 
organization,  Isaac  Backus  and  many  of  the  "  New 
Light "  brethren  as  well  as  all  of  the  older  churches 
holding  aloof  from  fear  lest  the  body  should  ''  as- 
sume any  jurisdiction  over  the  churches."  The 
influence  of  the  Warren  Association  was  soon  felt 


Bftptista 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


471 


and  become  mighty  in  favor  of  education,  evangel- 
isation, and  religious  liberty. 

In  1749  Oliver  Hart  from  the  Philadelphia  Asso- 
ciation went  to  Charleston,  S.  C,  where  he  was  in- 
fluential in  reviving  the  Baptist  cause  and  in  form- 
ing the  Charleston  Association  after  the  model  of 
the  Philadelphia.  From  1742  onward  members  of 
the  Philadelphia  Association  (Gano,  Vanhom, 
Miller,  Thomas)  visited  the  scattered  and  unorgan- 
ized Baptists  of  Virginia  and  North  Carolina,  won 
4  B  th  Sonne  Arminians  to  Calvinism,  intro- 
Aaaooia-  ^^ced  better  church  discipline,  and 
tions.        secured  the  organization  (1765)  of  the 

Kehukee  Association,  composed  of 
churches  in  Virginia  and  North  Carolina.  Through 
the  labors  of  David  Thomas,  also  a  gift  of  the 
Philadelphia  Association,  several  churches  were 
constituted  in  the  Northern  Neck  of  Virginia  and 
in  1766  formed  the  Ketokton  Association  with  the 
approval  and  cooperation  of  the  Philadelphia. 
This  association  adopted  the  Philadelphia  Confes- 
sion, with  its  requirement  of  the  laying-on  of  hands. 
Of  momentous  importance  for  the  diffusion  of 
Baptist  principles  throughout  the  South  was  the 
enthusiastic  evangelism  of  Shubael  Steams  and 
Daniel  Marshall,  *'  New  Light "  Baptists  from  New 
England  (1754  onward).  Steams  had  become  a 
Baptist  in  New  England  (1751)  and  had  felt  an 
irresistible  impulse  to  devote  his  life  to  missionary 
work  in  the  South.  Marshall  was  led  to  Baptist 
views  after  his  arrival  in  Virginia  from  contact  with 
Baptists  of  the  Philadelphia  Association  type. 
Within  the  next  thirty  years  multitudes  were  con- 
verted and  accepted  Baptist  views  through  their 
ministry,  and  churches  were  organueed  in  Vir- 
ginia, North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  and  Georgia. 

The  Sandy  Creek  (N.  C.)  church  was 

^'^'^w^^i"  organized  by  Steams  in  1755  and  in  a 

ofSteams  ^®^  ^^^  ^^  *^*^  ^^^^  ^^  members. 

and  Mar-    ^  ^^^^  ^^®  Sandy  Creek  Association 

gl^im^       was  formed,  which  for  years  embraced 

all  the  churches  of  the  Separate  type  in 
the  South.  In  seventeen  years  the  connection  had 
grown  to  forty-two  churches  with  125  ministers. 
The  evangelism  of  Steams  and  Marshall  was  char- 
acterized by  an  enthusiasm  that  verged  upon  fanat- 
icism. Many  new  converts,  without  previous  edu- 
cational equipment  or  subsequent  training,  entered 
zealously  upon  the  work  of  evangelization  and  the 
people  heard  with  gladness  their  uncouth  but  ear- 
nest testimony  to  the  power  of  the  Gospel. 

Because  of  their  fiery  enthusiasm  and  their  un- 
willingness to  take  out  licenses  and  conform  to  the 
Colonial  conditions  of  toleration  the  Separate  Bap- 
tists of  Virginia  suffered  much  persecution  in 
genuine  martyr  fashion  and  thereby  won  for  them- 
selves great  popular  acceptance  and  made  the  epis- 
copal establishment  highly  odious.  Virginia  Bap- 
tists of  the  older  type  conformed  to  the  laws  and 

suffered  little  persecution,  and  looked 

6.  Separate  with  disfavor  upon  the  Separate  Bap- 

Baptiata  in  tists   as    unduly  enthusiastic   and  as 

Virfirinia*    allowing  untrained  and  untried  men 

(and  even  women)  freely  to  evangelize. 
Steams  was  disposed  to  lay  more  stress  on  the  inter- 
dependence than  the  independence  of  the  numer- 


ous and  widely  scattered  churchea  of  the  Sand 
Creek  Association.  Under  his  influence  overtun 
from  the  Regular  Baptists  for  the  union  of  Regulai 
and  Separates  were  rejected  (1767)  by  a  sma 
majority.  By  1770  many  churches  and  minista 
of  the  association  had  become  dissatisfied  with  tb 
rigorous  ruling  of  Steams  and  insisted  upon  tfa 
division  of  the  body  into  three  associations.  Th 
result  was  the  formation  of  the  General  Assodatkii 
of  Separate  Baptists,  for  Virginia,  and  the  Rapid 
Ann  Association,  for  South  Carolina.  From  177 
onward  the  Separate  Baptists  increased  in  Vii^ 
from  1,335  in  1771  to  3,195  in  1773.  In  1774  it  wa 
determined  by  the  General  Association  to  restore  tb 
office  of  apostle,  and  Samuel  Harris,  the  most  sue 
cessful  of  the  Virginia  evangelists,  was  appointe 
apostle  for  the  southern  district,  and  a  little  lite 
John  Waller  and  Elijah  Craig  became  apostles  fo 
the  northern  district.  In  1775  the  question  g 
general  and  particular  redemption  was  debated  i 
the  General  Association,  and  by  a  small  majoiit; 
particular  redemption  prevailed.  The  three  apos 
ties  withdrew  by  way  of  protest  and  disniptioi 
seemed  inevitable.  But  better  counsels  prevailed 
and  mutual  toleration  was  agreed  upon.  Armimai 
tendencies  gradually  disappeared  and  in  1783  th 
Philadelphia  Confession  was  adopted  with  provi 
sion  against  its  too  strict  construction. 

Virginia  Baptists  were  among  the  earliest  an 
stanchest  supporters  of  the  Revolution  and  led  ii 
the  struggle  for  religious  equality.  The  Genera 
Association  in  1776  appointed  a  conunittee  oi 
grievances,  which  sealously  devoted  itself  u. 
the  abolition  of  dissenters'  disabilities  until  the 
establishment  itself  was  abolished,  the  gM>< 
lands  confiscated,  and  absolute  separation  d 
Church  and  State  secured.  Not  content  with  bein^ 
chiefly  instrumental  in  securing  religious  equality 
in  Virginia,  Virginia  Baptists  watched  closely  tfaie 
7  Ba  ti«t  ^°™^°8  of  the  Federal  Constitution 
and  B^iff  ^^^  ^^^  instrumental  in  prociuing  thf 
ious  Lib-' ^^^'^^^'^  ^^  *^'  i,  w'hich  prohibits 
erty.  Congress  from  taking  any  cogni- 
zance of  religion.  From  1883  on- 
ward Regular  Baptists  of  Virginia  joined  hands 
with  the  Separates  in  the  struggle  for  it^gioua 
equality  and  the  separation  of  Church  and  State 
and  in  1787  the  two  parties  imited,  agreeing  to 
bury  in  oblivion  the  names  Regular  and  Separate, 
and  adopting  the  name  "  United  Baptist  Churcbee 
of  Christ  in  Virginia."  In  New  England  the  strug- 
gle for  religious  liberty  on  the  part  of  the  Baptists 
was  no  less  heroic,  but  it  was  far  less  succes^vL 
In  Virginia  the  Episcopal  clergy  were  corrupt  and 
oppressive  and  were  bitteriy  oppK>sed  to  the  Revo- 
lution, and  Baptists  had  the  cooperation  of  leading 
statesmen,  of  the  patriotic  masses,  and  (in  most  meas- 
ures) of  the  Presbyterians;  while  in  New  England 
the  clergy  and  members  of  the  standing  order  wer« 
leaders  in  the  cause  of  Colonial  independence  and 
Baptists  became  impopular  by  agitating  their  grier- 
ances  and  threatening  to  appeal  to  England  foi 
their  redress  at  the  very  time  when  resistance  tc 
British  authority  was  being  determined  upon.  This 
difference  of  attitude  of  the  EstabUshed  Churcb« 
in  the  two  sections  accoimts  for  the  fact  that  the 


478 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Baptists 


Baptists  of  Virginia  not  only  led  in  the  struggle  for 
religious  liberty  but  multiplied  in  numbers  during 
the  Revolution  and  after,  while  Massachusetts  and 
Connecticut  Baptists  failed  to  secure  religious  lib- 
erty and  made  little  progress  during  the  Revolu- 
tion. In  1812  there  were  in  Virginia,  North  Caro- 
lina, South  Carolina,  Georgia,  Kentucky,  and 
Tennessee  108,843  Baptist  conmiunicants,  while 
those  of  Maine,  New  Hampshire,  Massachusetts, 
Rhode  Island,  and  Connecticut  nimibered  32,372, 
and  those  of  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania, 
Delaware,  and  Maryland,  26,852.  In  Virginia  alone 
there  were  35,655  Baptist  church  members. 

8.  From  1812  to  the  Present  Tims:  While  Bap- 
tists had  by  the  beginning  of  this  period  attained 
to  a  numerical  strength  of  nearly  200,000,  they  were 
deficient  in  culture  and  had  made  almost  no  pro- 
vision for  an  educated  ministry.  Brown  Univer- 
sity was  still  the  only  institution  for  higher  educa- 
tion, and  this  provided  no  theological  course.  In 
Boston,  Providence,  Newport,  New  York,  Philadel- 
phia, and  Charleston,  and  in  a  number  of  other 
churches  in  the  Philadelphia,  Warren,  and  Charles- 
ton Associations  there  was  considerable  culture. 
The  Charleston  Association  had  established  (1791) 
an  Education  Fund,  and  by  1813  had  aided  nine- 
teen yoimg  ministers  in  securing  an  education, 
some  imder  private  tutorship,  some  at  Brown 
University,  and  some  in  other  institutions.  In 
1812  the  Baptist  Education  Society  of  the  Middle 
States  was  constituted  and  Dr.  William  Staughton, 
of  Philadelphia,  began  to  instruct  students  for  the 
ministry  on  its  behalf.  The  vast 
^'  ^M^  ^'  majority  of  American  Baptists  at  this 
"todHf^?"  *"^®  regarded  ministerial  education 
£^yy^  ~  as  an  impertinent  human  effort  to 
exercise  the  divine  prerogative  of 
calling  and  equipping  ministers,  and  looked  with 
disfavor  upon  the  paying  and  receiving  of  minis- 
terial salaries  as  introducing  a  oonmiercial  element 
where  the  Holy  Spirit  should  work  unimpeded. 
A  large  proportion  of  Baptist  preachers  owned 
their  farms  and  were  self-supporting.  Many  of 
them  without  scholastic  advantages  acquired  con- 
siderable education  and  were  men  of  power.  The 
tendency  was  to  neglect  the  towns,  where  the  self- 
supporting  method  was  impracticable  and  where 
enthusiastic  but  illiterate  ministers  were  less  accept- 
able. Some  able  ministers  who  could  have  afforded 
to  minister  in  towns  and  cities  resolutely  refused 
to  leave  their  country  homes  and  work.  Churches 
like  those  of  Boston,  New  York,  and  Philadelphia 
found  the  utmost  difficulty  in  supplying  their 
pulpits  when  vacancies  occurred.  The  only  period- 
ical publication  in  circulation  at  the  time  was  the 
Massachuaetta  Baptist  Missionary  MagazinCy  the 
first  number  of  which  was  published  in  1803  and 
the  twelfth  in  1808.  Under  the  editorship  of  Dr. 
Thomas  Baldwin,  of  Boston,  it  exerted  a  strong 
but  not  very  wide-spread  influence  in  favor  of 
missions,  education,  and  better  methods  of  denomi- 
national work.  The  Lake  Baptist  Missionary 
Society  (afterward  called  the  Hamilton  Missionary 
Society)  was  formed  in  Central  New  York  (1807) 
for  domestic  evangelization.  From  the  beginning 
of  the  century  (or  earlier)  Baptists  of  Boston,  New 


York,  Philadelphia,  and  Charleston  joined  with 
other  denominations  in  contributing  toward  the 
support  of  the  missionary  work  of  Carey  and  his 
associates  in  India.  In  1812  Philadelphia  Baptists 
began  to  hold  monthly  union  meetings  and  larger 
quarterly  meetings  "  for  the  spread  of  the  gospel." 
The  conversion  to  Baptist  views  of  Adoniram 
Judson  and  Luther  Rice  (qq.v.),  as  they  were  about 
to  open  up  missionary  work  in  India  under  the 
auspices  of  the  American  Board  of  Commissioners 
for  Foreign  Missions,  marks  an  era  in  the  history 
of  American  Baptists.  Judson  announced  his  con- 
version to  American  Baptists  through  Thomas 
Baldwin,  of  Boston,  and  L.  Bolles,  of  Salem,  and 
threw  himself  and  his  missionary  enterprise  upon 
the  liberality  and  enlightened  zeal  of  the  denomina- 
tion. The  more  intelligent  Baptist  communities 
rejoiced  that  so  glorious  a  responsi- 
2.  Mission-  biy^y  had  been  providentially  thrust 
My  and  upon  the  denomination  and  began  at 
tional  ^^^  ^  organize  local  missionary  so- 
Work,  cieties  for  the  di£fusion  of  the  mis- 
sionary spirit  and  the  raising  of 
funds.  "The  Baptist  Society  for  Propagating 
the  Gospel  in  India  and  other  Foreign  Parts  "  was 
formed  at  Boston  in  1813  with  Baldwin  as  presi- 
dent and  Daniel  Sharp  as  secretary.  Rice  returned 
to  America  (summer  of  1813)  for  the  purpose  of 
arousing  American  Baptists  to  a  sense  of  their 
obligation  and  opportimity.  Through  his  efforts 
local  missionary  societies  were  formed  from  Maine 
to  Georgia  and  considerable  money  was  raised. 
In  May,  1814^  thirty-three  leading  brethren  from 
eleven  States  met  in  Philadelphia  and  organized  the 
"  General  Missionary  Convention  of  the  Baptist 
Denomination  in  the  U.  S.  A.  for  Foreign  Mis- 
sions," to  meet  triennially.  Richard  Furman,  of 
Charleston,  was  chosen  president  and  Thomas 
Baldwin  secretary.  The  Convention  appointed  a 
Board  of  Commissioners  as  an  executive  with 
Baldwin  as  president  and  Philadelphia  (from  1826 
onward,  Boston)  as  headquarters.  William  Staugh- 
ton of  Philadelphia  was  the  first  corresponding 
secretary.  By  1817  Rice  and  other  leaders  had 
become  convinced  that  provision  for  the  educa- 
tion of  ministers  was  absolutely  essential  to  the 
progress  of  denominational  work  at  home  and 
abroad,  and  the  Triennial  Convention  of  1817  ap- 
proved of  the  raising  of  fimds  for  this  purpose. 
In  1818  a  theological  institution  was  opened 
in  Philadelphia,  with  William  Staughton  and  Irah 
Chase  as  instructors.  As  early  as  1815  Rice  had 
reached  profound  conviction  regarding  the  neces- 
sity of  missionary  work  in  the  newly  settled 
regions  of  the  West,  and  in  1817  the  Triennial 
Convention  decided  to  enter  upon  this  work.  Two 
zealous  and  well  educated  ministers,  J.  M.  Peck 
and  J.  E.  Welsh,  were  appointed  home  mission- 
aries. The  work  of  the  former  proved  apostolic 
and  was  of  momentous  importance.  From  1817 
onward  Rice  labored  with  consuming  zeal  for  the 
establishment  in  Washington  of  a  National  Baptist 
University.  Columbian  College  was  opened  in  1822 
and  has  done  a  noble  work.  The  theological  work 
inaugurated  in  Philadelphia  was  transferred  to 
Washington  in  1821.    As  a  means  of  promoting 


Baptists 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


474 


the  missionary  and  educational  work  Rice  began 
(1816)  the  publication  of  The  Latter  Day  Lumi- 
nary and   (1822)  The  Columbian  Star. 

By  1826  the  college  had  become  inextricably 
involved  in  debt.  The  situation  became  so  des- 
perate that  the  mission  fimds  were  drawn  upon  to 
meet  pressing  claims.  From  the  beginning  the 
great  mass  of  the  Baptists  had  shown  themselves 
indi£Perent  or  hostile  to  the  missionary  and  educa- 
tional enterprises.  It  was  easy  for  ignorant  and 
illiberal  pastors  to  persuade  their  still  more  ignorant 
and  illiberal  parishioners  that  the  introduction 
of  commercialism  into  religion  was  of  the  devil 
and  that  they  were  doing  God  service  in  resisting 
all  efforts  at  exploitation  on  the  part  of  the  money- 
gatherers.  In  many  cases  associations  excluded 
churches,  and  churches  members,  for 
8.  Opposi-  contributing  to  the  funds  of  the  enter- 

tionand  prises  fostered  by  the  Triennial  Con- 
Dlflloulties.  vention.  State  Conventions  were 
formed  as  bonds  of  union  for  those 
who  were  alive  to  the  importance  of  united  effort. 
Massachusetts  Baptists  had  effected  a  State  organi- 
zation in  1802.  South  Carolina  followed  in  the 
year  1821.  In  a  few  years  nearly  every  State 
had  organized  a  convention  made  up  exclusively 
of  cooperating  churches,  associations,  and  individ- 
uals. In  the  States  of  Ohio,  Tennessee,  and  Ken- 
tucky, the  missionary  movement  was  well-nigh 
overwhelmed  by  the  antieffort  party.  In  Ohio, 
Baptists  contributed  for  Foreign  Missions  in  1820, 
$547.  From  1821  to  1828  nothing  was  given,  while 
$10  constituted  the  contribution  in  1829  and  $5 
that  of  the  following  year.  In  Tennessee,  mission- 
ary societies  were  dissolved  and  associations  re- 
scinded all  resolutions  favorable  to  the  schemes 
of  the  Triennial  Convention.  Not  till  after  1840 
could  the  cause  of  missions  get  a  hearing.  The  most 
influential  leader  of  the  movement  was  Daniel 
Parker,  an  illiterate  enthusiast,  who  held  to  an 
extreme  type  of  supralapsarianism  and  wrought 
up  his  followers  to  a  fanatical  hatred  of  all  organized 
effort.  It  was  in  the  regions  occupied  by  this 
perverse  type  of  Baptists  that  Alexander  Campbell 
(q.v.)  worked  so  successfully,  combining,  as  he  did, 
with  his  bitter  denunciation  of  human  institutions, 
vigorous  antagonism  to  hyper-Calvinistic  theology. 

In  1825,  owing  in  part  to  the  financial  difficulties 
of  Columbian  College,  and  the  willingness  of  New 
England  Baptists  to  provide  for  its  support,  the 
theological  work  was  transferred  to  Newton  Theo- 
logical Institution  at  Newton  Center,  Mass.,  with 
Irah  Chase  as  president.  In  1819  the  Baptists  of 
New  York  laid  the  foundations  for  Colgate  Uni- 
versity at  Hamilton,  N.  Y.,  with  its  literary  and 
theological  departments.  In  1826,  for  reasons 
above  suggested,  the  Triennial  Con- 
4.  Theo-     vention  left  Columbian  College  to  its 

loffical  own  resources,  retaining  only  the  right 
Seminaries,  to  nominate  fifty  brethren  from  whom 
its  Board  should  be  chosen.  The 
Baptists  in  the  various  States  have  been  too  much 
occupied  in  foimding  and  building  up  local  colleges 
to  give  adequate  support  to  Columbian,  and  recently 
its  Board  have  thought  it  best  to  declare  it  unde- 
nominational and  to  change  its  name  to  George 


Washington  University.  Ample  provision  hu 
been  made  by  the  denomination  for  ministerial 
education  by  the  establishment,  in  addition  to  the 
institutions  already  mentioned,  of  Rochester 
Theological  Seminary  (1850),  at  Rochester,  N.  Y., 
Southern  Baptist  Theological  Seminary  (1859, 
Louisville,  Ky.),  Divinity  School  of  the  Univerrity 
of  Chicago  (Baptist  Union  Theological  Seminaiy, 
Morgan  Park,  III.,  1867),  Crozer  Theological  Semi- 
nary (1868,  Upland,  Penn.),  Pacific  Coast  Baptist 
Theological  Seminary  (1890,  Berkeley,  Cal.), 
Baylor  Theological  Seminary  (1901,  connected  with 
Baylor  University,  Waco,  Tex.),  Kansas  City 
Theological  Seminary  (1901),  and  the  Theological 
Department  of  Union  University  (1867,  Richmond, 
Va.).  These  institutions  have  property  and  en- 
dowments aggregating  about  $7,000,000,  over  100 
instructors,  and  over  1,200  students. 

The  denomination  maintains  about  100  univer- 
sities and  colleges  of  various  grades  with  property 
and   endowments   aggregating  about 
5.  T7niver-  $45,000,000,  nearly  2,000  instructors, 
sities,  Col-  and  30,000  students.     The  most  im- 
lesresyand  portant  of  these  are  the  University 
Sohools.    of    Chicago,    Chicago,    111.     (founded 
1891,    with    assets    of    $20,000,000); 
Brown  University,  Providence,  R.  I.  (1764,  $5,500,- 
000);  Colgate  University,  Hamilton,  N.  Y.  (1819, 
$2,500,000);  Bucknell  University,  Lewisburg,  Penn. 
(1846,     $1,700,000);    Baylor     University,     Waco, 
Tex.  (1845,  $600,000);  Colby  College,  Waterville. 
Me.   (1818,  $700,000);  Denison  University,  Gran- 
ville,  O.    (1831,   $1,050,000);  Stetson   University, 
Deland,  Fla.  (1887,  $600,000);  Mercer  University, 
Macon,  Ga.  (1838,  $550,000);  Richmond  College, 
Richmond,  Va.  (1832,  $1,065,000);  Rochester  Uni- 
versity,   Rochester,    N.    Y.    (1850,    $1,370,000); 
Wake  Forest  College,  Wake  Forest,  N.  C.  (1834, 
$500,000);  William   Jewell   College,    Liberty,  Mo. 
(1849,  $550,000);  Kalamazoo  College,  Kalamaioo, 
Mich.    (1833,    $431,000);  Vassar   CoUege,    Pough- 
keepsie,   N.  Y.   (1861,   $1,660,000).    A    score  of 
other  institutions  with  less  ample  resources  are  doing 
good  work  along  chosen  lines.    There  are  more  than 
100  academic  institutions  under  the  auspices  of 
the  denomination,  with  nearly  20,000  students  and 
nearly  $5,000,000  worth  of  property. 

By  1832  the  domestic  missionary  work  of  the 

Triennial  Convention  had  reached  such  proportions 

that  the  need  of  a  separate  Board  and  a  separate 

appeal  for  funds  was  apparent.    At  this  time  the 

American    Baptist    Home    Mission    Society   was 

organized.    The  Society   has   always  made  New 

York  City  its  headquarters.    Its  mis- 

6.  The      sionary  work  on  the  frontiers,  among 

Home       ^jjg    ^dians,     negroes,    and    foreign 

So^e^     populations,  in  Canada,  Mexico,  Cuba, 

and  Porto  Rico,  employs  at  present 

over  1,500  missionaries  and  teachers.    There  aie 

twenty-five  schools  and  colleges  for  colored  people 

supported  by  it  wholly  or  in  part.     It  has  neariy 

$1,500,000  of  permanent  funds  for  various  piu^ 

posesy  and  mission  and  school  properties  valued  at 

$1,300,000.    Since  its  organization  neai^y  200,000 

persons  have  been  baptized  by  its  missionaneB 

and  nearly  6,000  churches  organised. 


476 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Baptiflto 


The  demand  for  an  agency  for  the  publication 
and  circulation  of  denominational  and  other 
leligiouB  literature  led  to  the  organization  of  the 
Baptist  General  Tract  Society  in  1824.  Its  head- 
quarters were  at  Washington  and  it  was  under  the 
general  direction  of  Luther  Rice.  The  complica- 
tions that  arose  in  connection  with  Coliunbian  Col- 
lege and  the  superior  publishing  and  distributing 
facilities  offered  by  Philadelphia  led  to  a  change 
of  location  in  1826.  In  1840  a  revised  constitution 
with  the  name  American  Baptist  Publication 
Society  was  adopted.    The  society  has 

libu  *     ^oroied   an   important  factor  in  the 

tion  1^  growth  of  the  denomination  and  it  has 
Qi^ty.  ^^^  abreast  of  its  needs.  The  annual 
receipts  of  the  publishing  department 
at  present  amount  to  nearly  $900,000  and  in  its  mis- 
sionaiy  and  Bible  departments  to  about  1200,000. 
Its  net  assets  amount  to  about  11,600,000.  The 
refusal  of  the  American  Bible  Society  to  appro- 
priate funds  for  the  publication  of  a  Burmese 
version  in  which  the  words  for  "  baptize  "  and 
"  baptism  "  were  translated  by  words  equivalent 
to  "  immerse  "  and  "  immersion  "  (see  Bible  Socie- 
TisB,  III,  §  2)  led  to  the  organization  of  the  Ameri- 
can and  Foreign  Bible  Society  (1836).  The  refusal 
of  this  society  to  secure  the  publication  of  an  Eng- 
lish version  in  which  "  immersion  "  should  supplant 
"  baptism  "  led  to  the  formation  of  the  American 
Bible  Union  (1850),  which  employed  Thomas  J. 
Conant,  H.  B.  Hackett,  and  others  to  prepare  a 
new  version  of  the  Bible  with  critical  apparatus 
and  notes.  The  New  Testament  and  portions  of 
the  Old  were  completed.  Hostility  between  the 
American  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  and  the 
American  Bible  Union  was  crippling  to  both  and 
in  1883  both  were  compelled  by  a  great  denomi- 
national gathering  to  relinqmsh  the  field,  the 
Missionary  Union  assuming  responsibility  for  the 
publication  and  circulation  of  the  Scriptures  in 
foreign  languages  in  its  fields  and  the  Publication 
Society  undertaking  to  complete  and  circulate  the 
Bible  Union  and  the  Anglo-American  Revised 
versions,  as  well  as  the  King  James  version. 

Before  1840  the  slavery  question  was  agitated 
in  Baptist  circles.  Many  Southern  Baptists,  in- 
cluding leading  ministers,  were  slaveholders,  and 
nearly  all  were  very  sensitive  to  Northern  abolition- 
ist utterances.  In  1843  the  neutrality  of  the  For- 
eign Mission  Board  was  reaffirmed.  With  a  view 
to  making  continued  cooperation  practicable,  Rich- 
ard Fuller,  an  eminent  Southern  Baptist,  offered 
a  resolution  in  the  Triennial  Convention  for  1844 
for  the  elimination  from  the  consideration  of  the 
body  of  all  matters  foreign  to  the  object  designated 
in  the  constitution  and  declaring  cooperation  in 
the  proper  work  of  the  body  not  to  involve  or 
imply  concert  or  gjnnpathy  as  regards  other  matters. 
This  resolution  was  withdrawn  in  favor  of  one 
whereby  the  body  disclaimed  all  sanction  of 
slavery  or  of  antislaveiy  and  left  each  individual 
free  in  a  Christian  manner  and  spirit  to  express  and 
promote  his  own  views  on  these  subjects.  Not- 
withstanding the  adoption  of  this  resolution  the 
Foreign  Mission  Board  was  thought  to  have  pro- 
cured the  resicDation  of  an  Indian  missionaiy  who 


was  a  slaveholder.  Southern  Baptists  were  con- 
vinced that  thenceforth  slaveholders  would  be  dis- 
criminated  against  and  that  future 
®  •  ^*  sessions  of  the  Convention  would  be  ren- 
Baptists!  d®"^  timiultuous  by  attacks  on  slavery 
and  rejoinders.  A  literary  controversy 
between  Frauds  Wayland,  President  of  Brown  Uni- 
versity, and  Richard  Fuller  awakened  much  inter- 
est and  demonstrated  the  impossibility  of  harmony 
between  Northern  and  Southern  Baptists.  Con- 
ciliatory measures  were  attempted  on  both  sides; 
but  the  conviction  had  become  overmastering 
among  Southern  leaders  that  the  Baptists  of  the 
South  could  work  more  successfully  with  separate 
Convention  and  Boards.  This  policy  was  carried 
into  effect  in  May,  1845,  by  370  messengers  from 
the  various  Southern  States.  Home  and  Foreign 
Mission  Boards  were  at  onoe  constituted,  and  both 
these  departments  of  work  have  been  vigorously 
prosecuted.  The  Foreign  Mission  Board  (Rich- 
mond) has  for  years  conducted  successful  mission- 
ary work  in  Italy,  Brazil,  Argentina,  Mexico,  Africa, 
China,  and  Japan,  and  has  attained  to  an  annual 
income  of  about  $300,000.  The  total  membership 
of  native  churches  under  the  Board  is  reported 
(1905)  as  11,423.  The  Home  Mission  Board  (At- 
lanta) expends  nearly  $200,000  a  year  within  the 
bounds  of  the  Convention,  in  Cuba,  and  in  the  insular 
possessions  of  the  United  States.  The  Sunday- 
school  Board  (Nashville),  besides  furnishing  Sun- 
day-school papers  and  other  requisites,  publishes  a 
nimiber  of  books,  and  fosters  Sunday-school  work 
through  a  professorship  in  the  Southern  Baptist 
Theological  Seminary  and  through  district  secre- 
taries who  labor  throughout  its  constituency.  Its 
annual  receipts  are  about  $125,000.  The  Southern 
Baptist  Theological  Seminary  is  cherished  by  the 
Convention,  which  nominates  brethren  from  whom 
the  members  of  its  Board  are  chosen  and  receives 
its  annual  report. 

After  the  formation  of  the  Southern  Baptist  Con- 
vention, the  Foreign  Mission  Board  of  the  Trien- 
nial Convention    became    the   American    Baptist 
Missionary  Union,  which  has  since  had  annual  meet- 
ings in  connection  with  the  American  Baptist  Pub- 
lication   Society,    the    American    Baptist    Home 
Mission  Society,  etc.  Women's  auxiliary  societies 
cooperate  with  the  Northern  and  Southern  Boards. 
The  Baptist  Congress  is  not  strictly  a  denomina- 
tional organization;  but  is  supported  by  subscribing 
members  and  holds  an  annual  meet- 
9.  The      ing  for  the  free  discussion  of  current 
^ptUt      questions  of  doctrine,  polity,  and  life. 
Ck>nflrreM    j^  annual  reports  furnish  the  public 
Toonff       with  the  most  advanced  thought.  The 
People's     Baptist    Young    People's    Union  of 
TTnlon.      America  (1891  onward)  seeks  to  pro- 
mote Christian  activity,  intelligence, 
and    denominational    spirit    among    the  Baptist 
young  people  of  the  United  States  and  Canada. 

Baptist  owners  of  slaves  were  by  no  means  in- 
different to  their  spiritual  welfare.  It  is  estimated 
that  there  were  400,000  negro  Baptists  in  the  United 
States  at  the  dose  of  the  Civil  War.  Most  of  these 
were  members  of  the  churehes  of  their  masters;  but 
in  the  towns  and  cities  many  negro  churches  had 


Baptists 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


been  constituted.  The  first  of  these  on  record  is 
that  in  Savannah,  Ga.  (1788)  of  which  Andrew 
Bryan  was  for  many  years  pastor.  The  largest 
negro  Baptist  church  before  emanci- 
«d  B  pation  was  that  in  Richmond,  Va.,  of 
^^^jj^  which  for  twenty-five  years  Robert 
Ryland,  president  of  Richmond  Col- 
lege, was  pastor.  In  many  churches  controlled  by 
the  whites  a  majority  were  negroes.  After  eman- 
cipation they  everywhere  effected  separate  church 
organization.  Associations  were  almost  inmiedi- 
atcly  formed,  State  Conventions  soon  followed,  and 
in  1880  a  National  Convention  was  organized  with 
its  Home  Mission,  Foreign  Mission,  Education,  Pub- 
lishing, and  Baptist  Young  People's  Union  Boards. 
Besides  the  University,  Theological  Seminary,  and 
Colleges  founded  and  fostered  by  the  American 
Baptist  Home  Mission  Society,  they  have  estab- 
lished, own,  and  control  scores  of  institutions  of 
higher  and  lower  grades.  Over  15,000  students 
are  in  attendance  at  these  schools.  While  hundreds 
of  their  ministers  have  enjoyed  educational  advan- 
tages and  are  in  a  position  to  elevate  those  under 
their  ministry,  thousands  are  illiterate  and  inca- 
pable of  wise  leadership.  Since  emancipation  they 
have  increased  in  number  fivefold,  the  present  mem- 
bership, according  to  the  statistician  of  the  National 
Baptist  Convention  (1905)  being  2,189,000. 

The  first  to  gather  German  Baptist  churches  in 
America  was  CJonrad  Fleischmann,  a  Swiss,  who  in 
1841   organized   three  churches  in   Pennsylvania. 
By  1851  there  were  eight  small  chiu-ches 
11.  aerman  with  405  members.    The  present  mem- 
Baptist*,    bership  is  about  25,000.     They  have 
seven  annual  Conferences  and  a  trien- 
nial General  CJonfcrence.    Their  publishing  house 
is  located  in  Cleveland  and  their  training-school  for 
ministers  is  organically  connected  with  the  Roches- 
ter Theological  Seminary.     Educational  and  mis- 
sionary work  among  the  Germans  of  the  United 
States  and  Canada  has  been  from  the  first  gener- 
ously assisted  by  American  Baptists. 

The  first  Scandinavian  Baptist  church  in  America 
was  formed  in  Illinois  in  1848.     At  present  there 
are   about   5,000   Dano-Norwegian   Baptists   with 
eighty-six    churches,  whose    representatives    meet 
annually   in   seven   Conferences.    Their   ministers 
are  educated  in  the  Dano-Norwegian 
na^n      I^P^rtment  of  the  Divinity  School  of 
Baptists.   *^®  University  of  Chicago.     Swedish 
Baptists  (first  church  organized  1853) 
are  far  more  numerous,  having  at  present  over  300 
churches  and  nearly  25,000  members.     The  educa- 
tion of  their  ministers  is  provided  for  in  the  Divin- 
ity School  of  the  University  of  Chicago.     Scandi- 
navian Baptists  are  most  numerous  in  Wisconsin, 
Illinois,  Minnesota,  Dakota,  Iowa,  and  Nebraska. 

4.  Minor  Baptist  Parties  in  the  United  States: 
(a)  The  Six-Principles  Baptists  are  a  survival  of  the 
General  Baptists  that  prevailed  in  Rhode  Island 
and  Connecticut  in  the  early  time.  They  still  contend 
for  the  laying-on  of  hands  as  an  indispensable  or- 
dinance. They  have  at  present  less  than  a  score 
of  churches  with  less  than  a  thousand  members. 

(6)  The  first  Seventh-Day  Baptist  church  was 
organized  at  Newport,  R.  I.,  in  1671.    As  the  name 


indicates,  they  make  the  celebration  of  the  Je 
Sabbath  as  the  day  of  rest  and  worship  rather  i 
the  Lord's  Day  an  essential,  and  devote  muc 
their  attention  to  showing  the  error  of  ado; 
another  day  and  the  evil  oonsequenoes  that 
from  this  perversion.  They  have  institution 
learning  at  Milton,  Wis.,  and  Alfred  Center,  N. 
and  circulate  considerable  literature  throu^  i 
publishing  house  at  the  latter  place.  They  1 
ninety-seven  churches  with  a  membership  of 
than  9,000,  scattered  over  twenty-four  States, 
the  so-called  Seventh-Day  Baptists,  German, 
Communism,  II,  5. 

(c)  The  Free-Will  Baptists  originated  in  ] 
Hampshire  in  1780  under  the  leadership  of  1 
jamin  Randall  who  left  the  Congregationalist  b 
to  become  an  anti-Calvinistic  and  open  oommui 
Baptist.  The  Arminian  teaching  was  no  dc 
due  to  Methodist  influence.  Free-Will  Baptists  t 
an  active  part  in  the  antislavery  agitation  (1 
onward)  and  thus  closed  the  South  against  ti 
influence.  They  were  reenforced  in  1841  by  2, 
Free-Conmiunion  Baptists  of  New  York  St 
but  the  Adventist  movement  a  little  later  depri 
them  of  a  large  number.  From  1845  to  1857  t] 
numbers  declined  from  60,000  to  49,000^  but 
1870  they  regained  this  loss.  They  have  lost  ab 
1,500  members  since  1890;  the  present  monbers 
(1905)  is  86,322.  They  have  1,543  churches  • 
tributed  over  thirty-three  States.  They  « 
adopted  quarterly  and  annual  conferences, 
former  made  up  of  delegates  of  churches,  the  lal 
of  delegates  from  the  former.  The  system  is  o\ 
topped  by  the  General  Conference  composed 
delegates  from  the  local  annual  conferences.  1 
quarterly  meeting  may  discipline  churches,  i 
annual  meeting  quarterly  meetings,  and  the  G 
era!  Conference  annual  meetings,  l&usters  ; 
first  licensed  by  the  quarterly  meeting  and  af 
probation  are  ordained  by  the  council  appoint 
by  the  same  body.  Women  are  eligible  for  ordii 
tion  to  the  ministry.  Negotiations  looking  to  t 
union  of  the  Free-Will  Baptists  with  the  Regu 
Baptists  of  the  North  are  pending  with  good  pr 
pects  of  success. 

(d)  It  has  been  noted  that  the  General  Bapti 
from  Virginia  first  introduced  Baptist  teachi 
into  North  Carolina.  Some  of  the  churches  fonn 
under  this  influence  refused  to  amalgamate  w: 
the  Separate  and  Regular  Baptists.  After  a  tii 
they  adopted  the  name  Original  Free-Will  Bapti 
to  distinguish  themselves  from  the  more  numeit 
body  mentioned  above.  They  differ  from  the  Fp 
Will  Baptists  in  practising  foot-washing,  anoiati 
the  sick  with  oil,  restricting  the  ministerial  ofi 
to  men,  and  having  ruling  elders  for  the  settlaxH 
of  controversies.  Annual  conferences  may  silez 
unworthy  preachers,  disown  elders,  and  set 
church  diflSculties.  They  have  three' Confeienc 
167  churches,  and  less  than  12,000  membeis, 
in  North  Carolina  and  South  Carolina. 

(e)  A  number  of  General  Baptist  churches  of  l 
older  English  type  failed  to  amalgamate  with  t 
more  popular  Baptist  parties  of  the  ninet««c 
century.  The  first  association  of  this  party  ' 
formed  in  Kentucky  in   1824.     This  associati 


477 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bi^tUta 


adopted  open  communion  in  1830.  A  General 
Aflsociation  was  formed  in  1870  to  embrace  all 
the  chmt;hes  of  the  connection.  Unlike  most  of 
the  smaller  Baptist  bodies,  this  had  increased 
from  8,000  members  in  1870  to  21,362  in  1890. 
More  recent  statistics  are  not  available.  Their 
confession  of  faith  indicates  closer  agreement 
with  Regular  Baptists  in  doctrine  and  in  practise 
than  does  that  of  the  Free-Will  Baptists.  They  have 
about  400  churches  in  Missouri,  Indiana,  Kentucky, 
niinois,  Arkansas,  Tennessee,  and  Nebraska. 

(/)  A  few  churches  in  Indiana  have  retained  the 
name  Separate  Baptists.  They  are  in  general 
agreement  with  Free-Will  Baptists.  They  seem  to 
be  confined  to  Indiana,  where  they  have  an  asso- 
ciation with  24  churches  and  about  1,600  members. 

(g)  In  the  \mion  of  Regular  and  Separate  Bap- 
tists in  Kentucky  in  1801  a  doctrinal  basis  not 
strictly  Calvinistic  was  adopted.  About  200 
churches  in  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  Missouri,  Ala- 
bama, and  Arkansas,  with  a  membership  of  over 
13,000,  still  call  themselves  United  Baptists  and 
hold  aloof  from  the  great  Baptist  body.  They  are 
moderately  Calvinistic,  practise  restricted  com- 
munion, and  insist  upon  foot-washing  as  an  ordi- 
nance to  be  practised  by  all  baptized  believers. 
They  have  several  associations. 

(k)  Mention  has  already  been  made  of  the  bitter 
opposition  that  arose  in  many  Baptist  commu- 
nities to  the  missionary  and  educational  enter- 
prises that  centered  in  the  Triennial  Convention 
(1814  onward).  The  Chemung  Association  (N.  Y. 
and  Penn.)  seems  to  have  been  the  first  (1835)  to 
disfellowship  other  associations  that  had  departed 
from  the  simplicity  of  the  doctrine  and  practise  of 
the  gospel  by  "  uniting  themselves  with  the  world 
and  what  are  falsely  called  benevolent  societies 
founded  upon  a  monied  basis."  This  example 
was  speedily  followed  by  many  other  associations, 
especially  in  the  South  and  Southwest.  Besides 
holding  to  extreme  necessitarian  (supralapsarian) 
doctrine  in  accordance  with  which  human  agency 
in  the  conversion  of  men  is  absolutely  ineffective 
and  the  attempt  to  employ  it  impertinent,  they 
practise  foot-washing  as  an  ordinance  and  utterly 
repudiate  missionary,  Bible,  tract,  Sunday-school, 
and  temperance  societies,  State  conventions,  theo- 
logical schools,  and  similar  organizations.  The 
United  States  census  of  1890  brought  to  light  121,- 
347  Baptist  communicants  of  this  type,  with 
churches  in  twenty-eight  States  and  the  District  of 
Columbia.  They  are  most  numerous  in  Georgia, 
Alabama,  Tennessee,  North  Carolina,  Kentucky,  and 
Virginia,  but  are  found  all  the  way  from  Maine  to 
Texas  and  from  Nebraska  to  Florida.  They  call 
themselves  Primitive  Baptists;  they  are  conmionly 
called  "  Hardshells "  and  Anti-Mission  Baptists 
by  their  opponents. 

(i)  The  followers  of  Daniel  Parker,  the  most 
virulent  opponent  of  the  organized  work  of  the 
denomination  (b.  in  Georgia,  ordained  in  Tennessee 
in  1806,  active  in  niinois  1817-36,  and  in  Texas 
after  1836),  are  known  as  the  Old  Two-Seed-in-the- 
Spirit  Predestinarian  Baptists.  They  still  persist 
in  twenty-four  States  and  had  in  1890  nearly  500 
churches    with    nearly    13,000    members.    They 


derive  their  name  from  the  peculiar  doctrine  of 
Parker  set  forth  in  certain  pamphlets  (1826-29) 
on  the  doctrine  of  Two  Seeds.  This  was  a  fantastic 
dualistic  account  of  the  introduction  and  perpet- 
uation of  evil  in  mankind,  reminding  of  Gnostic 
speculations.  God  created  Adam  and  Eve  and 
infused  into  them  particles  of  himself  so  that  they 
were  wholly  good.  The  devil  corrupted  them  by 
infusing  particles  of  himself.  It  was  predetermined 
by  God  that  Eve  should  bring  forth  a  certain  nmn- 
ber  of  good  offspring,  the  seed  of  God,  and  that  her 
daughters  shoidd  do  likewise.  The  evil  essence 
infused  by  the  serpent  led  to  an  additional  brood 
of  offspring,  the  seed  of  Satan  or  the  serpent. 
For  the  former  the  Atonement  was  absolute,  they 
will  all  be  saved.  The  Atonement  did  not  apply 
to  the  seed  of  the  serpent,  who  are  hopelessly  lost. 
The  doctrine  of  Parker  was  absolutely  fatalistic  and 
was  in  the  worst  sense  antinomian.  His  followers 
go  beyond  the  other  Primitive  Baptists  in  their  un- 
compromising hostility  to  "  human  institutions." 

(k)  The  Baptist  Church  of  Christ  came  into 
separate  existence  by  way  of  reaction  against  the 
antinomian  hyper-Calvinism  of  the  churches  led 
by  Daniel  Parker.  They  teach  general  redemption 
along  with  perseverance  of  the  saints.  Like  most 
of  the  minor  Baptist  parties  they  practise  foot- 
washing  as  an  ordinance.  This,  more  than  any- 
thing else,  prevents  their  union  with  the  great 
Baptist  body;  but,  like  the  Primitive  Baptists, 
they  seem  to  object  to  organized  denominational 
missionary  and  educational  work.  The  chief 
strength  of  the  body  is  in  Tennessee,  but  congre- 
gations are  found  in  Arkansas,  Alabama,  Mississippi, 
Missouri,  North  Carolina,  and  Texas.  In  1890 
the  party  had  152  churches  w^th  a  total  member- 
ship of  8,254. 

The  Dunkers  (q.v.)  have  much  in  common  with 
Primitive  Baptists,  and,  with  the  Church  of  God 
founded  in  Pennsylvania  in  1830  by  John  Winebren- 
ner  (see  CJhurch  of  God,  1),  are  more  worthy  to  be 
classed  with  Baptists  than  some  of  the  above  parties. 
The  River  Brethren  (q.v.)  and  the  Mennonite  body 
known  as  the  Briider-Gemeinde  (see  Mennonites) 
have  much  in  common  with  Baptists.  The  Dis- 
ciples of  Christ  (q.v.),  originally  an  offshoot  from 
the  Baptists,  agree  with  the  latter  in  insisting 
upon  immersion  as  the  only  valid  baptism  and  in 
their  recognition  of  the  sole  authority  of  the  Scrip- 
tures in  matters  of  faith  and  practise.  They  differ 
from  Baptists  in  a  number  of  important  matters, 
but  there  is  more  in  common  between  progressive 
Disciples  and  the  great  Baptist  body  than  there 
is  between  the  latter  and  several  of  the  minor 
parties  that  bear  the  Baptist  name.  The  body 
who  call  themselves  "  Christians,"  frequently  known 
as  the  Christian  (Connection  (see  Christians)  also 
regard  inmiersion  of  believers  as  the  only  true 
baptism.  They  practise  open  communion  and 
admit  to  membership  those  who  do  not  agree  with 
them  respecting  immersion.  In  England  they 
would  pass  for  satisfactory  Baptists. 

nL  Baptists  in  the  British  Possessions. — 1.  The 
Dominion  of  Canada:  The  Maritime  Provinces 
were  the  first  to  receive  Baptist  influence.  In 
1752  a  Dutch  Baptist  named  Andres  is  said  to  have 


Baptists 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


settled  in  Lunenburg  and  to  have  disseminated 
his  principles  there.  In  1763  Ebenezer  Moulton 
of  Massachusetts  organized  a  church  at  Horton, 
N.  S.,  of  Baptists  and  Congregationalists,  which 
soon  became  wholly  Baptist.  Just  before,  during, 
and  after  the  Revolutionary  War,  a  considerable 
niunber  of  New  England  Baptist  loyalists  found 
their  way  to  Nova  Scotia,  New  Brunswick,  and 
Prince  Edward   Island.     In   1880  an  association 

was  formed  which  adopted  the  English 

1.  The      Particular  Baptist  Confession  of  1689. 

Karltime    In   1846  the  Baptist  Convention  of 

Provinces.  Nova    Scotia,    New   Brunswick,  and 

Prince  Edward  Island  was  fonned 
with  a  constituency  of  14,177.  Acadia  Univer- 
sity (chartered  1840,  successor  to  Horton  Academy, 
1828)  at  Wolfville,  N.  S.,  was  adopted  by  the 
Convention  and  has  educated  a  large  nimiber  of 
leaders  not  only  for  the  Maritime  Provinces,  but 
for  Western  Canada  and  the  United  States.  It  now 
has  endowment  and  equipment  worth  about  $500,- 
000.  The  Convention  has  its  domestic  and  foreign 
mission  boards  and  has  engaged  zealously  and 
successfully  in  every  line  of  denominational  work. 
About  17,000  Free-Will  Baptists  have  united  with 
the  Regulars  on  the  basis  of  a  brief  doctrinal  state- 
ment that  avoids  strict  Calvimstic  phraseology 
and  insistence  on  restricted  communion.  The 
Maritime  Baptists  number  at  present  about  67,000. 
Baptist  loyalists  in  small  numbers  during  the 
later  years  of  the  eighteenth  century  found  their 
way  into  what  is  now  Ontario  and  Quebec,  and  by 
the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  about 
six  small  churches  had  been  organized  in  three 
widely  separated  localities.  These  were  fostered 
by  missionary  effort  from  the  United  States  and 
reenforced  by  further  immigration  of  their  fellow 
countrymen.  Later  a  considerable  number  of 
English  Baptists  of  open  communion  antecedents 
came  in  and  were  the  occasion  of  discord.  In  1816 
a  company  of  Scotch  Highlanders,  who  had  become 
Baptists  in  connection  with  the  Haldane  movement, 
settled  in  the  Ottawa  region.  Most  of  these  became 
advocates  of  restricted  communion;  but  several  of 
the  most  eminent  (notably  John  Gilmoiu*)  favored 
open  communion.  A  society  was  formed  in  Eng- 
land (1836)  for  fostering  Baptist  work  in  Canada. 
The  Upper  Canada  Missionary  Society  refused  to 
cooperate  fully  with  the  educational  and  mission- 
ary work  that  centered  in  Montreal  and  was  con- 
ducted under  English  open  commimion  auspices. 

The   Canada   Baptist   College   estab- 

ilnd  Q^  lished  in  Montreal  in  1838  died  of  in- 

yy^Q^        anition  in  1849,  although  it  had  at  its 

head  such  scholars  as  Benjamin  Davis 
and  J.  M.  Cramp.  Dissension  prevented  the  suc- 
cess of  further  efforts  to  provide  the  denomination 
with  educational  facilities  \mtil  1860,  when  the 
Canadian  Literary  and  Theological  Institute  was 
opened  at  Woodstock  with  R.  A.  Fyfe  as  Principal. 
Fyie  proved  a  leader  of  the  first  rank  and  exerted 
a  strong  unifying  influence  upon  the  denomination. 
By  this  time  the  denomination  in  Ontario  and 
Quebec  had  a  membership  of  about  13,000. 
After  cooperating  with  the  American  Baptist 
Missionary  Union   in  foreign  mission  woric  for  a 


nimiber  of  years,  the  Baptists  of  Ontario  and  Qu 
organized  an  independent  Foreign  Mission  Soc 
whose  work  has  steadily  grown  until  at  pn 
$40,000  are  expended  annually  on  its  missioi 
India  and  Bolivia.  In  1881  Toronto  Ba 
College  was  founded  as  a  theological  semi 
by  Senator  William  McMaster.  This  insdu 
developed  into  McMaster  University  as  a  resu 
the  bequest  of  nearly  $1,000,000  by  the  foui 
In  1888  the  organization  of  the  denomination 
completed  in  a  new  constitution  and  cha 
which  commits  to  the  Convention  made  up  e: 
sively  of  delegates  of  churches  the  electio 
Home  Bfission,  Foreign  Mission,  Publication, 
Education  Boards.  Baptists  in  Ontario  and  Qu 
now  nimiber  about  47,000.* 

Baptist  woric  in  the  Canadian  Northwest  b 
about  1873.  It  has  grown  to  large  proporl 
and  has  enjoyed  the  support  of  Baptists  in  the  < 
Provinces,  in  Great  Britain,  and  in  the  Ui 
States.  A  Ck>nvention  was  orgao 
« ^2**  ♦  ^  ^^^'  *^^  Brandon  College, 
^d  BriSTh  ^^^^^'^^  Man.,  was  established 
Oolumbil  1^-  '^^^  "^^^e^  akeady  has  eq 
ment  and  endowment  worth  al 
$150,000.  The  Baptist  cause  in  British  Colui 
has  not  yet  attained  to  very  large  dimensi 
During  the  earlier  years  Baptist  churches  in 
region  worked  in  connection  with  the  Amer 
Baptist  Home  Mission  Society.  In  1897  i 
formed  a  Convention  of  their  own  and  since 
time  they  have  depended  for  help  chiefly  upon 
Baptists  of  the  older  Provinces.  Baptists  in  M 
toba  and  the  Northwest  Territories  now  nun 
about  7,000;  in  British  Columbia,  2,000. 

2.  Australia,  Tasmania,  and  Kew  Zealand: 
these  colonies  Baptists  were  among  the  ear 
British  settlers,  and  Baptist  churches  were  or] 
ized  from  1834  onward.  The  several  British  t; 
of  Baptist  life  have  been  represented  and  s 
controversy  has  had  place  regarding  commui 
Calvinism  and  Arminianism,  etc.;  but  the  ordii 
English  open  commimion  type  has  pre\a 
There  are  still  about  a  dozen  churches  of  the 
Particular  Baptist  antimissionary  type.  3 
of  the  churches  of  the  various  provinces  are  groi 
in  seven  Unions,  which  correspond  with  each  o 
and  support  in  common  a  religious  journal. 
Baptist  College  of  Victoria  in  afliliation  Wth 
University  of  Melbourne  was  conducted  from  ] 
to  1900  and  then  abandoned.  Some  For 
Mission  work  is  being  accomplished  in  Indi 
connection  with  the  English  Baptist  Soci 
There  are  at  present  in  Australasia  sixty-e 
churches  and  about  21,000  members.  Prof 
for  the  past  few  years  has  been  very  slow. 

8.  TheBrittshWestlndiea,  Central  America, 
Africa:  English  Baptists  commenced  missioi 
work  among  the  negroes  of  Jamaica  in  the 
1814.  The  way  had  been  prepared  somewhai 
Moses  Baker,  an  American  negro  Baptist  Ii 
teen  years  there  were  10,000  Baptists  on  the  id 
A  negro  insurrection  in  1831  led  to  the  des\ 
tion  of  much  of  their  church  property  and  to 
persecution  of  the  leaders;  but  sympathy 
awakened  m  Britain  and    the   losses  were  n 


479 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Baptists 


good.  The  work  was  extended  to  the  Bahamas, 
Trinidad,  Honduras,  San  Domingo,  etc.  The  Ja- 
maica Baptists  have  at  present  nearly  200  churches 
and  nearly  34,000  members;  in  Haiti  there  are 
12  churches  with  nearly  2,000  members;  in  Cuba 
(through  American  Baptist  effort)  there  are  31 
churches  with  nearly  4,000  members;  in  the  Ba- 
hamas nearly  4,000  members;  and  in  Central 
America  10  churches  with  nearly  700  members.  In 
Africa,  through  American,  English,  and  German 
missionary  effort  there  are  81  Baptist  churches  with 
11,388  members,  mostly  in  British  territory,  the 
Kongo,  and  the  Kamerun. 

4.  India,  Ceylon,  Burma,  and  Assam:  In  these 
British  possessions,  through  English,  American,  and 
Canadian  missionary  effort  1,244  churches  have 
been  organized  with  a  membership  of  over  126,000. 
A  very  large  proportion  of  the  converts  have  been 
won  by  missionaries  from  the  United  States  and 
Canada. 

IV.  Baptists  in  Mission  Lands:  In  China  there 
are  about  13,000  Baptist  church  members  almost 
equally  divided  among  the  English,  Northern,  and 
Southern  Baptist  missions.  In  Japan  there  are 
about  2,500  Baptist  church  members  of  whom  over 
2,000  belong  to  the  American  Baptist  Missionary 
Union  and  the  rest  to  the  missions  of  the  Southern 
Baptist  Convention.  In  Mexico  missions  of  the 
Southern  Baptist  Convention  have  nearly  1,400 
church  members  to  their  credit,  while  those  of  the 
American  Baptist  Home  Mission  Society,  with 
twenty-six  laborers,  have  a  far  smaller  niunber. 
In  Brazil  the  missions  of  the  Southern  Baptist  Con- 
vention have  established  sixty-nine  churches  with 
a  membership  of  over  4,000,  and  in  Bolivia  Cana- 
dian Baptist  missionaries  have  organized  three 
churches  with  115  members. 

y.  Baptists  on  the  Continent  of  Europe. — 1.  Ger- 
many and  Qerman  Missions:  The  first  Baptist 
church  of  the  modem  type  organized  in  Germany 
was  formed  in  Hamburg  in  1834  under  the  leader- 
ship of  J.  G.  Oncken  (q.v.),  who  several  years  be- 
fore had  reached  Baptist  views  from  independent 
study  of  the  New  Testament.  In  his  youth  Oncken 
had  spent  some  years  in  England  and  had  been  sent 
(1823)  by  an  English  evangelical  society  as  a  mis- 
sionary to  Germany.  Oncken  and  six  others 
availed  themselves  of  the  presence  of  Bamas  Sears, 
of  the  United  States,  afterward  famous  as  an  edu- 
cational leader,  to  receive  baptism  at  his  hands. 
Oncken  proved  a  leader  of  heroic  type  and  with 
the  aid  of  American  Baptists  carried  on  for  many 
years  wide-spread  and  fruitful  missionary  labors 
and  raised  up  like-minded  ministers  who  are  still 
carrying  forward  the  work  throughout  German- 
speaking  Europe  and  beyond.  In  1880  a  theo- 
logical seminary  was  established  near  Hamburg 
that  has  given  educational  equipment  to  hundreds 
of  earnest  and  self-sacrificing  young  men.  The 
present  membership  in  Germany  is  about  34,000. 
They  sustain  a  mission  in  the  Kamenm  with  over 
2,000  converts.  The  German  Baptist  Union  for 
the  spread  of  the  gospel  in  foreign  parts  includes 
churches  in  Austria  (648  members),  Hungary 
(10,500  members),  Switzerland  (796  members),  the 
Netherlands  (1,396  members),  Rumania  (277  mem- 


bers), and  Bulgaria  (74  members).  The  Russian 
Baptist  churches,  which  have  resulted  chiefly  from 
the  activity  of  German  Baptists  of  the  Oncken 
type,  have  now  a  membership  of  about  25,000  and 
a  Union  of  their  own;  but  they  still  cooperate  with 
the  German  Union  in  the  raising  and  use  of  mis- 
sionary funds.  Through  the  missionary  labors  of 
German  Baptists  a  few  Lithuanians  were  brought 
into  the  Baptist  fold  (1857  onward).  A  more  suc- 
cessful work  was  done  among  the  Letts,  and  about 
7,000  of  the  Russian  Baptists  are  Lettish.  From 
the  same  source  Baptist  influence  was  brought  to 
bear  upon  the  Esthonians,  of  whom  over  1,000  are 
now  Baptist  church  members.  The  Finns  received 
Baptist  teaching  from  the  Swedish  Baptists  (1868 
onward)  and  now  have  over  2,000  Baptist  church 
members. 

2.  Scandinavia:  From  Germany  Baptist  influ- 
ence also  extended  into  Scandinavian  lands.  Julius 
Koebner,  one  of  Oncken's  early  converts  and  co- 
laborers,  was  a  Dane  and  on  a  visit  to  his  native 
land  won  to  his  faith  a  company  of  Christians  that 
had  become  dissatisfied  with  Lutheranism.  The 
first  church  was  organized  in  Copenhagen  in  1839. 
Persecution  impeded  the  progress  of  the  Baptist 
cause  and  reUgious  freedom  was  not  gained  until 
1850.  A  considerable  number  of  ministers  trained 
in  the  Scandinavian  Department  of  the  Divinity 
School  of  the  University  of  Chicago  have  assisted 
in  carrying  forward  the  work  in  Denmark  as  well 
as  in  Sweden  and  Norway.  In  1895  the  Danish 
Baptists  established  a  small  theological  school  of 
their  own.  They  have  not  made  rapid  progress 
and  their  present  membership  is  only  about  4,000. 
German  Baptist  influence  entered  Norway  not 
later  than  1840.  The  first  church  was  organized 
two  years  later.  At  present  Norwegian  Baptists 
have  over  30  churches  with  a  membership  of  about 
3,000.  A  Danish  Baptist  named  Foerster  labored 
in  Sweden  in  1848  and  baptized  five  persons  near 
Gothenburg.  The  Baptist  cause  has  greatly  pros- 
pered here,  so  that  at  present  there  are  40,000  mem- 
bers and  nearly  600  churches.  Since  1866  they 
have  had  a  theological  seminary  at  Stockholm. 
They  are  thoroughly  organized  for  missionary  and 
educational  work  and  have  reached  a  degree  of 
influence  and  recognition  enjoyed  by  Baptists 
nowhere  else  on  the  Continent  of  Europe. 

8.  France  and  Italy:  In  France,  Belgium,  and 
French  Switzerland  there  are  about  40  churches 
with  a  membership  of  2,272,  due  in  large  measure 
to  English  Baptist  missionary  enterprise.  In  Italy 
there  are  55  churches  and  about  1,500  members, 
the  result,  in  almost  equal  measure,  of  the  mission- 
ary endeavors  of  the  English  Baptist  Missionary 
Society  and  of  the  Southern  Baptist  Convention. 
The  latter  body  sustains  a  theological  college. 

Two  highly  significant  events,  indicating  the  de- 
sire of  Baptists  everywhere  to  draw  closer  together 
and  to  cooperate  in  the  world-wide  dissemination 
of  their  principles,  were  the  formation  of  the  Gen- 
eral Baptist  Convention  (St.  Louis,  May,  1905)  to 
embrace  the  entire  continent  of  North  America  and 
its  islands  and  to  hold  triennial  meetings,  and  the 
Baptist  World  Congress  (London,  July,  1905),  in 


Bapti»t(i 
Barclay 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


which  Baptists  from  all  parts  of  the  world  gathered 
and  organized  a  Baptist  World  Alliance,  to  meet 
every  five  years  in  different  parts  of  the  world. 
The  union  of  the  Free  Baptists  in  the  Maritime 
Provinces  of  Canada  and  the  Regulars  (1905)  and 
the  steps  taken  toward  union  between  the  Free 
Baptists  of  New  England  and  the  Regulars  in  the 
same  year  show  that  the  tendency  is  in  the  direc- 
tion of  union  rather  than  of  further  division. 

Counting  all  nominally  Baptist  bodies  through- 
out the  world,  the  present  number  of  Baptists  is 
about  6,000,000.  If  to  these  other  bodies  of  anti- 
pedobaptist  inmiersionists  be  added,  the  number 
is  incr^tsed  to  about  7,500,000. 

A.  H.  Newman. 

BiBLiooRAPHT  (Only  volumes  derived  from  independent 
sotiroee  are  here  mentioned):  I.  English  Baptist  History: 
T.  Crosby,  Hist,  of  the  Englith  Baptiats,  4  vols.,  London. 
1738-40;  J.  Ivimey,  A  Hiat.  of  the  Englieh  BaptUte,  ib.  1811- 
30;  A.  Taylor.  Hiatory  of  the  Engliah  General  BapUete,  2 
vols.,  ib.  1818;  B.  Evans,  The  Early  Englieh  BaptieU,  2 
vols.,  ib.  1862;  R.  Barclay.  The  Inner  Life  of  the  Reliff- 
iouM  Societiee  of  the  CommontDealth,  ib.  1879  (not  on  Bap- 
tists exclusively,  but  gives  their  genesis  in  England  in  an 
authoritative  way;  an  excellent  volume);  D.  Masson,  Life 
of  John  Milton,  and  Hietory  of  hie  Timee,  6  vols.,  ib. 
1850-80  (a  work  of  great  learning  and  authority.  Milton 
was  an  antipedobaptist.  but.  so  far  as  is  known,  not  a 
member  of  a  Baptist  Chtu>ch);  J.  Clifford,  The  Englieh 
Baptiata,  ib.  1881  (the  work  of  different  contributors,  but 
edited  by  the  chief  English  Baptist  leader);  J.  C.  Carlile. 
The  Story  of  the  Engliah  BaptiaU,  ib.  1905. 

II.  English  and  American  Baptist  History:  T.  Armi- 
tage:  A  Hiatory  of  the  BaptiaU,  New  York.  1887  (con- 
tains a  full  history);  H.  C.  Vedder,  A  Short  Hiatory  of  the 
Baptiata,  Philadelphia.  1892  (authoritative);  idem.  The 
Baptiata,  New  York.  1902. 

III.  American  Baptist  History:  I.  Backus.  A  Hiatory 
of  New  England.  With  Particular  Reference  to  the  Denomi- 
nation of  Chriatiana  called  Baptiata,  3  vols..  Boston.  1777- 
96,  new  ed..  with  notes  by  David  Weston.  2  vols.,  New- 
ton. Mass..  1871;  H.  S.  Burrage,  A  Hiatory  of  the  Bap- 
tiata in  New  England,  Philadelphia.  1894;  H.  C.  Vedder, 
A  Hiatory  of  the  BaptiaU  in  the  Middle  Statea,  ib.  1898; 
B.  F.  Riley,  A  Hiatory  of  the  BaptiaU  in  the  Southern 
Statea  Eaat  of  the  Miaaiaaippi,  ib.  1898;  J.  A.  Smith,  A 
Hiatory  of  the  BaptiaU  in  the  Weatem  Statea  Eaat  of  the 
Miaaiaaippi,  ib.  18 — ;  L.  Moss,  A  Hiatory  of  tfte  BaptiaU 
in  the  Trana-Miaaiaaippi  Statea,  ib.  19 — ;  A.  H.  Newman, 
A  Hiatory  of  the  Baptiat  Churchea  in  the  United  Statea, 
New  York,  1898;  idem,  A  Century  of  Baptiat  Achievement, 
ib.  1901  (the  work  of  different  persons);  C.  H.  Mat  toon. 
Baptiat  AnnaU  of  Oregon,  1844-1900,  McBlinnville,  Oregon, 
1905. 

IV.  Biographies  of  Baptists  (all  clergymen  except 
two):  M.  B.  Anderaon,  by  A.  C.  Kendrick,  Philadelphia, 
1895;  laaac  Backua,  by  A.  Hovey.  Boston,  1859;  Oeorge 
Dana  Boardman,  by  A.  King.  ib.  1834;  Edmund  Botaford, 
by  C.  D.  Mallary.  Charleston.  1832;  Jamea  PeUigru  Boyce, 
by  J.  A.  Broadus.  New  York.  1893;  J.  A.  Broadua,  by 
A.  T.  Robertson,  Philadelphia.  1901;  R.  C.  Burleaon,  by 
H.  Haynes,  Waco,  1891;  Alexander  Campbell,  by  R.  Rich- 
ardson. 2  vols.,  Philadelphia,  1868-70;  William  Colgate 
(layman),  by  W.  W.  Everts,  ib.  1881;  Nathaniel  Colter, 
by  J.  A.  Smith,  Boston,  1875;  Spencer  Houghton  Cone, 
by  Livermore,  New  York,  1856;  John  Price  Crozer  (lay- 
man), by  J.  W.  Smith,  Philadelphia,  1868;  E.  W,  Dadaon, 
by  J.  H.  Farmer,  Toronto,  1903;  J.  Denovan,  by  O.  C. 
S.  Wallace,  ib.  1901;  Henry  Dunater,  by  J.  Chaplin,  Bos- 
ton, 1872;  The  Dunater  Family,  by  S.  Dunster,  ib.  1876; 
Richard  Fuller,  by  J.  H.  Cuthbert,  New  York,  1879; 
R.  A.  Fyfe,  by  J.  E.  Wells,  Toronto,  1882;  H.  B.  Hackett, 
by  G.  H.  Whittemore,  Rochester,  1876,  Adoniram  Judaon, 
by  F.  Wayland,  2  vols.,  Boston,  1853,  and  by  E.  Judaon, 
New  York,  1883;  Jacob  Knapp  (autobiography),  ib.  1868; 
D.  A.  McGregor,  by  A.  H.  Newman.  Toronto.  1891;  P.  H. 
Mell,  by  P.  H.  Mell,  Jr..  Louisville,  1895;  Jeaae  Mercer, 
by  C.  D.  Mallary,  New  York,  1844;  John  Maaon  Peck, 
by  R.  Babcook.  Philadelphia,  1864;  Luther  Rice,  by  J.  B. 


Taylor.  Baltimore.  1840;  Adia  Sherwood,  by  8.  Boy 
Philadelphia,  1884;  WiUiam  Stauohion,  by  8.  W.  L] 
Boston.  1834;  Baron  Stow,  by  J.  C.  Stockbridge.  ib.  II 
Jamea  BameU  Taylor,  by  G.  B.  Taylor.  Philadelp 
1872;  Francia  Wayland,  by  F.  and  H.  I^  WaylaiK 
vols..  New  York.  1868;  Room-  WiUiamM,  by  J.  D.  KO01 
Boston.  1834;  also  by  W.  GammeU.  ib.  1844;  and  H. 
Dexter,  ib.  1879;  and  O.  8.  StrauM.  New  York.  II 
Elhanan  Wincheater,  by  E.  M.  Stone,  Boston,  1836;  Da 
Witt,  by  I.  B.  Jeter.  New  Orieano.  1875;  Car^,  Ma 
man  and  Ward,  by  J.  C.  Marahman.  London.  1859;  1 
ginia  Baptiat  Miniatera,  by  J.  B.  Taylor.  New  York.  II 

BARADAI,  JACOB    QACOBUS     BARADJEC 

See  Jacobites. 

BARATTA.    See  Talmud. 

BARBARA^  SASVT:  A  saint  whose  car 
belongs  to  the  domain  of  legend;  her  name  is  1 
found  in  the  Martyrologium  Hieronymianum 
in  Bede.  According  to  the  traditional  stoiy,  i 
was  a  maiden  of  great  beauty,  who,  having  be 
early  converted  to  Christianity,  was  given  up 
her  own  father  to  the  authorities,  and  beh^ 
by  the  prasaes  of  the  province,  Martinianus,  stes 
fastly  refusing  to  deny  Christ.  Her  father  is  ss 
to  have  been  killed  by  lightning  at  the  scene  of  t 
execution,  which  is  stated  to  have  been  Nicomec 
(in  Bithynia),  Tusda  (i.e.,  Etruria),  and  Heliopo 
in  Egypt;  the  time  was  either  under  Majdmin 
(235-23i8)  or  sixty  or  seventy  years  later  und 
Maximianus  or  Galerius.  In  Roman  Catho 
countries  she  is  popularly  considered  to  give  pi 
tection  against  fire  and  tempest,  and  she  is  also  t 
patron  saint  of  the  artillery.  She  is  invoked  1 
the  dying  in  consequence  of  the  story  of  Hen 
Kock  at  Gorkum,  in  Holland,  in  1448,  who,  beii 
nearly  burnt  to  death,  called  on  her  and  was  pi 
serv^  alive  long  enough  to  receive  the  last  saa 
ments.    Her  feast  falls  on  Dec.  4. 

Bibuoorapht:  C^estin.  Hiatoire  de  Ste.  Barbe,  Paris,  IS! 
Villemot.  Hiatoire  de  SU.  Barbe,  vierge  et  martyre,  patron 
de  VartiUerie  de  terra  et  de  mer  et  dea  nvineura,  BeeaDCc 
1865. 

BARBAULD,  ANITA  LETITIA:  Poetess;  b. : 
Kibworth  (10  m.  s.e.  of  Leicester),  Leicestcarshir 
June  20,  1743;  d.  at  Stoke  Newington  (a  subui 
of  London)  Mar.  9, 1825.  She  was  the  daughter  < 
the  Rev.  John  Aikin,  a  Presbyterian  minister  ai 
school-teacher,  and  was  carefully  educated  by  b 
father;  married  the  Rev.  Rochemont  Barbaui 
(d.  1808),  a  Unitarian  minister,  in  May,  1774;  wil 
her  husband  she  conducted  a  very  successful  scho 
at  Palgrave,  Suffolk,  till  1785;  thereafter  li\-ed  i 
Hampstead  and  Stoke  Newington.  At  the  solicit 
tion  of  her  brother  (Dr.  John  Aikin)  she  publislw 
her  first  volume  of  Poems  in  1773  and  four  editioi 
were  sold  within  a  year.  In  the  same  year  appeare 
MiscellaneoiLS  Pieces  in  Prose  by  J  [ohn]  and  A.  J 
Aikin;  in  1775  Hymns  in  Prose  far  Children  an 
Early  Lessons  for  Children  (written  for  her  pup05 
and  Devotional  Pieces  Compiled  from  the  Psaln 
of  David.  Her  later  writings  are  of  a  general  an 
critical  character  and  include  political  pamphlet 
an  edition  of  Collins  (1797),  of  Akenside  (ISOS 
the  British  Novelists  (50  vols.,  1810),  with  essay  an 
biographical  and  critical  notices,  etc.  Perhaf 
her  best-known  hymns  are  "  Ck>me,   says  Jesus 


481 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Baptists 
Barclay 


sacred  voice/'  "  How  blest  the  righteous  when  he 
dies/'  and  "  Awake,  my  soul,  lift  up  thine  eyes/' 
Bibuoorapbt:  The  Workt  of  A.  L.  Barbauld,  with  a  Mem- 
oir, by  her  nieoe,  Lucy  Aiken,  2  vols.,  London,  1825; 
Mrs.  A.  L.  Le  Breton,  Memoir  of  A.L.  Barbauld,  triih  Lettera 
and  Notieea,  ib.  1874;  Mrs.  Q.  A.  Ellis,  Memofir  of  A.  L. 
BarbauU,  Lettera  and  Seleeliona  from  Poema  and  Proae 
Writinga,  Boston.  1874;  8.  W.  Duffield.  Enoliah  Hymna, 
pp.  76,  225.  459.  New  York.  1886;  Julian,  Hymnotogy, 
pp.  113-114. 

BARBER,  HENRY  HERVEY:  Unitarian;  b. 
at  Warwick,  Mass.,  Dec.  30,  1835.  He  was  educa- 
ted at  Deer  field  (Mass.)  Academy  and  Meadville 
Theological  School  (1861).  He  held  successive 
pastorates  at  Harvard,  Mass.  (1861-66),  Somerville, 
Mass.  (1866-84),  and  MeadviUe,  Pa.  (1884-90). 
while  from  1884  to  1904  he  was  professor  of  philos- 
ophy and  theology  at  Meadville  Theological  School. 
Since  1904  he  has  been  professor  emeritus.  He 
is  a  member  of  the  American  Historical  Association 
and  of  the  American  Economic  Association,  and  from 
1875  to  1884  was  editor  of  the  Unitarian  Review, 

BARBER,    WILLIAM    THEODORE    AQUILA: 

Wesleyan;  b.  at  Jaffna  (190  m.  n.  of  Colombo), 
Ceylon,  Jan.  4,  1858.  He  was  educated  at  London 
University  (B.A.,  1882)  and  Caius  College,  Cam- 
bridge (MA.,  1883).  He  was  assistant  professor 
in  the  Wesleyan  Theological  Missionary  College, 
Richmond,  from  1882  to  1884,  when  he  became  head- 
master of  Wuchang  Missionary  High  School,  Central 
China.  Eight  years  later  he  returned  to  England, 
and  until  1896  was  a  preacher  in  the  Leeds  (Bruns- 
wick) Circuit.  In  1896  he  was  appointed  general 
secretary  of  the  Wesleyan  Missionary  Society,  but 
two  years  later  was  chosen  headmaster  of  the  Leys 
School,  Cambridge,  where  he  had  already  been 
assistant  master  in  1877-80.  He  was  secretary 
of  the  General  Missionary  Conference,  Shanghai, 
1890,  and  since  1902  has  been  a  member  of  the 
Legal  Hundred  of  the  Wesleyan  Conference.  In 
theology  he  is  a  broad  Evangelical.  He  has  written 
The  Land  of  the  Rising  Sun  (London,  1894);  David 
HiUf  Miasianary  and  Saint  (1898);  Raymond  Lidl, 
the  Illuminated  Doctor  (1903);  and  David  Hill, 
an  Apostle  to  the  Chinese  (1906). 

BARBEYRAC,  bflr^bd^rdc',  JEAN:  French  wri- 
ter on  law;  b.  at  BiSziers  (44  m.  s.w.  of  Mont- 
pellier),  Languedoc,  Mar.  15,  1674;  d.  at  Groningen 
Mar.  3, 1744.  He  fled  with  his  parents  into  Switzer- 
land after  the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes, 
1685;  studied  at  Lausanne,  Geneva,  and  Frank- 
fort-on-the-Oder;  became  teacher  in  the  College 
of  the  Reformed  Congregation  at  Berlin,  1697; 
and,  in  1710,  was  appointed  professor  of  law  and 
history  in  the  Academy  of  Lausanne,  and  in  1716 
in  the  University  of  Groningen.  He  translated 
Pufifendorf's  De  jure  naturae  et  gentium  into  French 
(2  vols.,  Amsterdam,  1706),  and  added  a  valuable 
preface  and  notes;  he  also  translated  other  works 
of  PufiFendorf  and  Grotius,  wrote  a  Traitd  du  jcu 
(2  vols.,  1709),  maintaining  that  games  of  chance 
are  not  inmioral,  and  a  TraU6  de  la  morale  des  Pbres 
de  V6glise  (1728).  He  was  a  moderate  Calvinist, 
and  refused  to  sign  the  Helvetic  Formula  Con- 
census, which  disapproved  of  the  doctrines  of 
Amyraut  and  the  other  Saumur  theologians. 
L— 31 


Bibugorapht:  Gardes,  OroHo  funtbria  in  obitum  J.  Bar- 
beyrac,  Groningen,  1744  (by  his  colleague);  G.  Laissacu 
Notice  biographique  aur  Barbeyrae,  Montpellier.  1838. 

BARCKHAUSEN-VOLKMANN  CONTROVERSY: 

A  discussion  of  the  question  of  predestination 
and  grace  which  was  carried  on  with  much  ardor 
in  Germany  early  in  the  eighteenth  century.  In 
the  Reformed  Church  of  Brandenburg  particulariy 
many  things  tended  to  start  troublesome  questions 
on  these  points.  The  Confessio  Sigismundi  of 
1614  had  followed  the  Augsburg  Confession  with 
"  revision  and  improvements,"  whereby  it  became 
not  merely  universalistic,  but  synergistic,  and,  in 
its  exposition  of  predestination,  approximated  to 
the  ''  Reformed  Evangelical  Churches."  As  a 
matter  of  fact  it  taught  both  the  absolute  election 
of  every  believer  and  universal  grace.  The  need 
of  making  concessions  to  the  Lutherans  led  to  some 
modifications,  as  in  the  Colloquium  Lipsiense  of 
1631,  the  Declaratio  Thoruniensis  of  1645  (see 
Leipsic,  Colloquy  of;  Thorn,  Conferencb  op), 
and  an  edict  of  the  Great  Elector  in  1664  (in  C.  O. 
Mylius,  Corpus  constitutionum  Marchicarum,  i, 
Beriin,  1737,  382  sqq.).  The  Brandenburg  Church 
was  thus  separated  from  orthodox  Calvinism,  wliile 
still  adhering  to  the  Reformed  type,  and  tliis  the 
more  as  a  large  number  of  French  congregations 
boimd  to  Calvin's  Confessio  Gallicana  were  settled 
in  the  country. 

The  Barckhausen-Volkmann  controversy  began 
with  the  publication  (Cologne,  1712)  of  the  Theses 
theologiccB  of  Paul  Volkmann,  rector  of  the  Joa- 
chimsthal  gymnasium  at  Berlin;  it  was  a  complete 
presentation  of  the  Reformed  dogmatics,  maintain- 
ing universal  grace  and  conditional  election.  Kon- 
rad  Heinrich  Barckhausen,  a  native  of  Detmold 
and  colleague  of  Volkmaim  in  Berlin  (in  1715  rector 
of  the  Friedrich  Werder  gynmasium),  came  for- 
ward as  protagonist  against  Volkmann 's  views. 
Under  the  pseudonym  Pacificus  Verinus  he  pub- 
lished in  1712  an  Arnica  coUatio  doctrines  de  gratia 
and  followed  it  the  next  year  with  a  coarse  German 
writing  Mauritii  Neodorpii  Calvinus  orthodoxus,  d. 
i.  ein  kurzes  Gesprdch  .  .  .  worin  bescheiden  un- 
tersucht  loird  ob  und  wie  weit  die  Lehre  der  Universa- 
listen  mit  der  Lehre  der  ersten  reformirten  Lehrer 
.  .  .  abereinkommen.  A  Berlin  preacher,  Stercki 
by  name,  took  up  the  discussion  on  Volkmann *8 
side  and  Philippe  Naud6  (q.v.)  replied.  The  con- 
troversy was  growing  hotter  when  the  Prussian 
king,  Frederick  William  1,  in  1719  issued  an  edict 
conunanding  both  sides  to  keep  silence  (Mylius,  ut 
sup.,  534-535).  (E.  F.  Karl  MCllek.) 

BiBLioaRAPHT:  J.  G.  Walch,  Einleitung  in  die  Religiona' 
atreitigkeilen  .  .  .  auaaer  der  evangeliaeh-lutKeriachm 
Kirche,  i,  457,  iii,  746  nqq.,  6  vola.,  Jena,  1733-36;  Ber- 
ing, BeitrOge  tur  Oeachichte  der  erangeliach-reformirten 
Kirche  in  den  prettaaiach-brandenlmrgiachen  LAndem,  i, 
67  sqq.,  Berlin,  1784;  A.  Schweiier,  Die  proteatantiachen 
CentraJdogmen,  ii,  816  aqq.,  Zurich,  1854  aqq. 

BARCLAY,  ALEXANDER:  English  scholar  of 
the  Renaissance  period;  b.  probably  in  Scotland 
about  1475;  d.  at  Croydon  (9  m.  s.  of  London), 
Surrey,  1552.  He  is  believed  to  have  studied  at 
one,  or  perhaps  both,  of  the  English  universities; 
traveled  on  the  continent;  was  made  chaplain  in 


BarolAy 

Barefooted  Xonks  and  Kons 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


4( 


the  collegiate  cburt'li  at  Ottery  St*  Mai?,  Devon- 
shins  ufterward  became  a  monk  in  the  Benedictine 
monastety  of  Eiy;  in  1546  became  vicar  of  Great 
Baddow,  Essex,  and  of  Wokey,  Somersetahire;  in 
1552  also  rector  of  All  Saints  in  Lombard  Street, 
Loniion,  Hia  chiei  works  were  the  Ship  of  Fooh 
(London,  1509)|  a  translation^  with  soma  additions^ 
of  Sebastian  Brandt ^s  Narremchiff;  and  the 
Eclogues  (n.d.|  pnibably  1514). 

BiBLicKaAAFnT^  A  Ml  account  of  Bu-cUiy  and  v^Jtiabb  list 
of  rtfcTeooes  ii*  giv*«n  io  BNB,  tilt  lS6~lfll  :  coii- 
aull  iLlfto  fur  list  of  his  m^iiine^  and  hJA  Life  the  «diti(m  qI 
thip  Ship  of  FooU,  by  T.  H,  J»4ui«flua,  2  vol*.,  Edinburgh. 
1874. 

BARCLAY,  JOHN:  Minister  of  the  Church  of 
Scotland  and  founder  of  the  BarelayiteB  or  Berce- 
ans;  b.  at  MuUiill  (35  m,  n.w,  of  Edinburgh),  Perth- 
shire, 1734;  d.  at  Edinburgh  July  29,  179S.  He 
was  graduated  M.A,  at  St.  Andrews;  waji  a^istant 
minister  at  Errol,  Perthsliiie,  1759-63>  being  dis- 
missed in  the  latter  year  for  teacliing  obnoxious 
doctrirje;  assistant  at  Fetlercaim,  Kincardineshire, 
1763^72,  where  he  was  popular  and  admired, 
but  contintied  to  promulgate  views  inacceptable  to 
the  rninistera.  In  1773  the  General  Assembly  sus- 
tainetl  his  presbytery  (Fordoun),  which  had  in- 
hibited him  from  preaching.  His  followers  then 
formed  independent  congregations  at  Edinburgh 
and  Fettercaim,  and  Barclay  became  minister  of 
the  former.  He  ako  preached  and  founded  a  so- 
ciety in  iKindon,  His  adherents  took  the  name 
Ben  vans  (from  Acts  xvii,  11),  profeBsing  to  build 
their  system  of  faith  and  practise  upon  the  Scrip- 
tures alone,  without  regard  to  any  human  author^ 
ity  whatever.  They  denied  natural  reUgion,  main- 
taining that  knowledge  of  God  is  from  revelation 
alone;  considered  faith  in  Christ  and  assurance  of 
salvation  as  inseparable  and  the  same;  held  that 
the  mn  against  the  Holy  Ghost  is  unbelief;  and  in- 
terpreted a  great  part  of  the  Old  Testament  proph- 
ecien  and  the  whole  of  the  Psalms  as  typical  of 
Christ  and  not  applicable  to  the  experiences  of 
private  Christians,  In  other  respects  their  X'iewg 
were  those  of  ordinary  Calvinism.  They  originally 
had  .several  churches  in  Scotland  and  a  few  in 
America.  Eadie  {Ectk^io&iicai  Cyclopedia,  Lon- 
don, 1862)  eharacterizes  them  as  '^  a  small  and  di* 
miniiihing  party  of  religioniita.'* 

BinLicmR^pilr:  A  collctled  editioQ  of  Barclay's  Work*, 
wilb  brief  meinuir  tsiTid  tttaiemaiit  of  the  views  gf  hia  fu\- 
lowijir^,  w(u»  pubLifihed  m  dlasgow^  18^2;  cf.  DNB,  iu, 
164-lftO,  and  likTuJiire  mentioned  there. 

BARCLAY,  JOSEPH:  Third  Anglican^ennan 
Bishop  of  Jerusalem;  b.  near  Strabane  (15  m*  s.  by 
w.  of  Ijondonderry),  C^ounty  Tyrone^  Ireland,  Aug. 
21,  1S;J1;  d.  at  Jerusalem  Oct.  23,  18SL  He 
studiini  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin  (B.A„  1854; 
M.A.,  1S57);  was  ordained  curate  at  Bagnalstown, 
County  Carlo w,  Ireland.  1S54;  becoming  inter- 
estcMl  in  the  work  of  the  London  Society  for  Pro- 
moting Christianity  among  the  Jews,  he  offered 
hims(.lf  as  a  missionary  in  1858,  and  was  sent  to 
Con.stantinople;  was  incumbent  of  Christ  Churchy 
Jerusalem,  1861-70;  curate  of  Howe,  Lincolnshire, 
187),  of  St  MargaretX  Wtstminster,  1871-73;  was 
consecrated   bbhop  of  Jerusalem  July  25,    1879^ 


and  took  up  his  teddence  in  the  eity  tii«  foUowi 
January.  Ha  preached  in  Bpanish,  French,  a 
German^  was  a  good  Hebrew  scholar,  and  acquaint 
with  Turkish  and  Arabic.  He  publiBbad  The  T 
■mwif  a  translation  of  select  treatises  of  the  Misbni 
with  introduction  and  notes  (London,  1S78),  a  wt 
which  has  been  generally  criticised  by  Jewi 
scholars  as  prejudiced. 

Bibliooil^peit:  A  critical  biography  was  pubtuivd  *am 
mouitty  at  London.  ISH3.  j^vio^  e&tnLctti  from  his  joum 
Atid  letter*;  cf.  alao  DNB,  iii,  167. 

BARCLAY,    ROBERT:    Scotch    Quaker;  h. 

Gordoostown  (28  m.  n.w.  of  Aberdeen)  Dec.  ' 
1648;  d.  at  Ury  (14  m.  s.w.  of  Aberdeen)  Oct. 
1690.  He  waa  descended  from  an  ancient  Seotti 
family  and  Ids  father  was  CoL  David  Barclay 
war  celebrity  in  Germany  and  Sweden,  After 
careful  home  training  he  was  sent  to  his  tine 
Robert  Barclay,  rector  of  the  Scotch  College 
Paris,  for  further  education,  and  so  came  und 
Roman  Catholic  inftuenoes  and  inclined  towa 
that  communion.  But  in  1664  be  was.  caUed  hm 
and  in  1667  followed  his  father  into  the  Society 
Friends.  He  was  uealous  with  voice  and  pen 
the  advocacy  of  their  faith  and  in  consequence  v 
in  prison  for  five  months  during  1676-77^  and  w 
again  under  airest  in  1679.  If  he  had  not  b 
anstocratic  and  influential  friends  it  might  hs' 
g<>ne  much  worae  with  him.  He  traveled  throu| 
Great  Britain  and  also  in  Holland  and  Gefmaa 
He  was  the  most  remarkable  theologiaji  the  Quak« 
have  produced.  Beflides  &  CaUchwm  and  Cmft 
sum  &l  FaUh  {1673;  repeatedly  reissued;  translat4 
into  Latin,  French,  Danish,  and  Dutch),  bepr 
pared  controversial  works.  The  treatise  upc 
which  his  great  fame  refit«  Ib  An  Apology  for  ti 
iru^e  Christian  dimnityr  m  the  &ame  i*  held  finih^  m 
preached  by  the  peopk,  calUd,  in  scorn ^  Qutsken.  E 
had  previously  published  fifteen  theological  thes 
for  a  debate  and  they  were  so  favorably  teceivt 
that  he  translated  them  into  Latin  and  aceonipank 
them  with  an  exposition  in  the  same  language,  pre 
aced  them  with  a  remarkably  faithful  epistle  i 
Charles  11,  dated  Nov.  25t  1675,  and  issued  d 
volume  at  Amsterdam  in  1676.  He  says  thai  1 
did  this  "  for  the  information  of  strangers/'  1 
1678  he  published,  probably  in  Aberdeen,  his  o^ 
translation  of  the  Apology^  and  it  baa  become 
classic.  An  edition,  the  fourteenth,  was  public 
at  Glasgow^  in  18S6,  and  other  editions  have  ii 
peared  in  Philadelphia;  there  are  tranalations  of 
in  Gemian,  French^  Dutch,  Spanish,  and  DanisI 
In  1692  William  Penn  brought  out  an  edition  of  i 
with  other  works,  under  the  title  Truth  Triumj^ 
through  the  spiritual  warfare^  Christian  labomt  <w 
writings  of  thai  afife  and  faithftd  servant  of  /«n 
Christ,  R^^ert  Barclay. 

Biblioghapht:  R.  B.  Barelay,  Otn^tdotHeal  Aeeoumt  gf  I 
Borcktya  of  Urii.  Aberdeen^  1740.  ed.  H.  Mill.  Lctsdo 
1S12;  W.  Artnistftftd,  Memoir  of  B.  Sort/a  v,  Umiicbe^ 
1850.  For  full  list  of  books  by  and  on  Robert  Biirch 
commit  JoAepb  Smitb,  Dncriptixm  Cafaloifue  ^f  F^vd 
Books,  2  vol8..  Loodon,  1867,  and  Su.pplsfnmnl,  ISSS.  Tl 
Bketcb  in  DNB.m,  167-170  U  also  v&lu&ble:  a^tw  1^1^ 
B^dftianit^  a  CsUtcHon  ot  L^Uen  jjnvat^  srwiM,  1^ 
(lilhogmph«»dK 

BAR  COCHBA.     See  Bar  Kokba, 


488 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Barclay 

Barefboted  Xonka  and  Vxaim 


BARDENHEWER,  BERTRAM  OTTO:  German 
Roman  Catholic;  b.  at  Mtlnchen-Gladbach  (16  m.  w. 
of  Dtlsseldorf)  Mar.  16,  1851.  He  was  educated  at 
the  universities  of  Bonn  (Ph.D.,  1873)  and  Wttrz- 
burg,  and  in  1879  became  privat-docent  of  theology 
at  the  University  of  Mimich.  In  1884  he  accepted 
a  call  to  Monster  as  professor  of  New  Testament 
exegesis  and  Biblical  hermeneutics,  and  two  years 
later  returned  in  the  same  capacity  to  Munich, 
where  he  still  remains.  He  has  been  a  member  of 
the  Deutsche  margenldndiache  OeeeUachaft  since  1873, 
and  of  the  papal  Bible  Ck)mmittee  since  1903. 
He  was  rector  of  the  university  in  1906,  and  has 
written  Hermetie  Trismegieti  qui  apud  Arabee 
fertur  de  caatigatume  animce  libeUua  (Bonn,  1873); 
Dee  heiliffen  Hippolytus  von  Rom  KommerUar  zum 
Buche  Danid  (Freiburg,  1877);  Polychroniua,  Bm- 
der  Theodore  von  Mopauestia  und  Bischof  von 
Apamea  (1879);  Die  peeudo-arietotelische  Schrift 
aber  die  reine  Gvie,  bekannt  unter  dem  Namen  Liber 
de  cttuais  (1882);  PaJtrohgie  (1894);  and  Geachichte 
der  aUkirchlichen  lAteratur  (2  vols.,  1902-03).  Since 
1895  be  has  edited  Biblische  Studien  at  Freiburg. 

BARDESANES,    bOr^'de-sd^ntz    (BAR-DAISAN) : 

Gnostic;  b.  of  Persian  parents  (Nuhama  and  Nas- 
iram;  cf.  Chron.  Edesa,,  ed.  L.  Hallier,  TU,  ix,  1, 
Leipsic,  1892,  90;  Michael  Syrus),  at  Edessa,  on 
the  Daisan,  on  the  11th  day  of  Tammuz  (July), 
154;  d.  there  222  (Moses  of  Chorene,  Hist.  Armeri., 
u,  63;  Michael  Syrus).  He  was  educated  with 
the  princes  at  the  court  (Epiphanius,  Hcer.,  Ivi,  1) 
and  won  distinction  as  well  by  his  bodily  excellences 
as  for  versatility  of  mind  and  the  linguistic  and 
scientific  knowledge  which  he  acquired.  With 
his  parents  he  went  to  Mabug  (Hieropolis),  where 
he  became  acquainted  with  Kuduz,  a  priest  of  the 
Dea  Syra,  who  adopted  him  and  taught  him  the 
doctrines  of  his  cult.  When  twenty-five  years  of 
age,  the  priest  sent  him  to  Edessa,  where  he  heard 
the  preaching  of  the  Christian  bishop  Hystaspes, 
was  instructed  by  him,  and  baptized.  He  soon 
interested'  the  Abgar  of  Edessa  (Bar-Manu,  c.  179- 
216)  in  the  new  religion.  When  Caracalla  took 
Edessa  (216-217),  Bardesanes  fled  into  Armenia, 
where  he  spent  his  time  in  writing  and  preaching, 
but  returned  afterward  to  Edessa. 

Of  his  writings,  Eusebius  (Hist,  eccl.,  iv,  30)  and 
Theodoret  (Hcer.  fab.,  i,  22)  mention  dialogues  against 
the  teachings  of  Marcion;  Eusebius  and  Epiphanius 
(I.e.)  mention  also  an  apology.  An  Armenian 
church  history,  composed  in  his  exile,  was  used 
as  source  by  Moses  of  Chorene.  Ephraem  Syrus 
(Serm.  adv,  hcer,,  liii)  knew  of  a  book  of  150  psalms 
or  hymns.  By  their  hymns  Bardesanes  and  his 
son  Harmonius  became  the  creators  of  the  Syriac 
church  hymn.  Whether  the  hymns  (e.g.,  the  hymn 
on  the  destinies  of  the  soul)  preserved  in  the  so- 
called  Acts  of  Thomas  (cf.  W.  Wright,  Apocryphal 
Acts  of  the  Apostles,  i,  London,  1871,  247)  are  to  be 
traced  to  Bardesanes,  is  doubtful.  Eusebius, 
Epiphanius,  and  Theodoret  mention  also  a  work 
of  Bardesanes  "  On  Fate,"  which  is  extant  under 
the  title  "  The  Book  of  the  Laws  of  the  Countries," 
though  apparently  revised  by  one  of  his  disciples. 
Finally,  George,  Bishop  of  the  Arabians,  quotes  a 


passage  from  a  work  of  Bardesanes  on  "  The  Mutual 
Synodoi  of  the  Stars  of  Heaven." 

It  is  impossible  to  assign  to  Bardesanes  in  the 
present  state  of  knowledge  the  place  which  he 
occupies  in  Gnostic  speculation.  Some  affinity 
with  Valentinianism  can  be  established  from  the 
work  which  has  been  preserved,  which,  however, 
reproduces  the  views  of  Bardesanes  in  a  revised 
form.  But  there  can  be  no  doubt  as  to  his  connec- 
tion with  the  Babylonian  Gnosis.  He  was  cer- 
tainly greatly  influenced  by  Chaldean  mythology 
and  astrology.  His  cosmogonic  speculations,  which 
Hort  (DCB,  i,  254)  rightly  calls  "  strange  Meso- 
p>otamian  heathenism,"  contain  no  special  orig- 
inality when  compared  with  the  Mandsan  and 
Ophitic  fancies.  It  is  noteworthy  that  he  retained 
the  unity  of  the  divine  principle  against  the  Mar- 
cionites,  which  does  not  preclude  his  speaking  of 
an  "  eternal  matter."  His  "  Christ  "  is  that  of  the 
Docetffi  (who  had  no  real  body  and  did  not  really 
suffer).  He  denied  the  resurrection  of  the  flesh. 
He  made  a  mysterious  connection  between  the 
soul  and  the  celestial  spirits.  But  in  this  deter- 
minism he  saw  only  a  natural  limitation  which  did 
not  preclude  the  free  volition  of  man.  For  the  rest, 
he  explained  his  speculations  only  in  narrower 
circles  and  seems  to  have  kept  silent  about  them 
in  the  presence  of  the  congregation.  Church  his- 
tory must  not  forget  that  Bardesanes  won  Edessa 
for  Christianity.  His  influence  was  still  strong 
in  the  time  of  Ephraem,  who  opposed  him  vigorously 
and  hated  him  as  the  head  of  the  three-headed 
monster,  Marcion,  Mani,  Bardesanes.  Neverthe- 
less the  people  took  pleasure  in  Bardesanes's 
fantastic  religious  poetry.  Ephraem  substituted 
orthodox  hynms  for  the  heretical,  but  retained  the 
meter.  The  celebrated  Rabulas  (q.v.;  d.  435) 
seems  to  have  been  the  first  to  put  an  end  to  Bar- 
desanism  in  Ekiessa.  But  it  was  not  confined  to 
Ekiessa;  it  spread  to  the  Southern  Euphrates,  to 
Khorasan,  even  to  China.  In  the  West  it  seems 
to  have  been  without  influence,  and  to  the  real 
West  it  never  penetrated.  G.  KRt^GER. 

Biblioorapht:  His  Book  of  the  Latot  of  Divert  Countriea  is 
given  in  Eng.  tranitl.,  ANF,  viii,  723-734;  a  rich  biblioR- 
raphy  will  be  found  in  ANF,  Bibliography,  p.  1 08.  Consult 
A.  Merx.  Bardeeanee  Onoaticut,  Halle.  1863;  A.  Hilgenfeld. 
Bardesanes,  der  letzte  Onostiker,  Leipsio,  1864;  idem, 
KeUergeMchichte  dea  Urchriatenthuma,  Leipde,  1884;  DCS, 
i,  250-260  (especially  noteworthy);  Harnack,  LiUeratur,  i, 
184-191,  U,  part  2, 128-132;  KrUger,  Hiatory,  pp.  76-77;  F. 
Nau,  Vne  Biographie  inSdiie  de  Bardiaane  iaatrologue  (from 
the  chronicle  of  Michael  Syrus).  Paris,  1897;  idem,  Le  lAvre 
dea  Una  dea  paya  (Syriac  and  French),  Paris,  1899;  F.  C. 
Burkitt,  Early  Eaatern  Chriatianity,  London,  1904.  On 
the  use  of  his  hymns  by  Ephraem  Syrus  consult  H.  Bur- 
gess, Hymna  and  Homiliea  of  Ephraem  Syrua,  pp.  xxviii- 
xl,  London,  1853. 

BAREFOOTED  MONKS  AND  NUNS :  The  popu- 
lar name  for  members  of  various  religious  orders 
who  go  without  any  foot-covering  whatever  or  with 
sandals  in  place  of  shoes.  They  are  also  called 
"discalced"  (Lat.  discalceaH,  "unshod"),  but 
this  name  is  more  properly  restricted  to  those  who 
wear  sandals  and  is  used  especially  of  the  "  dis- 
calced  Carmelites."  It  is  said  that  the  custom  was 
introduced  in  the  West  by  St.  Francis  of  Assisi 
(q.v.),  who,  with  his  companions,  in  1209  discarded 


is;] 


>lftam  and  JoMtphat 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


shoes  in  supposed  obedience  to  Bfatt.  x,  10,  and 
thenceforth  went  wholly  barefoot.  There  have 
been  barefooted  or  discalced  members  of  many 
orders, — the  Clarenines,  Recollects,  Capuchins, 
Poor  Clares,  Minimites,  Augustinians,  Camaldolites, 
Servites,  Carmelites,  Cistercians  (Feuillants),  Trin- 
itarians, Passionists,  and  others.  It  is  usually  the 
stricter  divisions  of  the  order  who  adopt  the  practise. 

BARHAM,  RICHARD  HARRIS:  Church  of 
En^and;  b.  at  Canterbury  Dec.  6,  1788;  d.  in 
London  June  17,  1845.  He  studied  at  Brasenose 
College,  Oxford,  took  orders  in  1813,  and  in  1817 
became  curate  of  Snargate,  Kent.  In  1821  he  re- 
moved to  London  as  minor  canon  of  St.  Paul's  and 
thenceforth  resided  in  London,  where  he  held  dif- 
ferent livings  and  positions.  He  w^as  esteemed  for 
his  exemplary  life,  and  his  sound  sense  and  kind 
heart  made  him  a  good  counselor  and  valued  friend. 
His  fame  rests  upon  the  Ingoldsby  Legends^  written 
under  the  pseudonym  "  Thomas  Ingoldsby  "  for 
BerUley'a  Miscellany  and  The  New  Monthly  Mag- 
azine, collected  in  book  form  1840;  a  second  series 
was  published  in  1847  and  a  third,  edited  by  the 
author's  son,  the  same  year  (many  later  editions). 
In  this  work  Barham  proved  the  possession  of 
humorous  powers  of  a  high  order  and  produced 
what  is  perhaps  the  best  collection  of  rimed  mirth 
in  the  English  tongue;  his  extraordinary  command 
of  language  appears  also  in  passages  of  much  lyric 
beauty;  and  the  satire  of  theological  and  church 
tendencies  which  have  not  yet  passed  away  give 
the  work  more  serious  value  than  that  of  merely 
promoting  amusement. 

Biblioorapht:  Life  and  LeUen  of  the  Rev.  R.  H.  Barham, 
with  a  Selection  from  hie  MieceUaneoue  Poeme,  edited  by 
his  son.  R.  H.  D.  Barham.  2  vols.,  London.  1880. 

BAR  HEBRSUS.     See  Abulfaraj. 

BARHfO-GOULD,  SABINE:  Church  of  England; 
b.  at  Exeter  Jan.  28,  1834.  He  was  educated  at 
Clare  College,  Cambridge  (B.A.,  1854),  was  ordered 
deacon  in  1864,  and  was  ordained  priest  in  the  fol- 
lowing year.  He  was  then  successively  curate  of 
Horbury,  Yorkshire  (1864-66),  vicar  of  Dalton, 
Yorkshire  (1866-71),  and  rector  of  East  Mersea, 
Essex  (1871-81).  He  inherited  the  family  estates 
of  I^w-Trenchard  in  1872  and  since  1881  has  been 
rector  of  Lew-Trenchard,  Devonshire.  His  nu- 
merous works  include  The  Path  of  the  Just  (London, 
1854);  Iceland,  its  Scenes  and  Sagas  (1862);  Post- 
MedicBval  Preachers  (1865);  Book  of  Were-Wolves 
(1865);  Curious  Myths  of  the  Middle  Ages  (2  vols., 
1866-68);  The  Origin  and  Development  of  Religious 
Belief  (2  vols.,  1869-70);  The  Golden  GaU  (1870); 
The  Silver  Store,  Collected  from  Mediceval  Christian 
and  Jewish  Mines  (1870);  Legendary  Lives  of  Old 
Testament  Characters  (2  vols.,  1871);  One  Hundred 
Sermon  Sketches  for  Extempore  Preachers  (1871); 
Village  Conferences  on  the  Creed  (1873);  The  Lost 
and  Hostile  Gospels  (3  vols.,  1874);  Yorkshire  Odd- 
ities (1874);  Some  Modem  DifficuUies  (1875);  Vil- 
lage Sermons  for  a  Year  (1875);  The  Mystery  of  Suf- 
fering (1877);  Germany,  Present  and  Past  (1879); 
Sermons  to  Children  (1879);  The  Preacher's  Pocket 
(1880);  The  Village  PulpU  (2  vols.,  1881);  Church 


Songs  (1884);  The  Seven  Last  Words  (1884); 
Passion  of  Jesus  (1885);  The  Nativity  (1885); 
Resurrection  (1888);  Our  Inheritance,  a  Histarx 
the  Holy  Eucharist  in  the  First  Three  Centu 
(1888);  Historic  Oddities  and  Strange  Events 
vols.,  188^91);  Old  Country  Life  (1889);  In  Ti 
badours*  Land  (1890);  Conscience  and  Sin  (181 
History  of  the  Church  in  Germany  (1891);  Songi 
the  West  (1891);  The  Tragedy  of  the  Ccesars  (2  v< 
1892);  Curious  Survivals  (1892);  The  Deserts 
Southern  France  (2  vols.,  1894);  A  Garland 
Country  Song  (1894);  Old  Fairy  Tales  Retold  (ISl 
Old  English  Fairy  Tales  (1895);  Napoleon  Be 
parte  (1896);  A  Study  of  St.  Paul  (1897); 
Sunday  Round  (1898);  Book  of  the  West  (2  v( 
1899);  Book  of  Dartmoor  (1900);  Virgin  Sa 
and  Martyrs  (1900);  Brittany  (19Q2);  Book 
North  Wales  (1903);  Book  of  Ghosts  (1904);  E 
of  South  Wales  (1905);  Book  of  the  Riviera  (19( 
and  Memorial  of  Horatio,  Lord  Nelson  (1905). 
has  likewise  written  a  niunber  of  novels,  and  edi 
the  Lives  of  the  Saints  (17  vols.,  London,  1872-' 

BAR  KOK'BA:  The  name  traditionally  assigi 
to  the  leader  of  the  great  insurrection  of 
Jews  in  Palestine  against  the  Romana  under 
emperor  Hadrian  in  the  years  132-135  (see  Israi 
The  Roman  historians  Spartian  and  Dio  Cass 
however,  give  no  name  and  do  not  even  speak 
one  sin^e  prominent  leader;  nor  does  the  n^ 
occur  on  the  coins  struck  during  the  revolt, 
according  to  Derenbourg  (p.  423),  in  the  rabt 
ical  authorities.  It  rests  on  C^hristian  tradit 
beginning  with  Justin  Martyr,  an  author  likely 
be  well  informed.  In  his  larger  "  Apology  "  (xi 
he  speaks  of  the  leader  of  the  rising  as  Bardux 
bos,  saying  that  he  inflicted  severe  penalties  on  \ 
Christians  (regarded  as  i^x>6tate  Jews).  Eu 
bins  (Hist,  ecd.,  IV,  viii,  4)  reproduces  this  pass* 
with  the  variant  spelling  BarchOchebas,  and  a 
firms  it  in  IV,  vi,  2,  where  he  says  that  the  lea< 
won  his  authority  over  the  ignorant  by  basing  on 
name  (meaning  "  star  "  or  "  son  of  a  star  ")  1 
claim  to  have  been  sent  directly  by  God  as  a  lii 
to  the  oppressed.  Beyond  this  Eusebius  appe 
to  know  nothing  of  him  except  that  in  the  last  < 
cisive  battle,  at  the  present  Bittir  (7  m.  by  rail  s. 
of  Jerusalem),  in  the  eighteenth  year  of  Hadri 
(134-135),  he  suffered  the  penalty  of  his  deeds. 

That  the  Jews  had  a  native  leader  in  this  risi 
is  clearly  proved  by  the  coins,  both  those  whi 
are  adapted  to  Jewish  use  from  coins  of  Vespasi 
and  Trajan,  and  must  thus  belong  to  this  peric 
and  those  which  on  accoimt  of  similarity  of  tre 
ment  are  evidently  of  the  same  date  (cf.  F.  ^ 
Madden,  History  of  Jewish  Coinage,  London.  ISt 
203  sqq.,  and  Coins  of  the  Jews,  1881).  The  i 
scriptions  of  these  give  on  the  reverse  sometin 
"  in  [the  year  of]  the  freedom  of  Israel "  aloi 
sometimes  the  same  with  the  number  2  for  t 
year,  or  "  year  1  of  the  deliverance  of  Israd  ";  < 
the  obverse  sometimes  "  Eleazar  the  priest  "  (wl 
must  not  be  confounded  with  the  imcle  of  B 
Kokba,  the  scribe  Eleazar),  sometimes  "Jerus 
lem,''  claiming  the  right  of  coinage  for  the  cit 
and  sometimes  "  Simeon,  prince  of  Israel."    Th 


486 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Barham 

TtoTlaani  and  Joaaphat 


the  leadership  of  Simeon  coincided  with  the  priest- 
hood of  Eleazar  is  shown  by  a  distinct  variety 
which  names  Eleazar  the  priest  on  the  obverse  and 
Simeon,  without  any  title,  on  the  reverse.  Ac- 
cording to  the  coins,  therefore,  during  the  time  of 
the  revolt,  Israel  had  a  secular  head  of  the  name  of 
Simeon;  which  leads  to  the  hypothesis  that  the 
same  man  who  inspired  the  people  by  the  name  of 
Bar''Kokba  was  really  called  Simeon.  This  theory 
finds  support  in  certain  coins  which  show  the  letters 
of  the  name  of  Simeon  on  both  sides  of  a  temple 
portico  above  which  is  a  star.  Moreover,  the 
Jewish  accounts  are  consistent  with  it.  The  Seder 
*Olam  mentions  the  three  and  a  half  years  of 
a  native  ruler  as  the  epoch  following  the  wars  of 
Vespasian  and  Quietus,  calling  this  ruler,  however, 
"  Bar  Kozeba."  And  the  Talmudic  explanations 
to  the  Mishnah  treatise  Ma^aser  sheni,  when  they 
forbid  the  payment  of  tithes  with  money  coined 
by  rebels  or  otherwise  unauthorized,  give  as  ex- 
amples that  of  "  Ben  Kozeba  "  or  the  "  coins  of  Ko- 
zeba "  and  the  "  coins  of  Jerusalem.''  By  the 
analogy  of  the  latter,  the  former  might  also  be  a 
local  designation  (cf.  I  Chron.  iv,  22);  but  the 
variant  form  first  given  makes  it  much  more  prob- 
able that  it  is  from  the  name  of  the  ruler;  and  there 
is  no  difficulty  in  identifying  this  ruler  with  the 
Simeon  already  mentioned,  especially  as  Jewish 
tradition,  quoting  (in  the  Talmud  on  Ta*anU)  from 
Rabbi  Akiba,  shows  how  easy  was  the  transforma- 
tion of  the  name  of  Ben  Kozeba  into  the  form  Bar 
Kocheba  (or  Bar  Kokba),  with  its  encouraging 
reference  to  the  prophecy  of  Balaam  (Niun.  xxiv, 
17). 

Not  much  can  be  safely  asserted  of  Bar  Kokba 's 
personality  and  achievements,  for  the  Jewish 
sources  mentioned  above  tell  nothing  trustworthy 
about  him  which  is  not  already  known  from  Dio 
Cassius,  with  the  exception  of  his  relations  to  Akiba 
and  to  Eleazar,  whom,  on  suspicion  of  treachery, 
he  is  said  to  have  killed  with  a  kick.  The  immense 
number  of  his  adherents  (200,000  men,  who  had 
pledged  themselves  to  the  conspiracy  by  cutting 
off  a  finger),  the  fabulous  size  of  his  citadel  of  Bit- 
tir,  and  the  awful  bloodshed  there,  are  merely 
imaginative  projections  from  the  natural  facts  of 
such  a  rising.  As  a  consequence  of  his  failure. 
Bar  Kokba  has  lived  in  Jewish  memory  as  a  de- 
ceiver; but  one  who  could  bring  about  so  vigorous 
and  stubborn  a  revolt  and  dominate  it  to  its  close 
must  have  been  a  man  of  great  power  and  deter- 
mination, who  had  made  the  nation's  cause  his  own. 
(August  Klobtermann.) 

BnuooRAPHT:  The  principal  souroe  u  Dio  Caasius,  HiMtaria 
Rcmana,  book  Ixix.  chaps.  12-14.  ed.  F.  G.  Sturs.  9  vols., 
Leipsio.  1824-43;  the  SamarUan  Book  of  Joshua,  ed. 
Jusmboll,  Leydeii«  1848,  may  be  used  cautiously.  Con- 
■ult  J.  Hamburger,  RealencykhpOdie  fUr  Bibel  und  Tal- 
mud, vol.  ii,  Leipsio,  1891;  J.  Derenbourg,  Ewai  tur  VhiS' 
lovrs  ei  la  g^ograpkie  de  la  Palestine,  Paris,  1867;  idem, 
JVotes  stir  laoMtre  de  Bar  Koteba,  in  MUangea  de  VltoUe 
dee  Hautee  J^udee,  ib.  1878;  H.  Qr&ts,  Oeedtichte  der  Ju- 
den,  IT.  137  sqq.,  Leipsio,  1893;  SohOrer,  OeeehtefUe,  i, 
982-^85,  60&-e9«,  706-772,  Eng.  transl..  I,  ii,  297-301, 
311;  A.  Schlatter,  Die  Tage  Trajane  undHadriane,  Gdters- 
loh.  1897;  JB,  ii,  60&-A09. 

BAItLAAM.    See  Histchaotb. 


BARLAAM   and    JOSAPHAT    (or   JOASAPH): 

The  abbreviated  title  of  a  Greek  religious  romance 
commonly  ascribed,  without  adequate  reasons,  to 
John  of  Damascus  (q.v.;  d.  about  754).  The 
fuller  title  is  "  History  of  the  Soul-profiting  .  .  . 
of  Bariaam  and  Josaphat  (or  Joasaph)."  The 
popularity  of  the  story  is  manifest  from  the  fact 
that  it  was  translated  into  Arabic,  Ethiopic,  Arme- 
nian, and  Hebrew,  as  well  as  Latin,  Icelandic, 
English,  and  other  European  languages.  Research 
has  proved  that  the  work  is  based  upon  an  Indian 
story  (the  Lalitavistara,  composed  76  a.d.),  in 
which  Buddha  (transformed  into  Josaphat)  is  the 
hero.  Josaphat  is  represented  as  son  of  Abenner, 
an  Indian  king  bitterly  opposed  to  the  Christian 
religion.  His  future  conversion  to  a  new  faith  and 
fame  as  a  religious  leader  are  predicted  at  the  time 
of  his  birth  by  astrologers.  Every  effort  is  made 
by  his  father  to  enthral  him  in  pleasures,  to  conceal 
from  him  the  miseries  of  the  world,  and  to  shield 
him  from  all  influences  calculated  to  impress  him 
with  a  sense  of  obligation  to  the  woiid.  At  last, 
weary  of  pleasure  and  ease,  Josaphat  goes  forth  to 
see  the  world,  is  driven  to  despair  by  its  misery,  and 
is  converted  by  Bariaam,  a  Christian  hermit.  To 
overthrow  his  son's  convictions  the  king  arranges 
a  disputation  in  which  Nachor,  a  court  sage,  is  to 
impersonate  Bariaam  and  by  a  feeble  defense  of 
Christianity  to  discredit  it.  By  special  divine 
interposition  Nachor  makes  a  noble  defense  of 
Christianity,  which  leads  to  his  own  conversion, 
and  that  of  the  king  and  his  people.  Bariaam 
and  Josaphat  secured  places  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
calendar  as  saints.  It  was  discovered  a  few  years 
ago  by  Prof.  J.  A.  Robinson,  by  a  comparison  of 
the  defense  of  Christianity  in  the  Greek  story  with 
the  newly  discovered  Syriac  text  of  the  long-lost 
"  Apology "  of  Aristidcs  (see  Aristideb,  Mar- 
ciANUs),  that  the  former,  modified  to  some  extent 
to  suit  the  purpose  for  which  it  was  employed,  is 
the  original  of  the  "  Apology."  The  Greek  text  is 
in  MPG,  xcvi,  860  sqq.  A.  H.  Newman. 

The  story  of  Bariaam  and  Josaphat  forms  the 
subject  of  the  chief  poem  of  Rudolf  of  Ems,  a 
Middle  High  German  poet  (d.  between  1250  and 
1254),  composed  in  1220-23.  It  was  based  on  a 
Latin  book  received  from  Abbot  Guide  of  Cappel, 
which  is  said  to  have  been  a  translation  of  the  Greek 
legends  of  John  of  Damascus,  already  rendered  by 
a  certain  Bishop  Otho  in  the  twelfth  century. 
Rudolf,  however,  was  unaware  of  this  version  or  of 
another,  which  seems  to  have  been  made  in  the 
first  half  of  the  thirteenth  century,  and  of  which 
only  a  few  fragments  have  been  preserved.  The 
story  of  the  ascetic  life  of  Buddha  was  highly  at- 
tractive to  a  Christian  ascetic,  and  Rudolf  was  the 
more  drawn  to  the  theme  since  he  wished  to  atone 
for  the  frivolity  of  his  earlier  writings,  declaring 
that  this  poem  was  no  romance  of  kni^^thood,  love, 
adventure,  or  the  sunmiertide,  but  a  complete  and 
sincere  war  upon  the  worid,  whereby  men  and 
women  might  be  made  better  and  purer. 

Rudolf's  ''  Bariaam  and  Josaphat  "  contains 
about  16,000  verses,  and  describes  the  victory  of 
Christianity  over  heathen  teachings.  It  thus  sum- 
marizes the  Middle  Ages,  and  accordingly  rises  far 


Barlaam  and  Joaaphat 
Bamabltes 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


486 


above  the  level  of  a  mere  revamping  or  even  am- 
plification of  an  original  source.  In  the  poem 
Josaphat  is  the  son  of  a  heathen  Indian  king  named 
Avemier.  Astrologers  foretell  the  conversion  of 
the  prince,  who  is  accordingly  confined  by  his 
father  in  a  palace  built  especially  for  him.  Sur- 
rounded by  every  luxury,  he  is  kept  from  all  knowl- 
edge of  age,  disease,  and  death.  Permitted,  after 
a  time,  to  leave  the  palace,  Josaphat  sees  a  lame 
man  and  a  blind  man,  and  on  a  second  excursion 
meets  a  man  weighed  down  with  all  the  infirmities 
of  age.  When  sobered  by  reflection  on  these  sights, 
God  sends  him  Barlaam,  a  hermit  from  the  island 
of  Sennaar,  who  appears  in  the  presence  of  the 
prince  disguised  as  a  jewel-merchant.  Only  to  the 
pure  in  heart,  however,  can  he  show  the  most  pre- 
cious gem,  which,  he  at  last  tells  Josaphat,  is  Chris- 
tianity. He  then  describes  the  life  of  Christ,  so 
that  Josaphat  asks  concerning  baptism,  whereupon 
Barlaam  tells  him  of  baptism,  eternal  life,  the  chief 
doctrines  of  Christianity,  and  the  lives  of  the  saints 
and  martyrs  who  renoimced  the  vanity  of  the 
world.  At  the  request  of  Josaphat,  Barlaam  bap- 
tizes him,  administers  the  sacrament  to  him,  and 
urges  him  to  remain  pure  in  word  and  thought. 
The  king  seeks  in  vain  to  win  his  son  back  to 
heathenism,  but  the  priests  are  refuted,  the  ma- 
gician Theodasis  converted,  and  temptations  to  sen- 
suality are  overcome.  Avemier  then  offers  Josaphat 
the  half  of  his  kingdom,  and  his  administration 
manifests  the  omnipotence  of  Christianity,  while 
the  glory  of  his  father  gradually  wanes,  and  his 
councilors  bow  before  the  ethical  power  of  the 
new  faith.  Meanwhile  Josaphat  prays  to  God  to 
turn  his  father's  heart,  and  in  answer  to  these  peti- 
tions the  king  takes  counsel  how  he  may  atone  for 
his  former  iniquity.  His  coimciiors  advise  him  to 
follow  the  example  of  his  son,  whereupon  he  writes 
a  pathetic  letter  to  Josaphat,  full  of  lamentations 
and  self-accusations.  Father  and  son  met,  Aver- 
nier  was  instructed  by  Josaphat,  received  baptism 
together  with  all  his  councilors,  surrendered  the 
entire  kingdom  to  the  prince,  and  lived  as  a  hermit 
the  remaining  four  years  of  his  life.  After  his 
father's  death,  Josaphat  appointed  Barachias  as 
his  successor  and  became  an  anchorite,  finding  his 
teacher  Barlaam  again.  He  bravely  resisted  all 
manner  of  fleshly  temptations,  and  hved  with  Bar- 
laam in  fasting  and  prayer  until  his  teacher  died. 
Josaphat  buried  him,  and  himself  died  at  the  age 
of  sixty.  (A.  Freybe.) 

Biblioqrapht:  A  collection  of  titles  will  be  found  in  V. 
Chauvin,  Bibliographie  de»  ouvrages  AmbeM,  vol.  iii,  Paris, 
1898.  A  Lat.  transl.  of  John  of  Damascus'  story  is  in 
MPL,  Ixxiii,  443-606;  and  the  version  of  Rudolf  of  "Ems 
was  edited  by  F.  Pfeiffer.  Leipsic,  1843.  Consult  Barlaam 
und  JoMapfuU;  framdaUcheM  Oedicht  dea  dre'zehnten  Jahr- 
hunderta  von  Gui  de  Cambrai,  ed.  H.  Zotenbeis  and  P. 
Meyer,  Stuttgart,  1864;  £.  Cosquin,  in  Revite  de%  que*' 
tiona  hiatoriques,  xxviii  (1880).  579-600;  E.  Braunholtz. 
Die  erate  nichtchriatliche  Parabel  dea  Barlaama  und  Joaa- 
Vhai,  Halle,  1884;  H.  Zotenberg.  Notice  aur  le  livre 
de  Barlaam  et  JoaapfuU,  Paris,  1886;  A.  Krull,  Qui  de 
Cambrai:  eine  aprachliche  Unterauchung,  Gdttingen,  1887; 
F.  Hominel,  Die  OUeate  arabiache  Barlaam-V eraion,  Vienna, 
1888;  Two  Fifteenth  Century  Livea  of  SL  Barlaam,  ed. 
J.  Jacobs,  London,  1893  (contains  discussion  of  the  in- 
fluence of  Buddhist  l^end  on  Western  medieval  litera- 
ture); E.  Kahn,  Barlaam  und  Joaaaph:  bibliographiacK- 
lUerdrgeaehiehtliche  Studie,  Munich,  1893;  K.  S.  Maodon- 


ald,  IniroducUon  to  the  Story  of  Btartaam  and  Joaaapk, 
1895;  idem.  Story  of  Barlaam  and  Joaaaph  [London], 
1895;  Story  of  Barlaam  and  Joaaaph:  Buddhiam  and 
Ckriatianity,  ed.  J.  Morrison,  Oalcutta,  1895;  A.  Kraose, 
Zum  Barlaam  und  Joaaphat  dea  Out  von  Cambrai,  2  voia., 
Berlin,  1899-1900.    Bee  also  thm  literature  under  Abo- 

TIDB8,  MABdANUa. 

BARLETTA:  More  correctly  Gabriel  of  Bar- 
letta  (on  the  e.  coast  of  Italy,  33  m.  w.n.w.  of  Ban), 
a  Dominican  of  the  fifteenth  centuiy.  About 
1480  he  preached  in  different  cities  of  northern 
Italy.  His  sermons  (first  collected  at  Brescia, 
1497;  often  reprinted  in  the  following  century)  have 
the  usual  scholastic  form  of  the  time,  but  are  en- 
livened by  an  originality  of  ideas,  a  lively  wit,  and 
a  sense  of  humor  often  grotesque,  which  gave  rise 
to  the  adage, "  He  knows  not  how  to  preach  who 
knows  not  how  to  bariettize."  The  moral  serious- 
ness of  the  sennons  and  their  striking  descriptions 
of  the  distress  of  the  country  and  its  lost  greatness 
made  them  influential  and  powerful.  In  a  history 
of  popular  preachers  Barletta  must  have  a  chief 
place  (cf.  Zeiischrift  fur  frraktiache  Theolo^,  vii, 
1885,  30  sqq.;  viii,  1886,  227  sqq.).   K.  Benrath. 

BARNABAS:    The    companion  of   the   Apostl^^ 
Paul,  himself  called  an  apostle  in  Acts  xiv,  4,  14^ 
According  to  Acts  iv,  36,  he  was  a  Levite  bom  in 
Cyprus,  his  original  name  was  Joses,  and  he  was 
sumamed    by    the    apostles    (in    Aramaic)    Bar^ 
nebhuah,  which  is  explained  by  the  Greek  huios 
parakUaeOs  ("  son  of  exhortation,"  not  "  of  con- 
solation," cf.  Acts  xi,  23)  and  denotes  a  prophet 
in  the  primitive  Christian  sense  of  the  word  (cf. 
Acts  xiii,  1;  xv,  32).     Like  his  aunt,  the  mother 
of  John  Mark  (Col.  iv,  10),  Barnabas  seems  to  have 
been  living  in  Jerusalem,  and  he  sold  his  property, 
after  having  joined  the  Christian  congregation  in 
the  first  year  of  its  foimdation,  for  the  benefit  of 
needy   coreligionists    (Acts   iv,    37;  xii,    12).    He 
soon  occupied  a  leading  place  in  the  community. 

Of  his  activity  the  Book  of  Acts  records  that  he 
introduced  the  still  distrusted  Saul  to  the  Jerusalem 
church  after  his  return  from  Damascus  (ix,  27). 
When  the  news  of  the  spread  of  Christianity  to 
Antioch  came  to  Jerusalem  Barnabas  was  sent  to 
the  former  city  (xi,  22-24).  From  Antioch  he  went 
to  Tarsus  to  meet  Paul  and  with  him  worked  for  an 
entire  year  in  the  Antioch  church 
Authentic  (xi,  25-26).  Both  were  sent  to  Jem- 
History,  salem  with  a  contribution  for  the 
Christians  of  Judea  (44  a.d.)  and 
returned  to  Antioch  with  John  Mark  (xi,  27-30; 
xii,  25).  The  three  were  sent  on  a  missionary 
journey  to  Cyprus,  Pamphylia,  Pisidia,  and  Lycaonia 
(xiii,  1  sqq.).  In  the  narrative  of  this  journey 
Paul  occupies  the  first  place  from  the  point  where 
the  name  "  Paul  "  is  substituted  for  "  Saul  "  (xiii, 
9).  Instead  of  "  Barnabas  and  Saul "  as  hereto- 
fore (xi,  30;  xii,  25;  xiii,  2,  7)  "  Paul  and  Bar- 
nabas "  is  now  read  (xiii,  43,  46,  50;  xiv,  20;  xv, 
2,  22,  35);  only  in  xiv,  14  and  xv,  12,  25  does 
Barnabas  again  occupy  the  first  place,  in  the  first 
passage  with  recollection  of  xiv,  12,  in  the  last  two, 
because  Barnabas  stood  in  closer  relation  to  the 
Jerusalem  church  than  Paul.  Paul  appears  as  the 
preaching  missionaiy  (xiii,  16;  xiv,  8-9,   19-20), 


487 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Barlaam  and  Joaaphat 
Bamabites 


whence  the  Lystrans  regarded  hun  as  Hermes, 
Barnabas  as  Zens  (xiv,  12).  After  this  journey 
follows  a  long  stay  in  Antioch  (xiv,  26-28)  until 
they  became  involved  in  a  controversy  with  the 
Judaizers  and  were  sent  to  the  Apostolic  Council 
at  Jerusalem,  where  the  matter  was  settled  (xv, 
1-29;  Gal.  ii,  1-10;  see  Apostouc  Council  at 
Jerusalem).  According  to  Gal.  ii,  9-10  Barnabas 
was  included  with  Paul  in  the  agreement  made 
between  them,  on  the  one  hand,  and  James,  Peter, 
and  John,  on  the  other,  that  the  two  former  should 
in  the  future  preach  to  the  heathen,  not  forgetting 
the  poor  at  Jerusalem.  Having  returned  to  Antioch 
and  spent  some  time  there  (xv,  35),  Paul  asked 
Barnabas  to  accompany  him  on  another  journey 
(xv,  36).  Barnabas  wished  to  take  John  Mark 
along,  but  Paul  did  not,  as  he  had  left  them  on  the 
former  joiuney  (xv,  37-38).  An  imhappy  dissen- 
sion separated  the  two  apostles;  Barnabas  went 
with  Mark  to  Cyprus  (xv,  39)  and  is  not  again 
mentioned  in  the  Acts;  but  from  Gal.  ii,  13  a  little 
more  is  learned  about  him,  and  his  weakness  under 
the  taunts  of  the  Judaizers  is  evident;  and  from 
I  Cor.  ix,  6  it  may  be  gathered  that  he  continued 
to  labor  as  missionary. 

Legends   begin   w^here  authentic    history   ends. 
Barnabas  is  brought   to  Rome  and   Alexandria. 
The  "  Clementine  Recognitions  "  (i,  7)  make  him 
preach    in    Rome    during    Christ's    lifetime,    and 
(dement  of  Alexandria  (Stromata^   ii. 
Legend-     20)  makes  him  one  of  the  seventy 
ary  His-     disciples.     Not  older  than  the  third 
tory.       century  is  the  tradition  of  the  later 
activity  and  martyrdom  of  Barnabas 
in  Cyprus,  where  his  remains  are  said  to  have  been 
discovered    under   the   emperor    Zeno    (474-491). 
The  Cyprian  church  claimed  Barnabas  as  its  founder 
in  order  to  rid  itself  of  the  supremacy  of  the  Anti- 
ochian  bishop,  just  as  did  the  Milan  church  afterward, 
to  become  more  independent  of  Rome.     In  this 
connection,   the  question  whether  Barnabas  was 
an    apostle    became    important,    and    was    often 
treated  during  the  Middle  Ages  (of.  C.  J.  Hefele, 
Das  Sendschreiben  des  Apostels  Barnabas,  Tubingen, 
1840;  O.    Braunsberger,    Der    Apostel    Barnabas, 
Mainz,  1876).    The  statements  as  to  the  year  of 
Bamabas's  death  are  discrepant  and  untrustworthy. 
Tertullian   and   other  Western    writers    regard 
Barnabas  as  the  author  of  the  Epistle  to  the  He- 
brews.   This  may  have  been  the  Iloman  tradition — 
which  Tertullian  usually  follows — ^and  in  Rome  the 
epistle  may  have  had  its  first  readers.    But  the 
tradition   has   weighty  considerations   against  it. 
According  to  Photius   {QucbsL  in  Amphil.f   123), 
Barnabas  wrote  the  Book  of  Acts,  and  a  gospel  is 
ascribed  to  him  (cf.  T.  Zahn,  Geschichte  des  neu- 
teatamenUichen   Kanons,    ii,    292,    Leipsic,    1890). 
Of  more  interest  is  the  tradition  which 
Alleged      makes  Barnabas  author  of  an  epistle 
Writings,    in     twenty-one    chapters,    contained 
complete   in   the  Codex  SinaUicus  at 
the    end    of    the  New    Testament.    A    complete 
Greek   manuscript    was    discovered  by  Bryennios 
at  Constantinople,  and  Hilgenfeld  used  it  for  his 
edition  in  1877.    Besides  this  there  is  a  very  old 
Latin  version  (now  in  the  imperial  library  at  St. 


Petersburg),  in  which,  however,  chaps,  xviii-xxi 
are  wanting.  Toward  the  end  of  the  second  cen- 
tury the  epistle  was  in  great  esteem  in  Alexandria, 
as  the  citations  of  Clement  of  Alexandria  prove. 
It  is  also  appealed  to  by  Origen.  Eusebius,  how- 
ever, objected  to  it  and  ultimately  the  epistle  dis- 
appeared from  the  appendix  to  the  New  Testa- 
ment, or  rather  the  appendix  disappeared  with 
the  epistle.  In  the  West  the  epistle  never  enjoyed 
canonical  authority  (though  it  stands  beside  the 
epistle  of  James  in  the  Latin  manuscripts).  The 
first  editor  of  the  epistle,  Menardus  (1645)  advocated 
its  genuineness,  but  the  opinion  to-day  is,  that 
Barnabas  was  not  the  author.  It  was  probably 
written  in  Alexandria  in  130-131,  and  addressed 
to  Christian  Gentiles.  The  author,  who  formerly 
labored  in  the  congregation  to  which  he  writes, 
intends  to  impart  to  his  readers  the  perfect  gnosis 
that  they  may  perceive  that  the  Christians  are  the 
only  true  covenant  people,  and  that  the  Jewish 
people  had  never  been  in  a  covenant  with  God. 
His  polemics  are,  above  all,  directed  against  Judai- 
zing  Christians.  In  no  other  writing  of  that  early 
time  is  the  separation  of  the  Gentile  Christians 
from  the  patriotic  Jews  so  clearly  brought  out. 
The  Old  Testament,  he  maintains,  belongs  only 
to  the  Christians.  C!ircumcision  and  the  whole 
Old  Testament  sacrificial  and  ceremonial  institu- 
tion are  the  devil's  work.  According  to  the 
author's  conception,  the  Old  Testament,  rightly 
understood,  contains  no  such  injunctions.  He  is 
a  thorough  anti-Judaist,  but  by  no  means  an  anti- 
nomist.  The  main  idea  is  Pauline,  and  the  apos- 
tle's doctrine  of  atonement  is  more  faithfully  repro- 
duced in  tliis  epistle  than  in  any  other  postapostolic 
writing.  The  author  no  doubt  had  read  Paul's 
epistles;  he  has  a  good  knowledge  of  gospel-history 
but  which  of  the  gospels,  if  any,  he  had  read,  can 
not  be  asserted.  He  quotes  IV  Esdras  (xii,  1)  and 
Enoch  (iv,  3;  xvi,  5).  The  closing  section  (chaps, 
xviii-xxi),  which  contains  a  series  of  moral  injunc- 
tions, is  only  loosely  connected  with  the  body  of 
the  epistle,  and  its  true  relation  to  the  latter  has 
given  rise  to  much  discussion. 

(A.  Harnack.) 
Bibuoorapht:  A  Ii;t  of  editions  and  discuwions  ia  in  AN F, 
Bibliography,  pp.  16-19.  The  editio  princept,  Paria, 
1645,  was  preceded  in  1642  by  an  edition  of  UHser,  Ox- 
ford, 1642,  which,  however,  was  consumed  by  fire  in  1644, 
cf.  J.  H.  Barkhouse,  The  Editio  princepa  of  the  EpiatU 
of  Bamabae,  Oxford,  1883;  the  epistle  was  edited  also  by 
J.  G.  MUUer,  Leipsic,  1869;  A.  Hilgenfeld,  ib.  1866.  2d 
ed.,  1877  (containing  the  material  discovered  by  Bryen- 
nios); W.  Cunningham,  London,  1877;  in  Patrum  apoa- 
tolicorum  opera,  ed.  Gebhardt  and  Harnack,  Leipsic,  1875. 
2d  ed.,  1878  (contains  a  list  of  titles  up  to  the  year  1878); 
Funk.  1887,  ANF,  i,  133-149  contains  an  Eng.  transl. 
and  an  introduction.  Ck>n8ult  DCB,  i,  260-265  (dis- 
cusses the  earlier  literature  on  the  subject);  S.  Shan)e, 
EpiatU  of  Barnabas,  from  the  Sinailie  MS,  London,  1880; 
Volter,  in  JPT,  xiv  (1888),  106-144;  J.  Weiss.  Der  Barna- 
baebrief,  kritiaeh  untermdU,  Berlin,  1888;  Harnack,  LO- 
teratur,  i,  58-62;  G.  Salmon.  Hietorical  Introduction  to 
the  Study  of  the  Booka  of  the  New  Testament,  pp.  513-519, 
London,  1892;  KrOger.  History,  pp.  18-21;  {Barnabas), 
Brief  an  die  H^&er,  ed.  F.  Blass,  Halle,  1903. 

BARNABITES  (Clerici  regulares  S.  BamabcB): 
A  congregation  of  regular  clerics  founded  in  the 
city  and  diocese  of  Milan  in  1530  by  a  nobleman 
of  Cremona,   Antonio  Maria   Zaccaria   (b.   1502; 


Bamabites 
Baronlus 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


488 


educated  at  Padua  and  a  physician  by  profession; 
ordained  priest,  1528;  d.  1539),  with  the  help  of 
his  friends,  Giacomo  Antomo  Morigta  and  Bartolo- 
meo  Ferrari  ^  and  two  priests,  Francesco  Lueco 
and  Giacomo  Caaeo.  The  region  was  then  suffering 
severely  frora  the  wars  between  Charles  V  and  Fran- 
cis I,  and  the  purpose  was  stated  in  the  constitution 
to  be  the  promotion  of  a  love  of  divine  service  atid 
the  true  Christian  life  by  means  of  preaching  and 
the  frequent  administration  of  the  sacraments. 
The  original  and  ofScial  name  woa  Ci^rici  reguktrts 
8s  FauU  decolUiti,  which  is  found  in  the  brief  of 
Odment  VII  (1533)  confirming  the  congregation 
as  wcU  as  in  the  edict  of  Paul  III  (1535)  winch 
exempted  the  society  from  episcopal  jurisdiction. 
In  1538  the  grand  old  monast^ery  of  St.  Barnabas 
by  the  city  wall  of  Milan  was  given  to  the  congrega^ 
tion  as  their  main  eeat^  and  thenceforth  they  were 
known  aa  the  Regular  Clerica  of  St.  Barnabas, 
After  the  death  of  Zaccaria  they  were  favored  and 
protected  by  Archbishop  C^irlo  Borromeo  of  Milan 
and  later  by  Francis  of  Sales  because  of  their  suc- 
cesaful  missionary  work  in  Upper  Italy.  They 
entered  France  under  Henry  IV  in  1608,  and  Austria 
under  Ferdinand  11  in  1626.  In  the  last-named 
country  they  still  have  six  monaateri*^,  the  chief 
being  at  Vienna.  In  Italy  their  houses  are  larger 
and  more  numerous  {twenty  in  all) ,  and  that  con- 
nected with  the  Church  of  8.  Carlo  a'  Catanari  in 
Rome  is  the  most  prominent  and  richest.  The 
Order  can  boast  of  eminent  scholars,  as  Gavanti, 
Niceron^  Gerdil,  Lambruschini,  and  Vercellone  in 
the  past,  and  Savi,  Semeda,  and  others  in  the  preB- 
ent,  O.  Z6ci£LEnt- 

BiBUOoBAPat:  Helyot.  Ordrea  momutiquea,  iv,  100-115; 
KL,  i,  a030-34j  J.  HergeorSther,  AU^/emeim  KrccAim- 
QfMchiehU.  iii.  27ft-2T7.  FreibufK,  ISSfl;  Heimbucber. 
Orden  und  Konoregationm^  i.  490,  519-520,  ii.  256  nqq. 
On  the  life  of  the  fmiiider  cnttitijlt  F.  S.  Blmida.i,  Breve  viia 
A.  M\  Zaccaria,  Boloffiui*  1875. 

BARNARI),  JOHH:  Cbngregatioaal  minister; 
b,  at  Boston  Nov,  6,  1681;  d.  at  Marblehead  Jan. 
24,  1770.  He  was  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1700; 
accompanied  the  expedition  to  Port  Royal  as 
chaplain  in  1707;  was  ordained  minister  at  Marble- 
head  in  1716,  where  he  developed  a  gre^t  activity 
both  for  the  moral  and  the  material  welfare  of  his 
flock.  He  published  A  New  Version  of  the  F»alms 
of  Daxnd  (Boston,  1752),  and  some  st^mjons  wtdch 
show  an  incipient  deviation  from  Calvinism. 

BiBLioanAPFiT:  Hia  autobiography,  written  in  hi*  SDtli 
year^  irt  publL^heil  in  the  Ctillection*  of  th9  M anachuMeUs 
HUtorical  Socieiu,  3d  seriein,  voJ.  t,  Bojitua,  183G. 

BARNES,  ALBERT:  Presbyterian;  b,  at  Rome, 
N.  Y.,  Dec.  1,  I7m;  d.  at  West  Philadelphia  Dec. 
24,  1S70.  He  was  graduated  at  Hamilton  College, 
ClintOR,  K.  y.,  in  1820,  and  at  Princeton  Theo- 
loipcal  Seminaryp  !823j  was  ordained  pastor  of  the 
Presbyterian  church  at  Morristown,  N.  J.,  1825; 
was  pastor  of  the  Firet  Presbyterian  Qiurch,  Phila* 
delphia,  1830-67,  when  he  resigned  and  was  made 
pastor  emeritus.  He  was  an  advocate  of  total 
abstinence  and  the  aboUtion  of  slavery  and  worked 
actively  in  the  Sunday-school  cause.  In  1835  he 
was  brought  to  trial  for  heresy  by  the  Second 
Presbytery  of  Philadelphia  upoi  ten  ep ecifications 


(given  in  E.  H.  Gillett,  Hutory  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church,  revised  ed.,  ii,  Philadelphia,  n.d.,  pp.  473- 
474),  but  was  acquitted.  Appeal  w^aa  then  made  tc 
the  Synod  of  Philadelphia  (1835)  and  he  was  sus- 
pended from  the  ministry  until  he  should  repent  of  Mm 
errors.  He  appealed  to  the  General  Assembly  of  1836 
and  the  decision  of  the  Synod  was  reversed.  The  agi- 
tation it  ill  continued  and  the  trial  waa  one  of  the 
active  causes  of  the  disruption  of  the  Presbyterian 
church  in  the  United  States  in  1837  (see  PIiesbt- 
TEfliANs)  and  Mr.  Barnes  was  a  leader  of  the  New 
School  party;  yet '  he  Hved  to  rejoice  in  the  re- 
union in  1870.  His  NoUa  on  the  entire  New  Testa- 
ment and  on  portions  of  the  Old  {Notea  ETplanaior^ 
and  Fradieal  on  the  New  T^tamentf  11  vols.,  Phila- 
delphia, 1S32-53;  revised  edition,  6  vols.,  New 
York,  1872;  Isaiah,  2  vols.,  1840;  Job,  2  vols., 
1S44;  Daniel,  1853;  The  Book  of  Fmima,  3  vols., 
1868),  designed  originally  for  his  congregation  in 
Philadelphia,  were  eminently  fitted  for  popular 
use  and  more  than  one  millton  copies  were  sold; 
they  are  not  original,  but  show  much  patient  and 
coimcientious  labor.  Other  publications  were 
Stripiural  Vistm  of  Slavery  (Philadelphia,  IS46); 
The  Church  and  Shivery  (1857);  The  Atmemeni 
inU9  Relation  to  Law  and  Moral  Govemmenl  (1S50); 
Tha  Way  of  Salvation  (1863);  Lectures  an  the  Evi- 
dences of  Christianity  in  the  Nineteenth  Century 
(New  York,  1868);  Prayers  for  the  Use  of  FamHiei 
(1870);  Ltfe  at  Three  Scare  and  Ten  (1871), 

BARKESj     ARTHUR     STAPYLTON:       Roman 

Catholic:  b.  at  Kussouli  (20  m.  s.w.  of  Simla), 
India,  May  31,  1861.  He  was  educated  at  Eton 
{1874-77),  Royal  Military  Academy,  Woolwich 
(1877-78),  and  University  CoUege,  Oxfonl  (Bw\., 
1883),  and  was  a  lieutenant  in  the  Eoyal  Artillery 
in  1877-79.  He  later  studied  theology  and  waa 
ordained  to  the  Anglican  priesthood.  In  1SS9  he 
became  vicar  of  St.  Ives,  Hunts,  with  Woodhitrst 
and  Oldhurst,  and  was  vicar  of  the  Hospital  of  St, 
Mary  and  St,  Thomas,  llford,  from  1893  to  1895, 
when  he  entered  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 
He  then  studied  at  Rome  for  the  priesthood  and 
was  engaged  ia  diocesan  work  at  Westminster 
imtil  his  appointment  aa  Roman  Catholic  chap- 
lain to  Cambridge  University.  He  has  also  been 
a  Private  Chamberlain  to  the  Pope  since  1904, 
In  addition  to  numerous  briefer  studies,  he  baa 
written  The  Popes  and  the  Ordinal  (London,  1896) 
and  St.  Peter  at  Rome  (1899). 

BARNES,  ROBERT:    Church  of  England;  b,  at 

or  near  Lynn  (26  m,  n.e.  of  Ely),  Norfolk »  1540; 
d.  at  tiie  stake  a^i  a  Protestant  martyr,  London, 
July  30,  1540.  He  studied  at  Cambridge,  where  he 
became  an  Auguatinian  friar,  and  at  Lou  vain, 
where  he  proceeded  doetor  of  divinity.  Rettiming 
to  Cambridge,  he  rose  to  be  master  of  the  house  of 
the  AugustJnians,  In  1526  be  began  to  advocate 
Protestant  views  with  great  boldness,  and  so  quickly 
got  into  trouble.  Though  treated  leniently  he  was 
imprisoned  from  1 526  to  1 528,  when  he  escaped  to  the 
Continent,  where  he  lived  tiU  1531,  and  called  him* 
self  Antonius  Anglos.  He  enjoyed  the  friendship 
of  the  German  Reformers.  In  Wittenberg  in  1530 
he  pubUsbed  hia  fijst  book,  a  coUectioo  of  pae^ges 


489 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bamabitaa 
Baronins 


from  the  doctors  of  the  Church- — all  in  Latin — 
whicb  supported,  ba  he  claimed^  the  Prote^ant 
poeition.  In  1531  a  Gennan  trmDfiUtion  of  these 
passages  appeared  in  Nuremberg.  In  that  year 
he  returned  to  England  and  waa  employed  on 
diplomatic  journeys  by  Henry  VllI  and  Thomaa 
Cromwell,  for  inBtance  to  arrange  the  marriage 
betvreen  Henry  and  Anne  of  Cleves.  He  was  always 
outspoken,  and  showed  more  seal  tban  prudence 
m  propagatmg  his  Prot-estant  views.  So  at  last  he 
was  cast  into  prison  in  the  Tower  and,  although  no 
definite  charge  mB»  laid  against  him^  wa^i  burnt  at 
Smith  field  as  a  heretic,  lu  1573  John  Foxe  printed 
hia  English  works  (London)  which  display  his 
courage,  clearness,  and  comprehensiveness;  selec- 
tiona  were  isaued  by  Legh  Eiclimond  in  liis  Fathen 
of  the  English  Church  (London,  1807) — in  both  the 
account  of  Barnes  reprinted  from  Foxe^s  Monii- 
menis  will  be  found. 

BlBUOORAPOTi  Sources  for  hia  tiffi  ai«  in  the  ColBwiaT  «/ 
Letter*  and  Papert  .  .  .  of  Henry  ViH.  yoL  V*  ed.  J*  S. 
Bnew«r  and  J^  Gflirdiier,  in  HolU  Senes^  1 1  vole.,  lSi&2- 
88.  Luther 'n  Prefiwe  to  Bamca's  Cofifeaaion  m  Luther'^ 
warite,  ErlAogen  «d,.,  Ixiii,  30&-400.  GouBiiJt  the  biog- 
raphy in  DNB,  HI.  253^25^ 

BARMES,  Wn-LIAM  EMERY:  Church  of  Eng- 
land; b.  at  London  May  2d,  1859.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Peter  house,  Cambridge  (B.A.,  1831), 
and  was  ordered  deacon  in  1S83  and  ordained 
priest  in  the  following  year.  He  was  curate  of  St. 
John's,  Waterloo  Road,  Lambeth,  in  1SS3-S5, 
assistant  theological  lecturer  at  Qare  College, 
Cambridge,  in  1SS5-94,  and  assistant  tutor  at 
Peterhouse  In  1891-1904.  Since  the  latter  year 
he  has  been  Hulaean  professor  of  divinity  at  Cam- 
bridge. He  has  also  been  chaplain  of  Peterhouse 
since  1885  and  fellow  since  18S9,  as  well  as  exam- 
ining chaplain  to  the  bkhop  of  London  since  19Q3. 
In  addition  to  numeroua  briefer  contributions 
and  his  work  as  editor  of  the  Journal  of  Theological 
Siudiea  from  1899  to  1904,  he  has  written  Canonical 
and  Vncunmiicol  Gospels  (London,  1893);  The 
PeshUta  Text  of  Chronictea  (1897);  Chronieks  with 
Noies,  in  The  Cambridge  BibU  for  Schools  (1899); 
Isai^  Explained r  in  The  Churchman's  Bible  (1901); 
The  PiotmM  in  the  Peshiila  Text  (1904);  and  The 
Creed  of  SL  AOmnamus  (1905). 

BARHETTp  SAMUEL  AUGUSTUS;  Chureh  of 
England;  b.  at  Bristol  Feb.  8,  1844.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Wadham  College,  Oxford  (B,A„  1865), 
and  was  ordered  deacon  in  1867  and  prieated  in  the 
following  ye^r.  He  was  curate  of  St.  Mary's, 
Bryanston  Square,  London,  in  1867-72,  vicar  of 
8t,  Jude'a,  Whitechapel,  in  1872^93,  and  curate  of 
the  same  church  in  1897-1903.  In  1884  he  founded 
Toynbee  HalJ,  Whitechapel,  of  w^hicb  he  has  since 
been  warden,  as  well  as  cha.irmaa  of  the  Wliite- 
chapel  Board  of  Guardiajis,  of  the  Children's 
Country  Holiday  Fund,  and  of  the  Pupil  Teachers* 
Scholarship  Fund-  In  1893  he  was  appointed  & 
canon  of  Bristol  Cathedral,  and  was  also  select 
preacher  at  Oxford  in  1896-97  and  at  Cambridge 
in  1900,  In  addition  to  roinor  contributions,  be 
has  written  Practicable  Socialism  (m  collabofation 
with  his  wife,  London,  1893)  and  Tht  Service  of 
God  (1895), 


BARinJM,  HENRY  SAMUEL:  Presbyterian; 
b,  at  Stratford,  Conn.,  Aug.  13,  1837.  He  was 
educated  at  Yale  College  (B,A.,  18G2)  and  Auburn 
Theological  Seminary ^  from  which  he  was  grad^ 
uated  in  1S67.  In  the  same  year  he  was  ordained 
to  the  Presbyterian  ministry,  and  for  five  years 
was  a  missionary  of  the  American  Board  of  Com- 
missioners for  Foreign  Missions  at  Harpoot,  Turkey. 
Since  1872  he  has  been  a  missionary  of  the  same 
organization  at  Van,  Turkey,  and  since  1884  haa 
also  edited  a  weekly  in  Armenian  and  TurMsb. 
He  has  likewise  written  a  number  of  commentaries 
in  Armenian, 

BARO  (BAROIT),  PETER  s  Anti-Calvinist;  b. 
at  Etampes  (35  m.  h.s.w.  of  Paris)  Dec.,  1534; 
d.  in  London  Apr,  17,  1599.  He  studied  law  at 
Bourges,  and  began  in  1557  to  plead  in  the  court 
of  the  Parliament  of  Paris,  but  retired  in  1560  to 
Geneva,  where  he  studied  theology  and  was  or- 
dained by  Calvin.  In  1572  he  returned  to  Prance, 
but  soon  fled  from  persecution  to  England  and  in 
1574  was  appointed  Lady  Margaret  professor  of 
divinity  at  Cambridge.  He  fell  out  with  the  rigid 
Calvinists;  and  a  sermon  on  the  Lambeth  articles, 
preached  Jan.  12,  1596,  gave  so  much  ofifense  that 
he  was  compelled  to  renounce  his  chair  in  the 
university  and  retire  to  London.  Among  his  works 
are  In  Jonam  prophetnm  -proilection^^  (London, 
1579);  Sumnta  trium  de  prtBdeMinalione  scnt4^~ 
iiarum  (Hardwyckj,  1613),  tmnalated  in  Nichols's 
Works  of  James  ArminiuSf  i  (London,  1825),  92-100, 
BiBLiooRAFBT :  HiB  KutobiogTAphy  is  fpi;ii3il  abrideetd  in 
E.  M»aUiT9,  Mtmotra  of  (A<r  Lih  fi"d  Wrziinfff  of  T,  Bakm-» 
pp,  127-130.  Cambridge,  1784.  Ctonflult  C,  H.  Cooper, 
AUitnm  CaniabrifMii*^,  ii,  274r-£78,  London,  ISei;  DNB^ 
BU  2a&-267. 

BARO^KIUS,    C^SAR  (Cfsare  de  Baronq):   The 

father  of  churcli  history  among  Roman  Catholics 
since  the  Reformation;  b.  at  Sora  (56  m.  e.s,e.  of 
Rome),  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  Oct,  31,  1538; 
d.  in  Rome  June  30,  1607,  His  family  was  ancient 
and  distinguished  for  piety.  He  was  educated 
first  at  Veroli,  then  at  Naples,  where  be  studied 
theology  and  law.  He  went  to  Rome  in  1567, 
just  at  the  time  when  Paul  IV  w^aa  attempting  to 
restore  the  papacy  to  ita  medieval  splendor  and 
dominion;  but   he   felt   l^s   attraction   to   public 

policy  than  to  a  life  of  scholarly  retire- 
Life,       ment.    This    he    found    in    the    new 

Congregiation  of  the  Oratofy  under 
Philip  Neri  (q,v.)  whose  system  prepared  the  young 
man,  without  his  knowledge,  for  the  great  work  he 
was  to  do.  The  Oratorians  were  diiected  by  their 
fotmder  to  occupy  the  morning  houra  with  studies 
in  ecclesiastical  mattenB,  but  in  a  manner  which 
should  C4>nduce  to  instruction  as  well  as  to  edifice^ 
lion.  More  and  more  attracted  by  the  study  of 
church  history  thus  required,  Baronius  began 
diligently  to  collect  and  compare  materials  for  its 
prosecution,  and  worked  for  thirty  years  amidst 
the  vast  mass  of  unpublbhed  material  w^hieh  the 
Vatican  archives  contained.  He  had  appa-rently 
no  far-reaching  litemry  plana  until  he  was  called 
upon  by  his  superior,  by  Cardinal  Caraffa,  and  by 
other  friends  to  utilise  his  stores  of  knowktlge  in 
the  defense  of  the  Church  a^dnBt  the  powerful 


Baronins 
Barroel 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


490 


attack  which  had  been  made  upon  it  in  the  "  Magde- 
burg Centuries  "  (q.v.)  and  to  provide  a  complete 
Roman  Catholic  church  history  such  as  did  not  then 
exist, — a  desideratum  which  his  Annalea  ecck^ 
aiasiici  supplied  with  no  small  credit  to  the  author, 
considering  the  conditions  of  historical  writing  in 
the  sixteenth  century.  The  fame  which  he  acquired 
by  the  execution  of  his  task  drew  him  unwillingly 
from  his  retirement.  He  was  made  prothonotary 
of  the  apostolic  see  and  later,  by  Clement  VIII  in 
1596,  a  cardinal,  as  well  as  librarian  of  the  Vatican. 
At  both  the  papal  elections  which  occurred  in  1605 
he  was  a  candidate  against  his  will,  and  came  near 
being  chosen.  But  the  exhausting  labor  involved 
in  the  completion  of  his  huge  work  really  caused  his 
death  two  years  later. 

The  Annalea  ecdesiastici  begin  with  the  birth 
of  Christ  and  come  down  to  1198.  In  form  they 
resemble  the  ordinary  medieval  chronicle,  the 
events  of  each  year  being  grouped  together  under 
the  date  without  regard  to  any  other  connection. 
This  form  would  have  been  well  adapted  to  the 
author's  purpose  of  offering  the  great  mass  of 
historical  material  to  the  reader  as  sources  arranged 
in  order,  if  it  had  been  carried  out  with  strict  appli- 
cation of  critical  principles  and  the  utmost  exact- 
ness.    Baronius  tried,  indeed,  to  meet 

The  An-  these  requirements;  but  with  all  his 
nales  Eccle-  pains  he  did  not  altogether  succeed. 

siasticL  To  say  nothing  of  the  limitations 
inseparable  from  his  fimdamental 
beliefs  and  polemical  attitude,  the  errors  in  non- 
contentious  points,  such  as  dates,  are  so  numerous 
as  to  make  great  care  necessary  in  using  the  Annalea, 
Nevertheless  they  are  a  storehouse  of  learning. 
Though  the  work  was  occasioned  by  the  appearance 
of  the  "  Magdeburg  Centuries,"  it  is  not  directly  con- 
troversial. The  opposition  appears  rather  in  the 
simple  fundamental  conception  that  true  history 
can  only  be  written  by  the  aid  of  the  documents 
to  which  he  had  access,  guaranteed  by  the  authority 
of  the  Roman  Church,  and  that  it  is  only  necessary 
for  these  documents  to  be  known  in  order  to  secure 
universal  recognition  of  the  claims  of  that  Church. 
He  agrees  with  the  Centuriators  as  to  the  purity 
of  the  Church  of  the  first  six  centuries;  but  while 
they  endeavor  to  show  that  the  Christianity  of  the 
Middle  Ages  was  an  actual  apostasy  from  that  happy 
state,  Baronius  does  his  best  to  demonstrate  the 
continuity  of  Catholicism  and  the  early  existence 
of  a  distinctively  Roman  character  in  Christianity. 
His  other  writings  are  of  far  secondary  importancQ, 

The  first  edition  of  the  Annalea  appeared  in  12 
volumes  at  Rome,  1588-1607;  the  Mainz  edition, 
1601-05,  was  revised  by  Baronius  himself;  that 
of  Antwerp,  1597-1609,  is  noteworthy  because 
Philip  III  suppressed  vol.  xi  wdthin  his  dominions 
because  of  the  Tradatua  de  monarchia  Siciliw  con- 
tained in  it  [separately  printed,  Paris  1609].  The 
Annalea  have  been  continued  (1)  from  1198  to  1565 
by  Abraham  Bzovius  (8  vols.,  Rome,  1616  sqq.; 
9  vols.,  Cologne,  1621-30);  (2)  from  1198  to  1640 
by  Henricus  Spondanus  (Paris,  1640  sqq.;  Leyden, 
1678);  (3)  from  1199  to  1565  by  the  Oratorian 
Odoricus  Raynaldus  (9  vols.,  Rome,  1646-77; 
Cologne,  169S-1727;  14  vols.,  Lucca,  1740  sqq.). 


the  best  continuation;  (4)  from  1566  to  1571  by 
Jacobus  Laderchius  (3  vols.,  Rome,  1728-37; 
Cologne,  1738  sqq.);  (5)  from  1572  to  1583  by 
Augustin  Theiner  (3  vols.,  Rome,  1856  sqq.).  The 
Critica  hiaiorica-chronoloffica  in  univeraoa  Ccuaris 
Baronii  annalea  of  F.  Pagi  (4  vols.,  Antwerp,  1705 
sqq.;  1724)  are  an  indispensable  companion  to  the 
work.  The  most  convenient  edition  is  that  of 
Mansi  (38  vols.,  Lucca,  1738-57),  which  has  Pagi's 
emendations  appended  to  the  text,  the  continuation 
of  Raynaldus,  and  three  volimies  of  valuable  indices. 
The  most  recent  edition  (incomplete),  with  all 
continuations,  appeared,  vols,  i-xxviii  at  Bar-le- 
Duc,  1864-75,  vols,  xxix-xxxvii  at  Paris,  1876-83. 

(Carl  Mibbt.) 

Bxbuoorapht:  Sarra,  Vita  del  ,  .  ,  Cetore  Baronio,  Rome, 
1862.  On  his  history  consult  F.  C.  Baur,  Die  Epodten 
der  kircklichen  Oeechichtaeehreibuno,  pp.  72-^,  Tabingen, 
1852;  P.  Schsff,  HUtory  of  the  Apoelolic  ChurcK  PP.  56- 
57.  New  York,  1874;  C.  de  Smedt,  IntroducHo  generaltM 
in  hiatoriam  ecdeeiaaticatn^  pp.  461  sqq.,  Ghent,  1876; 
H.  Hurter,  Nomenelator  literariue  recenHorie  OuologuB 
catholiccB,  i,  pp.  209-212,  Innsbruck,  1892;  J.  F.  Hurst, 
Hiatory  of  the  ChriaHan  Church,  i.  42,  62,  723,  751,  ii,  568, 
New  York,  1900;  Cambridge  Modem  Hiatory,  The  Renaia- 
aance,  p.  609.  London,  1902. 

BARRETT,  BENJAMIN  FISK:  Swedenborgian; 
b.  at  Dresden,  Me.,  June  24,  1808;  d.  at  German- 
town,  Penn.,  Aug.  6,  1892.  He  was  graduated 
at  Bowdoin,  1832,  and  at  the  Harvard  Divinity 
School,  1838;  became  a  Swedenborgian,  1839; 
was  pastor  of  the  New  Church  Society,  New  York, 
1840-48;  in  Cincinnati  1848-50;  after  a  temporary 
retirement  because  of  ill  health  became  pastor  in 
Philadelphia;  president  and  corresponding  secre- 
tary of  the  Swedenborg  Publishing  Association, 
Philadelphia,  1871.  He  was  editor  of  The 
Swedenborgian,  1858-60,  and  of  The  New  Church 
Monthly,  1867-70  (when  it  was  merged  in  The 
New  Church  Independent).  He  compiled  and 
edited  Tfie  Swedenborg  Library,  giving  the  sub- 
stance of  Swedenborg's  theological  teachings 
(12  vols.,  Philadelphia,  1876-81).  His  books 
include  a  Ldfe  of  Emanuel  Srvedenborg  (New  York, 
1841);  Lecturea  on  the  Doctrinea  of  the  New  Church 
(1842;  title  afterward  changed  to  Lecturea  on  the 
New  Diapenaation);  Beauty  for  Aahea,  or  the  old 
and  new  doctrine  concerning  the  atate  of  infanta  after 
death  contraated  (1855);  The  Golden  Reed,  or  the 
true  meaaure  of  a  true  church  (1855);  The  Queation 
concerning  the  Viaible  Church  (1856;  new  ed., 
with  title  The  Apocalyptic  New  JeruaaJem,  Phila- 
delphia, 1883);  Catholicity  of  the  New  Church  (1863); 
The  New  View  of  HeU  (1870);  The  Golden  City 
(1874);  The  New  Church,  ita  nature  and  whereabouta 
(1877);  Swedenborg  and  Channing  (1879);  The 
Queation  I  what  are  the  doctrines  of  the  New  Church  ?] 
Anau)ered  (1883);  Heaven  Revealed  (1885). 

Bibliographt:  J.  R.  Irelan,  From  Different  Pointa  of  View: 
B.  F.  Barrett,  Preacher,  Writer,  Theologian,  and  Philoao- 
pher,  Germantown,  1896. 

BARRIERE,  JEAN  DE  LA.    See  Feuillants. 

BARROW  (BARROWE),  HENRY:  English  Sep- 
aratist; hanged  at  Tyburn,  London,  Apr.  6,  1593. 
He  came  of  good  family  in  Norfolk,  studied  at  Clare 
Hall,  Cambridge,  1566-70,  studied  law,  and  was 
admitted  a  member  of  Gray's  Inn  in  1576.    He 


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Baronius 
Barmel 


belonged  to  the  court  circle  and  is  said  to  have  led 
a  dissolute  life  until  converted  by  a  chance  sermon. 
Probably  through  the  influence  of  John  Greenwood 
(q.v.)  he  adopted  the  views  of  the  Brownists. 
After  Greenwood's  arrest,  Barrow  visited  him  in 
prison  and  was  himself  illegally  detained,  Nov., 
1586,  and  kept  in  confinement  thenceforth  till 
his  execution.  While  in  prison,  in  collaboration 
with  Greenwood,  he  wrote  several  books  and 
pamphlets,  including  A  True  Description  out  of 
the  Word  of  God  of  the  Visible  Church  (1589;  cf. 
W.  Walker,  Creeds  and  Platforms  of  Congrega- 
tionalism, New  York,  1893,  28-40)  and  A  Brief 
Discovery  of  the  False  Church  (1590).  Dr.  Dexter's 
suggestion  (Congregationalism  of  the  Last  Three 
Hundred  Years,  New  York,  1880,  192-202)  that 
he  wrote  the  Marprelate  Tracts  (q.v.)  has  not 
met  with  general  acceptance.  He  differed  from 
Robert  Browne  in  placing  the  government  of  the 
Church  in  the  hands  of  elders  rather  than  the 
entire  congregation,  fearing  too  much  democracy. 
See  CoNOREOATioNAUBTs,  1, 1,  §  3.  After  the  erratic 
leader  of  the  Separatists  had  submitted  to  the 
Church,  he  turned  his  invective  sagainst  Barrow  and 
Greenwood,  who  remained  Separatists  consistently 
to  the  end  (see  Browne,  Robert). 

Biblioorapht:  Egerton  Paper;  ed.  J.  P.  Collier  for  Camden 
Society,  pp.  166-179,  London,  1840;  DNB,  iii,  297- 
298  (hM  excellent  list  of  references);  Champlin  Burrage, 
The  True  Story  of  Robert  Browne,  pp.  48-60,  Oxford. 
1906. 

BARROW,  ISAAC:  Church  of  England;  b.  in 
London  Oct.,  1630;  d.  there  May  4.  1677.  He 
studied  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge;  traveled 
in  Europe  and  the  East,  165&-59,  residing  for  more 
than  a  year  in  Turkey;  was  ordained  on  his  return 
to  England,  and  after  the  Restoration  was  made 
professor  of  Greek  at  Cambridge;  became  pro- 
fessor of  mathematics  in  1663,  but  resigned  in  1669 
in  favor  of  his  famous  pupil,  Isaac  Newton,  and 
devoted  himself  to  theology.  Charles  II  made 
him  his  chaplain  and  in  1673  appointed  him  master 
of  Trinity;  in  1675  he  was  made  vice-chancellor 
of  the  university.  His  reputation  is  deservedly 
high  as  a  scholar,  mathematician,  and  scientist; 
his  Treatise  of  the  Pope's  Suprem<icy  (London,  1680) 
shows  much  skill  in  controversy;  his  sermons  are 
elaborate  and  exhaustive,  but  ponderous  in  style 
and  inordinately  long.  His  theological  works 
edited  by  John  Tillotson  appeared  in  four  volumes 
at  London,  1683-87;  they  have  been  several  times 
reissued,  the  best  edition  being  that  by  A.  Napier 
(9  vols.,  Cambridge,  1859). 

BxBuoaRAPHT:  The  best  Account  of  his  life  is  by  W.  Whew- 
ell,  prefixed  to  vol.  ix  of  Barrow's  works,  ut  sup.;  a  critical 
acooimt  is  given  DNB,  iii.  299-305.  His  Treaiiae  of  the 
Pope'e  Supremacy  has  been  reprinted  by  the  Cambridge 
University  Press  and  the  8.  P.  C.  K. 

BARROWS,  JOHN  HENRY:  Congregationalist; 
b.  at  Medina,  Mich.,  July  11.  1847;  d.  at  Oberlin, 
Ohio,  June  3,  1902.  He  was  graduated  at  Olivet 
College,  Michigan,  1867;  studied  theology  at  the 
Yale  Divinity  School  and  Union  Theological  Sem- 
inary, New  York,  1867-69,  and  at  Andover,  1874- 
75;  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  Eliot  Congregational 


Church,  Lawrence,  Mass.,  1875;  was  pastor  of 
Maverick  Church,  East  Boston,  1880-81;  of  the 
First  Presbyterian  Church,  Chicago,  1881-96; 
president  of  Oberlin  College,  Jan.,  1899,  till  his 
death.  He  was  chairman  of  the  committee  on 
religious  conferences  of  the  Columbian  exposition 
of  1893,  organized  the  Parliament  of  Religions  at 
Chicago  in  that  year,  and  published  an  account  of  it 
(2  vols.,  Chicago,  1893);  his  Haskell  lectures  at 
the  University  of  Chicago,  1895,  were  repeated, 
with  many  other  addresses,  in  India  and  Japan 
the  following  year  and  were  published  under  the 
title  Christianity  the  World  Religion  (1897);  in 
1898  he  was  Morse  lecturer  at  the  Union  Theo- 
logical Seminary  upon  the  topic  The  Christian 
Conquest  of  Asia  (New  York,  1899). 

Bibuoorapht:  Mary  E.  Barrows,  John  Henry  Barrow;  a 
Memoir,  New  York,  1905  (by  his  daughter). 

BARROWS,  SAMUEL  JUNE:  Unitarian;  b.  in 
New  York  City  May  26,  1845.  After  being  for  a 
time  a  journalist  and  stenographer,  he  studied 
theology  at  Harvard  Divinity  School  (B.D.,  1875) 
and  studied  for  a  year  at  Leipsic.  He  was  pastor 
of  the  First  Church  (Unitarian),  Dorchester,  Mass., 
from  1876  to  1880,  and  was  editor  of  the  Christian 
Register  from  1881  to  1897.  He  has  been  since 
1896  the  United  States  representative  on  the  Inter- 
national Prison  Commission,  and  since  1900  the 
corresponding  secretary  of  the  Prison  Association 
of  New  York.  In  1897-99  he  was  a  member  of 
Congress  for  the  tenth  district  of  Massachusetts. 
His  writings  include:  Life  and  Letters  of  Thomas 
J.  Mumford  (Boston,  1879);  The  Doom  of  the 
Majority  of  Mankind  (1883);  Ezra  AbboU  (Cam- 
bridge, 1884);  A  Baptist  Meeting  House  (Boston, 
1885);  and  Isles  and  Shrines  of  Greece  (1898). 

BARRUELy  AUGUSmi:  French  politico-relig- 
ious writer;  b.  at  Villeneuve-de-Berg  (95  m.  n.w. 
of  Marseilles),  Arddche,  Oct.  2,  1741;  d.  at  Paris 
Oct.  5,  1820.  He  was  teaching  in  the  Jesuit  college 
in  Toulouse  when  the  order  was  suppressed  in  France 
(1764),  and  thereupon  undertook  extensive  travels 
in  Europe;  returned  to  France  in  1774  and  wrote 
against  the  infidelity  of  the  age  as  associate 
editor  of  the  Annie  littiraire,  after  1788  as  edi- 
tor of  the  Journal  eccUsiastique,  and  in  his  book, 
Les  Helviennes  ou  lettres  promnciales  phUosophiques 
(5  vols.,  Amsterdam,  1784-88).  In  August,  1792, 
he  fled  from  the  Revolution  to  England  and  re- 
mained there  till  18(X).  He  published  at  London 
an  Histoire  du  clergi  pendant  la  R&ooluHon  fran^ise 
(2  vols.,  1793);  Mhnoires  pour  servir  d  Vhistoire 
du  Jacobinisme  (5  vols.,  Amsterdam,  1796-99;  Eng. 
transl.,  4  vols.,  1798);  Udvangile  et  le  dergd  frangais 
(1800).  After  his  return  to  France  he  published 
Du  pape  et  de  ses  droits  religieux  (2  vols.,  Paris, 
1803),  which  gave  the  Ul tramontanes  occasion  to 
say  that  he  had  sold  himself  to  Bonaparte.  His 
work  in  general  is  marked  by  exaggeration  and 
bitterness  and  he  goes  to  an  absurd  extreme  in 
opposition  to  the  freemasons  and  secret  societies. 

Biblxoorapht:  Dtusault,  Notice  tur  la  vie  et  lee  ouvragee 
de  Barruel.  Paris,  1825. 


Barnr 

Bartle 


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THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


492 


BARRY,  ALFRED:  Church  of  England,  sufifra- 
gan  bishop  in  West  London;  b.  at  London  Jan.  15, 
1826.  He  was  educated  at  King's  Ck)llege,  Lon- 
don, and  Trinity  Ck)llege,  Cambridge  (B.A.,  1848), 
where  he  was  elected  fellow  in  1849.  He 
was  subwarden  of  Trinity  College,  Glenalmond, 
in  1849-54,  headmaster  of  Leeds  Grammar  School 
in  1854-62,  principal  of  Cheltenham  College  in 
1862-68,  and  principal  of  King's  College,  London, 
in  1868-83.  Having  been  ordained  deacon  in  1850 
and  priest  in  1853,  he  was  canon  of  Worcester  in 
1871-81  and  of  Westminster  m  1881-84,  in  addition 
to  being  chaplain  to  the  queen  in  1875-84.  In 
1884  he  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Sydney  and 
primate  of  Australia,  but  resigned  in  1889,  and 
until  1891  was  suffragan  bishop  in  the  diocese  of 
Rochester.  He  was  then  appointed  canon  of 
Windsor,  and  was  rector  of  St.  James's,  Piccadilly, 
from  1895  to  1900.  He  was  consecrated  suffra- 
gan bishop  in  West  London  in  1897.  In  addition 
to  numerous  volumes  of  sermons,  he  has  written 
Introduction  to  the  Old  Testament  (London,  1850); 
The  Atonement  of  Christ  (1871);  What  is  Natural 
Theology  t  (Boyle  Lectures  for  1876);  The  Mani- 
fold Witness  for  Christ  ((Boyle  Lectures  for  1877- 
78);  Teacher's  Prayer  Book  (1882);  First  Words 
in  Australia  (1884);  Parables  of  the  Old  Testament 
(1889);  Christianity  and  Socialism  (1891);  Light 
of  Science  on  the  Faith  (Bampton  Lectures  for  1892); 
England's  Message  to  India  (1894);  Ecclesiastical 
Expansion  of  England  (Hulsean  Lectures  for  1894- 
95);  The  PosUion  of  the  Laity  (1903);  and  The 
Christian  Sunday  (1904). 

BARRY,  WILLIAM  FRANCIS:  English  Roman 
Catholic;  b.  at  London  Apr.  21,  1849.  He  was 
educated  at  St.  Mary's  College,  Oscott,  English 
College,  Rome,  and  Gregorian  University,  Rome 
(D.D.,  1873).  He  was  ordained  to  the  priesthood 
at  St.  John  Lateran,  Rome,  in  1873,  and  from  that 
year  until  1877  was  vice-president  and  professor  of 
philosophy  at  the  Birmingham  Diocesan  Seminary. 
He  was  then  appointed  to  the  professorship  of  the- 
ology at  St.  Mary's  College,  dscott,  where  he  re- 
mained until  1880.  From  1881  to  1883  he  was 
curate  at  Snow  Hill,  Wolverhampton,  and  since 
the  latter  year  has  been  rector  of  St.  Birinus, 
Dorchester,  Oxfordshire.  He  was  a  delegate  to 
the  Temperance  Convention  at  the  Chicago  World's 
Fair  in  1893,  and  lectured  before  the  Royal  Institu- 
tion, London,  in  1896.  Since  1889  he  has  been 
a  member  and  lecturer  of  the  Catholic  Truth 
Society,  and  in  1897  was  elected  vice-president  of 
the  Irish  Literary  Society  of  London.  In  addition 
to  numerous  briefer  studies  and  contributions  to 
periodicals,  he  has  written  The  New  Antigone 
(London,  1887);  The  Two  Standards  (1899);  Ar- 
den  Massiter  (1900);  The  Wizard's  Knot  (1901); 
The  Papal  Monarchy  (1902);  The  Day  Spring 
(1903);  Cardinal  Newman  (1903);  Perils  of  Revolt 
(1904);  Ernest  Renan  (1905);  and  The  Tradition  of 
Scripture  (1906;  put  upon  the  Index). 

BARSU'MAS:  1.  Archunandrite  or  abbot  of  a 
Syrian  monastery,  adherent  of  Eutyches  and  his 
doctrine.  At  the  Robber  Synod  of  Ephesus  (449) 
he  appeared  at  the  head  of  a  thousand  rough  and 


turbulent  monks,  and  took  part  personally  in  the 
tumults  which  disgraced  that  assembly  (see  Euttch- 
ianism).  Two  years  later  he  presented  him- 
self at  the  Council  of  Chalcedon  but  was  refused 
admittance.  He  continued  to  work  for  EutychiaD- 
ism  till  his  death  in  458.  By  the  Jacobites  he  is 
honored  as  a  saint  and  miracle-worker. 

2.  Bishop  of  Nisibis  435-489.  See  Nsstobiamb. 

BARTH,  bOrt,  CHRISTIAN  GOTTLIEB:  Pastor 
and  friend  of  missions;  b.  in  Stuttgart  July  13, 
1799;  d.  at  Calw  (20  m.  w.  of  Stuttgart)  Nov.  12, 
1862.  He  studied  theology  at  Tubingen,  became 
pastor  of  M5ttlingen,  near  Calw,  in  1824,  but  retired 
in  1838  to  Calw,  and  devoted  himself  entirely  tx> 
the  missionary  cause.  He  founded  the  missionaiy 
society  of  WOrttemberg,  and  brought  it  in  active 
cooperation  with  Basel  and  all  the  great  missionary 
societies  of  the  Christian  world.  He  wrote  some 
of  the  best  German  missionary  hymns.  He  edited 
the  Calwer  MissionsUatt  and  wrote  a  great  num- 
ber of  works  of  practical  Christianity,  and  stories 
for  children  and  youth,  some  of  which  met  with 
an  almost  unparalleled  success.  Several  were 
translated  into  English,  e.g.,  The  AtUobiography  of 
Thomas  PlaUer  (London,  1839);  Bible  Stories  for 
the  Young  (1845);  Stories  for  Christian  Children  (2 
series,  1851  and  1854). 

BiBXiiooRAPHT:  K.  Werner.  C.  O.  Barth,  naeh  •einem  Lthen 
und  Wirken  gezeichnet,  3  vola.,  Calw,  1865-69;  G.Weit- 
brecht.  Dr.  Barth  tuuh  teinem  Leben  und  Wirken,  Stutt- 
gart.  1875;  W.  Kopp,  C.  O,  Barth'9  Leben  und  Wirken, 
Calw,  1886. 

BARTHy  JACOB:  Judeo-German  Semitic 
scholar;  b.  at  Flehingen  (a  village  of  Baden)  Mar. 
3,  1851.  He  was  educated  at  the  universities  of 
Leipsic,  Strasburg,  and  Berlin,  and  since  1874  has 
taught  Hebrew,  exegesis,  and  the  philosophy  of 
religion  at  the  rabbinical  seminary  in  Berlin,  and 
has  also  lectured  for  many  years  on  Semitic  and 
Jewish  literature  at  the  Veitel  Heine  Ephraim 
Institute  in  the  same  city.  In  1880  he  was  ap- 
pointed associate  professor  of  Semitic  languages  in 
the  University  of  Berlin.  He  has  written  Beitrdge 
zur  Erkldrung  des  Buches  Hiob  (Berlin,  1876); 
Maimonides  Commentar  turn  Tractat  Makkoth 
(1880);  Beiir&ge  zur  Erkldrung  des  Jesaja  (1885); 
Die  Nominalbildung  in  den  semitischen  Sprachen 
(2  vols.,  Leipsic,  1889-91);  Etymologische  Studien 
turn  semitischen^  insbesondere  zum  hebrdischen 
Lexikon  (1893);  Wurzeluntersuchungen  zum  hebrdi- 
schen und  aramdischen  Lexikon  (1902);  and  a  large 
number  of  contributions  to  various  learned  peri- 
odicals. He  has  also  edited  the  KUab  al-Fasih  of 
Thalab  (Leyden,  1876);  the  first  two  parts  of  the 
Leyden  edition  of  the  "  Annals "  of  al-Tabari 
(1879-81);  and  the  Diwan  of  al-Kutami  (1902). 

BARTHy  MARIE  fTIENNE  AUGUSTE:  French 
Lutheran;  b.  at  Strasburg  Mar.  22,  1834.  He  was 
educated  at  the  College  Royal  and  the  academy 
of  his  native  city,  being  graduated  from  the  latter 
in  1855.  From  1856  to  1861  he  was  professor  of 
rhetoric  and  philosophy  at  the  college  of  Buchs- 
weiler,  Alsace,  but  has  since  lived  as  a  private 
scholar  in  Paris.  He  is  a  chevalier  of  the  L^on  of 
Honor,  a  grand  offioer  of  the  Royal  Order  of  Cam- 


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Barry 
Bartle 


ett 


bodia,  and  a  Commander  of  the  Dragon  of  Annam. 
He  is  a  member  of  learned  societies  in  France, 
Holland,  Russia,  Great  Britain,  and  the  United 
States,  and  in  addition  to  numerous  contributions 
to  Oriental  and  scientific  periodicals  in  France, 
has  written  Lea  Religiona  de  VInde  (Paris,  1879; 
Eng.  transl..  The  Religunw  of  India^  by  J.  Wood, 
London,  18iS2);  InacripUaru  aamcrUea  du  Cam- 
hodge  (Paris,  1885);  and  InscriptUma  sanacrites  du 
Cambodge  et  de  Campu  (1894). 

BARTHOLOMEW  (Gk.  Bartholamaioa,  Aram. 
Bar-Talmai,  "  Son  of  Tahnai  ") :  One  of  the  twelve 
Apostles,  mentioned  in  Blatt.  x,  3;  Mark  iii,  18; 
Luke  vi,  14;  Acts  i,  13.  Nothing  is  told  in  the  New 
Testament  of  his  work  as  an  apostle.  According 
to  Eusebius  (Hiat.  ecd.,  v,  10)  and  Jerome  {De 
vir.  ill,,  xxxvi),  he  preached  the  Gospel  in  India — 
that  is,  in  what  is  called  India  to-day,  not,  as  some 
have  argued,  Arabia  Felix.  Other  Asiatic  coun- 
tries have  been  named  as  the  scenes  of  his  labors, 
especially  Armenia,  where  he  is  said  to  have  been 
flayed  alive  and  crucified  with  his  head  down. 
L^nd  narrates  that  his  body  was  miraculously 
conveyed  to  the  island  of  Lipari,  and  thence  to 
Benevento.  His  feast-day  is  usually  the  24th  of 
August;  at  Rome,  however,  it  is  celebrated  on  the 
25th.  An  old  and  wide-spread  theory  (though  Augus- 
tine, for  example,  did  not  accept  it)  identifies  Bar- 
tholomew with  Nathanael  of  Cana  in  Galilee  (John 
i,  45-51;  xxi,  2).  That  John  counted  Nathanael 
as  an  apostle  is  probable  because  in  the  former 
of  these  passages  he  represents  him  as  joining  the 
company  of  Jesus  with  the  earlier  and  later  apostles, 
and  in  the  latter  passage  he  mentions  him  in  the 
company  of  apostles.  In  support  of  the  theory,  it 
is  noticed  that  in  the  lists  of  the  apostles  in  the  syn- 
optic Gospels  (though  not  in  the  Acts)  he  is  men- 
tioned next  to  Philip,  while  Nathanael  was  brought 
to  Jesus  by  Philip;  and  John  nowhere  mentions 
Bartholomew,  while  the  synoptists  do  not  mention 
Nathanael.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  remark- 
able that  the  synoptists  do  not  give  the  other  name 
for  Bartholomew,  if  he  is  the  same,  while  John 
speaks  of  Nathanael  as  if  the  reader  would  know 
at  once  who  he  was.  (K.  Schmidt.) 

BARTHOLOMEW  OF  BRAGA  (known  also  as 
BartholomcBua  de  Martyribus  from  the  church  in 
Lisbon  in  which  he  was  baptized):  Archbishop  of 
Braga  1558-82;  b.  at  Lisbon  1514;  d.  at  Viana 
(on  the  coast  of  Portugal,  40  m.  n.  of  Oporto)  July 
16,  1590.  He  belonged  to  the  Dominican  order 
and  took  part  in  the  Coimcil  of  Trent,  the  decisions 
of  which  he  introduced  into  Portugal.  He  foimded 
the  first  clerical  seminary  in  Portugal  and  won 
well-deserved  renown  by  establishing  hospitals  and 
hospices.  In  1582  Pope  Gregory  XIII  allowed 
him  to  resign  his  office,  and  thenceforth  he  lived 
as  simple  monk  in  the  monastery  of  Viana,  giving 
instruction  and  performing  works  of  mercy.  He 
wrote  Biblical  commentaries,  a  Portuguese  cate- 
cliism,  and  a  Compendium  doctrina  apiritualia  (Lis- 
bon, 1582;  many  later  editions).  An  edition  of 
his  works,  with  life,  by  Malachias  d'Inguimbert  ap- 
peared in  two  volumes  at  Rome,  1727. 

E.  Benrath. 


BARTHOLOMEW  OF  BRESCU:  A  canonist 
of  the  thirteenth  century.  Little  is  known  with 
any  certainty  of  his  life.  He  was  bom  about  the 
beginning  of  the  century  at  Brescia,  studied  Roman 
and  canon  law  in  Bologna  imder  Laurentius  His- 
panus,  and  afterward  taught  canon  law  there.  He 
is  principally  remembered  for  his  commentary  on 
the  Decretum  Gratiani  (about  1240),  but  he  wrote 
several  other  works  on  canon  law,  which  are  usually 
not  much  more  than  revised  editions  of  earlier 
works.  (E.  Friedberq.) 

BARTHOLOMEW'S  DAY,  THE  MASSACRE  OF 
SAINT.    See  Cougnt. 

BARTHOLOMTTES:  1.  A  society  founded  at 
Genoa  in  1307  by  certain  Armenian  Basilian  monks 
who  had  fled  thither  from  persecution  in  their  na- 
tive land.  They  built  there  a  church  to  the  Virgin 
and  St.  Bartholomew,  whence  their  name.  Pope 
aement  V  (1305-14)  allowed  them  to  follow  their 
Eastern  rite  and  customs,  but  in  course  of  time 
they  conformed  to  Western  usages,  and  in  1356  In- 
nocent VI  allowed  them  to  choose  a  general.  They 
existed  at  Genoa  and  in  other  places  in  Italy  till 
1650,  when  Innocent  X  suppressed  the  order. 

2.  A  congregation  of  secular  priests  founded  at 
Salzburg  about  1643  by  Bartholom&us  Holzhauser, 
canon  of  Salzburg  (b.  at  Langenau,  near  Ulm,  1613; 
d.  at  Bingen  Blay  20,  1658).  Their  statutes,  con- 
firmed by  Innocent  XI  in  1680  (complete  text  in 
Holstenius-Brockie,  Codex  regularum,  vi,  Augsburg, 
1759,  543-595),  regulated  their  life  on  communis- 
tic principles,  whence  their  official  name,  Inaiitu- 
turn  dericorum  acecularium  in  communi  viventium, 
and  their  popular  designation  as  ''  Conununists.'' 
For  a  time  the  society  flourished  in  the  dioceses  of 
South  Germany  as  well  as  in  Hungary,  Poland,  and 
Spain,  but  with  the  suppression  of  their  last  house, 
at  Landshut,  in  1804,  they  went  out  of  existence. 

O.  ZOCKLERf. 

Biblioorapht:  1.  Heimbuoher,  Orden  und  Konffregationen, 
i,  48.  2.  Helyot.  Ordret  nunuuHquea,  viii  (1719),  110- 
126;  Heimbucher,  Orden  und  Kongreffationen,  ii.  363- 
366;  J.  P.  L.  Gaduel.  Vie  du  .  .  .  Barthilemy  HoUhaueer, 
Orleans,  1802  (containa  also  a  study  of  the  order). 

BARTLET,  JAMES  VERlfON:  En^h  Con- 
gregationalist;  b.  at  Scarborough  (37  m.  n.e.  of 
York),  Yorkshire,  Aug.  15, 1863.  He  was  educated 
at  Exeter  College,  Oxford  (B.A.,  1886),  and  at 
Blansfield  College  (1886-89),  where  in  1889  he  was 
appointed  fellow  and  began  to  lecture  on  church 
history,  remaining  senior  tutor  in  residence  until 
1900.  In  the  latter  year  he  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  church  history  in  the  same  institution,  and 
still  holds  this  position.  In  addition  to  numer- 
ous briefer  contributions,  he  has  written  Early 
Church  History  (London,  1894);  The  Apoatolic  Age 
(Edinburgh,  1900);  Commentary  on  Ada  (m  The 
Century  Bible,  1901);  and  The  Earlier  Pauline 
Epiatlea  (in  The  Temple  Bible,  1901);  and  was  joint 
author  of  The  New  Teatament  in  the  Apoatolic 
Fathera  (1905). 

BARTLETT,  SAMUEL  COLCORD:  Congrega- 
tionalist;  b.  at  Salisbury,  N.  H.,  Nov.  25,  1817;  d. 
in  Hanover,  N.  H.,  Nov.  16,  1898.    He  was  gradu- 


Bartol 
Basedow 


THE    NEW    SCHAFF-HERZOG 


494 


ated  at  Dartmouth  183^^  and  at  Ando%'er  Theo- 
logical Beminary  184 2;  was  ordained  1843,  and 
was  pastor  at  Munaon,  Masa.,  1843-46  j  profefssor 
of  inteUcQtual  pliilosophy  and  rhetoric  in  Weat^^m 
Reserve  College,  Hi^dson,  O.,  1S46-52;  pastor  at 
^lanchester,  N,  H.,  1852^57;  in  Chicago  1S57-59; 
WES  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Chicago  Theological 
Beimnary  (Congregational)  and  professor  of  Bib- 
lical literature  there  1858-77  j  president  of  Dart- 
mouth 1877-92,  and  lecturer  on  the  relation  of  the 
Bible  to  scienoe  and  history  and  instructor  fii  natural 
theology  and  evideucea  of  ChriBtianity^  1892-98, 
Besides  many  articles  in  the  periodicals  and  ad- 
dreaseg,  he  pubhshed  Ldfe  and  Deaih  Eternal^  a  refu- 
tation  of  tfw  dodrine  of  annihikition  (Boston,  1860; 
2d  ed,,  1878);  Sketches  of  m  Mis^ums  of  the  A.  B. 
e.  F.  M,  (1872);  Fviure  Punuhment  (1875);  From 
Egupt  to  Palatine  through  iStnoi  (New  York,  1879), 
an  account  of  a  journey  to  explore  the  desert  of 
the  Exodus;  SourceM  of  HUtofy  in  the  Pentateitch 
(188:?);  The  VeracUy  of  the  Hexat^ueh  (Chicago, 
1897). 

BAKTOL,  CYHUS  AUGUSTUS:  Unitarian;  b. 
at  Freeport,  Me.,  April  30,  1813;  d,  in  Boston 
Dec.  16,  19O0,  He  was  graduated  at  Bowdoin, 
1832,  and  at  the  Harvard  Divinity  School,  1835; 
in  1837  he  was  ordained  as  assistant  pastor  to  Dr. 
Charles  LoweU  at  the  West  Church  (Unitarian), 
Boston;  after  Dr.  Lo^'ell's  death  in  1861  be  be- 
came pastor^  and  sensed  till  18S8.  Ho  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Transcendental  Club  and  pubUshed  a 
number  of  volumes^  chiefly  sermons  and  addresses, 
aniong  them  being  Diicour»es  on  the  Chrktian  Spirit 
ajui  Life  (3d  od,,  revised,  Boston,  1850);  Discourses 
on  the  Christian  Body  and  Form  (1853);  Pictures  of 
Europe  (1855);  Church  and  Congregatiim  (1858); 
Radical  PrabUms  (1872);  The  Rising  Faith  (1873); 
PHncipks  and  Porirails  (1880);  Spiritual  Sacrifice 
(1884). 

BART0LI,bQr''t5-ir,DAHIELL0:  Italian  Jesuit ; 
b.  at  Fcrrara  Feb.  12,  160S;  d.  at  Rome  Jan.  13, 
1685.  He  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  in  1623; 
was  a  distinguished  preacher  and  teacher  of  rheto- 
ric in  different  cities  of  Italy;  in  1650  he  became 
historian  of  his  order  at  Rome.  He  wTote  biog* 
rap  hies,  moral  and  ascetical  works,  and  books  upon 
physical  science.  His  htona  delia  campagnia  di 
Gie&k  (5  vols,,  Rome,  1653-73),  especially  the  part 
devoted  to  Asia,  is  replete  w^th  curious  informa- 
tion; as  an  introduction  to  this  work  he  wrote  the 
Vila  G  isiii^do  di  S.  Ignazi^  (Rome,  1650;  Eng. 
transU,  2  vols.,  New  York,  1856).  His  collected 
works  were  edited  by  H.  Marietti  (34  vols.,  Turin, 
1823-44).  The  life  of  Ignatius  and  the  moral  and 
ascetical  works  have  been  pubUshed  at  Piacenza 
(9  vols.,  1821)  and  at  Milan  (3  vols.,  1831). 

BAKTOir,  ELIZABETH:  English  impostor  of 
the  reign  of  Henry  VIII;  b.,  according  to  her  ow^ 
Btateiiient,  in  1506;  beheaded  in  London  April  20, 
1534,  In  1525,  while  a  servant  at  Aldington,  Kent, 
her  ravings  in  consequence  of  some  nervous  disorder 
gained  for  her  a  local  reputation  a®  one  divinely 
inspired.  She  recovered  her  health  after  a  few 
months,  but  her  fame  remained,  and  certain  monkji. 


notably  one  Edward  Boeking,  made  use  of  her  to 
attempt  to  check  the  advance  of  the  Reformation. 
Instructed  by  them  she  continued  her  alleged 
prophesyings.  In  1527  she  was  taken  to  the  priory 
of  St.  Sepulchi^  at  Canterbury,  and  under  the  title 
of  the  "  Nun  "  or  "  Holy  Mafd  of  Kent  "  her  fame 
went  for  and  wide  and  she  seenos  to  have  been  partly 
or  fully  beUeved  in  by  persons  of  Lntelligenoe  and 
influence.  When  the  divorce  from  Catharine  of 
Aragon  was  propoeed  she  inveighed  against  it  and 
ultimately  went  so  far  in  her  threats  against  the 
king  that  she  and  certain  of  her  abetters  were  ar- 
rested and  brought  to  trial  in  1533.  Under  tortujne 
Eh2al>eth  and  Boeking  confessed  to  fraud;  with 
two  friars  and  two  priests  they  were  beheaded  at 
Tyburn  J  the  Nun  repeating  her  confession  on  the 
scaffold.  Sir  Thomas  More,  Bishop  Fisher,  and 
others  were  implicated  and  narrowly  escaped  suf- 
fering at  the  same  time. 

Biblioorapst:  The  Bouroe*  far  a  biagr&phy  &re  Indicaled 
m  the  iQiig  and  critical  notice  m  BN^B.  iii,  343-346^ 

BARTOlf,    GEORGE    AARON:      Friend;  b.  at 

East  Famham,  Canada,  Nov.  12,  1859.  He  w*a8 
educated  at  Haverford  College,  Haverford  (B.A., 
1882),  and  Harvard  Univendty  (Ph.D.,  1891). 
He  was  teacher  of  mathematics  and  classics  at  the 
Friends'  School,  Providence,  R,  L,  in  18S4-S9,  and 
lecturer  on  Bible  languages  in  Haverford  College 
in  1S91-95,  while  in  1891  he  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  Biblical  literature  and  Semitic  languages 
at  Biyn  Mawr  College,  a  position  which  he  still 
holds.  He  has  been  a  member  of  the  American 
Oriental  Society  since  18S8,  of  the  Society  of  BibUcal 
Archeology,  London,  since  1889,  of  the  Society  of 
Biblical  Literature  and  Exegesis  since  1891(,  of  the 
Archeological  Institute  of  America  since  1900,  of 
the  Vorderasiatische  Ge^llschaft,  Berlin,  since  1899. 
of  the  Victoria  Institute,  London,  since  1902,  and 
of  the  Orients-Gesellschaft,  Berlin,  and  the  Egypt 
Exploration  Fund  since  1904.  He  was  president 
of  the  Oriental  Qub  of  Philadelphia  in  1898-99,  and 
a  member  of  the  council  of  the  Society  of  Biblical 
Literature  and  Exegesis  in  1900--03,  and  in  1903- 
04  was  one  of  the  executive  committee  of  the 
American  School  of  Oriental  Research  in  Palestine, 
of  which  he  was  director  in  the  previous  year. 
He  waa  also  a  delegate  to  the  Inter-Church  C-on- 
ference  in  1905,  and  since  1879  has  been  an  acknowl- 
edged minister  of  tlie  Society  of  Friends  (orthodox). 
In  theology  he  is  in  general  agreement  with  the 
Bo-called  **  new  theolo^/'  In  addition  to  briefer 
studies  and  contribufcions  to  various  religious 
encyclopedias,  he  lias  written  The  Religious  Use 
of  the  Bible  (Philadelphia,  1900);  The  Roots  of 
Christian  Teaching  aa  Found  in  the  Old  TestamerU 
(1902);  j1  SM€h  of  Semitic  Origins,  SociJil  and 
Religious  (New  York,  1902);  A  Year's  Wand^ng 
in  Bibh  iMnds  (Philadelphia,  1904);  and  The 
Haverford  Library  CoUedion  of  Cuneiform  Tabkis 
or  Docwnents  from  the  Temple  Archives  of  Telloh 
(1905). 

BARTOir,  WHLIAM  ELEAZAR:  Congrega- 
tionalist;  b.  at  Sublette,  111,  June  28,  1S6L  He 
was  educated  at  Berea  College  (B.S.,  18S5)  and 
Oberlin  Theological  Beminaiy   (B.D.,   1890).    He 


406 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bartol 
Basedow 


waa  onJatned  to  the  Congregatioiml  mmtfltry  at 
Berea,  Ky.^  in  1SB5,  and  has  held  successive  paa- 
tomtee  at  Robbias,  Teim.  (1885-87),  Litchfield, 
0.  (1SS7-90),  Wellington,  O.  (1890-93),  Sha^v-mut 
Congregational  Church,  Boston,  Mass.  (1893-&9), 
and  First  Congregational  Church,  Oak  Park,  III. 
(eitioe  1899).  Ho  is  a  corporate  member  of  the 
American  Board  of  Commissioner  for  Foreign 
HkBuma  and  of  the  Chicago  Society  of  Biblical 
Research;  a  director  of  the  Congregational  Educa- 
tional Society,  of  the  Chicago  Theological  Seminary, 
of  the  Illinois  Home  Misaionary  Society,  and  for- 
merly of  the  siin[liir  society  in  Massachusetts; 
A  trustee  of  Berea  College;  and  vice-preaident  of  the 
Oon^iegational  Sunday-achool  and  Publication 
Society  and  of  the  Aiaericao  PeACe  Society,  He 
IB  lecturer  on  applied  practical  theology  at  the 
Chicago  Theological  Seminary,  and  was  a  delegate 
to  the  Triennial  National  Congregational  Council 
In  I895p  1898,  and  1904,  and  to  the  International 
Dee«iitiial  Council  of  the  same  denomination  in 
1899.  In  theology  he  is  a  progressive  conserva- 
tive Congregationahst.  He  is  aasocialo  editor  of 
the  Biblioiheca  Sacra,  and  his  writings,  in  addition 
to  numerous  sermona  and  works  of  fiction,  include: 
Th§  Psalms  and  Their  Siory  (Boston,  1898);  QUI 
Phniidifm  Hymm  (1899);  The  ImprovemeTU  of 
Ptrfmim  (Portland,  Me.,  1000);  Faith  as  Rtlcded 
to  Heokh  (Boston,  1901);  CQnsd<di(m  (1901);  An 
Elementary  C^^hum  (1902);  The  Old  W&rld  in 
iAc  Ntw  Century  (1902);  The  Gospel  of  the  Auiumn 
Leaf  (Chicago,  1903);  A  Shining  Mark  (Phila- 
delphia^ 1903);  and  Je»us  of  Na:sareth,  Hi4  Life 
and  the  Stones  of  His  Ministry  {Boston,  1904). 

BARUCH,  APOCALYPSE  OF.  Bee  Pseud- 
Epiqrafha,  Old  Testament,  II,  10-11.  Book  of. 
See  ApocBTTPeA,  A.  IV,  6. 

BASCOM,  HENRY  BOLEMAN:  Bishop  of 
the  Methodist  Epbcopal  Church,  South;  b.  at 
Hancock^  Delaware  Cksunty,  New  York,  May  27, 
1796;  d.  at  Louisville,  Ky.,  Sept.  8,  1850.  He 
was  licensed  to  preach  1813;  was  appoint*^  c  Imp- 
lain  to  Congress  1823;  was  president  of  Madison 
College,  Uniontown,  Pennsylvania,  1827-29;  agent 
of  the  American  Colonization  Society,  182^31; 
elected  professor  of  moral  science  in  Augusta 
College,  Kentucky,  1832,  president  of  the  Tran- 
sylvania Univereity,  Kentucky,  1842,  bishop  1850. 
He  was  prominent  in  the  organisation  of  the  Method- 
ist Church,  South,  and  from  1846  to  1850  he 
edited  the  Southern  Meihodini  Quarterly  Review. 
He  published  sennons  and  lectures  and  a  volui«e 
upon  Methodism  arid  Slavery.  His  collected  works 
were  printed  at  Naahville  (4  vok.,  1850-56). 

BASCOM,  JOHlf:  Congrepitionalist;  b.  at 
Genoa,  N.  Y.,  May  1,  1827-  He  was  educated  at 
WiUiams  College  (B.A.,  1849)  and  Andover  Theo- 
logical  Beminary  (1856).  He  was  a  tutor  in  Will- 
iams College  in  1852-53  and  professor  of  rhelorie 
in  the  same  institution  from  1855  to  1874  In 
the  latter  year  he  was  chosen  president  of  the 
University  of  Wisconsin,  where  he  remained  until 
1887.  He  then  returned  to  Williams  College  as 
looturei-  on  soddogy,  and  four  yeaia   later  was 


appointed  professor  of  poUlica!  science*  holding 
this  position  until  1903.  He  is  an  adherent  of  the 
new  theology  of  the  Cbngregational  type,  and  has 
written:  PoliiicQl  Economy  (Andover,  1859);  ^Es- 
thetics (New  York,  1862);  Philosophy  of  Rhetoric 
(1865);  Principles  of  Ps^hdogy  (1869);  Science, 
Philoitophy^  and  Religion  (1871);  Philosophy  of 
English  Literature  (1874);  Philosophy  of  Religion 
(1876);  Growth  and  Grades  of  InteUigence  (1878); 
Ethics  (1879);  Natural  Theology  (1880);  Smence 
of  Mind  (1881);  Words  of  Christ  (1883);  Problems 
in  Philosophy  {1S85);  Sociology  (1887);  The  New 
Theology  (1S91);  Historical  Interpretation  of  Phi- 
losophy (ISm);  Social  Theory  (1895);  Evoluiumand 
Reli^mt  (1897);  Grouch  of  Nati-onalUy  in  the  United 
St4iies  (1899);  and  God  and  His  Goodness  (1901). 

BASEDOW,  bQ'ze-da^'  (BASSEDAU)^  JOEAKN 
BEBKBARD:  German  rationalist  aiid  innovator 
in  educational  methods;  b.  at  Hamburg  Sept.  11, 
1723;  d,  at  Magdeburg  July  25,  1790.  After  a 
wilful  boyhood  he  studied  theology  at  Leijjsic 
(1744r-46),  but  followed  his  studies  in  very  irregular 
fashion  and  hampered  by  poverty;  he  'was  tutor 
to  a  noble  family  of  Holstein  1749-53;  became 
teacher  at  the  academy  of  Sora,  Denmark,  in  1753, 
and  at  the  gymnasium  of  Altona  in  1761;  he  was 
forced  to  retire  from  both  of  these  positions  because 
of  Ins  unorthodox  views  freely  and  offensively 
expressed  in  various  pubUcalions  (Prt^ische 
PhUosophie  fUr  alle  Stdnde^  Copenhagen,  1758; 
Phil^ethi€ :  neue  Aussichten  in  die  Wahrheiten 
und  Religion  der  Vemunftj  2  vOla.,  Altona,  1763-64; 
Theoreiische^  System  der  gesunden  Vernujift,  1765; 
GrundHss  der  Religion  tmkfw  durch  Nachdenken 
und  Bibelforschen  erkannt  wird,  1764).  After  1767 
he  abandoned  theology  for  education.  Influenced 
by  Rousseau's  &mik,  he  sought  to  devise  a  system 
that  should  be  according  to  nature  and  dis|.iense 
with  the  exercise  of  authority  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher  and  with  the  necessity  for  work  on  that 
of  the  pupil.  His  views  are  set  forth  in  his  Yor- 
sidlung  an  Menschenfreunde  und  vermSgende  Mdnner 
abcr  Schukn,  Si  ml  ten,  und  ihren  Einfluss  in  die 
offeniliche  Wohlfahrt,  mil  einem  Plane  eines  Elemen- 
tarbuches  der  mensMichen  ErkenntnisB  (Hamburg, 
1768;  new  ed.,  Lcipsic,  1894)  and  liis  Elementar- 
werh  (4  vols.,  1774).  He  had  remarkable  success 
in  enhsting  sympathy  and  gaining  patrons,  and  in 
1774  was  able  to  open  an  institution  for  the  real- 
ization of  his  ideas,  the  "  Fhilanthropin  **  at  Dessau 
(described  in  Das  in  Dessau  erriehtete  Philanthro- 
pinumf  Leipsic,  1774).  Af  tor  f our  yejirs  he  retired, 
having  shown  himself,  by  loose  management  and 
personal  bad  habita,  utterly  unfitted  for  the  position. 
He  spent  the  rest  of  his  life  in  literary  work  and 
private  teaching.  His  writings  on  theological 
and  educational  subjects  number  more  than  sixty; 
the  former  are  crude  and  coarse,  and  groesly  ration- 
aliatic;  the  latter  ill-considered  and  impracticable, 
although  some  of  his  ideas  as  developed  by  othero 
have  been  productive  of  good.  He  was  well  char- 
acterized by  Goethe  as  a  man  who  undertook  to  edu- 
cate the  worldt  but  himself  had  no  education  at  aU. 
BiBOJooHAPEiY:  ADB,   ii,    113-124   (by  Mb  greai-eF&iidAoii, 

Max  Mailer  J;    H.  Diet^talmuiD,  /,  B^  Batedo^^  Impdo, 

1S37. 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


496 


BA'SEL,  BISHOPRIC  OF:  The  origin  of  this 
diocese  probably  goes  back  into  the  Roman  period. 
Just  above  Basel,  at  the  present  Kaiserau^,  lay 
the  Roman  city  of  Augusta  Rauricorum,  which  re- 
tained its  importance  well  into  the  fourth  century. 
Historical  analogy  justifies  the  supposition  that 
Christianity  was  not  unknown  there.  By  the  end 
of  the  fourth  century  the  town  must  have  sunk 
into  decay,  since  the  NotUia  provinciarum  Gallia 
does  not  mention  it.  As,  however,  in  the  seventh 
century  we  hear  of  a  bishop  Ragnachar  of  Au- 
gusta, we  are  led  to  infer  the  retention  of  an  older 
title;  and  when  we  find  him  also  designated  as 
Bishop  of  Augusta  and  Basel,  we  are  able  to  imder- 
stand  this  by  the  supposition  that  the  see  was 
transferred  from  the  old  decayed  town  to  the 
rising  city  of  Basel,  which  is  mentioned  as  early  as 
374  by  Ammianus  MarceUinus.  Apparently,  then, 
Christianity  in  this  region  survived  all  the  storms 
which  raged  there  in  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries. 
After  the  establishment  of  Frankish  rule,  the  dio- 
cese included  the  Alemannic  districts  between  the 
Rhine  and  the  Aar,  the  Alsatian  Sundgau,  the  Bur- 
gundian  Sorengau,  and  the  northeastern  part  of 
the  Elsgau.  Its  boimdary,  accordingly,  was  formed 
partly  by  the  two  rivers,  partly  by  a  line  drawn 
from  the  Aar  to  the  Doubs,  thence  to  the  southern 
slope  of  the  Vosges,  then  along  their  crest,  then  to 
the  Rhine  at  Breisach.  [The  Benedictine  monk 
Hatto  or  Haito  (q.v.),  bishop  c.  805-822,  was  a 
trusted  coimselor  of  Charlemagne  and  his  envoy 
to  the  emperor  Nicephorus  at  Constantinople.  At 
the  end  of  the  tenth  century  the  bishopric  devel- 
oped into  an  imperial  principality.  It  was  at 
Basel  that  in  1061  Cadalus  of  Parma  was  elected 
by  the  imperialists  as  antipope  against  Alexander 
II  (see  HoNORius  11,  Antipope);  and  Bishop 
Burkhard  of  Hasenburg  (1071-1107)  was  one  of 
the  most  influential  counselors  of  Henry  IV. 
Under  the  Hohenstaufen  emperors  also,  the  bishops 
of  Basel  were  usually  on  the  imperial  side.  After 
the  council  (see  Basel,  Council  of),  the  next  im- 
portant event  in  the  history  of  the  diocese  is  the 
outbreak  of  the  Reformation,  which  occurred  in 
the  episcopate  of  the  wise  and  pious  Christopher 
of  Utenheim  (1502-27),  and  in  spite  of  his  efforts 
led  to  much  turbulence  and  the  ultimate  suppres- 
sion of  the  Roman  Catholic  religion  in  1529.  The 
imiversity  was  suspended,  and  most  of  the  pro- 
fessors left  the  town  with  Erasmus  and  Glarean. 
The  bishop  went  to  Pruntrut  and  the  chapter  to 
Freiburg,  whence  it  did  not  return  to  the  diocese 
until  1678.  A  succession  of  zealous  prelates  strove 
to  undo  the  work  of  the  Reformation  (see  Jacob 
Christopher,  Bishop  of  Basel).  The  territory  of 
the  diocese  was  incorporated  with  the  French  Repub- 
lic, and  at  the  Congress  of  Vienna  with  the  cantons 
of  Bern  and  Basel.  In  1828  the  see  was  reerected, 
and  at  present  includes  the  Roman  Catholic  popu- 
lation of  the  cantons  of  Basel,  Solothum,  Bern, 
Aargau,  Zug,  Lucerne,  SchafThausen,  and  Thur- 
gau;  the  bishop  resides  in  Lucerne.] 

(A.  Hauck.) 
Bxblioorapbt:  The    SerieM    epucoporum    BaaUiennum    to 

1060  A.D.  is  in  MOH,  Script,  xiii  (1881).  373-374;  Monu- 

rnerita  de  Vhittoirt  de  I'ancien  Svichi  de  Bdle,  ed.  Troxiillat. 

Basel,    1858;  J.   J.   Merian,   QfchichU  d«r  BuchOfe  von 


BamU,  Basel.  1862;  £.  Egli.  KvxhtnoeadiithU  der  Stkwnt, 
Zurich,  1803. 

BASEL,  CONFESSION  OF:  A  confession  of 
faith  submitted  to  the  citizens  of  Basel  for  their 
acceptance  on  Jan.  21,  1534.  It  was  prepared  by 
Myconius  on  the  basis  of  a  briefer  formula  put  forth 
by  (Ecolampadius  in  his  address  at  the  opening  of 
the  synod  in  September,  1531.  It  is  simple  and 
moderate,  occupying  an  intermediate  position  be- 
tween Luther  and  Zwingli.  Until  1826  it  was  read 
in  the  pulpits  on  Wednesday  of  Holy  Week,  but 
then  was  inade  binding  on  the  clergy  only;  in  1872 
it  was  set  aside  entirely.  The  confession  was  also 
accepted  at  Mdhlhausen  and  is  sometimes  called 
the  Mylhusiana;  the  first  Helvetic  confession  is 
also  called  the  Second  Confession  of  Basel,  because 
it  was  written  there  (see  Helvetic  Confessions). 

(R.  StaheunI.) 
Bxbuoobapbt:  Tha  best  reprint  is  given  by  K.  R.  Hagen- 

baoh.  bi  his  J.  Oskolampad  und  O.  Myconiua,  pp.  465-470, 

of.  840-630,  Elberfeld,  1850.     Consult  Sehaff,    CrtmU,  i, 

386-388,  where  the  literature  is  given. 

BASEL,  COUNCIL  OF:  The  last  of  the  "  re- 
forming coimcils"  of  the  fifteenth  century.  By 
the  decr&3  Freqttens  of  the  Coimcil  of  Con- 
stance (q.v.),  a  periodical  repetition  of  ecu- 
menical synods  was  enjoined.  The  first  synod 
held  accordingly  at  Pavia  and  Sienna,  1423-24 
(see  Pavia,  (Council  of;  Sienna,  Council  of), 
had  passed  without  accomplishing  anything.  After 
the  execution  of  John  Huss,  his  victorious 
and  uncompromising  followers  (see  Huss,  John, 
Hussites)  greatly  embarrassed  the  Roman  Church 
and  the  German  empire,  and  Pope  Martin  V  felt 
obliged  to  convene  a  new  ecumenical  council  to 
meet  in  a  German  city.  Basel  was  selected.  The 
pope  died  shortly  after,  but  his  successor,  Eugenius 
IV,  a  Venetian,  had  to  confirm  the  convocation. 
His  legates  opened  the  council  at  Basel  Aug.  27, 
1431.  But  when  it  became  known  that  the  pope 
thought  of  dissolving  it  at  once,  as  he  expected 
notUng  good  from  it,  distrust  of  the  pope  filled  the 
members  of  the  council.  On  Feb.  15, 
Attitude  1432,  the  council  declared  itself  to  be 
Toward  the  a  continuation  of  that  of  Constance 
Pope.  and  therefore  an  ecumenical  one,  rep- 
resenting the  Holy  Catholic  Church, 
and  deriving  its  authority  immediately  from  God; 
therefore  it  could  only  dissolve  itself  of  its  o^ti  free 
will.  In  fixing  the  order  of  business,  that  of  the 
Council  of  Constance,  where  the  members  were 
grouped  according  to  nationality,  was  discarded; 
and  four  committees  were  formed:  (1)  on  matters 
of  faith,  (2)  on  political  affairs,  (3)  on  ecclesiastical 
reforms,  and  (4)  on  general  business.  These  com- 
mittees met  separately,  each  having  its  own  presi- 
dent. The  agreement  of  three  of  them  was  neces- 
sary to  bring  a  question  before  a  general  session. 
The  council  was  at  first  presided  over  by  Cardinal 
Cesarini,  or  some  other  cardinal  designated  by  the 
pope.  But  much  was  lacking  to  make  the  work 
of  the  council  effective;  the  pope  distrusted  the 
Fathers  of  Basel  and  these  distrusted  the  pope; 
both  were  ruled  by  party-hatred  and  passion;  the 
highest  aim  of  the  council  was  the  subjection  of 
the  pope  to  it.    On  Apr.  29,  1432,  the  pope  and 


407 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


his  cardinals  were  invited  to  come  to  Basel.  As 
the  former  did  not  come,  a  process  was  instituted 
(Sept.  6)  against  him  for  contimiacy.  The  coim- 
cil  stood  at  that  time  in  the  zenith  of  its  power, 
since  it  was  recognized  by  most  states,  and  Euge- 
nius  had  to  yield  and  expressly  recognize  the  comi- 
cil  Aug.  1,  1433. 

In  the  mean  time  the   authority  of   the  council 

had    increased     through     its    negotiations    with 

the  Hussites.      On   Jan.  4,    1433,    the    Hussites 

Procopius,  the  terror  of  Christendom,  and  John 

Rokyczana,    the     learned     and     fanatic     orator, 

together  with  a  numerous  and  brilliant 

Relations     retinue,  rode  into  Basel,  not  as  peni- 

with  the     tent  heretics,  but  with  proud  and  fierce 

Hussites,     mien,  as  guests  of  the  council.    The 

negotiations  with  them  resulted  in  an 

agreement  in  1434  by  which  the  so-called  Com- 

pactata  of  Prague  (see  Hubs,  John),  embodying 

their  principal  demands,  among  others  the  use  of 

the  cup  in  the  celebration  of  the  Lord's  Supper, 

were  granted  with  modifications. 

Beginning  in  1435,  the  council  considered  and 
issued  a  number  of  decisions,  which  concerned  the 
reform  of  the  Church  in  its  head  and  members  and 
the  introduction  of  a  better  discipline, 
Church  but  these  measures  were  dictated  by 
Reform,  hatred  to  the  curia,  rather  than  by 
enthusiasm  for  reform.  The  annates, 
the  pallium-money,  the  tax  on  the  papal  confirma- 
tion of  ecclesiastical  promotion,  the  judicial  au- 
thority of  the  pope,  the  richest  source  of  the  revenues 
of  the  curia,  were  abolished  and  declared  to  be 
simony.  Prospects  of  a  compensation  were  held 
out,  but  not  fixed.  As  concerns  the  spiritual  c^ces 
the  canonical  chapter-election  was  reinstated  in  its 
full  right,  the  papal  reservations,  with  a  few  ex- 
ceptions, were  abolished,  and  strict  provisions  were 
made  concerning  the  moral  worthiness  of  those  to 
be  elected.  The  troublesome  appeals  to  Rome  were 
limited,  also  the  election  and  number  of  the  car- 
dinals and  their  prebends.  But  the  restriction  of 
the  sources  of  power  of  the  curia  when  it  needed 
revenues  the  most,  excited  the  fierce  opposition  of 
the  whole  army  of  officials.  In  the  council  a  small 
but  strong  party  arose  which  wished  to  avoid  a 
breach  with  the  curia,  a  party  of  legates,  headed  by 
Cardinal  Cesarini. 

Another  matter,  however,  brought  about  a  com- 
plete breach.    The  Greek  emperor  John  Palseologus 
had  addressed  himself  to  both  the  pope  and  the 
council  with  a  view  of  obtaining  help  against  the 
menacing  Turks  through  a  union  of  the  Greek  and 
Roman   Churches.    The  pope  would 
Proposed     not  concede  that  the  glory  of  having 
Union  with   brought  about  a  union  with  the  Greeks 
the  Greek     should  belong  to  the  members  of  the 
Church.       council;  he  and  the  minority  at  Basel 
wished    the    negotiations    with    the 
Greeks  to  be  carried  on  in  a  city  of  Italy,  whereas 
the  antipapal  majority  at  Basel  wished  the  nego- 
tiations to  be  carried  on  there.     The  party  of  the 
legates  left  the  council  in  1437  and  outwardly  also 
sided  with  the  pope.    Of  the  cardinals  only  Louis 
d'Allemand  (q.v.)  remained  and  the  vacant  seats 
of  the  bishops  were  filled  by  clerics  of  lower  order. 
L— 32 


The  council  became  more  and  more  democratic. 
All  regard  for  the  pope  now  ceased;  the  council 
opened  the  process  against  him  and  the  carduials 
and  on  Jan.  24,  1438,  he  was  suspended.  The  pope 
declared  the  council  to  be  a  company  of  Satan,  ex- 
conmiunicated  its  members,  and  convened  a  coun- 
tercouncil  at  Ferrara,  which  he  soon  removed  to 
Florence,  where  he  met  the  Greek  emperor  and  his 
spiritual  and  secular  retinue  (see  Ferrara-Flor- 
ENCE,  Council  of).  He  brought  about  the  so- 
called  Florentine  union,  which  in  itself  was  delu- 
sive and  imreal,  but  greatly  enhanced  the  fame  of 
the  pope  in  the  eyes  of  hLs  contemporaries,  while 
the  council  at  Basel  deposed  him  June  25  as  a 
backsliding  heretic. 

The  governments  took  advantage  of  the  differen- 
ces of  both  parties.  In  France,  the  Synod  of  Bourges 
(1438)  incorporated  the  decrees  of  the  Council  of 
Basel  with  the  laws  of  the  kingdom,  the  so-called 
pragmatic  sanction  of  Bourges  (see  Pragmatic 
Sanction).  Germany  declared  in  1439  that  it 
would  keep  neutral,  and  observed  the  neutrality  for 
some  time  to  the  great  detriment  of  the  curia.  Ulti- 
mately, however,  almost  all  European  governments 
sided  with  Eugenius.    The  council  at 

Decline     Basel  persisted  in  its  opposition  under 

and  End    the  direction  of  Allemand.    On  Nov. 
of  the      5,  1439,  it  elected  an  antipope  in  the 

Cotmcil.  person  of  the  Duke  Amadeus  of  Sa- 
voy, who  took  the  name  of  FeUx  V 
(q.v.)  and  was  crowned  at  Basel  with  great  pag- 
eantry. He  did  not  satisfy  the  expectations  of  the 
Fathers  at  Basel  and  was  not  recognized  by  the 
princes  and  nations.  The  German  king,  Frederick 
III,  was  especially  averse  to  him,  and  the  cunning 
secretary  of  the  king,  iEneas  Sylvius  Piccolomini 
(see  Pius  II,  Pope)  secretly  influenced  the  German 
church  policy  in  favor  of  Eugenius,  who  lived  to 
know,  though  dying,  that  the  German  king  and  most 
of  the  German  princes  had  declared  for  him  Feb.  7, 
1447.  Great  concessions  had  indeed  been  wrung 
from  the  pope;  they  were .  afterward  modified  or 
not  regarded  at  all.  The  tolling  of  bells  and  bon- 
fires announced  the  victory  of  Rome.  The  German 
king  withdrew  his  support  of  the  council,  and  it  de- 
creed June  25,  1448,  to  meet  at  Lausanne,  where 
Pope  Felix  V  had  his  residence.  Ten  months  later 
the  king  of  France  induced  the  pope  to  resign,  and 
the  council,  tired  of  the  imending  conflict,  made 
Nicolas  V  his  successor,  whom  the  cardinals  at 
Rome  had  appointed  after  the  death  of  Eugenius. 
In  this  way  it  meant  to  preserve  at  least  a  sem- 
blance of  authority,  and  in  its  last  session,  Apr. 
25,  1449,  it  decreed  its  own  dissolution.  In  spite 
of  the  failure  of  the  council  the  belief  that  the 
Church  needed  reformation  persisted. 

Paul  Tschackert. 

Bibuoorapht:  The  sources  for  a  history  are  in  the  Acts  of 
the  Council,  to  be  found  in  Mansi.  Concilia,  vols,  xxix-xxxi, 
and  Harduin,  Concilia,  vols,  viii-ix;  also  in  ^neas 
Sylvius,  Commeniarius  de  rebus  BaailecB  gettia,  used  in 
C.  Fea,  Pius  II.  a  calumniia  vindicatua,  Rome,  1823;  Monu- 
menta  conciliorum  generaliuin  aectUi  xv,  ConcUium  Basi- 
lienae,  Scriptorum,  i,  ii,  iii,  Vienna,  1857-M;  and  Con^ 
cilium  Basilienae;  Stvdien  und  QuelUn  tur  QeachichiB  def 
ConcQs  von  Basel,  ed.  J.  Haller,  G.  Beckmann,  R.  Wacker- 
nagel.  G.  Coggiola,  Basel,  1896-1904  (reports  on  the  MSS. 
still  preserved  in  Basel  and  Paris,  and  criticism  of  ^neas 


Bashan 
Basil 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


498 


Sylvius,  Racuaa,  and  Segovia).  Consult  J.  Lenfant,  Hu- 
ioire  de  la  guerre  det  HuuUeB  et  du  Coneile  de  BobU,  Am- 
sterdam, 1731;  I.  H.  von  Weasenberg,  Die  groMen  Kir- 
chenvertammlunoen  dea  fUnfzehnien  und  tedutehfUen  Jahr- 
hunderU,  vol.  ii,  4  vols.,  Constance,  1840;  J.  Asckbach, 
OtMchichte  dea  Kaiser  Sigmundt,  vol.  iv,  Hamburg,  1845: 
G.  Voigt,  Enea  Sylvio  PiccolonUni  aia  Papat  Paul  II,  vol. 
i,  Basel,  1856;  O.  Richter,  OrganieaHon  und  OeaehAftaord- 
nung  dea  Baaler  Concila,  Leipdc,  1877;  A.  Bachmann, 
Die  deutache  Kdnige  und  die  kurfHralliehe  NeuiralUM, 
Vienna,  1888;  P.  Joachimsohn,  Oregor  Heimburg,  Mimich, 
1891;  J.  F.  Hurst.  Hiatory  of  the  Chriaiian  Church,  i,  785- 
786,  ii.  69.  93.  341,  New  York,  1897-1900;  Hefele,  C<m- 
eiliengeachichte,  vol.  vii;  KL,  i,  2085-2110;  Pastor,  Popea, 
i.  280-338;  Creighton,  Papacy,  iii,  1-45, 

BASHAHy  bd'shon:  The  northeastern  part  of 
trans-Jordanic  Palestine.  The  name  occurs  in  the 
Old  Testament  in  prose  and  sometimes  in  poetry 
with  the  article  ("  the  Bashan  ")»  indicating  that 
hashan  was  originally  a  common  noun,  and  its  sig- 
nification is  made  evident  by  the  Arabic  bath- 
anah,  "  a  fertile  plain  free  from  stones."  The 
Greeks  had  the  name  in  the  forms  Baaan,  Basor 
naitia,  the  LXX  has  BaaanUiSy  and  Josephus  Bata- 
naia  and  Batanea  (cf .  Eusebius  and  Jerome,  Onomaa- 
tvcon).  The  location  of  the  district  is  clearly  noted 
in  the  Old  Testament  as  the  northern  third  of  the 
plateau  to  the  east  of  the  Jordan  (Deut.  iii,  8; 
Joshua  xiii,  11-12),  with  Gilead  (the  Yarmuk)  as 
the  southern  boundary,  Hermon  on  the  north,  and 
Salcah  on  the  east. 

As  soon  as  the  traveler  going  east  from  the  Sea 
of  Tiberias  crosses  the  Nahr-al- Allan,  eighteen  miles 
away,  he  may  note  the  abrupt  change  of  the  struc- 
ture of  the  plain.  The  numerous  hillocks,  a  pecu- 
liarity of  the  Jaulan,  disappear,  as  do  the  great  lava 
blocks,  and  in  their  place  one  sees  a  great  plain  of 
mellowed,  red-brown,  fertile  soil  stretching  away 
east,  north,  and  south.  The  boimdary  of  this  on 
the  northeast  is  the  volcanic,  wooded  heights  of 
Al-Kimetra  and  the  base  of  Mt.  Hermon,  on  the 
north  the  district  of  Wadi  al-Ajam,  on  the  east  the 
Lejjah  and  Jebel  Druz  or  Jebel  Hauran,  and  on  the 
south  the  plateau  of  Al-Hamad,  with  the  stony 
Jaulan  in  the  west.  It  is  divided  by  two  great 
wadies  (Dahab  and  Zadi),  which  empty  into  the 
Yarmuk.  Ruins  abound,  and  on  some  of  the  hill- 
ocks are  the  graves  of  the  former  leaders  and  chiefs 
of  the  districts. 

The  spongy,  easily  worked  soil  is  a  mixture  of 
disintegrated  lava,  ashes,  and  sand  from  Jebel 
Hauran.  To  this  composition  is  due  the  extraor- 
dinary fertility  of  the  region,  yielding  half  crops 
even  in  seasons  of  drought.  The  plain  is  almost 
treeless,  the  only  exceptions  being  the  old  tere- 
binths which  stand  by  Arabic  holy-places  or  vil- 
ages.  The  slope  of  the  southern  part,  which  is  the 
granary  of  Syria,  is  quite  sharp  from  east  to  west, 
while  from  north  to  south  the  altitude  is  about  the 
same.  The  boundaries  already  noted  (the  steppe 
of  Hamad  and  the  Druz  mountains)  are  promi- 
nent. The  last  are  the  "  Salmon  "  of  Ps.  Ixviii,  14- 
15.  The  region  formed  part  of  the  kingdom  of 
Og  (Joshua  xii,  5).  It  is  celebrated  in  the  Old  Tes- 
tament for  its  cattle  (Deut.  xxxii,  14;  Ezek.  xxxix, 
18),  and  in  those  times  probably  served  better  a 
pastoral  than  a  nomadic  population.  The  "  oaks 
of  Bashan  "  (Isa.  ii,  13;  Ezek.  xxvii,  6)  have  disap- 


peared except  on  the  foothills  of  the  Hauran  and 
Hermon  mountains,  where  there  are  small  groves, 
and  along  the  Yarmuk. 

The  following  cities  of  Bashan  are  mentioned  in 
the  Old  Testament:  (1  and  2)  Ashtaroth  and  Edrei, 
capitals  of  Og  (Deut.  i,  4,  iii,  1;  Joshua  xii,  4); 
(3)  Ashteroth  Kamaim  (Eusebius  and  Jerome, 
Onamasticon),  not  far  from  Job's  grave  [an  Arab 
sanctuaryl  and  near  Shaikh  Sad,  until  1903  the 
Beat  of  government;  (4)  Bozrah  (I  Mace,  v,  26),  at 
the  southwest  of  the  Hauran,  containing  ruins  da- 
ting from  Roman  times;  (5)  Golan  (Joshua  xxi,  7), 
one  of  the  Levitical  cities  of  refuge,  probably  the 
modem  Saham  al-Jolan  on  the  western  edge  of  the 
plateau;  (6)  Kamain  (I  Mace,  v,  26,  perhaps  Amos 
vi,  13,  A.  V.  "  horns  ")»  not  located;  (7)  Salcah, 
modem  Salkhad,  east  from  Bozrah,  on  the  water- 
shed, with  a  castle  built  in  an  old  crater.  These 
places  are  all  on  the  edge  of  the  plateau,  as  are  the 
modem  cities. 

The  Old  Testament  mentions  also  the  district 

Argob  in  Bashan,  which  had  sixty  cities  (I  Kings 

iv,  13;  Deut.  iii,  4),  a  possession  of  Jair  (Deut.  iii, 

14,  but  cf.  Judges  x,  3  sqq.,  I  Kings  iv,  13),  and  in 

the  eastern  part  of  the  Jaulan.  (H.  Guthe.) 

Bxblioorapbt:  J.  L.  Porter,  Oiant-Citiea    of  Baahan,  New 

York,  1871;  id..  Five  Yeara  in  Damaacua,  London,  1855; 

J.  G.  Wetstein,  Reiaeberieht  fiber  Hauran  und  die  Tracho- 

nan,  Berlin,  1800;  idem,  Daa  batan/Xiache  Giebelbirge,  Leip- 

Bic,  1884;    C.  J.  M.  de  VogQd,   La  Syrie  eentrale,  inacrip- 

Hona  ahnitiquea,  2  vols.,  Paris,  1868-77;  R.  F.  Drake  and 

C.  F.  T.  Drake,  Unexplored  Syria,  2  vols..  London,  1872; 

G.  Schumacher,  Aeroaa  the  Jordan,  pp.  20-40,  103-242. 

ib.  1886;  idem.  The  Jaulan,  p.  125,  ib.  1888;  idem,  Daa 

aOdliehe  Btuan  gum  eraten  Male  aufgenommen  und  &•> 

«cArie6en.  Leipeic,  1897;  W.  M.  Thomson,   The  Land  and 

the  Book,  3  vols..  New  York.  1886;  F.  Buhl,  Geographie 

von  Pal&etina,  Freiburg,   1896;  G.  A.  Smith,   Hiatorieal 

Geography  of  the  Holy  Land,  pp.  542.  549-553,  575  sqq., 

611   sqq.,   London.    1897;  D.   W.   Freshfield,    The  Stam 

Towna  of  Central  Syria,  New  York,  n.d. 

BASHFORD,  JAMES  WHTTFORD:  Methodist 
Episcopal  bishop;  b.  at  Fayette,  Wis.,  May  25, 
1849.  He  was  educated  at  the  University  of  Wis- 
consin (B.A.,  1873),  the  Theological  School  of 
Boston  University  (B.D.,  1876),  the  School  of 
Oratory  in  the  same  institution  (1878),  and  Boston 
University  (Ph.D.,  1881).  He  was  tutor  in  Greek 
at  the  University  of  Wisconsin  in  1873-74,  and  held 
successive  pastorates  at  Harrison  Square  Method- 
ist Episcopal  Church,  Boston  (1875-78),  Jamaica 
Plain,  Boston  (1878-81),  Aubumdale,  Mass.  (1881- 
84),  Chestnut  Street,  Portland,  Me.  (1884-87), 
and  Delaware  Ave.,  Buffalo,  N.  Y.  (1887-89).  He 
was  president  of  Ohio  Wesleyan  University  in 
1889-1904,  and  in  the  'atter  year  was  chosen  bishop, 
and  in  this  capacity  went  to  Shanghai,  China.  In 
theology  he  is  distinctly  liberal,  believing  that 
Christianity  can  be  better  interpreted  from  the 
point  of  view  of  evolution  than  from  the  older 
standpoint,  and  being  confident  that  higher  crit- 
icism, if  used  >\'ith  sound  scholarship,  will  not  en- 
danger the  fundamentals  of  Christianity.  He  has 
written:  Science  of  Religion  (Delaware,  O..  1893); 
Wesley  and  Goethe  (Cincinnati,  1903);  and  Method- 
ism  in  China  (1906). 

BASIL  OF  ACHRTOA:  Archbishop  of  Thessa- 
lonica.     He  came  from  Achrida  (on  the  n.e.  shore 


499 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bashan 
BasU 


of  the  modem  Lake  Ochrida,  100  m.  n.  of  Janina, 
in  Albania)  in  Macedonia  and  became  archbishop 
in  1146.  His  importance  lies  in  the  fact  that  he 
wrote  and  spoke  against  the  union  of  the  Greek  Church 
with  the  Roman.  He  wrote  a  letter  on  the  subject 
to  Pope  Adrian  IV  in  1154.  To  about  the  same 
time  belong  his  dialogues  with  Anselm  of  Havelberg, 
ambassador  of  Frederick  Barbarossa,  published  by 
J.  Schmidt  in  Des  BasUius  aus  Achrida  bisher  une- 
dirte  Dialoge  (Munich,  1901).  Another  dialogue 
with  Henry  of  Benevento  is  still  in  manuscript. 
Vasiljewskij  has  published  an  address  of  Basil's 
on  the  death  of  Irene,  first  wife  of  the  Elmperor 
Manuel  Comnenos,  in  Vizantijsky  Vremnik,  1894, 
55-132.  His  earlier  printed  writings  are  in  MPG, 
cxix.  Philipp  Meter. 

Bibuographt:   Krumbacher,  GMchiefUe  tUr  bytanHni§ehen 
Litteratur,  pp.  88,  466.  Munich.  1897. 

BASIL  (BASILAS)  OF  ANCYRA:  A  physician, 
bom  at  Ancyra,  and  bishop  there  from  336,  succeed- 
ing Marcellus  (q.v.).  He  was  deposed  by  the  Synod 
of  Sardica  in  343,  reinstated  by  Constantius  in  350, 
and,  with  George  of  Laodicea  (q.v.),  became  the 
leader  of  the  homoiousian  middle  party.  In  360 
he  was  banished  to  Illyria,  and  died  in  exile.  With 
George  he  composed  a  dogmatic  memoir  and, 
according  to  Jerome,  also  a  writing  against  Mar- 
cellus, a  treatise  on  virginity,  and  "  some  other 
things."  The  sources  are  Socrates,  Hist,  ecd.,  ii, 
26,  42;  iii,  25;  Jerome,  De  vir,  ill.,  Ixxxix;  Sozomen, 
Hist,  eccl.f  iv,  24;  Phdlostorgius,  v,  1;  Epiphanius, 
Hctr.,  Ixxiii,  12-22.     See  Arianism. 

G.  KrOqer. 
Biblioorapht:  J.  Schladebach,  BoBilitu  von  Ancyra,  Leip- 

■ic.  1898;  DCB,  i,  281-282. 

BASIL,  SAINT,  THE  GREAT:  Bishop  of  Csesarea 
in  Cappadocia;  b.  at  Cssarea,  of  a  wealthy  and  pious 
family,  c.  330;  d.  there  Jan.  1,  379.  He  was 
somewhat  yoimger  than  his  friend,  Gregory  Nazi- 
anzen,  and  several  years  older  than  his  brother, 
Gregory  of  Nyssa,  who,  with  him,  are  known  as  the 
three  great  Cappadocians.  The  first  years  of  his 
life  Basil  spent  on  a  rural  family  estate  under  the 
guidance  of  his  grandmother,  Macrina  (q.v.), 
whom  he  always  remembered  with  gratitude. 
He  received  his  literary  education  at  first  in  Csesarea, 
then  at  Constantinople,  finally  at  the  great  school 

in  Athens,  where  he  became  intimate 

Earlier      with  Gregory  and  the  future  emperor 

Life.         Julian.    The  practical  ideal  of  pure 

Christianity,  the  elevation  of  the  soul 
above  sensuaUty,  the  flight  from  the  world,  and 
the  subjection  of  the  body  were  already  apparent 
in  him.  The  family  tendency  to  an  ascetic  life 
proved  decisive  after  his  return  to  Csesarea  (c.  357). 
For  a  time,  indeed,  he  acted  as  rhetor,  but  he 
resisted  exhortations  to  devote  himself  to  the 
education  of  youth.  At  this  time  he  seems  to  have 
received  baptism,  and,  after  being  received  into 
the  Church,  he  visited  the  famous  ascetics  in  Syria, 
Palestine,  and  Egypt.  To  the  dogmatic  contro- 
versies which  stirred  the  Church  he  paid  no  atten- 
tion, though  he  deplored  them.  Upon  his  return  to 
Csesarea  he  distributed  his  property  among  the  poor 
and  withdrew  to  a  lonely  romantic  district,  attract- 
ing like-minded  friends  to  a  monkish  life,  in  which 


prayer,  meditation,  and  study  alternated  with 
agriculture.  Eustathius  of  Sebaste  (q.v.)  had 
already  labored  in  Pontus  in  behalf  of  the  anchoretic 
life  and  Basil  revered  him  on  that  account,  although 
the  dogmatic  differences,  which  then  estran^d 
so  many  hearts,  gradually  separated  these  two  men 
also.  Siding  from  the  beginning  and  at  the  Coimcil 
of  Constantinople  in  360,  with  the  Homoiousians, 
Basil  went  especially  with  those  who  overcame 
the  aversion  to  the  homoousios  in  common  oppo- 
sition to  Arianism,  thus  drawing  nearer  to  Atha- 
nasius  (see  Arianism).  He  also  became  a  stranger 
to  his  bishop,  Dianius  of  Csesarea,  who  had  sub- 
scribed the  Nicene  form  of  sigreement,  and  became 
reconciled  to  him  only  when  the  latter  was  about 
to  die. 

In  364  Basil  was  made  a  presbyter  of  the  Church 
at  Csesarea  and  as  such  opposed  the  new  bishop 
Eusebius,  who  was  not  favorably  disposed  toward 
asceticism.  For  a  time  he  again  withdrew  to  soli- 
tude, but  the  increasing  influence  of  Arianism 
induced  him  to  devote  his  undivided  strength  to 
ecclesiastical    affairs.    He    now    appears    as    the 

real  leader  of  the  Church  of  Csessu^a, 

Presbyter    and  in  directing  the  church  discipline, 

and  Bishop  in  promoting  monachism  and  eccle- 

of  Csesarea.  siastical    asceticism,    and    especially 

by  his  powerful  prestching,  his  influ- 
ence grew.  His  successful  exertions  during  the 
famine  in  the  year  368  are  especisdly  praised. 
After  the  death  of  Eusebius  (370),  Basil  was 
elected  bishop  of  dJsesarea  in  spite  of  much  opposi- 
tion on  dogmatic  smd  personal  grounds;  even  his 
friend  Gregory  felt  offended.  Occupying  one  of  the 
most  important  episcopal  sees  of  the  East,  Basil's 
influence  on  public  affairs  was  now  great.  With 
all  his  might  he  resisted  the  emperor  Valens,  who 
strove  to  introduce  Arianism,  and  impressed  the  em- 
peror so  strongly  that,  although  inclined  to  banish 
the  intractable  bishop,  he  left  him  unmolested. 
To  save  the  Church  from  Arianism  Basil  entered 
into  connections  with  the  West,  smd  with  the  help 
of  Athanasius,  he  tried  to  overcome  its  distrustful 
attitude  toward  the  Homoiousians.  The  difficulties 
had  been  enhanced  by  bringing  in  the  question  as 
to  the  essence  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  Although  Basil 
advocated  objectively  the  consubstantiality  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  with  the  Father  smd  the  Son,  he  be- 
longed to  those,  who,  faithful  to  Eastern  tradition, 
would  not  allow  the  predicate  homoousios  to  the 
former;  for  this  he  was  reproached  as  early  as  371 
by  the  orthodox  zealots  among  the  monks,  and 
Athanasius  defended  him.  His  relations  also 
with  Eustathius  were  maintained  in  spite  of  dog- 
matic differences  and  caused  suspicion  (see  Eu- 
stathius OF  Sebaste).  On  the  other  hand,  Basil 
was  grievously  offended  by  the  extreme  adherents  of 
Homoousianism,  who  seemed  to  him  to  be  reviving 
the  Sabellian  heresy.  The  end  of  the  unhappy 
factional  disturbances  smd  the  complete  success 
of  his  continued  exertions  in  behalf  of  Rome  and 
the  East,  he  did  not  live  to  see.  He  suffered  from 
liver  complaint  and  excessive  asceticism  made  him 
old  before  his  time  and  hastened  his  early  death. 
A  lasting  monument  of  his  episcopal  care  for  the 
poor  was  the  great  institute  before  the  gates  of 


Baail 
BasillaiLB 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOa 


500 


Caesarea,  which  was  used  as  poorhouse,   hospital, 
and  hospice. 

Of  Basil's  writings,  mention  may  be  made  (1)  of 
the  dogmatic-polemical,  including  the  books  against 
Eunomius  of  Cyzicus  (q.v.)  entitled  **  Refutation 
of  the  Apology  of  the  Impious  Eimomius/'  written 
in  363  or  364;  book  i  controverts  Arianism,  books 
ii  and  iii  defend  the  Homoousianism  of  the  Son 
and  the  Spirit.    The  fourth  and  fifth  books  do  not 

belong  to  Basil,  or  to  Apollinaris  of 
Writings.    Laodicea    (q.v.),    but    probably    to 

Didymus  of  Alexandria  (q.v.).  The 
work  "  On  the  Holy  Spirit "  (ed.  C.  F.  H.  Johnston, 
Oxford,  1892;  transl.  by  G.  Lewis,  Christian  Classics 
Series,  iv,  London,  1888)  also  treats  the  questions 
of  Homoousianism.  Basil  influenced  the  fixing 
of  the  terminology  of  the  church-doctrine  of  the 
Trinity,  though  as  concerns  dogmatic  acuteness  and 
speculative  power  he  is  far  behind  Athanasius  and 
lus  brother  Gregory  (of  Nyssa).  (2)  The  ascetic 
works  (aacetica)  are  religio-ethical  writings  which 
acquaint  us  with  the  man  who  in  a  high  degree 
labored  for  the  natiuralization  of  monasticism  in 
the  Church,  and  who  at  the  same  time  exerted  him- 
self to  regulate  it  in  the  cenobitio  form  and  to  make 
it  fruitful  also  for  the  religious  life  of  the  cities  (cf . 
A.  Kranich,  Die  Ascetik  in  ihrer  dogmatischen 
Grundlage  hei  Basilius  dem  Grosaen,  Paderbom, 
1896).  Of  the  monastic  rules  traced  to  Basil,  the 
shorter  is  the  one  most  probably  his  work  (see 
Basilians).  (3)  Among  the  numerous  homilies 
and  orations,  highly  appreciated  by  the  early 
Church,  some  like  that  against  usury  and  that  on 
the  famine  in  368,  are  valuable  for  the  history  of 
morals;  others  illustrate  the  worship  of  martyrs 
and  relics;  the  address  to  young  men  on  the  study 
of  classical  literature  shows  that  Basil  was  lastingly 
influenced  by  his  own  education,  which  taught  him 
to  appreciate  the  propedeutic  importance  of  the 
classics.  His  homilies  on  the  Hexaemeron  were 
especially  valued.  (4)  The  very  numerous  epistles 
are  an  important  source  of  contemporaneous 
church  history.  His  three  "  Canonical  Epistles  " 
give  a  clear  idea  of  his  efforts  in  behalf  of  church- 
discipline.  (5)  The  liturgies  bearing  the  name 
of  Basil  (ed.  with  transl.  by  J.  N.  W.  B.  Robertson, 
London,  1894),  in  their  present  form,  are  not  his 
work,  but  they  nevertheless  preserve  the  true 
recollection  of  Basil's  activity  in  this  field  in  for- 
mularizing  liturgical  prayers  and  promoting  church- 
song.  (6)  A  fruit  of  Basil's  studies  with  his  friend 
Gregory  in  their  monkish  loneliness  is,  finally,  the 
Philokaliay  an  anthology  {florilegium)  from  the 
works  of  Origen  (ed.  J.  A.  Robinson,  Cambridge, 
1893).  The  best  edition  of  Basil's  works  is  that  of 
J.  Gamier  and  Prudence  Maran  (3  vols.,  Paris, 
1721-30),  reprinted  in  MPG,  xxix-xxxii.  The 
"  Holy  Spirit,"  homilies  of  the  Hexaemeron,  and 
letters  are  translated  in  NPNF,  viii. 

G.  KrCger. 


Bibuoobapht:  The  Boureea,  besides  Basil's  own  works,  are 
the  eulogies  of  Gregory  Nasiansen,  Gregory  of  Nsrssa,  and 
Ephraem  Synis,  also  notiees  in  Soerates,  Sosomen,  Theo- 
doret,  Philostoigius,  and  Rufinus,  and  in  Jerome,  Dt 
vir.  iU.,  and  Photius,  Bibliotheea.  Of  the  volumi- 
nous literature  mention  may  be  made  of  E.  Fialon, 
itude  hiatoriquB  et  litUraire  nor  St.  Banle,  Paris.  1860; 
F.  B6hringer,  Die  Kireht  Chriati  und  ikn  Zeuoen,  toI. 
Tii,  Stuttgart,  1875;  F.  Loofs,  EuataOiuu  von  t^ebtuU  wnd 
dU  Chronologic  dtr  boBUianiadien  Briefe,  Halle,  1807. 
Consult  also  the  works  on  patrology  and  history  of  doe- 
trine.  For  the  literature  oonsult  S.  F.  W.  Hoffmann, 
BibliogtuphisehM  Lexicon  der  o^»a,mnden  LittenUur  dm 
Griedton,  i,  407-421,  Leipsic.  1838;  U.  Chevalier.  Riper- 
fovrs  dee  eoureee  hietoriquee  du  moyen  Age,  Nos.  234  and 
2446,  Paris,  1877-88.  There  is  a  life  in  English  by  R.  F. 
Smith.  The  Fathere  for  Englieh  Readere,  London.  1881. 
Consult  also  P.  Sehaff,  Hietory  of  &«  ChrieHan  Church,  in, 
803-003.  New  York.  1884;  J.  H.  Newman's  three  essays 
on  the  Triale  of  Baail,  Laboure  of  Baeil,  and  B<uil  and 
Oregory  in  vol.  iii  of  his  Hietarioal  Sketehee,  London.  1873; 
and  the  long  article  in  DCB,  i.  282-297. 

BASIL  OF  SELEUCIA:  Bishop  of  Seleucia  in 
Isauria.  He  was  against  Eutyches  at  the  Synod  of 
Constantinople  in  448,  but  for  him  at  Ephesus  in 
449,  and  escaped  deposition  at  Chalcedon  in  451 
only  by  again  changing  his  vote.  In  458,  with  the 
other  Isaurian  bishops,  he  gave  an  answer  to  the 
emperor  Leo  I  favorable  to  Chalcedon  and  against 
Timotheus  ^unis  (cf.  the  document  in  Mansi, 
vii,  559-563;  see  Timotheus  ^Elurus)  .  His  extant 
works  are  forty-one  sermons  in  pompous  style  and 
dependent  on  Chrysostom  (cf.  Photius,  cod.  clxviii) 
and  a  writing  on  the  life  of  St.  Thecla  (cf .  R.  A.  Lip- 
sius,  Die  apokryphen  Apostetgeschichten,  ii,  part  1, 
Brunswick,  1887,  p.  426).   They  are  in  MPG,  Ixxxv. 

G.  KrOger. 

Bxblioorapht:  Fabrieius-Harles.  Bibliotheea  Graea,  ix.  00- 
07,  Hamburg.  1804;  Hefele.  Coneiliengeechichte,  ii.  paa- 
sim,  Eng.  transl.,  vol.  iiL 

BASILIANS:  Monks  or  nuns  following  the  rule 
of  St.  Basil,  who  introduced  the  cenobitic  life  into 
Asia  Minor,  and  is  said  to  have  founded  the  first 
monastery  there.  The  rules  which  he  gave  this 
community  connected  active  industry  and  devo- 
tional exercises  in  regular  succession,  day  and  night, 
— one  meal  a  day,  consisting  of  bread  and  water; 
very  little  sleep  during  the  hours  before  midnight; 
prayers  and  singing,  morning,  noon,  and  evening; 
work  in  the  fields  during  forenoon  and  afternoon; 
etc.  These  rules  were  further  developed  and  com- 
pleted by  Basil's  ascetic  writings.  After  the  separa- 
tion between  the  Eastern  and  Western  churches,  Ba- 
sil's rule  became  almost  the  exclusive  regulation  of 
monastic  life  in  the  Eastern  Church;  so  that  a 
"  Basilian  "  simply  means  a  monk  of  the  Greek 
Church.  In  the  Western  Church  the  rule  of  Basil 
was  afterward  completely  superseded  by  that  of 
Benedict  of  Nursia,  Nevertheless,  Basilian  monas- 
teries, acknowledging  the  supremacy  of  the  Pope, 
are  still  lingering  in  Sicily  and  in  the  Slavonian 
countries.  See  Basil,  Saint,  the  Great;  Monas- 
ticism. 


END   OF  VOL.  I. 


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