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AndoYeR-HARV!A.RP

mOLOGKAmBKARY

THE NEW

SCHAFF-HERZOG ENCYCLOPEDIA

RELIGIOUS KNOWLEDGE

EDITED BY

SAMUEL MACAULEY JACKSON, D.D., LL.D.

(Editor-in-Chief)

WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF

CHARLES COLEBROOK SHERMAN

[VOLUMES I— VI]

AND

GEORGE WILLIAM GILMORE, M.A.

(^Attociate Editors)

AND THE FOLLOWINtt DEPARTMENT EDITORS

CURENCE AU6USTINE BECKWITH, D.D.

(Dtpariment of SyttanaHe Tlieology)

HENRY KING CARROLL, LL.D.

{Department of Minor Denominatiofui)

JAMES FRA1ICI8 DRISOOLL, D.D.

{Department of LUurgie$ and lUligunu Order*)

JAMES FREDERIC McCURDT, PH.D., LL.D.

{Department of the Old Testament)

HENRY SYLVESTER NASH, D.D.

(DepartmerU of the New Testament)

ALBERT HENRY NEWMAN, D.D., LL.D.

{Department of Church History)

PRANK HORACE VIZETELLY, F.S.A.

{Department of Pronunciation and Typography)

VOLUME VI
INNOCENTS — UUDGER

FUNK AND WAGNALLS COMPANY

NEW YORK AND LONDON

Harvard University.
Divinity School Library.

: vi: )

C'iicc^^. X

GOFTBIGHT, 1910, BT

FUNK & WAGNALLS COMPANY

Registered at Stationen* Hall, London, England

[JPrtnted in the United SUOee of Ameried]
PuUiahed February^ 1910

I ^

v,4

EDITORS

SAMUEL MA0AX7LEY JACKSON, D.D., LL.D.

(EDITOR-m-CHIBF. )
Professor of Church History, New York University.

ASSOCIATE EDITORS

OHABLES OOLEBBOOK SHEBMAN

Editor in Biblical Criticism and Theology on "The New
International Encyclopedia/* New York.

GEOBGE WILLIAM GILMORE, M.A.

New York, Formerly Professor of Biblical History and
Lecturer on Comi>arative Religion, Bangor Theological

Seminary.

DEPARTMENT EDITORS, VOLUME VI

CLABENOE AUGXTSTINE BEOKWITH, D.D.

(Department of SyBtematic Theology.)

Professor of Systematic Theology, Chicago Theological

Seminary.

HENBT KING OAEBOLL, LL.D.

{Department of Minor Denominations.)

Secretary of Executive Committee of the Western Section
for the Fourth Ecumenical Methodist Conference.

JAMES FRANCIS DEISOOLL, D.D.

{Department of Litwrgie$ and Religious Orders.)
President of St. Joseph's Seminary, Yonkers, N. Y.

FRANK HORACE VIZETELLT, F.S.A.

{Department of Pronunciation and Typography.)
Managing Editor of the Standard Dictionabt, etc..

New York City.

JAMES FREDERICK McCXJRDT, Ph.D.,

LL.D.

{Department of the Old Testament.)
Professor of Oriental Languages, University College,

Toronto.

HENRY SYLVESTER NASH, D.D.

{Department of the New Testament.)
Professor of the Literature and Interpretation of the New
Testament, Episcopal Theological School, Cambridge. Mass.

ALBERT HENRY NEWMAN, D.D., LL.D.

{Department of Church History.)

Professor of Church History, Baylor Theological Seminary

(Baylor University), Waco, Tex.

CONTRIBUTORS AND COLLABORATORS, VOLUME VI

HANS ACHELIS, PI1.D., TI1.D.,

Professor of Theology University of Halle.

WTLHELM ALTMANN, Ph.D.,

Director of the Deutsche Musiksammlung, Berlin.

FRANKLIN CARL ARNOLD,
PI1.D., Th.D.,

Professor of Church History, University of Breslau.

BENJAMIN WISNER RA.CON, D.D.,
LL.D., Litt.D.,

Professor of New Testament Exegesis, Yale Divinity School.

FERENCZ RALOGH,

Professor of Chiux;h History, Reformed Theological Aca-
demy, Debreczin. Hungary.

GEORGE JAMES RA.YLES, Ph.D.,

Writer on Civil Church Law.

CLARENCE AUGUSTINE BECKWITH,

D.D.,

Professor of Systematic Theology, Chicago Theological

Seminary.

JOHANNES BELSHEIM (f).

Late Pastor Emeritus, Christiania, Norway.

RUDOLF BENDIXEN (f),

Late Diaconus in Grimma, Saxony.

KARL BENRATH, PI1.D., Th.D.,

Professor of Church History, University of KOnigsberg.

IMMANUEL GUSTAV ADOLF BENZIN-
GER, Ph.D., Tli.Lic.,

German Orientalist and Vice-Consul for Holland in Jeru-
salem.

CARL BERTHEAU, Th.D.,

Pastor of St. Michael's, Hamburg.

BERNHARD BESS, Th.Lic,

Librarian, University of Halle.

EDWIN MX7NSELL BLISS, D.D.,

Author of Books on Missions, Washington, D. C.

EMIL BLOESCH (f), TI1.D.,
Late Professor of Theology, Bern.

CONTRIBUTORS AND COLLABORATORS, VOLUME VI

HEINBIOH BOEHMEBy Pli.D.,Tli.Lic.,

Professor of Church History, University of Bonn.

AMY GASTON CHARLES AUGUSTS
BONET-MAUKY, D.D., LL.D.,

Professor of Church History, Independent School of

Divinity, Paris.

GOTTLIEB NATHANAEL BONWETSCH,

Th.D.,

Professor of Church History, University of GOttingen.

FRIEDBICH BOSSE, Ph.D., Th.Lic,

Auxiliary Librarian, University Library, Marburg.

GUSTAV BOSSEBT, Ph.D., Th.D.,

Retired Pastor, Stuttgart.

ALBEBT BRACKMANN, Ph.D.,

Professor of History, University of Marburg.

FBIEDBICH HEINBICH BBANDES,

Th.D.,

Reformed Minister and Chaplain at BQckeburg,
Schaumburg-Lippe.

EDUABD BBATKE (f), Ph.D, Th.D.,

Late Professor of Church History, University of Breslau.

FBANTS PEDEB WILLL/UIC BUHL,
Ph.D.y Th.D.,

Professor of Oriental Languages, University of Copenhagen.

KABL BUBGEB (f), Th.D.,

Late Supreme ConsLstorial Councilor, Munich.

KABL VON BX7BX (f), Th.D.,
Late Supreme Councilor in Stuttgart.

HEINBIOH OALAMINUS,

Superintendent at Elberfeld.

OTIS GABY, D.D.,

Professor of Homiletics and Practical Sociology, Doshisha
Theological School, Kyoto, Japan.

JAOaXTES EUG£NE CHOISY, Th.D.,

Pastor in Geneva.

PAUL OHBIST (t), Th.D.,

Late Professor of Systematic and Practical Theology,

University of Zurich.

EMILIO COMBA (f), D.D.,

Late Professor of Historical Theology and Homiletics,
Waldensian College, Florence, Italy.

HENBY OOWAN, D.D.,

Professor of Church Historv, University of Aberdeen,

Scotland.

AUGUST HEBMANN OBEMEB (f), Th.D.,

I Ate Professor of Systematic Theology, University of

Greifswald.

FBIEDBICH WILHELM CUNO (f),

Th.Lic,
Late Pastor at Eddigehauseu, Hanover.

THOMAS WITTON DAVIES, Ph.D., D.D.,

Professor of Semitic Laneuae:e,*«. University College of
North Wales, Bangor.

SAIOTEL MABTIN DEUTSCH, Th.D.,

Professor of Church History, University of Berlin.

EBNST VON DOBSCHUETZ, Th.D.,

Professor of New Testament Exegesis, University of

Strasburg.

LEONHABD EBNST DOBN,

First Preacher at N6rdlingen, Bavaria.

PAX7L GOTTFBIED DBEWS, Th.D.,

Professor of Practical Theology, University of Halle.

JAMES FBANOIS DBISCOLL, D.B.,

President of St. Joseph's Seminary. Yonkers, New York.

EMIL EGLI (t), Th.D.,
Late Professor of Church Ilistorj*. University of Zuricli.

LXTDWIG ALFBED EBICHSON (f),
Ph.D., Th.D.,

Late Preacher at St. Thomas', Strasburg, Germany.

BXTDOLP EUCKEN, Ph.D., Th.D.,

Professor of Philosoptiy, University of Jena.

GUSTAV WILHELM FBANK (f), Th.D.,

Late Professor of Dogmatics, Symbolics, and Cliristian
Ethics, University of Vienna.

ALBEBT FBEYBE (f), Ph.D., Th.D.,

Emeritus Gymnasial Professor, Parchim, Meclvlenburg.

ALBEBT FBEYSTEDT (f), Th.Lic,
Late Pastor in Cologne.

EMIL ALBEBT FBIEDBEBG,
Th.D., Dr.Jur.,

Professor of Ecclesiastical, Public, and German Law, Uni-
versity of Leipsic.

HEINBICH GELZEB (f), Ph.D.,

Late Profe-ssor of Classical Philology and Ancient History,

University of Jena.

JOHANNES ABBAHAM GEBTH VAN

WIJK (t), Th.D.,

I^te Reformed Church Clergyman at The Hague, Holland.

CHBISTIAN GEYEB, Ph.D.,

First Preacher at St. Sebald's, Nuremberg, Germany.

GEOBGE WILLIAM GILMOBE, M.A.,

Former Professor of Biblical History and liccturer on
Comparative Religion, Bangor Theological Seminary.

EABL GOEBEL (f), Ph.D.,

I^te Consistorial Councilor in Posen, Prussia.

LEOPOLD EABL GOETZ, Ph.D., Th.D.,

Professor of Philosophy in tlie Roman Catholic Theological
Faculty, University of Bonn.

WALTEB GOETZ, Ph.D.,

Professor of History, University of Tubingen.

WILHELM GOETZ, Ph.D.,

Honorary Professor of fJeoKraphy, Technical High School,
and Professor, Military Academy, Munich.

JOHANNES FBIEDBICH GOTTSCHICK (t),

Th.D.,

liate Professor of New Testament Exegesis, Ethics, and
Practical Tlieology, Evangelical Theological Faculty,

University of Tabingen.

CASPEB -RBTSrk GBEGOBY, Ph.D., Th.D.,
D.D., LL.D., Dr.Jur.,

Professor of New Testament Exegesis, University of Leipsic.

GEOBG GBUETZMACHEB, Ph.D., Th.Lic,

Extraordinary Professor of Church History, University of

Heidelberg.

PETEB BEINHOLD GBUNDEMANN,

Ph.D., Th.D.,
Pastor in MOrz, near Belzig, Prussia.

CONTRIBUTORS AND COLLABORATORS, VOLUME VI

HEBMANN GXJTHE, Th.I>.y

Professor of Old Testanaent Exegesis, University of Leipsic.

WILHELM HADOBN, Th.Lic,

Pastor in Bern and Lecturer on New Testament Exegesis.

University of Bern.

ELOF HALLEB,

Gymnasial Professor. Venersborg, Sweden.

ADOLF HABNACK, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Dr.Jur., M.D.,

General Director of the Royal Library. Berlin.

ALBEBT HAUCK, Ph.D., Th.D.,

Professor of Churrh History. University of Leipsic. Editor-
in-Chief of the Hauck-Uerzog Healencyklop6die.

HEBMAN HAT7PT, Ph.D.,

Professor, and Director of the University Library, Giessen.

AUGUST WILHELM HEGLEB (t),
Ph.D., Th.D.,

Late Professor of Church History. University of Tabingen.

KABL FBIEDBICH HEXAN,

Ph.D., Th.Lic,

Professor of Philosophy. University of Basel.

LUDWIG THEODOB EDGAB HENKECKE,

Ph.D., Th.Lic.,

Pastor in Betheln. Hanover.

HEBMANK HEBING, Th.D.,

Professor of Philosophy of Religion and ilomiletics. Uni-
versity of Halle.

PAUL HnrSOHTUS (t), Th.D., Dr.Jur.,

Late Professor of Ecclesiastical Law. University of Berlin.

GEOBGE HODGES, D.D., D.C.L.,

I>ean of The Episcopal Theological School, Cambridge,

Mass.

FEBDINAND HOEBSCHELMANN (t),

Th.D.,

Late Professor of Practical Theology, University of Dorpat.

BUDOLF HUGO HOFMAKK,
Ph.D., Th.D.,

Professor of HomUetics and Liturgies, University of I^eipsic.

OSWALD HOLDEB-EGGEB, Ph.D.,

Professor at Berlin and Director for the Publication of the
MonumerUa Oermania hUiorica.

KABL HOLL, Ph.D., Th.D.,

Professor of Church History, University of Berlin.

EBNST IDELEB,

Pastor at Ahrendorf , near Potsdam.

LXTDWIG HETTTBTGH IHKELS, Th.D.,

Professor of Dogmatics, University of Leipsic.

SIKON ISSLEIB, Ph.D.,

Professor Emeritus, University of Bonn.

GEOBGE THOMAS JAOKSON, M.D.,

Profei»or of Dermatology, College of Phvsicians and Sur-
geons. Columbia university. New York City.

JOSEPH JACOBS, Litt.D.,

Professor of English Literature and Rhetoric, Jewish
Theological Seminary, New York City.

ADOLF HEBMANN HEIKBIOH KAMP-

HAUSEN (t), Th.D.,

Late PrafeaaoT of Old Testament Exegesis, University of

Bonn.

FEBDINAKD FBIEDBICH WILHELM
KATTEKBUSCH, Ph.D., Th.D.,

Professor of Dogmatics. University of Halle.

EMIL FBIEDBICH KAUTZSCH,
Ph.D., Th.D.,

Professor of Old TesUment Exegesis. University of Halle.

PETEB GUSTAV KAWEBAU, Th.D.,

Consistorial Councilor. Profes.sor of Practical Theology, and
University Preacher, University of Breslau.

WILHELM JULIUS ADOLPH KEIL,

Pastor in Herzogswalde, near Dresden.

JAMES ANDEBSON KELSO, Ph.D., D.D.,

Professor of Hebrew and Old Testament Literature and
President. Western Theological Seminary. Pittsburg, Pa.

HANS KESSLEB, Th.D.,

Supreme Consi.>4torial Councilor, Berlin.

HUGO WILHELM PAX7L ELEINEBT,

Ph.D., Th.D.,

Professor of Old Testament Exegesis and Practical The-
ology. University of Berlin.

HEIKBICH AUGUST KLOSTEBMANN,

Th.D.,

Professor of Old Testament Exogesw. University of Kiel.

EABL AUGUST KLUEPFEL (f), Ph.D.,
Late Head Librarian. L^niversity of Tubingen.

BXTDOLF KOEGEL (t), Th.D., Ph.D.,

Late Court Preacher, Berlin.

CHBISTOPH FBIEDBICH ADOLF KOLB,

Th.D.,

Prelate and Court Preacher. Ludwigsburg.

THEODOB FBIEDBICH HEBMANN
KOLDE, Ph.D., Th.D.,

Professor of Church History, University of Erlangen.

BICHABD KBAETSCHMAB (t), Th.D.,

Late Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, University of

Marburg.

HEBMANN GUSTAV EDUABD
KBUEGEB, Ph.D., Th.D.,

Profes.sor of Church History. University of Giessen.

JOHANNES WILHELM KUNZE,

Ph.D., Th.D.,

Professor of Systematic and Practical Theology, University

of Greifswald.

EUGEN LACHENMANN,

City Pastor, Leonberg, Wilrttemberg.

BICHABD LAUXMANN (f),
I^te Diaconus in Stuttgart.

WILLIAM LEE (f), D.D.,
I^te Profes.sor of Church History, University of Glasgow.

KABL LUDWIG LEIMBACH (f),
Ph.D., Th.Lic,

Late Provincial Councilor for Schools. Hanover. Germany.

EDUABD LEMPP, Ph.D.,

Chief Inspector of the Ro^-al Orphan Asylum, Stuttgart.

FBIEDBICH BEINHABD LIPSIUS,
Ph.D., Th.Lic,

Privat-docent in Symbolics, University of Jena.

yiii

CONTRIBUTORS AND COLLABORATORS, VOLUME VI

GEOAO IiOESOHBy Pli.D.y TI1.D.,

Professor of Church Histor;, Evangelical Theological

sn History, i!;vaiu
Faculty, Vienna.

FBIEDBIOH ABMIN LOOPS, Ph.D., Th.D.,

Professor of Church History, University of Halle.

JOHANN LOSEBTH, Ph.D.,

Professor of History, University of Graz.

WTTiHKLM PHTTiTFP PBIEDBICH
PBBDINAKD LOTZ, PI1.D., TI1.D.,

Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, University of Er-

langen.

JAMES PSEDEBIOE: McOTJBJ>T,

PII.D., LL.D.y

Professor of Oriental Languages, University College,

Toronto.

HKTnWANy MALLET (f),

Late Pastor in Bremen.

PHTTiTPP MEYEB, Th.D.,

Supreme Consistorial Councilor, Hanover.

GAEL THEODOB MTRBT, Th.D.,

Professor of Church History, University of Marburg.

EENST PBIEDBIOH XABL MUELLEB,

Th.D.y

Professor of Reformed Theology, University of Erlangen.

GEOBG MUELLEB, Ph.I)., Th.D.,

Inspector of Schools, Leipsic.

JOSEPH THEODOB MUELLEB, Th.D.,

Keeper of the Archives in Herrnhut.

NIKOLAUS MUELLEB, Ph.D., Th.D.,

Professor of Christian Archeology, University of Berlin.

HENBT SYLVESTEB NASH, D.D.,

Professor of the Literature and Interpretation of the New
Testament, Episcopal Theological School. Cambridge,

Mass.

OHBISTOP EBEBHABD NESTLE,
Ph.D., Th.D.,

Professor in the Theological Seminary, Maulbronn,

Warttemberg.

ALBEBT HENBT NEWMAN,
D.D., LL.D.,

Professor of Church History, Baylor Theological Seminary
(Baylor University), Waco, Texas.

PBEDEBIK KBISTLAN NIELSEN (f),

D.D.,

Late Bishop of Aarhus, Denmark.

OONBAD VON OBELLI, Ph.D., Th.D.,

Professor of Old Testament Exegesis and History of Re-
ligion, University of Basel.

OABL PFENDEB,

Pastor of St. Paul's Evangelical Lutheran Church, Paris.

EBWIN PBET7SCHEN, Ph.D., Th.D.,

Pastor at Hirschhorn-on-the-Neckar, Germany.

EBNEST GUSHING BIOHABDSON, Ph.D.,

Librarian, Princeton University.

GEOBG CHRISTIAN BIETSOHEL, Th.D.,

University Preacher and Professor of Practical Ttieology,

University of Leipsic.

SIEGFBIED BIETSOHEL, Dr.Jur.,

Professor of Law, University of TQbingen.

BKBNHABD BIGGENBAOH (f), D.D.,

Late Pastor in Basel.

KABL BOENNEXE, Th.Lic.,

Superintendent in Gommem, Saxony.

BOBEBT WILLIAM BOGEBS,
Ph.D., LL.D.,

Professor of Hebrew and Old Testament Exegesis, Drew
Theological Seminary, Madison, New Jersey.

HENDBIX OOBNELIS BOGGE (f), Ph.D.»

Late Professor of History, University of Haarlem.

ABNOLD BT7EGG,

Pastor at Birmensdorf and Lecturer at the University of

Zurich.

OABL VIOTOB BTSSEL (f), Ph.D., Th.D.,

Late Professor of Theology, University of Zurich.

XABL S0HAAB80HMIDT,

Honorary Professor, University of Bonn.

DAVID SOHLEY SOHAPF, D.D.,

Professor of Church History. Western Theological Sem-
inary, Pittsburg, Pennsylvania.

PHTTiTPP SOHAPF (f), D.D., LL.D.,

Late Professor of Church History, Union Theological Sem-
inary, New York, and Editor of the Original Schaff-

HERZOO ENCrCLOPiBDIA.

OHBISTOPH GOTTLOB VON 8CHET7BL
(t), Ph.D., Th.D.,

Late Professor in Nuremberg.

BEINHOLD SOHMID, Th.Lic.,

Pastor in Oberholzheim, warttemberg.

HEINBIGH 80HMIDT (f), Ph.D., Th.D.,

Late Professor of Theology, University of Erlangen.

KABL SOHMIDT, Th.D.,

Provost at Goldberg, Mecklenburg.

WOLDEMAB GOTTLOB SOHMIDT (f),

D.D.,

Late Professor of Theology, University of Leipsic.

OABL WILHELM SCHOELL (f),
Ph.D., D.D.,

Late Pastor of the Savoy Church, London.

THEODOB FBIEDBICH SCHOTT (f),

Ph.D., Th.D.,

Late Librarian and Professor of Theology, University of

Stuttgart.

EMIL SCHUEBEB, Ph.D., Th.D.,

Professor of New Testament Exegesis, University of GOt-

tingen.

JOHANN FBIEDBICH BITTEB VON
SOHULTE (t), Dr.Jur.,

Professor of Law, University of Bonn.

GUSTAV VON SCHULTHESS-BECHBEBG,

Th.D.,

Professor cf Systematic Theology, University of Zurich.

VIOTOB SCHULTZE, Th.D.,

Professor of Church History and Christian Archeology,
University of Greifswald.

OTTO SEEBASS, Ph.D.,

Educator, Leipsic, Germany.

BEINHOLD SEEBEBG, Th.D.,
Professor of Systematic Theology, University of Berlin.

CONTRIBUTORS AND COLLABORATORS, VOLUME VI

BXIL SEHLING, Dr.Jur.,

Professor of Ecclesiastical and Commercial Law, University

of Erlangen.

ERNST SELUN, Ph.D., Th.D.,

Professor of Old Testament Exegesis and Archeology,
Evangelical Theological Faculty, Vienna.

OHBISTIAAN SEPP (f), Th.D.,

Late Mennonlte Preacher, Leyden.

FEIEBBICH ANTON EMIL SIEFFEET,

Ph.D., Th.D.,

Professor of Dogmatics and New Testament Exegesis,

University of Bonn.

EBNE8T GOTTLIEB SIHLEB, Ph.D.,

Professor of Latin, New York University.

PHTTiTPP FEIEDBIOH ADOLPH
THEODOB SPAETH, D.D., LL.D.,

Professor in the Lutheran Theological Seminary, Mt. Airy,

Philadelphia.

SMIIi EUAS STEINHEYEB, Ph.D.,

Professor of German Language and Literature, University

of Erlangen.

HEBMANN LEBEBECHT 8TBA0K,
Ph.D., Th.D.,

Extraordinary Professor of Old Testament Exegesis and
Semitic Languages, University of Berlin.

KABL THIEME, Ph.D., Th.D.,

Professor of Doynatics, University of Leipsic.

PAUL TSOHACKEBT, Ph.D., Th.D.,

Professor of Church History, University of GOttingen.

JOHANN GEBHABD WTLHELM
UHLHOBN (t), Th.D.,

Late Abbot of Lokkum, Germany.

HOBACE GBANT X7NDEBW00D, D.D.,

Author and Missionary, Seoul, Korea.

SIETBE DOXrWES VAN VEEN, Th.D.,

Professor of Church History and Christian Archeology.

University of Utrecht.

WILHELM VOLCK (f), Ph.D., Th.D.,

Late Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, University of

Rostock.

BENJAMIN BBECKINBIDGE WAB-
FIELD, D.D., LL.D.,

Professor of Didactic and Polemical Theology. Princeton

Theological Seminary.

FBIEDBIOH WILHELM HEBMANN
WA8SSBSCHLEBEN (t), Ph.D.,

Late Professor of Theology in Giessen.

EDWABD ELIHU WHITFIELD, M.A.,

Plymouth Brother. Retired Public Schoolmaster.

LEIGHTON WILLIAMS, D.D.,

Pastor of the Amity Baptist Church, New York.

JOSEPH DAWSON WILSON, D.D.,

ecclesiastical History in the Reforr
pal Seminary. Philadelphia. Pa.

Professor of Ecclesiastical History in the Reformed £pisco«
■ ~ -iflac' * -

FBANZ THEODOB BITTEB VON ZAHN,

Th.D., Litt.D.,

Professor of New Testament Introduction, University of

Erlangen.

HEINBICH ZIEGLEB,

Pastor Emeritus in Jena.

OTTO ZOEOELEB (f), Ph.D., Th.D., .

Late Professor of Churcli History and Apologetics. Univer-
sity of Greifswald.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX- VOLS. I-VI

The following list of books is supplementary to the bibliographies given at the end of the articles
contained in volumes I. -VI., and brings the literature down to November, 1909. In this list each title
entry is printed in capital letters.

Apocrypha: B. Pick, The Apocryphal Acta, Chicago,
1909.

Arabia: U. Chauvin, Bibliographie dee ouvragea
Arabes ou reloH/s aux Arabea publUs dans
VEurope chrHienne de 1810 h 1886. XI.
Mahomet, Leipsic, 1909.

Architecture: E. H. Day, Gothic Architecture in
England, Oxford, 1909.
I. B. S. Holbom, An Introduction to the Archi-
tectures of European Religiona, Edinburgh,
1909.

Armenia: L. Arpee, The Armenian Awakening ,
Chicago, 1909.

Atonement: W. L. Walker, The Gospel of Recon-
ciliation or Atonement, Edinburgh, 1909.

Bible Text: J. Drummond, The Transmission of
the Text of the New Testament, London, 1909.

E. Kautsch, Die Evangeliemitate des Origens,
Leipsic, 1909.

W. O. E. Oesterlev, Our Bible Text; same Re-
cently discovered Bible Documents, London,
1909.

Biblical Introduction: F. Egger, Absolute oder

rdative Wahrhevt der heiligen Schriftf Dog-

matisch-kriiische UnJtersuchung einer neuen

Theorie, Brixen, 1909.
A. S. Geden, Outlines of Introduction to the

Hebrew Bible, London, 1909.
E. Jacquicr, Histoire des livres du Nouveau

Testament, 4 vols., Paris, 1904-1909.
A. S. Peake, A Critical Introduction to the New

Testament, London, 1909.
T. Zahn, Introduction to the New Testament (Eng.

transl. under the direction . . . of M. W.

Jacobus, assisted by C. S. Thayer), 3 vols.,

Edinburgh, 1909.

BiBUCAL Theology: W. T. Adeney, The New
Testament Doctrine of Christ, Edinburgh, 1909.

J. Stalker, The Ethic of Jesus according to the
Synoptic Gospels, London, 1909.

G. Westphal, Jahwes Wohnstdtten nach den
Anschauungender alten Hebraer, Giessen, 1908.

Bonaventura: E. Lutz, Die Psychologie Bonavenr
turas, Miinster, 1909.

Bowne, B. p.: Studies in Christianity, Boston, 1909.

Brooks, P. : In Heavenly Heretics, by L. P. Powell,
New York, 1909.

Bushnell, H.: In Heavenly Heretics, by L. P. Pow-
ell, New York, 1909.

Catenae: O. Lang, Die Catene des Vaticanus Gr. 72
zum ersten Korintherbrief, Leipsic, 1909.

Challoner, R. : E. H. Burton, The Life and Times
of Bishop Challoner (1691-1781), 2 vols.,
New York, 1909.

Channinq, W. E.: In Heavenly Heretics, by L. P.
Powell, New York, 1909.

China: J. Ross, The Original Religion of China,
Edinburgh, 1909.
W. A. Tatchell, Medical Missions in China in
Connection with the Wesleyan MeUiodist
Church, London, 1909.
J. Webster, The Revival in Manchuria, London.
1909.

Christian Socialism: C. B. Thompson, The
Churches and the Wage Earners, London, 1909.
W. Rauschenbusch, Christianity and the Social
Crisis, New York, 1907.

Christmas: F.Kepue\,ChristmcLsinArt; the Nativ-
ity as depicted by Artists in the 15th and IGth
Centuries, New York, 1909.
H. W. Mabie, The Book of Christmas, New York,
1909.

Church History: H. M. Gwatkin, Early Church
History to A. D, 313, 2 vols., London, 1909.
L. Ragg, The Church of the Apostles, New Y'ork,
1909.

Church, R. W.: D. C. Lathbury, Dean Church,
London, 1909.

Comparative Religion: G. Foucart, La Mithode
comjmratCve dans Vhistoire des Religions,
Paris. 1909.

S. Reinach, Orpheus, Histoire GCnirale des re-
ligions, Paris, 1909; Eng. transl., Orpheus,
London, 1909.

Covenanters: A. Sraellie, Men of the Covenant,
London, 1903, 7th ed., 1909.

Creation: D. L. Holbrook, Panorama of Creation,
Philadelphia, 1909.

E. O. James, God^s Eight Days of Creation,
London, 1909.

Denney, J.: Jesus and the Gospel, New York, 1909.

Disciples of Christ: J. H. Garrison, The Story of
a Century. A brief historical Sketch and Ex-
position of the Religious Movement inaugu-
rated by Thomas and Alexander Camjtbell,
St. Louis, 1909.

DoDS, M.: Footsteps in the Path of Life, New York,
1909.

Druids: W. F. Tamhlyn, in Am. Hist. Rev., Oct.,
1909, pp. 21-30 (gathers scattered references).

Edwards, J., the Elder: In Heamnly Heretics, by
L. P. PowcU, New York, 1909.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX— VOLUMES I-VI

Ethigb: R. L. Ottley, Christian Ideas and Ideals,
London, 1909.
H. H. Scullard, Early Christian Ethics in the
Westy London, 1909.

EvKRETT, C. C: Theism and the Christian Faith,
New York, 1909.

Faith: W. R. Inge, Faith, London, 1909.
FiCHTE, J. G.: A biM^phical introduction, by E.

Ritchie, is prefixed to the Vocation of Man,

Chicago, 1906.
FiNDLAT, G. G. : FeUowMp in the lAfe Eternal, New

York, 1909.
FoBSTTH, P. T.: The Crudality of the Cross, New

York, 1909.
France: J. W. Thompson, The Wars of Religion in

France, 1669-76, Chicago, 1909.
Francis of Assisi: A. GofiBn, Saint Francois

d* Assise dans la legends et dans Vart primttifs

xtaliens, Brussels, 1909.
French Revolution: P. de La Goroe, Histoire

religietue de la rivolution frangaise, Paris,

1909.
Gaulee: E. W. G. Masterman, Studies in Galilee,

Chicc^, 1909.
Gardiner, S. : In Typical English Churchmen, by J.

Gairdner, London, 1909.
Geil, W. E.: The Great Wall of China, New York,

1909.
Gerhardt, p.: Two new eds. of the poems are by

W. Nelle, Hamburg, 1907, and W. TQmpel,

GOtersloh, 1907.
Gladden, W. : Recollections of Washington Gladden,

Boston, 1909.
God: J. Warschauer, Problems of Immanence.

Studies critical and constructive, London, 1909.
Gospels: V. H. Stanton, The Gosjpels as Historical

Documents, part 2, The Synoptic Gospels,

London, 1909.
Hajoiurabi: Hammurabis Gesetz, Germ, transl.,

by J. Kohler and A. Ungnad, Leipsic, 1909.
Hawaiian Lslands: S. Dibble, A History of the

Sandwich Islands, Cleveland, 1909.
Hebrew Language and Literature: J. W. Roth-
stein, Grundzuge des hebrdischen Rhythmus

und seiner Formenbildung nebst lyrischen

Texten mil krUischen Kommentar, Leipsic,

1909.
Hellenism: W. Otto, Priester und Tempel im

hellenistischen Aegypten, 2 vols., Leipsic, 1908.
Herbert, G.: Add to bibliograpy, English Works,

newly arranged ... by G. H. Palmer, 3

vols., Boston, 1905.
Herrmann, J. G. W.: English transl. of Der

Verkehr, with title Communion of the Chris-
tian with God, London, 1895, New York, 1907.
Hexateuch: J. Skinner, Genesis, Edinburgh and

New York. 1909.
Holt Spirit: H. B. Swete, The Holy Spirit in the

New Testament. A Study in primitive Chris-
tian Teaching, London, 1909.
Home Missions: A. F. Beard, A Crusade of Brother-
hood; a History of the American Missionary

Association, Boston, 1909.
H. P. Douglass, Christian Reconstruction in the

South, Boston, 1909.
Homiletics: F. E. Cartor, Preaching, London, 1909.
Huguenots: See France, above.
Hulsean Lectures: J. N. Figgis, The Gospel and

Human Needs. Being the Hxdsean Lectures

for 1908-09, London, 1909.

Htmnologt: Eveline W. Brainerd, Great Hymns
of the Middle Ages, New York, 1909.

Idealism: C. Werner, Aristote et VidMisme pkUo-
nicien, Paris, 1909.
W. R. B. Gibson, God with us. A Study in
Religious Idealism, New York, 1909.

Immortalitt: C. Lombroso, After Death — What?
Boston, 1909.

India: Linguistic Survey of India. V., 3. Tibeto-
Burman Family. Part 1. General Intro-
duction, Specimens of the Tibetan Dialects,
the Himalayan Dialects, and the North Assam
Group, comp. and ed. by G. A. Grierson,
Calcutta, 1909.

Inscriptions: C. Wessely, Studienzur Palaeographie
und Papyruskunde, vol. viii., Leipsic, 1908.
M. H. Pognon, Inscriptions sfmitiaues de la
Syrie, de la Afvsopotamie, Paris, 1908.

G. M6Uer, Hieratische Paldographie, Leipsic,
1909.

M. von Oppenheim, Inschriften aus Syrien,
Mesopotamien und Kleinasien, gesammelt auf
der Forschungsreise des Jahres 1899, Leipsic,
1909.
Inspiration and Revelation: Revelation and In-
spiration, London, 1909.

T. H. Sprott, Modem Study of the Old Testa-
ment and Inspiration, London, 1909.
iNVESTrruRE: E. Bemheim, Quellen gur Geschichte
des InvestUurstreites, Leipsic, 1907.

J. Drehmann, Papst Leo IX und die Simonie.
Ein Beitrag zur Untersuchung der Vorge-
schichte des Investiturstreites, Leipsic, 1908.

A. Schamagl, Der Begriff der Investitur in
den Quellen und der Literatur des Investitur-
streites, Stuttgart, 1908.
Irenaeus: p. Beauzart, Essai sur la thfologie
d*Ir&nfe. Etudes d*histoire des dogmes, Paris,
1908.
Isaiah: G. H. Box, The Book of Isaiah, London,
1908.

F. Feldmann, Der Knecht Gottes in Isaias Kap.
40-55. Freiburg, 1907.

E. Sellin, Das Rdtsel des deuterojesjanischen
Buches, Leipsic, 1908.
Israel, History of: A. M. Hyamson, A History of
the Jews in England, London, 1908.

C. H. H. Wright, Light from Egyptian Papyri
on Jewish History before Christ, London, 1908.

A. Alt, Israel und Aegypten, Leipsic, 1909.

A. Buchler, T?ie Political and Social Leaders of
the Jewish Community of Sepphoris in the
Second and Third Centuries, London, 1909.

W. Caspari, Aufkommen und Krise des israel-
itischen Konigtums untcr David, Berlin. 1909.

T. K. Cheyne, The Decline and Fall of the King-
dom of Judah, London, 1908.

S. Funk, Die Juden in Babylonien 200-600, vol.
ii., BerUn, 1908.

S. Oppenheim, The Early History of the Jews in
New York, 1667-1664, in Publications of the
American Jewish Historical Society, New
York, 1909.

S. Poznanski, The Karaite Literary Opponents
ofSaadiah Gaon, London, 1908.

S. Schecht<;r, Some Aspects of Rabbinic The-
ology, London, 1909.

N. SlouBchz, Judco-Berbtres. Recherches sur
les origines des juifs et du Judaisms en Afrique,
Paris, 1909.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX— VOLUMES I-VI

Jacob (James) of Vitry: Jaoch von VUry, Leben
und Werke, in BeUrdge zur KtUturgesckichte
des MiUekUters und der Renaiswmccf ed. W.
Goetz, LeipsiCy 1909.

Jainibm: Hem Chandra Suri, Yogosastrantf in
Sanskrit, ed. Muni Maharaya Sri Dhanna-
vigay, vol. i., part 1, Calcutta, 1907.

JjiMER, Epistle of: J. Belzer, Die Epistel der heil.
JdkobuSf Freiburg, 1909.

Japan: M. Steichen, The Christian Daimyoa: A Cen-
tury of Religious and Political History in
Japan (1649-1660), Tokyo, 1909.
N. G. Munro, Prehistoric Japan, London, 1908.

Jeremiah: Commentary of R, Tcbia B, Elieser on

Echah. Edited for the first time from the

AfSS. at Cambridge, Oxford, and Munich by

A, W, Greenup, Hebrew Text, London, 1909.

C. H. Comill, Das Such Jeremia erkldrt,

Leipsic, 1905.
M. Ldhr, Die Klagelieder des Jeremias uberaetzt
und erkldrt, Freiburg, 1908.

Jerusalem: C. R. Conder, The City of Jerusalem,
London, 1909.
D* S. Margoliouth, Cairo, Jerusalem and Da-
mascus; three chief Cities of the Egyptian Sidr-
tans, New York, 1908.
C. Mommert, Der Teich Bethesda zu Jerusalem
und das Jerusalem des Pilgers von Bordeaux,
Leipsic, 1907.

Jesuttb: p. T. Venturi, Storia delta Compofnia di
Oesu in Italia; vol. i., La vita retigiosa in
Italia durante la prima eta deW ordine, con
appendice di documenti inediti, Milan, 1909.

Job: Book of Job ; Introduction by G. K. Chesterton,
New York, 1909.

John the Apobtle: R. Law, The Tests of Life: a
Study of the First Evistle of St. John (Kerr
Lectures for 1909), New York, 1909.

John Baptist: N. Heim, Johannes. Der Vorldufer
des Herm, nach Bibel, Geschichie und Tradi-
tion dargestelU, Regensburg, 1908.

Josephus: J. Frey, Der slavische Josephusberidd
iiber die urchristliche Geschichie nebsf
seiner ParaUelen kritisch untersucht, Leipsic,
1908.

Keble, J: E. F. L. Wood, John Kebte, in Leaders of
the Church, 1800-1900, series ed. G. W. E.
Russell, Oxford, 1909.

Kings, Books of: F. A. Herzoe, Die Chronologie
der beiden K&nigfbucher, Milnster, 1909.

Lee, J. : W. H. Meredith, Life of Jesse Lee, New
York, 1909.

Lefroy, W. : H. Leeds, Life of Dean Lefroy, London,
1909.

LrruRQics: C. G. C. F. Atchley, The Ambrosian
Liturgy done into English, London, 1909.
G. Rietschel, Lehrbuch der Liturgik, vol. ii..
Die Kasualien, Berlin, 1909.

BIOGRAPHICAL ADDENDA

Bassermann, H. G.: d. in Samaden (70 m. s.s.e.
of St. Gall), Switzerland, Aug. 30, 1909.

Belsheim, J.: d. at Christiania July 15, 1909.

BoEHMER, E.: d. at Uchtental (a suburb of Baden)
Mar. 1, 1906.

Casali del Draco, G. B.: d. at Rome Mar. 17,
1908.

Hare, W. H.: d. at Atlantic City, N. J., Oct. 23,
1909.

Madsen, p.: elected bishop of Zealand, 1909.

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

AbbreriatioDs in common use or self-evident are not included here. For additional Information cou-
oeming the works listed, see vol. i., pp. viii.-xz., and the appropriate articles in the body of the work.

A no \AUifemeins deuUths Biographie, Leipdc,

-^^^ 1 1876 «qq.. vol. 63, 1907

AJP...

AJT..

AKR..

ALKQ.

Am. . .
AM A..

ANF.,

ASM.

Adw advenuM^ against "

\ American Journal of PhdoUtoVt Balti-
f more, 1880 sqq.
American Journal of 7%eoloffy, Chioaco,

1897 sqq.
Arehiv fOr katholiadte9 Kir^enrtdU,

Innsbruck, 1867-61. Mains, 1872 sqq.
Ardiiv far Liiieratur- und Kircheno^
' •chu^U dea MiUdaLter; Freiburg. 1886

( sqq.

. .American
Ahhandhingen der MUndiener AkademiCt

Munich. 1763 sqq.
Ante-Nieene FathertL American edition
by A. Cleveland Coxe. 8 vob. and in-
dex. Buffalo, 1887; vol. ix. ed. Allan
MenBies, New York, 1897
ApooryphiL apocryphal

A'pol Apologia, ApUogy

Arab Arabic

Aramaic

article

Art. Schmal Schmalkald Artidee

Aow% j Ada mnctorum, ed. J. Holland and others,

'*^'' Antwerp. 1643 aaq.

Ada aaneiorum orainiM S. BenedicH, ed.

J. Mabillon, 9 vob., Paris. 1668-1701
.Ansrrian
.AUe9 Teeiameni, ** Old Testament "

Aucs. Con Auflsburg Confession

A. Y Authorised Yeraion (of the English Bible)

AZ AUgemeine Zeitutut, Augsburg. TQbingen.

Stutteart. and TObingen. 1798 sqq.
n«i^«,;« ( J* ^* Baldwin. Dictionary of Philoiophv

DiSSiary....] -jgj^^g^wSw. 3 Tota.'S, < N«r York.

n^-i- \ Thie Didionary Hidorical and Critical of

jSSiamiry . . . . j ^^^ ^"»'^' ^d ed.. 6 vols., London.

Bensinger, j I. B«isinger, Hebr&iadic ArdiAologie, 2d

ArehAologie. .1 ed.. Freiburg. 1907

BFBS British and Forei^ Bible Society

r:_^u._ (J. Bingham, Onginca ecdeeiaatica, 10

0^^ ] J^ iLog-lon. 1708-22; new «l. Ox-

M. Bouquet, ReeueU dcM hi»torien9 dea
Oaulet et de la France^ continued by
various hands, 23 vols.. Paris. 1738-76
Archibald Bower. Hielory of the PqpoB
. . . to 1768, continued by S. H. Cox,
3 vob.. Philadelphia. 184JM7
DOR iBaptiMt Quarterly Review, Philadelphia.

'*^" I 1867 sqq.

BRO See Jaff^

Cant Canticles, Song of Solomon

cap caput, " chapter "

rv:iii^ A ui>M^. ( ^ Ceillier, ni»toire det auteur» aacria et
iSSS; ^'''•^•K ecdieiaetiquee, 16 vob. in 17. Paris,

*^^ I 1868-69

Ckron Chronicon, " Chronicle "

I Chron. I Cbronicles

II Qiron II Chronicles

r>w/y j Corpue ineeriptionum Grctcarum, Berlin,

^'^ 1 1825 sqq.

f^wj^ . Corpue ineeriptionum Latinarum, Berlin,

1863 sqq.
^jjg . Corpue ineeriptionum Semiticarum, Paris,

eod oodez

cod. D codex Bezm

cod. Tkeod codex Theodoeianue

Col Epbtle to the Colossians

eol.. cob column, columns

Conf Confeeeionee, " Confessions "

I Cor First Epbtle to the Corinthians

II Cor Second Epbtle to the Corinthians

COT See Schrader

(^jf j The Churdi Quarterly Review, London,

^ I 1876 sqq.

Boiaquet, ReeueU-

Bower, Popee,

Creighton,
Papacy

CSCO.

Corpue reformatorum, begun at Halle,

CR •< 1834, vol. Ixzxix., Berlm and Leipsic,

{ 1906 saq.
M. Creignton, A Hietory of the Pavacy
from the Cheat Schiem to the Sadc cf
Rome, new ed., 6 vob.. New York and
London, 1897
(Corpue eeriptorum Chrietianorum orienta-
< hum, ed. J. B. Chabot, I. Guidi, and
( others, Paris and Leipmc, 1903 sqq.
i^QVT J Corpue eeriptorum ecdeeiaeticonim iLati-

^^^^ 1 norum, Yienna, 1867 sqq.

nQun 3 Corpue eeriptorum hieioria Byaantina, 49

^^"^ 1 vob.. Bonn, 1828-78

Currier, ReligUme j C. W. Currier. Hietory of RAigioue Ordere,

Ordere 1 New Yorl^ 1896

D Deuteronomist

TkAnr |P* Cabrol. Dictionninre d^arehMogie chrS-

^^^^ \ Uenne et de lHurgie, Paris, 1903 sqq.

Dan Daniel

(J. Hastings, Dictionary of the Bible, 4

•< vols, and extra vol.. Edinburgh and

New York, 1898-1904

W. Smith and S. Cheetham. Dictionary

ofChrieHan AniiquiHee, 2 vols., London,

1876-80

(W. Smith and H.'Wace. Dictionary of

ChrieHan Biography, 4 vob., Boston,

1877-87

DS.

DCA

DCB

DCG,

DNB <

Driver. Introduc'
tion

J. Hastinf^ J. A. Selbie. and J. C. Lambert,
A Dictumary of Chriet and the Ooepde, 2
vob., Edinburgh and New York, 1906-
1906.

Deut Deuteronomy

De vtr. ill De virie iUuetribue

DOQ See Wattenbach

( L. Stephen and S. Lee, Dictionary of
National Biography, 63 vob. and
supplement 3 vols., London. 1886-1901
. R. Driver, Introduction to the Literature
of the (Hd Teetament, 6th ed.. New
i York, 1894
E Elohist

JT. K. Cheyne and J. S. Black, Encydo-
podia Biblica, 4 vols., London and
New York. 1899-1903

Ecd Ecdeeia, " Church "; ecdeeiaeHcue, " ec-
clesiastical "

Eccles Ecclesiastes

Ecdus Ecclesiastious

ed edition; edidit, ** edited by "

Eph Epistle to the Ephesians

Epiet Epietola, Epietola, " Epbtle," " Epistles "

Ench and Qru- ( J. S. Ersch and J. G. Gruber, Augemeine
ber. Encyldo- \ Encykiopddie der Wieeeneduiften und
pddie ( KUnete, Leipsic, 1818 sqq.

E. Y English versions (of the Bible)

Ex Exodus

Esek Eiekiel

faec faedculue

Ft French

i7«:..ri^..k vn S^- Friedrich, Kirdtengeechichte Deutech-

*nednch, KD..^ ^,^ g vob.. Bamberg. 1867-69

Gal Epbtle to the Galatians

n.^. o— .•— tP- B. Gams, Seriee epiecoporum ecdeeim
Uams. serxee ) CaOiolicoB, Regensburg. 1873. and sup-
epiecoporum . . \ )SS^^, i^

n^ m^A n.v^v i H' G«® »°*1 W. J. Hardy, Documente
ni5iJ«#. ^i lUuetrative of Englieh Church Hietory,
DocumenU ... J London, 1896

Gen Genesb

Germ German

nnA S OOttingieehe Gdehrte Aneeigen, Gdttingen,

^^^ 1 1824 sqq.

a:KK^» nMjJs^M \ E. Gibbon. Hietory of the Dedine and

«^ Vm i FaU qf the RomHn Empire, ed. J. B.

ana rau ( ^^^^ j ^^j^ London, 1896-1900

Gk. Greek,

^C. Gross. The Sourcee and Literature of
Englieh Hietory , , , to I486, London,
1900
Hab Habakkuk

XIV

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

Haddan and
Stubbs, Cctun^
eUa

H<er.

Hag

Harduin, Con-
cilia

Hamack, Dogma

Harnack, Litiera-
tur

Hauck, KD . . .

Haurk-Hersog,
RE

Heb

Hcbr

Hef ele, Concilieiv-
geachichte

Heimbucher. Or-
den und Konr
ffregaiionen. . .

Helyot, Ordrea
monaaHquea. . .

Henderaon, Doe-

umenU

Hiat

Hiatecd.

Horn. . . .

Hoa

laa

Ital

Jacobus,
Di^ionary.

Jaff^. BRQ ]

Jaff^, Regeata. . .
JAOS

JBL.

Jer

JosephuB, Ant . .

Joaephus, Apian
Jortephus, Life .
JoaephuB, War .
Joah

JPT .
JQR .
JRAS

JTS

Julian. Hym-
nology

JWT

KAT

KL.

KrOger, HiaUrru

Krumbacher,
Geachichte. . . .

Labbe, Concilia

A. W. Haddan and W. Stubba. Couneila
and EcdeaiaaUcal Documenta ReUUing
to Oreat Britain and Ireland, 3 vola.,
Oxford. 1809-78
Refera to patriatic worka on hereaiea or
heretica, Tertullian'a De prtraeriptione,
the Proa haireaeia of IrenaBua, the
Panarion of Epiphanina, etc.
HamoA
J. Harduin, ConeHiorum coUectio regia

maxima, 12 vola., Paria, 1715
A. Hamack, Hiatory of Dogma . . . from
the 3d German edition, 7 vola., Roaton,
189&-1000
A. Hamack, Oeaehidiie der altdiriatlichen
Litleraiur bia Eiiadriua, 2 vola. in 3,
Leipaic. 1893-1904
A. Hauck, Kirchengeaehichte Deutach-
landa, vol. L, Leipaic, 1904; vol. ii.,
1900; vol. iu., 1906; vol. iv.. 1903
Realencyldopadie fUr proteatantiache The-
ologie und Kirxhe, foimded by J. J.
Hersog, 3d ed. by A. Hauck, Lei{»ic,
1896-1909
Epiatle to the Hebrewa
Hebrew

C. J. von Hefele, ConeUiengeachichte, con-
tinued by J. HergenrGther, vola. i.-vi.,
viii.-ix., Freiburg. 1883-93
M. Heimbucher, Die Orden und Kongre-
gationen tier kaikoliaeken Kirche, 2d ed.
3 vola., Paderborn, 1907
P. Helyot, Hiataire dea ordrea monaa-
tiquea, rieligieux et militairea, 8 vola.,
, Paria, 1714-19; new ed.. 1839-42
( E. F. Henderaon. Sdect IIiatori4xd Docu-
\ menu of the MiddU Agea, Ix>ndon. 1892
.Hiatory, hiatoire, hiatoria
S HiUoria ecdeaiaUica, ecdeaur, " Church
( Hiatory "

. HomUia, homiliai, " homily, homiliea "
.Hoaea
.laaiah
. Italian

. Jahviat (Yahwiat)
.Journal A aiolioue, Paria, 1822 rao.
A Standard Bible Dictionary, ed. M. W. Ja-
cobus, . . . E. E. Nourae, . . . and A. C.
Zenoe, New York and London. 1909.
P. Jaff^, BiJbliotheca rtrum Germanir

carum, 6 vola., Berlin. 1864-73
P. JafT6, Regeata pontijflcum Romanorum
. . . ad annum 1198, Berlin, 1851;
2d ed., Leipaic, 1881-88
Journal of the Ameruxin Oriental Society,

New Haven. 1849 wiq.
Journal of BMical Literature and Extge-
aia, firat appeared aa Jounud of the
Society of Bibliral Literature and Exe-
0cm, Middletown, 1882-88. then Boa-
l ton. 1890 anq.

3 The Jewiah Encyclopedia, 12 vola.. New
» York. 1901-06

i The combined narrative of the Jahviat
1 (Yahwiat) and Elohiat
. Jeremiah

j Flaviua Joaephua, *' Antiquitiea of the
( Jews "

. FlaviuH Joaephua, " Against Apion "
, . Life of Flavmn Joaephua
. Flaviua Jusephua, '* The Jewish War "
. Joshua

\ JahrhUcher fQr proteatantiache Theclogie,
f I^eipsic, 1875 aqq.
i The Jewiah Quarterly Review, London,

) 1888 K)q.

\ Journal of the Royal Aaiatic Society, Lon-
"i don. 1834 aqq.

) Journal of Theological Studiea, London,
] 1899 aqq.

3 J. Julian. A Dictionary of Ilymnology,
I revised edition, ]x)ndon, 1907
) Jaarboeken t^oor Wetenachappelijke Theo-
\ loaie, Utrecht, 1845 sqq.
.See 8chrader
.See Schroder
, . See Friedrich, Hauck, Rettbera;

Wetzer und Wdte'a Kirchenlexikon, 2d

ed., by J. HergenrOther and F. Kaulen,

12 vols.. Freiburg, 1882-1903
G. Krtiger, Hiatory of Early Chriatian

Literature in the Firat Three Centuriea,

New York, 1897
K. Krumbacher, Geachichte der byzan-
. tiniachen Litteratur, 2d cd.. Munich,
/ 1897
\ P. I^bbe, Sacrorum concUiorum nova et

ampliaaima coUectio, 31 vols., Florence

and Venice, 1759-98

Lam

Lanigan, EccL
Hiat

Lat

Leg

Lev

Lichtenberger ,
ESR

Lorens, DGQ . .

LXX

I Maco

II Mace

Mai, Nova ccl-

lectio

Mai

Mann, Popea . . .

Manai, Concilia.
Matt

MGH

Mic.

Lamentations

J. Lanigan. Eedeaiaatical Hiatory of in-
land to the 13th Century, 4 voU., Dub-
lin, 1829

Latin, Latiniied

Legea^ Legum

Leviticus

F. Liditenberger, Eneydopfdie dea ad-
enoea rdigieuaea, 13 vols., Paris, 1877-
1882

O. Lorens, Detttaddanda GesfAtdk/toiirf-
len im Mittelaller, 3d ed., BerlinTlSS?
The Septuagint

I Maceabees

II Maccabees

A. Mai, Scriptonim veierum nova ed-
Uctioj 10 vob., Rome, 1825-38

Malachi

R. G. Mann, LivM of the Popea in libs
Barly Middle Agea, London, 1002 sqq.

G. D. Manai, Sanelorwn concQufnam
ecUedio nora, 31 voia., Florenos md
Venioe. 1728

Matthew

Monumenta Germamof hiateriea, ed. G. H.
Perts and others, Hanover and Ber-
lin. 1826 sqq. TIm following abbreviA-
tions are used for the sections and
subsections of this work: Ant., AnHami-
tatea, " Antiquities "; AucL ant., AmO'
torea antiquiaaimi, " Oldest Writen '*;
Chron. min., Ckroniea minora, ** Leaser
Chronicles"; Dip., Diplomaia, "Di-
plomas. Dooumants '*; Epi^, Epi^
tola, " Lettera "; Geat, ponL Rom^
Geala pontiflcum Romanorum, '* t^'— "-

of the Popes of Rome "; Leg,, Laget,
" Lawa ": Lib. de lite, LiMi dslS
inter ref^um et aaeerdoHum aeaenitnum
xi. et Tit. eonaeripti, " Books «wm#ii||l|ig
the Strife between the CSvil and Knrln
aiaatical Authorities in the Elerenth
and Twelfth Genturies ": Nee., JV«-
crologia Germanita, '* Necrcriocy off
Germany "; Poet Lot etvi Car,,
Poeta Latini avi Carolini, ** Latin
PoeU of the Caroline Time";
Lat. mod. atvi, Poeta Latini

Milman, Latin
Chriatianity . .

Mirbt, Qudlen. .

MPG.

MPL

MS., MSS

Muratori, Scrip-

" Latin Poets of the Middle Agm "i
Script., Scriptorta, " Writers ": SaipL
rer. Germ., Scriptorea rerum wrwuiii
earum. " Writers on German fihib-
jects ' ; Script, rer. Langob,, Seripterm
rtrum Langobardiearum et Italieanam,
" Writers on IxHnbard and Italian
Subjecta "; Script, rer. Moroe^^Senp'
torea rerum Merovinpiearum, "Writen
on Merovingian Subjects "

Micah

H. H. Milman, Hiatory of Latin Chria-
lianity. Including that of the Popea Is
. . . Nicholaa v., 8 vols., London,
1860-61

C. Mirbt. QueUen tur Geadiidite dea Pajm^
tuma und dea rdmiachen Kathalieiomua,
Tabingen. 1901

J. P. Migne. Patrdogia curaua emnpl^ua,
aeriea Graca, 162 vola., Paris. 1857-66

J. P. Mime, Patrologia curaua completua,
aeriea Laiina, 221 vols., Paris, 1844-M

Manuscript, Manuscripts

torea.

Nah
n.d.

Neander, Chria-
tian Church. .

Neh

Niceron, M6-

moxrea.

NKZ

Nowack, ArchA-

ologie

n.p

NPNF.

N. T.

Num.
Ob...

( L. A. Muratori, Rerum Italiearum

\ torea, 28 vols., 1723-51

iNeuea Archiv der GeaeUadutfi fQr i

< deutache Geachichtakunde, Rant
( 1876 aqq.

.Nahum

. no date of publication

i A. Neander, General Hiatory of Hhe Ckrio-

< tian Religion and Church, 6 vola., and
( index, Boston, 1872-^1

. Nehemiah

R. P. Niceron. Mimoirea pour aenir &
Vhiaioire dea hommea illuatrea . . . , 48
vols., Paris. 1729-45

j Neue kirehliche Zeitachrifl, Leipaic, 1800

1 aqq.

S W. Nowack. Lehrhueh der hebrOiaekam

) ArchQologie. 2 vols.. Freiburg, 1894

. no place of publication

^The Nicene and Poat-Nieene Fathera, laA
aeriea. 14 vola.. New York, 1887-92; ad
aeries. 14 vola.. New York, 1890-1000
jNew Testament, Novum Teatamonium,
\ Nouveau Teatament, Neuea Teakmuni
..Numbera
..Ob«uliah

LIST OF ABBREVUTIONS

Ftatoc, Popu. .
FEA

"Ordsr ol St.

..Old

..Sec Smith

. .Priestly document

I L. PuloT. The Hutoru of Itu Popet from
i An Ciott at At Middit Asa. 8 voli.,
I London. ISSl-tOOS
) Patrtt Ktitaia Anotiaintr. ed. J. A, Gilce,

Pslotiiie fe.plor

I Pet Fint Eoiille of Peter

n PM. . ° — -■ ^-'-'- -• "--

FlktilUL, Popet. . <
nny, HUt. Ml... I
Fotthut, Weff-i '

ol Peter
, Platina, lAvu oj Ote Pope*
Grt^oniVU. to . , . Paul I,

San. t pToceutinat of At Sacielii of Biblicai

FlillA , ^ «*«£«/, London, 1880 eqq.

4.T., qq-* Tf^ («>>«) nui*. " *luch MM "

Ruk« Popn. . . j 3 ,Q^ London. 1B06

SDM Bnutda dtux mondtt, Puia. 1831 (Qq.

ndtU-..-.... - )dirval and Mcdem Hiatary.

SBJ Btmu dm ttudm luivM, Feria, 1S80 aqq.

n„,„,... rn > F. W. Retlb«s. XmAenifeKAuAla />«itKA-
HsttlMCg. AU. . . ^ ^„^ 2 vole., QattinteD, 1S48-48

Ha* Book of ReveUtion

~„„ iRevut dt I'MiCnre det nlitpunu, Puie,

""" 1 ISSOeqq.

I E. C. RidierdKn, Aipliabitiad Subi
HiehanJKHi, En- j itx and Index " ' ■■ ■ '

eydopamdia. . . I ieat ArUdtt o\
I Yort 1907.

ni^f— ri.^..^ * -*■ I- Hiiiliter, LiMmA dtt haOuAitdun
itea<ter.Ain*m-. ^^ wantfJiKAm /CinAewwMi. 8tb

"*' ( Bd. bT W. Kahl. Leipeie. 188«

Bsbiuao. R>- f C, Roblnaan, £(UksI ReHorfAa in

■rardta. udj PolediiM. Bocton. 1841. uid Labr

Later Re-\ BMieal ttttardut in PaUtUne. 3d ed.

•rarctta I of tbe whole. 3 vols.. 1867

Solriiison, Euro \ .[. H. Robiiuon, Rtadini/m in European

pmn Uittani I Hi^ory, 2 voU.. BoatoD, 1904-06
RnbinHia and t J H. HobiDKW, uid C. A, Bevd, Dewiop-

Beaid.itodtrn ntnt of Uodtn Europe, 2 vol*.,Boetoii,

I Sub^h

. .lUvind VcridDn (ol the Susliah Bible)

\SUtunftbiriclilt dtr Btrtint

8BOT

Scbsir. CArulide

lii., 1004

cTwl Swuti of At Old Ttitanunt <" lUin-
boir Bible ). Leipac. LondoD, end
B^limon. 1894 eqq.
Seheff, HiHorv of the Chnitian Church,
vot>. i.Hv.. Yi., vii.. New yorM882-B2,
vol. v., put 1. by D, S. Schiiff. 1907

Schaff. The Creedt of Chritltndam.
3 vols,. New York. 1877-84

Scbredor. Cunnfonn /lUrripHoiM and
lAi Old TalamenU 2 vole., London,
18S5-SS

Schrvder, Die Keilineckrijtea und dai

G—AiAU ,_ ,

I vole.. New Y«k. IMl

Sa^Tl SrHptoTM, " wrilere"

Senvencr, I F. H. A. Scrivener, IntradurtiontoNmi Te*-

Itilrtiduction . . \ tammt Criticim. 4th ed.. London. 1894

Stml Smtmtia. " 8Biit«nceg "

B. J SocUtaa Jtau, " Sociely of Jenu "

BMA iSHtanffberithU drr Manchener Aka-

H**i»ir, Crtede. .
aArmOa, COT. . -\
Sehnder,£.4r. j

Smith, Kimihip. . ■

fi and Marria^ ti

Smith, OTJC. . .
Smith, ProflitU.,

liury, London, 189
Sefi4/ion at the i

Jrtoith Church. Londo_,

] ri. R. Smith, PropheU of Ivaet .
I Ikt EiMh Century. ' —-•— '""
IW. R. Smith, "
I London. 189

i Society for the Promotion
Knowledge
J Sodetv for Ihe PropacatioD of the Goepel
1 in Forcifo Parte
. .and fotlowuiJE
..Stnrmala. " Siwellaniee "

■fSB.'.

Thatoher ai.- , .
VaStml-Smrcmi
Book

ITh™ ...,]

II Then I

id Epiitle (o the TheHali
taaitAe Tiidich "
yden. 1867 aqq.
. 1« Naio de Tillen

tiidee, 16 vole., Parig, 1S93-1712

ThudogitdKT Jahr—beritht, Leipnn, 1883-
1887. Freiburs, 1888. BrUDSwick, IF"
irlin^ISO- —

I 1897. Berlin, ISfiS iqq.

j ThealoguchfLiUrraluiilaU, Bonn, IBM

j Thtatoaitdn LiUtrahaTriliint), Ldpoift
' t 1878 aqq.

TSBA. .

TSK. . . .

i*ral<|KHiH>w. . .

!ahn, Einiai-

ZDMQ. . .

ZDP

ZDPV. . .

Zeph

ZHT

ZKG

ZKR .....

ZKT

ZKV....
ZNTW. .

ZPK

ZWT

. Tobit

TheologitiAe QuarlaUchrift, Tobincen,
1819 eqq.

J. A. Robineon. Texit and Studiet,
Cambridie, 1891 Kiq.

Traniacliant if Uu Satiety o/ BMieal
Ardtaolon. London. 1872 aqq.

TheoloBiKhe Studien und Krititen, Ham-
burs, 1826 aqq.

Tsrls wiuf Vnlerrudiunotn wr OMAicUe
dar aUihriiUidun Litterahir. ed. O. von
Oebhardt and A. Uatnaok. Leipele,
1882 aqq.

Tabinotr ZeifOirUt far Theaiaoit, TQ-
binaen, 1838-40

B. UoolinUB, Thetaunit aniiquilalum
aocrarum, 34 vola.. Venice. 1744-69

V«(w Tflamtrttum, Vieux Tulament, "Old

W. WattanbMh. DaOtrhiandt Oetchithlt-
queUen. Gth ed.. 2 vols.. Berlin. 1S8S;
,Sthed.. 1893-94

(urns, IWriin. 18S7
J. WdlUuM^n, fVotriKTnrnn tur <lrt<hichl4

liratU. Otb ed.. Brrlia. 190G, Bjic.

tnnal.. Edinburdh, 1885
Zeittchriit fur Ae^yrialoQie, Lcipaic,

lS8fl-88, Uerlin. 1889 aqq.
T. Zahn. EinUUuna in da, fjeue TeMla.

ment. 3d ed., L<!]p9i<i. 1907
T. Zahn, OeacAieAte dee nealixlamr.nt-

lichr^ Kanont. 2 vols., Leip«t. 18SS-B3
ZeUuArifl far di€ o/UeXanHnUicfte IV'u-

tmaiAall, Gipaaen, 1881 aqq.
ZeitKhriftfOTdeuliKhrtAlltraumtinddnii-

n-^Uterahv. Berlin, 1876 an q.
Zeittchrift dtr dntlerhm mororidanditchjtn

GaeOiduift, Leipnic, 1847 «q.
Zeilichnfl for dc^Uche PAiloIcvie, HaJle,

1869 aqq.
Zeilvhr^l dr» drnlsdim PalOtHna-Vir-

cirii, LeipMi', 1878 aqq.
.Zechanah
.ZephaniBh
ZntMchrift for die hitlarimcht Thealaoir,

pubbahed auceeaaively at Lei pale,

Hamburg, and Onlba, 1832-75
ZciUehrifl fOr KirchtngetOiirhte, Gotha.

187B aqq,
2n(aiArj/r /Ar Kirchmrtdxl. Berlin, TO-

bingen, FreiburB. 1861 aqq.
ZeiuArifl far kalhotitche Theotogie, Inns-
bruck. 1877 eqq,
Zeittthriff far kirchliche Wi—entehi^i und

kinUichet Lthtn. Ldpaie, 1880-89
ZeiuArift /Or die neuleitamenUichi Wit-

(fliaMa/l. Gieaaen. 1900 aqq.
ZeiUchrifl fllrProlrtlantitniutundKirtht,

Erlaniien. 1838-76
Zeiltchrift far tciatcntchaJUidim Theoloait,

Jena. 1858-00. Halle, 1861-67, Leipno,

SYSTEM OF TRANSLITERATION

The following system of transliteration has been used for Hebrew :

K = * or omitted at the

T = z

beginning

of a

word.

n = ti

3 = b

tD = t

3 = bh or b

^ = y

B = g

3 = k

a = gh or g

3 = kh or k

^ = d

i.=i

n = dh or d

D = m

n = h

J = n

1 = w

D = s

n
n

phor p

thort

The vowels are transcribed by a, e, i, o, u, without attempt to indicate quantity or quality. Arabic
and other Semitic languages are transliterated according to the same system as Hebrew. Greek is
written with Roman characters, the common equivalents being used.

KEY TO PRONUNCIATION

When the pronimciation is self-evident the titles are not respelled ; when by mere division and accen-
tuation it can be shown sufficiently clearly the titles have been divided into syllables, and the accented
syllables indicated.

e as in not

as in

sofa

arm

fare

pen*

fate

•

tin

machine

obey

nor

ftai"

rule

hut

bum

pine

out

oil

few

iu as in duration

c = k " " cat

ch " " church

cw = qu as in queen

dh (th) " " the

f " " fancy

g (hard) '* " ^o

H " " locA (Scotch)

hw {wh) '* " why

j " " ;aw

* In aooented syllables only ; In tmacoented syllables It approximates the sound of e In oyer. The letter n, with a dot
beneath it. Indicates the sound of n as in Ink. Nasal n (as In French words) is rendered n.
s In German and French names Q approximates the sound of u in dune.

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF RELIGIOUS KNOWLEDGE

INNOCENTS, FEAST OF THE HOLY: A church
festival in honor of the children slain by Herod in
Bethlehem (Biatt. ii. 16-18). They were very early
regarded as Christian martyrs, as Iremeus, Ter-
tullian, Cyprian, and many later authors speak of
them in that way. At what time the festival be-
came commonly celebrated is not known. In the
fifth century the holy innocents were oonmiemorated
in connection with the adoration of the Magi at
the feast of Epiphany. The Carthaginian calendar,
edited by Biabillon from a manuscript of the
seventh century, has the entry opposite Dec. 28
** (the day) of the holy children slain by Herod."
This day is still kept by the Roman Catholic and
Protestant Episcopal churches, but the Greek
Church obeerves Dec. 29. In course of time the
feast received an octave. (A. Hauck.)

In the Satumalta (II., 4, 11) of Macrobius,
the Roman writer in the fifth century, is this
anecdote: "When he (Augustus) heard that
among the boys whom in Syria Herod, the king
of the Jews, had ordered to be killed there
were infants of two years and under, he exclaimed:
' I had rather be a pig of Herod's than a son.' "
As the Saturnalia contains many anecdotes which
carry with them indubitable evidence of being of
contemporary origin, there is no reason for sup-
posing that this one was the creation of a time
subsequent to Augustus , but every probability
that it, too, was contemporary, and so is an inci-
dental, undesigned, but striking witness to the
truthfulness of the Gospel story. E. G. Sihler.

Bibuoorapht: Bingfaam, OrioiriMt XX., viL 12; J. C. W.
Aucusti. DenkwQrdigkeiUn, I 304 sqq., Leipoic, 1817;
P. Gueranger, L* Annie Uiwrgique, I 366 sqq.. Paris, 1880;
W. £. Addifl and T. Arnold. CaihoUe DicUonary, PP. 487-
488. London, 1003; O. Wiisowa, AndUUa Maerobiana, in
Hermett zvi. 499 sqq.

niQUISITION.

L In the Older Church.
IL The Inquuition in the Middle Ages.
Organisation and Competence (i 1).
Relation to the Secular Powers (( 2).
In Italy (t 3).
France (t 4).
Spain (t 5).

Qennany, the Netherlands, and England (i 6).
m. The Inquisition and the Counter-Reformation.
The Reformation Suppressed in Italy (i 1).
In Spain and the Netherlands (i 2).

I. In the Older Church: The Inquisition (In^
qitisUto hcereliccB pravitaiis) or the ** Holy Office "
{Sanctum officium) is the name of the spiritual court
VI.— 1

of the Roman Catholic Church for the detection
and punishment of those whose opinions differ
from the doctrines of the Church. It was a com-
paratively late outgrowth of ancient ecclesiastical
discipline. '' In the primitive Church there was
no arrangement that could have borne even a re-
mote resemblance to the Inquisition. . . The whole
instinct and the prevailing cast of thought of
Christendom in the first four centuries was opposed to
compulsion in religious affairs." (J.J. I. von DOllin-
ger, Kleinere Schrtften, p. 295, Stuttgart, 1890.) The
institution of ** elder for repentance " (see Peni-
tentiary), which occurs in the third century,
bears quite a different character, as the very name
denotes. Of course deviations in the sphere of
Christian doctrine were combated, but hardly
with other than spiritual weapons; and this prac-
tise continued until Theodosius (d. 395), before a
Christian emperor found it advisable to impose an
ultimate death penalty on (Manichean) heresy.
Chrysostom repudiated such action: ''It is not
right to put a heretic to death, since an implacable
war would be brought into the world '' (Horn. xlvi.
on Matt. xiii. 24-30); and still in the neighborhood
of 450 the church historian Socrates characterized
persecution for heresy as foreign to the orthodox
Church. Nevertheless, in the meantime Augustine,
in his conflict with the Donatists, had set up the
contrary doctrine in the West and had recommended
compulsion as well as penalties against heretics
(Epist. xciii., clxxxv.), though he did not approve
the death penalty. Six centuries more passed
before the theory of religious compulsion and of the
violent extirpation of heresy came to have universal
validity, although Pope Leo I. (Epist. xv., ad
TurrHnum) had approved it in the fifth century.
This long season of comparative tolerance is the
more impressive in view of the circumstance that
in Italy under East Gothic and Lombard rule.
Catholics and Arians lived whole centuries in close
proximity, or even together (as in Ravenna). The
impulse to more severe methods came from the
decision that the numerous remnants of paganism
must be finally rooted out; and certain measures
in this direction were devised by the Carolingian
legislation (Capitularia Caroli Magni of 769 and
813). The beginnings of episcopal inquisition are
thus to be sought in the synodal courts for inves-
tigations with reference to heresy (see Synodal
Courts; and cf. P. Hinschius, KaihoHachea Kirchenr
recht, V. 427, Berlin, 1895).

ZiiQuUition

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

n. The Inquisition in the Middle Ages: By the
terms of their negotiations at Verona in 1184, Pope
Lucius III. and Elmperor FrcKierick
I. Organi- Barbarossa converted the episcopal in-
zationand quisition into a universal institution,
Competence, to be unconditionally supported by the
temporal power. This was the period
when a new and dangerous doctrine, commingling
Christian and pagan elements in the manner of the
ancient Gnostic speculations, diffused itself by way
of the East, and lent its aid to popular religious
antagonism that was constantly inflamed by the
conditions of the worldly fashioned hierarchy
(manifested by the Patarenes, Arnold of Brescia,
the Waldenses, and others) . * By 1 179, the followers
of the new doctrine had become so numerous, es-
pecially in southern France (see New Manichsanb)
that ^exander III. urged the plan of suppressing
them forcibly. Innocent III. (d. 1216) organized
a systematic religious war against them; and among
the agencies everywhere employed were the epis-
copal inquisitions, with their modes of operation
guaranteed by the agreement at Verona and the
ready support of all temporal tribunals. However,
this form of the Inquisition appeared even to Hon-
orius III. (d. 1227) subject to obstruction, and not
swift or comprehensive enough in its workings, for
want of centralization. He and his successor,
Gregory DC., grasped the entire procedure in a
single hand, thus creating the new form of papal
inquisition, which now received the specific name
of Sanctum officium in distinction from the epis-
copal oflice. The most exact information as to this
institution is furnished by Eymerich's Directorium.
The officers are accountable directly to the pope.
It \& not the bishop who stands at their head, but
the grand inquisitor, who is reinforced with notaries,
consultors on the judicial side, servants and attend-
ants of every sort (e.g., jailers) on the practical side.
In the Venetian Republic, each case was tried with
a supplementary attendance of three *' learned in
heresy," who safeguarded the interests of the State.
The new institution was accorded important priv-
ileges, in fact, full power in the ecclesiastical prov-
ince; the officers, being commissioned by the pope
directly, were independent of the bishops, and,
protected by high prerogatives, were inviolable and
immune. All their privileges were newly confirmed
to them in 1458 by the bull Injunctum nobis, and
again in 1570 by the constitution SacroaandcB
Romanes ecdesicB. Alter the Dominican order had
arisen in the thirteenth century, and its adherents
had shown themselves exceptionally qualified, the
office was transferred to them especially, though not
to the exclusion of members of other orders. The
inquisitors' official powers were great, including
sentence of excommimication and interdict, sus-
pension of those imder suspicion, and adjudication
of all sorts of Exemption (q.v.). The trial pro-

* There is no evidence that Arnold of Brescia or the Wal-
denses commingled pagan elements with Christian. On the
contrary, they combated with the utmost decision the pagan
elements that had been incorporated in the doctrines and
practise of the dominant Church They appear to have been
fibflolutely free from Manichean or Gnostic tendencies.

A.H.N.

oeedings were held either in special court rooms or
in the official diocesan coiu-t. For the trial in its
different stages, for the imposition of the penalty,
and the like, the most exact prescriptions are
extant, and these were continually supplemented
as occasion demanded. But for all the exceedingly
detailed form of procedure, much was left to the
inquisitor's discretion. The new papal tribunal
encroached in various ways upon the sphere of the
episcopal inquisition, and confficts of jurisdiction
arose, which the popes did not always find it easy
to adjust, because, in any case, the episcopal in-
quisition was not to be abrogated. Neverthe-
less, in a critical case, the higher authority was
lodged in the inquisitor, and his executive scope was
more extended than that of the episcopal officials.
Charges of heresy against bishops, and even nuncios,
were subject to the papal inquisitors.

The unconditional support of the secular arm

was invoked for the papal inquisition by virtue of

the Veronese agreement (though this

a. Rela- was not properly made for that end),
tion to the The secular arm was " executor," or

Secular " minister " of the inquisition. The

Powers, popes constantly strove to get the co-
operation of the secular powers em-
bodied in state laws, mimicipal statutes, and the like.
To this end Innocent IV., in the bull Ad exstirpanda,
conceded to the State a portion of the property to
be confiscated; and the State in return assumed
the odium and burden of inflicting the penalty,
even to capital execution, if need were. The fint
instance of an execution imder imputation of heresy
was supplied in 385 by the usiuper Maximus (see
Priscillian) — an event by no means approved by
Augustine. While the Veronese agreement left the
question open. King Peter of Aragon, as eariy as
1197, threatened the death penalty against heretics
who did not submit to the decree of expulsion; and
in the course of the thirteenth century this threat was
enforced in the widest terms. Even the ESmperor
Frederick II., " free-thinking " man though he was
reputed to be, decreed the death penalty for Louk
bardy in 1224; for Sicily in 1230; and, with Greg-
ory IX., for Rome in 1231. The sentence itself was
determined, as might be expected, by the ecclesi-
astical (papal) court; whereupon the execution was
committed to the temporal authorities. Hence it
is possible for certain apologists of the Roman
Church to urge that the Chun^ of Rome has never
shed blood (cf. Die SeUbsHbiographie des Cardinala
BeUatmina, ed. J. J. I. von Ddllinger and F. H.
Reusch, pp. 233 sqq., Bonn, 1887).

This new form of the Inquisition was now made

effective with iron strictness in Italy, France, the

Netherlands, and England. In Italy,

3. In Italy, which, especially in the north and

central regions, was honeycombed with

heresy, the situation was managed by Innocent III.

At Viterbo, for example, proceedings were instituted

with imexampled severity against the Paterenes in

1207 (cf. Muratori, Rerum Italicttrum acripioreB,

iii., 1, Milan, 1723). The civil strife that was

stirred up led repeatedly — as at Viterbo in 1265,

in Parma, 1277 — to the expulsion of the inquisitors;

they were even slain, as Peter Martyr at Verona in

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Xnanlsitloa

1245, who thus became the saint of the Inquisition.
'* But this occasioned frightful vengeance ... If
the complaints became too loud, a pope did indeed
now and then serve a note of reproof on the inquis-
itor; but it does not appear that so much as one
pope wished to lop the institution's rankest out-
crops" (Ddllinger, ut sup.). For the detailed pro-
cedure, cf. Lea, vol. ii., chap. iv. A special arrange-
ment prevailed at Venice in the interest of the
State, but a milder policy in this case was excep-
tional. Moreover, the pope appointed the inquis-
itor whom the Senate classed as an officer of the
State by granting him a ** provision '' or salary;
and the extent of his influence on the ** learned in
heresy " depended entirely on the Roman Curia's
influence over the Senate itself.

In France the Inquisition's most appalling opera-
tion began in the thirteenth century (see New

Manicheans, II.; Innocent III.),
4* Fnnce. and did not reach an end with the

annihilation of the Albigenses. The
people endured the yoke with extreme reluctance;
in 1242 a desperately goaded multitude assailed the
inquisitors in the territory of Avignon. (Those
then slain were canonized by Pius IX. in Sept.,
1866; and he did the same thing, in the year follow-
ing, for the atrocious Spanish inquisitor, Pedro
Arbues.) The attitude of the French kings to the
Inquisition shows various phases. Louis IX. (Saint
Louis) promulgated a mandate in 1228 which binds
the temporal sovereignty to unconditional collabora-
tion with the Inquisition; on the other hand, Philip
the Fair decreed, in 1290, that due circumspection
should be observed in the matter of arresting
alleged heretics. The violent reactions of the
tortured people and various royal edicts had at
last their effect; and in time the complete revolu-
tion brought forth by the Great Schism and the
growing independence of the French nation made
an end of the Inquisition in France sooner than in
other lands.

Meanwhile the Inquisition in Spain blossomed out
with peculiar fulness. It is, to be sure, an error to

ascribe to it, with Hefele {Cardinal
5. Spun. Ximenet, Tubingen, 1844) and Ranke,

the character of a royal court of justice;
ftut, as the Jesuits Grisar and Orti y Lara prove,
it is altogether ecclesiastical, having only certain
special state privileges and a certain influence being
aUowed the king in the choice of inquisitors. It
developed from the thirteenth century, on the
background of persecution of Moors and Jews.
Prior to the sixteenth century, its principal opera-
tion was against the Maranos or alleged converts
from Judaism to Christianity. The inquisitor-
general, Tomas de Torquemada (q.v.), appointed
by Pope Sixtus IV., outdid all precedents in the
way of executions and confiscations; it was imder
him, in Saragossa, that Arbues came to his bloody
end. To say naught of the fact that the national
character was favorable to it, the Spanish Inqui-
sition underwent a peculiar development on three
ndes: in the first place, it had a royally acknowl-
edged head in the inquisitor-general; in the second
place, under the inquisitor-general, the Consejo de
la tuprtma acted uniformly for all Spain, with

assistance from the state authorities; in the third
place, while the king's influence on the tribunal was
undoubtedly large, it was never exerted against the
interests of the Church — on the contrary, the
presence of the king or of his representative at the
a%Uo9 da fi imparted to these the quality of great
spectacles authorized by the State, almost popular
festivals. It is impossible to estimate the number
of the victims. Llorente's data are questioned, and
may be disregarded. However, from the Inquisitor
Paramo's treatise De origine et progreatu inqui-
eUionia (Madrid, 15d8), p. 140, it appears that in
forty years (1480-1520), at Seville, 4,000 were
burned, and 30,000 ** penitents " were sentenced to
various penalties.

In Germany, Conrad of Marbuig (q.v.) was to

bring the institution to its flower. But the wrath

of the people slew him and his assistant,

6. Ger- Droso, just as their activity began to

many, the ripen (1233). Hence in Germany the
Nether- Inquisition, for the most part, failed

lands, and to attain to thoroughgoing activity.

England. Nevertheless, until the fifteenth cen-
tury a good many instances of separate
procedures occur. The acts collected by Fr^^rioq
show what was ordained for Germany and the
Netherlands in common. This author gives the
directions of Gregory IX., addressed to the bishops,
in 1233, to the effect that they shall catch the
** little foxes " — ^that is, the heretics ostensibly con-
verted; while a whole series of similar ordinances
ensues to the time of the bull Summia denderanUa
in 1484, by the terms of which the special activity
of the Inquisition was directed against Witchcraft
(q.v.). It was furthermore directed against the
** Waldenses " along the Rhine, in Bavaria and
Austria, in Bohemia, and as far as the mark of
Brandenbuig and Pomerania, as well as against
sects of every kind in the Netherlands. It had
waged a fearful war of extermination in North
Germany, in the district of Bremen, 1233, against
the Stedingi (q.v.). From the exact information in
Fr^^ricq's work, it appears that the extent of
the bloody doings at Antwerp, Brussels, Ghent,
Utrecht, and other cities was greater than previously
known. During the period before the Reformation,
England was less affected by the Inquisition. It
first became active against the Lollards (q.v.). In
1401 Henry IV. had parliament confirm the statute
De hceretico comburendo,

m. The Inquisition and the Counter-Reformation:

In 1542 Cardinal Caraffa, subsequently Pope Paul

IV., reorganized the Roman Inquisi-

z. The tion after the pattern of the Spanish.

Refonna- He himself assumed the direction of

tion Sup- the Holy Office created by the bull
pressed Licet ab initio. The executive pro-
in Italy, cedure was to be centralLsed at Rome,
primarily for all Italy; and the out-
come was to be guaranteed by uniform, ruthless,
and swift operation. The new organization, having
at its disposal the entire influence of the Roman
Curia over every state of Italy, by the time of
Pius V. had made an end of the Reformation in
that country (see Italy, the Reformation in);
its advocates were either incarcerated or killed, or

ZnanUitlon
Xnaoriptiona

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

driven to flight, while literary products were sought
out and destroyed, save insignificant remnants. As
an example of the Inquisition's operation in Italy,
its actions against ** Lutherans " or other heretics in
Venice may be enumerated: in the sixteenth cen-
tury, according to the acts still preserved in the
state archives, there were 803 trials for '' Lutheran-
ism " ; five for " Calvinism " ; thirty-five for Ana-
baptism; forty-three for relapse of converts into
Judaism; sixty-five for blasphemous speeches; 148
for sorcery; forty-five for contempt of religion (that
is, of ecclesiastical ceremonies, etc.) ; and more of the
sort. Later these figures notably vanish. Branches
of the new Roman oflice were organized in all other
cities of Italy, Naples excepted. Rome, however,
continued the center; and how numerous the trials
conducted at that place must have been appears
from the circumstance that the single protocol-book
accessible records during the three years 1564-67
no fewer than HI sentences, all involving severe
punishment, some the death penalty, and some
imprisonment for life.

As in Italy, so in Spain, the reformatory move-
ment of the sixteenth century fell a prey to the
Inquisition (see Spain, Reforma-
2. In Spain tion Movements of Sixteenth Cen-

and the tury in). At Seville and Valladolid

Nether- the movement was crushed and obliter-
lands. ated in the course of four aiUo8 da /^,
1559 and 1560 (cf. E. Sch&fer, SevUla
und Valladolid f dieevangelischenGemeinden Spaniena
im ReformatianazeitaUerf Halle, 1903); and the In-
quisition still flourished in all the land until 1700; ac-
cording to Llorente, 782 more autos occurred under
the first Bourbons (1700-46), wherein 14,000 persons
were subjected to heavier or lighter penalties. Indeed,
Ferdinand VII. restored the Inquisition along with
the Restoration in 1814; but it was finally set aside
in 1834. The Inquisition persisted long also in
Portugal, where it was mainly directed against the
Jews; it came to an end there in 1826. In the im-
perial Netherlands, the Inquisition effectively com-
bated the Reformation in the sixteenth century.
From Brussels as a center, it was so actively con-
ducted, or supported, from 1522 downward by the
officials of Charles V., then by the two stadtholder
princesses, that by 1530 its goal seemed achieved.
The spirit, however, it could not subdue, and it
raged afresh under Philip II., and anticipated the
cruel deeds of Alva. When eventually the north
provinces conquered their religious and political
freedom, the Inquisition had annihilated the
Reformation in the south provinces. Its activity
was also carried into the Spanish possessions in
America, and into the East Indies by the Portu-
guese.

The Congregatio sanctae Romanae et univeraaUs
inquisUionis is still maintained by the Curia; and
the estimate which Rome puts on the institution
appeared in 1867 in the canonization of Pedro
Arbues, and in 1869 in the constitution ApotUMcae^
which threatens penalty for every infraction of the
Inquisition's activity. Not one of all the regulations
which define its action and determine its aims has
been repealed. K. Benrath.

Bibuoorapht: In the first rank as a source is the IHno-
torivan of Eymerich, written at Avignon as a manual of
procedure in 1376. edited by Pegna, Rome, 1580, cf. P. H.
Denifle in Arthiv fUr LiUeratwr- und Kird^enoeadiiekte^
1885, p. 10. The Liher tenteniiarum inquiaitiontM Tholomxna
is r^roduced as an addition to P. van Limboroh, Hutoria
InquiaUionu, Amsterdam, 1092, Eng. transl., London.
1731, often abbreviated and republished in Enisland and
America. The Pradica InquiaUionia of Bernard Quidonis,
ed. C. Douais, appeared Paris, 1886. The best collection
of sources for the Netherlands is gathered in P. FrM^rioq,
Corpu9 doeumerUorum InquinHonia, 2 vols., The Hague,
1889-M. Early material on Spain and Italy respectively
is included in J. A. Llorente, HiUoria critica de la In-
quiaicion de EtpaAa, 10 vols.. Madrid, 1822, abridged Eng.
transl., HUt. of the InquiaUion of Spain from the Time of
the Eetabliahment to the Reign of Ferdinand VII., London.
1826, and m E. C. Comba, / nowtri Proteatanti, voL ii..
Florence, 1897. An index to some sources is found in
Cataloffue of a CoUecUon of Manuecripta formerly belong-
ino to the Holy Office , , . in the Canary leUmde, 1499-
1693, 2 vols., Edinburgh, 1903.

On the general history of the Inquisition the best work
is H. C. Lea, Hiat, of the InquiaUion in the Middle Agea,
revised ed., 3 vols.. New York, 1906-07. Consult further:
J. Marsollier, HiaL de I'inguiaiiion d^a aon origine, Cologne,
1693; W. H. Rule, HiaL of the InquiaiUon in Every Coun-
try where ita Tribunala have been Eaiabliahed, London, 1874;
Orti y Lara, La Inquiaiaion, Madrid, 1877; J. Havet,
L'Hiriaie et le braa aieulier, Paris. 1881; A. Henner.
Beitr/lge aur Organiaation der pApadidien KeUergerichU,
Leipsic, 1890; J. Hansen, Zavhtrweaen, InquiaiUon und
Hexenproaeaa im MiUalalter, Munich, 1900; P. von Hoens-
broech. Dm PapaUum ina aocial-kuUurtilen Wirkaamkeitt
vol. i., Leipsic, 1900; C. V. Langlois, L'lnquiaiHon d*apria
dea travaux ricetUa, Paris. 1902; E. SchAfer, BeitHige aur
Qeachiehte . . . der InquiaUion, 3 vols., GQtersloh, 1902;
C. Douab, L'lnquiaitUm, ae aoriginea, aa proeSdure, Paris,
1906; E. Vacandard, L' InquiaiUon; ... Is pouvair coer-
ciUfde rigliae, ib. 1906, Eng. transl.. Critical and Hiatorical
Study of the Coercive Power cf the Churdt, London, 1008;
T. de Causons, Lea Albigeoia et I'inquiaUion, lea Vaudaia et
Vinquiaition, 2 vols., Paris, 1907; Scha£f, Chriatian Church,
V. 1, pp. 615 sqq.; the literature under New Manichkanb
and in general the treatises on Church history.

For the institution in France, consult: C. MoUnier,
L*Inquiaition dana le midi de la France, Paris, 1881; W.
Esmein, Hiat. . . , de la procedure inquiaUoire, ib. 1882;
L. Tanon, Hiat. de I'inquiaition en France, ib. 1893; T.
de Cauzons, Hiat. de I'inquiaition en France; vol. i.. Lea
Originea, Paris, 1909. For Germany consult: H. Haupt*
WaJdenaerthum und Inquiaition im aUd-Ziatlidien DetttacK-
land, Freiburg, 1890; P. Flade, Daa rdmiadie Inquiaition^'
verfahren in Deutachland, Berlin, 1902. For the Nether-
lands: W. Moll, Kerkgeachiedenia van Nederland, ii., chap.
16, Utrecht. 1869; J. G. de Hoop-Scheffer, Geadiiadenia
der Kerhhervorming in Nederland, Amsterdam, 1873;
P. Qaessens, L'InquiaiHon dana lea Paya-Baa, Tumhout,
1886; P. Fr^^ricq. OeachiedenU der Inquiaitie in de Nader-
landen, 2 vols., Ghent, 1892-^7; J. Fxederichs, Ttpa Ver-
handeUngen over de Inquiaitie in de Nederlanden, The
Hague, 1897. For Italy: L. Witte, A Glance at the Italian
Inquiaition, London, 1885; L. Amabile. II Santo Qffldo
della InquiaiaUme in Napoli, 2 vols., Citta di Castello,
1892. For Spain: H. C. Lea, The Inquiaition in Spain,
4 vols.. New York, 1906-07; idem. The InquiaiUon in the
SpaniA Dependenciea, ib. 1906; idem, Chaptera from the
Hiat, cf Spain connected with the Inquiaition, Philadelphia,
1890; £. de Molfenes, Torquemada et I'inquiaition, Paris,
1897; C. J. von Hefele, Life and Timea of Cardinal Ximenea,
London, 1885. For South America: B. V. Maokenna,
Franeeaco Moyan; or, the Inquiaition aa it waa in America,
London, 1869. J. T. Medina has written a number of
volumes in Spanish, on the Inquisition in Lima, Santiago.
1887; in ChUe. 3 vols., ib. 1890; in Cartagena, ib. 1899;
in De la Plata, ib. 1899; in the Philippines, ib. 1899; and
in Mexico, ib. 1905.

INSAB ATATI (SABOTIERS) : A name given to
the Waldenses (q.v.) from their sabots, marked
with a painted cross, or from the sandals tied cross-
wise.

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Inquisition
InKolptions

II.

Egyptamn InMriptiona.

F<»mB and Character (( 1).

Number, Age, and Contents
(§2).

The Rowtta Stone and Decipher-
ment (i 3).

Illustration of the Bible (f 4).

Cuneiform InBcriptiona.

III.

INSCRIPTIONS.

The Name; Area Covered by
the Script (i 1).

Diacoveries; Decipherment of
Persian (t 2).

Decipherment of Babylonian-As-
syrian (f 3).

Origin and Character of the
Script (i 4).

Christian Inscriptions.

1. Ancient Christian Inscriptions.
Methods of Writing (( 1 ).
Languages Employed (( 2).
Contents (f 3).

Value of the Material (f 4).

2. Medieval and Later Inscriptions.

3. History of Epigraphy.
The Early Period (f 1).

The Nineteenth Century (f 2).

I. Egyptian Inscriptiong: The inscriptions of
Egypt are no new discovery. The term most

used to describe the characters em-

1. Forms ployed in the inscriptions, " hiero-

Ohmoter. K^yP^^s," is of Greek origin (hieros,

" sacred " + glypheiUf " to carve") and
bears witness both to early knowledge of the exist-
ence of the writing and to the conception at that
time that the priestly class was its executor. In
more modem usage the term is not confined to the
Egyptian inscriptions, but is used generally of any
kind of picture-writing. The inscriptions on the
monuments of Egypt are in the main in a picture-
writing, the individual signs of which are representa-
tions of objects or actions more or less convention-
alised. Tl^ detailed representation passed by the
method of abbreviation into a shorter form called
the hieratic script, and by the extension of this
process to a still shorter form, the demotic. But
in only the very late period of Egyptian history
was either the hieratic or demotic form employed
upon the monuments, though both were used on
papyri from an early age. While originally the
signs stood for the objects they pictured, at a very
early stage they came to have phonetic quality,
and from this to the development of an alphabet
the steps were rapid and easy. While this process
was going on, the signs were given values associated
with those already customary and also others
disconnected from the original connotation. The
alphabet was of twenty-one letters (some authori-
ties say twenty-two, others twenty-four), all conso-
nants, though some of the letters were employed to
indicate vowel sounds, as in the Semitic languages.
The signs became also signs of syllables as well as
of single letters, and, still further, signs of words or
ideographs. In all, the number of symbols known
from the monuments is slightly under 1,400. Since
some of these symbols might express several ideas,
it became necessary to use certain signs as deter-
minatives to fix the meaning of the group in which
they occurred, thus to remove ambiguity. The
signs composing a word or idea are grouped in
quadrangular form, though the order of grouping
is not invariable, being either perpendicular or
horizontal, according to the shape of the com-
ponents, the exigencies of the space at disposal
or the artistic taste of the scribe. The groups were
arranged in columns or in line^, according to the
material used and the space and form available for
the inscription. The writing runs either (prefer-
ably) from right to left or the reverse when arranged
horisontally, or from above downward when it is
in oolumns.

The area within which these inscriptions are found
embraces the whole of the Nile valley as far as
Nubia, parts of the peninsula of Sinai,
^aST"^^' and locations in Syria and Palestine.
0<Mitents. I^^co"^ h^in with the second dy-
nasty; diuing the fourth, fifth and
sixth dynasties they become numerous, though
largely centralized aroimd Memphis; then they
become fewer until with the eleventh dynasty they
again grow abundant and spread out over a wide
area, continuing numerous till the fourteenth dy-
nasty. Of the Hyksos kings few remains are found.
With the seventeenth dynasty inscriptions once
more become abundant and continue so, with ex-
ceptions in some dynasties or single reigns, till
down into Roman times. The inscriptions were
placed on the walls of temples, on stelse and monu-
ments set up within the temple courts, on obelisks,
and in tombs both of the Pharaohs and of the nobil-
ity and the wealthier classes, and on gems, rings,
and scarabs. Since the temples of the earlier period
have vanished, it follows that the inscriptions of
those times have for the most part perished. Yet
while some of the earliest monuments were des-
troyed at a very early date, it sometimes occurs
that the record which they bore was copied on a
more perishable material which has survived. A
matter which often causes embarrassment to the
decipherer is that it was the known habit of some
Pharaohs, as in the case of Rameses II., to remove
the royal name in the cartouche of the original
Pharaoh who ordered the inscription, and to in-
scribe their own in its place, thus claiming the
deeds originally assigned to another and dislocating
the order of history. The earliest inscriptions come
from massive masonry tombs, where often little
more than names, titles, and, sometimes, the legal
provisions for maintenance of the tomb are pre-
served. Later, in addition to these bare statements,
the lists of titles are extended to include something
of the career of the deceased. Finally they contain
records of achievement — whether of Pharaohs,
generals, or administrators — of the occasion which
the record commemorates, and may even include
the royal patent for the work of which the inscrip-
tion speaks. But, in general, a vagueness charac-
terizes the content of the inscriptions and makes
them illusive and difficult, not only in themselves
but also in the historical matter to which they refer.
Thus, in a story of conquest, the foe is often referred
to not by name or coimtry, but is described by some
derogatory epithet: again, the events narrated
were often contemporary and matters of general
knowledge; it therefore did not seem to the maker

Znaoriptioiui

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

necessary to give specific details, so that the iden-
tification of the events is often doubtful or im-
possible. Not seldom, the inscriptions^ are mere
laudations of the Pharaoh, or, again, are hymns in
praise of him. Others are records of building enter-
prises, giving the personal history of the ruler or
administrator. Decrees of administration appear.
In private tombs records of filial performance in the
maintenance of the tomb occur, and there are also
found interesting accounts referring to wars or
enterprises otherwise unknown. The longest in-
scriptions are the Pyramid texts of the Pharaohs
of the fifth and sixth dynasties, discovered in 1880,
dealing largely with matters religious, including
magic. The Palermo Stone is one of the most noted
monuments — a fragment of a stele containing a
record of pre-dynastic kings, continuing to the
middle of the fifth d3masty, and giving brief royal
annals. The various erections at Kamak afforded
space for volimiinous inscriptions, to some of which
reference must be made later.

Since the fifteenth century attempts were made
to decipher the Egyptian hieroglyphics, though
without success till the early part of the
8. The Bo- nineteenth century. But meanwhile a
** d S«o?* foundation was laid for a broader and
pherment. ''ou^^®' appreciation of Egyptian arche-
ology by the work done on Coptic
since the time of Athanasius Kircher, who published
the first Coptic grammar (Rome, 1643-44). The
epoch-making work of ChampoUion (see below) was
in no small part due to his mastery of Coptic. But
all attempts to read the hieroglyphics were complete
failures until the key was furnished by the Rosetta
Stone. This is a slab of black granite, three feet
nine inches by two feet four and a half inches and
eleven inches thick, bearing an inscription in hiero-
glyphic and demotic Egyptian and in Greek. It
was found in 1799 by M. Boussard, a French mili-
tary officer, at Fort St. Julien, near Rosetta, on the
Rosetta branch of the Nile (40 m. n.e. of Alexan-
dria), was taken to England after the fall of Alex-
andria, and was presented to the British Museum
by George III. (1801). The upper portion and the
lower right-hand comer are broken away. It con-
tains a decree of the Egyptian priests in honor of
Ptolemy V. Epiphanes (205-181 B.C.), and its date is
Mar. 27, 195 B.C. It bears 100 lines of text, fourteen
of hieroglyphic (about half of the original), thirty-
two of demotic, and fifty-four of Greek (the ends
of some of the lines broken off). Its significance is
not in its contents, but in the fact that it proved
to be the key to the decipherment of the hiero-
glyphic and demotic writing, and consequently
opened up nearly all that is known of and through
^yptian texts. The results gained through the
decipherment of this text were checked and con-
firmed by the trilingual stele of Canopus found by
Lepsius at Tanis in 1866, containing a similar decree
of the year 238 b.c, in honor of Ptolemy III.
Euergetes I. (247-222 b.c). Yet the process of
decipherment was somewhat tedious. Sylvestre de
Saoy (1802) detected several groups in the demotic
text which corresponded to the Greek forms of
the names Ptolemy, Berenice, and Alexander. The
Swede J. D. Akerblad (1802) obtained the phonetic

values of most of the demotic characters in the
proper names and used the Coptic to determine
the meaning of several words. Thomas Young
(1814), an English scientist, determined the mean-
ings of several groups of demotic characters and
established four alphabetical hieroglyphic charac-
ters. Jean FranQO'^ ChampoUion put the crown
upon all these efforts by reading from a bilingual
obelisk in Philse, in hieroglyphic and Greek, the
names of Ptolemy and Cleopatra, deciphering the
names of Greek and Roman rulers, making out all
the characters, discovering ideograms and deter-
minatives, gaining insight into the phonetic system,
and discerning the relations of the three kinds of
script. He made a statement of his discoveries and
expounded his system to the Academic des Inscrip-
tions, Sept. 22, 1822. Karl Richard Lep>sius worked
on the lines of ChampoUion and corrected some
mistakes, but proved the general soundness of
Champollion's conclusions against the captious and
envious criticism of several German writers. The
science of Egyptology has been advanced by many
later scholars, such as, to name only a few, Emman-
uel de Roug^, Auguste Mariette, Paul Pierret, Jacques
de Morgan and Gaston Maspero in France, Heinrich
Brugsch, Alfred Wiedemann, Georg Ebers, Adolf
Erman and Georg Steindorff in Germany, John
Gardner Wilkinson, Samuel Birch, Peter le Page
Renouf, Edward Naville, Ernest Alfred Thomp-
son, Wallis Budge, and William Matthew Flin-
ders-Petrie in England, W. Max MuUer and James
Henry Breasted in the United States.

The scantiness of iUustration of BibUcal history

afforded by the Egyptian monuments as compared

with the abundance gained from the

*• ^^*'- Assyro-Babylonian records has been
trationof . '' '' * ^ j-

the Bible iQAuy a cause of great disap-

pointment. The explanation of this
scantiness is, however, not hard to discover. One
reason is the vagueness of Egyptian records (see
above). Another, which is on the surface, is that
after the Hebrews settled in Palestine contact of
Eg3rpt with Palestine was occasional and not
always of such a character as to dispose the monu-
ment-makers to speak of it — they recorded only
victories, not failures or defeats. That mention of
the Hebrews who had broken away from Egyptian
control would appear in the inscriptions was hardly
to be expected, nor that pre-Mosaic Israel would
be differentiated from the numerous nomads of
Semitic stock who occasionally sought refuge in
the Nile land. Accordingly, apart from that general
illustration of manners of living which is a conse-
quence of a sort of commonaUty of life in the East,
little of specific detail need be looked for from the
Egyptian inscriptions either corroborating or con-
tradicting Biblical statements, especially if, accord-
ing to the view now generally accepted, the He-
brews were very few in numbers. What little specific
iUustration there is takes on either a geographical
or ethnological character. The first comes through
the mention of places conquered in Palestine by the
Pharaohs. Thothmes III. (eighteenth dynasty),
who made fifteen expeditions into Syria and Pales-
tine, has recorded in the temple of Amon at Kamak,
on the wall of the southern pylon and on the north-

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Insorlptions

em wall at the western end of the temple, a list of
places in that region the submission of which he
claims to have received (cf. Records of the Past^
new series, v. 29-53, for the list of names). Note-
worthy and productive of a vast amount of dis-
cussion are the names Yakcb-ei and Yoaep-el, which
seem to represent an early form of the names
Jacob and Joseph. The real significance of these
names, paralleled from the cimeiform inscriptions,
is as yet under debate, but eponymous derivation
seems to be favored. The geography is also il-
luminated by the lists of Seti I. and Rameses II.
(nineteenth dynasty), the latter 's inscriptions on
the Ramesseum at Thebes and at Kamak, and by
that of Rameses III. at Medinet Haba.

Shishak I. (twenty-second dynasty) also fur-
nished on the south wall of the great temple at
Kamak a list of geographical names in which there
are 156 cartouches, not all legible (cf. W. M. M tiller,
Atien und Europa, Leipsic, 1893, pp. 166 sqq.).

The monuments of Set! I., Rameses II. and IV.,
and Meneptah contain references which are thought
by the advanced school to bear on pre-Mosaic
history. That the Aperiu (cf. Heb. *Ibhri, "He-
brew '/ and the pabiri of the Amama Tablets, q.v.)
were Hebrews is not yet assured, though it is
possible. Seti I. and Rameses II. speak of an Aseru
or A9ttru in western Galilee in the region assigned
to the tribe Asher in the Hebrew records (Judges
V. 17, cf. i. 32). Of this alternative explanations
are given: the Asherites were a Ganaanitic tribe
absorbed later into the Hebrew confederation
(which would go with the assmned eponymous de-
rivation of the name and with the Biblical ac-
count of descent from a concubine) or the He-
brews who settled in the region took the name
of the country (W. M. MoUer, ut sup. pp. 236-239).
On a stele of Meneptah discovered in 1895 occiun
the only known mention of Israel on the Egyptian
monuments (in the form I-n-r-'l) as a people whom
Meneptah had reduced. This mention is compli-
cated by the fact that Meneptah is now quite
generally regarded as the Pharaoh of the Exodus;
how, then, could Israel be in Palestine during his
reign? Accordingly many commentators are dis-
posed to see in the Israel of Meneptah's inscription
a part of the Hebrews settled in Palestine who did
not go down into Egypt and gave their name to
the confederation in later times; these commen-
tators regard as confirmation of this the occurrence
of Yakob-d and Yoeep-el (ut sup.). Light on the
Exodus of the Hebrews comes not from the hiero-
glyphic, but from a combhiation of a Greco-Ro-
man inscription with the identification of Succoth
and Pithom through indications in the Coptic
version of the Old Testament and through indica-
tions in Greek writers (see Egypt). While the
bearing of Egyptian inscriptions on Hebrew history
and ethnology is thus vague and indecisive, if it
has any value at all it is in the way of strengthen-
ing the case of the newer school of constructive
history. Geo. W. Gilmorb.

IL Cttneifom Inscriptions: Cuneiform, from the
Latin euneus^ " wedge," was first applied in the
year 1700 by Thomas Hyde, professor of Hebrew
in the University of Oxfoid. In that day Hyde was

acquainted only with some rude copies of Assjrrian
characters, and with some equally rude copies of

Sassanian and Palmyrene inscriptions,

1. The concerning which he aigued that they

^•^•J^^were not letters, nor mtended for

the^crlpt^ letters, but were mere ornament.

Later investigation has shown that the
cuneiform method of writing is one of the oldest
known to man and one of the most widely difTused,
and that it sufficed for more than five thousand years
to express the ideas of nearly a score of peoples,
among whom were some of the greatest culture races
of antiquity. It was invented by the pre-Semitic
Sumerian inhabitants of Babylonia, was adopted
by their conquerors, the Semitic Babylonians, and
thence carried to Assyria. It was besides dif-
fused among all the neighboring peoples and came
into use as far east as Elam and as far west as Egypt
(see Amarna Tablets).

The first modem observer of cuneiform characters
was Pietro della Valle, about 1618 a.d., who copied

from the ruins of Persepolis in Persia

1 •'^Ml'" ^ ^®^ characters in random but fairly

pherment ^^c^*"**® fashion. The material thus

of Persian, provided was too scanty to stimulate

any earnest efTort at decipherment.
The first opportunity afforded European scholars
for study of the cimeiform was given in 1774 by
Carsten Niebuhr, a Dane, father of the famous
Roman historian, who had copied at Persepolis a
number of small inscriptions, grouped in threes
upon the remains of the palaces of tl^ Achamenian
kings. Previous travelers had expressed the opinion
that three languages were represented in these
Persepolis texts, and later study has shown the
three languages to be Persian, Susian, and Assyro-
Babylonian. The task of decipherment was ren-
dered difficult by the fact that no bilingual inscrip-
tion was found in which a known language occiured.
The method of decipherment was to be archeolog-
ical rather than philological, and the process was
necessarily slow and insecure. The first efforts in
decipherment of the Persian inscriptions — the sim-
plest in each group of three — put forth by Friedrich
Christian Karl Heinrich Mtinter and Olaf Tychsen
seemed to show that these texts contained only
forty-two signs, which were therefore mainly al-
phabetic with some syllabic values, but only a few
correct values for the signs were determined. The
first decipherment of an entire text was made by
George Frederick Grotefend, who was almost con-
tinuously engaged upon decipherment from 1802
until 1844. The facts with which he began were
that these texts came from Persepolis, and that the
ruins there were the remains of palaces erected by
Gyrus, Darius, and Xerxes. He assumed, conse-
quently, that each text began with the name of
a king, and his success was achieved by comparison
of two inscriptions, which Grotefend finally trans-
lated as follows: ''I. Darius, the mighty king,
king of kings . . . son of Hystaspes. II. Xerxes,
the mighty king, king of kings . . . son of Darius,
the king.'' This result was small in itself, but it
afforded the clue for the decipherment of several
languages, besides the three found at Persepolis.
At the same time that Grotefend was engaged in

Znaoriptions

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

this taak, Bfajor (afterward Sir) Henry Rawlinson
was trying to reach a solution and in the same way.
Quite independently of Grotefend he worked out
some of the sign values, and, when later provided
with Grotefend's results, far surpassed him in the
power to translate Persian inscriptions. He dis-
covered the great rock-cut inscription of Darius
at Behistun in Persia, which he copied, laboriously
and successfully deciphered, and published in an
English translation, nearly complete, in the year
1846.

The decipherment of Persian was followed by a
determined attempt to solve the far more difficult
problem of the Assyro-Babylonian cu-
*' ?^F^!^' neiform script, in which the third in-
scription in these groups of three was

mentof
Bahylonlaa-

written. The first to attempt it was
Grotefend, who identified the names
of the kings, but was unable to go much further.
Isidor Loewenstein secured the correct meanings
of the signs for " king," " great," and the sign for
the plural. He first suggested that Assyrian be-
longed to the Semitic family and was therefore
related to Hebrew, Arabic and Aramean. Far
more successful was the Rev. Edward Hlncks (q.v.),
who, in two papers during 1846 and a third in 1847,
determined most of the numerals, assigned correct
values to a number of signs, and seemed on the
very verge of being able to read a whole text. His
rigidly scientific spirit, however, restrained him
from such an endeavor, and he worked steadily on
with the patient solution of one difficulty at a time.
When the inmiense mass of cimeiform docimients
which Emil Botta had discovered at Nineveh
reached Paris, the hope of deciphering Assyrian
increased because of the accession of material, but
diminished when Botta pointed out the great
difficulty of the problem. He made Uttle effort to
decipher or translate, but collated all the inscrip-
tions which they contained and made lists of ail the
signs which he foimd, differentiating 642 separate
signs. This great number proved that the Assyrian
cuneiform script was not alphabetic; some of the
characters must be syllabic, some must be ideo-
graphs and represent a word or an idea. Botta's
discoveries were carried further by Edward Hincks.
In a paper read before the Irish Academy on Jime
25, 1849, he showed that there was a sign for RA,
another for RI, and yet another for RU. He
proved the sign for AR, and presumably also for
IR and UR, though he did not fully define the
last two. This represented a great advance in the
study of the problem. Rawlinson soon dared to do
what Hincks would not, and ventured to translate
the great Behistun text. There was needed then
only the minute study of the characters imtil the
entire syllabic system with its polyphones and
ideographs should yield up its secrets. To this not
only Rawlinson, but in even greater degree Hincks,
contributed, and also the distinguished French
Assyriologist, Jules Oppert. Contemporaneously
with the decipherment of Assyrian went forward
the decipherment of the Susian, or second language
of the groups of three found at Persepolis. In this
work the chief leaders were Niels Ludwig Wester-
gaard, Hincks, F^licien Caignart de Saulcy, and

Archibald Henry Sayoe. When Persian, Susian,
and Assyrian (or Babylonian) had been deciphered,
the foundations of the new science, of Assyriology
had been laid.

The cuneiform method of writing originated

among the Sumerians, the earliest known inhabi-

tants of Babylonia. When the Semites

AcS^ entered the land they found in posses-

aoterof" ^^^^ * round-headed people, of small
the Script, stature and with black hair, whose
origin and racial connections are un-
known. A small though learned company of
scholars has maintained that the supposed Sume-
rians had no existence, and that their script, civilizar
tion and religion were all originated by Semites.
This view has lost support, and can hardly be
longer regarded as seriously disputing the current
view as stated above. The cuneiform characters
were originally a form of picture-writing. At first
the pictures represented natural objects; they then
became associated with certain words, and were
used phonetically to represent the sound of the
words without the meaning. In very early times,
these rude pictures were scratched on any material
that came to hand. Later stone was used for per-
manent records. But as stone is scarce in Baby-
lonia, the easily worked clay took its place, and
the straight lines made by a single pressure on the
stylus tended to become wedges. The pictures
therefore lost their original character and gradually
became groups of wedges which were so thoroughly
conventionalized that it is now impossible to deter-
mine their origin save in a very few cases. Even
to the Assyrians themselves the original form of but
very few characters was known, though a few
tablets still preserved (cf. TSBA, vi. 454 and Cunei-
form Texts from Babylonian TableU in British
Museum f part v., London, 18d8) show that the
Assyrians retained a consciousness of the pictorial
origin of their script. The Assyrians never devel-
oped a consonantal alphabet. They had only a
syllabary, with separate signs for the vowels a, %
or e, and u. The syllabic signs consisted, in the
first instance, of a separate sign for each conso-
nant with each separate vowel, thus, a5, i&, ii5, 5a,
hit 5u, ag^ ig^ ug, ga, gi, gu, the former serving also
for ap, ipt upf etc. In addition to these simple
syllables, the script had a large number of com-
pound signs, such as bal, &i/, AxtA;, man, kun, etc.
There were also very many ideograms, a sign being
used as the symbol for a whole idea; thus there
was a single sign for ilu, ** god,'' hdu, " lord," aplu,
" son," duppu, " tablet," umu, " day." Difficulties
are further increased by the fact that many signs
are polyphonous; a single sign may have several
syllabic values, and besides may stand as an ideo-
gram for several ideas. The difficulties were some-
what lessened by the use of signs called deter-
minatives placed before a word to show the class
to which it belonged. Robert W. Rogers.

HL Christian Inscriptions: By Christian inscrip-
tions in this article are meant non-Uterary writings
executed or provided by Christians which have
some relation to the Christian religion. Christian
epigraphy is concerned with inscriptions carved,
scratched, painted, or stamped on various materials,

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Xnaoriptlons

such as stone, metal, clay, ivory, and wood, in-
tended to designate the source or purpose of an
object, and also with documents which, on account
of general or permanent interest, are inscribed on
durable material, usually stone or metal. This
comparatively new science has hitherto devoted its
attention chiefly to the days of the early Church,
but it is hoped that more attention will be paid to
the collection and study of medieval and later
inscriptions which are in danger of perishing with
the lapse of time.

1. AnoUnt Ohrlstiaxi Inscriptions: (1) Letters
and figures. The workmen who made the earliest

Christian inscriptions adopted the let-

^•thods ^^ ^jj^ numeral system of their pre-

Writlnff decessors, which was already old, and

continued its development steadily,
except in cases of deliberate archaism. Thus by
degrees new forms arose, more slowly in some places
than in others, and usually later in the provinces
than in Rome. At the date of the earliest Christian
inscriptions, there were three principal types of
characters: one used for carving on stone or metal,
one for painting on walls or woodwork, which corre-
sponded to that inscribed on parchment or papyrus,
and the vulgar or cursive script, which was either
impressed on soft material such as wax, fresh clay,
or plaster, or scratched on a hard surface, especially
walls (the so-called graffito). These three types
were not always sharply distinguished, and Christian
epigraphy shows examples that can with difficulty
be assigned to any of the three classes, and others
in which the forms appear in a confused mixture —
sometimes even one half of a letter being in monu-
mental and the other half in painter's script. The
most important class of letters, in the Christian as in
the older pagan inscriptions, is the capitals, in-
cluding the laigest number of symbols for letters
and numbers. Besides these there were the uncial
forms, developed from the capitals by the rounding
off of sharp angles, and the cursive form, which
sought for speed in writing by using as few separate
strokes as possible. This last form occurs among
the dated inscriptions in Rome as early as 291.
(2) Ligatures. In the formation of words the letters
are sometimes separate, sometimes two or more are
united into a single symbol. These ligatures were
originally peculiar to coins, where the limited space
made them useful, and then were adopted in in-
scriptions. The rule for reading them was that
each element entering into their composition was
to be read only once. From the ligatures developed
the monogrammatic signs, which continued even
in the Middle Ages to be employed for imperial
signatures and the like. (3) Abbreviations. The
words may be either written in full or abbreviated,
sometimes to a single letter. The omission of letters
is indicated by strokes or projections above, below,
or beside the letters, or by periods and other signs
following them. Connected with these signs are
the strokes frequently, though not invariably,
placed over numbers to distinguish them from
ordinary letters. (4) Punctuation. A large number
of various punctuation-marks were used. The com-
monest is the period, usually written, not on the
line, but half-way up the letters; its shape is

generally round or approximately so; sometimes
it is represented by a small circle, and less often by
two sides of a triangle in various positions. Out of
this latter form developed leaves, somewhat like
ivy-leaves, which used to be considered as intended
for pierced hearts, and thus as signs of martyrdom.
Occasionally the Greek cross, or even the Chi Rho,
is used as a punctuation-mark. It was the rule in
the classical period to place punctuation-marks
only within lines, not at the end, but in many
Christian monuments this rule is not observed;
indeed, in many the entire system of pimctuation
is irregular, points being placed even in the middle
of words — though this is to be distinguished from
*' syllabic punctuation,'' where the syllables were
divided to facilitate reading. (5) Direction of the
writing. Writing from right to left had become
very rare among the Greeks and Romans at the
date of the earliest Christian inscriptions, and only
a few instances of it occur among them. While
no certain example of the ancient boustrophedon
form is known, there are a niunber which are read
downward, and arrangements still less usual exist,
dictated sometimes by the shape of the space at
command, but in other cases probably by nothing
more than a love of singularity.

The great majority of extant early Christian in-
scriptions are in Latin, Greek coming next. Even
in the West there is a considerable
l*»a- number of Greek inscriptions, generally

Employed. ^^^ ^^ ^^ people who were not Greeks,
' but Romans. This phenomenon finds
a parallel in the fact that the earliest Christian
literatiu^ was in Greek, even when the authors lived
in the West. The parallel, however, must not be
pressed too far, since they were educated men,
while most of those to whom the inscriptions are
due belonged to the lower classes. The niunber
of Greek inscriptions, even in Rome, is to be ex-
plained by the fact that in the primitive Church
Greek was the oflficial language. All the third-cen-
tury popes who are buried in the catacombs of
St. Calixtus have Greek inscriptions, while Cornelius,
whose grave is in his family burying-ground, has a
Latin one. The mixture of Greek and Latin in a
number of inscriptions is probably due less to
defective education than to an instinctive opposi-
tion in people's minds to the use of a language
which was really foreign to them. An interesting
light is thus thrown upon the final struggle of the
two languages in the West, beginning while Greek
was still the ecclesiastical tongue. After the second
century Greek inscriptions and those showing a
mixture of Greek and Latin become increasingly
rare, and Pope Damasus uses nothing but Latin.
The linguistic qualities of the inscriptions deserve
careful study as giving an insight which cannot be
obtained from literature into the speech of the
common people. While departures from classical
orthography are to be attributed partly to ignorance
or carelessness, this is not so much the case with
the vocabulary and the grammar, which in many
of the later Latin inscriptions clearly show the
transition to the Romance languages. The inscrip-
tions are, like the pagan ones, either in prose or in
verse, prose inscriptions being the more numerous.

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Insoriptions

showed the tendency to do away as far as possible
with spaces between the letters; but they become
less usual from the sixteenth century on. Abbre-
viations also were very common in the Middle Ages,
but later become much less usual. Punctuation
was not systematic until comparatively modem
times; in the Middle Ages the commonest marks
were dots half-way up the letters, though crosses
and other signs are occasionally used. The language
employed until late in the Middle Ages was almost
always Latin — seldom the vernacular, and still
less often Greek or Hebrew. The Latin continued
to be used on the tombs of scholars and in similar
places imtil modem times; and the Renaissance
brought in the use of Greek, especially in the six-
teenth century. Medieval inscriptions, like the
ancient, show many peculiarities in spelling, vocab-
ulary and gnunmar.

8. History of Epigraphy: The first demonstrable
collection of inscriptions is assigned to various dates
within the period from 550 to 839;
L^T* l^ut a number of collections resulted
Peri<^ from the Carolingian Renaissance,
headed by the Codex Einsidlensis, the
unknown author of which flourished in the eighth
or early in the ninth century. These collections in-
cluded both Christian and non-Christian specimens,
and were made largely for the purpose of instruc-
tion in writing Latin verse. A period of inaction
followed, closed by the revival of classical learn-
ing at the Renaissance. Cola Rienzi and Giovanni
Dondi in the fourteenth, Ciriaco de' Pizzicolli in the
fifteenth, and in the sixteenth century Felice Felio-
iano, Giovanni Marcanuova, Johannes Jucundus,
and Petrus Sabinus were the principal collectors.
Much new material was discovered in the sixteenth
century, especially in the Roman catacombs, opened
in 1578 by Antonio Bosio. The leading investi-
gators of this century were Aldus Manutius the
younger and Martin Smetius, while Melanchthon
did not a httle for the study, writing the introduc-
tion to the Inscriptiones sacrosanctae vetristatis of his
friends Apian and Amantius (Ingolstadt, 1534),
besides making independent researches of his own.
The already published and newly discovered ma-
terial was put together by Gruter, Scaliger, and
Velser in their Inscriptiones antiquae totius orbis
Ramani (Heidelberg, 1602-03). More Christian
material would have been included in Giovanni
Battista Doni's Inscriptiones antiquae if he had
lived to complete its publication, but as edited by
Gori and others (Florence, 1731) a large part of
this was neglected. Bosio also died (1629) before
publishing the results of his labors, but they fell
into better hands and app^^ared as Roma soUerranea
(Rome, 1632). A supplement to Gruter's collection
was published by Reinesius, a Leipsic physician
(Leip>sic, 1682), while Spon, Mabillon, and Mont-
faucon were not only working at home, but under-
taking journeys outside of France for the purpose
of collecting inscriptions. The eighteenth century
did less for Christian epigraphy in the way of large
general collections than in that of local publications
and monographs, particularly by such Italian schol-
ars as Muratori, Maffei, Zaccaria, Gori, Rivaute la
Ricolvi, and De Vita.

From the Carolingian period down into the
eighteenth century Christian epigraphy was as a

science far behind classical epigraphy.

Kin *tM^\h ^"* ^^® nineteenth century has quite

Oentury ^ different story to tell. Christian

inscriptions are now collected with the
same care and thoroughness as the classical, a result
due in the first instance to the initiative especially
of August B5ckh and Theodor Mommsen; and
they found in Giovanni Battista de Rossi a master
who elevated the study of them from a mere
dilettante amusement to a serious science. After
Gaetano Marini had published, in 1785, his Iscrizioni
aniiche delle ville e de* palazzi Albani, and ten years
later Gli aUi e monumenti de* fraidLi Arvalif scholars
looked forward eagerly to the publication of his
great collection of Christian inscriptions, which
now fills thirty-one volumes in the Vatican library.
But he died in 1815, and none of it saw the light
until, in 1831, Angelo Mai published one of the four
volumes planned by him (Nova coUectio, v.), having
in some places condensed the manuscript, and in
some enlarged it from his collection. But no great
loss to the science was involved in the failure of
the others to appear, since (apart from other defects)
his classification by subjects had now been finally
discredited by B6ckh. The German scholar, in-
sisting on geographical arrangement, persuaded the
Berlin Academy of Sciences to take up the gigantic
task of imiting in one all the Greek inscriptions.
In the great Corpus inscriptumum Graecarum (Ber-
lin, 1825 sqq.) some scattered Christian inscriptions
appeared in the first three volumes, but the main
body of them was united in the second part of
Vol. IV., under the editorship of Adolf Kirchhoff.
In the revised form of this great work, the parts of
especial value for Christian inscriptions are that
including Italy, Sicily, Gaul, Spain, Britain, and
Germany (ed. Kaibel, 1890), and that on the
islands of the .£gean (ed. Hiller de Gaertringen,
1895-98). A complete Corpus inscriptionum Grae-
carum christianarum is hoped for from the French
School at Athens, imder the direction of Laurent
and Cumont. Even more than BOckh accomplished
for Greek epigraphy, Mommsen did for Latin.
While he was not the first to conceive the idea of a
Corpus inscriptionum Latinarumy in his memorial
(1847) on its plan and scope he laid down the
proper lines for its execution and carried out a
great part of the work himself, the rest being done
by his friends and scholars. An account of new
discoveries made since the appearance of the various
volumes is given in the Ephemeris epigraphica^ 1872
sqq. Until the Corpus inscriptionum Latinarum is
complete, it will still be necessary to make use of
the older collections (which, indeed, will always
have a value for their notes and illustrations) as
well as of the works of the greatest authority in
this subject west of the Vosges, Edmond Le Blant:
Inscriptions chritiennes de la Gaule (Paris, 1856-65);
Nouveau recv^il des inscriptions chritiennes de la
Gaule (1892). Long before De Rossi was requested
by the Berlin Academy of Sciences to take part
in the Corpus inscriptionum Latinarum (from 1854
until his death he was one of the editors of vol. vi.
on the Latin inscriptions of Rome), he had planned

Insorlptlons
Inspiration

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

and begun preparationB for a collection of the early
Christian inscriptions of the city. The results
appeared in the InscripHones chrUHanae urbia
Ramae aeptimo saeculo arUiquiorea (vol. i., Rome,
1881, vol. ii., part 1, 1888). The first volume
contains the dated inscriptions, a preface which
reviews the epigraphy of the past and lays down
his own scheme, and extensive prolegomena, dealing
especially with early Christian chronology. The
first part of the second volume reproduces the
manuscript collections from the so-called parch-
ments of Scaliger down to Petrus Sabinus with
admirable critical sureness and insight. Another
work of like interest is the Museo epigrafico cristiano
Pio-Lateraneiue (1877), containing photographic
reproductions of the specimens in the lapidary
gallery at the Lateran, together with noteworthy
essays on various cognate subjects. Numerous
other contributions to Christian epigraphy are con-
tained in his Roma aoUerranea cristiana (3 vols.,
1864*77), in the BoUeUino d'archeologia cristiana
(1863 sqq.), and Musaid delle chieae di Rorruif 1872-
1900. Although De Rossi's enterprises were too
great for accomplishment in even the longest and
busiest life, they have not been allowed to drop.
The continuation of the Inacriptianes has been
placed in the hands of his old friend and faithful
collaborator, Giuseppe Gatti; the {Nuovo) BoUetHno
has, since 1895, been edited first by De Rossi's
brother Michele Stefano and his personal pupils,
Stevenson, Armellini, and Marucchi, to whom have
been, added, since the death of the first three, G.
Bonavenia, P. Crostarosa, G. Gatti, R. Kantzler,
and J, Wilpert. The completion of the Roma
soUerranea, beginning with a fourth volume on the
cemetery of Domitilla, has been undertaken by
Marucchi, Wilpert, Gatti, Crostarosa, and Kantzler.
For the medieval and later periods there is no single
work which can be placed by the side of the Corpus
inacriptionum Graecarum and LoHnarum.

(NiKOLAUS MCller.)

Biblioorapht: On I., besides the literature under Egypt,
much of which is pertinent, consult: J. DQmichen, Hia-
torUche Inaehriften aU&oypHacher DenkmUler, Leipeic, 1867-
1860; idem. AUAgyptiache Tempelinachriften, ib. 1868; P.
le P. Renouf, Egyptian Phonoloov, London, 1889; E.
Revillout. Court de langue dhnotique, Paris, 1883; C. Abel,
Zur OeackichU der Hieroglypheruchrift, Leipsio, 1800;
Aegi/ptitche Inadtriften aut den kOniglichen Museen «u
Berlin, 2 parts. Berlin, 1901-05; O. Karlberg. Den lAnga
. . . inekriftten i Ramaee 1 1 1. 'a tempel i Medinet-Habu,
Upsala, 1003; C. R. Honey, The Egyptian Hieroglyph,
Boscombe, 1004; R. Weill, RecueU dea inacriptiona du
Sinai, Paris, 1004; and especially nimierous papers in
PSBA and TSBA, in the Memoira of the Egypt Explora-
tion Fimd, in ZDMG, J A, ZeitachriftfUr Hgyptiache Spraehe
und Alterthumakunde, and the Revue Sgyptologique, On
the Rosetta Stone consult H. Brugsch, Die Inachrift von
Roaetta, Berlm, 1860; F. Chabas, L'Inacription hifro-
glyphigue de Roaetta, Paris, 1867; 8. Sharpe, The Roaetta
Stone in Hieroglyphica and Greek, London, 1871; J. J.
Hess. Der demotiache Tail der . . . Inachrift von Roaetta
HberaeUt, Freiburg, 1002; E. A. T. W. Budge, The Decreea
of Memphia and Canopua, 3 vols., London, 1004. On the
Meneptah inscription consult Spiegelberg, Sitzungaberichte
der Berliner Akademie, 1806, pp. 503 sqq.; G. Steindorff,
in ZA TW, 1806, pp. 330 sqq.; A. Wiedemann, in Mua^on,
1808, pp. 1-10. On the relation of the inscriptions to the
Bible the most sober and scientific discussion is by S. R.
Driver in Authority and Archaeology, Sacred and Profane,
ed. D.'G. Hogarth. London, 1800.

IL A great deal of the literature under AsaTBXA; Baby-

lonia bears on the inscriptions, and some of the principal
ooUeotions are named there. Ck)nsult further: R. E. Brtln-
now, Claaaified Liat of AU Simple and Compound Cuneiform
Ideographa, Leyden, 1880-07; P. T. Dangin. Reeherchea
aur Vorigina de Vicriture eunH/orme, Paris, 1808-90; F.
Delitssch, Die Entati^ung dea dUeaten Sduiftayatema oder
der Uraprung der Keil^hriftaeichen, Leipsie, 1896-98;
P. Tosoanne, Lea Signea aum&riena dSrivfa, Paris, 1006;
A. V. W. Jackson, Peraia Paat and Preaent, New York,
1006; H. Pognon, Inaerij^iona afmitiquea da la Syria, de la
Meaopotamie, etdela rSgion de Meaaoul, Paris, 1007; A. H.
Sayoe, The Archaeology of the Cuneiform Inacriptiona, New
York, 1007. On the decipherment: R. W. Rogers, Hia-
tory of Babylonia and Aaayria, vol. i., New York, 1000;
A. J. Booth, The Diaoovery and Decipherment of the
Trilingual Cuneiform Inacriptiona, London, 1002; L.
Messerschmldt, Die EnUifferung der Keilinaehrift, Berlin,
1003; C. FoBsey, Manuel d'aaayriologie, vol. i., Paris, 1004.
III. The most important literature is named in the text.
A most useful article will be found in DC A, i., 841-^2,
which includes a list of the abbreviations occiuring most
frequently in the inscriptions and the way they are to be
read. Further consult: E. le Blant, Manuel d*ipigraphia
ehrHienna d'apr^a lea marhrea de la Oaule, Paris, 1869;
idem, L'Epigraphie chritienne en Oaule et dana VAfriqua
romaine, ib. 1890; J. McCaul, ChriaHan Epigrapha of tike
Firat Six Centuriea, London, 1869; G. Petrie, Chriatian
Inacriptiona in the Iriah Language, ed. M. Stokes, Dublin,
1870 sqq.; J. A. Martigny, Dietionnaire dea antiquUia
chritiennea, pp. 367 sqq., Paris, 1877; F. X. Kraus, Roma
aotterranea, pp. 431 sqq., Freiburg, 1879; idem, Real-
Encyklopddie der chriaUidien AlterthUmer, ii. 89 sqq., ib.
1886; V. Schultse, Die Katakomben, pp. 233 sqq., Leipsie,
1882; H. Otte, Handbuch der kirehlichen Kunat-ArchA-
ologie dea deutachen Mittelallera, i., 396 sqq., ib. 1883;
J. R. Allen, Chriatian Symboliam in Oreat Britain and
Ireland before the ISth Century, London, 1888; E. HQbner,
Inacriptionea Hiapaniaa Chriatianae, 2 vols., Berlin, 1900;
Haddan and Stubbs, Councila (for inscriptions in Great
Britain) and the literature under CEicBTBaus, particu-
larly that on the Cataoombe given there.

mSPIRATION.

Jewish Doctrine (f 1).

Early Christian Doctrine (I 2).

The Scholastic Period (f 3).

The Reformation (i 4).

Post-Reformation Development (f 6).

Modem Development (f 6).

The Bible and Inspiration (f 7).

Nature and Method of Inspiration (f 8).

The Theory of Plenary Inspiration (f 9).

The Theory of Partial Inspiration (f 10).

Criteria of Inspiration (f 11).

Modem Tendencies and Development (f 12).

In theological language, inspiration signifies the
operation of the Holy Spirit upon the writers of
the Bible, by which the Bible becomes the ex-
pression of the will of God binding upon us, or the
Word of God. The term originated from the Vulgate
version of II Tim. iii. 16, Omnia acriptura diviniius
inspirata. The Greek word theopneustoa — of which
it is at least doubtful whether divinitua inspirata
is an accurate translation — belongs only to Hellen-
istic and Christian Greek, and may have been coined
by Paul. Other post-classical uses of it show that
it signifies " filled with the Spirit of God ** or
" breathing out the Spirit of God," from which it
follows that the Scripture so designated has come
into being under the operation of the Spirit. The
preference of the Greek commentators for the mean-
ing expressed by diviniius inspirata would have
less importance if it were not explicable by the
prevalent view, for which the corresponding term
was thought to be found in II Tim. iii. 16, which was
more or less an inheritance from Alexandrian Juda-
ism or from paganism.

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Insorlptlons
Inspirfttion

The church doctrine— or rather the oldest views
held in the Church, since it is inaccurate to speak
of any distinct church doctrine on the
I. Jewish point, either before or since the Refor-
Doctrine. mation, outside of the single statement
that the Scripture is inspired, without
saying how it is inspired — ^Ls much closer to the
Alexandrian or pagan view than to that of Jewish
theology. Both Talmudic and Alexandrian Juda-
ism agreed in attributing unique authority to the
Old Testament. The Talmud claims an inmiediate
divine origin for the '' Law/' asserting that God
wrote it with his own hand, or dictated it to Moses
as his amanuensis. A secondary revelation is con-
tained in the " Prophets " (from Joshua on, includ-
ing Psalms, Canticles, Job, Ecclesiastes, Ezra), as
KaJbbalahf or tradition as distinguished from the
Law. In the case of the prophets, their personality
is not so absorbed by the Spirit of God as to render
them mere unconscious organs! The medieval
Jewish theologians were the first to attribute a
special kind of inspiration to the Hagiographa, as
written by the spirit of holiness, while the prophet-
ical books were written by the spirit of prophecy.
Jewish antiquity knows nothing of such a distinc-
tion; and Matt. xxii. 43 shows that the origin of
these books too was referred to the Spirit of God.
That the personality of the authors was still more
prominent in them than in the prophets may be
inferred from their place in the canon, as well as
from various expressions which put them, in rela-
tion to the Law, in the lowest place. Alexandrian
Judaism took a different view. It is true that
Josephus maintains that the Spirit was absent from
the second Temple, and designates the reign of
Artaxerxes Longimanus as the end of canonical
authorship; but he, as well as Philo and the author
of Wisdom (vii. 27), believes none the less in a
continuance and diffusion of the prophetic gift.
Upon this theory rest the legend of the origin of
the Septuagint and the acceptance of the Apoc-
rypha. Thus, while apparently broader and freer
than Talmudic Judaism, the Alexandrian school
represents a doctrine of inspiration which is really
much more strict. AU the Old-Testament writers
are prophets; but with the prophetic illumination
human consciousness ceases. The prophet is merely
an organ of God, who speaks through him; he
knows nothing of what he is doing, and has no will
of his own. He is in a state of ecstasy, even when
he writes down what he has been commissioned to
reveal.. This condition Philo believes that he can
describe from his own experience. '^There is an
ecstasy mentioned in the Bible, but it is not this
kind of 'ecstasy, nor is it the normal vehicle of
inspiration, but something extraordinary; and the
communication of the message to others does not
take place in this state, with the possible exception
of an involuntary prophecy like that of Balaam
[but ef. II Kings iii. 15--19, and see Ecstasy]. The
Biblical conception of ecstasy is that of a state in
which supernatural revelations are imparted to men
who, in their natural state, are incapable of perceiv-
ing them — either by divinely exhibited symbols, as
in Acts X. 10; Jer. i. 11, 13, or by the communi-
cation of supernatural realities and images of future

events, as in Nimi. xxiv. 3, 4, xxii. 31; 11 Kings vi.
17; cf. II Cor. xii. 1 sqq.; Rev. i. 10. In this state the
percipient is either ^* in the Spirit," i.e., the limita-
tions of his ordinary sensuous perceptions fall away
altogether, or they are momentarily removed with-
out the cessation of sensuous perception, and super-
natural appearances present themselves in conjunc-
tion with those of ordinary life, as in Luke i. 11.
In no case does the state seem to be one of which
no memory is afterward preserved; the ecstasy is
not (according to Augustine on Ps. Ixvii.) a ^* mental
alienation," but a '' mental separation from physical
sensation so that whatever is revealed is revealed
to the spirit." The theory of Philo, or the Hellen-
istic theory, thus originated neither in the Old Tes-
tament nor in strictly Jewish theology outside of it,
but much more directly in paganism. Philo's con-
ception can not be put down wholly to the account
of his Platonizing tendency, but contains other
elements, possibly borrowed from Oriental religions.
Still, it is in the main the general Greek conception
of enthottstaamoa, of the mania of the marUeia
(" prophet " or " diviner "), akin to the Platonic
view of the source of artistic production and of
prophecy.

The same pagan conception is encountered once
more in the first definite expressions from Christian
writers as to the nature and method
2. Early of inspiration. In the Apostolic
Christian Fathers is found merely a simple ex-
Doctrine, pression of the fact of inspiration in
the way in which they cite the Old
Testament. But the second-century apologists
emphasize the divine origin of the knowledge con-
tained in Holy Scripture, and unquestionably teach
an inspiration which is not merely mechanical,
but mantic. In order to understand this, it must
be remembered that these men, brought up in
paganism, got at the same time their first im-
pression of Christian truth and of the divine origin
of the primary revelation and so of the Scriptures.
The more Christianity claimed to be not the result
of a logical process of thought, but a revelation
made under the operation of the Spirit of God, the
easier it was for them to apply to it the Greek con-
ception of the origin of such knowledge; and the
process was further facilitated by the respect paid
to the Sibylline prophecies (see Sibylline Books).
If this last fact be taken in connection with the
prominent place which prophecy holds in Scripture,
the importance which the apologists attached to
prophecy can be understood, and that it was natural
for them to refer all ancient prophecy to the working
of the Spirit of God. There was no need of an
acquaintance with Philo (of whom Justin speaks
with great respect) to lead to this view, which
finaUy found its most definite representation in
Montanism. The opposition of the Church to
Montanism was responsible for the fact that the
doctrine of ecstasy as the form of inspiration foimd
no continued recognition in the Church. Clement
of Alexandria placed ecstasy among the marks of
false prophets, and, from Origen on, the doctors of
the (Church rejected the conception of prophecy
which originated in paganism. In direct opposition
to Montanism, the unconscious action of the

XnsfiinitiQn

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

prophet was denied. This led to the other extreme;
it placed the revelation of the Old Testament on
the same level with that of the New, and so finally
resulted in the not indeed mantic, but mechanical,
doctrine of inspiration held by the older Protestant
theologians. The attempts at a truer theory found
in Irensus' distinction between prophetic and apos-
tolic inspiration (III., xi. 4), and his notion of a
development in the history of God's redeeming work
(IV., ix. 3), bore no fruit. The doctrine of the
Fathers recognised both the unrestricted opera-
tion of the Holy Ghost upon the minds and wills
of Scriptural authors and at the same time their
own independent activity, to which more than mere
form and style was attributed; but they seem to
have made no attempt to frame a theory as to the
manner in which these two were combined. Thus,
e.g., Augustine, who says in one place that the
Evangelists wrote " as each remembered, in accord-
ance with his native powers, either briefly or at
greater length " {Dt consensu evangdisiarum, ii. 12),
in another compares the apostlei to hands that
wrote down what the head, Christ, dictated (ib.,
i. 35). Among the Fathers Origen went most
deeply into the question, ^liat he says about it
agrees closely with his theory that inspiration is
an elevation of the mind and an opening of the
inner ear to the truth — a higher degree of the
illumination bestowed upon aU pious believers.
That so little use was made of Origen 's suggestions
was not a consequence of their connection with
other parts of his 83rstem. or of the suspicion which
was cast upon his orthodoxy, but rather of the fact
that (when the epoch of the apologists was past
and Montanism was conquered) there was little
practical interest in these questions. In the con-
troversies which distracted the Church the authority
and the divine origin ol the Scriptures were not
called in question. With the issue ol these conflicts
and the strengthening of the Church's organintion,
the Chordi took its pboe by the side of the Scrip-
lum as a coordinate authority, and even at times
more than that, so that Augustine couM say (A<fr.
JlMMAdPrn. v.\ • I mvnuki noi belie\Y the Gospel
agaiBM the authority of the Catholic Church."
TW accepiaDce o£ a ccntinuous inspiration, cx-
preaffd <«pec«aUy ia the dettsaoos ol councils, gave
n» lo tbe thNVT ol a twtjMd mum ol knowMge,
as lo w^icb OB^T a staaiaid ol judgment in matters
of €Mt w^»TC^\md. Tioi a decs^on as to the manner
ofittsrirMftMt TV etnplfesw laid by the school ol
Amm^ Ctt tV hvjasauui nie cl tbe Scripturw was
»« «i(^^v«aM eoc«^ id view <rf tbe «multaneoiis
wi^f*M»« ^1 iSnt a;^tSc«UT. to call forth mudi
^to«s«ft» a» tv^ vtf^xrMiosi «arf. Ewa the boW
•wKiuw» ol TSKxx^cy ol Mv>f«oeMn that the Book
«itf A?fr «;» A r\>(«ft ^>ripiBfiati:!^ on heAtben sofl,
^ S!?^"** ^vMR^-wvi a lY^xK eritKakmiuRU
iZ'^rr**"'* *^ ^-^xx^Np A?Ki EM)MtfM> bad
~**** '*•'*'*'* ,V jri?t c^^i^V«a.'bwiiottlie

£ ^!rr: V^r"^^ «w^*«itvr. K:i only "««i

^ :^ .ZS!^ ^■^^fcWKW o« rcv«^irtic> iMfumiMn:
K wir '''^ '^W'w^ %^%* : V Awsi^«wati« d these

By a natural process, the operation of the Holy
Ghost occupied an increasingly prominent place,
and the independent personality of the writers was
less and less considered. When Agobard of Lyons
dwelt upon the external signs of this independence,
and remarked that the sacred writers had not al-
ways observed the strict rules of grammar, the
Abbot Fridugis of Tours (q.v.) went so far as to
assert that the Holy Spirit had formed ** even
the very verbal expressions in the mouth of the
Apostles." And Agobard did not think of limiting
the operation of the Spirit; he preferred to ex-
plain the phenomenon by a condescension on the
part of the Holy Spirit to human weakness.

No deeper interest in the question was displayed

by scholaistidsm, which discussed it, indeed, with

its accustomed minuteness in conneo-

3. The tion with the rest of the system, but
Scholastic showed no sense of its importance in

Period, relation to revelation. Here and there,
as from Anselm and Thomas Aquinas,
it received more serious consideration. The latter
treats the subject under the head of gratiae gratis
datae, or charismata^ distinguishing between the
gift of knowledge and the gift of the word, without
which the gift of knowledge would be useless to
others. To express the right word, the Holy Ghost
makes Use of the tongue of men '' as of an instru-
ment, but' he himself perfects the inner working."
The blessing is sometimes diminished by the fault
of the hearer, sometimes by that of the speaker.
The operation of the Holy Ghost thus does no
violence to the independence of the agent. The
authority of the Scriptures was not questioned,
but the impulse to use and to investigate them
was not yet awakened. Mysticism had a deep
feeling for the divine power of the Word and a clear
understanding of the operation of the Holy Ghost.
A belief in the continuance of the gift left the Scrip-
tural inspiration not so radically different, in spite
of its admitted precedence, from experiences which
were possible to others; and so, even while its
authority was firmly maintained, there was a cer-
tain indifference to its unique character. The
assertion of Abelard, based upon Gal. ii. 11 sqq.,
that the prophets and apostl^ were not infallible,
was employed with some hesitation by him; but
when Renaissance scholarship pointed to defects
in detail as results of the human limitations of the
Scriptural writers, neither the Church nor scholars
thought of the authority of the Bible as any less

assured.

Never since the apostolic age had so admirable

a use been made of its pages, and never had its

authority been so decidedly upheld as

4. The in the Reformation period; but for this
Rtfonna- very reason there was little speculation

tioo. on the way in which it had come to be.
No one disputed its authority; the only
question was as to the manner of its use. This
^TTP^t''**' the fact that among the Reformers and
their immediate successors the oM conception of
inspiration is stiU found without any further dis-
cussion of the mutual reUtions of the two factors
in the foimation of the Scriptures, and without any
attempt to define the limits within which inspira-

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Inspiration

ticm is attributed to them. As to the relation
between the divine and human factors, Luther is
equally certain that the Holy Ghost is the original
author, and that the writers are to be known by
their human characteristics and have put their own
hearts into their work. Theoretically his teaching
on this point is not to be distinguished from the
traditional conception. For Calvin, too, the Bible
is to be reverenced; the Holy Ghost is its author,
though sometimes ** he uses a rough and unpolished
style." But this does not prevent Calvin from
recognizing inaccuracies and seeing, with Luther,
the expression of the human minds of the writers.
Chemnits is the first Lutheran theologian to attempt
a systematic doctrine on the subject; but he is
arguing against those who equally acknowledge the
authority of the Bible, and the question of the
nature and method of inspiration is not for him an
urgent one. Selnecker includes inspiration under
the head of revelation, and defines it as '' a secret
inbreathing by which the holy patriarchs and
prophets were divinely taught many things "; but
he places this process in unmistakable analogy with
the indwelling and operation of the Spirit in other
believers. Gerhard's full discussion of Scripture
in general contains no more precise definition. But
the more earnest these authors become in attempt-
ing to confirm the authority of the Bible, the less
often are met concessions like those of Bugenhagen,
that the Evangelists wrote " what to them seemed
best," and that errors of the Septuagint passed
over into the text of the New Testament.

When it became necessary to argue not only

against Rome, but against syncretism, and Calixtus,

in approximation to Roman Catholic

5« Post- theologians, distinguished between in-
Reformation spiration in the strict sense, in regard

Develop- to the essential truths of salvation,
ment. and a diredio divina in regard to those
things " which came by sensation or
were otherwise known " for which no revelation but
only guidance was needed, the time had come for
a more rigid definition, for an assurance against the
dangers which seemed to threaten the Bible among
the very men who claimed to deduce their belief
from it. Calovius was the founder of the new doc-
trine intended to serve this purpose. According to
him, inspiration is the form of revelation. Nothing
can be in the Scriptures '* which was not to the
writers divinely suggested and inspired." The doc-
trine was pushed to its extreme consequences by
the Buxtorfs, who asserted the inspiration of even
the Hebrew vowels, and by Voet, who made the
same claim for the punctuation. All this was
absolutely new. If the idea of ecstasy had been
included, it might have seemed a revival of the
mantic theory of Philo and the old apologists;
but the lack of this conception made the process
purely mechanical, not only without analogy, but
in direct contradiction to the other operations of
the Holy Spirit. The self-preparation of the writers,
required on the ecstatic theory, was no longer
necessary; nor was there any place for the personal
witness which the apostles claim to give. The
logical consequences of the doctrine were no^
indeed, drawn by its supporters, but they are none

the less inevitable. Against this hard and fast
theory the freer view of the Roman Catholic theo-
logians (such as Bellarmine, Canus, and Simon) was
less effective than it might have been on account of
their tendency to subordinate Scripture to the
Church; and little more followed the maintenance
of a less rigid theory by the Arminians and some
French and German Calvinists. The first marked
influence was exerted by Pietism, with its personal
experience of the workings of the Spirit, in which
it was joined by some kindred souls among the
English dissenters, such as Baxter and Doddridge.
By degrees the official theology of Protestantism
took a freer attitude, and the human factor in
inspiration assmned a new prominence.

The modem development of the doctrine may be

traced partly from Schleiermacher and partly from

the school of Bengel. The former

6. Modem emphasised the special spirit of the

Develop- Scriptures, of which rationalism had
ment altogether lost sight; but this spirit
was to him not the Spirit of God, in-
dependent of humanity, but his own conception of
the term '' Holy Spirit " — ^the common spirit of the
Christian Church, the source of aU its spiritual gifts
and good works, as of aU its processes of thought.
Even the apocryphal writings are inspired, in so
far as they show any trace of connection with the
life of this spirit. The Old Testament, on the other
hand, as the product not of the Christian but of
the Jewish spirit, shares neither the dignity nor the
inspiration of the New. The main emphasis is laid
upon the human writers, who, by reason of their
relation to Christ, are the authorized original wit-
nesses to Christian truth. Schleiermacher's doctrine
of inspiration is thus both formaUy and matgrially
the exact opposite of the doctrine developed by
the seventeenth-century theologians. It represents,
however, a distinct and permanent progress, in the
qualification of inspiration according to the period
of history in which it appears, in the value placed
upon the human factor for the attestation and com-
munication of divine truth, in the proper placing
of inspiration in the imiform and yet manifold
working of the Holy Spirit, and of the literary work
produced under its influence in the total of the
authors' official activity. The first of these points,
the relation of inspiration to history, is the one in
which Schleiermacher's services were the most im-
portant. This is a point of departure for the modem
development of the doctrine of inspiration, as
represented by Rothe and Hofmann — ^though the
connection is not always directly with Schleier-
macher, but partiaUy through the school of Bengel,
whose most useful result is that formulated in 1793
by Menken in these words: " The Bible is no dog-
matic treatise ... it is much rather a historical,
harmonious whole. All that it teaches, it teaches
either inunediately in history, or upon a basis of
history, with its foundation and its interpretation
in history." Space forbids to trace here the gradual
develop^ient through the writings of individual
modem authors who have handled this subject.
As a rule they have renounced the theory of the
direct operation of the Holy Spirit on the creation
of the Scriptural books. They have replaced the

Xnsorlptioiui

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

necessary to give specific details, so that the iden-
tification of the events is often doubtful or im-
possible. Not seldom, the inscriptions are mere
laudations of the Pharaoh, or, again, are hymns in
praise of him. Others are records of building enter-
prises, giving the personal history of the ruler or
administrator. Decrees of adminbtration appear.
In private tombs records of filial performance in the
maintenance of the tomb occur, and there are also
found interesting accounts referring to wars or
enterprises otherwise imknown. The longest in-
scriptions are the Pyramid texts of the Pharaohs
of the fifth and sixth dynasties, discovered in 1880,
dealing largely with matters religious, including
magic. The Palermo Stone is one of the most noted
monuments — a fragment of a stele containing a
record of pre-dynastic kings, continuing to the
middle of the fifth dynasty, and giving brief royal
annals. The various erections at Kamak afforded
space for voluminous inscriptions, to some of which
reference must be made later.

Since the fifteenth century attempts were made
to decipher the Egyptian hieroglyphics, though
without success till the early part of the
8. The Bo- nineteenth century. But meanwhile a
***?Di!fl?* foundation was laid for a broader and
pherment. ®®^'^^®'^ appreciation of Egyptian arche-
ology by the work done on Coptic
since the time of Athanasius Kircher, who published
the first Coptic gnunmar (Rome, 1643-44). The
epoch-making work of Champollion (see below) was
in no small part due to his mastery of Coptic. But
all attempts to read the hieroglyphics were complete
failures until the key was furnished by the Rosetta
Stone. This is a slab of black granite, three feet
nine inches by two feet four and a half inches and
eleven inches thick, bearing an inscription in hiero-
glyphic and demotic Egyptian and in Greek. It
was found in 1799 by M. Boussard, a French mili-
tary officer, at Fort St. Julien, near Rosetta, on the
Rosetta branch of the Nile (40 m. n.e. of Alexan-
dria), was taken to England after the fall of Alex-
andria, and was presented to the British Museum
by Geoige III. (1801). The upper portion and the
lower right-hand comer are broken away. It con-
tains a decree of the Egyptian priests in honor of
Ptolemy V. Epiphanes (20&-181 b.c), and its date is
Mar. 27, 195 b.c. It bears 100 lines of text, fourteen
of hieroglyphic (about half of the original), thirty-
two of demotic, and fifty-four of Greek (the ends
of some of the lines broken off). Its significance is
not in its contents, but in the fact that it proved
to be the key to the decipherment of the hiero-
glyphic and demotic writing, and consequently
opened up nearly all that is known of and through
Egyptian texts. The results gained through the
decipherment of this text were checked and con-
firmed by the trilingual stele of Canopus found by
Lepsius at Tanis in 1866, containing a similar decree
of the year 238 b.c, in honor of Ptolemy III.
Eueigetes I. (247-222 b.c). Yet the process of
decipherment was somewhat tedious. Sylvestre de
Sacy (1802) detected several groups in the demotic
text which corresponded to the Greek forms of
the names Ptolemy, Berenice, and Alexander. The
Swede J. D. Akerblad (1802) obtained the phonetic

values of most of the demotic characters in the
proper names and used the Coptic to determine
the meaning of several words. Thomas Young
(1814), an English scientist, determined the mean-
ings of several groups of demotic characters and
established four alphabetical hieroglyphic charac-
ters. Jean Franco's Champollion put the crown
upon all these efforts by reading from a bilingual
obelisk in Phil®, in hieroglyphic and Greek, the
names of Ptolemy and Cleopatra, deciphering the
names of Greek and Roman rulers, making out all
the characters, discovering ideograms and deter-
minatives, gaining insight into the phonetic system,
and discerning the relations of the three kinds of
script. He made a statement of his discoveries and
expounded his system to the Academic des Inscrip-
tions, Sept. 22, 1822. Karl Richard Lepsius worked
on the lines of Champollion and corrected some
mistakes, but proved the general soundness of
Champollion 's conclusions against the captious and
envious criticism of several German writers. The
science of Egyptology has been advanced by many
later scholars, such as, to name only a few, Emman-
uel de Roug^, Auguste Mariette, Paul Pierret, Jacques
de Morgan and Gaston Maspero in France, Heinrich
Brugsch, Alfred Wiedemann, Georg Ebers, Adolf
Erman and Georg Steindorff in Germany, John
Gardner Wilkinson, Samuel Birch, Peter le Page
Renouf, Edward Naville, Ernest Alfred Thomp-
son, Wallis Budge, and William Matthew Flin-
ders-Petrie in England, W. Max MuUer and James
Henry Breasted in the United States.

The scantiness of illustration of Biblical history
afforded by the Egyptian monuments as compared
_ with the abundance gained from the

•». -uiuv- Assyro-Babylonian records has been
tratlonof ._ "L r ^ j-

the Bible many a cause of great disap-

pointment. The explanation of this
scantiness is, however, not hard to discover. One
reason is the vagueness of Egyptian records (see
above). Another, which is on the surface, is that
after the Hebrews settled in Palestine contact of
Egypt with Palestine was occasional and not
always of such a character as to dispose the monu-
ment-makers to speak of it — they recorded only
victories, not failures or defeats. That mention of
the Hebrews who had broken away from Egyptian
control would appear in the inscriptions was hardly
to be expected, nor that pre-Mosaic Israel would
be differentiated from the numerous nomads of
Semitic stock who occasionally sought refuge in
the Nile land. Accordingly, apart from that general
illustration of manners of living which is a conse-
quence of a sort of commonality of life in the East,
little of specific detail need be looked for from the
Egyptian inscriptions either corroborating or con-
tradicting Biblical statements, especially if, accord-
ing to the view now generally accepted, the He-
brews were very few in numbers. What little specific
illustration there is takes on either a geographical
or ethnological character. The first comes through
the mention of places conquered in Palestine by the
Pharaohs. Thothmes III. (eighteenth dynasty),
who made fifteen expeditions into Syria and Pales-
tine, has recorded in the temple of Amon at Kamak,
on the wall of the southern pylon and on the north-

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Insoriptloas

em wall at the western end of the temple, a list of
places in that region the submission of which he
claims to have received (cf. Records of the Past,
new series, v. 29-53, for the list of names). Note-
worthy and productive of a vast amount of dis-
cussion are tl^ names Yakob-ei and Yosep-d, which
seem to represent an early form of the names
Jacob and Joseph. The real significance of these
names, paralleled from the cuneiform inscriptions,
is as yet under debate, but eponymous derivation
seems to be favored. The geography is also il-
luminated by the lists of Seti I. and Rameses II.
(nineteenth dynasty), the latter's inscriptions on
the Ramesseum at Thebes and at Kamak, and by
that of Rameses III. at Medinet Haba.

Shishak I. (twenty-second dynasty) also fur-
nished on the south wall of the great temple at
Kamak a list of geographical names in which there
are 156 cartouches, not all legible (cf. W. M. MUller,
Ateien und Europa, Leipsic, 1893, pp. 166 sqq.).

The monuments of Seti I., Rameses II. and IV.,
and Meneptah contain references which are thought
by the advanced school to bear on pre-Mosaic
history. That the Apertu (cf. Heb. 'Ibhn, "He-
brew " and the Habiri of the Amama Tablets, q.v.)
were Hebrews is not yet assured, though it is
possible. Seti I. and Rameses II. speak of an Aaeru
or Amru in western Galilee in the region assigned
to the tribe Asher in the Hebrew records (Judges
V. 17, cf. i. 32). Of this alternative explanations
are given: the Asherites were a Canaanitic tribe
absorbed later into the Hebrew confederation
(which would go with the assumed eponymous de-
rivation of the name and with the Biblical ac-
count of descent from a concubine) or the He-
brews who settled in the region took the name
of the country (W. M. Mttller, ut sup. pp. 236-239).
On a stele of Meneptah discovered in 1895 occurs
the only known mention of Israel on the Egyptian
monimients (in the form I-si-r-'l) as a people whom
Meneptah had reduced. This mention is compli-
cated by the fact that Meneptah is now quite
generally regarded as the Pharaoh of the Exoidus;
how, then, could Israel be in Palestine during his
reign? Accordingly many conmientators are dis-
posed to see in the Israel of Meneptah's inscription
a part of the Hebrews settled in Palestine who did
not go down into Egypt and gave their name to
the confederation in later times; these conmien-
tators regard as confirmation of this the occurrence
of Yakoihel and Yaaep-^ (ut sup.). Light on the
Exodus of the Hebrews comes not from the hiero-
glyphic, but from a combination of a Greco-Ro-
man inscription with the identification of Succoth
and Pithom through indications in the Coptic
version of the Old Testament and through indica-
tions in Greek writers (see Egypt). While the
bearing of Egyptian inscriptions on Hebrew history
and ethnology is thus vague and indecisive, if it
has any value at all it is in the way of strengthen-
ing the case of the newer school of constructive
history. Geo. W. Gilmore.

n. Ctmeiforai Inscriptions: Cuneiform, from the
Latin cunetiSf " wedge/' was first applied in the
year 1700 by Thomas Hyde, professor of Hebrew
in the University of Oxford. In that day Hyde was

acquainted only with some mde copies of Assyrian
characters, and with some equally mde copies of

Sassanian and Palmyrene inscriptions,

1. The concerning which he argued that they

Q*"^^^^*were not letters, nor intended for

the SoriD^ letters, but were mere ornament.

Later investigation has shown that the
cuneiform method of writing is one of the oldest
known to man and one of the most widely diffused,
and that it sufficed for more than five thousand years
to express the ideas of nearly a score of peoples,
among whom were some of the greatest culture races
of antiquity. It was invented by the pre-Semitic
Sumerian inhabitants of Babylonia, was adopted
by their conquerors, the Semitic Babylonians, and
thence carried to Assyria. It was besides dif-
fused among all the neighboring peoples and came
into use as far east as Elam and as far west as Egypt
(see Amarna Tablets).

The first modem observer of cuneiform characters
was Pietro della Valle, about 1618 a.d., who copied

from the ruins of Persepohs in Persia

*i^^'"^Mil'" * ^®^ characters in random but fairly

pherment ^w^^*"*^ fashion. The material thus

of Persian, provided was too scanty to stimulate

any eamest effort at decipherment.
The first opportunity afforded European scholars
for study of the cimeiform was given in 1774 by
Carsten Niebuhr, a Dane, father of the famous
Roman historian, who had copied at Persepolis a
number of small inscriptions, grouped in threes
upon the remains of the palaces of the Achamenian
kings. Previous travelers had expressed the opinion
that three languages were represented in these
Persepolis texts, and later study has shown the
three languages to be Persian, Susian, and Assyro-
Babylonian. The task of decipherment was ren-
dered difficult by the fact that no bilingual inscrip-
tion was found in which a known language occurred.
The method of decipherment was to be archeolog-
ical rather than philological, and the process was
necessarily slow and insecure. The first efforts in
decipherment of the Persian inscriptions — the sim-
plest in each group of three — put forth by Friedrich
Christian Karl Heinrich M (Inter and Olaf Tychsen
seemed to show that these texts contained only
forty-two signs, which were therefore mainly al-
phabetic with some syllabic values, but only a few
correct values for the signs were determined. The
first decipherment of an entire text was made by
George Frederick Grotefend, who was almost con-
tinuously engaged upon decipherment from 1802
until 1844. The facts with which he began were
that these texts came from Persepolis, and that the
ruins there were the remains of palaces erected by
Gyrus, Darius, and Xerxes. He assumed, conse-
quently, that each text began with the name of
a king, and his success was achieved by comparison
of two inscriptions, which Grotefend finally trans-
lated as follows: ** I. Darius, the mighty king,
king of kings . . . son of Hystaspes. II. Xerxes,
the mighty king, king of kings . . . son of Darius,
the king.'' This result was small in itself, but it
afforded the clue for the decipherment of several
languages, besides the three found at Persepolis.
At the same time that Grotefend was engaged in

Inscriptions

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

this task, BCsjor (afterward Sir) Henry Rawlinson
was trying to reach a solution and in the same way.
Quite independently of Grotefend he worked out
some of the sign values, and, when later provided
with Grotefend's results, far siupassed him in the
power to translate Persian inscriptions. He dis-
covered the great rock-cut inscription of Darius
at Behistun in Persia, which he copied, laboriously
and successfully deciphered, and published in an
English translation, nearly complete, in the year
1846.

The decipherment of Persian was followed by a
determined attempt to solve the far more difficult
problem of the Assyro-Babylonian cu-
8. Dsoipher- neiform script, in which the third in-
Ba?^* iLi ^^"P*^^'* ^ these groups of three was
Awn^Lan. ' ^^*^^^' The first to attempt it was
Grotefend, who identified the names
of the kings, but was unable to go much further.
Isidor Loewenstein secured the correct meanings
of the signs for " king," ** great," and the sign for
the plural. He first suggested that Assyrian be-
longed to the Semitic family and was therefore
related to Hebrew, Arabic and Aramean. Far
more successful was the Rev. Edward Hincks (q.v.),
who, in two papers during 1846 and a third in 1847,
determined most of the numerals, assigned correct
values to a nimiber of signs, and seemed on the
very veige of being able to read a whole text. His
rigidly scientific spirit, however, restrained him
from such an endeavor, and he worked steadily on
with the patient solution of one difficulty at a time.
When the immense mass of cuneiform documents
which Emil Botta had discovered at Nineveh
reached Paris, the hope of deciphering Assyrian
increased because of the accession of material, but
diminished when Botta pointed out the great
difficulty of the problem. He made little effort to
decipher or translate, but collated all the inscrip-
tions which they contained and made lists of ail the
signs which he found, differentiating 642 separate
signs. This great number proved that the Assyrian
cuneiform script was not alphabetic; some of the
characters must be syllabic, some must be ideo-
graphs and represent a word or an idea. Botta's
discoveries were carried further by Edward Hincks.
In a paper read before the Irish Academy on June
25, 1849, he showed that there was a sign for RA,
another for RI, and yet another for RU. He
proved the sign for AR, and presumably also for
IR and UR, though he did not fully define the
last two. This represented a great advance in the
study of the problem. Rawlinson soon dared to do
what Hincks would not, and ventured to translate
the great Behistun text. There was needed then
only the minute study of the characters imtil the
entire syllabic system with its polyphones and
ideographs should yield up its secrets. To this not
only Rawlinson, but in even greater degree Hincks,
contributed, and also the distinguished French
Assyriologist, Jules Oppert. Contemporaneously
with the decipherment of Assyrian went forward
the decipherment of the Susian, or second language
of the groups of three found at Persepolis. In this
work the diief leaders were Niels Ludwig Wester-
gaard, Hincks, F^den Gaignart de Saulcy, and

Archibald Henry Sayoe. When Persian, Susian,
and Assyrian (or Babylonian) had been deciphered,
the foundations of the new science, of Assyriology
had been laid.

The cuneiform method of writing originated
among the Sumerians, the earliest known inhabi-
tants of Babylonia. When the Semites
*• y^?^ entered the land they found in posses-
*aoterof' ^^^^ * round-headed people, of small
the Script, stature and with black hair, whose
origin and racial connections are un-
known. A small though learned company of
scholars has maintained that the supposed Sume-
rians had no existence, and that their script, civiliza-
tion and religion were all originated by Semites.
This view has lost support, and can hardly be
longer regarded as seriously disputing the current
view as stated above. The cuneiform characters
were originally a form of picture-writing. At first
the pictures represented natural objects; they then
became associated with certain words, and were
used phonetically to represent the sound of the
words without the meaning. In very early times,
these rude pictures were scratched on any material
that came to hand. Later stone was used for per-
manent records. But as stone is scarce in Baby-
lonia, the easily worked clay took its place, and
the straight lines made by a single pressure on the
stylus tended to become wedges. The pictures
therefore lost their original character and gradually
became groups of wedges which were so thoroughly
conventionalized that it is now impossible to deter-
mine their origin save in a very few cases. Even
to the Assyrians themselves the original form of but
very few characters was known, though a few
tablets still preserved (cf. TSBA, vi. 454 and Cunei-
form Texts from Babylonian Tablets in Britieh
Museum^ part v., London, 1898) show that the
Assyrians retained a consciousness of the pictorial
origin of their script. The Assyrians never devel-
oped a consonantal alphabet. They had only a
syllabary, with separate signs for the vowels a, %
or e, and u. The syllabic signs consisted, in the
first instance, of a separate sign for each conso-
nant with each separate vowel, thus, a6, ib, u6, ba,
6i, bu, aQf ig, ug, ga, gi, gu, the former serving also
for ap, ipf up, etc. In addition to these simple
syllables, the script had a large number of com-
pound signs, such as bal, bil, kak, man, kun^ etc.
There were also very many ideograms, a sign being
used as the symbol for a whole idea; thus there
was a single sign for ilu, *' god," belu, " lord," aplu,
** son," duppUf " tablet," wmu, " day." Difficulties
are further increased by the fact that many signs
are polyphonous; a single sign may have several
syllabic values, and besides may stand as an ideo-
gram for several ideas. The difficulties were some-
what lessened by the use of signs called deter-
minatives placed before a word to show the class
to which it belonged. Robert W. Rogers.

m. Christian Inscriptions: By Christian inscrip-
tions in this article are meant non-literary writings
executed or provided by Christians which have
some relation to the Christian religion. Christian
epigraphy is concerned with inscriptions carved,
scratched, painted, or stamped on various materials,

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Inaoriptions

1. Anoi«nt Ohzlfltlan Inaoriptions: (1) Letters

and figures. The workmen who made the earliest

Christian inscriptions adopted the let-

of ^^*^ ^" *°^ numend system of their pre-

Writinff. dc^^CBSors, which was already old, and
continued its development steadily,
except in cases of deliberate archaism. Thus by
degrees new forms arose, more slowly in some places
than in others, and usually later in the provinces
than in Rome. At the date of the earliest Christian
inscriptions, there were three principal types of
characters: one used for carving on stone or metal,
one for painting on walls or woodwork, which corre-
sponded to that inscribed on parchment or papyrus,
and the vulgar or cursive script, which was either
impressed on soft material such as wax, fresh clay,
or plaster, or scratched on a hard stirface, especially
walls (the so-called graffito). These three types
were not always sharply distinguished, and Christian
epigraphy shows examples that can with difficulty
be assigned to any of the three classes, and others
in which the forms appear in a confused mixture —
sometimes even one half of a letter being in monu-
mental and the other half in painter's script. The
most important class of letters, in the Christian as in
the older pagan inscriptions, is the capitals, in-
cluding the largest number of symbols for letters
and numbers. Besides these there were the uncial
forms, developed from the capitals by the rounding
off of sharp angles, and the cursive form, which
sought for speed in writing by using as few separate
strokes as possible. This laist form occurs among
the dated inscriptions in Rome as early as 291.
(2) Ligatures. In the formation of words the letters
are sometimes separate, sometimes two or more are
united into a single symbol. These ligatures were
originally peculiar to coins, where the limited space
made them useful, and then were adopted in in-
scriptions. The rule for reading them was that
each element entering into their composition was
to be read only once. From the ligatures developed
the monogrammatic signs, which continued even
in the Middle Ages to be employed for imperial
signaturee and the like. (3) Abbreviations. The
words may be either written in full or abbreviated,
sometimes to a single letter. The omission of letters
is indicated by strokes or projections above, below,
or beside the letters, or by periods and other signs
following them. Connected with these signs are
the strokes frequently, though not invariably,
placed over numbers to distinguish them from
ordinary letters. (4) Punctuation. A large number
of various punctuation-marks were used. The com-
monest is the period, usually written, not on the
line, but half-way up the letters; its shape is

generally round or approximately so; sometimes
it is represented by a small circle, and less often by
two sides of a triangle in various positions. Out of
this latter form developed leaves, somewhat like
ivy-leaves, which used to be considered as intended
for pierced hearts, and thus as signs of martyrdom.
Occasionally the Greek cross, or even the Chi Rho,
is used as a punctuation-mark. It was the rule in
the classical period to place punctuation-marks
only within lines, not at the end, but in many
Christian monuments this rule is not observed;
indeed, in many the entire system of punctuation
is irregular, points being placed even in the middle
of words — though this is to be distinguished from
" syllabic punctuation," where the syllables were
divided to facilitate reading. (5) Direction of the
writing. Writing from right to left had become
very rare among the Greeks and Romans at the
date of the earliest Christian inscriptions, and only
a few instances of it occur among them. While
no certain example of the ancient boustrophedon
form is known, there are a number which are read
downward, and arrangements still less usual exist,
dictated sometimes by the shape of the space at
command, but in other cases probably by nothing
more than a love of singularity.

The great majority of extant early Christian in-
scriptions are in Latin, Greek coming next. Even
in the West there is a considerable
I«*n- number of Greek inscriptions, generally

Employed. ^^^ ^^ ^^ people who were not Greeks,
but Romans. This phenomenon finds
a parallel in the fact that the earliest Christian
literature was in Greek, even when the authors lived
in the West. The parallel, however, must not be
pressed too far, since they were educated men,
while most of those to whom the inscriptions are
due belonged to the lower classes. The number
of Greek inscriptions, even in Rome, is to be ex-
plained by the fact that in the primitive Church
Greek was the official language. AU the third-cen-
tury popes who are buried in the catacombs of
St. Calixtus have Greek inscriptions, while Cornelius,
whose grave is in his family burying-ground, has a
Latin one. The mixture of Greek and Latin in a
number of inscriptions is probably due less to
defective education than to an instinctive opposi-
tion in people's minds to the use of a language
which was really foreign to them. An interesting
light is thus thrown upon the final struggle of the
two languages in the West, beginning while Greek
was still the ecclesiastical tongue. After the second
century Greek inscriptions and those showing a
mixture of Greek and Latin become increasingly
rare, and Pope Damasus uses nothing but Latin.
The linguistic qualities of the inscriptions deserve
careful study as giving an insight which cannot be
obtained from literature into the speech of the
common people. While departures from classical
orthography are to be attributed partly to ignorance
or carelessness, this is not so much the case with
the vocabulary and the grammar, which in many
of the later Latin inscriptions clearly show the
transition to the Romance languages. The inscripn
tions are, like the pagan ones, either in prose or in
verse, prose inscriptions being the more numerous,

Inscriptions

THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZ0G

especially in the earlier period. The Hebrew
language, except in the case of amulets, which are
rather Jewish-pagan than Christian, is very rare;
only one Christian inscription in that language has
thus far been discovered in Rome.

(1) To inscriptions in the narrower sense belong
honorific inscriptions and a large class of eulogies
g ^- of saints and martyrs, especially those

^^^^ * of Damasus. Partly to this class and
partly to the dedicatory belong nu-
merous inscriptions on public buildings, especially
churches and parts of churches, such as altars and
ambones. But the largest class is composed of
funeral inscriptions, on tablets, gravestones, or
sarcophagi. Those on stone are usually carved or
scratched, sometimes painted in addition, most
often in red. Relatively few occur with the painted
script, which was more often used on tiles, in red,
black, and occasionally white. The wooden tablets
which in Egypt Christians and non-Christians alike
placed near the mummies of the departed are usu-
ally inscribed with a dark ink, or painted. Other
methods are occasionally employed, such as the
frequent use of mosaic in North Africa and Spain.
An equally great diversity is visible in the style
of the inscriptions, though a careful study reveals
a more or less regular development of definite
formulas. In many cases the influence of the cus-
tom and taste of the period or locality is discern-
ible, others show traces of a conscious adherence
to ancient tradition. Thus the phrase Dis ManCbua,
so frequently used on pagan tombs to dedicate them
to the manes of the deceased, occurs in no less than
134 cases of imdoubted Christian inscriptions — ^not,
of course, with the old meaning, but merely as a
traditional formula; and the same is true of the
phrases domus aeUma, aetemalisy perpetita for the
grave. Belonging also to the class of inscriptions
in the narrower sense are the large number of those
on objects of domestic use; but their infinite
variety makes it impossible to enter upon a detailed
discussion of them. (2) Of inscriptions in the
broader sense (documents) the most numerous in
the primitive Christian period are attestations of
the purchase of a grave or agreements between the
relatives of the deceased and the fossorea or other
church officials. These are sometimes exceedingly
explicit, giving the names of witnesses, the purchase
price, and the location of the grave. Documents
expressing a gift in the giver's name become fre-
quent in the Middle Ages, but examples are not
lacking toward the end of the early period. Another
class of inscriptions gives the fasts, calendars, cycles,
or lists of saints; of this kind one of the most
famous is the Easter cycle on the base of the statue
of Hippolytus. Under this general head also come
the graffitif or inscriptions scratched upon the walls
of the Catacombs.

Christian inscriptions, especially those of the early
Church, deserve careful attention by students of
history. While not a single original
manuscript of this period is extant,
Xaterial ^^^ ^ succession of copyists has intro-
duced a variety of difficulties into the
text of literary works, the inscriptions are practically
in their original shape. It has therefore long been

4. Value
of the

admitted, in theory at least, that inscriptioDB
deserve the first place among the sources for the
history of their period. Again, the literature of a
period is practically all the work of learned or at
least well-educated men, and gives only a second-
hand account of the thoughts and feelings of the
populace; while the inscriptions, the majority of
which come from the lower classes, present these
directly and faithfully, at least in religious and
ethical matters. Much valuable historical material
is found in them which would have been almost or
quite unknown from the literary sources. Thus
the schism of Heraclius in Rome is known solely
from an inscription in the catacomb of St. Calixtus,
and knowledge of an African schismatic community
and its head, Trigarius, is confined to the notice ol
another inscription. The history of the planting
and earliest growth of the Church in Gaul as told
by the historians is fragmentary, and a complete
idea of it can be gained only from inscriptions.
Until recently almost nothing was known of the
history of Christianity on the islands of the .^^ean
in the second century; but it is now possible, on
the basis of inscriptions lately discovered, not only
to show the existence of Christianity there, but
even to determine its nature, a mixture of Christian,
Jewish, and pagan elements. A list of the writings
of Hippolytus can be made complete only by the
help of the inscription on the back of his statue.
The frequent use of Scripture in inscriptions gives
not only valuable indications of the manner in
which it was employed in the early Church, but also
useful points of departure for textual criticism.
Not a few particulars of the marriage system are
gained in the same way, especially as to the legal
age, remarriage, and the marriage of clerics. The
inscriptions are a more trustworthy authority for
early Christian nomenclature than the manuscripts;
and of course the customs connected with death
and burial may be much more fully known in this
way.

2. Medieval and Later Inscriptions: In the pres-
ent state of inadequate investigation of this class of
inscriptions it is impossible to give final conclusions
as to their types of characters, language, and con-
tent. It may perhaps suffice to give some provisional
observations on the results for a single country —
Germany. The history of the characters employed
is divided into three main periods. Speaking
generally, the type known as majuscule prevailed
until the fourteenth century, though with many
variations. As early as the tenth century it took
on the Roman form; in the eleventh and twelfth
it was influenced by Romanic art, and adapted
Gothic principles to its own use in the period of the
latter 's dominance. But the Gothic majuscule
gradually gave way to the Gothic minuscule, which
was the prevailing form from 1350 to 1500. In the
sixteenth century, the character used in inscriptions
(apart from conscious archaisms) began to beassiin-
ilated to the type of ordinary writing. As to nun^
hers, the Roman numerals were regularly used
until the fourteenth century, when the Arabic
began to be common, without ever wholly exclud-
ing the older type. Ligatures are frequent in the
Middle Ages, especially when the Gothic minuscules

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Inscriptions

1. The

Period.

■bowed the tendency to do away as far as possible
with spaces between the letters; but they become
lesB usual from the sixteenth century on. Abbre-
viations also were very common in the Middle Ages,
but later become much less usual. Punctuation
was not systematic until comparatively modem
times; in the Middle Ages the commonest marks
were dots half-way up the letters, though crosses
and other signs are occasionally used. The language
employed until late in the Middle Ages was almost
always Latin — seldom the vernacular, and still
less often Greek or Hebrew. The Latin continued
to be used on the tombs of scholars and in similar
places until modem times; and the Renaissance
brought in the use of Greek, especially in the six-
teenth century. Medieval inscriptions, like the
ancient, show many peculiarities in spelling, vocab-
ulary and grammar.

8. History of Epigraphy: The first demonstrable
collection of inscriptions is assigned to various dates
within the period from 550 to 839;
but a number of collections resulted
from the Carolingian Renaissance,
headed by the Codex Einsidlensis, the
unknown author of which flourished in the eighth
or early in the ninth century. These collections in-
duded both Christian and non-Christian specimens,
and were made largely for the purpose of instruc-
tion in writing Latin verse. A period of inaction
followed, closed by the revival of classical learn-
ing at the Renaissance. Cola Rienzi and Giovanni
Dondi in the fourteenth, Ciriaco de' Pizzicolli in the
fifteenth, and in the sixteenth century Felice Felic-
iano, Giovanni Marcanuova, Johannes Jucundus,
and PetruB Sabinus were the principal collectors.
Much new material was discovered in the sixteenth
century, especially in the Roman catacombs, opened
in 1578 by Antonio Bosio. The leading investi-
gators of this century were Aldus Manutius the
jTOunger and Martin Smetius, while Melanchthon
did not a little for the study, writing the introduc-
tion to the InscripHones sdcrosandae vettiataHa of his
friends Apian and Amantius (Ingolstadt, 1534),
besides making independent researches of his own.
The already publbhed and newly discovered ma-
terial was put together by Gruter, Scaliger, and
Velser in their Inscnptionea antiquae totiua orbis
Romani (Heidelberg, 1602-03). More Christian
material would have been included in Giovanni
Battista Doni's ItucripHones antiquae if he had
lived to complete its publication, but as edited by
Gori and others (Florence, 1731) a large part of
tliis was neglected. Bosio also died (1629) before
publishing the results of his labors, but they fell
into better hands and app«>ared as Roma soUerranea
(Rome, 1632). A supplement to Gruter 's collection
was published by Reinesius, a Leipsic physician
(Leipsic, 1682), while Spon, Mabillon, and Mont-
faucon were not only working at home, but under-
taking journeys outside of France for the purpose
of collecting inscriptions. The eighteenth century
did less for Christian epigraphy in the way of large
general collections than in that of local publications
and monographs, particularly by such Italian schol-
ars as Muratori, Maffei, Zaccaria, Gori, Rivaute la
Rioolvi, and De Vita.

From the Carolingian period down into the
eighteenth century Christian epigraphy was as a

science far behind classical epigraphy.

Kin 't^*th ®^* *^® nineteenth century has quite

Oantury * different story to tell. Christian

inscriptions are now collected with the
same care and thoroughness as the classical, a result
due in the first instance to the initiative especially
of August Bdckh and Theodor Mommsen; and
they found in Giovanni Battista de Rossi a master
who elevated the study of them from a mere
dilettante amusement to a serious science. After
Gaetano Marini had published, in 1785, his hcrizioni
arUiche delle viUe e de* palazzi Albani, and ten years
later Gli atti e monumenii de* frateUi Arvaliy scholars
looked forward eagerly to the publication of his
great collection of Christian inscriptions, which
now fills thirty-one volumes in the Vatican library.
But he died in 1815, and none of it saw the light
until, in 1831, Angelo Mai published one of the four
volumes planned by him (Nova collectio, v.), having
in some places condensed the manuscript, and in
some enlarged it from his collection. But no great
loss to the science was involved in the failure of
the others to appear, since (apart from other defects)
his classification by subjects had now been finally
discredited by B6ckh. The German scholar, in-
sisting on geographical arrangement, persuaded the
Berlin Academy of Sciences to take up the gigantic
task of uniting in one all the Greek inscriptions.
In the great Corpus inacriptionum Graecarum (Ber-
lin, 1825 sqq.) some scattered Christian inscriptions
appeared in the first three volumes, but the main
body of them was united in the second part of
Vol. IV., under the editorship of Adolf Kirchhoff.
In the revised form of this great work, the parts of
especial value for Christian inscriptions are that
including Italy, Sicily, Gaul, Spain, Britain, and
Germany (ed. Kaibel, 1890), and that on the
islands of the iEgean (ed. Hiller de Gaertringen,
1895-98). A complete Corpus inacriptionum Grae"
carum christianarum is hoped for from the French
School at Athens, under the direction of Laurent
and Cumont. Even more than B6ckh accomplished
for Greek epigraphy, Mommsen did for Latin.
While he was not the first to conceive the idea of a
Corpus inacriptionum Laiinarum, in his memorial
(1847) on its plan and scope he laid down the
proper lines for its execution and carried out a
great part of the work himself, the rest being done
by his friends and scholars. An account of new
discoveries made since the appearance of the various
volumes is given in the Ephemeria epigraphicOt 1872
sqq. Until the Corpua inacriptionum Latinarum is
complete, it will still be necessary to make use of
the older collections (which, indeed, will always
have a value for their notes and illustrations) as
well as of the works of the greatest authority in
this subject west of the Vosges, Edmond Le Blant:
Inacriptiona chrHiennea de la Gaule (Paris, 1856-65) ;
Nouveau recueil dea inacriptiona chrHiennea de la
Gaule (1892). Long before De Rossi was requested
by the Berlin Academy of Sciences to take part
in the Corpua inacriptionum Latinarum (from 1854
until his death he was one of the editors of vol. vi.
on the Latin inscriptions of Rome), he had planned

Insoriptions
Inapirfttlon

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

and begun preparations for a collection of the early
Christian inscriptions of the city. The results
appeared in the InacripHones christianae vrbis
Romae aeptimo aaeculo arUiguiores (vol. i., Rome,
1881, vol. ii., part 1, 1888). The first volume
contains the dated inscriptions, a preface which
reviews the epigraphy of the past and lays down
his own scheme, and extensive prolegomena, dealing
especially with early Christian chronology. The
first part of the second volume reproduces the
manuscript collections from the so-called parch-
ments of Scaliger down to Petrus Sabinus with
admirable critical sureness and insight. Another
work of like interest is the Museo epigrafico cristiano
Pio-LcUeranenae (1877), containing photographic
reproductions of the specimens in the lapidary
gaillery at the Lateran, together with noteworthy
essays on various cognate subjects. Numerous
other contributions to Christian epigraphy are con-
tained in his Rama aoUerranea crUtiana (3 vols.,
1864-77), in the BoUettino d^archeologia cristiana
(1863 sqq.), and Musaici delle chxese di Ronuif 1872-
1900. Although De Rossi's enterprises were too
great for accomplishment in even the longest and
busiest life, they have not been allowed to drop.
The continuation of the Inscnptiones has been
placed in the hands of his old friend and faithful
collaborator, Giuseppe Gatti; the (Nuovo) BoUettino
has, since 1895, been edited first by De Rossi's
brother Michele Stefano and his personal pupils,
Stevenson, Armellini, and Marucchi, to whom have
been, added, since the death of the first three, G.
Bonavenia, P. Crostarosa, G. Gatti, R. Kantzler,
and J. Wilpert. The completion of the Roma
sotterraneaf beginning with a fourth volume on the
cemetery of Domitilla, has been undertaken by
Marucchi, Wilpert, Gatti, Crostarosa, and Kantzler.
For the medieval and later periods there is no single
work which can be placed by the side of the Corpus
inscriptionum Graecarum and Latinarum,

(NiKOLAUS MOller.)

Biblioorapht: On I., besidee the literature under Egypt,
much of which is pertinent, oonsult: J. DQmichen, H^
toruche Inachriften alUlgyptiaeKer DenkmAUr, Leipsic, 1867-
1860; idem, AU&oyptuche Tempelinachnften, ib. 1868; P.
le P. Renouf, Egyptian Phonology, London, 1880; E.
Revillout, Coura de langvie dhnotique, Paris, 1883; C. Abel,
Zur Oeachichte der Hieroglypftenachrift, Leipcdc, 1800;
AegypHache Inachrifien au» den kdniglichen Muaeen gu
Berlin, 2 parts, Berlin, 1001-06; G. Karlberg, Den Idnga
. . . inakriftten i Rameee IIL'e tempel i Medinet-Habu,
Upsala, 1003; C. R. Honey, The Egyptian Hieroglyph,
Boscombe, 1004; R. Weill, Recueil dee inacriptione du
Sinai, Paris, 1004; and especially numerous papers in
PSBA and TSBA, in the Memoira of the Egypt Explora-
tion Fund, in ZDMQ, J A, ZeiiachriftfUr Ogyptiache Sprache
und AUerthumakunde, and the Revue igyptologique. On
the Rosetta Stone consult H. Brugsch, Die Inachrift von
Roaetta, Berim, 1860; F. Chabas, L'Inaeription hiiro-
glyphigue de RoaeUa, Paris, 1867; 8. Sharpe, The Roaetta
Stone in Hieroglyphica and Greek, London, 1871; J. J.
Hess, Der demotiache Tail der . . . Inachrift von RoaeUe
UberaetMt, Freiburg, 1002; E. A. T. W. Budge, The Deereea
of Memphia and Canopua, 3 vols., London, 1004. On the
Meneptah inscription consult Spiegelberg, SUzurigaberichie
der Berliner Akademie, 1806, pp. 603 sqq.; G. Steindorff.
in ZATW, 1806, pp. 330 sqq.; A. Wiedemann, in Muaion,
1808, pp. 1-10. On the relation of the inscriptions to the
Bible the most sober and scientific discussion is by S. R.
Driver in AvUKorHy and Archaeology, Sacred and Profane,
ed. D.'G. Hogarth, London, 1800.

IL A great deal of the literature under Absyria; Babt-

LomA bears on the inscriptions, and some of the prindptl
collections are named there. Consult further: R. E. BrOii-
now, Claaaifled Liat of AU Simple and Compound Cumifarm
Ideograph; Leyden, 1880-07; P. T. Dangin, Rmkerdea
•ur VoriQine de Vieriiure cunHforme, Paris. 1808-00; F.
DeUtisch. Die Entatehung dee Alieaten Schriftayetema cdet
der Uraprung der KeUaekriftxeicken, Leipsio, 1806-46;
P. Tosoanne, Lea Signea aumiriena dhivia, Paris, I90tr,
A. V. W. Jackson, Peraia Paat and Preaenl, New York,
1006; H. Pognon, Inaeriptiona ahnitiquea de la Syria, da Is
Meaopotamie, etdela rSgion de Meaaoul, Paris, 1007; A. H.
Sayoe, The Archaeology of the Cuneiform InaeripHona, New
York, 1007. On the decipherment: R. W. Rogers, Hie-
tory cf Babylonia and Aaayria, vol. i.. New York, 1000;
A. J. Booth, The Diacovery and Decipherment of A«
TrilinffiMl Cuneiform Inaeriptiona, London, 1002; L.
Messerschmidt, Die Entaifferung der KeUinadirift, BeriiB,
1003; C. Foesey, Manuel d'aaayriologie, vol. i.. Paris, 1004.
III. The most important literature is named in the text
A most useful article will be found in DC A, i., 841-862,
which includes a list of the abbreviations occurring most
frequently in the inscriptions and the way they are to be
read. Further consult: E. le Blant, Manuel d*ip%graphe
ckrHienne d'apria lea marirea de la Oaule, Paris, 1860;
idem, L'Epigraphie ehritienne en Oaule et dona VAfriqae
romaine, ib. 1800; J. McCaul, ChriaHan Epigrapka of As
Firat Six Centuriea, London, 1860; G. Petrie. ChriaHam
Inaeriptiona in the Iriah Language, ed. M. Stokes, Dubfin,
1870 sqq.; J. A. Martigny, DicHonnaira dea anHquiUa
chriiiennea, pp. 367 sqq., Paris. 1877; F. X. Kraus, Romm
aotterranea, pp. 431 sqq., Freiburg, 1870; idem. Real'
EneyklopAdie der chriatlidien AlterthUmar, ii. 30 aqq., 9>.
1886; V. Schultse, Die Katakomben, pp. 233 sqq., Leipde,
1882; H. Otte, Handbuch der kirehlichen Kunat-ArchA-
ologie dea deutachen MittelaUera, i., 306 sqq., ib. 1883;
J. R. Allen, Chriatian Symboliam in Oraai Britain wad
Ireland before the ISth Century, London, 1888; E. Hflbner,
Inaeriptionea Hiapaniae Chriatianae, 2 vols., Berlin, 1000;
Haddan and Stubbs, Coundla (for inscriptions in Great
Britain) and the literature under CufsmmBa, partieo-
lariy that on the Catacombs given there.

INSPIRATION.

Jewish Doctrine (§1).

Early Christian Doctrine (§ 2).

The Scholastic Period (§3).

The Reformation (§ 4).

Post-Reformation Development (i 6).

Modem Development (i 6).

The Bible and Inspiration (17).

Nature and Method of Inspiration (§ 8).

The Theory of Plenary Inspiration (§ 0).

The Theory of Partial Inspiration (§10).

Criteria of Inspiration (i 11).

Modem Tendencies and Development (i 12).

In theological language, inspiration signifies the
operation of the Holy Spirit upon the writers of
the Bible, by which the Bible becomes the ex-
pression of the will of God binding upon us, or the
Word of God. The term originated from the Vulgate
version of II Tim. iii. 16, Omnis acriptura divinUttM
inspirata. The Greek word theopneitstos—ot which
it is at least doubtful whether divinUua inspiraia
is an accurate translation — belongs only to Hellen-
istic and Christian Greek, and may have been coined
by Paul. Other post-classical uses of it show that
it signifies " filled with the Spirit of God " or
" breathing out the Spirit of God," from which it
follows that the Scripture so designated has come
into being under the operation of the Spirit. The
preference of the Greek commentators for the mean-
ing expressed by divinitus inspirata would have
less importance if it were not explicable by the
prevalent view, for which the corresponding term
was thought to be found in II Tim. iii. 16, which was
more or less an inheritance from Alexandrian Juda-
ism or from paganism.

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Insoriptlons
Xnspirfttlon

The church doctrine— or rather the oldest views
held in the Church, since it is inaccurate to speak
of any distinct church doctrine on the
I. Jewish point, either before or since the Refor-
Doctrine, mation, outside of the single statement
that the Scripture is inspired, without
saying how it is inspired — is much closer to the
Alexandrian or pagan view than to that of Jewish
theology. Both Talmudic and Alexandrian Juda-
ism agreed in attributing unique authority to the
Old Testament. The Talmud claims an immediate
divine origin for the ** Law/' asserting that God
wrote it with his own hand, or dictated it to Moses
as his amanuensis. A secondary revelation is con-
tained in the " Prophets '' (from Joshua on, includ-
ing Psalms, Canticles, Job, Ecclesiastes, Ezra), as
Kabbalah, or tradition as distinguished from the
Law. In the case of the prophets, their personality
is not so absorbed by the Spirit of God as to render
them mere unconscious organs! The medieval
Jewish theologians were the first to attribute a
special kind of inspiration to the Hagiographa, as
written by the spirit of holiness, while the prophet-
ical books were written by the spirit of prophecy.
Jewish antiquity knows nothing of such a distinc-
tion; and Matt. xxii. 43 shows that the origin of
these books too was referred to the Spirit of God.
That the personality of the authors was still more
prominent in them than in the prophets may be
inferred from their place in the canon, as well as
from various expressions which put them, in rela-
tion to the Law, in the lowest place. Alexandrian
Judaism took a different view. It is true that
Joeephus maintains that the Spirit was absent from
the second Temple, and designates the reign of
Artaxerxes Longimanus as the end of canonical
authorship; but he, as well as Philo and the author
of Wisdom (vii. 27), believes none the less in a
continuance and diffusion of the prophetic gift.
Upon this theory rest the legend of the origin of
the Septuagint and the acceptance of the Apoc-
rypha. Thus, while apparently broader and freer
than Talmudic Judaism, the Alexandrian school
represents a doctrine of inspiration which is really
much more strict. AU the Old-Testament writers
are prophets; but with the prophetic illumination
human consciousness ceases. The prophet is merely
an organ of God, who speaks through him; he
knows nothing of what he is doing, and has no will
of his own. He is in a state of ecstasy, even when
he writes down what he has been commissioned to
reveal. This condition Philo believes that he can
describe from his own experience. '^There is an
ecstasy mentioned in the Bible, but it is not this
kind of 'ecstasy, nor is it the normal vehicle of
inspiration, but something extraordinary; and the
communication of the message to others does not
take place in this state, with the possible exception
of an involuntary prophecy like that of Balaam
[but ef. II Kings iii. 15-19, and see Ecstasy]. The
Biblical conception of ecstasy is that of a state in
which supernatural revelations are imparted to men
who, in their natural state, are incapable of perceiv-
ing them — either by divinely exhibited symbols, as
in Acts X. 10; Jer. i. 11, 13, or by the communi-
cation of supernatural realities and images of future

events, as in Nimi. xxiv. 3, 4, xxii. 31; II Kings vi.
17; cf. II Cor. xii. 1 sqq.; Rev. i. 10. In this state the
percipient is either " in the Spirit," i.e., the limita-
tions of his ordinary sensuous perceptions fall away
altogether, or they are momentarily removed with-
out the cessation of sensuous perception, and super-
natural appearances present themselves in conjunc-
tion with those of ordinary life, as in Luke i. 11.
In no case does the state seem to be one of which
no memory is afterward preserved; the ecstasy is
not (according to Augustine on Ps. Ixvii.) a " mental
alienation," but a '' mental separation from physical
sensation so that whatever is revealed is revealed
to the spirit." The theory of Philo, or the Hellen-
istic theory, thus originated neither in the Old Tes-
tament nor in strictly Jewish theology outside of it,
but much more directly in paganism. Philo's con-
ception can not be put down wholly to the account
of his Platonizing tendency, but contains other
elements, possibly borrowed from Oriental religions.
Still, it is in the main the general Greek conception
of enthottstaamoa, of the mania of the marUeia
(" prophet " or " diviner "), akin to the Platonic
view of the source of artistic production and of
prophecy.

The same pagan conception is encountered once
more in the first definite expressions from Christian
writers as to the nature and method
2. Early of inspiration. In the Apostolic
Christian Fathers is found merely a simple ex-
Doctrine, pression of the fact of inspiration in
the way in which they cite the Old
Testament. But the second-century apologists
emphasize the divine origin of the knowledge con-
tained in Holy Scripture, and unquestionably teach
an inspiration which is not merely mechanical,
but mantic. In order to understand this, it must
be remembered that these men, brought up in
paganism, got at the same time their first im-
pression of Christian truth and of the divine origin
of the primary revelation and so of the Scriptures.
The more Christianity claimed to be not the result
of a logical process of thought, but a revelation
made under the operation of the Spirit of God, the
easier it was for them to apply to it the Greek con-
ception of the origin of such knowledge; and the
process was further facilitated by the respect paid
to the Sibylline prophecies (see Sibylline Books).
If this last fact be taken in connection with the
prominent place which prophecy holds in Scripture,
the importance which the apologists attached to
prophecy can be understood, and that it was natural
for them to refer all ancient prophecy to the working
of the Spirit of God. There was no need of an
acquaintance with Philo (of whom Justin speaks
with great respect) to lead to this view, which
finaUy found its most definite representation in
Montanism. The opposition of the Church to
Montanism was responsible for the fact that the
doctrine of ecstasy as the form of inspiration found
no continued recognition in the Church. Clement
of Alexandria placed ecstasy among the marks of
false prophets, and, from Origen on, the doctors of
the Church rejected the conception of prophecy
which originated in paganism. In direct opposition
to Montanism, the unconscious action of the

XxiflpirfttloiL

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

prophet was denied. This led to the other extreme;
it placed the revelation of the Old Testament on
the same level with that of the New, and so finally
resulted in the not indeed mantic, but mechanical,
doctrine of inspiration held by the older Protestant
theologians. The attempts at a truer theory found
in Irensus' distinction between prophetic and apos-
tolic inspiration (III., xi. 4), and his notion of a
development in the history of God's redeeming work
(IV., ix. 3), bore no fruit. The doctrine of the
Fathers recognized both the imrestricted opera-
tion of the Holy Ghost upon the minds and wills
of Scriptural authors and at the same time their
own independent activity, to which more than mere
form and style was attributed; but they seem to
have made no attempt to frame a theory as to the
manner in which these two were combined. Thus,
e.g., Augustine, who says in one place that the
Evangelists wrote ** as each remembered, in accord-
ance with his native powers, either briefly or at
greater length " {De consensu evangeli^arum, ii. 12),
in another compares the apostles to hands that
wrote down what the head, Christ, dictated (ib.,
i. 35). Among the Fathers Origen went most
deeply hito the question. What he says about it
agrees closely with his theory that inspiration is
an elevation of the mind and an opening of the
inner ear to the truth — a higher degree of the
illumination bestowed upon all pious believers.
That so little use was made of Origen 's suggestions
was not a consequence of their connection with
other parts of his system, or of the suspicion which
was cast upon his orthodoxy, but rather of the fact
that (when the epoch of the apologists was past
and Montanism was conquered) there was little
practical interest in, these questions. In the con-
troversies which distracted the Church the authority
and the divine origin of the Scriptures were not
called in question. With the issue of these conflicts
and the strengthening of the Church's organization,
the Church took its place by the side of the Scrip-
tures as a coordinate authority, and even at times
more than that, so that Augustine could say (Adv,
ManichaoSy v.), '' I would not believe the Gospel
against the authority of the Catholic Church.''
The acceptance of a continuous inspiration, ex-
pressed especiaUy in the decisions of councils, gave
rise to the theory of a twofold source of knowl^ge,
as to which only a standard of judgment in matters
of fact was required, not a decision as to the manner
of inspiration. The emphasis laid by the school of
Antioch on the human side of the Scriptures was
not important enough, in view of the simultaneous
recognition of their authority, to call forth much
discussion as to inspiration itself. Even the bold
assertions of Theodore of Mopsuestia that the Book
of Job was a poem originating on heathen soil,
that Canticles contained a tedious epithalamium,
that Solomon (in Proverbs and Ecclesiastes) had
the logos gndseds, " the gift of wisdom," but not the
logos Sophias f ** the prophetic gift," did not touch
the general theory of inspiration, but only raised
the question whether all parts of the Scriptures
had the same measure of (prophetic) inspiration;
and the only result was the condemnation of these
propositions by the Council of Constantinople.

By a natural process, the operation of the Holy
Ghost occupied an increasingly prominent place,
and the independent personality of the writers was
less and less considered. When Agobard of Lyons
dwelt upon the external signs of this independence,
and remarked that the sacred writers had not al-
ways observed the strict rules of grammar, the
Abbot Fridugis of Tours (q.v.) went so far as to
assert that the Holy Spirit had formed " even
the very verbal expressions in the mouth of the
Apostles." And Agobard did not think of limiting
the operation of the Spirit; he preferred to ex-
plain the phenomenon by a condescension on the
part of the Holy Spirit to human weakness.

No deeper interest in the question was displayed

by scholaisticism, which discussed it, indeed, with

its accustomed minuteness in oonneo-

3. The tion with the rest of the system, but

Scholastic showed no sense of its importance in
Period, relation to revelation. Here and there,
as from Anselm and Thomas Aquinas,
it received more serious consideration. The latter
treats the subject imder the head of gratiae gratis
datae, or charismata, distinguishing between the
gift of knowledge and the gift of the word, without
which the gift of knowledge would be useless to
others. To express the right word, the Holy Ghost
makes Use of the tongue of men " as of an instru-
ment, but' he himself perfects the inner working."
The blessing is sometimes diminished by the fault
of the hearer, sometimes by that of the speaker.
The operation of the Holy Ghost thus does no
violence to the independence of the agent. The
authority of the Scriptures was not questioned,
but the impulse to use and to investigate them
was not yet awakened. Mysticism had a deep
feeling for the divine power of the Word and a clear
understanding of the operation of the Holy Ghost.
A belief in the continuance of the gift left the Scrip-
tural inspiration not so radically different, in spite
of its admitted precedence, from experiences which
were possible to others; and so, even while ita
authority was firmly maintained, there was a cer-
tain indifference to its unique character. The
assertion of Abelard, based upon Gal. ii. 11 sqq.,
that the prophets and apostles were not infallible,
was employed with some hesitation by him; but
when Renaissance scholarship pointed to defects
in detail as results of the human limitations of the
Scriptural writers, neither the Church nor scholars
thought of the authority of the Bible as any less
assured.

Never since the apostolic age had so admirable

a use been made of its pages, and never had its

authority been so decidedly upheld as

4. The in the Reformation period; but for this

Reforma- very reason there was little speculation
tion. on the way in which it had come to be.
No one disputed its authority; the only
question was as to the manner of its use. This
explains the fact that among the Reformers and
their immediate successors the old conception of
inspiration is still found without any further dis-
cussion of the mutual relations of the two factors
in the formation of the Scriptures, and without any
attempt to define the limits within which inspira-

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Xnspirfttlon

ticm is attributed to them. As to the relation
between the divine and human factors, Luther is
equally certain that the Holy Ghost is the original
author, and that the writers are to be known by
their human characteristics and have put their own
hearts into their work. Theoretically his teaching
on this point is not to be distinguished from the
traditional conception. For Calvin, too, the Bible
is to be reverenced; the Holy Ghost is its author,
though sometimes ** he uses a rough and unpolished
style.'' But this does not prevent Calvin from
recognizing inaccuracies and seeing, with Luther,
the expression of the human minds of the writers.
Chenmits is the first Lutheran theologian to attempt
a systematic doctrine on the subject; but he is
arguing against those who equally acknowledge the
authority of the Bible, and the question of the
nature and method of inspiration is not for him an
urgent one. Selnecker includes inspiration under
the head of revelation, and defines it as ''a secret
inbreathing by which the holy patriarchs and
prophets were divinely taught many things "; but
be places this process in unmistakable analogy with
the indwelling and operation of the Spirit in other
believers. Gerhard's full discussion of Scripture
in general contains no more precise definition. But
the more earnest these authors become in attempt-
ing to confirm the authority of the Bible, the less
often are met concessions like those of Bugenhagen,
that the Evangelists wrote '' what to them seemed
best," and that errors of the Septuagint passed
over into the text of the New Testament.

When it became necessary to argue not only

against Rome, but against syncretism, and Calixtus,

in approximation to Roman Catholic

5. Post- theologians, distingiiished between in-
Reformation spiration in the strict sense, in regard

Develop- to the essential truths of salvation,
ment. and a directio divina in regard to those
things " which came by sensation or
were otherwise known " for which no revelation but
only guidance was needed, the time had come for
a more rigid definition, for an assurance against the
dangers which seemed to threaten the Bible among
the very men who claimed to deduce their belief
from it. Calovius was the founder of the new doc-
trine intended to serve this purpose. According to
him, inspiration is the form of revelation. Nothing
can be in the Scriptures ** which was not to the
writers divinely suggested and inspired." The doc-
trine was pushed to its extreme consequences by
the Buxtorfs, who asserted the inspiration of even
the Hebrew vowels, and by Voet, who made the
same claim for the punctuation. All this was
absolutely new. If the idea of ecstasy had been
included, it might have seemed a revival of the
mantic theory of Philo and the old apologists;
but the lack of this conception made the process
purely mechanical, not only without analogy, but
in direct contradiction to the other operations of
the Holy Spirit. The self-preparation of the writers,
required on the ecstatic theory, was no longer
necessary; nor was there any place for the personal
witness which the apostles claim to give. The
logical consequences of the doctrine were no^
indeed^ drawn by its supporters, but they are none

The modem development of the doctrine may be

traced partly from Schleiermacher and partly from

the school of Bengel. The former

6. Modem emphasized the special spirit of the

Develop- Scriptures, of which rationalism had
ment. altogether lost sight; but this spirit
was to him not the Spirit of God, in-
dependent of humanity, but his own conception of
the term " Holy Spirit " — the common spirit of the
Christian Church, the source of all its spiritual gifts
and good works, as of all its processes of thought.
Even the apocr3rphal writings are inspired, in so
far as they show any trace of connection with the
life of this spirit. The Old Testament, on the other
hand, as the product not of the Christian but of
the Jewish spirit, shares neither the dignity nor the
inspiration of the New. The main emphasis is laid
upon the human writers, who, by reason of their
relation to Christ, are the authorized original wit-
nesses to Christian tmth. Schleiermacher's doctrine
of inspiration is thus both formally and matgrially
the exact opposite of the doctrine developed by
the seventeenth-century theologians. It represents,
however, a distinct and permanent progress, in the
qualification of inspiration according to the period
of history in which it appears, in the value placed
upon the human factor for the attestation and com-
munication of divine truth, in the proper placing
of inspiration in the uniform and yet manifold
working of the Holy Spirit, and of the literary work
produced under its influence in the total of the
authors' official activity. The first of these points,
the relation of inspiration to history, is the one in
which Schleiermacher's services were the most im-
portant. This is a point of departure for the modem
development of the doctrine of inspiration, as
represented by Rothe and Hofmann — though the
connection is not always directly with Schleier-
macher, but partially through the school of Bengel,
whose most useful result is that formulated in 1793
by Menken in these words: " The Bible is no dog-
matic treatise ... it is much rather a historical,
harmonious whole. AU that it teaches, it teaches
either immediately in* history, or upon a basis of
history, with its foundation and its interpretation
in history." Space forbids to trace here the gradual
develop^ient through the writings of individual
modem authors who have handled this subject.
As a rule they have renounced the theory of the
' direct operation of the Holy Spirit on the creation
of the Scriptural books. They have replaced the

Inspiration

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

old idea of inspiration, on the ground of its mantic
content, apparently derived from a pagan source,
by one which treats the Scriptures as venerable
primitive documents; their value is decided by a
historical judgment, which requires scientific in-
vestigation for its full validity. This limitation is
balanced in some degree by the position given to the
substance of the Bible, to the revelation of which
it constitutes documentary evidence. Faith in this
revelation is required in order to form a complete
and perfect judgment of the Bible. The revelation
works through the written word, though not as if
this word were a direct product of the spirit of
revelation. The written word is influenced by the
ideas of the various periods, by defective concep-
tions, and by limited intelligence. It b the province
of theological investigation to decide how far these
influences have extended, in order to be able to
designate the authoritative content or the per-
manent constituents of the revelation. It may not
unnaturally be asked whether a purely documentary
value will sufficiently explain the peculiar power
and significance of the Scriptures in the history of
the Church. From this point of view, Lipsius felt
obliged to distinguish between the documentary
character of the Bible, as the collection, officially
made by the historical judgment of the Christian
Church, of the records of its primitive spirit, and
its religious significance resting on inspiration.
pVccording to this view, the Scripture is inspired
because it is the historic record of the revelation in
Christ, and at the same time the original witness
of the salutary working of that revelation in the
hearts of the first disciples, in which regard it is a
product of the spirit of that revelation. That which
is a permanent standard in it is not its outer form,
on account of changing theological conceptions,
but its inner content — that which remains after
these outworn conceptions have been subtracted,
as well as what may be referred to the personal
limitations of its writers. It is imperative to sepa-
rate the form from the content.

The attempt to explain the peculiar character
of the Bible leads sooner or later to inspiration — i.e.,
to the belief that it owes this peculiar
7. The character to the operation of the Spirit
Bible and of God upon its origin. It would be
Inspiration, easy, but unjustifiable, to deny in-
spiration on the assumption that this
must necessarily mean mantic inspiration. In order
to understand the manner of the operation of the
Holy Spirit, it must be known what Scripture says
of this operation on its own origin; and to under-
stand this again, the meaning of Paul's question in
Gal. iii. 2 must be apprehended. There is nothing
to justify drawing a sharp dividing-line between the
indwelling of the Holy Ghost and his special opera-
tion upon the origin of Scripture. And some other
answer to the question as to the true nature of the
Bible than that it is merely a record of revelation
is obligatory. From this point K&hler proceeds,
and makes possible a successful attempt to answer
the question as to the nature and value of the Bible
and the nature and manner of inspiration. Accord-
ing to him, the Bible (primarily the New Testament,
the Old only in conjunction with it) is the record

of the fundamental Gospel of Christ and of salva-
tion in him. In it exists the memorial of the
primitive Christian assurance of salvation, intended
to promote the salvation of the reader or hearer.
This definition includes both the purpose and the
content of the Bible, whereas that which r^ards
it as merely a record of revelation neglects its im-
mediate purpose, and moreover requires the forma-
tion of a historical judgment, for which not every
one is competent. No such equipment is required
in order to know that the New Testament is pri-
marily the record of the fundamental Gospel of
Christ, or that it bears the same witness of him as
that with which Christianity began its conquering
progress through the world. Whether men are
willing to accept this salvation, so attested, is an-
other question; but this Gospel is the Christian
proclamation, in regard to which man must take
one side or the other. This is the point so strongly
insisted on by Frank, that every witness of Christ
and of God's redeeming will is credible only in the
measure in which it is in harmony with or con-
firmed by the Scriptures. These have the power
in a special way to create obligation and to make
him guilty before God who rejects their message.
This power, this authority, is independent of the
recognition of them, and through it they show
themselves to be in a unique measure filled with
the Spirit of God. It is this connection between the
Holy Ghost and the witness of the Bible to which
(in harmony with the Scriptural expressions them-
selves) is given the name of inspiration. It is this
operation of the Spirit that Paul means when he says
(I Cor. ii. 13) that he speaks " not in the words
which man's wisdom teacheth, but which the Holy
Ghost teacheth," and to which Christ himself refers
when he tells his disciples (John xvi. 13) of the
Spirit of truth that shall guide them ** into all
truth " — an operation which does not exclude, but
empowers, the action of those who are to be the
witnesses of the truth.

If the fact of inspiration is admitted in the sense
of a special operation of the Holy Spirit on the

origin of the Scriptures, on the ground

8. Nature of their unique significance as the pri-

and mary record of the fundamental preach-

Method of ing of Christ, and their unique power

Inspiration, to impose obligation, the next question

which arises concerns the nature and
method of this inspiration. To answer this, the first
thing to notice is what this message tells— the re-
deeming acts of God in behalf of man, sunmied up
and realized in Christ before the eye. It is with
this that the entire Bible has to do. Its content
is a history sf the relations which have existed,
or are to exist, between God and man, of the origin
and execution of the plan of salvation. From this
special connection between the Bible and the revela-
tion of the redemption, faith easily perceives that
its writers stand themselves in a spedal relation to
the Holy Spirit. But of what nature this relation
is can be determined only from the course of the
history contained in their works, since it is a his-
torical relation. Now, the relation varies with the
period of history. The distinction between the Old-
and Ncw-Tcstamcnt revelation is that between

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Inspiration

distance from God and nearness to him. In the
earlier part, even when God enters into relations
with those whom he chooses as witnesses of his
redeeming purpose, he still speaks from without
the world that they know. Thus in the Old Testa-
ment an expression is found which is foreign to
the New, to designate his communications with his
witnesses. This communication with the prophets
is constantly designated by the expression " the
word of Yahweh was upon," and the reception of
this word by " he saw (Heb. hazah) the word of
Yahweh " (Isa. ii. 1; Mic i. 1; Amos i. 1). This
distance between God and man is only rarely
bridged, at special moments, and the immediate
subjective perception of the word of God can only
take place in an extraordinary manner. In the
New Testament, on the other hand, the word of God,
the expression of his saving will, has entered the
work! in Christ (Rom. x. 5-8; Titus i. 3; Acts x. 36,*
xiiL 26). To perceive and acknowledge the revela-
tion now made, there is no need of special endow-
ment, as in the case of the prophets; all that is
required is thp hft1ifY»>g J^tfitnHe l^nward gh^Bt
(Matt. xi. 25, xvi. 17). Those who are first called
to look into the mystery of the love of God revealed
in Christ are therewith called and qualified to be
witnesses to him (Matt. x. 27; John xv. 15). This
witness is conditioned by the objective revelation
and redemption, taking place in Christ and entering
the personal life by the indwelling of the Spirit.
But it ia not the same thing to participate in this
salvation and to be called to witness it. The latter
is a special mission, though not one confined to the
apostles who were chosen as the first witnesses.
Their assistants and the generation to whom they
testified were also witnesses; and as such, from
the special importance of their position in regard
to aU subsequent generations, they needed special
assistance of the Spirit (I Cor. ii. 10 sqq.). The pre-
requisite is their own experience of salvation — ^the
first experience of salvation ever given to man ; but
inspiration, in addition to this, is the special prep-
aration for the bearing of testimony of a funda-
mental kind. It is their grace of office, their
charianaf which empowers them, irrespective of
their individual imperfections, to testify for all
generations of the facts of salvation and their sig-
nificance. In contrast with this condition, the
inspiration of the Old Testament was temporarily,
one might almost say accidentally, connected with
the personality of those who received it, and not
always given to those whose moral and religious
nature qualified them for its reception (Num. xxii.-
xdv.; Jonah; cf. John xi. 49-52). Compared with
the New Testament, it is less free. The apostolic
witnesses have the Spirit of God for the spirit of
their own personal lives, which makes it possible
for them to be independent witnesses, not mere
organs of God's activity. Another thing follows
from the peculiar character of their inspiration as a
permanent qualification. When Paul makes a
distinction between what he says by commandment
and his own opinion (see Consilia Evanoblica),
he does not mean to make a distinction between
inspired and uninspired words; and accordingly
he commends what he says with perfect confidence
VI.— 2

to the judgment of his readers (I Cor. x. 15, xi. 13;
II Cor. iv. 2). And the inspiration of the witnesses
being permanent, they can speak of things which
do not pertain to salvation (as in II Tim. iv. 13)
without the inspiration ceasing.

One more characteristic point of the manner of
inspiration must be mentioned. The qualification
of witnesses includes the presentation of historical
events; but that which the Spirit of God here
effects, whether in the Old or in the New Testament,
is the understanding of history, not the knowledge
of it. The latter is to be obtained in the ordinary
way of life, by the witnessing of events or their
collection from written or oral tradition. This ex-
plains certain phenomena in sacred history which
resemble those of all other historical writing —
discrepancies in minor details or in chronological
order and the like. The question is not how such
errors are possible in the inspired word of God,
but how far the equipment named inspiration is
meant to extend. The knowledge of and witness
to the purest eternal truth is not only not incon-
sistent with human limitations, but stands out all
the more strikingly when they are admitted. In-
spiration is not the abolition of independent human
personality, but rather a reenforcement of it; it is
not condescension to human weakness, but a hallow-
ing or transformation of it, that the human person-
ality may take its part in the divine work. There
is nothing in it foreign to Christian experience or to
knowledge of the other operations of the Holy
Spirit. It takes its own place in the system of the
charismaUif the gifts of grace operative in the
Church of God. (H. CRBMERf.)

Views of inspiration may be grouped in two
general classes — those of plenary or verbal inspira-
tion, and those of partial inspiration.

9* The Advocates of plenary inspiration hold
Theory of that the writers of Scripture had the

Plenary immediate influence of the Spirit to
InBpiratk>n« such an extent that they could not err
in any point; every statement is accu-
rate and infallible, whether ** religious, scientific,
historical, or geographical " (Charles Hodge, Theoir
ogy^ i. 163; cf. F. L. Patton, Inspiration, p. 92).
Besides Hodge and Patton, Gaussen, Shedd, Given,
and others represent this view. It is admitted,
however, that there may be errors in the Scriptures
as we now possess them and infallibility is asserted
" only for the original autographic text " (A. A.
Hodge and B. B. Warfield in the Pretbylerian
Review, ii., 1881, p. 245). This class of views has
in its iz,yoT (1) the difficulty of conceiving how the
thought could have been suggested by the Spirit
without the language; and (2) the support it gives
to the authority of the Scriptures as a system of
truth and a guide of action. On the otl^r hand,
the following objections are urged: (1) It is hard
on this general theory to account for the individual
peculiarities of the writers. The style of Hosea
differs from that of Isaiah, that of John from that
of Paul, although the same Spirit suggested the
language of each. It is urged, however, that the
Spirit accommodated himself to the peculiarities of
the writers. (2) There are differences of statement
in the Script\u«8 concerning the same facts (cf.

Znsplratlon
Inspired, The

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

Gen. xxxiii. 18-19 with Acts vii. 16; Num. xxv. 9
with I Cor. X. 8). (3) The theory makes it hard
to explain the divergences in the Gospels (cf. the
four forms in which the superscription on the cross
is given and Matt. viii. 25-27 with Mark iv. 39-41).
(4) It is difficult on this theory to imderstand why
the New-Testament writers usually quote the Sep-
tuagint translation, and not the original Hebrew of
the Old Testament. In many cases the divergence
from the Hebrew text ia great (cf. Acts xv. 16-17,
other passages of the Acts, and many passages of
the Epistle to the Hebrews, which always quotes
from the Septuagint). (5) The autographs of the
sacred writers are lost, and the variations in the
copies which have been preserved seem to be in-
consistent with this theory; for, if a literal inspira-
tion were necessary for the Church, God (so we
should expect) woidd have provided for the error-
less preservation of the original text. Moreover,
the great mass of Christians has to depend upon
translations for none of which infallible accuracy is
claimed.

The theory of partial inspiration is, that the
writers of Scripture enjoyed the influence of the

Spirit to such an extent, that it is the

10. The Word, and contains the Will, of God

Theoiy of (Luther, Calvin, Baxter, Doddridge,

Partial Wm. Lowth, Baumgarten, Neander,

Inspiration. Tholuck, Stier, Lange, Hare, Alford,

Van Oosterzee, Plumptre, F. W. Farrar,
Domer, and others). It admits mistakes, or the
possibility of mistakes, in historical and geographical
statements, but denies error in matters of faith or
morals. In favor of this view it may be said: (1)
that it lays stress upon the sense of Scripture as a
revelation of God's will, and leaves room for the
full play of hmnan agency in the composition. (2)
It helps to understand the divergences in the ac-
counts of our Lord's life, and the inconsistencies in
historical statement of different parts of the Bible.
(3) It is more in accord with the method of the
Spirit's working in general. The apostles were not
perfect in their conduct and judgment as rulers
and teachers of the Church (Acts xv. 39, xxiii. 3;
Gal. ii. 12; I Cor. xiii. 12; Phil. iii. 12). (4) It
removes a hindrance out of the way of many who
would gladly believe the Bible to contain the word
of God, if it were not necessary to give their assent
to all its historical statements. Many can believe
the discourses of our Lord in John (xii. sqq.)
to be divine who can not so regard the list of the
dukes of Edom (Gen. xxxvi. 15-43), or all the
tables of the Books of Chronicles. (5) This view
makes the absence of an absolutely pure text
intelligible.

The present canon does not necessarily measure
the extent of inspiration. Both must be determined

by the same process, upon the basis

XX. Crite- of the contents of the books, the state-

ria of ments of their authors, their relation

Inspiration, to Christ (in the New Testament), and

the judgment of the Church. A book
belonging to the present canon may not be inspired.
Seven books of the New Testament were disputed
in the Church of the first four centuries (see Canon
OF Scripture). The Roman Catholic canon of the

Old Testament includes the Apocrjrpha, which are
rejected by Protestants. Luther doubted the in-
spiration of Esther and held an unfavorable view
of the Epistle of James and the Apocalsrpse. Cklvin
expressed doubts about II Peter. The Bible is an
organism; and the inspiration of the whole is not
necessarily affected if inspiration be denied to one
part. The question of the inspiration of the Goq)d
of John, for example, may be independent of the
proof that the Books of Chronicles are inspired.
The sufficient witness of the heavenly origin of the
Scriptures is their inherent excellences, as in the
case of the person of Christ. The unity of the book,
imfolding a single purpose; its elevated tone; the
faultless character of Christ; the nature of the facts
revealed of God, the soul, and the future — all
stamp it as a work of more than ordinary human
genius or insight. This testimony is, for most
minds, the strongest of all. It is the testimony of
the Holy Spirit in experience. D. S. Schaft.

The history of the doctrine of inspiration in Great
Britain and America has followed the general for-
times of the same doctrine on the Con-
X2. Modem tinent, as indicated above; that is, it
Tendencies has oscillated between an interpreta-
and Devel- tion which f oimd its principle in a pre-
opments. ponderating influence of the Spirit of
God and a recognition in the human
consciousness of a larger degree of free ethical action.
In Great Britain and America the Calvinistic in-
terest has declared for the first of the views referred
to. In more recent times attention and interest
have shifted to other aspects of this question. A
distinction between Revelation (q.v.) and inspiration
has been made, in which revelation stands for the
objective side or content of the divine will or truth,
inspiration for the subjective condition in which
that will becomes known. Evolution has made
men familiar with a law of development according
to which the consciousness is in part determined
by previous stages of thought and will. Cmnpara-
tive Religion (q.v.) has revealed phenomena of a
similar character to Hebrew and Christian inspira-
tion in the ethnic faiths, and a study of these has
aided in a better apprehension of this fact. The
history of the Christian religion with its earlier roots
in the Hebrew religious l^e has made possible a
truly historical interpretation of the rise and prog-
ress of the apprehension of God as revealed in Jesus
Christ. The new study of psychology has shown
the nature and place of inspiration in the conscious-
ness of the sacred writers and speakers' ^an ultimate
certainty and enthusiasm which gave to their
message much of its authority and power. Biblical
criticism has provided a broad basis of incontestable
facts which have had to be reckoned with, and have
thus forced here and there a fresh investigation of
the whole question from an inductive point of view.
Inspiration is seen to be an essential affair of per-
sonality and is therefore ethical, with conditions of
its appearance which lie deep in character as well
as in native endowment. Finally, the tests of
inspiration are moral and spiritual — the degree to
which the message of the speaker or writer answers
to the ethical and religious needs of advancing
human life. C. A. Beck wire.

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Inapiration
Inspired, The

BnuoomAPHT: On the history of the doctrine consult: G.
F. N. Sonntas, Dodrina inaptnUUmU, ^uaquB roMo, Ai«-
iana H vnw popularity Heidelberg. 1809; Q. F. N. Credner.
D€ Ubrcrum N. T. inapiration* quid wtabwrint ChriMtiani
onfr eoecttlum tafium medium^ yol. i, Jena, 1828; idem,
Bmir^O* BUT Einlntung in die biblitdten Sdiriften^ i. 1-01,
Hmlle. 1832; A. G. Rudelbach. in ZeiUehrift/Hr lulKeritdie
Tkeologie und KircKe, I l-«0, il 1-66, iy. 1-iO; F. A.
Tholnck. in Deutadu ZeiUtkriSt fUr ehriaOieh* Wisaen-
aekafi, 185a PP. 16-18. 42-44; J. DeHtMach, Da inapiroHona
aeripUfrum quid aiaiuerint patrta apoatoiiei, Leipeio, 1872;
K. F. A. Knhnia. DoffmaHk. I 268, Leipeic, 1874; K R.
Hasenbaeh, Hiaiory of ChriaHan Doctrine, i. 75, 115, ii.
14. 20. 166. ill 55, 62. 314. Edinburgh. 1880-«1; B. F.
Weatoott. Introduction to the Study of the Ooapda, London,
1888; W. Rc^inert. Wtu lehrt Luther von der Inapiration
der HeUioan Schriftf Leipeic. 1890; A. Zdllig. Die In-
aptrahonUdua dee Oriifena, Fieibuig, 1902; and in general
the works on the History of Dogma.

From the standpoint of dogmatics the subject is dis-
cussed in all the great treatises on that subject. The
following may be taken as representative of the treatment
in the " Systems of Theology": F. D. E. Schleiermacber,
II 128-132. BerUn, 1821; A. D. C. Twesten. i.. | 23,
Hamburg, 1826; C. L Nitxsch, || 37 sqq., Bonn. 1844.
Eng. transL. Edinburgh. 1849; T. Dwight. New York,
1846; C. Q. Finney, ib. 1851; R. Rothe, pp. 121 sqq.,
Gothia, 1863; H. Martensen. Edinburgh. 1866; J. T. Beck,
II 8»-101, Stuttgart, 1870; F. H. R. Frank, Syatem der
ehrielHekan Oewiaeheit, u.. || 43-49. Erlangen. 1873;
kiem. Syatem der duritUichen Wahrhait, il. | 43, ib. 1885;
C. Hodge. 3 vols.. New York. 1873; H. Voigt, Fundamen-
taldogmatik, | 21, Gotha. 1874; J. J. van Oostersee. 2
vols.. London, 1876; L A. Domer, Olaubenalehre, || 57-
50, BerUn. 1879, Eng. transl., 4 vols., Edinburgh. 1880-«2;
W. B. Pope. New York. 1880; F. A. PhUippi, i. 204 sqq..
Gatersk>h, 1881; A. E. Biedermann, || 179 sqq., Berlin.
1884-«5; A. H. Strong, Rochester, 1886; W. G. T. Shedd,
New York, 1888-04; S. Buell. ib. 1890; E. V. Gerhart,
Inatitutee of the CKndian Rdioion, ib. 1891; H. B. Smith,
ib.. 1890; J. Miley, London, 1892; M. A. K&hkr, Wiaaen-
adiaftderehrittlichenLehre, pp. 446 sqq., Leipsic, 1893; R.
A. lipsius, II 196 sqq.. Brunswick. 1893; L. F. Steams, New
York. 1893; J. Bovon, 2 vols.. Lausanne, 1895-96; H.
Bawink. 4 vols., Kampe, 1895-1901; R. V. Forster, Nash-
vifle, 1898; N. Burwash. 2 vols., London, 1900; A. Bou-
r. Plaris. 1903; H. E. Jacobs. Summary of the Chriatian
Phihuielphia, 1906; A. H. Strong, Syaiematie Tha-
aloay, L 196-242. Philadelphia. 1907; F. J. Hall. Doff-
maUe Theology, vol. ii., New York, 1908.

I^pedal Ueatises on the subject are: R. Baxter, Cate€hi-
aing of Familiee, London. 1 683; R. Simon, TraiU de Vinap^
roHon dee Uvraa aacria, Paris, 1687; W. Lowth. VindicaUion
i^ the OH and New Teetamtenta, Oxford, 1692; P. Dodd-
ridge, The Inapiration of the New Teatament, in vol. iv.
of hb Worka, Leeds, 1802; J. J. Griesbach, Strieturarum
in loeum de theopneuetia librorum aaerorum, parts L-v.,
Jena, 1784^88; J. D. Morell, PhU. of Reliffion, chaps,
v.. vL. New York. 1849; E. Henderson. Divine Inapiration,
London. 1852; F. de Rougemont, Chriat et eea Umoine:
. . . rivUaHon at inapiration, 2 vols.. Paris. 1856; C. A.
Row. The Nature and Extent of Divine Inepirution, London.
1864; L. Gaussen. ThSopneuetie, Paris. 1862. Eng. transl..
London, 1888; C. Wordsworth. On the Inapiration of Holy
Scripture, ib. 1867; F. L. Patton. The Inapiration of the
Scripturea, Philadelphia, 1869; E. Elliott, Inapiration of
the Holy Scripturee, Edinburgh, 1877; W. E. Atweil.
The Pauline Theory of Inapiration, London. 1878; H.
Schults. Die StMung dee diriatlichen Olaubene aur heUioen
Schrift, Braunsberg, 1877; E. M. Goulbum. On the In-
epiration . . . of the Holy Scripturee, London, 1878; W.
R. Browne. Inapiration of the New Teatament, ib. 1880;
J. J. Given, Truth of Scripture in connection with Revelation,
Inapiration, and the Canon, Edinburgh. 1881; J. G. W.
Herrmann, Die Badeutung der Inapirationalehre, Halle.
1882; G. T. Ladd, The Doctrine of Holy Scripture, New
York, 1883; F. W. Farrar. J. Cairns, and others, Inapira-
tion: a Clerioal Sympoaium, London. 1884; R. Watts,
The Rule of Faith and the Doctrine of Inepiration, ib. 1885;
A. Gave. The Inepiration cf the Old Teatament, ib. 1888;
C. A. Briggs. Whither, New York. 1889; A. Ritschl, Lehre
ran der Reehtfertigung und VereShnung, u. 9 nqq.. Bonn,
1889; W. KAlHng, Prolegomena aur I^ehre von der Theo-
pnauatie, Brealau, 1800; idem. Die Lehre von der Theop-

neuetia, ib. 1891; C. A. Briggs, LI. J. Evans, H. P.
Smith, Inapiration and Inerrancy, Edinbuigh, 1891; E
Haupt. Die Bedeutung der heUigen Schrift, Bielefekt
1891; .W. Sanday. The Oradea of Qod, London, 1891;
idem. Inapiration, ib. 1896; F. J. Sharr. The Inapiration
of the Holy Scripturee, London. 1891; J. Clifford. The
Inepiration and Authority of the BibU, ib. 1892; W. F.
Gess. Die Inepiration der Hdden der Bibel, Basel. 1892;
W. Lee, Inapiration of Holy Scripture, New York. 1892;
J. DeWitt. What ie Inapiration f ib. 1893; J. Denney.
Studiee in Theology, London. 1895; M. A. K&hler. Unaer
Streit urn die Bibd, Leipsic. 1895; M. von Nathusius,
Ud)ar die Inepiration der heiligen Sduift, Stuttgart,
1895; H. Cremer, Olaube, Schrift, und heUige OaadiidUe,
Gatersloh, 1896; G. S. Barrett. The Bible and ite In-
epiration, London. 1897; P. Gennrich. Der Kamj^ um
die Schrift in der da^Ueth-evangdiechan Kirche dee 19,
Jahrhunderte, Berlin, 1898 (contains a rich bibliography
of the German literature on the subject); C. Chauvin,
Die InepirtUion der heiligen Schrift nadi der Ldura der
Tradition, Regensburg. 1899; O. P. Zanecchia, Divina
inepiratio aacrarum eeripturarum, Rome. 1898; M. Arnold,
Literature and Dogma, London. 1902; A. Loisy. L'Bvangile
et Vigliae, Paris. 1902. Eng. transl.. New York, 1904; H. H.
Kuyper, Evolutie ov ravelatie, Amsterdam, 1903; J. £.
McFadyen, O. T. Critidem and the Chriatian Church, pp.
268-312, New York. 1903; J. A. Robinson. Some Thoughte
on Inepiration, London. 1905; R. F. Horton. Inepiration
and the Bible, ib. 1906; C. Pesch. De inephratione eacrae
tcrij^rae, Freiburg, 1906; J. M. Gibson, Inapiration and
Authority of Hdy Scripture, London, 1908; DB, I 296-
299. u. 475-476; DCO, i. 831-835; Farrar, in Biblical
Educator, vols. i.-it

INSPIRED, THE : The name given to a sect which
originated in Germany about 1700. It was formed
from the large number of Separatists who already
existed there, and was animated by the impulse
given by the new prophets of the Camisards (q.v.)
in the C^vennes. The sectaries took their name
from the fact that they recognized a continuous
divine inspiration in certain individuals, whom
they regarded as instruments of the Holy Spirit,
to whose teachings they professed obedience as to
inspiration.

After the forcible suppression of the Protestants

in the C^vennes, some of the principal leaders and

prophets, such as £lie Marion, Durande

Appearance Fage, Jean Cavalier, and Jean Allut,

in England fled to England and Scotland in 1706

and (see French Prophets), which they

Germany, soon left for the Netherlands, uttering
in both coimtries impassioncKl denun-
ciations of France and the papacy. When their
prophecies were not fulfilled, they were excluded
from the French Reformed commimity in London
and from the Church of England as well, so that
they had no recourse but to found a sect of their
own. Allut and Marion accordingly went, in 1711,
to the Netherlands and Germany, seeking support
primarily among the numerous colonies of French
Protestants there, from whom, however, they gained
little sympathy. They had more success with the
Pietists and Separatists of northwestern Germany,
to whose craving for apocalyptic revelations and
fanatical enthusiasm they were able to appeal.
They laid their first foundations at Halle in 1713
and at Berlin in 1714, and held a love-feast at Halle
in the latter year. At first they foimd some support
among the clergy, but when the gift of inspiration
began to spread among the " awakened " of Ger-
man birth, including in Halle the eighteen-year-old
daughter of a servant of Francke, and in Berlin

Inspired, The
Tntarim

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

a tailor who later became insane, the whole move-
ment was r^arded with suspicion, if not with con-
tempt. Three brothers named Pott, imtil then
students at Halle, who had become "awakened,"
migrated with their fanatical mother to the Wet-
terau in 1714, and there built up an inspirational
community, chiefly composed of Swabians and
Franconians. As in the case of the prophets of the
C^vennes, so here inspired utterances were preceded
by remarkable physical phenomena, such as a
burning around the heart, shortness of breath, and
various convulsive movements of the head and limbs.
These conditions were followed by a state of im-
conscious ecstasy, and during this time the message
was received. This, as a rule, was immediately
given out, either by pantomimic gestures or, more
frequently, in brief phrases of a Scriptural character,
spoken in an unnaturally loud voice. The content
of these messages, usually delivered in the first
person as in the name of God, resembled the warn-
ings and promises of the Hebrew prophets, and
dealt with the necessity of repentance, conversion,
and practical Christianity, frequently being remark-
able revelations of the lives of the persons to whom
they were addressed.

Under the influence of these phenomena societies
arose which, after 1716, called themselves " the True
Inspired," in contrast with the free or
German false inspired who rejected all organiza-
Societies. tion and discipline. The enthusiasm of
the movement spread not only among
the Separatists of the Wetterau and Wittgenstein,
but throughout Western Germany (especially Wdrt-
temberg, the Palatinate, and Alsace) and Switzer-
land, and even extended into Northern and Elastem
Germany, as far as Saxony and Bohemia. The call
and the preparation for missionary journeys among
the unbelievers were given in solemn love-feasts,
prefaced by preliminary exercises for days before-
hand, and characterized by fervent devotion. It
was naturally diflicult to maintain this devotion
at such a high level, even when it was nourished
by trial and persecution; and many of the *' ves-
seb " quickly ceased to give forth their messages.
Those who remained true formed a constitution at
BOdingen in 1716, according to which ten com-
munities were founded in that neighborhood, some
of which remained in existence almost until the
middle of the nineteenth century, while others
grew up in WOrttemberg, Swabia, and Switzerland.
Each community had a president and two associate
elders, who regulated all its affairs, especially the
care of the poor and the maintenance of discipline,
and held occasional conferences with the heads of
other commimities. There was no special teaching
office, but all adults were expected to take their
part in free public prayer at the meetings (daily or
at least twice on Sunday), at which many hymns
were sung, while the readings were chosen either
from the Bible or from the fifty written or printed
discourses of the " vessels," imless a '' vessel " was
present and delivered a new homily, prepared
especially for the occasion. The dogmatic belief of
the inspired agreed in general with that of the
Evangelical Church at laige, though, like other
Separatists, they rejected all communion with it

(as in baptism and the Lord's Supper). Their prac-
tical principles were those of the mystics Schwenck-
feld, BOhme, Weigel, and Hoburg. They regarded
marriage with special disfavor, though they tol-
erated it for a time.

By 1719 all the " other vessels " had ceased to
testify, and Johann Friedrich Rock, as the last of

them, became, with Eberhard Ludwig

Johann Gniber (a clergyman ; b. 1665; d. 1728),

Friedrich the head of the communities. Rock was

Rock. bom at Oberw&lden, near GOppingen,

WOrttemberg, in 1678. He came of a
family of preachers and was himself a hamessmaker
by trade. He had an inclination to mysticism, was
seized with *^ inspiration " about 1707, and there-
after worked for the cause with self-sacrificing zeal
until his death in 1749. He had some gifts of
preaching and riming, and seems to have been a
man of true piety notwithstanding his aberrations.
With the emigration of many Separatists to Ger-
mantown. Pa., after 1725, and with the rise of the
Hermhut movement after 1730, his task became
increasingly difficult. Particularly painful to him
were his controversies with Count Zinzendorf, who
had originally stood in close relations w^ith Rock
and his colleagues, but had gradually approached
more nearly to the Established Church after 1732,
and two years later had definitely broken with
Rock on the ground of his rejection of the sacra-
ments. Between 1740 and 1748 Rock was engaged
in bitter controversy with' another former friend,
Johann Kaiser, a follower of Bohme, Molinos,
and Mme. Guyon, who had founded a phila-
delphian society at Stuttgart in 1710, and after
its decay had established an inspirational com-
munity in 1717. This controversy forms the
source of the clearest and most important state-
ments regarding the nature of the inspirational
movement.

The death of Rock marked the beginning of a
period of steady decline, so that it is surprising to

find a recrudescence of these societies,
Revival unvitalized by preaching or sacraments
after 1820 (celebration of the Lord's Supper seems
and Emi- to have been first resumed after 1820),
gration to after a complete quiescence of sixty or
America, seventy years. With the revival of

devotion in the established Churches,
however, the gift of inspiration appeared once more
among the '^ awakened " Separatists, and (according
to the testimony of eye-witnesses) in the same
manner as among the Camisards or in the Wetterau.
Under the influence of three new *' vessels " —
Michael Krausert of Strasburg; Barbara Heinemann
(after marriage, Barbara Landmann) of Leilers-
weiler in Alsace, a peasant girl, unable to read or
write; and Christian Metz, a joiner — the commu-
nities in Alsace, the Palatinate, and the Wetterau,
which were almost extinct, were reorganized be-
tween 1816 and 1821 on the old constitution of
Gruber, but the repressive measures of the Prussian
and Hessian governments caused them to emigrate
in 1842-46, about 800 strong, to Ebenezer, near
Buffalo, N. Y., where they soon had a flourishing
communistic settlement numbering between 1,500
and 2,000 souls. In 1854 part of this conmiunity

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Inspired, The
Interim

migrated to Amana, Iowa. See Communism,

II., 3. (A. HEOLERf.) K. HOLL.

Bibuoorapht: A very oomprebenBive treatment of the sub-
ject has been siven by M. G«bel« in ZUT, 1S64. 1855, 1857,
upon which subsequent discussions are based. Consult
farther: M. Ci5bel, GsscAtdUs du chriaUichen Lebtna, iii
126 sqq.. Coblens, 1860; A. Ritschl. OewtkidUe det Pietia-
mua, u. 366 s(iq.. iil 265 sqq., Bonn, 1880-86; K. Knorts,
Die tooArs InapiraUonagemeinde in /atoo, Ijeipsac, 1896;
W. Hadom, Die Inapirierttn dea 18. Jahrhundertit in
Sthweixeriacke thaOogiachs Zeitachift, 1000, pp. 184 sqq.;
and the literature under Communism, II., 3. On Rock,
consult ADB, xxnriii. 735.

INSTALLATION: Generally, the ceremonial act
by which a person ordained and appointed is form-
ally put into possession of an ecclesiastical dignity
or benefice. In the English Church the term is
applied specially to the office of a canon or preb-
endary (i.e., the act of placing him in his stall) or
to the enthronization of a bishop.

mSTrrUTB of the blessed virgin. See
English Ladies.

INSTrnrnON: in canon law, the final act by
which a person elected by the chapter, or nominated
by the government, is appointed by the proper
authority to an ecclesiastical benefice, more espe-
cially a bishopric.

INTENTION. See Sacbament, f 4.
INTERCESSION. See Mediator.

INTERDICT: The prohibition of public worship
and of the administration of the sacraments (inter-
dictum offidorum divinorum)^ as an ecclesiastical
penalty. An irUerdictum locale applies to a definite
place or district, an interdidum personale to definite
persons. The former is the more frequent, especially
the interdidum generale, which the medieval popes
pronounced against whole countries in their con-
flicts with secular rulers. Instances of the use of
the interdict may be found as early as the time of
Gregory of Tours; but not till the eleventh century
did it become a regular part of ecclesiastical law,
and only gradually did it assume the character of
a definite institution with fixed limitations which it
bears in the Corpus juris canonid. The total inter-
dict forbade public worship, the administration of
the sacraments, and Christian burial. Mitigations
gradually came in; in 1173 Alexander III. allowed
the baptism of infants and the absolution of the
dying; in 1208 Innocent III. added confirmation
and preaching, absolution under certain conditions,
the private biuial of clerics, the recitation of the
canonical hours, and low masses in convents of
regulars, extending this last privilege a year later to
bishops. These concessions were granted on con-
dition that no excommimicated or personally intei^
dieted persons be present, that the doors be closed,
and that no bells be rung. Boniface VIII., who
also allowed baptism and confirmation of adults,
permitted public worship with open doors and ring-
ing of bells at Christmas, Easter, Pentecost, and the
Assumption; Martin V. and Eugenius IV. extended
this privilege to the whole octave of Corpus Christi,
and Leo X. to that of the Conception. Special
exemptions were granted to the Franciscans and
other religious orders; but Clement V. and the
Council of Trent insisted on their observance of the

interdict. A local interdict Was last proclaimed
by Paul V. in 1606, against the republic of Venice.
It is no longer considered a practical part of church
discipline, but the right to impose it is theoretically
maintained. Both personal and local interdicts
may occur as *' censures of broad application. '' The
right to impose them is held t« be inherent in
the pope, councils, bishops (regularly with their
chapters, sometimes without them), and in special
cases the chapters themselves; monastic superiors
may also impose personal interdicts upon their sub-
jects. Interdicts may termitiate of themselves if
a condition has been expressed; otherwise they are
removed by the person who imposed them, his
successor, delegate, or superior. Only a bishop
can absolve from a local interdict ''of broad
application " ; but any approved confessor may
remove a particular personal interdict. This form
of penalty does not occur in Protestant ecclesias-
tical law. (C. T. G. VON ScHEURLf.)

Bibliographt: Bingham, Oriffinea, XVI., iil 7; L. Ferraris,
Prampta bibliotheca eanonica, s.v. " Inderdiotum," 11 vols.,
Venice, 1782-04; A. L. Richter, Lehrbuch dea . . . Kirch-
enrechta, ed. W. Kahl, pp. 783 sqq., Leipsic, 1886; E.
Friedberg, Lehrbuch dea . . . Kirchenrechta, pp. 274 sqq.,
ib. 1805; P. Hinschius, Daa Kirchenrecht . . , in Deutach-
land, V. 10 sqq., Berlin, 1805; Neander, ChriaUan Church,
iii. 355-356. 454, iv. 161 et passim; E. B. Krehbiel, The
Interdict, ita Hiatory and ita Operation, Washington, 1000.

INTERIM: The name of three provisional and
temporary arrangements between the Protestants
of Germany and the Roman Catholic Church in the
time of the Reformation, intended to be valid only
for the interval pending a final settlement of re-
ligious differences by a general council (whence
the name, from Lat. inlerimj " meanwhile ").

z. The Regensburg Interim: The outcome of the
Conference of Regensburg in 1541. See Reoens-
BURG, Conference of.

2. The Augsburg Interim: Adopted at the diet
at Augsburg June 30, 1548. After the Schmalkald
War, Charles V. thought of reestablishing religious
imity in Germany; and at the diet in session in
Augsburg in 1547 it was agreed that a provisional
arrangement should be made imtil the Coimcil of
Trent had completed its work. In Feb., 1548,
Charles chose a commission from both communions
to devise an arrangement; this commission could
not reach an agreement, and several states pro-
posed that the matter be turned over to the theo-
logians. Consequently, at the command of the
emperor, Julius Pflug, bishop of Naumburg,
Michael Helding, suffragan bishop of Mainz, and
Johann Agricola, court preacher to the elector
of Brandenburg, prepared a draft, which was then
revised by certain Spanish monks and was secretly
submitted by the emperor to the Protestant elec-
tors and prominent Roman Catholics of the em-
pire. In twenty-six articles it treated of man
before and after the fall (i.-ii.), of redemption
through Christ (iii.), of justification (iv.-vi.), of
love and good works (vii.), of forgiveness of
sins (viii.), of the Church (ix.-xii.), of bishops
(xiii.), of the sacraments (xiv.-xxi.), of the sacri-
fice of the mass (xxii.), of the saints (xxiii.), of
the commemoration of the dead (xxiv.), of the
communion at the mass (xxv.), and of the cere-

Interim
Intarpolatioiis

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

monies of the sacraments (xxvi.). Although the
views of the Protestants were taken into account
in a general way, the document revealed the old
Church with its faith and worship. In the belief
that the Interim applied to all imperial estates,
the electors of Brandenburg and the Palatinate
approved it. After a long opposition Elector
Maurice of Saxony and Margrave Hans of KUstrin
promised not to protest openly if all imperial
estates should approve and accept it. The Roman
Catholics, however, were not willing to make any
concessions. On May 15, 1548, Charles assembled
the imperial estates and demanded their submission.
He admonished the Protestants to return to the
old faith or to live in accordance with the Interim,
while the Roman Catholics were to remain faithful
to the ordinances of their Church. Elector Maurice,
Margrave Hans, and their adherents were greatly
angered because only the Protestants were to be
compelled to accept the Interim, but in accordance
with their promise they did not protest. On June 30,
1548, the Interim be^une imperial law. In South
Germany the emperor succeeded in introducing it
in some cities and territories by force, but in the
rest of Germany his orders were not carried out.
In the Palatinate, Brandenbui*g, Saxony, Weimar,
Hesse, Mecklenburg, Pomerania, and other states,
as well as in the North German cities, there arose
vehement opposition, of which Magdebui*g became
the center, headed by men like Flacius, Amsdorf,
and Gallus, while Agricola and Melanchthon were
inclined to compromise.

a* The Leipsic Interim: Adopted by the Saxon
diet at Leipsic Dec., 1548. After his return from
the diet at Augsburg, Maurice of Saxony assem-
bled his prominent coimcilors and theologians at
Meissen to discuss the imperial Interim. He was
resolutely bent upon adhering to the Evangelical
doctrine, but was anxious to have a frank and
definite statement of what might be accepted and
what must be rejected on the groimd of Scripture.
After a careful and conscientious examination, the
theologians flatly rejected the entire Augsbui*g docu-
ment. After a royal and imperial acknonition to
introduce it in Saxony, a new discussion took place
in Torgau Oct. 18, 1548. The electoral coimcilors
laid before the theologians a list of the points which
in their estimation were acceptable and might lead
to a new church order. Melanchthon agr^ with
most of the points. Deliberations were continued
in Altsella Nov. 19-22, and, under stress of the news
of the emperor's forcible measures in South Ger-
many, an interim was drawn up which, in the doc-
trine of justification and in other points, upheld the
Protestant doctrine, while it conceded as " Adiaph-
ora " (q.v.) such things as extreme imction, the
mass, lights, vestments, vessels, images, fasts and
festivals, and the like. Maurice and Joachim of
Brandenburg came to an agreement and put in
writing what they would accept. The Saxon diet
met in Leipsic on Dec. 21 and accepted the Altsella
resolutions; the bishops of Naumburg and Meissen,
however, refused to concur, because in their opinion
it was reserved to the emperor alone to make
changes in the (Augsburg) Interim. The ultimate
outcome was that things remained as before.

At the diet at Augsburg in 155(V-51 the majority
of the estates advocated the continuation of the
Council of Trent and ui^ged the emperor to compel
Protestants to accept the Interim. When the im-
perial invitation to the coimcil arrived in Dresden,
Maurice began negotiations with the Protestant
estates concerning a general agreement. In Dessau
Melanchthon with Prince Creorge of Anhalt drew up
the so-called Saxon Confession, which was approved
by Maurice, Hans of Ktkstrin, the dukes of Mecklen-
burg and Pomerania, and others. It was proposed
that certain Saxon theologians should go to Trent
under safe protection and defend the pure doctrine.
In Jan., 1552, Melanchthon, with two others, started
on the journey and got as far as Augsburg; but in
March they were called back because the war against
the emperor began. The expedition of Maurice to
South Germany occasioned the suspension of the
Council of Trent. The Treaty of Passau aimihilated
the Interim and led to the Religious Peace of Augs-
burg (q.v.). (S. ISSLEIB.)

Bibuograprt: Q. Beutel, C^eber den Unprung dea Av(f-
hurger Interima, Dresden, 1888; Q. P. Fuher, The Refor-
maHon, pp. 105-214. New York, 1873; A. ron Druffel,
Briefe und Akien eur GewAtdUe dea 16. Jahrhunderte^ in.
42 aqq.. Munich, 1882; C. Beard, The Re/ormatian, pp.
109. 243. 210. London, 1883; F. von Beiold, GeeehiehU
der detUschen Reformation, pp. 805-808, Berlin. 1890; 8.
Isfileib. in Neuee Arehiv fitr aAdme^e Oeaehichte, xiii. 188
0qq., XV. 103 sqq., Dresden. 1892-94; idem. McriU von
Saehun, pp. 189-213. Leipsic. 1907; W. Walker. The Refar-
mation, pp. 207-208. 218, New York. 1900; J. Babinston.
The ReformaHon, pp. 113-114, London, 1901; CambfHdoe
Modem Hiatory, The Reformation, pp. 264-266. New York,
1904.

INTERMEDIATE STATE: A term designating
both the period and the condition of the soul
between death and the final judgment. The inter-
mediate state is an aspect of the doctrine of Hades
(q.v.). It has assumed many forms. (1) The early
doctrine, which in general has continued to be tl^
common view, that the dead remain in a condition
of privation until the resurrection — the righteous
happier (martyrs going at once to Paradise), the
wicked more miserable, than while on earth (Ire-
n»us, Haer. v. 31; Tertullian, " On the Soul," Iv.).
(2) Purgatory, the condition of those who depart
this life in faith, yet are still liable to punitive
sufferings for venial sins and who are purged before
their entrance into heaven; such may be " helped "
by the suffrages of the faithful, but principally by
the acceptable sacrifice of the altar ** (Council of
Trent, Sess. xxv.; see Purgatory). (3) The limbo
of the Fathers is the abode of Old-Testament saints
to whom after his death Chnst preached the Gospel
(Thomas Aquinas, Summaf qu. 69, art. 4; Dante,
Divine Comedy ^ Inferno ^ Canto iv.; W. E. Addis
and T. Arnold, Catholic Dictionary , pp. 564-565,
London, 1903). (4) The limbo of infants is the
region to which imbaptized infants are consigned
after death, to remain forever in a state of priva-
tion, without suffering and also without happiness,
a doctrine based on the universal necessity of
baptism for the remission of the guilt of original
sin (Thomas Aquinas, ut sup., qu. 69, art. 6;
see Inpant Salvation; Limbub). (5) The sleep of
souls, based on such passages as Acts vii. 60, xiii. 36;
ICor.xv. 6, 18, 20, 51; I Thess. iv. 13-15. Between

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Interim
Interpolations

death and the second coming of Christ all souls
are in a dreamless sleep (thus oblivious of the lapse
oi time and without moral change) from which they
are simultaneously awakened for the judgment.
This view was opposed in the early Church (cf .
Eusebius, Hisi. ecd. VI., zxxvii.). Calvin wrote in
refutation of it Pmfchopannychia (1534), directed
agftinst the Anabaptists. Richard Whately pre-
sented it with great force and sympathy as an
alternative belief, in his work On the Future State
(London, 1829). It is an article of faith among
the several branches of Adventists (q.v.). (6)
Preservation of the spiritual element of both the
saved and the unsaved during the middle state,
when by a creative act of God. soul and body are
reunited before the judgment. This element of the
personality exists in various degrees of conscious-
ness, knowledge, and enjoyment, some sleeping,
aome learning, some as demons on earth, some
imprisoned in the abyss or suffering in Hades for
life's sins, some being evangelized. In the interval
between death and tfa^ resiurrection the Gospel may
be accepted or finally refused by those who have
not known it here below (Edward White, Life in
CkrUiy chap, zxi., London, 1878). (7) A relatively
bodiless condition in which the pious dead are in a
state of privation, to be described as inwardness and
spirituality and progressive development^ of deepest
retirement, and of withdrawal into self, and at the
same time of communion with Christ (cf. H. L.
Martensen, Christian Doffmatica, | 276, Edinbuigh,
1866; J. J. van Oostersee, Christian Dofftnatica,
I cxiii., London, 1870; I. A. Domer, System cf
Christian Doctrine, iv. 212, Edinbuigh, 1880-82).
(8) As to the imbelieving dead, who have not de-
cisively rejected the Go^l, the intermediate state
opens the door of repentance and spiritual life
(see EacHATOLOGT; Phobation, Future).

C. A. Beckwith.

BnuooaAnnr: Tlie literature of the subject is well covered
uoder EecBATOLOOT; HADse; and Probation, Fxtturb
(qn.v.). Consult further: V. U. Maywhalen, The Inter-
mediaie SiaU, London, 1856; H. M. Luckock, The Inter-
mediaU State between Death and Judgment, ib., 1890; T. H.
StockweU, editor. Our Dead: Where are Theyf A Sym-
peeiuwi, ib.. 1890; A. Williamson, The Intermediate StaU,
ib^ 1801; G. 8. Banett, The Intermediate State; the La$t
Tkinge, ib., 1880; C. H. H. Wright, Intermediate State and
Frayerefor the Dead, ib. 1900; Q. T. Feehner. Littte Book
eiUie oiler Death, Boston, 1904; 8. C. Gayfoid. Life after
Death, ehaps. iL-iii., Milwaukee, 1909.

mBRPOLATIONS IN THE NEW TESTA-
MENT: In its rigorous sense, an interpolation is
an insertion in a text or document with the object
of obtaining backing or authority for the interpo-
lator's opinion or project. This is the ordinary
dictionaiy sense of tlus group of words, '' intei^
polation, interpolate, interpolator."
Dtftnitkm. This is idso the meaning assigned to the
word by legal usage, according to which
an interp<^tion is an insertion within a will or deed,
or a molding of its text to an end distinct from the
end and aim of the text itself. The same
is assigned to the word by diplomacy, where
an interpolation is a tampering with the text of a
public document by one party to it, in order to gain
an advantage over the other party. Thus '' inter-
polation " seems to imply, first, a fixed text and,

secondly, a conscious or deliberate purpose to alter
or twist the meaning and intention of a text, the
interpolator's aim being to slip his meaning imder
cover of a mind having greater authority or higher
standing than his own, so securing for his own
opinion or judgment a market-value above its in-
trinsic worth. For example, a Christian student
of the second oentiury inserted in the text of Jose-
phus {Ant, XVIII., iii. 3) the well-known passage
regarding Jesus. His object was to make Josephus
a witness to Christ. This is an interpolation in the
rigorous sense.

It is doubtful, however, whether the word in this
sense can be safely and correctly applied to any
part of the field of text-variation in the New Tes-
tament. At least, if used at all, it
Strict Sense must be used with caution. The con-

Inapplic- ditions of thought have materially al-
able to New tered since the word came into use.
Testament In the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries, when for the first time
Christians began to be seriously disturbed by text-
variation (the life and work of Brian Walton and
of Johann Albrecht Bengel [q.v.] yield examples),
the standing view of the New Testament has
regarded it as an inerrant book or collection of
books written by inspired individuals. This con-
ception seemed to involve a belief that the text,
once for all delivered in apostolic autographs,
should have been closed against change. It was
this conception which gave rise to the furious con-
troversies in England (nineteenth centiury) over the
" three witnesses " passage (I John v. 7). Both
the conservative and the anticonservative forces of
Christendom gave the idea of interpolation great
vogue. The currency of the idea depended there-
fore on a body of related ideas. But those ideas
have been modified in order to bring them into
agreement with widening and deepening knowledge
of the apostolic age. Neither of the two condi-
tions presupposed by the rigorous definition of the
term interpolation can be placed within the period
when the New-Testament literature was coming
to the light. The conception of the inspired text
as an apostolic autograph, finished, like a modem
book, at the time of publication, has broken down
under the pressure of historical truth. Regarding
the Gospels, it is known (see Gospels) that the
author of a single Gospel was quite as much cor-
porate as individual. The text remained plastic
for a considerable period. The ^' Gospel " was not
thought of as a book, but as a hving word, a spir-
itual climax, a majestic conviction. So long as
this conception had sway, the gospel-text lay open
to the formative and molding forces of the Chris-
tian consciousness. It was not till deep in the sec-
ond century that this situation altogether passed
away. When that happened, when the Gospel
came to be thought of as a book, the text became
fixed and rigid. The Church's theory of inspira-
tion and the zeal of scholars and theologians en-
dowed the text with powers of resistance sufficient
to withstand the ceaseless tendency to mold it by
mterpretation.

So then the possibility of text-molding continued
deep into the second centiuy. The last twelve

Interpolatioiis
Investitnre

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

verses of St. Mark's Gospel are a case in point.
The conclusion of the Gospel somehow fell into con-
fusion, was torn off, or lost. A revei^
Examples ent scholar, probably in the first half
from the of the second century, wrote in the
Gospels, present conclusion, taking his mate-
rials from Matthew and Luke. The
doxology to the Lord's Prayer in one form of the
Matthean text (Matt. v. 13) is another example.
The Prayer was soon taken into the corporate wor-
ship of Jewish Christians. Designed by Jesus not
so much for a specific prayer as to show the frame-
work and perspective of prayer, it needed the as-
cription to qualify it for liturgical uses. The Chris-
tians who made the addition had no thought of
doing injury to Christ's authority or tampering
with his meaning. They rather supposed that they
were asserting his authority and publishing his
mind. Consequently, the second of the conditions
stated above, a deliberate purpose to alter the
text, is wholly lacking. Both conditions therefore
being absent, doubt r^arding the correctness and
propriety of the term in the New-Testament field
appears to be well foimded, so far as the Gospels are
concerned. The phenomena of interpolation, under
the pressure of recent discoveries, are converted in
large measure into one element of a much larger
and more vital problem, namely the part played
by Christian interpretation of the person of Christ
in bringing the Logia, the saving words of Jesus,
into their present text. One example will serve,
the text of our Lord's teaching about divorce (Matt.
V. 32, xix. 9; Mark x. 9 sqq.; Luke xvi. 18). A
strong, if not a decisive, body of scholarly opinion,
renders it probable that the permission of divorce
on the ground of fornication or adultery was no
part of our Lord's teaching. Mark and Luke are
silent. Furthermore, this exception to his pro-
hibition of divorce seems to run counter to his
methods as an inspirer of constructive morality.
Except in this one instance, he deals with the su-
preme ideals in their perfection of spiritual and
moral beauty. Therefore it seems probable that
the Matthean text is a molded form of the original
logioiif and that the change took place as the re-
sult of debates between Jewish Christians and Jews
over the interpretation of Deut. xxiv. 1. But no
scholar would think of applying the word '* inter-
polation " to the process.

The same process goes on in the New-Testament

text outside the Gospels. Hamack and others have

recently affirmed that " things strangled " (Acts

XV. 29) was never a part of the original Lucan text,

but was read in by later Christians.

Further This is problematical. But there is

Examples, little that is problematical regarding

the present text of Eph. iii. 5. St.

Paul wrote the letter to the Ephesians (see Paul).

He did not write and could not have written " as

it was revealed to his holy apostles." These words

show the handiwork of the Paulinist editor of the

Pauline letters. It is, however, quite a different

affair to say that the editor was an interpolator.

Indeed, the use of the term seems to involve a view

of the origin and growth of the New-Testament

Scriptures which is decisively contradicted by a

large and growing body of facts. It would be, for
example, a serious misnomer to call John viii. 53-
ix. 11 (the woman taken in adultery) an interpola-
tion. That it is no part of the Johannine text is
now agreed on all hands. Yet thera are strcMig
groimds for believing the story to be a piece of gen-
uine and trustworthy tradition. Some day, when
the Churches have recovered their self-possession,
this fragment may find itself printed along with
other extra-canonical sayings of Jesus as an appen-
dix to the New Testament. Again, John v. 3-4
(the account of the angel stirring the waters) can
not justly be called an interpolation. No con-
scious, deliberate intention to tamper with the text
is here in question. The variant is foimd within a
class of phenomena which belong to the history of
the conffict between the text and the maigin. How
natural, how irresistible even the conflict is, may
be illustrated by the history of the greatest hymns
and their use in the churches (cf. Julian, Hymnoi-
ogy, s.v. " Rock of Ages " or " Nearer, my God, to
Thee "). When once a noble hymn has been taken
to the heart of the living Church it begins to pay
taxes for its right to rule. Similarly, sane histoid
ical views of the sacred text help to realize the im-
mense pressure brought to bear on a book like the
Bible incessantly employed and appealed to by
canonist and theologian, by the preacher and the
pastor and the saint, and to prevent wonder at the
irrepressible conffict, under certain conditions, be-
tween the text and the margin. The case which
seems to come nearest to the requirements of rig-
orous definition is I John vii. 6-8a (the " three
heavenly witnesses '0. The authority against it is
overwhelming, and its entrance into the Greek
text is illuminating. Erasmus omitted it in the
first edition of his Greek Testament (1516). A
great outcry was raised, and Erasmus offered to
insert the reading if a single Greek manuscript con-
taining it could be found. One was foimd, later
study of which made probable that its text for
I John had been achieved by a translation, at a
very late period, out of Latin into Greek. But
Erasmus kept his word, and the reading appeared
in his second edition. It became a part of the
commercial text of the New Testament and passed
into the so-called textua receptua of 1633.

Henry S. Nash.

Bibliography: The subject is generally dealt with in works
on the textual criticism of the N. T.. and much of the
literature named under Bible Tkxt (ii. 112-113 of this
work) contains matter upon it, particularly the works of
Copinger and Kenyon named there; works on the general
introduction to the N. T. also discuss the subject (see
Biblical Introduction). Special mention may be
made of B. F. Westcott and F. J. A. Hort. N. T. in ik»
Original Greek, I 571 sqq.. ii. 325 sqq., New York, 1882;
P. Schaff, Companion to the Greek Tettament and the Eng-
liah Vereiona, pp. 183 sqq., 420 sqq., ib. 1883; F. H. A.
Scrivener, Plain Introduction to the CriHdam cf the New
Teetament, i 7-0, il 249, 321 sqq., London, 1894; C. A.
Briggs, OenenU introduction to the Study cf Holy Scrip-
ture, chap. X., New (York, 1899; C. R. Gregory, Canon
and Text of the N. 7*., pp. 508 sqq., ib. 1907.

mXERSTITIA: The intervals supposed to elapse,
according to Roman Catholic canon law, between
the times of a man's receiving the different orders.
The principle that there should be such intervals
is expressly laid down in the thirteenth canon of

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Interpolationa
Investiture

the Coundl of Sardica (343). It was observed in
regard to the minor orders as long as they had dis-
tinct functions, but this ceased when they became
mere formal steps to the higher. The Coimdl of
Trent endeavored to restore their former actual
HJgnfficanoe, and prescribed the observance of the
interatitia for them, unless the bishop should judge
it better to proceed otherwise. At the present day
it is customary in many places to confer the tonsure
and all the minor orders on the same day. It was
also decreed at Trent that a year should elapse
between the minor and major orders, and between
each of the latter, unless necessity or the general
good required the time to be shortened, and that
two major orders should never be conferred on the
same day. In reference to the bishop's dispensing
power, moreover, the Congregation of the Council
has positively forbidden the conferring of the minor
orders and the subdiaconate at the same time.

(F. W. H. WASSERSCHLEBENf.)

Bismoorafht: L. Thomassin. Vetua et nova eccleaia du-
HjtUna, L, ii. 35-36; P. HinschiuB, Daa Kirehenrecht
... ilk Deuitckkmd, I 112-113. Berlin. 1860; G. PhiUps.
KirtAenreeht, L 648 eqq., Reffensburgt 1881; A. L. Richter,
ed. W. Kahl. Lehrbueh de» . . . Kirehenrechts, p. 364,
Leipeic 1886; E. Friedberg, Lehrbudi dea KircKenrechU,
p. 139. ib. 1805.

mXINCTION. See Eastern Church, III., § 5.

mXRODUCTION TO THE BIBLE. See Biblical
Inteoduction.

INTROIT: The name given in the Latin Church
to the anthem at the beginning of the communion
service. It usually consists of an antiphon, a verse
(or more) from a psalm or other portion of Scripture,
and the Gloria Patri (see Lituroics, III., § 2).
It differs considerably in the different rites in name,
contents, and the time of its performance. Numer-
ous forms exist, the Pian Missal alone containing
159. The origin is debated, some ascribing it to
Pope Celestine (423 a.d.; cf. Liber ponbificalU, ed.
Mommsen in MGH, Gest. pant, Rom., i. 94, 1898),
and others to Gregory the Great.

Bibuoorapht: L. Duchesne, Chriatian Worahip, pp. 116-
117. 163. 100. 430. London, 1004; DC A, I 865-867.

INVENTION OF THE CROSS. See Cross, In-
vention (or Finbing) of the.

INVESTITURE: In ecclesiastical language, the
ceremony of inducting an abbot or bishop into his
office. The subject is interesting mainly in connec-
tion with a long controversy between
The the papacy and secular rulers over the
Earlier right of investiture, which constitutes
Practise, an important chapter of medieval his-
tory. Even before the fall of the
Roman Empire there are evidences of imperial in-
fluence upon the nomination of bishops, going in
some cases as far as direct nomination. In the
Prankish kingdoms both the Merovingian and C!aro-
lingian rulers repeatedly named the bishops in their
territories; and even when the election was made
by the clergy and people, they either designated
the acceptable candidate beforehand, or claimed
the right to confirm the election. The influence of
the secular power was still more distinctly felt in
the case of abbeys erected after the Roman period;

the idea of the jurisdiction of a landowner, raised
to a higher power in the case of abbeys on' royal
land, brought it to pass that royal nomination of
the abbots was the rule, election by the chapter the
exception. To these powers the Gthos and the
Franconian dynasty held fast. The acquisition by
bishops and abbots of large territories and extensive
political rights, which reached its height in the
tenth and eleventh centuries, created a spiritual
aristocracy not less important than the secular,
which it was necessary for the kings to keep in hand
by retaining the decisive voice in the filling of the
offices — a claim which was not then felt to involve
any invasion of the essential rights of the Church.
In older times the nomination and confirmation had
been made by a royal edict; but under the later
Carolingians, whether an election had taken place
or not, the actual installation was made by a solemn
and formal ceremony, including the giving of the
sovereign's hand and the taking of an oath by the
candidate. After Otho I. the most usual form was
the giving to the new bishop or abbot of his pre-
decessor's pastoral staff, to which Henry III. added
the delivery of the episcopal ring. The whole
ceremony resembled the investiture of a temporal
vassal; and since it conve3red not only spiritual,
but temporal, jurisdiction, it began in the eleventh
century to be designated by the term investitura.
The first determined opposition to the system
came from the ecclesiastical reformers of the elev-
enth century. It was directed prima-
The rily against simoniacal bargains, but
Contest in soon went further. Cardinal Humbert,
Germany, in his treatise Adversua simoniacos
(1057-58), came out decisively against
lay investiture. In 1059 and 1063 two Roman
rynods condemned the bestowal of the minor
ecclesiastical offices by laymen; in 1060 synods at
Vienne and Tours took the same position in regard
to bishoprics and abbeys; and in 1068 the filling
of the see of Milan gave occasion for these principles
to be put into practise. But the first actual clash
came when Gregory VII., in the Lent synod of
1075, directly denied the right of the German king
to grant investiture, and enforced his denial so
vigorously that Henry IV. was obliged to take up
the challenge by the attempt to depose Gregory
at the Synod of Worms in 1076, thus opening a
struggle which lasted for forty-six years. Gregory
and his successors maintained their position. Tb^
Roman synod of 1080 laid down positive regula-
tions, based upon primitive Christian practise, for
the election of bishops by the clei^ and people,
giving the pope a deciding voice as to the validity
of the election. Victor III., Urban II., and Paschal
II. reiterated the same views, but had no better
success than Gregory in enforcing them against
Henry IV. and V. The ultimate solution of the
difficulty was prepared rather by the literary dis-
cussions, in which a gradual perception appeared
of the distinction between the spiritual office and
the secular rights. This opened the way to attempts
at accommodation. After some failures, efforts led
in 1122 to the Concordat of Worms between Henry
V. and Calixtus II., which ended the struggle and
formed the basis of the later practise until the

Investiture
Ireland

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

downfall of the German empire (for provisions see

CONCORDATB AND DELIMITING BULLB, I.). EpiS-

copal and abbatial elections were to be conducted
in Italy and Bui:g;undy without any royal interfer-
ence, in Germany in the presence of the king, and
with provision for his advisory assistance in con-
tested elections. The agreement was not an un-
qualified victory for either side, but the papacy in
the end profited most by it. After the contested
imperial election of 1108 (see Innocent HI.), the
influence of the emperor on elections rapidly de-
clined, while that of the popes, especially under
the skilful management of Innocent III., increased
in the same proportion.

In France during the eleventh century much the
same conditions existed as in Germany; but when
the conflict arose it was not made so
France, much a question of principle or con-
ducted with so much bitterness. The
French bishops had not so much secular power,
nor did they to the same extent constitute a spiritual
aristocracy. Again, the king claimed to invest
only a part of the bishops and abbots, while the
majority were nominated and installed by the great
vassals. Speaking generally, the right of nomina-
tion was abolished by the beginning of the twelfth
century, and free election became the rule; but
until the end of the century, and even longer, the
kings and some of the local magnates still main-
tained the right of permitting and of confirming
the election, and the kings and some great nobles
still conferred secular rights and claimed the rev-
enues of these temporalities during a vacancy.

The reforming party had less success in England.
Under the Anglo-Saxon and Danish kings the ap-
pointment to bishoprics and the great
England, abbeys was in the king's hands; the
Normans introduced investiture and
the oath of allegiance. The prohibition of lay in-
vestiture by Gregory VII. was inoperative here.
It was not until Anselm, in 1101, came back to
England a confirmed Gregorian and refused the
oath of allegiance that there was any real investiture
controversy there. It ended in 1107 by the king's
renouncing the formality of investiture with ling
and staff, but retaining the oath of allegiance and
the other rights of his predecessors. In spite of
Stephen's promise that bishops and abbots should
be canonically elected, the assent of the English
kings continued the decisive factor. The English
clergy did not win the right of absolutely free elec-
tion even at a later period, while Innocent III. (q.v.)
forced King John to allow the papacy to share the
royal influence. (Siegfried Rietschel.)

Bibuographt: For GermaDy consult: F. A. Staudenmaier,
OethidUe der BuchofwwahUn, Mains, 1830; H. Gerdes,
DU BiMcKofnoahlen in DeuUchland, GOttingen, 1878; P.
Hinschius. Kirdienrecht, ii. 530 sqq., Berlin. 1878; F.
FranBim, Der deuUche Epiacopai . . . 1039-66, Regenfl-
burg, 1879-80; R. Reeae. Dis ttaaUrechaiche Stelluno der
Biachdfe BxargundM und Italiene unter Friedrich /., G/^ttingen,
1886; C. Mirbt, Die Publixietik itn Zeitalter Oregore VII.,
pp. 463 aqq.. Leipsic. 1894; E. Friedberg, Kirchenrecht,
pp. 312 0qq.. ib. 1895; G. Willing. Zur Oeechiehte dee
InveatOwreireita, Liegnits, 1896; A. Hauck, KD, yoI. iii.
For France: A. Gauohie, La QttereUe dee inveelituree done
Ue diockeee de Liige ei de Camhrai, Louvain, 1890-91;
P. Imbart de la Tour, Lee ileetione ipieeojKdee . . . ix.-
xii. eiMee, Paris, 1891; A. Luchaire, Hiet. dee irutUtutione

monarchiquee de la France . . . iS87-tl80), ii 68 sqq..
ib. 1891; P. VioUet. Hiet. dee ineiitutume poUtiquee el
odtninieiraHvee de la France, ii 317 sqq., Paris, 1898.
For England: E. A. Freeman, Reign of WiUiam Rufue,
London, 1882; M. Schmits, Der engUeche InveeHiuntreit,
Innsbruck, 1884; W. Hunt, The Bni^ieh Chunk . . .
{697-1066), London. 1899; W. R. W. Stepbens. The
Bnglieh Church . . . (1066-197$), pp. 119-131 et paMim,
ib. 1901; J. Drehmann, Papet Leo. tX. und die Bimome.
Beitrag tur Untereuehung der Vorgeeehiehte dee tnvntUur-
etreiU, Leipsic, 1908. Consult also W. E. Addis. CaihoUe
Dictionary, pp. 497-498, London. 1903; KL, vi. 844-863;
and the literature under the articles on the popes named
in the text and under Anbblm.

ION A: An island of the Inner Hebrides, off the
west coast of Scotland, separated from the Ross of
Mull by lona Sound. It forms a part of Argyllshire,
and lies from 35 to 40 miles to the westward of
Oban, from which it is reached by steamer. The
name should be loua, the form with n having arisen
from a mistaken reading of u. In Irish it occurs as
I'Columcille, ** the Island of Columba." The pop-
ular name at present is Eechoktim-cille. The island
is about three and a half miles long from northeast
to southwest, and from a mile to a mile and a half
in breadth. It is rocky and sandy, with boggy
hollows between the hills, the highest of which
rises to 330 feet. Its area is estimated at from
1,600 to 2,000 acres, less than half of it arable, and
not more than a third actually under cultivation.
The pastures on the sides of the knolls and ravines
support a few hundred sheep and a smaller number
of cattle. The population in 1901 was 213, engaged
in agriculture and fishing.

lona owes its fame to its association with Columba
and the monastery foimded there by him in 563.
The Irish annals state that the island was given to
him by his kinsman, Conall, king of the Dalriad
Scots. Bede, however, says he received it from the
Picts as a result of his successful missionary labor
among them. Bede's statement is the more prob-
able, but possibly both accounts are true, as lona
was debatable ground between the Scots and the
Picts. For Columba's work there and the earlier
history of the monastery, see the articles Ck)LUifBA;
Celtic Church in Britain and Ireland; Adam-
nan. The island was repeatedly ravaged by the
Danes during the ninth and tenth centuries; (m
one of these occasions (806) sixty-eight monks
suffered martyrdom. The ruined buildings were
restored again and again with remarkable perti-
nacity. Between 814 and 831 the monastery was
rebuilt with stone and a shrine was erected to St.
Columba. In 878 the shrine and relics were taken
to Ireland. Queen Margaret rebuilt the monastery
between 1059 and 1093. A Benedictine abbey and
nunnery were established in the island in 1203. The
remains still existing date mostly from the twelfth
and thirteenth centuries, although the chapel of
St. Oran (Odhrain) may be of the time of Queen
Margaret. It is of red granite, and has as its west-
em doorway a Norman arch with beak-headed orna-
ment, and stands in the Reilig Od/irain, the ancient
burial-place of the monastery, said also to have
been the burial-place of the Scottish and Pictish
kings till the time of Malcohn III. (d. 1093), as well
as of certain English, Irish, and Norwegian kings.
North of this cemetery are the remains of the
thirteenth-century Benedictine abbey. In conneo-

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Inveatitnre
Ireland

ti<Mi with the doisters is a Norman arcade of some-
what older date. The Church of St. Mary, com-
monly called the Cathedral, dates probably from the
thirteenth century. It is built of red granite, in
cruciform shape, with nave, transept, and choir,
and has a central tower seventy-five feet in height.

BiBuooBArar: Baflidos the authorities mentioned under
CoLVMBA. CuLDKBB* eqwciftlly Recvee (1857), pp. 334-
300. 413-433, consult: L. Bftaclean, A HiHorieal Account
<^ /ofMB, Edinbuivh, 1833; C. A. and J. C. Buokleas, The
CmffitdnU or Abbey Churdi of lona^ London, 1866 (drawinira
with deecriptiye letterpreas and an account of the early
Cbltic Oiureh and the minion of St. Columba by A. Ewing,
Bidiop of lona and the leles); the Duke of Argyll, lona^
London, 1870; J. Drummond, Sculptured MonumenU in
lona and the Wett Highlande, Edinbui^h, 1881; J. Healy,
Ineula Sanctorum, pp. 291-863. Dublin. 1800; W. Bright.
Chaptere of Early BnoUeh Chwrth Hietory, paaaim, Oxford,
1807; A. MaemiUan. lona, ite Hiatary and AntiquUiee,
London, 1806.

IRELAND.

I. The Roman Catholic Church,
n. The Church of Ireland,
m. Other Protestant Bodies.
IV. History.

Ireland, a lai^ island west of Great Britain, and
since 1801 an integral part of the United Kingdom,
has an area of 31,790 square miles, and a population
(1901) of 4,458,775. It is divided into four prov-
inces: Ulster in the north, Leinster in the east,
M unster in the south, and Connaught in the west.
The census report of 1901 includes statistics of 309
religious professions, the most important of which
are RcHnan Catholics, 3,308,661; Church of Ireland,
581,089; Presbyterians, 443,276; Methodists, 62,-
006; Congregationalists or Independents, 10,142;
Unitarians, 8,094; Baptists, 7,062; Reformed Pre»-
byterians, 6,532; Jews, 3,898; '' Brethren," 3,742;
United Free Church of Scotland, 3,147; Friends,
2,731; and ''Christians," 2,631.

L The Roman Catholic Church: The organisation
of the Roman Catholic Church in Ireland is as
follows: archbishopric of Armagh (corresponding
to Ulster; founded 455), with the suffragan bishop-
rics of Ardagh (before 458; united to Clonmacnoise
1729, which was founded before 549), Clogher (506),
Derry (1158), Down (499; united to Connor 1442,
whidi was foimded 1174), Dromore (c. 510), Kil-
more (1136), Meath (520), and Raphoe (885); arch-
bishopric of Dublin (corresponding to Leinster;
before 618; raised to archbishopric 1152; imited to
Glendalough 1215), with the suffragan bishoprics of
Ferns (before 632), Kildare (before 519; later imited
to Leighlin, which was foimded 626), and Ossory
(538); archbishopric of Cashel (corresponding to
Munster, before 458; raised to archbishopric 1152;
united to Emly 1562, which was founded before
527), with the suffragan bishoprics of Cloyne (before
604; united to Ross 1430, but separated from it
1849), Cork (606), Kerry and Aghadoe (before
1075), Killaloe (c. 640), Limerick (1106); Ross
(before 1172), Waterford (1096; united to Lismore
1363, which was founded 633); and archbishopric of
Tuam (corresponding to Connaught, 540; raised to
archbishopric 1152; united to Enachdune 1484,
which was founded in the seventh century; united
to Majo 1578, which was founded 665), with the
suffragan bishoprics of Achonry (before 1152), Clon-
fert (558), Elphin (c. 450), Galway (1831; later

united to Kilmacduagh and Kilfenora, which were
founded before 620), and Killala (sixth century).
The above dates are taken from P. B. Gams,
SerCea Epiacoporum Ecdesiae Caiholicae (Regens-
burg, 1872), and in many cases are too early.
Authorities differ considerably.

The Roman C!atholics maintain 2,420 churches
with 3,543 priests, 97 monasteries and 270 nun-
neries. The elementary schools are for the most
part entrusted to the Christian Brethren; each
diocese has a seminary for boys; there are besides
colleges at Thurles, Waterford, Kilkenny, and C&t^
low. At Maynooth is situated the College of St.
Patrick, and in Dublin, University College. The
Catholic University of Ireland consists at present
of colleges at Dublin, Maynooth, Blackrock, C!arlow,
and Clonliffe.

n. The Church of Ireland: This body, before 1871
the established church in Ireland, has two arch-
bishoprics, Armagh, corresponding in a rough way
to Ulster and Connaught, and Dublin, correspond-
ing to Leinster and Munster. There are thirteen
bishoprics, including the archbishoprics. At the
census of 1901 there were 1,617 clei^. The head
university for the Church of Ireland is Trinity Col-
lege, Dublin (founded 1591); there is also Queen's
University (founded 1850), with three colleges at
Belfast, Cork, and Galway, which are each under
the government of a dean. These colleges also have
foundations for the Presbyterians and the Wesleyan
Methodists. The property of the church is admin-
istered by the representative body, consisting of
the archbishops and bishops, thirteen clerical and
twenty-six lay representatives, also thirteen co-
optated members, who can be either clergy or lay-
men. In their care are all the churches, together
with the churchyards, and also the schoolhouses.
They also take charge of the payment of all the
officials and servants of the church. The govern-
ment of the church is entrusted to the general
synod, which is composed of three classes, the
bishops, the clergy, and the laity, which form two
houses, the house of bishops, thirteen in number,
and the house of representatives, with 208 clerical
and 416 lay members. The representatives are
chosen every three years. The synod meets yearly
in Dublin, but extraordinary meetings may be
summoned. Each diocese has also its own synod,
which meets at least once a year. These synods
are also chosen every three years. The church is
divided into parishes, every church with a clergy-
man and registered vestrymen counting as a parish.
Every diocesan synod chooses two clergymen and
one layman, who, with the bishop, form a commit-
tee of patronage. Each parish on its side names
every three years three parochial nominators.
When a vacancy occurs in a pastorate the two
aforesaid bodies meet together and form a board of
nominators, who elect the new incumbent. When
a bishopric becomes vacant the archbishop of the
province calls together the synod of the diocese,
who vote by ballot for a successor. The bishop of
the diocese appoints the dean, the canons, the
deacons, and the other officers of the cathedral.
The collegiate and cathedral church of St. Patrick
in Dublin was made the national cathedral (May,

Ireland
Irenaeus

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

1872), and stands in the same relation to all the
dioceses. There are two kinds of spiritual courts of
justice, the diocesan courts, and the court of the
general synod. A diocesan court consists of the
bishop, the chancellor, who is appointed for life,
and two members of the synod, one from the clei^
and one from the laity. These men choose for five
years three clerical and three lay co-members.
The court of the general synod consists of one of
the archbishops, who alternate with each other,
one bishop, and three lay judges. Three additional
members are chosen from the general synod. The
constitutions and canons of the church are like those
of the Church of England.

m. Other Protestant Bodies: The Presbyterians
are found chiefly in Ulster, about ninety-six per
cent, of them being in that province. The largest
body, the Presbyterian Church of Ireland, numbers
36 presbyteries, 647 ministers, and 569 congrega-
tions with 106,342 communicants. In the Sunday
Schoob there are 8,354 teachers and 97,647 scholars.
The church administers two theological colleges,
with fourteen professors. The Baptist Union of
Ireland numbered, in 1908, 2,980 members, and
had 39 churches and 40 chapeb. The Wesleyan
Methodist Church gave as the niunber of their
members in 1907, 28,826; they had 133 stations
in ten districts. See articles on the separate de-
nominations.

IV. History: For the early history of the church
in Ireland see Celtic Church in Britain and Ire-
land. At the time of the Reformation, during the
reign of Henry VIII., an attempt was made to
correct some of the abuses of the church in Ireland,
but the Reformation did not meet with much
popular favor, owing in a large measure to fear
that only the English language could be used in
church. Through the reigns of Henry VIII., Ed-
ward VI., and Elizabeth various attempts were
made to introduce the English litui^, and the
government proceeded with great severity against
the Roman Catholics. Under Mary there was a
reaction in favor of the Roman Catholics. At the
accession of James I. the Roman Catholics, think-
ing that he favored them, tried to expel the Protes-
tants from the island. The king, however, sup-
pressed the attempts, confiscating the estates of
many Roman Catholics, especially in Ubter, and
settling Scotch Presbyterians in their place. Dur-
ing the Civil War and the Commonwealth, as also
during the reign of Charles I., there were many
rebellions and consequent suppressions of the Ro-
man Catholics in Ireland. At the Revolution the
Roman Catholics were filled with hope, and many
Protestants had to flee the country. William
III., however, finally completed the conquest of
Ireland, and from that epoch imtil recent times
the Roman Catholics were discriminated against in
many ways. Gradually, however, the restrictions
against them have been removed. Just as the
Roman Catholics were discriminated against, so the
Protestant Church, as the state church, was granted
many favors. These have been done away with
from time to time, and at last, July 26, 1869, the
Irish Church Act was passed, taking effect Jan. 1,
1871. This act disestablished the church and dis-

solved its imion with the Church of England.
Compensation was made for all vested interests,
including even the annual grants for the Roman
Catholic college at Maynooth and the Regium
Donum granted to the Presbyterians by James I.

Bibuoqraphy: For the early hiBtory see Cmunc Okubch
IN Britain and Ireland and the literature ghren there.
For recent data consult the Iriah CUrgy Liat (annual);
TK» Iriah Catholic Directory (annual); and the Year Booka
of the EncIUh bodies which carry on work in Ireland.
(Consult further: H. Seddall. The Church of Ireland, Dub-
lin, 1886; J. T. Ball. Fingal and iU Churchee, DubUn, 1888;
idem. The Reformed Church of Ireland, London, 1890;
R. Walsh, Finoal and it$ Churchee, Dublin. 1888; T. Olden,
The Church cf Ireland, London. 1892; M. J. F. MeOarthy.
Rome in Ireland, ib. 1904; M. O'Riordan. CathoUcOy and
Progreee in Ireland, Dublin, 1906; M. J. F. McCarthy,
Ffieatt and People in Ireland, London, 1906.

IRELAIVD, JOHN: Church of England, dean
of Westminster; b. at Ashbnrton (20 m. n.e. of
Plymouth), England, Sept. 8, 1761; d. at West-
minster Sept. 2, 1842. He studied at the free
grammar-school of Ashburton, and at Oriel Col-
lege, Oxford (B.A., 1783; M.A., 1810; B. D. and
D.D., 1810). After serving a small curacy near
Ashburton for a short period, he traveled on the
continent as private tutor; was vicar of Croydon,
and reader and chaplain to the earl of Liverpool,
1793-1816; held a prebend in Westminster Ab-
bey, 1802; became subdean as well as theological
lecturer, 1806; and dean, 1816. He was rector at
Islip in Oxfordshire, and dean of the Order of the
Bath, 1816-35. Acquiring considerable wealth, he
used it with great generosity, foimding scholarships
at Oxford and prises at Westminster School, and
furthering free education. He held the crown at
the coronations of George IV. and William IV. He
left sums for a new church at Westminster, and
for a new professorship at Oxford. He was the
author of Five Discourses, containing certain Argu^
ments for and against the Reception of Christianiiy
by the ancient Jews and Greeks (London, 1796) ; Pa-
ganism and Christianity Compared, in a Course of
Lectures to the King's Scholars at Westminster, in
the Years 1806-07-08 (1809); and The Plague qf
Marseilles in . . . 17tO (1834).

IRENAEUS.

Life (I 1). His Theology and PoUty

His Principal Literary Work, (| 4).

"Against Heresies" (| 2). His Podtaon as a Prmetieal

Other Writings (| 3). Churchman (| 5).

Irenaeus, bishop of Lyons, is the most important
witness to ecclesiastical tradition before Eusebius.

He came originally from Asia Minor,
I. Life, which was connected in many ways

with the Church of Gaul, and died
after 190. Little that is certain is known about him
until 177, in which year the imprisoned confessors
of Lyons chose him as the bearer of a letter to
Eleutherus of Rome concerning the Montanist con-
troversy. If the fact that the confessors call him
not only their brother, but their '* companion," is
partly a reminiscense of Rev. i. 9, it still aeems
probable that he did not wholly escape the persecu-
tion; and it may have been a design to save his
valuable life that inspired the choice of him to go
to Rome. He had probably then been a presbyter
of the church at Lyons for several years, ainee

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

IrelABd

[lately after his return he was chosen bishop »
to succeed Pothinus, who had perished in the per-
secution. In this capacity he wrote his principal
work about 185, and sent a letter about 190 to
Victor of Rome, who had broken off communion
with the churches of Asia Minor over the Quarto-
dedman controversy, as well as to other bishops.
There is no further definite knowledge of his later
years. Jerome is the first to mention him as a
martyr, and then only incidentally, and not im-
probably on the basis of the expression quoted
above from the letter of the confessors. Hippolytus,
TertuUian, Eusebius, and other writers who would
have been likely to mention the fact of his martyr-
dom, say nothing about it. There has been a pro-
longed controversy, which is still unsettled, as to
the date of his birth and the length of his life.
While Bodwell, Grabe, and more recently Zahn
have put his birth near the beginning of the second
eentury, Massuet, Lipsius, Ziegler, and Hamack
have attempted to fix it near the middle. It must
be remembered that the date of the death of Poly-
carp is now practically settled for 155. The prin-
cipal data may be briefly summarized as follows:
If Iienaeus became bishop in 177, he must have
been at least forty, and was therefore probably bom
before 137 rather than after. His implication (V.,
TXT. 3) that the Apocalypse was written ** almost
in his own lifetime " is, all things considered, irre-
concilable with the theory that he was bom forty
or fifty years after the probable date of its com-
position (before the death of Domitian in 96).
Again, in his letter to Florinus (Eusebius, Hi8t.
9ed„ v., XX. 5), he speaks of having seen him at
Smyrna in the emperor's train when he himself was
■till but a boy. Now, for various reasons, this
emperor must have been Hadrian, who visited Asia
Minor in 123 and 129, in the latter of which years
the meeting must have taken place. All that
Irenaeus tells of his recollections of Polycarp at
this period shows that he must have been at least
twelve or fifteen, and thus was probably bom about
115. He implies distinctly that his intercourse with
and instmction by Polycarp lasted for a number of
years, very likely from about 129 to 150; and the
mme condusion follows from what he tells of the
tfBiCihing received in Asia Minor from certain dis-
dples of the apostles. After all necessary sifting
bas been applied to the passages referring to this,
there remain two (IV., xxvii. 1-32 and V., xxxlii. 3,
4) which can be understood only as asserting that he
bad this oral instruction from more than one of such
disciples, and when he was of an age to take it in
ud be deeply impressed by It. Neither he nor any
tradition mentions the reaching of an unusually
Sreat age by any member of this group except
Polycarp; if the others died considerably earlier,
*>7 before 145, he must before that date have been
of an age to profit by their teaching. Finally, in
^ appoidlx to the Martyrium Pdycarpi (found in
^ manuscript at Moscow), which is almost certainly
Written by the Pionius (q.v.) who was the author of
^ y%ia PUifearpi before 400, the statement is found,
'^i^Mgxi upon Irenaeus's own works, that he was
Wr>img in Rome at the time of the death of Poly-
taxp, i^od that a voice like a trumpet told him.

at the very hour, of the decease of his master in
Smyrna. Whatever may be thought of this last
assertion, there is no reason to doubt the general
statement; and the account which he himself
gives of Polycarp's visit to Rome in 154 evidently
comes from one who was there himself at the time.
The chronological results indicated above may thus
be taken as fairly established.

It is impossible to assign all of Irenaeus's multi-
farious literary activity to the different periods of
his life as long as so much of his work
2. His is lost. His principal work is the

Principal '' Refutation and Subversion of knowl-

Literary edge Falsely so Called," generally re-
Work, f erred to as '' Against Heresies/' It

" Against consists of five books, and is preserved
Heresies." in Its entirety only in a Latin version,
the date of which requires further in-
vestigation; there is sufficient evidence that the
original was still extant In the sixteenth and seven-
teenth centuries. There are, however, long extracts
in the original Greek in Epiphanius, numerous
smaller quotations in other writers, and consider-
able portions incorporated without acknowledg-
ment in the '* Refutation " of Hippolytus. The
occasion of the work was given by the official posi-
tion of Irenaeus at Lyons. Some disciples of
Marcus, who himself belonged to the school of
Valentinus, had come into the Rhdne country, and
the Church of that region was troubled by the wri-
tings of Florinus, the Roman presbyter who had em-
braced the Valentinian teachings. The immediate
cause of the work was the request of a friend and
colleague at a distance for precise information about
these same teachings and help in refuting them.
The work was not originally intended to be so large;
but it grew imder his hand. Even In its present
extent, it does not fully carry out the plan promised;
and Qrabe's hypothesis that the complete work is
not extant is not without foundation, especially
since the present conclusion of v. 32 is wanting in
some Latin manuscripts. With great cleamess of
thought and expression, Irenaeus takes no trouble
In the main outline to keep within the narrow
bounds of a preconceived plan, but allows himself
to be carried swiftly forward by the current of his
thought. There is no attempt at literary art; the
subject is everything to him. Although he is pre-
pared to find a wide circle of readers, he writes in
the first instance for his brother in the faith. The
latter was chiefly concerned with the teaching of
Valentinus, and it is this which accordingly occupies
the leading place, both in the exposition and the
refutation. Others, however, are touched on and
traced back to their sources, as far as Simon Magus;
and the doctrines of Valentinus can not be contro-
verted without at least incidental discussion of the
contemporary one of Marcion. For his facts he
depends not only upon his personal intercourse with
disciples of Valentinus, but also upon their writings,
which he sometimes quotes verbally, but more often
simimarizes freely. He is acquainted with the older
church treatises against heresy, but is dissatisfied
with their insufficient knowledge of the Valentinian
position; in his treatment of other heresies, he may
have borrowed from these treatises to some extent,

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

as he quotes incidentally from Justin's treatise
against Bfarcion and from a polemical poem directed
against Marcus.

Of a considerable number of other works of Ire-
naeus what is known is gathered from scattered
citations in Eusebius and others. They
3* Other may be briefly enumerated as follows:
WritingB. (1) An admonition to Florinus ''On
the Divine Sovereignty, or God not the
Author of Evil/' written when Florinus was still
in the communion of the Church, for he is warned
that his teachings are irreconcilable with its doctrine,
and that " not even heretics outside the Church
have ventured to assert such things." (2) A " Trea-
tise on the Ogdoad/' occasioned by Florinus, but not
addressed to him. The loss of this work is specially
regrettable, since Irenaeus seems in it to have dwelt
in detail on his relation to the first post-apostolio
generation. (3) An epistle to a certain Blastus in
Rome " On Schism." According to the pseudo-
Tertullian this man was a Quartodeciman, according
to Pacian a Greek by birth and a Montanist. (4)
Among, or connected with, the letters which Ire-
naeus wrote to various bishops at the time of the
paschal controversy may be placed that which,
according to a Syriac fragment, " he wrote to an
Alexandrian, showing that it was right to celebrate
the feast of the Resurrection on Sunday." (5) The
letter to Victor of Rome concerning this same con-
troversy. (6) A letter " On Faith " to Demetrius,
a deacon of Vienne. (7) According to Eusebius
(v. 26), an apology, addressed to the Greeks, '* On
Knowledge." (8) A treatise, mentioned in Euse-
bius, Hi9t, ecd., V. xxvi., dedicated to a certain
Marcianus, possibly the author of the Martyrium
Polycarpif on the apostolic preaching. [This work,
which is of the nature of a dogmatic discussion of
the apostolic teaching, and is quite an extensive
work, has been discovered in Armenian translation
in the Church of the Mother of God in Eriwan, and
edited with German translation by Ter-Mekert-
tschian and Ter-Minassiantz in TUy xxxi. 1 (1907).
The manuscript dates from the second half of the
thirteenth century, and contains about two-thirds
of the entire work. From what language the
translation was made is not clear, but Syriac is
indicated.] (9) A book of various discourses.

(10) Oeciunenius gives an extract from a work
in which Irenaeus is supposed to relate the mar-
tyrdom of Sanctus and Blandina. Allowing for
a confusion of Blandina and Biblias, this agrees
with the letter of the church of Lyons on the
martyrdoms of 177, of which he may well have
been the author, though Eusebius (V., xiv.-xix.
25) did not think it necessary to mention the fact.

(11) A treatise against the theory that matter is
eternal. The exposition of Canticles, of which a
Syriac fragment exists, is of doubtful authenticity,
while the four fragments published in 1715 by Pfaff,
chancellor of Tubingen, have been finally shown
by Harnack to be forgeries of Pfaff's. It is not
Imown whether Irenaeus carried out his intention
(expressed III., zii. 12) of writing a special treatise
against Marcion.

The extent and variety of the interests of which
a glimpse has been given renders it impossible to

attempt here a complete exposition of the theology

and churoh polity of Irenaeus. It is unfortunate

that, outside of scanty fragments, only

4. His a single polemical work of his is
Theology extant, and that for the most part

and Polity, not in the original. Here he appears
as a stout defender of churoh doctrine
against Gnosticism. If he is ccmipared with the
other members of the school to which he belonged,
with Papias or with Polycarp, the manner appears
striking in which he ccmibines with firm adhesion
to the faith of these simple men a remarkable
accessibility to the most varied elements of culture
that were within his reach. He makes no parade
of secular learning; he declines to be a teacher of
" barbaric philosophy " like other apologists from
Aristides to Clement; but he surpasses them all in
soundness of judgment, acuteness of perception, and
deamess of exposition. In fact, he is the first writer
of the post-apostolic period who deserves the title
of a theologian. In puro theology he stands far
above Athimasius and CyriL, and can be compared
only with Origen and Augustine. The balanced
security of his attitude is remariuible. When the
Phrygian peasants disturbed first the scene of his
early years, and then the whole Church with their
fanatical prophecies and their preaching of a glocHny
penance, he did not lose his head. In union with
the Churoh of Lyons and its imprisoned confessors,
he warned Eleutherus of Rome not to condemn
without examination a religious movement which
linked itself to the age of the apostles by valuable
inheritances. When the Alogi, in opposition to
Montanism, attempted to banish from the Churoh
all prophecy, and the Apocalypse with it, he took
a firm stand against them; but he did not become
a Montanist. Again, in his judgment of the pagan
polity, he did not desert the line marked out by
Christ himself and by Paul, and followed (as he
points out) by John in the Apocalypse. Tli^ Ro-
man Eknpire is to him no more Antichrist than the
world and the flesh necessarily belong to the devil.
As a practical churohman he was no less admirable
than as a theologian. His sermons are lost; but
that a colleetion of them should have

5. His been in existence 150 years after hia
Positk>n death is enough to show that he de-

as a serves a prominent place in the history
Practical of homiletics. He learned Celtic in
Church- order to speak to the heathen about
man. Lyons, and thus has a place also in the
history of missionary effort. His devo-
tion to the immediate duties of his restricted and
outlying diocese did not prevent him frcnn having
much at heart the welfare of the Church at laige,
from feeling at home in Rome or Ephesus. His
evident love for the ancient Church of his native
home did not blind him to the special signifioanca
and vocation of the Churoh at Rome, based upon
the position and history of the city. In the paschal
controversy he deserted the traditional eustom of
the Church of his boyhood, because he saw that
the Western practise was more appropriate to the
essential center-point of the Easter celebration;
but he stood out firmly against over-emphaaising
such differences, and against the combined ignoniioe

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

■od aasumptioD of Pope Victor. The unity of the
Church, for whose sake he prizes the tradition car-
ried on by the episcopal Bucceaaion in the great
kpoetolic churcbeH, is according to him perfectly
ecaisi«teiit with lai^ freedom and diversity in
eceleaiastical customs and with mutual independence
<tt the autonomoua bodies which compose the uni-
Tcrsal Church. Aft«r the perversion of doctrine
by the Gnostics, he saw the greatest peril to this
unity in a rigidity that strove for constrained uni-
fonnity, whether it manifested itself in the refusal
of the Quartodeeiman Blaatus to yield in Rome to
the prevalent custom in regard to Easter, or in the
kttitude of the Roman bishop, with whom he never-
tbelesa agreed. Polemical theologian though he was,
be yet veri6ed his name (Irenaeua, " Peaceful ") by
■eclong the peace of the Church amid all his con-
troveisieB. His actual influence upon the develop-
ment of the Church was greater than that of perhaps
•ny other teacher of the first three oenturica. He
did much to protect it, first against the dissolution
threatened by the Valentinian speculations, which
cune in largely under the cover of ext«mal con-
formity; then against provincial narrow-mind ed-
□CM and ignorant fanaticism; and finally against
the ambition of the Roman see to grasp at a denpotic
universal monarchy. (T. Zaun.)

IteniriM' i» by W. Wutim Hi
uid [wiluipji the ocit beat ii> by
ISSa. Ttw tditio
■intiHi. .

by I

Qua. Buel. lEZO

lioD of Ibe Adv.

y N. GkJlaiiiu. Paris,

Maer.}. Succeeding tditi*

1570 (the &nt editioa with the frsKmi

F. FenudHit. Coliif^e. ISQB and later; J. I

Oxford. 1703 (one of the beil): the Broedietine <

R. Uuniet. Paris, IT12 and Venire, IT34 (aln

incly pxxl). Vol. iii. of the Oxurhvnmt Papyri

Ml sod Hunt iuued by the Egypt Bxplt

Fund

lfiOa-03 eontaini [raamrota. aa vbieh rl. B. Ner
the Uunicb AOemtine Zeitumj. no. 24S. Note also
CiMJliifnnn tou opoiIdIdu jlrruinnaliU. in anttnUdirr
Ywion midtekt. ed. K, Ter-MeLertltchiaD and E. Ter-

Od the life of Irenaeua and varioua phaaefl of hii aetivitiea
aod *orlu oomiult: tbe introductions to tbe variouj edi-
tiou of hia worka; DCB. iii, 2fi3-2T9 [elaborate and well
mnh eoDiullJut): H. Dodwell, IHimrUUiimtt in Innaeum,
Oiford. IBSB; J. AleiaBdet, 7*;^ Primitiv Dorlrine of
Ckritf* Diriititv. London. 1717: E. Burton, T'eelimonua
V A« AiHt-Nictvi FaOiv to Ot DiHnilu of Chriil, pp.
W-llt. Oxford. lg2S; J. Bea-nn. Lift and WritinoM nf Si.
Irwnarut. London. IS4I: L. Dunrker, Dti heiliaen Irtnaui
Oirialoloeit. GMlingen, 1S43: K. Graul. Dit: diriillUhe Kir-
du ott dtr Sr\a€lU dit irntaiicliMn Ziilalleri, Leiinic. ISBO;
H. Zicfla. Da /rindaa Lthrt turn drr Aniorilal dir Schrift,
dtr TVaditun ufui der Kirtht, Bailin. IS68: idem, /rcndui
itr fiJKk'/n»i Lycm. ib. 1871: R. A. LipBiuf, Dit Zrit
daa frenditf und dit Entalthujto def atlkaAaliaehen Kircht,
Mnnich. 1872: B. L. Hannl, Qnotie Heraia. London,
1876: J, B. Li«hHool, inConiemjwnniftmwu:, Aug., 1878;
A. Gilioud, B. Imit d eon tempi, L>-on. IS7e; C. J. H.
Ropu, ID BiUioOitai Sacm, Apr.. 1877 (deals with the
".y of Irenaeua): E, Hontet. La Ltvendc d'lrcnfr.
'. E. Freppel. S. Irente el I'HiHiutna
Gauli, PariK ISSS; F. W, Farrar, Lita
^ A* FMim, L 67-03. New York. IBSQ: J. Werner, Der

- a«a, ia TV. vi 2. 18S9: J. Kun».

cndu. Leipaic, ISSl: ideia. Ot Aii-
H/mJlbua. ib. IBM; T. Zahn, Fartdai.nQtn.
lur OofhitMU da Kanont. iv. 247-ZS3, ib. ISSl; A.
CamcrlTnek. S. Irtnft et It canon dit N. T.. Paris. ISM:
A. HuSHk. Di* P/oJfVAen /reiutui FracmmU. in TU.
EX. 3.19001 idein, Z,illimhir. nnnilt the Index (very fulll;

acrte. L 4BS-6I9, ii! 537, 643-5M: Neandar, Clinttian
Onrth, I eJ9~n3 ct paaum; ScbalT, Chhtlian Church,

ii. 7*e aqq.: Moeller, CAHjIion CKurcA. i. 100, 1S8, 199

TREnAEUS, CHRISTOPH: Follower of Matthias
Flacius (q.v,); b. at Schweidniti (31 m. s.w. of
Brcslau), Silesia, c. 1522; d. probably at Buchenbach
(between Hall and Rothenburg-on-the-Tauber),
Wurttemberg, c. 1595. From May, 1644, he studied
at Wittenberg, where he was enrolled as Christ-
offerus Harem. After being rector of schools at
Bemburg (1545-47) and Aschersleben, he became
M. A. at Wittenberg, Feb. 14, 1549. Late in 1S32
he became deacon and was ordained by Bugenhagen.
In 1559 he became archdeacon, and began bis very
extensive activity as theological author about this
time. In the spring of 1562 he was called as pastor
to Eisleben. Here, as a strict Lutheran, he was
highly esteemed by the counts of Mansfeld and the
congregation, and became acquainted with the fol-
lowers of Flacius, In 1566 John William of Saxony
called him to be court preacher, first in Coburg, then
in Weimar. Iren&us uliliied this appointment to
obtain positions for the Flacians at the university,
in the Church, and in the chancery, and advocated
the doctrine of Flacius at the Altenburg Colloquy,
Oct. 21, 1568-Mar. 9, 1569. Merlin, Chemnila, and
Jakob Andreie tried in vain to win him from Flacius.
When the Evangelical princes complained of the
Flacians in 1570, IrenAus was transferred aa super-
intendent to Neustadt-on-the-Orla. but persisted
in his usual way, and when menaced with an in-
vestigation, escaped to Manafetd in 1572. His old
friends did not stand by him, and Archbishop
Sigismund of Magdeburg now inwrvened. IrenSus
eluded his soldiers, Dec. 31, 1574, and thenceforth
traversed Germany as an " exile for Christ."
Though seven times banished before 1590, he con-
tinued striving with unbroken courage, and above
alt opposed the Formula of Concord, its authors,
subscribers, and defenders. In 1575 he was expelled
from his native town, whereupon he sojourned in
Hesse and along the Lower Rhine. In 1579 he was
at Frankfort, and finally found refuge with Eberliard
of Stetten at Buchenbach. Count Wolfgang of
Hohenlohe constrained him to a colloquy with
Andrea, at Langenburg, Aug, 6, 1681, and then
insisted upon his withdrawal from Buchenbach. At
the close of 1682, he obtained a call to the Lower
Austrian Church at Horn, but on Aug. 12, 158S,
the Flacians one and all were notified of their dis-
charge. Iren&us returned to Buchenbach, and
occupied himself with literary work. He was a
noble, talented, and learned man, but a classic
example of the rabtu iheotogorum which converts a
single article of Christian faith into a central dogma,
as he did with the doctrine of Flacius on original sin.
Hia best strength was spent in vituperation and
railing, and. in his inequity of judgment he was
even carried into falsehood, ho that his best book,
Der Spiegel des ewigen L^era (1672), loses thereby
in value. G. Bossgrt.

BiBtif^nftAPnT: B. Ruupacb, Etanetlitchrt Oattrrmifh. nttH
Prabyltniioevi Auilriata. pp. S9-73, and Sachtrml. Zicit~
facht Zuvabt, p. 43, 3 vol*., Hamburi, 1741-44 (Ibe beat
bio^aphy, containing nlao a useful bibliography): J. Q,
Leurlcffid, /fill. SpanambtTetntii, pp. 37-38. Quedlinbuix,
1710; VI.PnKft.MaUhiatFbieiutlUuricvmndttintZtil,
2 roll.. Erlangen, 1859-411: ZUT. ill |18A0), 3 agq.. 31B
sqq-; ^DB. liv, 582.

IREITE: ByiantJDc empresa; h. nt Athens 752;
d. in Lesbos Aug- 9, 803. In 7C9 she married Leo,
afterward Lea IV., aod, upon his death id 780, she
became regent during the minority of Conetantine
VI, The firat years of her regency were marked by
-diautrous wars agaiiul the Arabians, to whom she
was forced to pay annual tribute. In the icono-
olaatic controversies of the time (see Iuaqcs \kd
Imaoe-Worbhip, II.) she had secretly been favorable
to images even during Leo's lifetime, and after his
death she set herself to reverse the ioonoclastic
legisiation of Conatantine V. Accordingly, having
gained control of the Eastern Church by judicious
appointments to bishoprics, she called the seventh
ecumenical council to meet at Constantinople in 7S6,
Owing to the iconoclastic zeal of the soldiers here
the council was transferred to Nicrea in 787, and
image- worship was then reestablished without
opposition (see NccJtA, Councils of). In 790 the
government was wresled from Irene by her son,
Constontine VI., but by 792 she was again in power,
ruling conjointly with ConBtantinc. After five
years of secret warfare between mother and son,
Irene finally gained the upper hand and had Con-
stantine blinded and thrown into a dungeon in 797.
Her own extravagant reign came to an end in 802,
when she was overthrown by Nicephorus and
banished to the Isle of Lesbos. Here she earned a
ineager living by spinning. At the time of her fall
«he was negotiating a marriage wiih Charlemagne,
with a view to uniting the Eastern with the Western
Empire. Her services in the interest of image-
worship won her the position of a saint in the Greek
Church. Her day is Aug. 15.
BlBLtonSAKIT: Gibbon. Dirhnt and FaU. v. lSl-192; KL.

t\. S73; Knimbachft, GtidtidiU. pp. 99. 9B4-Q6S, 1074;

Ccillier, AuKsuri Mcriti. lii. 136-136, liii. 619, 628.

ntlOIT, PAOL; German Evangelical Synod; b.
near Marthasville, Mo., Oct. 28, 1860. He waa
«ducated at Blackburn University, Carlinville, 111.
(1873-75), Washington University, St. Louis, Mo.
(1875-76), Ehnhurst College. Ehnhurst, 111. {A.B.,
1S79), and Missouri College, near Marthasville, Mo.
(1882). In 1S82 he was ordained to the ministry,
and after being assistant pastor of St. John's Evan-
gelical Church. Michigan City, Ind., from March to
June, 1882, and of Bethel Evangelical Church,
Freedom Township, Mich,, from June to Nov,, 1882,
then full pastor, and Is now pastor of St. John's,
Michigan City, Ind, From 1888 to 1896 he was
■ecretary of the Michigan district of his denomina-
tion, of which be is. theologically, an orthodox
member, and in 1890 was the official compiler of
the census for the Evangelical Synod, He has also
been president of the Michigan district of the Ger-
man Evangelical Synod since 1895.

IRISH ARTICLES: The Thirty-nine Articles of
the Church of England were not introduced in
Ireland till the time of Charles I. In their place a
shorter collection of eleven articles was published
in 1566 by authority of the deputy and the arch-
bishops and bishops. At the first convocation of the
Irish EpUcopal Church (1813-15) a series of 104
articles was adopted and approved by the deputy
in 1615, which was probably composed by James

THE NEW SCHATF-HERZOa

Ussher, then at the head of the tbeolc^eal faeulty
in Dublin (afterward archbishop of Armagh). Thejr
are important as proving the decided Calvinigm
of the Irish Church at that time, and still more
BO as the connecting link between the Thirty-nine
Articles and the Westminster Confeasion, and a*
the chief source of the latter, " as is evident from
the general order, the headings of chapters and sub-
divisions, and the almost literal agreement of
language in the statement of several of the moat
important doctrines." By a decree of the convoca-
tion, the leaching of any doctrine contrary to these
articles was forbidden. But the Irish convocation
of 1635, under the lead of the Earl of Straflord,
lord-lieutenant of Ireland, and his chaplain, John
Bramhall, formally adopted the Thirty-nine Articles,
and quietly ignored the others. Archbishop Ussher
required subscription to both. Eventually, bow-
ever, the Irish articles were lost sight of, and no
mention was made of them, when, in the banning
of the nineteenth century, the United Church of
England and Ireland was organized.
BiBLioamPiiT; P. Schnff, Creedt ef diriiUtidam. L 6e2-0es,
ill. 526-644, New York, 1877; T. OklsD. TU CAurdt ^
IrOand. 323-324. 342-344. 352-3M, London, 1BS2.

ntRGGITLARITr: In canon law, a defect or im-
pediment which excludes a person otberwiw quali-
fied from due reception or ezerdse of holy oideta.
Canonists divide these into two classes, irregular-
ities through defect and through fault. Under the
former come (1) those through natAl defeota,
affecting all who are not bom of a legitimate or at
least a putative marriage, and removable by sub-
sequent legitimation or by taking monastic vowa.
(2) Through bodily defects, affecting those whom
illness or mutilation has rendered incapable of per-
forming sacred fimctions, or of performing then
without lowering the dignity of the office or giving
offense to the people. (3) Through defects in age,
when the canonical age (q.v.) has not been attained.

(4) Through defects in knowledge, when the requf-
site knowledge for the order in question is tackijag,

(5) Through defects of faith, affecting neophyt««
and those not yet confirmed, who are presumably
insulHciently establisbed in the faith, (6) Through
sacramental defects, arising from certain conditions
in regard to a previous marriage of the candidate.
(7) Ex dtfeclti per/aiae leniiatit, attaching to those
who (though in a lawful way) have contributed
to the death or maiming of a fellow-man, such aa
soldiers, criminal judges, prosecutors, jurymen, or
witnesses, but not physicians and surgeons. (8)
Through defects in reputation. (9) Through defects
in the matter of Uberty, preventing the ordination
of slaves without their masters' consent, married
men without that of their wives, or guardians anil
trustees before release from their obligations. Ir-
regularity through faults occurs as a con»equenoe
of criminal acts publicly known or proved before a
court, or of certain misdeeds, even if not known;
the latter include the killing or maiming of another
person, heresy, apostasy, abuse of the ncmments
of baptism or orders; and the same effect is pro-

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Irene
Irving

dueed by what is technically known as constructive
bigamy, the marriage (if consummated) with any
woman not a viigin, which, though not forbidden
by ordinary law, is yet considered a sufficient de-
doision from the ideal of marriage (cf. Lev. xxi.
13, 14) to disqualify a man for ordination. In case
a man has been ordained in spite of his irregularity,
his orders are valid, but he is not permitted to exer-
cise them. Dispensation from irregularity can be
granted as a rule by the pope alone — only in some
exceptional cases by the bishop.

(P. HlNBCHIUSt.)

BiKJoaKAPBT: Binghftm, Origine§, IV.. iiL-vii.; L. Thomas-
sin, V€tu9 et nova eedetiae dUdplina, II., L 62-63, 3 vols.,
Fuio, 1728; F. E. a Boeaningfaaiueii, Tmctatu* jxtridico-
camnticu* de irr^gtdariiatibuM, part iii, MOnster, 1867;
P. Hinadiius, Dom KirdtenredU . . . in Deuiachland, i. 7
aqq.. Berlin, 1800; £. Friedb«rg, I.€hrbuch deB . , . Kir-
ekemreAUt PP- 134 eqq., Leipmc, 1805.

IRVING, EDWARD: Scotch Presbyterian, usually
rqsarded as the founder of the Catholic Apostolic

Church (q.v.), whose members are

Life in popularly known as Irvingites; b. at

Scotland. Annan (15 m. e.s.e. of Dumfries),

Dumfriesshire, Aug. 4, 1792; d. in
Glaflgow Dec. 7, 1834. At thirteen he was sent to
the University of Edinbuigh, and at seventeen he
became a teacher of mathematics in the school at
Haddington. A year later he took charge of a new
academy at Kirkcaldy, but still kept up his theolog-
ical studies and a more or less regular attendance
on the university lectures. It was at this period
that he made the acquaintance of Thomas Carlyle
(the author, to be distinguished from a later apostle
of the same name), who has left the most vivid
picture of his development. In 1815 he passed his
theological examinations and received a license to
preach from the presbytery of Kirkcaldy. After
three years, not very successful as a preacher, and
weaiy of teaching, he went back to Edinbuigh and
occupied himself with linguistic and scientific
studies. He was seriously thinking of going as a
missionary to Persia when, in Oct., 1819, the posi-
tioQ was offered him of assistant to Dr. Chal-
mers at St. John's, Glasgow. Overshadowed by
Chahners, and impopular with the majority of the
congregation, he was glad to exchange this position
in 1822 for that of minister of the small congrega-
tion in London connected with a Scotch asylum
in HattoQ Garden. He received ordination at the
hands of the presbytery of Annan, and took his
leave of Gla$gow in a remarkable sermon which
eaDed for a complete revision of the methods of
Christian preaching.

In London he at once made an impression, which
was partly due to his striking appearance; he was

over six feet tall, his pale face framed

SnccflM in in dark locks which fell almost to his

London, shoulders. No one could hear him

without being conscious of a powerful
and dominating perscmality. His flowery, rhetorical
style soon attracted a large circle of hearers, for
which the little church was too small. A new one
was built in Regent Square, and for a time he was
the fashionable preacher of London. He appealed
especiaDy to the educated classes; and it was to
tliiem that he spoke in his first published work,
VI.— 3

For the Oraclea of God, Four Orations. For Judgment
to Come, an Argument in Nine Paris (London, 1823).
The attention attracted by his writings increased
his popularity, and at the same time heightened his
self-consciousness; he felt himself called to be the
prophet of his people, and scornfully rejected the
well-meant warnings of many members of the
Evangelical party.

The upheaval of the French Revolution had
aroused in England a strong tendency to apocalyp-
tic and millenarian thought, which
Joins found expression in numerous writings.
Drum- Among those most strongly impressed
mond's by this thought was Henry Drummond
Circle. (q.v.), a rich banker who had gathered
around him a circle of like-minded
friends, devoted to gaining general recognition for
their apocal3rptic views. Irving adopted the singular
exegesis and the whole train of thought of Drum*
mond's circle, which opened to him an entirely new
field as a preacher of repentance. In a long dis-
course, later printed with enlargements (Babylon
and Infidelity Foredoomed of God, Glasgow, 1826),
preached at the anniversary of the Continental
Society in 1825, he developed these thoughts and
foretold the second coming of the Lord for the year
1864. Next he published, with an introduction of
200 pages, a recasting of a work published pseu-
donymously in 1816by Lacimza, a Spanish ex-Jesuit,
imder the title The Coming of Messiah in Glory and
Majesty (London, 1827). Meantime a regular
'' school of the prophets " had gathered around him,
who, from the end of 1826, met annually at Drum-
mond's country-seat of Albury, near Guildford.
From 1829 to 1833 they published a periodical.
The Morning Watch, a Journal of Prophecy.

A sectarian tendency soon developed. Irving had
been saying from 1824 on that since the fivefold
office of apostles, prophets, evangelists.
Rise of pastors, and teachers had disappeared
Irvingites. from the Church, the Holy Ghost had
deserted it. Irving thus showed an
increasing tendency to depart from the principles
of Scotch Presbyterianism. He now denied pre-
destination; following the High-church teaching of
Hooker, he felt himself a priest and required his
people so to regard him; and toward the end of 1827
he gave utterance to Christological views which
were regarded as the grossest heresy, speaking of the
'' sinful substance " of the body of Christ. In
defense of his view, he wrote a long rhetorical
treatise on the Incarnation which forms the third
and fourth parts of his Sermons, Lectures, and Occa-
sional Discourses (3 vols., London, 1828). This
attitude, combined with his apocaljrptic vagaries,
damaged his position in London. About this time
a union of prayer was formed to beseech a new out-
pouring of the Holy Spirit, and Irving's assistant,
Alexander Scott, expressed the hope that the special
charismata of the primitive Church might once more
be bestowed in answer to these supplications.
Fresh excitement was aroused by two preaching-
tours of Irving's through Scotland in 1828 and 1829,
and in Mar., 1830, occurred the phenomena else-
where detailed (see Catholic Apostolic Church),
which were taken as a fulfilment of these hopes.

IrviniT
Isaaos

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

At least a commission from London, of which the
lawyer Gardale was the most prominent member,
accepted them as the expected renewal of the prim-
itive gifts, and a confirmation of the whole trend
of apocalyptic preaching. Similar phenomena now
occurred at gatherings in Gardale 's house; prophecy
and speaking with tongues became more and more
frequent. Irving attempted for a time to keep
these manifestations separate from the church ser-
vices proper, while he welcomed them and made
use of the messages thus delivered, and looked to
the revival of the offices already recognized as
essential. But revelation succeeded revelation, and
presently Irving could no longer hold back the
growing enthusiasm. In Oct., 1831, it took posses-
sion of his church, amid scenes of great excitement.
When Irving was summoned, in 1830, before the
general presbytery of the Scotch churches in London
to answer for his Christological views, and denied
their jurisdiction, appealing to the general synod in
Scotland, his own presbytery had stood by him.
But now it accused him of violation of the liturgical
ordinances in allowing women, and men who were
not properly ordained ministers, to speak in his
church. Sentence of deposition was pronoimced
on May 2, 1832. Four days later Irving began
independent services in a hall with about 800 com-
municants, and in October he removed to a remod-
eled studio in Newman Street, leaving behind him
the last remnants of the old Presbyterian order.

Though Irving was the " angel " of the Church,
the voices of the prophets left him little hearing.

Cardale, Drummond, and the prophet

Irving Taplin took the lead of the movement,

Superseded, and the new organization proceeded

rapidly. New functionaries were cre-
ated as the Spirit bade, on the analogy of New-
Testament indications, and presently there were
six other congregations in London, forming, with
Irving's, the counterpart of the seven churches of
the Apocaljrpse. Irving accepted the whole develop-
ment in faith, although he had conceived the apos-
tolic office as something different, which should not
interfere with the independence of himself as the
** angel." But he had lost control of the move-
ment, and those who now led it lost no opportunity
of humiliating the man to whose personality they
had owed so much. When the sentence of deposi-
tion was confirmed by the presbytery of Annan,
and then by the Scottish general synod, and he
returned to London strong in the consciousness of
his call by God to the office of angel and pastor of
the church, he was not allowed to baptize a child,
but was told to wait until, on the bidding of the
prophets, he should be again ordained by an apostle.
His health was now failing, and his physician or-
dered him, in the autumn of 1834, to winter in the
south. He went, however, to Scotland, where the
prophets had promised him great success in the
power of the Spirit, and died in Glasgow, where he
is buried in the crypt of the cathedral.

(T. KOLDE.)

Bibijoorapst: Irving's ColUcted WrUingt were edited by
bis nephew, G. Carlyle. 5 vols., London, 1864-65. Besides
the literature under Catholic Apostolic Church, es-
pecially the biogr^hy by Mrs. Oliphant, and Carlyle's
ReminiseeneeB, consult D. Brown, Feraonal ReminxMotneu

of Edward Irving, in BxpoHtor, 1897; C. K. Paul, ia
Biographical SkttdiM, London, 1883; W. A. Smith.
"Shn^ierd" Smith, the UnivermlUt, London, 1892.

IRVUfGITES. See Cathouc Apostolic Chitbch;
and Irving, Edward.

ISAAC (Hebr. yixhak, more rarely yishak, ** the
laugher "; LXX. laaak, Vulg. Igaac) : the son of
Abraham and Sarah, who served as an object for
testing his father's faith and obedience. He was
bom (according to P) in Abraham's himdredth jrear
and in Sarah's ninetieth. Gen. xxi. 6 (E7) — cf. zviL
17 (P), xviii. 12 sqq. (J) — brings the name into
connection with his birth. Abraham's obedience
was shown in the circumcision of the boy eight
days after his birth (Gen. xxi. 4, P), and in his
readiness to sacrifice, at God's command, this son
for whom he had so ardently longed (chap. zxii.).
Isaac in this submitted to the will of his father,
just as he did later in his marriage with Rebekah,
although he was then forty years old. Few details
are given in r^ard to the remainder of Isaac's life,
and he appears as a rather weak copy of his father.
He manifested a lesser fondness for journeying,
since his travels were confined to the southern
portion of the land, the Negeb, and the neighboring
territory. In this desolate r^on, the well Lahai-roi
(Gen. zxiv. 62; the modem Munailah), Gerar, the
Philistine city (xxvi. 1; the modem Jerar), the
valley of Gerar (xxvi. 17), Beersheba (xxvi. 23),
and finally Hebron (xxxv. 27), are places where he
sojourned for a time. When at Cteiar, according to
Gen. xxvi. 7 sqq., he had an experience with King
Abimelech similar to his father's (Gen. xx. 1 sqq.,
E, xii. 10 sqq., J). The similarity of the three
accounts does not necessarily imply that they are
variations of the same incident; but borrowings
and substitutions may have taken place in oral
tradition.

Isaac was characterized, as contrasted with Abra-
ham, by a certain advance in civilisation. In Gerar
he devoted himself both to the raising of flocks and
herds and to agriculture. His food was game and
his drink was wine, while Abraham obtained the
latter only from some other prince. Isaac appeared
always as pacifically inclined, yielding to his envious
neighbors when they disputed with him the posses-
sion of wells, and yet he enjo3red a singular respect
on the part of strangers, who considered it desirable
to be on friendly footing with the '' blessed of the
Lord " (Gen. xxvi. 28 sqq.). The principal sig-
nificance of Isaac is that he carried over the divine
blessing of the covenant from Abraham to Jacob,
the ancestor of Israel. After his wife had been for
a long time barren (Gen. xxv. 21), twin children of
very dififerent characters, Esau and Jacob, were
granted to him in answer to his prayer. Although
the father clung to the elder, when old and blind
he was forced by the stratagem of his wife to bestow
upon his younger son, Jacob, the blessing which
had been bequeathed to him by Abraham (Gen.
xxvi. 3 sqq., 24). Isaac showed Little independence
either at home or abroad, in place of which his sub-
mission to the decrees of the Almighty gave him
his position between Abraham the faithful and
Jacob, the champion of the faith. In this trio Isaac

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

repreaeota that pious fidelitr which guards the
inberited blessmg, more occupied with its preserva-
tion than with an^ idea of further gain. For later
Jews he appears as " the ehief of the bound and
tCHtured " (Ukirash to Esther), that is, the proto-
type of martyrs.

The story of Isaac is made up from the three
Pentateuchal sources, which agree eaaentiaJly in
their narratives and guarantee the historical charac-
ter of Isaac's personality. His name does not yield
lo the explanation that it belonged to a divinity
or B, tribe, the significance " he laughs " being in-
appropriate to both.

The designation of God as " the fear of Isaac "
(Gen. xxxi. 42, 63) is peculiar. Since this " fear "
was sworn by, it must mean "divinity," corre-
sponding to the Greek tdtaa in the sense of tsbosma,
" an object of awe or reverence."

CC. vow Orilu.)

BoujooKArar: A. Bonutaln. Urtprui%e lUr Saaen ton
Abraliam, Iiaak und Jakeb, Berlin. IS71; J. Popper,
Unpnma dtt lionoAtitmu; pp. 201 Hiq.. ib. 1S7B; J. B.
Uoilcy. Rulinfi Idiu in Earl)/ Aga, shapK ii.-iiL, New
York. 1870; E. C. A. Riohm. HandwIiTlvhvch dn bMuAm
AUirtmu, pp. 761-702, Leipne. 1863; Q, B. dny. Stadia
in Hibrrv Fnptr JVa>ui. p. 214. Ixindon. ISBS: 0. Hu-
IMn. StnimU of 1A« AToJiofii. p. 6S. ib. 18M: DB. ii. 4S3-
48S: SB. ii. 2174-2170 (atiioulmtinc): JS. n, ei6-«lS.
Ccomll *Jw Ihn ^ppraprisM •Mtinnt in irorki on the

ISAAC OF AlinOCH: The name of a writer
(perhaps of several writers) of the early Syrian
Church. Jacob of Bdessa (cf. W. Wright, Caialogu*
t^ the Syriac itanutcripU in (As BritMi Museum,
ii. 603-604, London, 1871) distinguishes three of
the name, two whom he calls orthodox and a third
whom be styiee a Chalcedonian heretic. The first
was a disciple of Ephraem, snd went to Rome in
the time of Arcadius; on his return he was kept
for some time in prison in Constantinople, and lat^r
became presbyter of Amida. Theseeond,pre8byteror
Edeesa, went to Antioch in the time of the Emperor
Zeno and the patriarch Peter the Fuller (see .Mono-
mi BITES, 11 4 sqq.), and preached against the
Neetoriana, ***''"g his text from a parrot which he
had heard sonech the trissgion with the addition
" erueiSed for us." The third, also from Edessa,
was orthodox in the time of Bishop Paul (512 sqq.),
but Nestorisn under Asclepius (522 sqq.). Genna-
dius knows of two writers of the name. The second
(D« mr. iU., Ixvi.), presbyter of Antioch, lived to
•n advanced age and wrote much, including an
elegy on the fall of Antioch (459); he died under
Leo and Hajorian (between 459 and 461) . Zachariaa
Rhetor (ed. K. Ahiens anr G. Krtlger, Leipsic,
1889, p. *20) mentions" Isaac, the teacher of Syria,"
with Dada in the time of Areadius and Theodoelus.
Dionysius of Telmahre knows of poems by Isaac on
the apture of Rome by the Goths (410) and the
secular games of 404. Johannes bar Shushan (d.
1073), who collected the writings of Isaac, calls him
a disciple of Ephiaem's disdple, Zenobius. There
is aa edition of his works (incomplete) by G. Bickell
(3 vols,, Qieseen, 1873-77); thirty-seven produo-
tioos out of about two hundred are given. Including
a poem of not ten than 2,136 lines on the parrot
and the trisa^on, and another of 1,628 Ibes on

repentance. A volume of Isaac's homilies has been
published by P. Bedjan (Paris, 1903).

E. Nestle.

Bihjookafbt: 3. 8. Asaemmni. BMioOttca orimlalit, I 207-
804, ROCM. 1716; P. Zinferle, in TO, lii (1S70). 62-114;
0. CardAbi, Liber Aetauri dt art* pcttica Sj/rorui% pp. 21-
2S, Rome 187S; W. Wri«hl, Sluirt Hitt. of Syriac lAttn-
(urt, pp. JS1-G4. Londan. 1864; R, Duval, LitUraturt
fvria«u<. pp. 340-341, P»ria. 1000; DCB. iiL 265-266.

ISAAC OF imfEVEH: Bishop of Nineveh in the
seventh century. He was made bishop by the
patriarch George (060-680), in succession to Moees,
but retired after five months, and died, almost
blind from much study, in the monastery of Rabban
Shabor. One of his works exists in Syriac, Arabic,
and Ethiopic, and also in a Greek ti&nslation by
two monks, Patricius and Abraham, of the mon-
astery of Har Saba, southeast of Jerusalem, and
published by Nioepbonis (Leipsic, 1770; in MPO,
Ixxxvi. 799-888). A Latin translation under the
title laaae Syrua, liber d« eoniemptu mundi in fifty-
three chapters is in the BiblioUieca magna (Cologne,
1618, VI., ii. 683; Gallandi, Bibliotheca, xii. 3).
Another work entitled " Letter to the Holy Father
Simon in the Wonderful Mountain " is published in
Greek in Uai's Nova BMiolheea, vol. viii., part 3
(Rome, 1871), pp. 156-188; it is interesting for its
information about Halpat of Edessa, the originator
of the Hesaaliana, and the knowledge it shows of
apocalyptic literature. E. Nbbti.b.

BiBLKHHAPnT: The earlier literature, vii.. J. S. Anemani,
BiblioUieta orienlatu. i. 44, Home, ITIB; W. Wright,
Short llitt. of Si/riac Litamlure. London. 1BB4; and J. B.
ChaiK)t, De S. Itaaei Ninipitat vita, impJif tt riocfrino,
Pario. 1302. la to be corrrot«d by Jitutderiah. tvtQtit dt
Baerak, It livre de la etuutM, «d, J. B, Cbabot, Rome
1S66, ef. J, B, Clial»t in Rtmu ttmitiaut. I86<I, p. 254.
Consult aim DCB. iii. 201-262; W. Wricht, Catalogut
BfSgrwc Mas., ii. 586-681, London, 1870-72.
ISAAC BEIT SHESHET 8ARFAT: Spanish
Jewish talmudiat; b. at Valencia in 1326; d. at
Algiers in 1408. He studied at Barcelona, where
he also began his life-work, early gaining a reputa-
tion as a talmudist and being called upon for legal
opinions. When fifty he became rabbi, removed
later to SarBgOBsa, and thence to Valencia. In 1391,
in consequence of persecution of the Jews, be fled,
going to Algiers, where he was made rabbi. He
was the author of 417 " reeponsa " which have been
highly valued by competent authorities, published
as She 'ehl vr-Teshubot (Constantinople, 1546-47);
and possibly of an unpublished commentai; on the
Pentateuch.

BiBUoauTHT: J£. vi. 631-632.

ISAACS, ABRAH SAHDEL: Jewish rabbi; b.
in New York City Aug. 30, 1852. He was educated
at New York University (B.A,, 1871) and the
University of Brealau (1878), and since 1886 has
been connected with New York University, where
he has been professor of Hebrew (1886-94) and
German (Eince 1887). He was also preacher to the
East 86th Street Synagogue, New York City, in
1886-87, and since 1896 has been rabbi of B'nai
Jeshurun Congregation, Paterson, N. J. He was
editor of The Jewiih Met$enger from 1878 to 1903,
and has written. Life and Writings of Mottt Chain
LiuatOo (New York, 1878) and Sloriet from the
RMnt (New York, 1894).

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

ISAIAH.

II.
I.

•>

The Book of Isaiah.
Its Plaoe in the Canon.
The Text.

Its Condition (| 1).
Causes and Kinds of Errors (| 2).
3. Authorship.

Prophetic Authorship in General

(§1).
Interrelations of i-xxxv. and

xl.-lxvi (I 2).
Authorship substantially Isaianic

(§3).
Isaianic Authorship of xxviiL

XXXV (I 4).

Chapters iL-xii (| 5).
Chapters xiii.-xxvii (| 6).
Results of the Investigation (| 7).

I. The Prophet and His Times: The name rendered
" Isaiah " in English has in the Hebrew two forms,
Ye8ha*yahf and Yeaha^yahu, the latter in his book,
II Kings xviii.-xxi., and I Chron. xxv. 3, 15, xxvi.
25, II Chron. xxvi. 22, xxxii. 32, the former in
I Chron. iii. 21; Neh. xi. 7. In the Septuagint it
varies greatly, taking the forms lenas, lesmaa,
I(^ea8, Hi8aia8f laauu, Oaaiaa, The derivations
and meanings given are quite varied.

Outside the book called by his name and II Kings
xviii.-xxi., Isaiah the prophet is mentioned only

twice in the Bible. II Chron. xxvi. 22
1. Beporta ^^^^ ^j^^^ ^j^^ ^^^ ^^ Uwiah of Judah
Oow^l^o^^^^ written down by Isaiah the

prophet, the son of Amoz. The
method of citation here deviates from the usual
formula, so that either incompleteness or defacement
of the text is suspected, while the Septuagint lacks
the phrase ** son of Amoz " and has further varia-
tions. The passage adds nothing to knowledge of
the prophet gained elsewhere. It has been taken,
in connection with Isa. i. 1, as groimd for the con-
jecture that the prophet lived through the entire
reigns of the four kings mentioned, and that Isa. vi.
tells of a renewed call of the prophet after a period
of quietness. This is favored by the position of
chap, vi., and modem students are inclined to
attribute chaps, i.-v. wholly or in part to the early
years of Uzziah. II Chron. xxxii. 32 speaks of a
record in the ** Vision of Isaiah " of the deeds of
Hezekiah which is in the Book of Kings. The Sep-
tuagint, Vulgate, and Tai^gum place an " and "
before " in the book," thus mentioning two sources.
It is to be noticed that " Vision of Isaiah " was the
title of the canonical Book of Isaiah (Isa. i. 1).
The passage was early taken as indicating an inde-
pendent " Vision of Isaiah," and an apocryphal
book of that character was cited by Origen, and is
perhaps the " Martyrdom (or Ascension) of Isaiah "
known in the Ethiopic (see Pseudepiorapha, Old
Testament, II. 34), dealing with the martyrdom
of Isaiah under Manasseh. This tradition of a
martyrdom appears also in the Gemara (Ydximot
49b) as drawn from ** an early genealogical record "
and due to a condemnation of certain utter-
ances of the prophet. Another tradition connects
the death of Isaiah with his condemnation of the
aet of Manasseh recorded in II Kings xxi. 7, and
brings into relation with this event the passage
Isa. Ixvi. 1 sqq., and a prediction of the coming
of Nebuchadrezzar to destroy the temple. This
aroused the wrath of Manasseh, who ordered the
prophet to be brought and slain. Isaiah fled and

took refuge in the heart of a tree, which closed about
him and hid him. But his pursuers sawed through
the tree until the blood of the prophet flowed forth
as water. The passages II Kings xxi. 16, xxiv. 3-4
are brought into relation with this tradition and the
event is said to have occurred on Tammuz 17, cor-
responding to July 6, given in the Roman Catholic
calendar (cf. ASB, July, ii. 250 sqq.; A. Kloster-
mann. Das Datum des Martyrium Jeaaias im
rdmiBchen Kalendar, in TSK, 1880, pp. 536 sqq.).
The one tradition of value seems to be that which
places his death in the reign of Manasseh.

This tradition may be brought into connection
with the title of the book by way of defining the
period of activity of the prophet. To
Onronol- j.jjg pgrfod of the four kings mentioned
p^^^ ^ in the title may be added an undefined
but short period under Manasseh, and
Isa. vi. 1 is often taken as indicating the entry of
Isaiah upon prophetic work in the last year of
Uzziah. Supposing that he was then twenty years
old, his age at the accession of Manasseh would be
eighty-one; thus: the destruction of Jerusalem was
in 586 B.C., the eleventh year of Zedekiah; then,
according to the reckoning of the Book of Kings,
Manasseh began to reign in 696 b.c, Hezekiah in
725 B.C., Ahaz in 741 B.C., Jotham in 757 B.C.,
and the death of Uzziah would fall in 758 b.c.
[or 757]; the siege of Samaria imder Shalmaneser
began in the fourth year of Hezekiah, 722 b.c, and
its capture by Saigon in Hezekiah's sixth year,
720 B.C. If it is assumed, as is most probable,
that the sign on the dial of Ahaz is to be connected
with the eclipse of Mar. 14, 711 B.C. (F. K. Ginzel,
SpezieUer Kanon der Sonnenr und Mandfinstemisaef
Berlin, 1899), visible in Jerusalem, then the fore-
going statements in general and the assignment of
the year 711 b.c. for the healing of Hezekiah tally
with astronomical data. Therefore the embassy
from Merodach-baladan (Isa. xxxix. 1) would fall
at the earliest in 711 b.c, and Hezekiah 's deter-
mination to throw off Assyrian overlordship would
fall in 710 b.c The Ptolemaic Canon allows to a
Mardokempados twelve years as king of Babylon,
and to his conqueror, Saigon, five years; then the
last year of Mardokempados is the thirty-eighth of
the era of Nabonassar, and the first year of Sai^n is
709 B.C. Then that the '* king of Babylon," Mero-
dach-baladan (Isa. xxxix. 1), is not an indefinite
usurper of that name, but that the Mardokempados
of the Ptolemaic Canon is the Merodach-baladan of
the Assyrian inscriptions does not imply error
either in that he is called " son of Yakin " in the

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Canon or that he is called '* son of Baladan " in
Isa. zxxix. The former is accounted for by hia
capital being at Bit Yakin or Dur Yakin, evidently
taken as named for an eponymous ancestor, and
the latter may have arisen from a like connection
with a supposed ancestor mentioned in the second
element of his own name. Thus the Assyrian data
harmonize with the foregoing calculations. Accord-
ing to contract tablets adduced by G. Smith (Assyr-
ian Eponym Canon, London, 1875, pp. 86-87),
Sargon's fourteenth year fell in the eponymate of
Samashupahir, and his fifteenth year as king of
Assyria is stated to have been his third as king of
Babylon; his thirteenth year over Assyria was
therefore his first over Babylon, i.e., 709 b.c, and
his reign over Assyria b^an 722-721 b.c; Sar-
gon's seventeenth and last regnal year was 705
B.C., and the first of his successor, Sennacherib, was
704 B.C. The Eponym Canon and the Ptolemaic
Canon give assistance from this point on. From
Assyrian records it is clear that the regnal year of
Saigon began in the middle of an eponymate.
The discrepancy between the Biblical date of 720
B.C. and the apparent Assyrian of 722 b.c. is ex-
plained partly by confusion between the beginning
of the eponymous year and the regnal year of the
king, and partly by a transposition occurring in
the Canon lists. Concerning the relation of Shal-
maneser to his predecessor, Tiglath-Pileser, nothing
can be said, as the Canons fail here. But if the first
r^gn&l year of Sennacherib fell in the last part of the
eponymate of Nabudinipus and the first part of the
latter's successor's, Sennacherib can not have made
an expedition to the West in Hezekiah's fourteenth
year (Isa. xxxvi. 1), which expedition he states that
he made in his own third year, when he shut Heze-
kiah up " like a bird in a cage " (Schrader, KATy p.
2d3). If it be assumed that Sennacherib's full reg-
nal year is meant, it might fall in 702-701 b.c, and
with this would agree the supposition that the surely
errooeouB dating in Hezekiah's fourteenth year of
Isa. xxxvi. 1 is due to a previous mention of his
twenty-fourth year. So that in 702 b.c, accord-
ing to the As83rrian basis, began the Assyrian sub-
jection of Judah and Hezekiah.

Then Isaiah's activity as a prophet would fall
between 758 and 690 b.c at the latest, a period of
singular moment. The Assyrians, in
their conquest of Syria and Palestine,
laid a basis for further conquests in
the northwest and southwest, hindered,
however, by the danger from the Medes and other
peoples in their rear. By the movements which
went on about them, the Jews were brought into
contact with world politics, and in the Book of
Isaiah the fortunes of distant and neighboring
peoples receive larger notice than had been custom-
ary. The northern kingdom fell from the high estate
it achieved under Jeroboam II. after a career in which
the most contradictory state policies had been pui^
sued. It had become identified with an attempt to
unite Sjrria, Israel, and Judah against Asssrria, in
which the refusal of Judah had led to an attempt
to set aside the Davidic dynasty in Judah. Uzziah
had thought to strengthen his own kingdom by
securing his boundaries with fortresses and by heap-

8. Bztor-

3ua

ing up the means and materiab of war to furnish
material giiaranties for the faith of the Jews in the
security of the city of Yahweh and of the dynasty.
Ahas preferred to depend upon the clemency of
the Assjrrian king. Hezekiah rejected this means
of quiet, and put his trust in Yahweh without using
human means.

The lessons of the period for the pious of Israel

and of all times are that Yahweh reaches the ends

corresponding to his being through

4. Belation ^j^^ history of his people and of the

Events ^orld. It does not follow that he

to Faith, i^pudiates his people or his promises
to their fathers, nor yet that he makes
the foundation of his kingdom dependent upon the
hegemony of any earthly state where his worship
should be conducted. While he permitted the
Davidic kingdom to fall apart and Jerusalem to
become the capital of the smaller division, allowed
Israel's land to receive a new population, and the
Davidic king to become a vassal of Assyria, while
he brought to nought Sennacherib's plans against
Jerusalem, the purpose seemed to be to purify the
faith of the people that his might and will shouM
ordain healing or destruction. The Israelites had
supposed God's interests bound up with those of
his people in his land and its institutions. But
they had to learn through discipline that the
people to whom his promises came and to whom
they applied was a people which corresponded in
its essence to his own sanctity and were not depend-
ent upon mere fleshly hopes. It contravened past
experience that he who had promised to be the
savior of his people should permit them to be beaten
and subdued, while to tyrants whose purpose he
hated he had given the victory. The kingdom of
Jeroboam, founded on cunning and force, was no
better than other kingdoms; nor was the kingdom
of Judah, with its externals of sacrifice, that to
which he had made his promises. Of course, the
conquerors, who thanked themselves and their
gods for the victory, were even less fitted to be
his servants. The destruction of the foe at the
pinnacle of his greatness and the restoration of his
people were to reveal the fulfilment of his promises,
no more to be endangered by the rule of sin.

Yet Yahweh had not given over his land^ de-
stroyed his people, laid in ruins the house of David
and Jerusalem, burned up the world and
Ui^ 1 * <iestroyed mankind in order to create
Ig^^' a new earth. Rather the idea was
Propheoies. ^^^ sjrmbolized by the plant workl,
where the dying vegetation promises
new life by its seeds and its shoots. So in the dying
Israel there was an imperishable remainder, which
was to survive destruction and to live again in
unassailable dominion, to be menaced neither by
sin nor the anger of God. The people which had
been destroyed was to be awakened to new life,
and the house of David was to rise to renewed
kingly power in the son of a young woman. But
this was to take form neither in nation, state, nor
race. The germ can be considered only as an in-
visible church known only to Yahweh. And since
in Israel the prophet of Yahweh is he who learns
the will of YflJiweh in the conditions of things and

laaUh

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

translates the dark sayings of God as uttered in
the events of history, so the people gathered by
the prophet's word and unified by it is the inde-
structible Zion, the enduring remainder of Israel
which makes the prophet's teachings the ground of
its inner life. The prophet is the medium of this
new life. His conduct in life, his hope in sorrow,
are the prefigurement and pledge of that which is
destined for the commimity.

Such a person does Isaiah appear in the testimony,

direct and indirect, which his book carries. Outside

of the reports of his life already con-

Lif^d* ''*^®'^» ^^ °^y ^ gathered that he was
Oharaoter. ^ citizen of Jerusalem; that he had
several children, one of whom, a son,
must have been bom in Jotham's reign (vii. 3),
and another during the Syrian-Ephraimitic war
(viii. 1 sqq.); that he regarded wife, children, and
the events of family life as living pictures and true
signs of the prophecies he uttered; that he looked
back upon the hour of consecration pictured in
chap. vi. as pivotal, and as conditioning his inner
life (viii. 11 sqq.). Since his care and hopes were
so different from those which public life offered, he
deemed it his duty to implant in continuing security
in the heart of a receptive circle, for use in the future,
the divine knowledge which had come to him.

In chap, vii., in the midst of the Syrian-Ephraim-
itic crisis, Isaiah sought in vain to direct the policy of
the Davidic house away from dependence upon As-
syria to trust in Yahweh, and in chap. viii. testified
that the waters of Shiloah were sufficient to with-
stand the turbulence of Rezin and Pekah, and they
did not need the addition of the flood of Assyrian
might, which would overflow the land it was de-
signed to protect. Later Isaiah again sought to
stem the course of public events among his people
by glowing predictions of positive success. Such a
case is presented in the reign of Hezekiah when the
foe was drawn away from Jerusalem and the
danger to the city was averted by the catastrophe
which befell the enemy.

XL The Book of Isaiah. — l. itsPlaoe in theCanon:
In the Hebrew Bible Isaiah stands first in the divi-
sion of the so-called later prophets and precedes
Jeremiah and Ezekiel evidently upon the ground of
priority in history, but in the Septuagint it is pre-
ceded by the book of the Minor Prophets (cf.
Jerome, Ad Paulinum, Prologue gdUatua). The
Hebrew order is confirmed by the treatment in
Ecclus. xlviii. 22-xlix. 10. The Talmudic tract
Baba hathra (col. xiv., col. 2) makes Jeremiah follow
Kings and puts Isaiah between Ezekiel and the
Twelve according to the principle which arranges
books approximately in order of length. Reasons
for this difference in order are variously given:
Vitringa thought that the placing of Jeremiah first
was due to the tradition that Jeremiah had com-
posed the Books of Kings; Lightfoot alleged apolo-
getic interests which used the order in which Jere-
miah stood first to show that Matt, xxvii. 9 was not
in error, since the whole of the prophetic canon
might then be called after the name of the first book;
still others thought it might be due to the fact that
after Jeremiah and Ezekiel had taken form, Isaiah
had been changed or that it had taken form only

in the time of CyiMa, But these methods of reason-
ing are not conclusive.

8. The Text: The variety of contents and style,
the idealistic character of the oracles and the origi-
nality of thought have from earliest
^ times made this book difficult to under-

dition stand. Much read and often edited, it
could not maintain its original form,
and it became the object of an exegesis which sought
to come to an understanding with the traditional
text as an inviolable and sacred thing. The con-
dition of the text in chaps, xl.-lxvi. may be seen in
Klostermann's commentary (Munich, 1893) of
chaps, xxxvi.-xxxix. in the same author's com-
mentary on the parallel section in Kings (Mimich,
1887) and m TSK, 1884. And revision of the whole
text of chaps, i.-xxxv. is required before exegesis
can be securely founded, an especially difficult task,
for which the test of meter and artistic form, so
often suggested, is of very little value. Indeed,
changes of form by the prophet or his disciples are
not excluded from consideration; for example, in
the great picture of the judgment under the figure
of an earthquake in xxiv., at verse 7 there is the
beginning of an al^ifiabetical elegy in six-lined
strophes, the first two strophes of wl^ch are present
and complete, while of the third only the first half
is given. Similarly in xxiii. 16 only the beginning
of a known song is cited, and this may explain the
break at the end of xxiv. 12.

Not to be disr^arded are the paraphrases of
Jonathan, the fragments of Aquilais, Theodotion,
and Symmachus as they have come
d S*? ^o^^ ^th the marginal notes of the
of Errors. ^®^^P^ ^"^ ^^^^ ^he notes of Jerome.
These will at times serve to indicate
the introduction of errors in later times. Thus,
Jonathan indicates in viii. 14 the loss of " for you "
after '* he shall be,'' a conclusion supported not only
by the Vulgate, but by the second person in the
Septuagint. Doubled readings or translations in
these texts are often a guide to the original text,
since they point to a misreading or a misunder-
standing of a reading to which such misunder-
standing is a direct guide, as in xxxiii. 7, where
** their valiant ones " was read by the translators
in a double sense as the object of fear and as the
subject, which led to further changes in the text
of the verse. The Septuagint shows a similar
doubled reading in ii. 16b through a mistake of
the eye involving further changes in the text.
Sometimes a doubled reading is merely a mistake
in copying produced by itadsm, as in viii. 23,
codex 304. But a critical text of the Septuagint
will show that sometimes the translator in decipher-
ing his Hebrew exemplar has in a surprising manner
gone wrong through too great confidence in his
apprehension of the context. Such a ease is pre-
sented in viii. 7-8. Examinations of the Septua-
gint make it perfectly clear that its present text is
the result of a long period of correction of a text
which sought to give the sense of the prophetical
deliverances without having a sure insight into the
meaning and the form of the original. But the
early text together with the corrections themselves
and the differences between them often put the

RELIGIOUS ENCTCLOPEDIA

studsnt upon the tnck ol a better Hebraw text
tb*n ths one which has been traQ3niitt«d. There
is in mind here not only tbe Tn3 of nix. 3 in the
Septuagint, which alone eTplains why Yahweh,
who is beWguering Ariel in verse 1, hns made men-
tion o/ the Biege of Ariel by David in early timea,
but abo the t/H agopitdi tau of xxvi, I", la this
latter case the ''pT'?. which apparently lay before
the translator, goes back to an original II^W-
which be)(H)ged to veree 18 and marks ']*]CD as
superfluous, suggested indeed by the doubled Dip
of Jonathan.

Such mnnt aa this, which are frequent, are suffi-
cient to enable the student to correct the errors and
Bometiinei the gaps which occur in the synagogue
text of the Hebrew. Again, tbe original of x. 11
vma doubtlCM originally " shall I not also do so to
Samaria and her idols and to Jerusalem and her
images." The present text sets the lot of Samaria
as a type and prophecy of the lot of Jenisalem.
and pictures the fall of Santaria as a past event,
which is tbe result of a redaction which changed
tbe text of the prophet to square with a later bis-
toricai situation. Mistakes of pointing are also to
be nat«d, as when ADDt^ in i. 7 is thus pointed
OS a noun instead of n'coE^ as a verb, or in x. 13
tbe waw in TDIO and TllW i« given the aimple
shewa instead of kamets. Still worse is the pointing
171 for "^31 in ix. 8, for which the Septuagint has
tiiaiuitot, " death," which corresponds closely to the
" peetileooe " for which tbe proposed reading
stjmds. Accentuation and vocalization are both
astray in ix. 1, " io the former time," where for
J1P3 sboukl be read dljnv? ^^ ^^ words should
be joined with tbe clause which goes before.
Part of tbe errors of text are due to the diffi-
culties which underlay the consonantal form. This
especiaUy occurs in transferring an initial n to
tbe end of the preceding word, but appears
also in the loss of the letter in tbe middle or
end of a word, as when cixtlK for 07^ nmW
was given tbe fortn d3<K1K. A similar case occura
in viii. 6, where the double reading HKB* nKie>(l3l
came to be written ntKPVSf^O), and then teas changed
intonM ViVO. Other changes are cauoed by the
inclusion in tbe text of no(«s originally made in
the margin, for a case of which cf. vii. S~B with
verse 4. With such enlargements of tbe text corre-
spond also gaps, which are the result of carelessness or
chane«, or which rest upon intended shortening of
the reading or upon customary abbreviations. A cose
of tbe last is found in viii. 21, where " curse by their
king and their God " should read " curse the house
of their king and their God," where the letter betb,
Kpreaented in tbe English by " by," is an abbrevia-
tion or a mistake for b^, " house." Between" for '*
and " bead " ip viii. S has fallen out the word KB'tit,
" I win take away." If, as in tbe last case cited, a
word may fall out, so frequently from a word a letter
may be missing, of which numerous examples might
be cited. To these causes of change may be added
exchangM of tetters which either look or somid
^ike. Thus, in xi. 4, f^s demanded by the par-

allelism appears as pK, and In i. 7, xxv. 2, and
jcxix. 5, instead of D'll there appears Dnt. Inten-
tional amendment appears in the change from the
third person to the first in v. 3-6, influenced by
verse 2. Indeed, the riddles of interpretation In
wholespctionsof Isaiah, such 88 the six deliverances
of chaps, xxviii.-xxrv., the section xxiv.-xxvii.,
and their relation to other parts of the book require
as a preliminary to their solution the amendment
of the text, which is a preliminary to the work of
the higher criticism and the determination of the
time to which these sections belong.

8. Authorship: It is evident that a prophet who
intervened in public affairs m crises ho important,

whose experiences were so large, who,
A*'th'*'"hl° ^'"'° '" ^''* ''"'^^ °^ private life, WM
inOm'r^l """earyinRly diligent in instructing a

band of disciples with a broad future
in view, employed writing not only for the purpoee
of extending his personal activity beyond his im-
mediate environment, as, for example, to the Israel-
ites in exile, to the end that they might have his
words of comfort in their original form, but that
be had an outlook iipUTi the more distant futuie.
This must have been especially the case when tbe
subject matter was issued at the joining-point of
tbe past and tbe future when old things were bo-
coming new, when the utterances were needed as
a means of recogniiing God's work at the time and
for the time. It must have been in such a spirit
that the prophets wrote their books and unified
their earlier utterances in written discourse. They
were enabled in this way to supplement by adding
histcrieul notices and even to refer to the words of
earlier prophets. Since, in the book ascribed to
Isaiah, there exist in the flrst person recollections
of tbe fifty-»econ<l year of Uiziah, and in close
connection with these and in similar style discourses
which relate to atfaira at least sixteen years later
in the time of AiisK, and inasmuch as these latter
approve themselves as Isaianic by their congruity
with the activities and character of Isaiah as shown
in chaps, xxxvi.-xxxvii,, and further, since in this
book there appear whole series of addresses parallel
in matter with the occasions of the time, and setting
forth the same main idea, it is a fair presumptiim
that Isaiah undertook a collection of his prophecies.
Tlie question is whether the present book contains
only his sayings, or contains them in full, or in their
original order. Until this is settled, it is of little
use to quote what Sirach, Ambroslus, Jerome,
Cyril, and others down to the present have said
as to the worth of Isaiah from a Christian, etbicsd,
or esthetic standpoint.

To judge of all this a thoroughly nen
over is required, a historical investigatioi

this there is no better and r
*■ J"^""' starting-point than tbe sectior
L-xxa:v" and ^°°"' ■"""'"*■' ^ trustworthy narrative
xl.-livi. wbichhasfoundplaceatsoin the Books,

of Kings (xviii. 13 sqq.>. This narm-
tive is interjected by the compiler of Ibe book
Ijetween two well-arranged collections of anonymous
addresses, the first of which have rebtion to tbe
Assyrian period and correspond to the contents of
ehnns. xxxvi.-xxxvii., while the second seriee hna

orking-
., and for

in chaps.

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

relation to the Babylonian side and corregponds to
chap, xxxix. The second of the two series of
addresses begins with a command to give comfort
as the first closed with encouragement (xxxv. 3
sqq.); the second comes to a close in an opposition
of Edom and Zion (Ix. 1-bdii. 6) just as does the
first (xxxiii. 13-xxxv. 10). Since in both the general
view of the Holy Land and Jerusalem lb that of a
desolate and depopulated region, to be repeopled
by the return of the exiled, doubtless the editor
meant to convey the idea that, of both parts, the
Isaiah of xxxvi.-xxxix. is the prophetic author.
It is therefore unscientific arbitrariness, instead of
setting apart chaps, xxviii.-lxvi. and employing
chaps, xxviii.-xxxix. as the key to xl.-lxvi., to
break ofif after xxxv.-xxxix. and to imagine oneself
in a new region. He who reads xxxv. 3-4 does not
stumble at xl. 1; and only he who reads xxviii.-
xxxix. can understand xlviii. 3-11, and can regard
the same prophet as basing a second prediction
upon the fulfilment of the first. He can apply
xlii. 19 to the downfall of the northern kingdom,
and xliii. 8-10 to the deliverance from Sennacherib,
and Ivi. 9-Ivii. 21 to the end of the Isaianic times.
Whoever dares to read the six addresses of a name-
less prophet in xxviii.-xxxv. beginning with " Woe "
and to regard them as Isaianic as a whole and to
follow this out in such alleged exilic pieces as xxxiv.-
XXXV. has no philosophical reason for the timidity
with which he refuses to recogniee xl.-lxvi. as also
Isaianic. A hindrance to this has been the ob-
viousness with which Cyrus is mentioned even by
name, and the assurance with which the downfall
of Babylon and the freeing of the Israelites is
announced, predictions which the modem construc-
tion of all elements of the prophetic consciousness
on the basis of our knowledge of his times seem to
make impossible. But the Servant of Yahweh
who is named Righteous is as concretely and
definitely indicated as Cyrus and his relations to
Babylon and Israel; and the hegemony of the
restored Jerusalem and the repopulating of the
Holy Land is more definitely portrayed than the
downfall of Babylon. And, although the one fits
better with Jesus of Nazareth, and the other
with the Jerusalem of Herod's time, at least in
externals, than with any other prophet or with
the Jerusalem of any other time, yet the refusal
is made so to relate the connections. If the en-
thusiastic utterances of a prophet work out into
realization 500 years later, why could they not
with reference to C3rrus? In fact, the book does
not predict a coming victor to bear the name of
Cyrus, but says of one who has come that he lb
the realization of predictions made long before for
Jerusalem; the victory and success of Cyrus had
been so directly indicated that it was evident that
he could use his victory only as Yahweh willed,
and the honor was to come not to him, but to
Yahweh and his people. Thus Yahweh had laid
violent hands upon the prophet when he seized
upon the Isaianic period in which to bring before
the prophet's vision this picture of the future.
Isaiah realized that the present conqueror had been
predicted long before as called from the East to
carry out Yahweh's purposes of punishment, but

that he had been driven back when in wilfulness he
had attempted to go farther than Yahweh's pur-
poses had carried. Why, then, should he not
foresee a second conqueror, coming from the East
and more completely realizing God's designs, who,
by the very misfortimes which he brought, should
create the desire in the heathen world for Yahweh,
the only healing God, who is to be found in the
midst of his people (xlv. 14-25) 7 And why should
he not foresee the prophet who should so com-
plete the work of renovation as to bring about the
regeneration of the conununity? And to what
prophet could such a vision so appropriately have
come as to Isaiah, a man who, in the midst of the
most imtoward circimistanoes, could see aroimd him
the promise of a brilliant and righteous future?

If this be true, a new exposition of chaps, xl.-
lxvi. is required (the view-point of which was indi-
cated in the LvJtherische ZeiUchriftf 1876)
^M^a^V!' ^^^ * °®^ investigation of the frame-
■i^ti u ' ^^^^' ®^* *^ ^^ °°* ^^ ^ resolve the
Isalanio^ section into a threefold arrangement,
each part having nine chapters. As
the first part is introduced by xl. 1-11, the second
part is prefaced by xlviii. 16-22. The more natu-
rally the investigation proceeds, the surer does it
become that xl.-lxvi. does not as such proceed
from Isaiah, but that it arranges and works over
older prophecies. The tendency of modem criti-
cism LB to distinguish the " Servant of Yahweh
section " and a ** Trito-Isaiah," and, indeed, as
many Isaiahs as differences in style suggest; yet
by retaining for them the name Isidah this criticism
follows a correct instinct. The editor urges chaps,
xxxvi.-xxxix. upon the reader as the key to the
meaning of both xl.-lxvi. and xxviii.-xxxv., and
as the vindication of these parts as Isaianic in
substance.

It appears from the book of Isaiah that at least
from the thirteenth year of Hezekiah till after the
campaign of Sennacherib the prophet
A* th^M*' wielded a weighty and acknowledged
of xxvlii - ^ut^ori^y ^^^ kiogi court, and priests,
xxxv, ^^^ ^® made predictions whidi were
observably realized, that he assured
the continuance of Jerusalem and Judah beyond
the period of Assyrian stress and storm, while
Assyria was to become a possession of Babylon;
but besides this, it is clear that Hezekiah's resolu-
tion to withstand the Assyrian demands rested upon
Isaiah's warnings and promises, and that the prophet
was the responsible guarantor of a seemingly im-
possible fortunate issue. Indeed, xxxvii. 26 indi-
cates a prediction by Isaiah of the Assyrian victories
before Sennacherib's appearance. Upon the verifi-
cation of this word of Yahweh as the Lord of the
world was built the assurance that in the very
moment when Assyrian victories were made tli^
basis of belief that Yahweh was overcome the im-
potence of the Assyrian against him would be made
manifest, and this dispensation would reveal deci-
sively Yahweh's relation to Jerusalem and to the
Davidic house. In view of this, the six woes which
appear indissolubly woven together in chaps, xxviii.-
xxxv. impress one as rendering exactly the historical
I position of the Isaiah of chaps, xxxvi.-xxxix. and

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

as belonging to the texture of thought which is
there demonstrably that of Isaiah. It may be asked
whether these were put together by the prophet or
by one of his disciples out of his deliverances. A
doubt has been raised by the passage xxz. 6-7,
a piece which is related to the '* burdens " of chaps,
xxi.-xxii.; but the interconnection of xxz. 5 with
verse 8 indicates a continuity of thought. More-
over, chaps, xxxiii.-xxxv. are inseparably bound
together, as was long ago recognized by Ewald;
the direction in xxxiv. 1 sqq. to all peoples to listen
to the story of the coming judgment is parallel to
that in xxxiii. 13 warning the nations to take to
heart the judgment upon the Assyrian host. If they
do this, they may be exempt from the general judg-
ment to be executed upon the iseoples hostile to
Yahweh, which is to find its chief exemplification in
the punishment of Idumea (xxxiv. 6). Yet when
Ewald remarked that xxxv. must be regarded as
Isaianic, while of xxxiv. so much can not be cer-
tainly affirmed, he was within the bounds of prob-
ability, since it is likely that the prophet here used
earlier predictions. The passage xxxiv.-xxxv.
would never have been taken for exilic had not
first the waste in xxxv. been arbitrarily and imnatu-
rally regarded as the desert between Babylon and
Judea, and if, in the second place, the ** book of
Yahweh " of xxxiv. 16 had not been foolishly re-
garded as the book of our prophet. This book is
indeed the book of the kingdom, in which the future
world-king Yahweh has entered the names of his
I)eoples with their provinces (Ps. Ixxxvii.), a book
that was known to Isaiah (iv. 3); while the play
of this pictorial representation of the depopulation
of a land exactly corresponds to that in xxxiii. 23,
in XXX. 32-33, 23-24, and to the taunting, enig-
matical character which all these discourses show.
If now chaps, xxxiii.-xxxv. belong together as a
sixth discourse, Isaiah is the originator, and the
present arrangement corresponds to his intention.
Then the foreign elements, whether by another
author or by himself from another occasion, can
not be separated from the whole. It is a distortion
to regard xxviii. 1-6 as an oracle concerning Sa-
maria; rather is xxviii. the first of six oracles about
Judah and Jerusalem, dating from the time before
the fall of the northern kingdom as a state, and
belonging with iv. 2 sqq., as the resemblance be-
tween that passage and xxviii. 5-6 shows. It is
true that here, as in ii.-iv., the prophet has em-
ployed other oracles, either his own or those of
another prophet; moreover, to remove xxviii. 1-6
would leave what followed without a beginning
and destroy the cycle of oracles. Accordingly the
prophet and the editor of these six deliverances are
essentially the same, while the relation is different
from that in xl.-lxvi. But the editor put these
passages before xxxvi.-xxxix. as he put xl.-lxvi.
after them because of their formally and essentially
similar situation. Isaiah could not publish this
book without indicating his part in it; and it is
possible that Isa. i. was the introduction to the
book xxviii.-xxxv. when Isaiah or his disciple pub-
lished it as a monument of his activity in the
brilliant prophetic period of Hezekiah for the fol-
lowing generation, and that the editor inserted

ters
ii.-xU.

ters
xiU.-xxvU.

between i. and xxviii. the parts which have their
own titles (ii. 1 and xiii. 1).

There is now in our possession an assured basis
from which to consider and decide how far the two
sections ii.-xii. and xiii.-xxvii., which
^I?^" bear Isaiah's name, do so with justice.
There is not only a large number of
parallels with chaps, xxviii.-xxxix.,
but there is a remarkable agreement in situation,
in spite of the intermingling of varied fragments
and complete sections. There come out partic-
ularly the ingratitude and obstinacy of Judah and
Jerusalem and the consequently necessary purging
by punishment (ii.-iv.). It seems credible that
Isaiah himself arranged ii.-iv.; and as he surely
wrote vi. and xii. as components of a connected
whole, all the individual parts of v.-xii. are trace-
able to him, though that interpolations have taken
place need not be denied. It is possible that tljese
last were, according to the custom of the times,
attributed to Isaiah, and that the editor had the
book in manuscript form before him in which the
individual pieces had been inserted unintelligently
among others which were then laid aside or put in
other connections, and that transpositions were
made which brought these parts into positions earlier
or later in the book than they originally occupied.

In the second part, which separates into the four
** burdens " of xiii.-xviii. and the six of xix.-xxiii.,
there are certain guiding threads which
r_ *^" come both from i.-xii. and from xxviii.-
xxxv. The ** burden " of the beasts of
the South in xxx. 6 sqq. finds its coun-
terparts in the ** burdens '' of xix.-xxiii. ; and xxxiv.
1 sqq. agrees with xviii. 3. On the other hand, the
note of the leveling of the heights found in chap ii.
is repeated in xix. and xxiii., while the doing away of
the lordship of Jacob and of the remains of Damas-
cus in xviii. 12 sqq. is anticipated in viii. 7-10.
Indeed, chap, xviii. comes into connection with
both xi. 11 and Ixvi. 20-21 in its thought of the
return of the Hebrews from distant lands. The
*' burdens " are marked out from all other prophetic
oracles by the fact that they bear the impress of
having been delivered in the ecstatic state, and
besides this they deal with the inmiense or the
distant in time. They take on a different coloring
entirely from those prophecies which come out of
the prophet's own life or relate to the history of
the times. Thus it comes about that they are
separated from the other deliverances of the prophet
and appear as cycles of deliverances distinguished
by their tone. So their titles arise from a catch-
word, or a subject, or a locality, or an emblem,
some of which can be shown to rest upon mistakes
of the text (xxi. 1). Under these circumstances it
is necessary to ask whether they are arranged after
the literary ideas of the prophet Isaiah. It is re-
markable that the oracle on Philistia (xiv. 29 sqq.),
the people on the western border, passes on in xv.-
xvi. to Moab and Edom, on the east and southeast,
and in xvii. 1 to Damascus and the Holy Land in
order to portray the extreme need in Israel and the
overpowering revolution in the salvation of Jeru-
salem (xviii. 7). This corresponds to the way in
which Amos reached the expression of the judg-

IsaUh

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOT.

ment upon Israel (Amoe i.-ii). In xv.-xvi. Isaiah
has so remodeled an old prophecy that it now has
a relation to the foregoing ** bunien "; x. 6-12 is
specifically Isaianic, so that the arrangement of at
least three of these '' burdens " is his. But there is a
clear connection of these with the oracle in xvii.
12-xyiii. 7, which shows a deliverance in Zion and the
substitution of the government of a Davidic rule in
place of that of the condenmed tyrant of the peoples.
This tyrant, the king of the satirical song in xiv. 4
sqq., is an ideal representation of the tjrranny which
is opposed to God, which subdues the world and
oppresses God's people, but is cast into the depth of
Hades. By his overthrow Yahweh frees the world
of its incubus, and Zion becomes the refuge of the
peoples under the Davidic dynasty. Similarly, the
downfall of Babylon is pictured in xiii., and it is
possible that in chap xix. the tyrant who oppresses
the^^gyptians is this same ideal tyrant by whose
overthrow Egypt is to become a province of Canaan.
The explanation of the position of xxi.-xxii. be-
tween the entirely parallel " burdens " of xix.-xx.
and xxiii. is more difficult. In xxi. clearly the fate
of heathen cities is determined by the decrees of
Yahweh, for the execution of which the watchers
are waiting. Chap. xxii. shows a contrast in the
view of the valley of vision, where the watcher
bewails the coming misfortune, while in the second
part the expectations of Shebna for a quiet death
r.c'i honorable burial in a chosen plac^ are pre-
dicted to be baseless. The two chapters seem to
show the necessity of the puliation of sin through
death, out of which resurrection is to come. But
this is related to the portrayal in xxiv. The suc-
ceeding chapters seem to portray like processes
through which alike Israel and the nations are to
pass, the particular judgments upon the nations
which have been passed in review being generalized
until there comes into view the salvation of the
once rejected people, awakened into new life (xxvi.
1-19, cf. ix. 2). So that in the second half the ruling
idea is the universal kingdom of Yahweh as it arises
out of the judgment of the nations and the humilia-
tion of human might and centers of power, the
earthly representation of which is the throne and
city of David raised to a glorious eminence.

The transmission and arrangement of this book

demand of the reader that he view as the source of

its peculiar prophetic content and as

f th In" *^ predictive subject the historically
ve^tt^iTtlGn. ^^^ ^^^^f who oraUy and by
writing sought to mold public opinion
and reared up by esoteric instruction the followers
and disciples (viii. 16 sqq., lix. 21) who were heirs
of his prophecy to continue his testimony. These
heirs of Isaianic prophecy received his testimony
and made it fruitful partly by publishing in book
form his oral and written testimony for *' Judah
and Jerusalem " (i. 1), and partly by reproducing
in the circles of the faithful the esoteric instruction
given them (xlviii. 16) and making it the basis
and guide of their addresses. In order to preserve
essentially and in completeness the testimony of
laaiah, these developments of Isaianic contents
required later fixation in writing and union with
the then existing book of Isaiah. Since the author

of the addition in Ixiii. 7-*lxvi. 24, whose theodicy
reproduces Isaianic declarations, looked back upon
the destruction of the temple, and since the preacher
of xli. 1 sqq. had seen the victorious march of Cjrrus,
the origin of the present book is later than 550 B.C.
This method of treating the Isaianic deliverances,
apart from other results, was worked out in abbrevi-
ations (as in ii.-iv.), enrichment (as in the lyrics
of the Deutero-Isaiah), and reinterpretation (e.g.,
xiv. 5 sqq.). In view of these results fuller justice
is done the book if its relation to the historical
Isaiah is the guide to its exegesis than if the tradi-
tion regarding its authorship is disregarded and its
authors are scattered along through the centuries.

(August Klobtbriiank.)
m. The Critical View: The Book of Isaiah in
its present form is very generally regarded as
possessing a certain unity of plan and purpose.
The traditional view has from time immemorial
discovered, in this unity, the pen of a single author,
Isaiah, the contemporary of HesekiAhy
1. The while recent critical scholarship main-
Problem, tains that this writing was arranged
and edited by some unknown scribe
or scribes, acting as diaskeuasts in the first quar-
ter of the first century b.c. In a little over a
quarter of a century, after DOderlein (1775) in his
commentary on Isaiah first threw serious doubt
on the genuineness of Isa. xl.-lxvi., a fragmentary
hypothesis of the origin of this prophetic work
gradually gained in popularity. The latter view
was first enunciated by Koppe in his notes to
Bishop Lowth's work on Isaiah (1779-81). Kop-
pe's theory, that the canonical Book of Isaiah
was made up of eighty-five fragments, never won
general acceptance as it was strenuously opposed
by the Hebraist Cxesenius and the conmientator
Hitzig. But a new form of the fragmentary hy-
pothesis (see below, §§3 sqq.), differing materi-
ally from that of Koppe, has won many adherents
Itmong Biblical scholars since it was brilliantly ad-
vocated by Duhm (1892), Cheyne (1895), and
Marti (19(X)).

To understand fully the history of critical opin-
ion, and especially its latest phases, one must note
the structure of the book. All commentators,
modem as well as ancient, have observed the three-
fold division into which the Book of Isaiah natu-
rally falls: (1) i.-xxxv., (2) xxxvi.-xxxix., (3) xL-
Ixvi. The second of these groups,
8. Stznc- giving &n account of Isaiah's activity
ture of in the crisis produced by Sennacherib's
the Book, invasion, 701 B.C., was excerpted from
the Book of Kings. Chapters xxxvi.-
xxxix. form the dividing line between the two main
sections of the work. The passages on one side
differ from those on the other in historical back-
ground, point of view, theological conceptions, dic-
tion and phraseology. The earlier chapters reflect
the historical changes and movements of 740-701
B.C.; the monarchs mentioned — Hezekiah, Sargon
(xx. 1), Sennacherib (xxxvi., xxxvii. 17, 21, 37),
and Merodach-Baladan (xxxix. 1) — are those of
the eighth century. In the third section (xl.-lxvi.)
Cyrus is in the flood tide of his victorious career
(xliv. 28, xiv. ; cf. xli. 2-3, 25, etc.); the Assyrian has

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

disappeared from the stage of history, and in his
stead Israers oppressors are the Babylonians (xliii.
14, 25, xlvii. 1 sqq., xlviii. 14, 20). In the third
section Jerusalem is described as lying in ruins and
desolate (xliv. 26b, Iviii. 12, bd. 4, Ixiii. 18, bdv.
10-11), while in the first part she ib still standing,
the object of her enemies' attacks and the special
ward of Jehovah (i.-xzix. 1-8, 36-^9). In addi-
tion to these distinguishing featiues, the two parts
diiTer greatly in spirit; the latter is a book of con-
solation, the very first word being " comfort '*
(xl. 1), while the former is made up of threatening
and judgment, the tone of arraignment struck in
chap. i. appearing in one form or other clear through
to chap. XXXV. While in this connection stress is
not laid upon the fact that the phraseology is in
striking contrast, as this frequently leads to a me-
chanical argument, the difference in diction may
not be passed over lightljr, as the careful reader
notices the change even in the English version,
while one accustomed to using Hebrew almost in-
stinctively notes the passing from a piece of litera-
ture in a style " condensed, lapidary and plastic/'
to one that is clear and flowing. In chaps, i.-
xxxix. the emphasis is laid upon the majesty of
Yahweh (ii. 10 sqq., 17, 19 sqq., x. 5 sqq., etc.), in
xl.-lxvi. on his infinitude (xl. 12-26'xlL 4, etc.), in
the third section the personal Messiah is depicted
as the righteous and suffering servant (xlii. 1-4,
xlix. 1-6, 1. 4-9, lii. 13-liii. 12) instead of the ideal
king of the future (vii. 14, ix. 1-6, xi. 1-5).

Such differences as these were deemed valid
grounds for dating Isa. xl.-lxvi. in the sixth century
by almost every great commentator of the last cen-
tury (Gesenius, Ewald, Knobel, Dillmann, Delitzsch
in his last edition, Cheyne, Orelli,

8. Besolts Duhm, G. A. Smith). Dillmann char-
of acterized this view as '' one of the siu*-

CrlticUm. est results of modem literary investi-
gation." Since Delitzsch in the fourth
edition of his commentary (1889) went over to this
position, it may truthfully be said that no scientific
exegetioal work has held to the traditional view of
the unity of the Book of Isaiah. In America the
assignment of Isa. xl.-lxvi. to the sixth century
was strenuously opposed in magazine articles by
Prof. W. H. Green of Princeton {Presbyterian and
Reformed Review, vol. iii.), but this school of theol-
ogy has produced no work of exposition on the
prophecies of Isaiah since the appearance of that
oonmientary of first rank by J. A. Alexander (1846,
rev. ed. 1865). The argument from " the analogy
of prophecy " worked this complete revolution in
critical opinion. That a prophet primarily ad-
dresses his contemporaries; that, however far he
may project himself into the future, his point of de-
parture is his own age; that he paints the distant
scene of the remotest future in the colors of his
own day; that he plants his feet firmly upon the
events of his own time, before he attempts to scan
the distant horizon — ^these are principles recog-
nised as axiomatic by all interpreters of prophecy.
If they are correctly assumed, Isa. xl.-lxvi. can
not be assigned to Isaiah, the son of Amoz. In
fact, the e^c backgroimd of these chapters has

been recognized by some of the most zealous de-

fenders of the Isaianio authorship, but it has been
attributed to " the prophet's idctfd point of view "
(Keil; of. Hengstenberg).

Having attained this result, criticism did not
halt, for the alignment from the analogy of proph-
ecy will not leave the first part of the work intact
(chaps, i.-xxxv.). As early as Eichhom (1783) it
was applied to this section, and re-
4. Anal- suited in the denial of the genuineness
^^f^ of a number of passages. (1) The

l.-xxzix. ^**®^ ^^ *^® ^*^ ®^ Babylon (xiii. 1-
xiv. 23) was assigned to the Babylo-
nian exile, because the Medes are mentioned as the
instruments of the destruction (xiii. 17), and Baby-
lon is described as the supreme world power of that
age (xiu. 11, 19, xiv. 4-5, 12 sqq., 16-17). (2) In
the critical disposition of passages, xxi. 1-10 is
naturally associated with xiii. 1-xiv. 23, for in it
the prophet describes the fall of Babylon, and re-
fers to Elam and Media (verse 2) in terms which
would be more natural to a prophet of the sixth
century than to Isaiah of the eighth. (3) With
these two sections just noted go chaps, xxxiv. and
XXXV. The latter is a beautiful lyric which is a
mosaic of phrases and imagery borrowed from Deu-
tero-Isaiah (the title provisionally assigned to the
author of part three) ; the former is assigned to the
exile, because of the bitter hatred and dire ven-
geance against Edom which it breathes (xxxiv. 5
sqq., 8 sqq.; cf. Ps. cxxxvii. 7). (4) While, in re-
gard to the section Isa. xxiv.-xxvii. there is a gen-
eral agreement that it is not the work of Isaiah, no
consensus of opinion has been reached as to the
age to which it should be assigned. Ck>n8ervative
critics are inclined to be satisfied with placing it in
the days of the Persian empire. Dates, varying
from the reign of Darius Hystaspis (520-485) to
that of Artaxerxes Ochus (359-339), have been
given. Here the argument from Biblical theology
overshadows that based upon the analogy of proph-
ecy. No explicit historical references occur; the
imagery is apocalyptic in character, which in itself
points to the age of the decay of prophecy. The
writer's ideas of the future life — inunortality, xxv.
8, and the resurrection, xxvi. 19 — ^are distinct ad-
vances on those of Isaiah's age, but the traces of
Persian angelology commonly alleged are not so
evident. Critical opinion is divided about the age
of chap, xxiii. The only reason for denying the
Isaianic character of this passage is the occurrence
of the phrase " Behold the land of the Chaldeans "
(verse 13). The text is extremely uncertain and
has led to emendations; instead of Chaldeans,
Ewald suggested Canaanites, and Duhm offers Chit-
tim. It may justly be regarded as an Isaianic
passage to be assigned either to 723 or to 701 b.c.
Such was the view of critical scholarship before
the rise of the modem fragmentary h3rpothe8i8
which has been advocated by Duhm and Marti in
their commentaries (1892, 1900), and by Cheyne
in his Introduction to the Book of Isaiah (1895).
These three exegetes leave only a very small part
of chaps, i.-xxxix. to Isaiah, and Cheyne has tersely
enunciated the principles and results of this school,
" It is too bold to maintain that we still have any
coUection of Isaianic prophecies which in its pres-

iMdah
Ishbosheth

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

ent form goes back to the period of the prophet "
(EB, ii. 2194). Cheyne in his Introduction to the
Book of Iwiah assigns only the following passages
of i.-zxxix. to Isaiah: i. &-31, ii. 6-21, in. 1, 4-5,
8-9 (2-3, 6-7 may be Isaianic), 12-15, 16-17, 24,
V. 1-14, 17-22, 23-25b, 26-29, vi. 1-13, vu. 2-8a,
9-14, 16, 18-20, viu. 1-4, 5-6, 7a, 8-18, ix. 7-12,
15-x. 4, X. 5-9, 13,-14, 28-32, xiv. 24-27 (omit
25b), 29-32, xvi. 14, xvu. 1-6, 9-14, xviii. 1-6,
XX. 1, 3-6, xxi. 16 sqq., xxii. 1-5, 6-9a, llb-14,
15a, 16-18, xxiii. 1-2, 3(7), 4, 6-12, 14, xxviii. 1-

4, 7-19, 21-22, xxix. l-4a, 6, 9-10, 13-14, xxix. 15,
XXX. l-7a, 8-17b, xxxi. l-5a.

Before the advent of this fragmentary school,
Isa. xl.-lxvi. was looked upon as a literary unity,
and was attributed to a single prophet, commonly
termed the " Great Unknown of the Exile " or
Deutero-Isaiah. This prophecy was regarded as
falling into three sections marked by

*• ^^^ the refrain xlviii. 22, Ivii. 21 (Rtlck-
TotiIMi ^^' Hitzig, and Delitzsch). Ewald

zL-1xtL ^^ propounded a theory, the fore-
runner of the one now to be consid-
ered. He maintained that Isa. xl.-lxvi. was a col-
lection of *' pamphlets or fly-leaves which the
surging stream of time drew forth, one after an-
other, from the prophet." The writer arranged
these pamphlets in two books, xl.-xlviii., xlix.-lx.,
to which were added an epilogue, Ixi. l-bdii. 6, and
an appendix, Ixiii. 7-lxvi. 24. According to Ewald,
Deutero-Isaiah borrowed xl. 1, 2, lii. 13-liii. 12,
Ivi. 9-lvii. 11 from a prophet of Manasseh's reign,
and Ivii. 1-lix. 20 from a contemporary of Ezekiel.
Dillmann and his school have always stood for the
substantial imity of this section of the Book of
Isaiah (cf. Dillmann's Komimeniar^ ed. Kittel, Leip-
sic, 1898). The earlier efforts to deny the unity of
Deutero-Isaiah bore fruit in the commentary of
Duhm already mentioned. In this epoch-making
book, Duhm maintained that Isa. xl.-lxvi. is the
work of three different writers. (1) Deutero-
Isaiah is reduced to xl.-lv., and then one-fourth of
its contents is subtracted as later additions. Deu-
tero-Isaiah is supposed to have written his work
about 540 B.C. in Lebanon or Phenicia. Duhm re-
gards the following verses as later additions: xl.

5, 81b, xU. 5, xUi. 12, 15-24, xliii. 20b, 21, xUv. 9-
20, 28b, xlv. 10, 13b, xlvi. 6-8, xlvii. 3a, 14b, xlviii.
1 in part, 2, 4, 5b, 7b, 8b-10, 16b-19, 22, 1. 10, 11,
U. 11, 16, 18, m. 3-«, liv. 15, 17b, Iv. 3a, 7. (2)
From chaps, xl.-lv. several passages, the so-called
" Servant of Yahweh Songs " (xlii. 1-4, xlix. 1-6,
1. 4-9, lii. 13-liii. 12), were exscinded and assigned
to a later date. Duhm takes pains to show that
these lyrics are dependent on Jeremiah, Job, and
Deutero-Isaiah, although the last-named does not
show any acquaintance with them. The Servant
of Yahweh Songs were read by Trito-Isaiah, and
influenced Malachi; the literary connections thus
traced point to a member of the Jewish Church of
the first half of the fifth century b.c. as their
author. Marti differs from Duhm in regarding
these songs as an integral part of Deutero-Isaiah.
(3) The dosing section, chaps. Ivi.-lxvi., is attrib-
uted to a third writer, who is designated Trito-
Isaiah. He writes in the same measure as Deutero-

Isaiah, imitates his style, and agrees with him in
proclaiming the future glory of Jerusalem. From
the internal evidence, it is argued that he was a
resident of Jerusalem, and wrote shortly before the
mission of Nehemiah. It is to be noted that
Cheyne analyzes this section, and regards it as a
compilation from several sources.

Sanity and conmion sense suggest that the liter-
ary criticism of the fragmentists has overreached
itself. The arguments from the analogy of proph-
ecy and Biblical theology as applied by Cheyne,

Duhm, and Marti necessarily imply a
6. Con- minute knowledge of history such as
dnBion. we do not possess. While this is true,

historical criticism has reached some
assured results. It has been proved that chaps.
xxxvi.-xxxix. were excerpted from the Book of
Kings, and certain passages of chaps. i.-xxxix. can
not have been written by Isaiah (see above). The
literary history of chaps, xl.-lxvi. is not as simple
as it once was supposed to be. Of these chapters,
xl.-lv. may confidently be assigned to Deutero-
Isaiah, xl.-xlviii. being written in the exile (c
546), and xlix.-lv. in Palestine shortly after the re-
turn. The manner and date of origin of Ivii.-lxvi.
can not be determined with certainty; probably
they were written in the age of Ezra and Nehemiah,
and were the product of a school of writers rather
than of a single pen. James A. Kelso.

Bibliograprt: On the Life »nd Times of Isaiah the beet
work is S. R. Driyer, Imiah, hu Lif€ and Time», London,
1S03. Consult further: A. H. Sayoe, Lif€ and Timet qfitaiak
lUuttraled by Contemporary Monumenta, ib. 1889; J. Mein*
hold* Jeeaia und teine Zeit, Freiburg, 1898; R. Sinker.
Hetekiah and Hit Age, ib. 1897; F. KOehler. Die Sid-
lung dee Propheten Jetaia turn PalUik eeiner teit, TQbincMU
1906; DB. ii. 485-486; EB, U. 2180-2190; JE, vi. 635-
636; F. Wilke, Jeeaja und Ateur, Leipsic, 1905.

On the text consult A. Klostermann, Deuierojeeaja^
Munich, 1893; T. K. Cheyne, Notee and CriHcieme on Ae
Htbrew Text of leaiah, London, 1868; idem, /aouiA, in
SBOT; idem, CrUiea Biblica, London, 1904; R. L. Ottley.
Book if Itaiah according to the LXX., 2 vols.. New York,
1904-07; G. H. Box, The Bookoflaaiah, London, 1908.

The two best commentaries on the book are by F.
Delitssch, 2 vols., Leipsic, 1889, Eng. transl.. 2 vols..
London, 1891-92 (conservative), and J. Skinner, in Cam-
bridge BibU, 2 vols.. Cambridge, 1896-98 (critical). The
book has been constantly the subject of comment, the
most noteworthy of which is contained in the works of
C. Vitringa, 2 vols.. Basel, 1732; R. Lowth, London, 1778
and often (marked out new lines by introducing the sub-
ject of the poetry of the book); W. Gescniua. 2 vc^,
Leipsic, 1821 (phUological); F. Hitxig, Heidelberg. 1833;
F. J. V. D. Maurer, Leipsic, 1835; E. Henderson, London,
1857; H. Ewald, Stuttgart, 1868, Eng. transl., London,
1875-80; K. A. Knobel, ed. L. Diestel, Leipeic, 1872;
J. A. Alexander, 2 vols.. New York, 1875; W. Kay. in
Bible Commentary, New York. 1875; B. Neteler, MOnster,
1876; F. W. Weber. Ndrdlingen. 1876; S. R. Driver and
A. Neubaiier. The 6Sd Chapter of Itaiah according to Jewiek
Interpreter; 2 vols.. Oxford, 1876-77; A. le Hir. Paris.
1877; S. Sharpe. London. 1877; W. Urwick, The Servant
of JdkovoA, /«. lii. JS-liii. 19, Edinburgh, 1877; T. R.
Birks, London, 1878; A. HeUigstedt. Halle, 1878; K. W.
E. N&gelsbach, Bielefeld, 1877, Eng. transl.. New York,
1878 (in Lange); F. Kdstlin, Berlm, 1879; J. W. Nutt,
Commentary on Isaiah by Rabbi Eleaier of Beauoenei,
toith Notiee <4 Mediaeval French and Spanieh Exegeeie,
London, 1879; J. M. Rodwell, ib. 1881; T. K. Cheyne.
The Book ofleaiah Chronologically Arranged, London, 1884;
Commentary, 2 vols., ib. 1881-84; G. A. Smith, 2 vols..
1890; H. G. Mitchell. Itaiah i.-xii.. New York, 1897;
A. Dillmann. ed. R. Kittel. Leipsic. 1898; E. KOnig. The
Exilet* Book of Coneolation, Edinburgh. 1899; A. Cod.
damin, Paris, 1905.

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

iMdah
Ishbosheth

he mibject of the " Servant " consult: J. Forbes,
rranl nS Oui Lord in it. xL-lxvi., Edinburgh, 1870;
ian. Dip Kbed^akwek-Lieier in Jet. 40-66, Leipsio.

K. Budde, Dm aogenannten Ehed-Jakwe'Ijitdtr,
I, 1000; F. Giesebrecht, D^t Knecht Jahwet det
ittaia, KOnigaberB. 1002; H. Roy, Itnut und die

Jet. 40-66, . . . Ebed-Jakioe-Frage, Leipsic, 1903;
roriEznan. The Servant of Jehovah ; or, the Pattion-
ey of Scripture, London, 1907.
>itafliBm and Introduction the most thorough-going
I T. K. Choyne, Introduction to the Book of Itaiah,
U 1895. Various questions and phases are discussed

P. Caspori, BeitrOge gur EinleOung in dot Biuh

Berlin, 1848; Ldhr, Zvr Frage Hber die Echtheit
9aia9 40-66, 3 parts. Berlin. 1878-^; H. KrOger.
ologie d'Etait 40-66, Paris. 1881; J. Barth. Beitr&ge
:Ubrung det Jetaja, Carlsruhe, 1885; H. Guthe. Dat
'itbild dct Jetaia, Leipsie, 1885; F. Giesebrecht,
$ tur Jeaaia-KriHk, G5ttingen, 1890; J. Kennedy,
ilor Argument far the Unity of Itaiah, London, 1891;
, Jet. 40-66, Marburg, 1893; G. C. M. Douglas,
One and Hit Book One, London, 1895: M. Brackner.
mtion det ... Jet. M-SS, Halle, 1897; J. Mein-
>is ImjaertUhlungen Jet. 66-99, GAttingen, 1898;
tholet, Zu Jetaja 66, Tabingen, 1899; F.. Littmann,
Mt Alfattungtteit da TVitoj'etaia, Freiburg, 1899;
im. Dot RUttel dee deuterojeeajaniachen Buehet,
, 1006; Smith, PropheU; DB, ii. 485-499; EB,
>-2306: JE, vi. 636-642; and the general works
roduction to the Bible and to the O. T.. and on

lH, martyrdom of. See Pseudepiora-

ICAHN (more correctly laenmenger or Eisen-
I, JOHANH: German reformer; b. at
iBch Hall (35 m. n.e. of Stuttgart), Wtlrttem-

1495; d. at the monastery of Anhausen
Biens (near Heidenheim, in Wtlrttemberg,
.n.e. of Ulm) Feb. 18, 1574. He studied at
versity of Heidelberg in Apr., 1514, became

the classical faculty on Dec. 20, 1521 ; was
JO Hall as pastor in the spring of 1524,
Q wrought for twenty-four years with Brenz
Reformation in that place. The festival of
Christi was abolished in 1524; at Christmas,
be Lord's Supper was observed by Evan-
rite; and in 1526, an Evangelical liturgy
reduced. Isenmann took an eager part in
ngramma Suemcum in 1525 (see Bbbnz,
,i 2). He became superintendent in 1542.
beginning of 1546 he reformed the imperial

Wimpfen. Heavy tribulation ensued from
malkald War, with the emperor's triumphant
etc Hall, Dec., 1546; and the situation grew
re dangerous during the Interim, which both
in and Brena rejected. When the Spaniards
the council had to dismiss Evangelical
T8. In July, 1549, Isenmann removed to
nbeig, and became preacher at Urach.
fterward he became pastor at Ttlbingen,
leral superintendent of the southwest d is-
le enjoyed the confidence of the new duke.

he went with Jakob Beurlin (q.v.) to Lan-
i and Leipsie to have the Wtlrttemberg
ion subscribed by Melanchthon and the
ians of Wittenberg and Leipsie. In the sum-

1557 he accompanied the duke to the

Frankfort, and collaborated in the great
a eonfesnonis Wirtembergtcae. In 1558 he
XMnted abbot at Anhausen, where he spent
ainder of his life. G. Bossert.

Biblioorapht: L. M. Finchlin, Memoria theologorum Wirtem-
hergentium, L 53. Leipsie. 1710; J. Hartmann and C.
J&ger, Johann Brent, 2 vols., Hamburg. 1840-42; T.
Pressel, Anecdota Brentiana, 2 vols., Tdbingen, 1888; O.
Bossert. Dat Interim in WUrttemberg, Halle. 1805; ADB,
xiv. 684.

ISHBOSHETH: According to II Sam. ii.^v. a
son of Saul, whom his uncle, Abner, set on the
throne of Israel at Mahanaim after the slaughter
by the Philistines at Gilboa. In I Chron. viii. 33,
ix. 39 he is called Esh-baal (Hebr. Eahba*al, a con-
traction of l8hba*al, " man of the Lord," i.e., of
Yahweh); when the use of the name "Biaal" was
shunned, and boaheth, " shame," substituted for it
(see Baal, § 5), the form Ishbosheth became com-
mon. That in the Hebrew text the original form
was l8hba*al is shown by the translations of Aquila,
S3rmmachu8, Theodotion, Itala, and the Septuagint
codex 93 Holmes. The original form remains in
Chronicles probably because those books were read
and copied less frequently than Samuel. The
Chronicler names Ishbosheth fourth of the sons of
Saul after Jonathan, Malchi-shua and Abinadab.

I Sam. xxxi. 2 does not name him, I Sam. xiv. 49
names Jonathan, Ishui, and Malchi-shua. The
order here indicates that Ishbosheth was the young-
est son of Saul, and that is the more probable since
he was dependent upon Abner, since there is no
mention of his wife or children, and since he is
not named among Saul's sons who were in the
battle with the Philistines. The age given him in

II Sam. ii. 10 does not agree with the indications
of the context, according to which David and
Jonathan were not yet forty years old at the time
of the battle of Gilboa; the item belongs to the
later chronological insertions.

Abner, a cousin of Saul, after the battle of Gilboa
sought to save for Israel as much as he might of
Saul's achievements, and had Ishbosheth set up as
king beyond the Jordan at Mahanaim, where he
was recognized by Gilead, Asher, Jezreel, Ephraim,
and Benjamin — ^practically all Israel. Judedi and
the South had made David king there, though under
tributary relations with the Philistines; and for
his possessions west of the Jordan Ishbosheth was
also a vassal of the Philistines. The strife which
arose between Israel and Judah, the first indication
of which is given in II Sam. ii. 12 sqq., was suffered
by the overlords, and continued with increasing
success for David. Finally Abner took offense at
the complaint of Ishbosheth because the former
had married one of Saul's concubines, and told
Ishbosheth that he would influence Israel to choose
David king, a threat which he proceeded to fulfil.
David thereupon demanded of Ishbosheth the
return of his former wife, Michal, thus forcing recog-
nition of his relationship to Saul's household, the
way having been paved by negotiations between
himself and Abner (II Sam. iii. 12 sqq.). At the
defection of Abner Ishbosheth lost heart, and he
was soon after assassinated by two of his military
officers, who thought in this way to secure their
own advancement. They carried his head to
David ; but being a member of the house of Saul,
David at once punished the murder by the execu-
tion of the murderers.

This is the course of the Judaic narrative in II

IshnuMl

Isidore of Seville

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

Sam. ii.-iv. Were the Ephraimitic account extant,
possibly the coloring of the story might be some-
what changed. Two points in the story appear
trustworthy: that David wished to be recognized
as the son-in-law of Saul, and that he was innocent
of the death of Ishbosheth. The length of Ishbo-
sheth's reign was probably a little less than that of
David in Hebron (II Sam. vi. 5). (H. Guthb.)

Bibmographt: A. Kamphausen, in ZA TW, vi (1886), 43-97;
the literature under SxiiuieL, Books op; and the per-
tinent sections of the works cited under Ahab.

ISHMAEL (Hebr. Yishma^el, " God hears"; LXX.,
lamael) : The son of Abraham by Hagar (q.v.), an
Eg3rptian slave. He was bom in the house of
Abraham and was included in the covenant of cir-
cumcision (Gen. xvii. 25, P). Since, however, it
was the will of God that Isaac should be the sole
heir of the covenant blessings, the Lord conmianded
Abraham to accede to the demands of his wife
Sarah that Ishmael be driven from the house.
After this enforced flight, a divine revelation came
to Hagar (Gen. xxi., E), as she was driven to despair
for her son, who was dying of thirst in the ** desert
of Beersheba.'' That this vision is only another
version of that recounted in chap. xvi. (Hupfeld,
Dillmann, and others) can not be maintained, since
the details of the divine appearance are entirely
different and there is also a difference between the
chronology of P and that of E, the former (Gen.
xvii. 25) making Ishmael at least fifteen years of
age at the time, while E (Gen. xxi.) regards him as
still a child of tender years (cf. the LXX. of xxi. 14
which says expressly: " and she placed the child
upon her shoulder ").

The especial importance of Ishmael lies in the
relation of his descendants to Israel. They were
to have no claim on the promised inheritance of the
people of God, but were destined to multiply and
spread. These descendants are characterized by the
words of the angel concerning the ancestor himself
(Gen. xvi. 12): " And he will be a wild man; his
hand will be against every man, and every man's
hand against him,'' thus sketching with a few
strokes the spirit and manner of life of the Bedou*
ins. According to Gen. xvi. 12, they were to dwell
farther to the eastward than their brothers, and in
fact they had possession of the desert east of Pales-
tine, occupying also the country to the south, from
the Persian Gulf to the northeastern boundary of
Egypt. They spread out over the whole of northern
Arabia, and therefore their ethnic designation, Ish-
maelites, is used generally for the tribes of northern
Arabia, including also the Midianites. Twelve
peoples of northern Arabia are derived from Ish-
mael in Gen. xxv. 12 sqq. (P), where the genealogy
is more ethnographic than is usually the case in
the histories of the patriarchs. Ishmael is, however,
a primitive personal name which occurs in ancient
Arabic inscriptions, and in this case the leader gave
his name to the tribe, although all the groups of
peoples which are brought into connection with
him were not his actual descendants. That Israel
recognized its blood-relationship with these tribes
rests upon a correct tradition. The Mohammedan
Arabs, who proudly reckon Ishmael among their
ancestors, say that he and his mother were buried

in the Kaaba at Mecca (Abulfeda, HiMoria ante-
islamica, ed. H. O. Fleischer, pp. 24 sqq., Leipsic,
1831; £. Pocock, Specimen histariiLe ArxUmmf pp.
6-7, 177, 60e-507, Oxford, 1806; B. d' Herbe-
lot, Bibliothkque onerUaUf Maeatricht, 1776, s.w.
" Hagar," " Ismael," " Ischak ")•

(C. VON 0R£LU.)
Bibliookapht: Consult, besides the literature under Isaac
and Ababia: A. H. Sayoe, Higher CrUicUm and ths Monu-
merUM, pp. 201-202. London* 1894; T. P. Huffhes. Diction-
ary of I Blam, pp. 216-220. ib. 1806; DB, it 502-505; EB.
ii. 2211-2215; the appropriate sections in works on the
history of Israel and the conunentaries on Geneaia.

ISHTAR. See Ashtoreth; Assyria, VH.;
Babylonia, VIL, 2, § 7, 3, § 5.

ISIDORE MERCATOR: A fictitious person, the
alleged author of the Pseudo-Iddorian Decretals
(q.v.). He was formerly erroneously identified with
Iddore of Seville; hence the name Pseudo-Isidore.

ISIDORE OF PELUSIUM: Egyptian abbot; b.
at Alexandria probably before 370; d. near Pelu-
sium (135 m. e. of Alexandria) about 440. He was
presbyter and abbot in a cloister at the east mouth
of the Nile, not far' from Pelusium. It can not be
proved that he was a pupil of John Chrysostom;
but he was spiritually akin to him, and highly
valued his writings. There are preserved more
than 2,000 of his letters, mostly brief notes, but
frequently of great length, which show him to have
been a highly esteemed spiritual counselor, thor-
oughly aglow with holy earnestness; a very shep-
herd of souls, and a teacher versed in Scripture.

Isidore was an example of Greek monasticism
in its noblest form. For him the practical philosophy
of the disciples of Christ (i. 63 and elsewhere)
throve only in withdrawal from the world, in volun-
tary poverty and abstinence. The soul could not
discern God (i. 402) in the bustle of everyday life;
only in the utmost emancipation from worldly
wants did it approach divine freedom (ii. 19).
Yet asceticism and flight from the world did not
alone suffice: the garland of all virtues must be
woven in monasticism, the peculiar dangers of
which, however, did not escape Isidore. But
though retired from the world, he still took part in
the need and perils of Christianity, supporting, ex-
horting, wherever he could reach with his written
message. He appeared to great advantage in his
attitude toward Cyril of Alexandria. While at one
with him in dogmatic opposition to Nestorius, he
still perceived Coil's intriguing spirit, and warned
him against blind passion (i. 310); iraakly warning
the emperor, too, against the disorder provoked
by the interference of his courtiers in dogmatic
affairs (i. 311). But when Cyril, content with the
fact that Nestorius had been dropped by the Anti-
ochians, allowed some dogmatic concessions to his
opponents, he had to hear the admonition from
Isidore that he should stand fast, and not himself
become a heretic (i. 324). Isidore took to heart the
dignity of the priesthood, and with great earnest-
ness did he remind negligent ecclesiastics of their
serious accoimtability. He thus very persistently
rebuked Bishop Eusebius of Pelusium and his
clergy, because they trafficked in priestly offices,
suffered their congregations to decay, chose rather

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Isidore of Serllle

to build BumptuouB ehurches than to care for the
poor, and caused offense by their scandalous b^
havior. In patriarchal fashion, moreover, he con-
cerned himself with all manner of human needs,
nor feared, in so doing, the great of this earth. He
fervently exhorted the emperor to mildness and
liberality (i. 35). For the weal of the town, he
addressed himself to the civil authorities (ii. 25),
and interceded with their masters in behalf of slaves
who fled to him for protection. Of literary training
himself, he granted that the Christian, like the bee,
might suck honey from the teachings of the philos-
ophers (ii. 3).

Dogmatically orthodox, and a zealous opponent
of all heresies, he directed his attention especially
toward the doctrinal questions of weight for prac-
tical Christianity (sin, freedom, grace). He was
of greater significance, however, as an exegete.
For him the Scriptural truth was the heavenly
treasure in earthen vessels. The expositor should
approach his task with devout conviction; dwelling
not upon separate words, but on the entire con-
nection. Still he was given to many an arbitrary
allegory: particularly in his C^hristological views of
passages in the Qld Testament. At the same time,
in the exposition of the Old Testament he would
not have the historical sense annulled by the mys-
tical and prophetic; and he made attempts besides
at explanations of points of grammar and subject
matter. G. KrCger.

BiBUOORAmT*. An ed. of the Opera was published Paris.
1638, and in MPO, IxxviU. 103-1040. 1647-1674. Consult:
ASB, Feb., L 468-473; J. FeMler, InstUutionst patroloffiae,
ed. B. Juncmann, ii 2, pp. 138-143, Innsbruck, 1896;
DCB, iil 315-320; TiUemont. Mhnoirf, xv. 07-119, 847;
C. A. Heumann, Ds laHori PthuioioB, Gdttingtn, 1787;
Fahridua-Harlea, Biblioih§€a Graeea, x. 480-494. Hamburs,
1807; H. A. Nieroeyer, De Itidcri P§lu9iotae, Halle, 1825.
and MPO, IxxviU. »-102; P. B. GlUck, I §idoruPelu»iotae
mtimuna dodtrina* mondu^ Warsburg. 1848; L. Bober, De
arU UmuneuUea ImdcrU Pelumoias, Graoow. 1878; O.
Bardenhewer. PatroUtgU, pp. 353-354. Freiburg. 1804;
XL. yt 064-060.

ISIDORE OF SBVILLB: Isidore, archbishop of
Seville and encydopedist, was bom about 660, the
place unknown ; d. at Seville, Spain,
Life. Apr. 4, 636. He was a scion of a dis-
tingtiished Roman family which had
fled from Carthagena during the Gothic invasion,
and was educated, after the death of his parents,
by his brother Leander, whom he succeeded, ap-
parently about 600, as archbishop of Seville. He
attended the synod held by King Gimdemar in
610, and presided over those held by King Sisebut
at Seville in 619 and the famous Fourth Synod
of Toledo under Sisenand in 633 (see Tolbdo,
Synods or).

Isidore's chief importance, however, was as an

author, and his learning embraced the entire range

possible in his age and country.

Hit In- Neither originality nor independent in-
flttCDce and vestigation, neither keen criticism nor
Imfortance. elegance of presentation could be ex-
peeted from him, but his manifold
interest, reading, and diligence in collecting, ex-
eeipting, and compiling from all departments of
theological and seeular learning are unparalleled.
His position in history is determined primarily by

two works, the Libri 9entenUarwnf the first dog-
matics of the Latin Church, and the Eiymologiae,
the source of linguistic and practical knowledge
for centuries, so that he became the schoolmaster
of the Middle Ages. Gradually he became the
national hero of the Spanish Church, and to him
were attributed the Old Spanish or Mozarabic lit-
urgy, the collection of Spanish canons upon which
was based the forgery of the pseudo-Isidore, and
even the collection of the laws of the West Gothic
kings. The Roman Catholic Church, despite the
weakness of the bonds which then united Spain and
Rome, holds that he was a pupil of Gregory the
Great, that he was vicai^apostolic in Spain, received
the pallium, and took part in a Roman synod.
Yet it is quite possible that he did not recognise
the council of 553, and that he treated Justinian
merely as a heretic who sought to overthrow the
Chalcedonian Creed ; while he did not mention the
papacy in his ecclesiastical handbook, and he was
even slightly heterodox in his views of the sacra-
ments and grace.

The works of Isidore are thus enumerated ac-
cording to a list by Braulio (in AfPL, Ixxxi. 15 sqq.),

which seems, in the main, to follow

His chronological order: (1) Prooemiorum

Writings, liber unus^ an introduction to the Bible,

consisting of a brief prologue on the
canon in general and short tables of contents of the
individual books. (2) De ortu et obitu patrumf or
De vita et morte sanctorum utriuaque Tetiamentif
short biographies of eighty-five characters of the
Bible, sixty-four from the Old Testament and
twenty-one from the New. The authenticity of the
work has been doubted, but without sufficient
reason. (3) Officiorum libri duo, usually called De
officiie eecUaiaeticiSy written about 610, one of the
most important works of Isidore for theology and
ecclesiastical archeology. The first book, entitled
De origine officiorum^ discusses the origin and the
authors of ecclesiastical worship, while the second,
De origine ministeriorumy is devoted to the duties
of the orders of clergy and various estates in life.
(4) De nominibua legis et evangeliorum libera evidently
identical with the AUegoriae quasdam aanctae scrip-
turae of the manuscripts and editions, and contain-
ing an allegorical interpretation of 120 names and
passages from the Old Testament and 121 from
the New. The work is of great value for the art
and literature of the Middle Ages. (5) De haereeibtu
liber, which ia probably identical with the list of
Jewish and Christian heresies given in the fourth
and fifth chapters of the eighth book of the Ety-
mologiae, (6) Sententiarum libri tree, the chief theo-
logical work of its author, and the first Latin com-
pend of faith and morals, chiefly in excerpts from
Augustine and Gregory the Great. The first book
is dogmatic in content, and treats of such sub-
jects as the qualities of God, the origin of evil, the
soul, and Christ, the seven rules of exegesis, the
difference between the Testaments, creeds, bap-
tism, the sacrament, and eschatology (but with no
mention of purgatory). The se< ind and third books
are ethical, the former genera .md the latter spe-
cial. The first discusses, among other subjects, the
cardinal virtues, g^ce, election, conversion, back-

Isidore of Seville
Israel, History of

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

sliding, repentance, sin, oonsdence, virtue and vice.
The last book discusses the estates of the Christian
life, divine judgments, temptation, prayer, asceti-
cism, temporal authorities, the brevity of human
life, and similar topics. (7) Contra Judaeoa lihri duo,
or De fide catholica adversus Judaeos, written at the
request of his sister Florentina, and establishing the
truth of the Christian religion from the prophecies
of the Old Testament with special reference to the
Jewish question in Spain. (8) Monasticae regulae
liber, a system not differing essentially from the
Benedictine rule, although in no way related to it.
(9) Qtuxestumum in Vetus Teatamentum libri duo,
a mystical and allegorical interpretation of the Old
Testament, consisting entirely of excerpts from
Origen, Victorinus, Ambrose, Jerome, Augustine,
Fulgentius, Cassian, and especially from Gregory
the Great. (10) De viris iUusiribue sive de ecrip-
torHms eccleeiaeticia, a continuation of the works of
Jerome and Gennadius. It contains the biographies
of fourteen Spaniards and thirty-two non-Spaniards,
but is written for the most part in a superficial
manner and composed in great measure of excerpts
(which are frequently incorrect) from Rufinus,
Cassiodorus, and Victor of Tunnuna, or from the
works of the authors whom Isidore discusses. (11)
Chronicarum a principio mundi ueque ad iempus
8uum liber, from the creation to the Emperor Hera-
dius and King Sisebut (616), based on Julius Afri-
canus, Eusebius-Jerome, and Victor of Tunnuna,
while its division according to the " six ages of the
world " was taken from Augustine's City of God.
The work is extant in two recensions, as well as in
an abridgment forming the fifth chapter of the
Etymologiae. (12) Historia Gothorum, Vandalorum
et Sttevorum, also in two redactions, and containing
a brief, but valuable, account of these three peoples,
especially of the Goths from the earliest times to the
fifth year of King Swintila (626). (13) Libn differ-
erUiarum diu>, the first an alphabetical list of syn-
onymous or homonymous words with their mean-
ings, and the second an elucidation of various con-
cepts. (14) Synonymorum libri duo, or according
to Ildefonsus, Libri lamenlaiionum, a collection of
words and phrases in the form of a dialogue between
the sinful soul and comforting ^* reason," which
points it to penance and the forgiveness of sins.
(15) De natura rerum, written at the request of
King Sisebut and dedicated to him. In its forty-
five chapters it contains the most noteworthy facts
concerning the elements, the heavenly bodies, the
weather, the divisions of the earth, and the like, the
material being drawn in great part from Suetonius,
Ambrose, the pseudo-Clementine writings, and Au-
gustine (16) De numerie liber, a mystic interpretation
of the numbers from one to sixty and their significance
in Scripture, nature, and history. The work is
important for the history of the symbolism of figures.
(17) Etymologiarum sive originum libri viginti, the
culmination of all the works of its author, his other
writings being either preparations or extensions of
individual parts of this book. It formed the great
encyclopedia of Isidore's period, and derived its
name from the etymology prefixed to each article.
The work is divided into twenty books treating of
the following subjects : i. grammar; ii. rhetoric and

dialectics; iii. arithmetic, geometry, music, and as-
tronomy; iv. medicine; v. jurisprudence and chro-
nology, with a brief universal history; vi. Bible,
inspiration, the canon, sacraments, liturgy, Easter,
feasts, libraries, manuscripts, books, writing-ma-
terial, and the like; vii. a compend of theology,
God, the Trinity, angels and men, patriarchs, pro-
phets, apostles, martyrs, clerks, and monks; viii.
churdi and synagogue, religion and faith, heresy
and schism, Jewish and Christian heretics, gentile
philosophers, poets, sibyls, magicians, and gods;
ix. various peoples and languages, offices and forms
of government, marriages and relationships; x.
Latin lexicon, with an explanation of about 500
words in alphabetical order; xi. mankind; xii.
animals; xiii. the composition and motion of the
world; xiv. divisions of the earth, lands, and moun-
tains; XV. cities; xvi. earth and stone, gems and
metals, weights and measures; xvii. agriculture,
plants, and grain; xviii. war, weapons, games; xix.
ships, buildings, clothing, adornment; xx. food,
drink, furniture, and agricultural implements.
Isidore's chief sources were Cassiodorus, Boethius,
Varro, Solinus, Pliny, Hyginus, Servius, Lactantius,
Tbrtullian, and especially the Pratq of Suetonius, but
much was written from memory, thus acootmting
for many of the inaccuracies of the work. The Ety-
mologiae remained the great work of reference for
hundreds of years, and was practically copied by
Rabanus in his encyclopedic De univeno (844),
while it was profoundly admired by John of Salis-
bury in the twelfth century. Compiler and plagia-
rist though he may have been, it has been well said
that centuries would have remained in darkness if
Isidore had not let his light shine.

In addition to the works already enumerated,
Isidore is said to have written many smaller trea-
tises, and others still have been ascribed to him,
such as the Quaeetionee de Veteri et Novo Tettamenlo
and the De ordine creaturarum, De corUemptu mundi,
and an interpretation of the Song of Solomon.
A number of Latin poems are ascribed to him, but
with little warrant, and hynms to Agatha and other
martyrs are included among the Mozarabio hynms.
Several of his letters are still extant, and contain
much of biographical and contemporary interest.

(R. SCHMID.)

Biblioorapht: Lists of literature are given in C U. J.
ChevaUer, Sourcu hiUoriquea du moytn'-doe, p. 1127, Pkm.
1877 sqq.; J. E. B. Mayor, Bibliooraphieoi Clm to LaHn
LiUarature, p. 212. London, 1876; Potthast. Wegmimr,
pp. 687-680. The beet edition of his works is by F.
Arevali, 7 vols., Rome, 1797-1803, reproduced in MPL^
lmd.-bcxxiv. Others are by M. de la Bisne, Paris, 1580;
J. de Breul and J. Grial, Paris. 1601; by Grial and Gomes.
Madrid. 1778. Consult: N. Antonio. BiJtiliotkeca Hittpana
retus. ed. P. Bayer, Madrid. 1788; J. C. F. B&hr. OfchieklB
der rCmiMchtn lAleratuTt supplement, L 111-113. Ovlsruhe,
1836; C. E. Bourret, L'6eole duriHenne de Seville, pp. 6»-
193, Paris. 1856; C. F. Montalembert. Let Moinee de
roecident, ii. 200-218. 5 vols., Paris. 1860-^7. Eng. transL.
i. 421-424. Boston, 1872; P. Gams. Kirekengeeekiekk
Spaniena, ii. 2, pp. 102-113. Regensburg. 1874; H. Herts-
berg. Die Hietorien und Ckromken dee leiderue von SeviOa^
G6ttingen, 1874; Wattenbaeh, DQQ, i (1885). 81-88,
i (1893). 84-86: A. Ebert, OeeAiekto der Litemiwr dee
MittelaUerB, I 588-602, Leipsic, 1889; W. Smith, DicUon-
ary cf Greek and Roman Biographu and Myitkology, ii 627-
630. London. 1890; W. 8. TtoufiFel, QeeekiAle der rdmisdkeii
Literatur, pp. 1292-1295, Leipsio, 1890; C. Caftal. San
iBidoro, Seville. 1897; Geillier. Auieure eaerie, xL 710-728-

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Isidore of 8«Tille
Israel, History of

Nesnder. ChriaHan Ckur^, iiL 161-163 et paaaim; Sehaff,
Chriaiian Churdi, iv. 662-660 et paanm; KL, vi. 060-976;
DCB, iii 305-313. The first two volumes of the edition
of his works by Arevali gather up the Tuious sooounts of
the life and add critical comments.

ISIDORIAll DECRSTALS. See Pseudo-Ibido-

RIAN DbCBBTALS.

XSIDORUS MERCATOR. See Ibidorb Mkh-

CATOR.

ISS:ANDARUNAH. See Phbnicia, Phbnicianb,
L§2.

ISLAM. See Mohammed, Mohammedanism.

I. BibUeal History. II.

FrimiUve History (| 1). 1.

The Abrahamic History (| 2). 2.

The Sojourn in Egypt (f 3).
The Exodus and the Giving of the

Law (I 4).
The CSonquest of Canaan and the

Judges (I 6).
The United Kingdom (| 6).
The Divided Kmgdom (f 7). 3.

Judah to the Exile (| 8).
The Exile (f 0).
The Ptersian Period (| 10).
Tlie Greek Period (f 11).
The Maocabean and Roman Periods

(I 12).

ISRAEL, HISTORY OF.

Post-Biblical History.

General Survey.

The Early Period.

Conditions after the War; Jabneh

(«1).
The Last Insurrections (f 2).
Rise of the Babylonian School (f 3).
The Two Talmudic Collections ; The

Masorah (f 4).
The Middle Period.
In the Orient and Italy (f 1).
In Spain; Rise of Jewish Culture

(§2).
Jewish Scholars in Spain (f 3).
Temporal Situation in Spain to

1460 (I 4).

The Inquisition in Spain (| 6).

Jews in France (| 6).

In England (| 7).

In Italy (f 8).

In Germany (| 0).

Revival of Messianism (| 10).

Jews in Poland (| 11).

4. The New Period.

5. Jews in America.
Eariy Settlements (| 1).

In the United States, 1800-80 (| 2).

Reform, Educational, and Charit-
able Movements (1 8).

The New Immigration Since 1880
(«4).

The Press; General Conditions (| 6).

1. Priml-

tive
History.

L Biblical History: Primitive history as set forth
in Genesis takes the form of the history of families.
In Semitic nomadic life the family is
the miit from which the tribe is con-
ceived as developing. Consequently
the Hebrews regarded the nations of
the world as the results of ramifications from a
single stock. It is debated how far the history of
families as given in Genesis is to be taken as his-
torical, and how far the genealogical scheme de-
pends upon observed ethnographic relationships.
In the story of the different stocks, while in general
little of personal life appears, the forms of the
patriarchs stand out full of individuality, and the
attempt is not successful to read the experiences
attributed to them in certain situations and in
individualistic form as the doings of a tribe or a
people. Moreover, the sobriety and exactness of
detail in these narratives is such as to differentiate
them from the poetizing sagas in which folk-lore
celebrates the eponymous ancestors to whom the
origins of the peoples are traced. It lies on the
face of these narratives that they are only frag-
ments of traditions which had for a long time been
transmitted orally, and in the course of this trans-
mission the lesser figures have dropped from the
account and only the great personalities have re-
mained. But the memory of such personalities as
Abraham (q.v.), the father of the nation with whom
is associated the migration from the Euphrates to
Canaan, or Jacob (q.v.), who endured hard service
in the Aramaic territory and earned the blessing of
God as the father of a numerous progeny, or Joseph
(q.v.), through whose vicissitudes tl^ settlement in
EJgypt was brought about, remained a permanent
possession essentiaUy constant in form. For the
historicity of the person of Abraham it may be said
that his history is not discordant with what Assyr-
ian-Babylonian history demands, and the story of
Joseph is accordant with what is known of Egyp-
tian history.

In Genesis Abraham is the descendant and spirit-
ual heir of Shem. According to Gen. x. 21 sqq. he
shares this descent with a group of nations, all of

VI.

whom (except Elam and Lud) are related in lan-
guage and blood to the Hebrews and are still known
as Semites. In Gen. xiv. 13 Abraham
rS^o' ^ ®*"®^ " ^^ Hebrew," and according
History. ^ ^^ Biblical representation the Isra-
elites were in early times called Hebrews
by other peoples, especially by the EJgyptians. The
connotation of this term Hebrew is narrower than
that of Semite, but broader than that of Israelite,
though its exact meaning is not established. It can
hardly mean " those who dwell beyond the Jordan "
(Stade and E. Meyer), but is better brought into
relation with the river Euphrates and related to
the Assyrian expression " across the river." The
equating of the Hebrew form ^Ibhrim with the
Egyptian 'Apriu is questionable; more likely is
the equivalency of the Hebrew form with the
Habiri of the Amama Tablets, though the significa-
tion of Habiri must not be restricted to the fore-
fathers of the Hebrews. The existence of the
Hebraic nomadic family life in Canaan was arduous,
according to the concordant testimony of the
sources. The people often had to change their
dwelling-places to secure pasturage. Still more
difficult wsts their situation in times of famine, as
when they had to transfer themselves to Egypt,
at that time the granary of the region, and found
themselves subject to oppression and placed under
disabilities (Gen. xx. 11). It was a necessity of
this kind which brought about the settlement of
the entire Jacob clan in Egypt, in the northwestern
part known as Goshen, the later '' Arab nome dis-
trict " about Phakusa, the present Saft el-Henneh,
a region not yet definitely marked out (E. Naville,
Goshen and the Shrine of Saft el Henneh, London,
1887). While little is known of the people during
their stay there, the circumstances were so favorable
that they developed into a nation which yet was
not politically organized in national form, but lived
under the patriarchal government of tribal sheiks.
On the religious side much must have been borrowed
from the orderly state in which they were. While
a part of the people foUowed pastoral occupations,
another part settled down to agricultural life (Num.

Israel, History of

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

xi. 5), and something of the industrial accomplish-
ment of the Egyptians must have been acquired.
That the Israelites showed a greater receptivity and
productivity in respect to culture than their near
relatives, the Edomites and Moabites, is due in
part to their sojourn in Egypt, The pre-Mosaic
period was a preparation also for the theocratic
and national cult of later times. The preaching of
Moses must have had a basis in the knowledge of
contemporary Hebrews; and the sources imitedly
attribute to the patriarchs acquaintance with the
God of the covenant, though he was called by other
names. This God of the patriarchs was invisible,
exalted, not bound to apy one land, thou^ he
revealed himself in definite loc^ties which were
therefore holy, and was the possessor of heaven and
earth (Gen. xiv. 19), dwelling in heaven and ruling
the earth. The recollection clung that Abraham
had been called from a relationship where idolatry
was the rule (Josh. xxiv. 2, 14). The uniqueness
of God was not theoretically developed, but was
rather a practical monotheism which permitted to
the Hebrews worship of him alone. The stone
worship and totemism some find in Genesis is dis-
covered only through wilful ex^esis and eisegesis.
Even in the naive anthropomorphisms of Gen. xi.,
xviii.-xix. there are evidences of an exalted con-
ception of God. These religious ideas were not
derived from E!gypt, for they differ entirely from
Egyptian conceptions, though that the Hebrews
derived some things from the Egyptians is clear
from Josh. xxiv. 14; Ezek. xx. 7 sqq., but that
the calf worship had such an origin is improbable
(see Calp, The Golden).

In the region granted them by the EJgyptians,
the Hebrew shepherds lived in relative independence

and grew strong. Into this situation

8. The Bo- ^^ injected the circumstance simply

B^t ^^^ in Ex. i. 8 M the rise of a

king who knew not Joseph. This is
doubtless to be connected with the expulsion of the
Hyksos from Egypt and the antiforeign sentiments
of the new dynasty. The half-nomads in the north-
east were subjected to the corv^ and put to build-
ing fortresses and storehouses; and since this did
not suffice to reduce their strength, the slaughter
of the male children was ordered. Thus what had
been a welcome asylum became a place of slavery
under the hardships of which the Hebrews groaned.
Liberation from this situation is attributed by a
unanimous tradition to Moses. The period of the
oppression is with growing assurance asserted to be
that of Rameses II., whose name is connected with
so many building-enterprises and monuments. In
that case his son and successor, Meneptah, was the
Pharaoh of the Exodus (see Egypt, I., 4, § 3).
Apparently against this is an inscription of Menep-
tah telling of an expedition in which he has de-
stroyed Syria and Israel (the latter for the only
time found mentioned on Egyptian monuments).
If the reference is to Israel, then Israel must already
have been living in Canaan, and the Exodus must
have taken place earlier. This agrees better with
Hebrew tradition, which (I Kings vi. 1) reckoned
480 years between the Exodus and the building
of Solomon's temple, which would place the Exodus

c. 1440 B.C., therefore in the time of Amenophis H.;
and this agrees again with the statement of Manetho,
who records the expulsion of the lepers imder a long
of this name. One circumstance, indeed, teUs
against this earlier date, viz., the frequent occur-
rence in the Pentateuch of the name Rameses (Gen.
xlvii. 11; Ex. i. 11, xii. 37; Num. xiii. 3, 5). Fur-
ther, against the late dating of the Exodus is the
fact that the tribal name Asher appears in an in-
scription of Seti, father of Rameses (c. 1350 B.C.),
according to which that tribe must have had ita
residence in the neighborhood of Lebanon. The
supposition that this tribe departed alone from
EJgypt is improbable.* According to Gen. xv.
13, 16, the sojourn in Egypt was to last 400 years
or four generations. The Hebrew of Ex. xii. 40-41
gives 430 years, but the Septuagint reads " which
they sojourned in Egypt and the land of Canaan."
The indication of the narrative of P is that 215
years were assigned to the Egyptian sojourn and
215 to the period between the settlement and David,
which was the understanding of Josephus and of
the synagogue. Along with this goes the fact that
in the genefdogies of Moses and Achan between Korah
and Levi are mentioned only two steps, between
Judah and Achan only three (Ex. vi. 20; Num. xxvi.
59, xvi. 1; Josh. vii. 1). But since in Gen. xv. even
the Septuagint has the higher number, its reading
in Ex. xii. 40 appears to be an emendation. With
the longer period would agree the censuses of Num. L,
xxvi., which involve a population of about 2,000,000
souls, and Num. xi. 21. On the other hand, it is
difficult to reconcile these high numbers with the
long sojourn in the peninsula of Sinai [or to find
room for so many people in the region. Therefore
these numbers are now rejected, and scholars re-
duce the number of Israelites in the Exodus to a
few thousands].

The Exodus under Moses was regarded by the
Israelites as the birth of the nation (for the route
of the Ebcodus see Red Sea; Wan-
4. The ^^^- DERiNO IN THE WiLDEBNESs) . The his-
Qlvinff of *°"city of the narrative of the Exodus
the Law. ^ould suffer no harm if it were assumed
that only the noblest part of the people,
to which the Joseph tribes belonged, took part in
the event, while the other tribes were already in
the peninsula; but for this supposition there is no
sure ground. To Moses, imder direction of God,
were due both the Exodus and the covenant
between Yahweh and Israel; but they were essen-
tially divine acts, and God became known by his
name Yahweh (see Jehovah; and Yahweh). The
result was the cult and the conceptions of life which

* The text takes no scoount of the explanation by recent
critics of the Seti and Meneptah inscriptions. This is to
the effect that the Hebrew tribes whose descent was traced
to concubines of Jacob were those who, already settled in
Canaan in prehistoric times, were absorbed at a oompara-
tiyely late period, to which fact is due the less honorable
account of their origin. The tribes mentioned in the in-
scriptions were in that case not among the refugees in EVorpt
or the Hebrews of the Exodus, but had maintained their
residenoe in Canaan, where they were assailed by Seti and
Meneptah. This is supported by the legend of the subeti-
tution of the name Israel for Jacob, which is the eponjr-
mous method of accounting for a transfer of name from a
portion to the whole people. G. W. G.

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Israel, History of

became regnant in Israel. The resulting form of
government has, since the time of Josephns {Apion,
iL 16), been called a theocracy, the idea being that
to God was assigned the authority for all rights and
acts. Hence the law included not only regulations
for dvil and criminal processes, but also r^ulations
governing sacrifices and festivals and purifications.
From the time of the reception of the law the soli-
darity of the people was an accomplished fact, while
at tl:^ same time the personality of deity was em-
phasised. The people had become a united religious
coDununity. It is self-evident, therefore, that Moses
set in order the cultus for this community, sanc-
tioning or prohibiting customs then prevalent, those
which were accepted then receiving new consecra-
tion. He appointed also a central sanctuary, with-
out an image, — ^tbe ark of the covenant with the
celebrations centering about it, and in this centrali-
zation lay the only protection for the pure worship
of Yahweh. The priests at the central sanctuary
of later times were naturaUy the protectors of the
Mosaic law, and while this law necessarily received
modifications in the course of time, in general no
law was known which did not go by the name of
Moees. That there were relapses from observance
of this law is not surprising. Equally sure is it that
the law is not merely ideally referred to the desert
period of Israel's life, but that it grew out of the
leader's struggle with the people, whose rebellious
and distrustful character so often manifested itself
in the desert. The continuance of the desert so-
journ is given as forty years by the concordant
tradition and Amos v. 25. This period includes
several smaller periods when the people settled
about some spot, as at the mountain and at Kadesh.
With this period of forty years agrees the fact that
it was a new generation which imdertook the con-
quest, different from that which had participated
in the crossing of the Red Sea. '

Moses was not among those who entered the
promised land; only the East-Jordanland, not in-
cluded in the promises, did he see in
*• '^^^P^' possession of the people. But to
f^^^!^^ ^^ Joshua was divinely committed the
the Judces. ^'^^ ^^ leading the people across the
' Jordan. Campaigns were accomplished
in the north, then in the central portion at Shiloh
the central sanctuary was established. Before his
death Joshua called an assembly of the people at
Shechem and there exhorted them to remain true
to their God. For the relation of the narrative in
the Book of Joshua to Judges i., see Joshua, Book
OF. When the land was parceled out among the
tribes, when the Hebrews came to mingle with the
earlier inhabitants and were no longer held together
by a central authority, it could hardly be otherwise
than that the political solidarity shoiUd be lost, that
the tribal distinctions should emerge, and that the
tribes should enter into various relationships with
the Canaanites. So, too, the religious unity was en-
dangered through conmiimications with the early
settters, while totally different conceptions of deity
overlaid those which had been received at Sinai.
It was easy to adopt into the Yahweh worship
customs which in origin and meaning were heathen.
This happened particularly at the high places, the

sanctuaries of the Canaanites, which were adopted
as places of sacrifice by the Hebrews (see High
Places). With this went relapse into the worship
of the Baals and Astartes, with their impure cults
so opposed to that of Yahweh. The obliteration
of the religious distinction between Hebrews and
Canaanites carried with it more or less of social
and political dependence or amalgamation, especially
where the Hebrews were in the minority. To this
was perhaps due the loss of physical courage
through which subjection to the inroads of the
hordes of Midianites, Amalekites, Moabites, Am-
monites, and Philistines was brought about, relief
from which was wrought by the inspired heroes
who aroused the people to resistance. These heroes
— the Judges — were, above all, champions of free-
dom, but their strength and success lay in the fact
that they recalled the people to trust and obedience
given to the God of Moses and Joshua (see Judges).
This is true of such of the Judges as Deborah,
Gideon, Jephthah (qq.v.), while of Samson (q.v.)
it must be said that his significance was rather in-
dividual than national or tribal, and of others, such
as Elon and Abdon, the influence was rather tribal
or local than national. The result of this period
was severance into tribal groups and loss of the
sense of nationality.

This severance, due to the breaking of the cove-
nant bond founded upon the relationship with Yah-

weh, naturally led in turn to the de-

U Sad "^^"^^ ^^^ * firmer political imion under

Kiiiffdom. ^ national head in whom leadership

was more externally evident tlum
under a pure theocracy. The tendency toward a
monarchical form of government was manifested
under Gideon, whose son, Abimelecb, exercised a
brief sway over a limited region. The founding of
the kingdom is, however, inseparably connected
with the name of Samuel (q.v.), the last of the
Judges, who exercised also the functions of priest
and prophet. The immediate occasion of the es-
tablishment of the kingdom was the oppression by
the Philistines. The hope of relief from this distress
was realized under Saul (q.v.), who, however, soon
regarded himself as sovereign and not as the repre-
sentative of the sole king, Yahweh. This led to the
announcement of his rejection through Samuel,
followed quickly by his melancholia and his defeat
and death at GUboa. Before his death his successor
had been chosen in the person of David (q.v.),
son of Jesse, of Bethlehem of Judah, who had
achieved prominence as a leader in war and had
aroused Saul's jealousy, hatred, and persecution.
After the death of Saul, David was for seven and a
half years king in Hebron over Judah, while Ish-
bosheth (q.v.) reigned in Mahanaim across the
Jordan over the northern tribes. After the violent
death of Ishbosheth David became king over the
united tribes, and fixed his residence finally in Jeru-
salem, then newly captured. His leadership in war
and peace brought the kingdom to its highest point
of prosperity. His spiritual and religious signif-
icance was also great, characterised as it was by
complete concord between king and prophet; and
no less marked was his influence upon the cultus
through his placing of the ark in the capital, through

Israel, History of

THE NEW BCHAFF-HERZOG

h&B service to the ritual of song, as well as his
zealous devoticm to Yahweh. His son and suo-
oessor, Solomon (q.v.)i built in Jerusalem the
temple, which be<iame more and more the cultic
center for the entire land, in spite of its temporary
destruction. Hia reign, \mlike that of his father's,
was one of peace; yet the very fact that the land
was unassailed by external foes, together with the
jealousy of the northern tribes at being ruled by a
Judahite, prepared the way for the division of the
kingdom, which was supported by the prophetic
leaders, swayed in part by Solomon's acquiescence
in the practise of heathen rites introduced by the
princesses whom he had made his wives.

After the death of Solomon the larger part of the

nation revolted from the Davidic dynasty and set

up the Ephraimite Jeroboam (q.v.)

SMd!^ as king, while to Rehoboam (q.v.),
Xinsdom ^lomon's son, only the southern part
remained true with the capital, to
which adhered Judah, part of Benjamin, remains
of Simeon, and Dan, and most of the Levites. A
hostility began between the two kingdoms which
resulted in mutual weakening and in consequent
inability to resist external powers such as Syria
and Assyria. The division was also religiously dis-
astrous. In order to wean the people from Jeru-
salem and its sanctuary, JerobcMun set up golden
calves (see Calf, the Golden) as images of Yah-
weh at Dan and Bethel and in this way reintroduced
the principle of religious syncretism into the worship
of Yahweh. Nevertheless the prophets remained a
powerful agency in the Ephraimitic kingdom.
Politically the situation there was lamentable.
Dynasty succeeded dynasty in rapid succession,
and the revolutionary principle was often in evi-
dence in the further history. The dynasty of Jero-
boam (q.v.) had but two generations, as had that
of the next founded by the usurper Baasha (q.v.);
Zimri (q.v.) reigned but seven days, and was over-
thrown by Omri (q.v.), whose name became so cele-
brated that in the Assyrian inscriptions Israel was
long known as the ** land of Omri." Omri made
Samaria (q.v.) the permanent capital, and was suc-
ceeded by his son, Ahab (q.v.), a king successful
in his external relations, but swayed at home by
his consort, Jezebel (q.v.), whose unremitting efforts
to subvert the Yahweh cult for that of Baal were
opposed by Elijah (q.v.). The reigns of Ahab's
sons, Ahaziah and Joram (qq.v.), brought the
dynasty to an end. The period of the Omri dynasty
was one of peace and alliance between the two
kingdoms, cemented by marriage between the two
houses in the persons of Athaliah, daughter of
Jezebel, and Ahab and Joram (q.v.) of Judah. In
the meantime the southern kingdom under Reho-
boam had suffered severely under a campaign of
Shishak of Egypt, but under his grandson, Asa
(q.v.), and his great-grandson, Jehoshaphat (q.v.),
its prestige was recovered. The alliance between
the two houses almost resulted in the extinction of
the Davidic dynasty through the massacre by
Athaliah, from which only Joash (q.v.) of the seed
royal escaped. Under Joram, father of Joash, Edom ,
the one vassal people remaining to Judah from
the united kingdom, had secured its independence.

In the northern kingdom judgment came upon the
dynasty of Omri through Jehu (q.v.), who, with
frightful slaughter, established a new dynasty in
Samaria. Jehu and his son and successor, Jehoahaz
(q.v.), were, however, vassals of the Sjrrians.
Under Jehu's grandson, Joash (q.v.), this vassalage
was broken and Judah was reduced to a tributary
position under Amaziah (q.v.), son of Joash of
Judah. Jeroboam II. (q.v.), the fourth of Jehu's
dynasty, raised the kingdom to an unexampled
height of prosperity, quickly lost imder his suc-
cessor, Zachariah (q.v.). Jeroboam reestablished
the early bounds of the kingdom by bringing the
Moabites and part of the Syrian territory under
Israelitic dominion. This was the period of the
prophets Amos, Hosea, and Jonah the son of
Amittai (qq.v.), who showed the contrast between
the apparent prosperity and the internal decay of
the kingdom. The Assyrians had been battering
at Syria and had already come into close relations
with IsraeL Ahab had fought against Assyria at
Earkar, Jehu had paid costly tribute in 842 B.C.;
but Tiglath-Pileser III. (see Assyria, VI., 3, ) 9)
had subjected to his power the country up to the
Mediterranean coast; Jehu's djmasty ended with
Zachariah, who was slain by Shallum, and be in
turn was killed by Menahem (q.v.) after a reign of
one month. Menahem reigned five years, a vassal
of Tiglath-Pileser; his son Pekahiah (q.v.) was
slain by the usurper Pekah (q.v.), whose combina-
tion with Syria against Judah was aimed against
Assyria, and led to the final catastrophe under his
successor, Hoshea (q.v.). In Judah the calamity
sustained under Amaziah was gradually forgotten
during the long reign of Uzziah (q.v.), whose general-
ship secured the subjection of the Edomites, Moab-
ites, and Ammonites, while the northern kingdom
declined. Whether the Azriyahu of Yaudi (" Ju-
dah ") mentioned in the inscriptions of Tiglath-
Pileser as at the head of an anti-Assyrian combina-
tion is to be identified with this king or with the
king of a North-Syrian Yaudi is still debated. Uz-
ziah directed well the inner fortimes of the state,
patronizing agriculture and grazing. The Chronicler
ascribes his leprosy to an invasion of priestly rights;
in consequence of this disease his son Jotham (q.v.)
ruled long as regent before he succeeded to the
throne. In the time of Jotham's successor, Ahas
(q.v.), occurred the alliance of Israel and Syria
against Judah, referred to above; and the situation
was complicated by a hostile combination of Eklom-
ites and Philistines. But Ahaz was relieved by the
successes of Tiglath-Pileser, whose campaigns were
directed against Judah's foes. The Assyrian beset
Samaria, which Sargon finally took, carrying 27,000
of its inhabitants into captivity, leaving Judah to
survive for 135 years.

The successor of Ahaz to the throne of Judah was
Hezekiah (q.v.), a vassal of Assyria, but most rest-
less in that relation, who was saved
to th^ from the vengeance of Sennacherib in
j^^H^ a way regarded as miraculous. His
son, Manasseh (q.v.), was strongly dis-
posed toward heathenism, persecuting the adher-
ents of the Yahweh religion. This policy was con-
tinued under his son Ammon (q.v.), but reversed

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Israel, History of

under his second successor, Josiah (q.v.)i ^ho, with
aD earnestness, reintroduced the Mosaic faith and
cultus. Josiah's untimely death, caused by his con-
fronting the Egyptian Necho at Megiddo, was a most
serious blow to the welfare of Judah. His son Jeho-
ahas (q.v.) was removed from the throne by Necho
after the latter's return from the East three months
later, and Jehoiakim, his elder brother, was put in
his place. Jehoiakim (q.v.) became tributary to the
Babylonians, but revolted after three years, an of-
fense which was expiated after his death by his
son, Jehoiachin (q.v.), whom, after a reign of three
months, Nebuchadreszar took prisoner and carried
to Babylon with the noblest of the land. The Baby-
lonians placed upon the throne a third son of Josiah,
who assumed the name Zedekiah (q.v.); he, in the
ninth year of his reign, conspired in alliance with
the Pharaoh Hophra to throw off the Babylonian
yoke, in this going coimter to the advice of Jeremiah
and Esekiel and thereby challenging the might of
the Euphrates kingdom. The Babylonians invested
Jerusalem after defeating a force of Egyptians sent
to break the siege, captured the city in 586 B.C.,
destroyed the temple and the city's defenses, vis-
ited with punishment the leaders of the people, and
carried away into captivity all whose social rank
exposed them to possibilities of leadership. Geda-
liah (q.v.) was made governor and took up his resi-
dence in Mizpah, where the remnant of the people
gathered about him, and where he soon became
the victim of assassination. Ifany of the remaining
people fled into Eigypt, taking with them against
his will the prophet Jeremiah. Jerusalem lay in
ruins, large parts of the territory of Judea passed
into the possession of the Edomites, and the future
and promise of Israel for the next fifty years was
in the exiles in Babylon.

The exiles were settled in Babylonia along the
Chebar in the neighborhood of Nippur (see Babt-
g m- LONiA, IV., § 9), where they possessed
1^^^ their own houses and lands and a cer-
tain degree of autonomy. The only
basis for a history of the exilic period and the life
of that time is in the books of Jeremiah, Esekiel,
and Deutero-Isaiah, which last originated in the
last third of the exile. Part of the people relapsed
into idolatry. But for the rest, in their enforced
from participation in the religious or-
of the sanctuary, the spiritual significance
of such observances as the Sabbath rest, and the
ordinances regarding food and circumcision became
deepened as being signs of their distinction as the
people of God. The very nearness of heathenism
repelled many of the Jews, as there was borne in
upon them the fact that their own experiences were
the expression of a long-deferred judgment for this
Bin. There was also impressed upon the nation the
idea of its mission in the world as a mediator between
God and the nations.

About fifty years after the destruction of Jerusa-
lem the Babylonian empire came into the hands of
Cyrus. Babylon was taken in 539, and in that year
the Jews received from the victor pemussion to re-
turn. Of this permission 42,380 males, with their
families, availed themselves under the leadership
of Shesbbasaar-Zerubbabel (the kientity of Shesh-

bassar and Zerubbabel is still debated) and the
high priest Joshua, and reached Jerusalem probably
10 Th ^ ^^' '^^y settled in Jerusalem and
Persian ^ ^^ outlying cities, set up the altar
Period. ^^ burnt offerings, and made preparsr
tions to rebuild the temple. Owing,
however, to the opposition of the Samaritans, who
placed all difficulties in the way, and to the necessity
of securing means of subsistence, the reconstruction
of the temple was deferred till the beginning of
the reign of Darius, in the years 520-516 B.C., and
was accomplished then under the stimulus of the
prophets Hisiggai and Zechariah. The report of the
return in 538 has been seriously questioned, and the
thesis advanced that Zerubbabel was never in exile,
and that the temple was rebuilt by the Jews who
had remained in Palestine; but these hypotheses
are based on arbitrary constructions which fall on
examination. For tl^ period 516-458 no reports
have been transmitted, except that the narrative
of the Book of Esther (q.v.) refers to the time of
Xerxes. In 458 B.C. under Artaxerxes I. the con-
dition of the colony at Jerusalem was miserable
and the maintenance of its religious distinction en-
dangered. Then the scribe Ezra (q.v.) led back
to Judea a new company of exiles consisting of
1,500 males with their families. He was empowered
by royal firman to put into practise the require-
ments of the Mosaic law, but entire success in this
direction was attained only when, in 445-444 B.C.,
Nehemiah (q.v.) came to his support, clothed with
the authority of the governorship. Nehemiah re-
established the defenses of Jerusalem by having
the walls of the city repaired, notwithstanding the
opposition of the Samaritans, and then assisted
Ezra in the purification of the conmiunity by
causing the dismission of the heathen wives and
requiring the observance of the entire Mosaic law.
After a residence of twelve years Nehemiah re-
turned to the Persian court, but in a later visit to
Jerusalem found it necessary to employ stem
measures for the preservation of the Mosaic institu-
tions, expelling from the conmiunity a grandson
of the high priest who had married a daughter of
the Samaritan noble Sanballat (q.v.). According
to Josephus (AfU, XI., viii. 2 sqq.), this priest,
with the help of his father-in-law, established the
sanctuary of the Samaritans on Mount Gerizim
and set in order its priesthood; but Josephus con-
fused these events with others which occurred in
the time of Alexander the Great. Undoubtedly at
that time the Samaritans received from the Jews
the Pentateuch, which constitutes their Scriptures.
Of the last ten years of the Persian period no trust-
worthy reports have come down. There are state-
ments that Artaxerxes III. Ochus ordered a deporta-
tion of Jews to Hyrcania, on the south shore of the
Caspian, because they were involved in a rebellion
of Phenicians and C^riotes against the Persians.
On this occasion the Persian General Bagoses pushed
into the temple, and Josephus reports (Ant, XI.,
vii. 1) that he substituted Jesus (Joshua) as high
priest for his brother John. The political impor-
tance of the high priest originated in that period.

With the destruction of the Persian empire by
Alexander the Great a new period began for Judea.

Israel, History of

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

Ghraak
Period.

Alexander's attitude toward the Jews was friendly.

But when, after the conqueror's death, his empire

was divided, Judea, lying between the

^ilS? kingdoms of the contending Ptolemies
and the Seleucidae, was a continual
sufferer by the conflict. At first
Judea came into the power of the Ptolemies.
Josephus reports that Ptolemy Lagus violated the
Sabbath, captured Jerusalem, and carried captive
to Egypt a large number of Jews from Jerusalem
and Galilee (Apion, i. 22; Ant, XII., i., XIII.,
xii. 4). Hecataeus says that later this Ptolemy was
so friendly toward the Jews that many of them of
their own accord went to Egypt and settled there,
particularly in Alexandria. Judea still remained
the object of strife between S3rria and Egypt, and
came finally into the power of Syria imder Anti-
ochus III. the Great, by his victory over Scopus
near Paneas. Of Seleucus Philopator, son of
Antiochus the Great, it is reported that his general,
Heliodorus, entered the temple to plunder it and
was prevented by a miraculous vision. The suc-
cession of Antiochus IV. Epiphanes to the throne
of S3rria (175 B.C.) was of especial moment to the
Jews. During the changes which had befallen the
political possession of Palestine, Jewish independ-
ence being entirely lost, the chief concern of the Jews
was their religious freedom. But contact with Greek
civilization and the attempts of the leaders to make
capital out of the quarrels of the overlords, as well
as the building up in the land of centers of Greek
life through settlement there of Greek colonies, intro-
duced the spirit of Hellenism and caused the estab-
lishment of a party among the Jews favorable to
Greek civilization, receiving therefore the support
of the overlords. Opposed to this Hellenistic party
was the party of the Hasideans, committed to the
observance of the Mosaic ordinances, and to the
condemnation of Hellenism. Into the contest
between these two parties Antiochus Epiphanes
intruded by his brutal attack on the sanctuary,
168 B.C., as well as by his assault upon the religious
observances of the Jews and his edict against the
Sabbath and circumcision. His anger on accoimt
of the failure of his expedition against Egypt he
vented in this way upon the Jews, and he thus
became the antetype of the New-Testament Anti-
christ. Severe persecution followed, in the course
of which many Jews abandoned their religion.

A turn in affairs was given in the year 167 b.c
in the resistance offered by the priest Mattathias

12. The o^ Modein, supported by his sons.
Xaooabean Rebellion against Syria broke out, led

and Bo- by Judas, son of Mattathias, who won

man Pe- many victories over Syrian troops,
riods. restored the service of the temple, and
died a hero's death. The strife was carried on by
the brothers of Judas, one of whom, Simon, gained
the position of high priest and prince by choice
of the people and recognition by the Syrians. Until
the time of Simon's son, John Hyrcanus, the Macca-
bees and the Hasideans were of the same party
and, indeed, bore the same name (see Habmonbans).
They were the predecessors of the Pharisees (see
Pharibeeb and Sadduceeb). John broke with the
ortbodost party and connected himself with the

Sadduoees. After his death his family became in-
volved in quarrels over the succession and lost its
preeminent position, and against his son Alexander
Jannaeus (104-78 B.C.) the Pharisees sought Syrian
help. In the strife that ensued upon his death,
caused by attempts to gain the succession, the
Romans obtained entrance, and Pompey captured
Jerusalem after a three months' siege. Herod, son
of the Idumean Antipater, was made king by
the Roman senate in 39 b.c, and established him-
self by the help of the Roman legions in 37 b.c.
He sought to conciliate the Jews, particularly by
his magnificent restoration of the temple. After
the death of this talented but conscienceless tyrant,
his kingdom was divided between his sons Archelaus,
Antipas, and Philip. The first, to whom Judea had
fallen, was soon deposed by the Romans (6 a.d.),
and government by Roman procurators was insti-
tuted with capital at Gaesarea. The procurators
appointed by the Romans had no appreciation of
Jewish characteristics, and constant ill-feeling was
aroused over religious matters. The best known of
these officers is Pontius Pilate (26-36 a.d.), whose
conduct caused many conflicts with the people and
whose unstable character is revealed in the story
of the trial of Jesus (see Pilate, Pontius). The
opposition between the suppressed theocratic con-
sciousness of the Jews and the claims of the Caesars
grew ever sharper until the final conflict. Open rup-
ture was almost provoked in the year 40 a.d. by the
order of (Caligula to have his image set up in the
temple, a crisis that was passed only by the inter-
cession of Agrippa I. at Rome. To this end Agrippa
was given the realm which had been Herod's, and
his favor to the Jews appears in his attitude toward
the Christians (see Herod and his Family) . The
situation of the Jews became more difficult under
Felix and Festus, still harder under Albinus, and
the rebellion came to a head under Gessius Florus.
The Zealots seised the temple and fortified them-
selves there; Agrippa II., who had succeeded to a
lesser area of sovereignty than Agrippa I. controlled,
did not suppress the insurrection. In a battle near
Beth-horon a Roman force was nearly annihilated.
This victory inflamed the whole country. But the
Romans b^gan to press in, and under Vespasian
they conquered Peraea in 68 a.d., while internal
strife divided the Jews between the Zealots and the
moderates. In the year 70, a few days before the
Passover, Titus appeared before the walls of Jeni>
salem and assailed it from the north. In fourteen
days the outer wall was taken, and, a few days
after, the second, while the innermost and strongest
afforded means of greater resistance. Famine seised
the defenders, but in spite both of the mild proposals
of Titus for the surrender of the city and his stem
exhibitions of punishment that must ensue, the
defense was maintained. The people still hoped for
such deliverance from God as their history recorded
as having occurred in earlier times. The temple
was the last stronghold. When it was taken, Titua
would have preserved it at the request of Josephus,
but his intention was frustrated by the unguarded
act of a soldier who applied the torch. After the
fall of Jerusalem, resistance was still offered at a few
fortresses, such as Herodeum near Tekoa, Machaerus

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Israel, History of

serosa the Jordan, and Masada, west of the Dead Sea.
But fn»n that time the Jews have had to live with-
out country, sanctuary, and nationality.

C. VON Orelli.

n. Post-Biblical History. — 1. Oeneral Survey:
With the fall of Jerusalem the Jewish nation lost
the remains of its independence and all control over
its external destiny, while it became dependent
upon the peoples among whom it lived. It never-
theless had received such a development of spiritual,
social, and religious life as had differentiated it from
the other nations with which its lot was from that
time cast and had made absorption into them an
impossibility. Consequently the Jewish people
has had for 1,900 years its own inner history, which
has not been without influence upon the world at
large. Externally and internally this history divides
into three periods: (1) From the fall of Jerusalem
to the Mohammedan conquest and the emeigence
of the Teutons; (2) to the French Revolution; (3)
to the present. In the first of these periods the Jews
built i^ut themselves a spiritual wall within which
they protected and developed their peculiar and
individual bent. Abandoning all claims upon the
outer world, they busied themselves with the pro-
duction of the Talmud, the citadel of their spirit-
ual life, the treasury of their thought, the basis of
the physical and spiritual laws of their existence.
When their individuality had thus been fixed in
enduring form, they could without danger to their
peculiar genius participate in the life of the nations
of the world so far as this was permitted to them.
In the second period this participation was very
limited, confined chiefly to the exercise of the func-
tions of commerce and of the privileges of middle-
men between the Orient and Occident. They also
exercised a decided influence upon cultiu^ and medi-
ated between Greek learning and philosophy and the
Arabic and between the Arabs and the West, and so
contributed to learning of the scholastic type, pro-
ducing a momstic type of thought best illustrated
by Spinoza. With the French Revolution began
the gradual emancipation of the Jews, in which
they gained political equality with Christians, lost
the quality of separativeness, acquired eminence in
the world of wealth and of letters, but at the ex-
pense of that intensity of religious life which had
distinguished them through the centuries. Against
this there came late in the nineteenth century a
reaction which took the form of Zionism (q.v.), one
of the purposes of which is the unification of the
nation through the erection of a Jewish state in
Palestine. T^be present century finds among the
Jews a social excitement and a spiritual ferment
such as it has not known since the destruction of
Jerusalem.

2. TheXarly Period: The Jewish war left Judea
a waste and its Jewish inhabitants despoiled. Ves-

nrntfii P^**"^ ^^^^ ^^® ^^^ *® ^ personal
^^J^J^J*" domain, from which he bestowed es-

^l^'<^i^. tates upon his friends ; he settled 800
Jabneh.* veterans in the neighborhood of Jeru-
salem, and compelled those Jews who
wished to remain in the country to purchase their
holdings from the conqueror. The Jews who had
previc^y been domidled in other lands became

the real strength of tliose nations. They were in
greatest force in Egypt, especially in Alexandria;
but they were scattered elsewhere from India west-
ward, and no considerable city was without its
Jewish conmiunity and its synagogue. In Rome
there were at least 8,000 Jews with i&ir own quarter
of the city; Jewish merchants followed the l^ions,
while the Herodian family had a recognized place
at court, and Jews under the empire had special
exemption and position. With the destruction of
Jerusalem the Jews had lost their unifying center.
But by his flight to the camp of the Romans and his
prediction to Vespasian of elevation to the throne.
Rabbi Johanan ben Zakkai (cf. JE, vii.,214 sqq.)
had gained the emperor's favor and a promise to
grant any request the rabbi might make. The latter
asked permission to establish a school of Jewish law,
and when this was given, settled at Jabneh or Jam-
nia, a little city near the coast south of Joppa. Un-
der the care of the institution there erected came
the settlement of many matters formerly in chaige
of the Sanhedrin, including the Jewish calendar.
Hence arose the tradition that Rabbi Johanan
transferred the Sanhedrin to Jabneh. While it had
not been his purpose to create a new center of
Judaism, the gathering of scholars there and the
study of the law had this effect, and so made possible
the continued survival of the Jewish spirit. Jews
from abroad sent their sons for the study of the law,
while the teachers gave their pronouncement upon
matters of importance for all their coreligionists.
Here was developed the tradition of the law, as di-
vided into Halacha and Haggada (see Midrash),
out of which came a definite and characteristic set of
views which stamps the Jewish learning with what
may be called a Talmudio type as opposed to the
Biblical type of post-exilic and pre-Christian Juda-
ism. This is the third stage in the development of
the Jewish spirit, the first being what may be termed
the pre-Biblical. In this stage the four generations to
the close of the Mishna are known as Tanaim, the five
to the close of the Talmud as Amoraim, both classes
influential upon all succeeding Judaism, guarding
as they did Judaic orthodoxy. Among the Tanaim
two men were of eminent importance, Gamaliel the
younger (cf. JEy v. 560 sqq.), and Akiba (q.v.).
The first stood for the influence of Killers inter-
pretation of the law, for the decision of legal matters
by a majority of authorities, and for Jabneh as the
continued center of official Judaism. Rabbi Akiba 's
fame rests not merely upon his collection of the
Halachoth, but upon his new method of using the
literal and minute elements of Scripture as a basis
of legal formulas. Under Gamaliel the estrange-
ment between Jews and Christians became final
and complete.

Judaism meanwhile gained ever a stronger in-
fluence, and proselytes of eminence in the heathen
world adopted the Jewish religion.

In ^•■* This aroused Domitian's distrust, and

tions " ^® ^^ ^^® Jewish law examined to
discover whether it were a danger to
the state. Under Trajan this distrust became
greater because of the practical aid given by Jews
to the Parthians, and victory over these was recog-
I nized, even in inscriptions on coins, as a new victory

Israel, History of

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

over the Jews. But the victory over the Jews of
the Orient was fearfully avenged upon both Romans
and Greeks in a rising of the Jews of the Occident.
The imperial legions were exterminated, and in
Cyprus alone 240,000 Greeks were said to have been
slaughtered. Trajan called in the aid of his best
generals to suppress the insurrection, and severe
vengeance was taken on the Jews of Mediterranean
lands, while the beautiful synagogue in Alexandria
was completely destroyed. But in S3rria and Asia
Minor a new revolt was raised, and the fanaticism
of the Jewish spirit, fanned by the Messianic hope
centered in Bar Kokba, made necessary the sending
of Trajan's most capable general, Julius Severus,
from Britain to Palestine. This was the last im-
portant attempt of the Jews to establish a Messianic
kingdom by force of arms; thenceforth they looked
for it to come only by special divine interposition.
The site of Jerusalem was given to the plow, and
in 134 a Roman colony, Aelia Capitolina, was
founded to the north of the old city. Another
revolt among the Jews was suppressed in 135. A
poll tax was levied, and circimiciBion and observ-
ance of the Sabbath were forbidden. By these
means the possibilities of political danger from the
Jews were so thoroughly eliminated by the time of
Antoninus Pius that he abolished the severe restric-
tions, and their renewal under Marcus Aurelius
was caused not by political conditions, but by relig-
ious intolerance. The Jews themselves recognized
that their political importance was a thing of the
past and that all which remained was their com-
mimity in matters of religion.

At the end of the second century the Sanhedrin

lost its eminence, and the decisions of Rabbi Juda

ben Simon were recognized as authori-

th^Bab^. ^*^^®* ^® established as finally de-
lonian^* cisive the Mishna of Rabbi Akiba,
Bohool. ^^Ic other collections were pronounced
devoid of authority. At this time, it is
probable, the Mishna ceased to be oral and was
committed to writing. Since all national, political,
and judicial rights had ceased, the law had in part
only an ideal value as fashioning the inner life and
conceptions of Jews. With the compilation of the
Mishna Palestinian Judaism had eidiausted itself,
and the scholastic center shifted to Babylon in the
production of the Gemara or the Talmud proper by
the school of the Amoraim. What the Mishna is to
the Bible the Gemara is to the Mishna — a continuous
refinement of the law, binding Judaism within ever
tightening chains. The first Amoraim were Pales-
tinians, the most eminent among them Rabbi Juda
the younger. He transferred the seat of the school
to Tiberias, where, under the favor of Alexander
Severus, something of splendor appeared. Rela-
tions between Jews and Romans became not merely
friendly, but intimate, and laxity in following
Judaic practises was the natiu'al result. During
this period Babylon was coming into greater sig-
nificance for the Jews, and was even called ** the
land of Israel." The head of the Babylonian Jews
was an officer imder the Parthian government,
fourth in rank after the king, and a descendant of
the Davidic line. His power, however, was tem-
poral, not as yet spiritual. Rabbi Abba Rab

brought the Mishna from Palestine and founded a
school at Babylon which soon had 1,200 students.
His friend Mar Samuel first enunciated the maxim
which became authoritative for Jews — " the law
of the state is valid.'' During the reign of Alex-
ander Severus the neo-Persian kingdom of the
Sassanides was established, and this, in its zeal for
Zoroastrianism, excluded Jews from office and
introduced certain restrictions to be followed on
Zoroastrian festivals. These restrictions did not
continue long, and until Ck)nstantine's time the
Jews had peace. Constantine's edict of toleration
(312 A.D.) included the Jews also, but later his
policy changed and proselyting was forbidden as
well as the circumcision of slaves of Jews. In this
Jews saw the approach of Messianic times, for it
had long been said that ** the Messiah will not come
till the Roman empire is Christian." But Rabbi
Hillel the younger declared that Israel had no
Messiah to look forward to, for the prediction by
the prophet of a mighty ruler had been fulfilled in
Hezekiah; the head of the Babylonian school
replied in the prayer " May God forgive Rabbi
Hillel for holding this error." Under Constantius
matters were still worse for the Jews, and many in
the Roman empire emigrated to Persia. Constan-
tine's laws were enforced with the addition that
marriage between Jews and Christians was forbid-
den. Julian especially favored the Jews, and prep-
arations were made for rebuilding the temple,
which ceased, however, on his death.

About the year 400 a.d. Rabbi Aschi had the oral
explanations, discussions, decisions and investiga-
4. The Two ^^^^^ based on the Mishna collected in
Talmndio ^^^ Babylonian Talmud, which became
OoUeotions: the chief source of spiritual instruction,
the Masse- as much superior to the Mishna in the
>^^* regard of scholastic Judaism as the
Mishna was to the Bible. Even till the present the
Talmud has been for millions of Jews the totality
of truth, wisdom, righteousness and holiness, and
study of it the certain way to eternal life, while to
study anything else is to a real Jew a sign of god-
lessness. To a Jew instructed in the Talmud God
and his revelation as set forth therein are the first
and highest interests of life, thought, feeling and
action. Thus this collection became the wall which
hedged about all Jewish life, the influence which
controlled all Jewish thought and molded Jewish
conceptions for fifteen hundred years. It was the
obstacle, as well, to further development of Jewish
religion and life (see Talmud). This great produc-
tion came forth in the time when Rome was hard
pressed by the Germanic peoples and North Africa
became the booty of the Vandals. The mighty
world-movements of the times served to arouse
once more the Messianic hopes of the Jews, ex-
pressed in the saying that the Messiah would not
come till the eighty-fifth Jubilee (4200 anno mundi,
440 A.D.), about the time when the Vandals captured
the temple treasures at Rome and carried them to
Africa. As at this time the old sacred treasures of
the Jews disappeared, the more precious became
the Talmud as the one sacred instrument remaining.
So in Palestine the Amoraim collected their tradi-
tions in the Jerusalem Talmud, though it is not

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Israel, History of

known where or by whom this was done. In the
dedining Roman empire the situation of the Jews
was not favorable. Theodosius sought to protect
them, though foiled by the opposition of Ambrose,
and his successors also tried to secure their peace.
Under Theodosius II., Cyril of Alexandria had the
Jews expelled from the city and their possessions
given to the rabble, while their synagogue in Anti-
och was sacked. Enmity between Jews and Chris-
tians became acute. Jerome's Hebrew teadier could
attend his pupil only in secret. Palestinian Judaism
meanwhile did not perish without leaving one more
monument of exceeding value in the Massorah — i.e.,
the addition of vowels, accents, and marks of divi-
sion or distinction to the consonantal text of the Old
Testament, with annotations on the text. In 470
there began an official persecution of the Jews of Per-
sia, and many were compelled to emigrate to India.
Later, in Bfalabar they received privileges which
are chronicled on a tablet still extant, inscribed in
Hebrew and early Indian. The end of the period
of the Amoraim fell at the close of the fifth century.
8. The Kiddle Period: For the Jews of the By-
zantine empire this period began with the reign of

Justinian, whose laws were the basis

-i^? ^^ of the treatment of the Jews during the

Italy. ^^^ Ages. Under his code Jewish

testimony against a Christian was not
received, a Christian might not become a prose-
lyte to Judaism, Jews had to support highly paid
city officials from whom they received no bene-
fits or immunities, they might not celebrate their
Passover before the Christian Easter, might read
the Scriptures in the synagogue on the Sabbath
only in Greek or Latin, while they were subjected
at the hands of the rabble to frequent riots with all
attendant evils. On the other hand, the Jews lost
no opportunity for vengeance, which in turn excited
new animosity. At this time the Jews of the Orient
dropped out of history and those of the Occident
became prominent, especially those of Spain. In
Italy, imder the great movements of the Germanic
peoples, Jews suffered as did the Christians. During
the Gothic rule the laws of Theodosius were in force;
Jews controlled the slave-trade and held Christians
in slavery, and were largely autonomous besides
disregarding the laws designed to protect Christians.
StilL. the h^hest authorities did all possible to pro-
tect the Jews, and the eflforts of the popes to this
end were constant. Gregory the Great was espe-
cially kind to them, ccHnpelling indemnification for
destroyed synagogues, but he forbade the holding
of Christians as slaves, and wrote to several of the
kings of his day to make an end of the trade in
Christian slaves carried on by the Jews.

Of all the countries of Europe none was so fa-
vorable to the Jews as Spain. There the highest

products of Jewish industry, intellect
^ ^ and skill were in evidence; in wealth,

honor, philosophy and poetry the days

of the Jews in Spain still mark for them
Q^Q^Q,^ an epoch. On the other hand, in the

reaction nowhere was the suffering so
great as there. Jewish settlements in the Spanish
peninsula were very ancient, made perhaps under
the Phenidans; certainly after the destruction of

Jerusalem great numbers of Jews were sold into
Spain, and Granada was so largely settled by them
as to be called a Jewish state. Christianity also
made early and great conquests there, and laws sim-
ilar to those mentioned above were enacted to pre-
vent holding of Christian slaves by Jews and pros-
elyting by force. Later King Sisebut ordered all
Jews to receive baptism or to give up their holdings
of land, and many Jews complied, while many others
migrated to France or Africa, llie Jewish question
came under discussion at the Synod of Toledo (633
A.D.). Isidore of Seville opposed forcible conversion
of the Jews, but forbade that Christians should be-
come Jews and prohibited intercourse between Jews
and Christians. The situation changed from time to
time. Under one king the Jews would enjoy relig-
ious liberty, and Jews who had nominally accepted
Christianity were permitted to return to their old
faith; under another the menace to the Church
of so laige a population of Jews was felt, and severe
laws against them were put in force. Under King
Egica a conspiracy of Spanish and African Jews
with the Arabs to overthrow the Gothic kingdom
was discovered, but too late; Jews and Arabs made
common cause, and the Mohammedan conqueror,
Tarik, brought the Gothic kingdom of Spain to an
end in 711 a.d. The relations between Jews and
Mohammedans was peculiar. Jews regarded Islam
as a younger daughter of Judaism, as was Christian-
ity, but they felt more closely related to Islam and
never made common cause with Christians against
Mohammedans. In Arabia they had made ineffect-
ive Constantine's efforts for the spread of Christi-
anity. They had many important settlements there
which were governed by Jewish princes, and they had
a school of the law and possessed Talmudic learning.
When Mohammed proclaimed his faith as that of
Abraham, the Jews had faith in him and he called
them ** helpers." But differences arose, and Mo-
hammed published parts of Suras against them in
which he called them murderers of prophets and
falsifiers of revelation. Then there came war with
the Jewish tribe of the Banu-Kainuka, and one of
the two Jewish women whom the prophet brought
back tried to poison him. After his death the strife
between Mohammedans and Jews continued. In
Spain the Jews opened the gates of Toledo to Tarik
and took bloody vengeance upon the Christians,
while they received many favors from the con-
querors. In this period occurred the founding of
the sect of the Karaites (q.v.) by Anan ben David
(cf. JE, i. 553 sqq.), who, in Babylon and Palestine,
opposed the Talmudic learning and would have the
Old Testament alone authoritative. He was the
first Jew to compose a commentary on the Penta-
teuch. In Palestine there was propounded also a
Jewish mysticism and system of ascetics whose
followers called themselves " men of faith," claimed
miraculous powers, and infiuenoed all medieval
Judaism. The Karaites were opposed by Saadia
of Egypt, who founded Jewish science and trans-
lated the Old Testament into Arabic. His phil-
osophic-religious sjrstem is contained fully in his
Emunoth wedeoth^ written in 943 a.d., in which he
introduced Greek-Christian philosophy to the
Orient.

Israel^ EUtory of

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

The tenth century saw the flowering of Jewish
culture in Spain, especially at the court of Abdul-

Rahman III. at Cordova. The first of

a K 1^ 4 the series of noted Jewish scholars was

aJJ2^/^ Samuel Halevi ibn Nagdela (b. 993).

rabbi, author and poet. Then came
Jona Marinus (Merwan ibn-Ganach, 995-1050),
grammarian and exegete; Solomon ibn-Gebirol,
who wrote in Arabic Mekor hayim, *' The Foxmtain
of Life," a cosmogony which contained little espe-
cially Jewish except a basis in the divine word of
power, being a syncretism of Neoplatonism and
Aristotelianism. This was translated into Latin

100 years later and was much used by the School-
men. Bahya ibn-Pakuda wrote (1050-60 a.d.; cf.
JE, ii. 447 sqq.) a " Guide to Inner Duties " based
on Platonic asceticism. The celebrated Solomon
bar Isaac (cf . JE, x. 324 sqq.), known as Rashi (q.v.) ,
wrote his conunentary in tfaus first half of the eleventh
century. The greatest Jewish poet of all the cen-
turies was Judah Halevi (1086-1145; cf. JE, vii.
346 sqq.), who wrote the songs which have become
the national pride of Jews. He proclaimed the
sovereignty of Judaism and the preeminence of
Jews on the ground that from Adam down they
alone had preserved the gifts of grace and the
essence of manhood. Jews were between angels
and the highest rank of men; proselytes might par-
take of the external blessings of Jews, but could
never reach the height of privilege which belonged
to the native Jew. Israel is God's servant upon
whom are laid the ills and hurts of mankind. The
destruction of Jerusalem was of divine purpose that
the earth might be leavened with the Jewish spirit.
Twenty years later Abraham ibn-Daud (cf. JE, i.

101 sqq.) used Aristotelian philosophy to prove
Judaism the one system of truth and reason. Abra-
ham ibn-Ezra of Toledo (1088-1167; cf. JE, vi.
520 sqq.) was a keen critic, though a superstitious
astrologer and alchemist. Most celebrated of all
was Moses ben Maimun, known best as Maimonides
(1135-1204; q.v.), in whom the movement just
sketched reached its height. Soon after his death
arose not merely the banning by the rabble of
Maimonides' writings, but hostility to all study of
philosophy. Jews divided themselves into followers
and opponents of Maimonides, but until the time
of Spinoza the Jews did nothing further for phi-
losophy.

While at first the Jews were favored under the
Arabs of Spain, later they were forced either to
accept Islam or to leave the country,
ral Sitaal '^®y ^^®° began to take the side of the
tion in" Christians and assisted Alfonso X. in
Spain to ^h^ conquest of Seville, for which serv-
1460. ioe they were given three mosques to
use as synagogues. But in 12(90 the
old laws of the Goths were revived and new restric-
tions were imposed. On the other hand Christians
were not to dishonor synagogues, force baptism of
Jews, or employ legal measures against them on Jew-
ish feast days. Ifany of these laws remained a dead
letter. A little later the Dominican Raymond of
Peflaforte (see Dominic, Saint, and the Dominican
Order, § 4) undertook his mission to the Jews.
At the instigation of Pope CHement IV., Jayme I. of

Spain ordered that all passages in the Talmud
opposing Christianity should be erased. Under Al-
fonso X. of Castile began a golden age for the Jews,
during which they appeared at court and gained
riches and position. Under Don Pedro (1350-
1369) even more favorable was their situation, but
with his fall great reverses were experienced. Jews
were forbidden to bear Spanish names and were
compelled to wear a distinguishing mark; in or-
der to make headway against Jewish usury, to
Christians Jews were ordered to remit a third of
their indebtedness. Disputations took place in
which the systems of Christianity and Judaism
were attacked and defended. Even Jews bewailed
the greed and selfishness of men of their own nation
who were in positions of wealth and power, and
the voices of eminent Jewish scholars were raised
against such men as impious and godless. In
SeviUe in 1391 occurred the first popular rising
against the Jews, suppressed only by royal troops.
Three months later, in a new uprising, 4,000 Jews
were slain, the wives and children sold to Mo-
hammedans, and two synagogues converted into
churches. Many Jews suffered themselves to be
baptized, among them Samuel Abrabanel; in Cor-
dova and Toledo also many Jews became nonoJnal
Christians. These became a great danger to the
Church, preserving as they did in secret their
fidelity to Judaism and the Talmud, and were more
under suspicion and more hated than those who had
remained faithful to their religion. Some, however,
showed great sincerity and endeavored to convert
their brethren, among whom may be named Sol-
omon Levi of Burgos (1353-1435; cf. JE, ix. 562-
563), who received ordination and, as Paul of
Burgos, attained a high position, becoming bishop
of Seville. Other z^ous converts were Joshua
Lorqui, whose Christian name was Geronimo of
Santa F6, physician to Benedict XIII., and Vicente
Ferrer, who even in the synagogues assailed Judaism.
At this time an edict was issued assigning the Jews
to special residence quarters, inhibiting certain
trades, offices, and commerce with Christians, order-
ing a style of dress with the Jewish mark on it,
and prohibiting the trimming of the beard and the
carrying of weapons. Continued popular uprisingB
drove many of the Jews over to Christianity, while
the s3magogues were changed into churches. Bene-
dict XIII. ordered a disputation which was held in
Tortosa. It lasted fifteen months, and held sixty-
eight sessions, in which Joshua Lorqui disputed
with sixteen of the foremost rabbis. As a result
Benedict issued his bull forbidding the reading of
the Talmud, while the scurrilous writings on the
life of Jesus were proscribed, especially the Mar
mar Jesu, A period of literary polemics between
Jews and Christians ensued whidi lasted for fifty
years. In 1442 Pope Eugenius IV. issued a bull
to the bishops of Castile and Lecm enforcing the
old church laws against Jews, and King John IV.
put forth an edict protecting them, whic^ the terri-
torial limitation of his authority made of little
value. Almost no Jewish literature was produced,
while the works of Thomas Aquinas, Duns Sootus,
and William of Occam were translated into Hebrew.
Cabalistic works continued to appear, and Jews

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Israel, History o<

cuhivated the healing art. In the second half of
the fifteenth century the chaige was again made
that Jews murdered Christian children, and this
ealunmy continued in spite of repeated failure to
convict in the courts. The fact that Jewish con-
verts to Christianity held many of the most lucra-
tive offices caused numerous anti-Jewish riots.

The turning-point was the marriage (1469) of
Isabella of Castile to Don Ferdinand of Aragon.
In 1480 the Inquisition was set at work
iiS«m' ^**"^ *^ Jews, with whom the pris-
In Spain. ^'^ ^^^ ^^^^ filled, and four days aft-
er the setting up of the Holy Office six
Jewish converts to Christianity were burned at the
stake. Converts and all Spaniards were invited to be-
tray converts suspected of secretly Judaizing, and a
list of suspicious circumstances was published to aid
in detecting the apostates. Between January and
November, 1481, 2^ of these supposedly false Jewish
converts sufifered death, while in the archbishopric of
Cadis in the same year 2,000 Jewish heretics were
found. The proscribed who had already died were
exhumed and their bones bumed,while their property
was confiscated. Sixtus IV. censured the proceed-
ings of the inquisitors and disapproved the request of
Ferdinand to have the tribunal set up in his other
dominions. In 1482 Torquemada was made chief
inquisitor, the Inquisition was released from restric-
tion to l^gal forms and its sphere of influence ex-
tended to Aragon. Attempts were made against
the highest dignitaries of Church and State if only
they were of Jewish blood. At the court of Fer-
dinand Isaac Abrabanel was minister of finance,
but in spite of his influence the edict was issued to
exile all Jews from Castile, Aragon, Sicily, and
Sardinia. To the number of 300,000 they fled into
Portugal, Navarre, Italy, Morocco, and Turkey.
The princes of Europe censured the regulations of
Ferdinand, while the Sultan Bajazid remarked,
'* You call Ferdinand a clever king, who has im-
poverished his own land and made ours rich.'' In
1496 Emmanuel of Portugal issued an edict giving
the Jews the alternative of baptism or exile. Many
chose exile, thousands were baptised, while hundreds
killed themselves and their families in order to
escape enforced baptism.

In France Charlemagne favored the Jews because
they were the only merchants in the realm. To the
embassy to Harun al-Rashid he made
i^* * ^^^ interpreter, and after the death
y^^^^ of the ambassador the interpreter
carried through the work of the mission.
Under Louis the Pious, Jews held an important
place at court, though opposed by Agobard of
Lyons. At the Synod of Meaux the bishops re-
enacted the old ecclesiastical laws against the Jews,
which Charles the Bald prevented from taking effect.
Yet popular demonstrations were made against the
Jews. In Toulouse it was the right of the count
on Good Friday to administer to the chief of the
Jewish community a box on the ear. The Jews
secured immunity from this by paying a yearly
tribute, and in the same way elsewhere they pur-
chased the good will of the powerful. Hugh Capet's
death in 996 was charged against the Jews because
Hugh's physician was a Jew. The crusades gave new

opportunities to despoil this people. The principal
colony was at Narbonne, consisting of 300 families,
among them that of the Hebrew grammarian Kim-
chi; another great colony was at Montpellier. In the
twelfth century the story was told that Jews were
killing the children of Christians to use their blood
in the Passover. On the basis of this charge, King
Philip August, about the year 1180, mulcted the
Jews of his realm in 15,000 marks silver and de-
clared all debts to Jews void except such as paid
him one-fifth of the entire amount. The possessions
of Jews were regarded as the property of the barons,
and nobles made sales of ^* property and Jews."
At this time arose in France the Cabala (q.v.) with
its mysticism, magic and theosophy, exercising in-
fluence not only upon Jewish, but upon Christian
thought, and playing its part in exegesis of both
Talmud and Bible. Its force is felt to the present,
since the modem Chasidism of Russia and Galicia
is the Cabala in its most recent form, and its essence
reflects the spirit of Jewish thought. In the third
crusade the Jews of various parts of France suffered
as they had m the first and second, although Pope
Gregory IX. declared that the Church desired
neither their enforced conversion nor their destruc-
tion. But this pope committed to the bishop of
Paris the question whether the Talmud reviled
Christ and his mother and contained statements
derogatory of Scripture and of God. The Talmud
was condemned, and in 1244 twenty-four wagon
loads of copies of this work were burned in a square
of the city. At this time the Jews themselves con-
demned and burned the writings of Maimonides.
In 1269 Louis IX. required all Jews to wear a badge
of yellow on breast and back, and in 1306 Philip IV.
ordered them driven from the kingdom, and their
gold, silver, and jewels were forfeited to him, while
only their clothes were left in their possession. In
1360 they were allowed to return under favorable
conditions, such as that permitting them to charge
interest at eighty per cent., only to be driven out
again under Charles VI. in 1394.

In England after the conquest by the Normans

the Jews foimd themselves in fortunate circum-

stances, and in London their dwellings

'Rn'UkxtA ^^^ ^^® royal palaces. These condi-
* tions were first disturbed at the corona-
tion of Richard in 1189, for when the Jews of the
realm were about to bring their dues of homage,
in popular uprisings in many of the cities num-
bers of them were slain, and some were burned
in their houses. In York they intrenched them-
selves in the fortress and, when hope of escape
was gone, set fire to it and perished in the flames.
John Lackland and Henry III. extorted from them
more than 10,000,000 francs, and the latter en-
couraged efforts to convert them (see Jews, Mission
TO the). In 1275 parliament by statute inter-
dicted the collection of usury, yet Jews might buy
houses and lands and engage in commerce. In 1278
the circulation of counterfeit coin was attributed to
the Jews and 293 were hanged. In 1290 Jews were
banned, mortgages held by them canceled, and
they were compelled to sell their property; 16-
000 left the country and were not permitted to re-
turn till the time of Cromwell, when individuals

Israel, EUtory of

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

were permitted to settle there* Cromwell was look-
ing for the Messianic kingdom in which he al-
lotted a great part to the chosen race.

In Italy the Jews suffered no such hard fortune
as in other lands, since the influence of the popes
a In ^'^^^ there more effective, though re-
Italy. Btrictive measures were passed limit-
ing their privileges. Under the Nor-
mans in Naples and Sicily Jews and Christians had
equal privileges. The great centers of Jewish life
in Italy were in the central and southern parts,
not in the great Christian conunercial cities of the
north. In 1199 Innocent III. issued a CanstihUio
Judaeorum protecting the Jews, and this was con-
firmed by Gregory IX. in 1235. Innocent IV. issued
a bull at the Cioxmcil of Lyons of 1245 to the German
and French princes, directed against the charge that
Jews killed the children of Christians; he also com-
manded that the Talmud be protected if only it
were found free from assault upon Christianity.
When, in consequence of the Black Death, many
Jews in South France, Spain, Savoy, on the South-
em Rhine, and in Switzerland were tortured, mur-
dered or burned, Clement VI. in a bull forbade the
killing of them and the taking of their goods with-
out due process of law, and also forcible baptism.
In 1419 Martin V. issued a bull in favor of this
people. But Eugenius IV. in 1442 put in force the
old canonical limitations, and even intensified them,
and in this course he was followed by Nicholas V.
in 1447. The latter's l^ate to the Synod of Bam-
beig, Nicholas of Cusa (q.v.), directed in Germany
the execution of these regulations. During the
Inquisition in Spain and after the exUe of Jews from
Spain and Portugal, many of them found refuge
in the Papal States and Turkey. The popes of those
times, Alexander VI., Julius II., Leo X., and Clem-
ent VII., had Jewish physicians, and the princes
of the Church followed their example. Clement dis-
approved of forcible baptism of adult Jews, but en-
couraged the baptism of Jewish children if their
parents consented. He also attempted to protect
the Jews who had perforce received baptism in
Spain but were persecuted as unfaithful. Paul III.
was charged with being more kind to Jews than to
Christians, and his benefits extended to the per-
secuted Jewish-Christian converts of Portugal. In
1536 Charles V. obtained from Paul III. sanction
of the Inquisition, but with limitations; and while
following popes continued this course, it was rather
regarded as an existing fact than as a legal institu-
tion, and Clement VIII. openly discountenanced it.
When under Julius III. Cardinal Caraffa in 1542
made the Inquisition general throughout the Chris-
tian world and increased its rigor, in Italy attack
upon the Talmud began; in 1553 the pope signed a
decree of condemnation, and on the Jewish New
Year's Day all copies in Rome were burned, while
throughout Italy many thousand copies suffered the
same fate. Under Maroellus II. the Jews were ex-
pelled from Rome in consequence of accusations of
the murder of children, and Paul II., a confirmed
enemy of the Jews, laid a tribute on the synagogues
and enforced the old restrictions with additional
enactments, while in many other ways he mani-
fested his hostility. Against him Sultan Suleiman

acted in protection of the Jews of Ancona. During
this period so many Jewish-Christian converts en-
tered the Franciscan and Jesuit orders that Paul IV.
forbade the reception of Jews therein before the
fourth generation. At this time the Sohar, the
chief Cabalistic writing, was first printed by per-
mission of the Inquisition. Pius IV. mitigated the
hard conditions, and the Talmud, issued in censured
form, was first printed at Basel, 157S-80. Pius V.
again put in force the early restrictions with further
limitations, and permitted the Jews to reside within
the Papal States only at Rome and Ancona. Gr^-
ory XIII. ordered that Christian scholars acquainted
with Hebrew preach to the Jews in their synagogues
on feast days, and Jews were compelled to support
the preachers. Clement VIII. withdrew in 1593
the decree of banishment and annulled the anti-
Jewish regulations of his predecessors. Since then
the popes have taken no official steps respecting
the Jews with the exception of the declaration of
Pius IX. in 1870 with respect to their conversion.

The Jews entered Germany with the Roman
legions. Their presence at Cologne in the fourth

century is demonstrable. Most of

9. In Oer- them, however, passed on into France.

many. According to German law they had

their own regulations and freedom in
religion, but were without citizenship. They were
dependent upon the emperor for protection, and
paid a special tribute to him and to the princes.
Their scholars they received from other lands.
Henry II. drove them from Mains, though they re-
turned the next year. In Speyer they had their
own quarter, protected by a wall. Forcible bap-
tism was not allowed, in legal contests Jewish law
prevailed, and the ordeal by fire and water was not
applied to Jews. The first crusade in 1094 saw the
first persecution of the Jews, and in Treves, Speyer,
and Mainz many Jews perished. At the time of
the second crusade the monk Rudolph preached
against them from city to city, but they received
some protection from Conrad IV. and from certain
of the princes of the Church, while Bernard of Clair-
vaux rebuked Rudolph for his incitement to murder.
For what protection the Jews received, however,
they had to pay. The charges of murder were also
occasions of extortion of money and of persecution.
In spite of all this, the Jews contributed to the cul-
ture of the country, especially in the Minnelieder.
Under Frederick U. the canonical regulation against
office-holding by the Jews was enforced. Under
Frederick I. of Austria the legal position of Jews
was excellent, while Rudolph of Hapsbuig contra-
dicted the old charge of the murder of Chris-
tian children. Notwithstanding, popular uprisings
against the Jews took place in many cities with all
attendant atrocities. In 1298 the new charge of
desecrating the host raised persecutions which
spread over Germany and into Austria. Albrecht I.
compelled many cities to pay damages and took
the Jews under his protection. In the fourteenth
century blame for the Black Death was laid upon
them on the ground that they had poisoned weUs
and springs, and resulting uprisals of the population
infficted fearful sufferings upon the supposed authors
of the scouige. In some cities the whole Jewish

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

laimal. History of

oommunity was put to death at the stake, in others
they burned themselves to death. While in many
places the magistrates swore never to receive Jews
back again for residence, the oath soon became a
dead letter, and to Strasburg, Nurembeig, Vienna,
EIrfurt, Basel, Zurich, and Heilbronn the Jews re-
turned by invitation. Campaigns against the Hus-
sites began always with assaults upon Jews. The
Council of Basel occupied itself in its nineteenth
sitting with this people, ordered the enforcement of
the eodesiastical regulations, and reconmiended the
study of Hebrew and Aramaic to the imiversities
in order better to carry on missions among them.
At the instigation of a Jewish-Christian convert
named Pfefiferkom the Dominicans at Cologne be-
gan a campaign against the Talmud, and were
opposed by Johann Reuchlin (q.v.), who believed
that in the Talmud and the Cabala were to be found
divine philosophy and the wisdom of the patriarchs.
Against Reuchlin came Jakob van Hoogstraten
(q.v.) with his composition on the " Destruction of
the Cabala." In 1509 Pfefferkom obtained an order
from Emperor Maximilian to the Jews to deliver
to the former all their anti-Christian writings, and
a second edict directed Hoogstraten, Reuchlin, a
Jewish-Christian named Viktor von Karben, and
certain universities to pronounce upon the contents.
Reuchlin adduced what he declared to be Christ's
testimony to the Talmud as a witness for Christian
verity. Reuchlin and Pfefferkom engaged in a
campaign of nicknames into which the archbishop
of Mains intruded, the humanists of Germany took
the part of Reuchlin with an anti-ecclesiastical bias,
and Luther found therein one of his opportxmities
(see Epistola Obscurorum Virorum). In several
of his utterances he manifested favor to the Jews,
though later he reversed his position and violently
assailed them, so that the Reformation did not
bring to them the relief they expected. But in 1544
Charles V. restored to the Jews their privileges and
declared them not guilty of murdering Christian
children for Passover purposes.

The suspicions and attacks under which the

Jews after the twelfth century had suffered through-

w^-H ®^^ Europe prevented expansion and

JIS* flf growth of spiritual life, and a further

^^^*mwm hindrance was the opposition of the
rabbis to the study of philosophy on
the ground that it led to C^hristianity and heresy.
Hence the Jews became superstitious and sank into
the practise of magic and into religious fanaticism.
Consequently the people came to look for Messianic
deliverance, and under the pressure of constant
reports of coming relief Shabbethai ^bi (b. in
Smyrna in 1626) claimed to be the Messiah, put
forth prophecies, and in the year 1666, reckoned
by Jews as the year of the coming redemption, went
to Jerusalem, while another Jew assumed the r61e
of Elijah. The greatest expectations were aroused
among his own people throughout Europe. Had
Shabbethai possessed the qualities requisite for the
carrying out of such a scheme, he would have caused
the greatest movement of modem times among the
Jews. But in 1666 the Turkish cadi sent him to
the sultan at Constantinople, who put on him a white
turban and a green mantle and made him, as

Mehemed Effendi, his doorkeeper, while the Jews
of Europe were plunged into shame and chagrin.
Among the more intelligent Jews this one experience
killed all seeds of the Messianic hope. But the
ignorant masses of the East still had expectations,
and in 1720 in Galicia Jacob Frank (q.v.) claimed
to be the reincarnated Shabbethai and gained a
following which replaced the Talmud by the Sohar.
The Chasidim of Russia and Poland, named from
Juda Chasid, are the remainder of a movement
similar to that inaugurated by Frank. Among
them ecstasy is sought with the aid of stimulants,
asceticism is practised, and the Sohar is regarded
as of the highest value (see (Chasidim, 2). Contem-
poraneous with these outbreaks of fanatidsm and
superstition were the life and momentous work of
Baruch Spinoza (1632-77), whose achievements
prove that the inner genius of Judaism could not
be destroyed by opposing external forces or by
internal error, though indeed official Judaism sought
to destroy by ban and actual attack the man who
glorified this race.

In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries
Poland became the chief center of Judaism. Since

11 J«wa *^® fourteenth century that land had
\j^^ been the refuge of persecuted Jews

Poland. ^^T^ ^h® ^^^ o^ Europe, especially
from Crermany. Consequently Russian
and Polish Jews came to use a mixed dialect of
which the foundation is German with Russian, Polish
and Hebrew words mingled, and this dialect has
produced a literature. Settlement of Jews from the
East was made in quite early times. Gregory IX.
urged King Andrew to exclude Jews and Moham-
medans from office, and the synod of Of en (1279)
ordered Jews to wear a red wheel on the left breast.
Casimir the Great renewed and extended in 1334
the favorable laws of a century earlier, requiring the
accordant testimony of three Jews and three Chris-
tians to convict a Jew of the crime of murder of a
Christian child; thirteen years later he limited the
privileges accorded Jews. During a pestilence
the Jews of the principal cities were attacked by
the populace. Casimir IV. made the laws still more
favorable, but Cardinal Olesnick permitted the
monk Capistrano, " the scourge of the Jews," to
preach against them, and Casimir had to withdraw
his concessions. Sigismund I. (1506-48) protected
the Jews. Meanwhile the study of the Talmud had
flourished under the care of German Jews in Poland,
and Joseph Caro produced the ShtUhan Aruch,
which has remained the guide of life for Jews since,
while the Talmudic schools of the land became
celebrated in ail Europe. Study of the Bible lan-
guished, only one work of importance being issued,
the flizzuk emunah by Isaac Troki (cf. JE, xii.
265-266), a keen polemic against the Gospels and
Christianity. During the seventeenth century the
Jews of Poland were ruled by their own rabbis,
constituting a state within a state with an annual
synod. But under this regime and a narrowing of
studies to matters of legal refinement, the character
of the people had deteriorated, while the Polish
impress stamped all European Judaism, except
that of Spain, with the traits most disliked by the
European peoples. Polish Jews became compro-

Israel, History of

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

mised in an attempt to reduce to serfage the coeaacks
of Ukraine, and many thousands perished, and a
large number were killed in the Russian-Swedish
war under Charles X. It is said that 180,000 fam-
ilies perished, 1648-1658, and Polish Judaism lost
its eminent position.

4. The New Period: By the end of the eighteenth
century a general deterioration and rankness of
religious life had conquered Judaism all over the
world; if the people was to be saved, a rebirth was
necessary for the whole people. The reformation
of the inner spirit of Judaism began in Germany
through Moses Mendelssohn (q.v.); the betterment
of the external situation began with the emancipa-
tion of the Jews of France. The great elector,
Frederick William, had settled fifty Jewish families
from Vienna in Berlin, and to that place came
Mendelssohn, and gave himself to educational and
philosophical work. His reputation, recognized
even by Christians, stimulated the younger Jews to
care for laiger interests, and study of the Talmud
alone no longer satisfied. His translation of the
Pentateuch into German, though necessarily printed
in Hebrew type, had great influence, though use of
it was forbidden by the rabbis. Following his lead,
a generation of authors sprang up having the pur-
pose to release the Jewish people and religion from
the superstition and regard for mere ceremony into
which they had fallen, to break the yoke of Talmud-
ism, and substitute the Bible as the basis of life.
In France in 1791 Jews were given the right of
dtisenship, though this was withdrawn in Alsace
in 1808. In 1812, after six years of preparatory
measures, Napoleon declared the Jews of tfa^ empire
eligible to citizenship, though in the free cities of
Germany this right had to be purchased, and it was
afterward withdrawn. Progress toward the same
end of freedom for the Jews was made in other Euro-
pean countries. In Germany most of the states took
the religion imder their protection. Many Jews be-
came Christians, others set up reformed synagogues
(as in Cassel and Hamburg). Yet in 1819 there
broke out a new popular uprising against the Jews,
in which life and property were destroyed. Against
the reform tendency in Judaism and the movement
toward Christianity arose an orthodox party foster-
ing the early ideals. Jewish consciousness of its
past and a new awakening of Jewish spirit was
brought about by the Geschichte der laradUen (9
vols., 1820-29) of I. M. Jost (q.v.), while works
on Jewish history, poetry, and philosophy, and on
the linguistics of the Hebrew tongue further stim-
ulated the newly awakened interest. While Abra-
ham Geiger (q.v.) had a leading part in this move-
ment, the political support gained in France
through the help given to Louis Philippe in 1830 by
the Rothschilds furthered the cause. The spirit of
liberalism spread, the literary activities of Heine,
BOme, and Gabriel Riesser contributed to its growth
and many Jews accepted Christianity. An event
in the East raised again the Jewish question in
Europe. In Damascus, which reckoned among its
120,000 inhabitants 5,000 Jews, Father Tomaso, the
guardian of the Capuchins, and his servants dis-
appeared. Seven of the richest Jews were accused
of murdering them, their houses were attacked and

destroyed in the effort to find the bodies, while
the owners and other Jews were slain or arrested.
The Jewish financial houses of Europe interested
France, England and Austria in protecting the
Jews, and an international court under Mohammed
Ali of E!gypt was established to investigate the case.
The general result was a unification of feeling among
the Jews of Europe, and this was extended to the
Blast by the establishment there of schools to raise
the level of knowledge among the Jews of the
Orient. A specially important movement was the
foxmding of the Alliance Israelite Universelle at
Paris \mder the leadership of Adolphe Cr^mieux,
who had been a guiding spirit during the entire
course of events. The resiilt of the revolutionary
movements of 1848 in Paris, Vienna, Berlin, Italy,
and elsewhere was the triumph of liberalism with
the advancement of the Jews as an inevitable con-
sequence. A reaction occurred, beginning in 1870,
and antisemitism expressed itself, especially in
Germany, in attacks upon the Jewish quarters,
while this feeling and its consequent riots and legal
limitations spread into Russia, Rumania, Austria,
and France. The consequence of the feeling of in-
security thus awakened among Jews was the estab-
lishment in Vienna by Theodor Herzl of the Zionist
movement, the object of which is the foxmding of
a Jewish state in Palestine in which all persecuted
Jews may find a secure refuge. (F. Hxman.)

6. Jews in America. After the expulsion of
Jews from Spain in 1492, and from Portugal in
1497, a considerable number of them nominaUy
adopted Christianity but retained their Jewish
creed and practises in secret. Colum-
iJSiI ^^ ^° ^ ^^ voyage, was accom-
panied Ify several of these Maranos,
or secret Jews; many Maranos visited
or settled in Spanish or Portuguese America, and,
when their creed was discovered, became victims
of the Inquisition. By their wide connection with
the Spanish Jews who had settled in Holland and
the Levant, they contributed to international trade
across the Atlantic. Owing to a natural sympathy
with Holland, those of Brazil took the part of tl»
Dutch in the conflict between Holland and Portu-
gal for the possession of that country, and when the
Dutch were expelled from Pemambuco and Rio
Janeiro in 1654 a considerable number of Jews left
with them and went to the West India Islands.
Some twenty-three of these emigrated to New York
in the summer of that year, and obtained a footing
there through the influence of the Dutch West
India Company, among the foimders and members
of which were a number of Amsterdam Jews. Four
years later fifteen Jewish families arrived at New-
port, R. I., and established a congregation there,
under the direction of Aaron Lopez, one of the
leading merchants of the country, about 1650. It
is possible that Jews had appeared even earlier in
Bfaryland; but the first of importance there was
Jacob Lumbroso, a physician of distinction. These
places and Philadelphia, Savannah, and Charles-
ton constituted the chief seats of Jewish settlement
in the latter half of the seventeenth and the first
part of the eighteenth century; the settlers were
mostly of the Sephardic, or Spanish branch of the

Settle-
ments,

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Israel, History of

Jewish people, though occasionally a few English
Jews were found among them. Toward the dose
of the colonial period Jews had spread to Lancas-
ter, Philadelphia, and Leicester, Mass., and the
majority of them took the revolutionary side in
the struggle with England, some of them fighting
in the ranks, twenty-four of whom held commis-
sions. Robert Morris was helped to finance the
Revolution by the aid of Haym Salomon.

It has been calculated that at the beginning of
the nineteenth century there were about 2,000
Jews in the United States, of whom 800 were in
Charleston, 500 in New York, 150 in
8. In the Philadelphia, and the remainder scat-
atAtM. te*^' Their numbers were soon m-
180CK creased by migrations from England
1880. ^^^ Germany, the latter chiefly after
the faUure of the Liberal movement in
1848. These were among the first of Austin's col-
onists in Texas in 1821, and the cities of Waco and
Castroville still testify to the important position
held in early Texas by Jacob de Cordova, who laid
out the former, and Henry Castro, who founded
the latter. The Jews also helped in the earlier de-
velopment of California, Solomon Heydenfeld be-
ing chief justice of that state up to 1857, while
among the pioneers in the conmierce of that state
Jews were nimibered. The period from 1848 to
1880 marked the immigration of German Jews who
had taken part in the liberal movements in Ger-
many in 1848 and had come to America to escape
the reaction which followed it. These to the num-
ber of not less than 7,000 showed their devotion
to their adopted country by taking part on both
sides of the fraternal strife of the Civil War. Mean-
while, Jews had been in various directions estab-
lishing their positions as American citizens and
claiming the rights thereof. Even in the early
days of the eighteenth century several of the col-
onies passed laws permitting Jews to become nat-
uralized without the oath on " the true faith of a
Christian " still demanded in the mother country.
The English act of 1740 permitted this through-
out the colonies. In Maryland between 1776 and
1825 the political disabilities of the Jews were en-
tirely removed, mainly by the activity of Jacob I.
Cohen and Solomon Etting. The Board of Dele-
gates of American Israelites had been formed for
activity where religious discrimination was brought
against Americans on account of their creed as
Jews. Several American Jews in this early period
served abroad as diplomatic agents of the United
States.

Internally, movements for reform in the ritual

took place among American Jews as among their

European brethren, the first being at Charleston as

early as 1825, but the chief movements

8. Beform, in this direction came with the migra-

Bduca- tion of German Jews m 1848. Under

oSStaWe ^ leadership of Rabbis David Ein-

j£^^^ horn and Isaac Mayer Wise, a wave of

ments. reform spread throughout American

Jewry, though a large number of the

older established congregations still retained the

okier and more orthodox ritual. Two colleges were

founded by the opposite parties to train ministers^

the Maimonides College at Philadelphia, foimded
in 1867, by Isaac Leeser, the leader of the more
conservative Jews, and the Hebrew Union College
in 1875 in Cincinnati, O., by Isaac Mayer Wise,
who had likewise established the Union of Amei^
ican Hebrew Congregations, which combined the
ministers of the more radical direction and unified
the reform ritual by a standard " Union Prayer
Book." A more extreme development of the re-
form position was founded by Felix Adler (q.v.) in
New York in 1883, and is known as the Ethical
Culture movement (see Ethical Culture, So-
cieties for). Among the most characteristic fea-
tures of American Jewry during the period from
1848 to 1880 are the many fraternal organisations
which combined educational, charitable and bene-
fit features and served as Jewish centers in small
communities where no congregations or synagogues
existed. Most congregations had established some
charitable features, but few specially philanthropic
institutions were found necessary. The first Jew-
ish hospital. Mount Sinai, was founded in 1852 in
New York, and the first orphan asylum in 1855 at
New Orleans, under the auspices of Judah Touro.

In 1880 it was reckoned that there were about
250,000 Jews in the United States, of whom 75,000
were in New York, 16,000 in San Francisco, 12,000
in Philadelphia, 10,000 in Chicago,
4. The g 000 in Cincinnati, 6,000 in St. Louis,
_ f^ and the rest scattered. In the foUow-
tion Since *°^ ^^^ commenced extensive migra-
1880. tions from Russia, due to the massa-
cres and persecutions which began
then and have continued down to the present. It
is estimated that at least 1,250,000 Jews have en-
tered the United States since 1881, two-thirds of
them from Russia. With the advent of this huge
and increasing stream of immigrants, mostly ill
provided with means of livelihood, a total change
came over the spirit of American Israel. The older
Jewish inhabitants hastened to form institutions
to assist their persecuted brethren in settling in the
land of liberty. Baron de Hirsch placed a sum of
two and one-half millions of dollars at the disposal
of an American committee in 1890 for the special
purpose of providing for the new arrivals; this
fund has founded agricultural colonies and indus-
trial schools. In New York the Educational Alli-
ance has been established to instruct the new-
comers in the English language and in their duties
as prospective American citizens. Hospitals, oi^
phan asylums, and homes for the aged have been
established in all the great Jewish centers, and uni-
form methods of treatment have been developed
under the auspices of the National Conference of
Jewish Charities organized in Cincinnati in 1899,
which niunbers over fifty philanthropic organiza-
tions throughout the coimtry. The various char-
itable bodies have been federated in Philadelphia,
Cincinnati, St. Louis, Chicago, Boston, Detroit,
Kansas City and Cleveland, and it is reckoned that
these bodies, together with the chief Jewish institu-
tions of New York, distribute five millions of dollars
annually for relief, industrial training and other
philanthropic objects. More recently the Russian
Jews, who have prospered remarkably, have estab-

ImxtM, XlMtory of

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

6. The
Presa;

liihed independent institutiona to care for their
poorer brethren. The majority of the newcomers
are of the orthodox wing of Judaism, so that
whereas before the "eighties" the majority of
American Jews were probably attnched to reform
congregatione, ut least fivc~si][ths of the 1,200 con-
gregations now in the United States are of the
more conservative section. In order to supply
these with rabbis, the Jewish Theolc^ical Seminary
of America was established by Sabato Morais in
New York in 1895, and was reorganized in 1902
under the presidency of Solomon Sehechter (q.v.).
This institution has now one of the largest Hebrew
libraries in the world.

Jews have their own press, the first periodical
being The Jew in New Yorlj 1823-25, the next im-
portant one being The Occideni, Phila-
delphia, edited by Isaac Leeser, 1843-
■"he more important weeklies
Tcan Israelile of Gncinnati,
established in 1854; Jewish Messen-
ger, New York. 1857-1902; The Anur-
ican Hebrew, New York, 1879; Jewish Erpanent.
Philadelphia, 1887; Reform Advocate, Chicago,
1891, and Jewiih Comment. Baltimore, 1895. The
newcomers hove also founded a press of their owii
in Yiddish, a dialect of archaic German printed in
Hebrew charactera. The chief paper is the Jevish
DaUy News of New York. The Jewish Publica^
tion Society of America, founded in 1889, issues
Torks adapted for popular reading, its most mem-
orable publications being Graetz's History of the
Jews, Israel ZangwiU's Children of the Ghetto, and
Schechter's Sludiet in Judaism. American Juda-
ism has not hitherto produced any important con-
tributions to Jewish learning;, though the Jcmish
Encydopedio, in twelve volumes (New York,
1900-06) summarizes for the first time the results
of the Jewish scholarship of Europe and is being
translated into Hebrew and Russian. Owing to the
large increase in the number of American Jews, the
government has of recent 3'eai3 taken action to
protest against the persecutions in Europe which
lead to such burdens being cast upon America by
the ilUberal and persecuting action of despotic
governments. Meetings of protest have been held
throughout the country against Russian tyraiuiy
in 1881, 1893, and after the KishinefT massacres in
1903, when a fund of over one million dollar? was
collected in America by a Jewish relief committee.
Id order to take continuous action in such coses an
American Jewish Committee •f.-as formed in 1!>0G of
representative Jews throughout tlie country. Jews
have taken part in the higher activities of Amer-
ican life in numbere far beyond their numerical
proporliotis. They have had eminent representa-
tives among the officers of the army and navy, in
the United States Senate, in the learned professions,
wnong artists and Inventors, and in literature.
Altogether, the Jews of the United States have per-
haps the most fortunate and influential position
of any Jews iJiroughout the world. They number
nearly two millions (half of them in New York),
about one-sbcth of the whole number of Jews, and
they show exceptional capacity to enter into the
democratic life ot America. Josbph Jacobs.

BiBLiooBAPHT; On tho KCiTsI bictory kbunduic litcntiim.

Arab; Archeoixhit. Bibucil; Dibucii. TueoUHir;
iNomsmoN: Cjbai,*; T*LiinD: Ziokihu. aupplementing
these liata of lilerslure Ibe reader may coiuiilt: W. D.
Morrison. Jrw undo- Rirman Suit. London, 1890; W. H.
KoMen. WvtarlieriUUune Iiratli. Heidelberg, 18SG: J. P.
PeWra. Thi Early Hibrtic Storv. New York, 1904; J. C.
Todd. PBlilia and Rclieion in Ancient Itratl. ib, IS04:
H. FriedlhDder. Dit retiffioaett Heweounofn itinvhaib da
, Judanfunu m ZtiUiUtr Jem. Berlio. 1605; K. L. OlUer.
HtJicion in Itratl, London. 190S; W, E. Addin, Htbrrw
Rilioitm la tiiB EUabliilimcra of Judaitm. ib. IWM; B.
BmeDtdob, Altarientaiitcher und iaraeiiliK/ur MonoOi^itmttt.
Tobineen. 190*; A. lj^\ ta Cromnoc i la vie futun el
U cuUc da marit dant I'antiiruiU isradile, 2 vola.. Puis,
IWH; E, Meyer, Die leroelilen und ikrt JVaoUarildnne,
Hallo. 1908; K. Marti. Die Rrlioiai da A, T.. Tflbingeo.
1006, Eng. trsnal, London, IMT; W. Bouseet. Die RrUgim
da Judtntumt in neuletlamenllichen ZeUaller, GAttingeo.
1907; T. K. Cheyne, Traditinnt and Briiefi of Aneint
liratl. London. 1907; idem, Dfdine and Fall of the Kine-
ilomof Judah. ib. 1907: F. StlbtUn. PrvtUme d«r imul-
itischtn Oackiehle, Bh«I, 1907; P. Wendland. Die Mltn-
iiticK-ftimiKhB K-uUur in ihren BeiieKunffen lu JudenJvm^
TQbingen. 1907: 9. A. Cook, The RHivion ufAnriefii Pal-
Kliveiilhe Bd MJIrnniMm. B.C.Edinbmeh. IMS: J. B. D.
Eardmoni, AlUeitamentliche Stadien. II.. Die VorvrarJiicMe
ImuU. Gieuen. I90S: W. Pairveather. Tlu Bactamaid
oflheOotpele: or. Judaiam Bettceen Oit Old and Die Neic
TtelamenU. Edinbursb. 1903: P. Goodman. The Svnaaoeve
and the Church, London, 190S; C. H. H. Wriibt. lAohl
FromEmnilian Popi/non JrwiA Hia. Btfart ChriH. ib..
1908; M. Uhr, Dae Weib in Jahm-RMeiim und A'uU,
Lb pale. 1908.

For j»«t-Bibliea] hinlory, individuA] and ^neral, tbe
but Iheuurus ii Ibe JE, which hu taken <% (uliy

pha«a consult: U. J. Jmtt.Getrhirhltdf Judentumt and
Hi'nm Seklen. 3 vola., Leipiia, ISST-59; A. Neubauer and
M. Stern. HdrrAieiJie Berichte aber die Judenverfoiffuntren
KOhrtndder Kreutiaoe. Bailin. 1892: H. J. M. Coudenbove.

VoliMBmlidie Qeeehichle der Jnden. 3 vols,. I.eipue, 1905;
E, N. Adler, Jic» in Maou Landi. Philadelphia. 1905;
S. Funk. Die JmUn in Babvlonien SOO-SOO. Berlin, 1902;
M. Franoo, Hitt. tt lilMrofure jvitee t>ay> var pajfi, Paris.
1905; M. C. Pel*™, TA* Jeir oJ o Pofriol, Now York. 1902;

D. PhilipsoD. The Refam Mmtmtnt in Jtidaitm. London.
1907; a. F. Abbott, lirari in Evrojte. New York, 1907;
M. Harris. Hill, of the Mtdia^I Jem from IKe Vadem
Conifuell of Spain la the Dienrvery of America, ib. 1907.

For Judaian in diRerent lands eonmilt: On Ennland;
J. Pionotto, Skelchtt of Angla-Jrineh Hillary. Tendon.
1870; J. Jacobs. The Jeai of Angmin Enebind. ib. 1893
<B colkotion o[ sources): L. Wolf. .Vanaiieh ben /eraiJ'*
Miuion (0 . . . CromuvU. ib. 1901; .^sIscC Plea: SlarTt.
and Other Reeardifrom the Rolli of the Exehtiiur of the Jewe.
IStO-ltSi. ib. 1902: CokwJor of the Plea Rolii of Am
Bichetuer of Ihi Jewi. ed. J. U. Rieic, vol. i., 1218-1272.
ib. 1 905; CiMralion 0/Ue f fiOIA .i nni waorv B/IAe IFAildUU
Confertnce. ib, 1905: A. M. Hyaoison, A HiH. of the Jtwm
in England. London. IWS. On Franoe: J. Aroniua. Reget-
ten euT Qeachichte der Jvden im fr^nkieehen und deuiidtm
Reiche trie turn . . J«75. Berlin. 1BS7-1902; X. Ounw,
Slude lur la eandittan da Juifi dam faneien droit franfaii-
Anier^ I89T; B. Kahn, f!otia nr lee IwraHitei di Nfmee.
671-1808. NImes. 1901; H. Lucien-Rrun. Im Condi^on
deiJuifitnFrafirtdepuiil789.Pitui. leOI. On Germany
and Austria; J. A^oniu^ ut aup.: M. Friedllnder, Mole-
riaUn nr Geichithle der Jaden in BliAnan. Brtlnn. 18SS;

E. NuebUng. Die Judengtmeijiden da Umrlallen. Uhn.
1890; i. E. Scherer. Die SechleverkaUniit der Judm in
dm deuitch'iilerreichiichen LdaderTi. Leipslc. 1901; G.
Liebe. Dae Judenlum in der deuttchen Venjanc^TJieit, Jena,
1903. On Rumania: E. Sineerus. Lei Jaifi en Roumanim
dejiuie le IraiU de Berlin. London. 1901; B. Laiars, I.M
Jttifi en Roumanie. Paria, 1902: I. Tjihovarie. 7*^ Jeitieh
Qualion in Aoumonio. ib.. 1903. On Riusia and Poland:

Auxia. London. 190:1: 8. Spinner, Etvae Hbtr dm Sbatd
drr CuUur bei den Juden in Polen in IS. Jahrhundert.
Vienna, 1B03. On Spain and PoMugal; E. H. Lindo. Hurt.
of the Je\ct of Spain and Portuool. London. 1848; F. D,

REUQIOUB ENCYCLOPEDIA

iSK"'

HoaeMta. Jtif of Sjiain and Portugal ami Oit InquUition,
ib. 1877; A. PuUdo Fenuadei. EipailoUt fin palrin s la
raiaStfanH.iitiirid.iW)5. Od tbe United m^Ua: I. Muli-
wu. I/ibriva in ^mmeo. ISSS; Judaiim al Uc irurld'i
/■ar(taiunJ<tm<li{funtj, CiaciDuati. 1804; C.S. Hcrnheimer.
TJte RuHian Jrio >« !he Vniled SlaUt. Philsdelphis. 1»05;
The Tvo Hujidrfd and Fi/lu^h Annit'criaru of Ibr y<nn
in At Vnilid Slaitt: Addrt—et atCarwaie Hall. Thonkt-
QitineDay. I90B. New York. lOOS. B. A. EIih. ThtJcvit
of StvUt Carolina. PhiUdelptuL 1906; and the pubttca-
tioni) a! the Jewiab Hiatancid Sijciety. On olher laiiila; G.
Uernie, L'AlBfrit iuire. Paru. 1887; D. Caies, HimI. da
ItraHittt lit Ttinitie. ib, 1888; G. CorneilhaD, Le Judoinu
m Btsplt rt m Svrv, ib. IS86: L. Burieu. La
... .. ^ Steinberg, Siudi

a. Lord, Tht
1; J. OuJom.

d*r Jiiitoi tn diT Sefcuvii. Zurich, 1902; J.
Jtitt of I-idia a-klOLe Far Eait. Bombay, in
Ut liToSila it la Taniiit, Paris, 1908.

On p<Ht-Bib1ical liuralurs coiwull; M. SteinBchaeider,
Dit aroUfdte Litaatur der Judtn, Prankfrirt, 1902; .1,
CulUDann, Die ScluilaMiic dtt IS. JahrhnndtrU in ihrm
BaMunotn lum Judenluni. Brulau. 1002; H. Brody and
K. Afbtmht. Thg Weic-Heftrew School of Potit of Ovr Span-
tat'Arabtan EfunA. LripMC, 1906; I. Ahralmmg. A Sliarl
Uitl of Jeaith Liltratvre from Ihe Fall of (Ai TrmpU,
LoDdoD. IfiOe; D. NBiunBrk. OoKhicHU der itiditdun
Philotopliitda .ViOelalten. ml. i,. Berlin. IWT, Niithan-
iel Iba al-Fayyumi. 71^ Btutan dttJnl, td. and Iranul,
from a Hniftu US. . . . by D. Leviiie, New York, 190S.

ITALA. See BtBUt Vkhsions, A, 11,, 1.

L Tie Roman Catbolio Church.
Hadero StatUB in the Sibi« (I 1),
Pontian of the Pope <| 2).
OcssnimtioD (I 3).
Tba Old Catholiea (( 4).
IL PlMMtuit Bodiea.

Tlie WaHennan Church (| 1).

Tie EvaoBelica] Italian Cfaorch (| 21.

For«i«D MiaiiiinBry CDn«i«catloD9 and Churehea l| 3

Periodieahi || 8).

The present kingdom of Italy, comprising besides
the mAin peninsula the islands of Sicily and Sar-
dinia, and a number of smaller islands, was formed
in Hat., 1861. The total area ia 110.659 Hquare
mites: populatioD (1901), 32,475,253, of whom
31,539,803 (99.7 per cent.) are Roman Catholics,
65,505 Prot^tanla (including 20,538 foreigners),
and 35,617 Jews. The capital is Rome. Religious
liberty pKvails, and adherents of all faiths enjoy
equal dvil and political rights.

L The Romui Catholic Church: Until 1S4S the
Romaa Catholic cle:^, including the religious
orders, occupied an exceptional posi-
•■J™^ lion in Italy. They «-ere exempt from
thaStata taxation and from temporal jurisdic-
tion, and hod the public educational
and charitable institutions entirely in their luindH.
TIh- kingdom of Sardinia took Ihc lend in bringing
about tbf new order. By law of Aug. '25. IS48,
the Jesuits were excluded, as also the Sisters of the
Sacred Heart of Jesus, and a law of Mar. 1, 1850,
plAced all ecclesiastical institutions of a beneficent
'Character under state supervision. Other statutes
put an end to exemption from temporal jurisdiction
and taxatioQ, forbade religious institutions to re-
ceive ^fla without royal sanction, and levied an
annual tax oa the receipts of the " dead hand " (see
Hobtuain). By the law of May 29, 1865, all
Tvligiaua orders in Sardinia not engaged in preach-
ing, teaching, or nur«ing the sick, were dissolved
VI.— 6

and their property alienated by the State. On the
basis of this law 274 monasteries, with 3,733 monks,
and sixty-one convents, with 1,756 inmates, were
closed, and 2.722 chapters and private benefices
were disestablished. In 1861 the same principleB
were carried out in Umbria, in the Marches, and in
Naples. These principles were applied to the entire
kingdom of Italy by the laws of July 7. 1866,
Aug. 15. 1867, and June 19, 1873. The property
thus acquired by the State was formed into an
ecclesiastical fund {Fondo per it cuito) for the sup-
port of religious worship and public education, and
for the payment of pensions to monkfl and nuns of
closed monasteries. Since the suppressed orders
might continue to exist as private associations,
there are still about 40,000 monks in Italy. Up to
Jane 30, 1898. 44,376 ecclesiastical foundations had
come into the possession of the Stat«. The annual
income from this property ia about 33,000,000 lire.
All chapels and churches used for public worship
are exempt from confiscation, as also episcopal resi-
dences, together with the official buildings con-
nected with tliem, clerical seminaries, and such
cloisters as were turned over to the provinces or
communes for public purposes, educational or char-
itable. .\U the Roman Catholic theological faculties
in the seventeen state universities were abolished
by law in 1873.

The temporal power of the pope was quietly
brought to an end Sept. 20, 1870, but on May 13,
1, a law was passed guaranteeing
independence, and making his per-
son sacred and inviolable, like that of
the king. The honors of sovereignty
are due to him, and ho is allowed to keep a body-
guard. The State grants him annually a pension
of 3,225,000 lire, which, however, he has hitherto
declined to receive; and the palaces of the Vatican
and the Lnteran, and the villa of Coslel Gandolfo
[near Albano), with their libraries and collections,
are declared to be the properly of the holy see, in-
alienable, free of taxation, and exempted from
eicpropriation. The Italian Government further-
more guaranteoM the freedom and independence of
the conclave, and of all ecclesiastical officers in the
execution of their official functions. In the city of
Rome, all seminaries, academies, and colleges for
the education of the clergy remain under the spe-
cial authority of the pope; and the State has re-
nounced its right of appointment and nomination
to the higher ecclesiastical benefices. No Italian
bishop is compelled tn lake the oath to the king,
and no royal jdaret is necessary to the execution of
a purely ecclesiastical act. Meanwhile the pope
resides in the Vatican, keeping a court of about
1,800 persons, and maintaining the Curia (q.v.) for
the government of the Roman Catholic Church at
large. Foreign countries represented at the Vatican
are: Austria- Hungary, Bavaria, Belgium, Bolivia,
Braril, Chile, Colombia, Monaco. Nicaragua, Peru,
Portugal, Prussia, Russia, San Domingo, and Spain.

The Roman Catholic Church in Italy numbers 49 areh-
archically. the Church in Italy is divided into (1) thf diocese
bano, Frasoti, OMia-VnUBtri. Falutrina, Palo, and Sabina:

i. Position ,

of the "

Italy

Italy, the Beformation in

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

(2) exempt, biehoprics and archbiehoprics, i.e., those that are
immediately under the pope; and (3) metropolitan biBhoprics,
with their suffragan biahoprics. The exempt archbiahoprics

and biBhoprics are as follows: in Ligiiria,

8. Orgrani' the bishopric of Luni-Sarsana; in Venice, the

zation. archbishopric of Udine; in the former Papal

States, the archbishoprics of Camerino, Ferrara,
Perugia, and Spoleto, and the bishoprics of Aquapendente,
Alatri, Amelia, Anagni, Anoona, Ascoli, Assin, Bagnorea,
Citta di Castello, Citta della Pieve, Civita Castellana, Cometo,
Fabriano, Fano, Ferentino, Foliigno, Gubbio, Jesi, Monte-
fiasoone, Narni, Nooera, Norda, Orvieto, Osimo, Poggio
Mirteto, Recanati, Rieti, Segni, Sutri-Nepi, Temi. Terracina,
Tivoli, Todi, Treja, Veroli, and Viterbo; m Tuscany, the
archbishopric of Lucca, and the bishoprics of Aresso, Cortona,
Montalcino, and Montepulciano; in Fimilia, the bishoprics
of Borgo San Donnino, Parma, and Piaoenza; in the province
of Naples, the archbishoprics of Amalfi, Aquila, Cosenza
Gaeta, and Rossano, and the bishoprics of Aquino, Aversa,
CavBrSamo, Foggia, Gravina, Sail Marco, Marsi, Melfi,
Mileto, Molfetta, Monopoli, Nardd, Penne-Atri, Teramo,
Trivento, Troja, and Sulmona; in Sicily, the archbishopric
of Catania, and the bishopric of Acireale. The metropolitan
seats with their suffragans are: Aoerenza-Matera (suffragans:
Anglona-Tursi, Potenza, Tricarico, Venosa); Bari-Canoaa
(Conversano, Ruvo-Bitonto); Benevent (Alife, Ariano,
Asooli-Gerignola, Avellino, Bojano, Bovino, Larino, Lucera,
San Severo, Sant' Agata de' Goti, Telese, Termoli); Bologna
(Faensa, Imola); Brindisi (Ostuni); Cagliari (Galtelli-Nuovoi
Iglesias, Ogliastra); Capua (Cajazzo, Calvi-Teano, Caserta,
Isemia- Venafro, Sessa); Chieti (Vasto); Conza-Campagna
(Laoedonia, Muro, Sant' Angelo de' Lombardi); Fermo
(Macerata-Tolentino. Montalto, Ripatransone, San Severino);
Florence (San Sepolcro, Colle, Fiesole, Modigliana, Pistoja-
Prato, San Miniato); Genoa (Albenga, Bobbio, Brugnato,
Savona-Noli, Tortona, Ventimiglia); Lanciano (Ortona);
Manfredonia (Viesti); Messina (Lipari, Nicosia, Patti);
Milan (Bergamo, Brescia, Como, Crema, Cremona, Lodi,
Mantua, Pavia); Modena (Carpi, Guastalla, Massa di Carrara,
Reggio Emilia); Monreale (Caltanisetta, Girgenti); Naples
(Acera, Ischia, Nola, Pozzuoli); Oristano (Ales-Terralba);
Otranto (Gallipoli, Lecoe, Ugento); Palermo (Cefalu, Mas-
■ara, Trapani); Pisa (Livomo, Pescia, Pontremoli, Volterra);
Bavenna (B^rtinoro, Cervia, C^esena, Ck)macchio, ForU,
Bixnini, Sanaina); Reggio di Calabria (Bova, Cassano, Catan-
wmto, Cotrone. (ierace, Nicastro, Nicotera, Oppido, Squillaoe);
Salemo-Acemo (Capaccio-Vallo, Diano, Marsico, Nooera dei
Fagani, Nusco, Policastro); Santa Severina (CSariati); Sassari
(Alghero, Ampurias, Bisarchio, Bosa); Siena (Chiusi,
Grosseto, Massa Marittima, Savana>Pitigliano); Syracuse
(Oaltagirone, Noto, Piazza); Sorrent (Castellamare); Taranto
(Oastellaneta, Oria); Turin (Acqm, Alba, Aosta, Ajsti, Cuneo,
Foasano, Ivrea, Mondovi, Pinerolo, Saluszo, Susa); Trani
(Andria, Bisoeglie); Urbino (Cagli, Fossombrone, Monte-
feltro, Pesaro, Sinigaglia, Urbania-Sant' Angelo in Vado);
Venice (Adria, Belluno, (>neda, Chioggia, Ck>ncordia, Padua,
Treviso, Verona, Vicenza); and Vercelli (Alessandria della
Paglia, Biella, Casale, Novara, Vigevano). There are also
eleven abbeys and prelatures without dioceses, viz.: Alta-
mura, Monte CJassino, Monte Oliveto Maggiore, Monte Ver-
gine, Nonantola, Santa Lucia del Mela, San Martino al Monte
Cimino, San Paolo fuori le Mura di Roma, Sanctissima
Trinita della Cave dei Tirreni, SS. Vioenzo ed Anastasio alle
tre Fontane (near Rome), and Subiaco. There are Uniat
Greek congregations in Naples, Messina, and Barletta.

The Old Catholics in Italy number about 1,(XX).

They have a bishop, and less than a dozen ministers.

- — . Their largest parishes are Arrone, in

Old ^^® province of Perugia; Dovadola,

Oatholios. ^^ *^® province of Florence; Sant'

Angelo de' Lombardi, in the province

of Avellino; and San Remo, in the Riviera di

Ponente. The sect was founded in Italy by Count

Enrico de Campello (q.v.).

n. Protestant Bodies: The Protestant cause in
Italy is represented by the old and celebrated
Church of the Waldenses (q.v.); by the Evangelical
Italian Church; and by congregations of Baptists,
Wesleyans, and (American) Methodists.
When religious liberty was established in the

kingdom of Sardinia by the decree of Feb. 17, 1848,
the Waldenses (q.v.) in Italy had eighteen ministers
and fifteen congr^ations, all in the
d *i Piedmont region. The congregations
Ohnroh °^ Pinerolo and Turin were established
later. The nimiber of Waldenses in
Piedmont and the adjacent valleys is about 13,000.
In 1898 the Waldensian College, established at Torre
Pellice in 1835, was placed upon an equal footing
with similar state institutions. It has about a
dozen teachers and about 100 pupils. The Walden-
ses also maintain high schools, orphan asylums, and
a hospital. Their theological school, founded at
Torre Pellice in 1835, was removed to Florence in
1860. The Waldensians, by sixty years of mission-
ary activity, have now established new congrega-
tions throughout Italy, some fifty in number, with
as many more mission stations, comprehending
about 6,000 communicants. The affairs of the
entire Church are administered by a board of five
members, elected by the synod, which meets yearly
at Torre Pellice, in September. Since 1861 the mis-
sion field, with the new congregations, has been ad-
ministered by an Evangelization Conmiittee of
eight members, also elected by the synod. The
Church maintains elementary and Sunday schools,
and employs some two dozen colporteurs for the
distribution of Bibles and evangelical writings.

The Evangelical Italian Church was founded at
Milan, in 1870, by twenty-three separate congrega-
tions that had been formed here and
2. The there independently of the Waldensian
^'J^^^* evangelization. To show clearly its
Ohnrch. separation from the papacy and the
Roman hierarchy this church called
itself the " Free Italian Church." [Its most eminent
leader was the eloquent Gavazzi.] A general con-
vention in 1870 adopted eight fundamental articles
of faith, and the next assembly at Florence in 1871
adopted a constitution of twenty-one articles. By
royal decree of July 2, 1891, this church was recog-
nized by the Italian government as a juristic person,
under the name " Evangelical Itsdian Church "
(Chiesa Evangdica Italiana), the name by which it
has since then been known. The affairs of the
church are in the hands of an Evangelization Com-
mittee, composed of five members elected by the
general convention, which meets annually at
Florence. The entire church is divided into ten
districts, viz., Piedmont, Liguria, Lombardy, Venice,
Emilia, Tuscany, Rome, Naples, Apulia, and Sicily.
These embrace, all together, some forty congrega-
tions, forty-five stations, and about 2,000 com-
municants. The church maintains elementary and
Sunday schools, and a theological school at Florence.
The church also employs a number of col[>orteur8
for the sale of Bibles and evangelical works. In
connection with the Evangelical Italian Church
may be mentioned the Free Christian Church, which
resembles the Plymouth Brethren. [The Evan-
gelical Italian Church and the Free Christian
Church are now for the most part allied with the
Waldensians and the Methodists.]

The English Wesleyans, who have been repre-
sented in Italy since 1861, have in their northern
district twenty-five churches and stations, and in

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Italy

Italy, the Bafbrmatlon in

their southern district twenty-five churches and
stations, numbering all together some 2,000 com-
municants. They maintain elemen-
8. Foreign ^,y schools, and an orphan asylum
Waeionary ^^ j^^^^^ rj^^ Methodist Episcopal
tions and ^^""^h (of America) began missionary
Cbnrohea. work in Italy in 1873. It now num-
bers twelve churches, forty mission sta-
tions, and about 1,500 conmiunicants. It has day
and evening schools employing upward of forty
teachers, and also a theological school at Rome.
The United Baptists, American and English, have
been in Italy since 1870 and 1871. All together,
they have eighty-one stations, some forty ministers,
five colporteurs, and about 1,500 communicants.
[George B. Taylor (d. at Rome in 1906) was for
forty years at the head of the American Baptist
Biission.] An independent missionary work is car-
ried on by the Englishman Clarke in Spezia,
Areola, Belluno, Levanto, Marola, Pordenone, and
Seren.

There are English churches in Florence, Genoa,
Milan, Naples, Rome, and Venice, American Protes-
tant churches in Florence and Rome, and Scotch
Presbyterian churches in Genoa, Naples, Rome,
and Venice. The Germans in Italy have formed a
number of congregations at various places. They
maintain schools in Florence, Genoa, Messina, Milan,
Naples, Palermo, and Rome, and hospitals in Flor-
ence, Genoa, Milan, Naples, and Rome. Since 1880
the German ministers in Italy have had their annual
conference.

Perhaps the most flourishing Evangelical congre-
gation in Italy is the Evangelical Military Associa-
tion in Rome, which was founded by L. Capellini
(d. 1898).

Of other educational and charitable institutions
under Evangelical control may be mentioned the
high schools for girls in Florence and
1 t^SwS" N*P^®^» *^ Anglo-American Institute
tntlons." *^ Rome; the elementary schools of
Miss Carruthers at Pisa, S. Michele
degli Scalzi, and Cisanello di Ghezzano; Dr. Co-
mandi's orphan asylum for boys at Florence; the
Feretti orphan asylum for girls at Florence; the
Gould Institute at Rome, an educational institu-
tion for boys and girls; the work-school for women
at Turin; the Boyoe Memorial Home at Vallecrosia,
an asylum for orphans, both boys and girls; and
the Evangelical Rescue-Mission of Mrs. Hammond
in Venice.

There are three Bible societies working in Italy, viz.,
the Italian Bible Society, which was founded in Rome
in 1871, the British and Foreign Bible
*• *^. Society, and the National Bible Society
flto^^^! °^ Scotland. Smce 1860 the British
and Foreign Bible Society has distrib-
uted in Italy more than 3,000,000 Bibles and New
Testaments. The Italian Tract Society, founded
at Florence in 1855, has a printing-establishment at
Florence and salesrooms in a dozen Italian cities.
To this tract society the entire Protestant Church
in Italy is indebted for the great bulk of its polem-
ical and educational literature. This society also
publishes VlUdia Evangdica, an illustrated fam-
ily weekly; VAmico dei fanciuUi, an illustrated

monthly for children; and VAmico di comx^ a popu-
lar calendar (annual edition, 35,000). Of less im-
portance is the Baptist Tract Society in Turin.

Other Evangelical periodicals are La Rivista
Christianay a scholarly monthly; Le Timoin^ the

weekly organ of the French-speaking

6. Periodi- Waldensians; La Luce, a Waldensian

cale. weekly; II Christiano, the monthly

organ of the Free Christian Church;
La Civiltd Evangdica, a monthly published by the
Wesleyans; II Piccolo Measaggiere, the monthly of
the Evangelical Italian Church; L* Evangdista, a
weekly issued by the Methodists; II Testimonio, a
Baptist monthly; and II Laharo, a monthly pub-
lished by the Old Catholics. (K. ROnneke.)

Biblioqrapht: The official Roman Catholic record ib given
in the annual, Oerarchia ccMolica. More general works are:
C. Hemana, Catholic Italy, 2 vols., Florence, 1861; J. H.
Eager, Romanism in its Home, Philadelphia, 1809; A.
Robertson, The Roman Catholic Church in Italy, London,
1903. On the Old Catholic movement in general consult:
A. M. Scarth. Story of the Old Catholic and Kindred Move-
ments, London, 1869; C. J. Loyson, Catholic Reform, ib.
1874; F. Meyrick, The Old Catholic Movement, ib. 1877.
On Protestantism in general consult: R. fiaird, Sketches of
Protsstantism in Italy, Boston, 1847; J. A. Wylie, The
Awakening of Italy, London, 1866; H. H. Farrell, Italy
Strugglino into Light, Cincinnati, 1880; J. Stoughton,
Footprints of Italian Reformers, London, 1881; J. W.
Brown, An Italian Campaign, ib. 1890 (the Evangelical
movement 1845-1887); £. Gebhardt. L'ltalie mystique,
Paris, 1890; A. R. Pennington, The Church in Italy,
London. 1895; G. B. Taylor, Italy and the Italians, Phila-
delphia, 1898. On the Free Churches connult the Reports
of the General Assembly, usually published under the
titles VerbcUi della . . . Assen^lea Oenerale delta Chiese
Cristiane in Italia; The Free Christian Church in Italy,
Evangelixation Report, Florence, 1874. For the Waldenses
see the literature under Waldenses.

ITALY, THE REFORMATION IN.

Two Periods (§1). In South and Central Italy

Venice (§ 2). (f 6).

Naples (13). The Later Period in Venice

The Inquisition in Naples (§ 6).

({ 4). Italian Reformation Wri-

tings (§ 7).

This article is concerned with the Reformation
in Italy only in its general features. Its more im-

p>ortant characters are treated in sep-

I. Two arate articles (see Caraccioli, Gal-

Periods. eazzo; Curione, Celio Secondo;

MoRATA, Olimpia; Ochino, Bernar-
dino; Paleario, Aonio; Ren^e of France;
Spiera, Francesco; Vald6s; Vergerio, Pietro
Paolo; Vermigli, Pietro Martire). The first
noteworthy traces of the Reformation in Italy
appear in the north, at Venice, but the culmina-
tion was reached in the south, at Naples. The
first and rising period lies between 1520, when wri-
tings of the German Reformation are first known to
have crossed the Alps, and 1540 or 1541, the year
marking the death of Vald^s, who wrought in an
elect circle at Naples, as the most strongly intellec-
tual and original of the Italian Reformers. Almost
simultaneously with the breaking-up of the Evan-
gelical circle at Naples, there set in (1542) the
deliberate and systematic reaction instigated from
Rome; the bull of Paul III., Licet ab initio (see
Inquisition, II., § 1), by the terms of which the
Inquisition was organized after the Spanish model,
and extended over all Italy (Naples excepted), is

Italy» the Beformatioii in

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

the storm signal. With unremitting activity until
about 1570, this tribunal, personally directed by
the popes, utilizing the entire political influence of
the Curia, accomplished its work by driving a num-
ber of the chief advocates of reform to flight, by
dungeon and fire and water, and smothered the
movement. What still remained in the way of
Evangelical tendencies during the later years of
this second period had become divested of all
efforts at internal church reform and stands in
deliberate, most trenchant, opposition to Rome,
falling in with certain radical tendencies which
manifested themselves in Germany, but particularly
in the Netherlands, where the leaders of a conserv-
ative Evangelical reformation steadily resisted them
with force.

In Venice down to 1527 there is no evidence of

repressive measures beyond repeated burning of

reformatory writings of German origin;

3. Venice, but toward the close of 1530 the papal
nuncio, Caraffa (later Paul IV.), inter-
posed against the ** heretics ** with greater strict-
ness, and even sentenced a Franciscan, Girolamo
Galateo (b. in Venice, 1490), to death without ob-
taining confirmation for the act from the Senate.
They kept him in prison seven years, then set him
free, but in 1540 arrested him again, and, broken
by his earlier sufferings, he died in the year follow-
ing. His ** Apology,'' dedicated to the Senate,
printed at Bologna in 1541, outlines a noteworthy
plan of internal church reform, which betrays the
influence of German doctrines, and on the question
of free will, the sacraments, the veneration of saints,
and other points is truly Biblical. In a report
which Caraffa prepared for the Curia (printed in
Rivista Cristiana, Florence, 1878), two other leading
heretics are mentioned. Bartolomeo Fonzio was
a Venetian, incurred suspension from the priestly
office in 1529, escaped to Germany, and was present
at Augsburg in 1530. He was in correspondence
with Butzer in 1531. It was probably Fonzio,
despite his subsequent denial, who translated Lu-
ther's tract An den chriatlichen Adel into Italian
(of. ZKGf iv., 1880, pp. 467 sqq.). Later he was
again active in Italy, and in 1558 was arrested in
Cittadella, not far from Venice; he was sentenced
to death and drowned, for forty-four " erroneous
doctrines," extracted from his writings. When
Caraffa prepared his report, mentioned above, in
1532, there lived also at Venice the Florentine
fugitive, Antonio Bniccioli, who rendered the move-
ment of the Reformation great serNnce by elucidating
and printing Biblical writings in the Italian lan-
guage. He was under suspicion, iind so continued;
and notwithstanding occasional retraction, he was
repeatedly brought to trial. He died in prison in
15(56. As in his case, so with others, such as Fra
Baldo Lupetino of Albona in Istria, and Baldassare
Altieri, of Aquila in Neapolitan territory, their
religious development and its sequel belong both
to the first and the second period of Italian Refor-
mation history.

Meanwhile the reforming doctrine had found its
real and vital center in Italy, in the circle of Juan
de Vald^s at Naples. The biographer of Caraffa
(CaraocioU, Vtia di Papa Paolo /V., MS. in British

Museimi) with good reason declares that Naples was
the " nest of heresy "; but the tradition is false

that would have it that the Lutheran
3. Naples, belief was carried thither by German

soldiers after the sack of Rome in 1527.
From about 1536 onward a company is found there —
scholars of Vald^s, himself devoted to the fimda-
mental doctrines of the German Reformation and
influenced by mysticism — ^which includes the most
important vehicles of the Italian Reformation:
Bernardino Ochino, Pietro Martire Vermigli, Pietro
Camesacchi, Benedetto di Mantua (reviser of the
little book '' Of the Benefit of Christ's Death,"
probably by A. Palerio (q.v.); Eng. transl., Lon-
don, reprint, 1855, also in W. M. Blackburn,
Aonio Palerio f Philadelphia, 1866), Mario Galeata,
Francesco d'Alvise of Caserta, Giovanni Bugio,
Galeazzo Caraccioli, Marcantonio Flaminio, and
others, who partly, it is true, never went beyond
the attempt at a reform from within the Church.
The central article about which all converge in the
matter of doctrine is the tenet of justification by
faith. Fmthermore, it was inmiaterial to a Vald^
what the external structure of the Church might be,
provided it did not abridge this religious condition.
He was far from intending to raise the standard of
revolt against church institutions, and he was no
organizer; his teachings found their way beyond
the circumference whose center was marked by his
ideal — ^pure character, illimiined with profound piety
— only by the accident that his writings were pre-
served as dear legacies by his friends. The chief
service in this regard was rendered by the noblest
of his pupils, Giulia Gonzaga, duchess of Traetto
(see VALDts).

Among the pupils of Vald^ who did not exceed
the boimdary of a reform attempted from within

the Church was Marcantonio Flaminio

4. The of Imola, highly endowed as a poet;

Inquisition it was he who gave to the book " Of

in Naples, the Benefit of Christ's Death " the form

under which, according to the testi-
mony of Vergerio, it became circulated through the
>land in more than forty thousand copies, though to-
day not a single library of Italy has one impression
from that period. The first blows of the reaction,
when it was mtroduced in 1542 through the reor-
ganization of the Inquisition at Rome (see Inquisi-
tion), struck the two most eminent members of the
circle surrounding Valdds, Ochino and Vermigli.
Ochino was suspended from the preaching office; and
he escaped, by flight, a summons to appear at Rome
to give an account of himself. At the same time.
Vermigli, who had risen to high rank in the order
of the Augustinian canons, took to flight, whence
he despatched to his doctrmal associates a testi-
monial of evangelistic faith in the guise of his
Semplice dichtaragione sapra i dodici articoli della
fede criatiana. Presently the reaction directed its
attention to a third member of the Neapolitan circle;
viz., Pietro Camesecchi (b. in Florence 1508), who
had held high stations under the Curia. After he
had avoided the Inquisition during a sojourn of
many years abroad and in Venice, he was brought
to trial by Pope Paul IV., and escaped for the time,
after having been summoned twice, through the

REUGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Italy, the BaftormAtion in

pope's death, and the destruction of the documen-
tary charges against Camesecchi, on occasion of the
storm upon the Inquisition's building in 1559.
Pius V. retrieved the matter and Camesecchi, whose
correspondence with Giulia Gonzaga formed the
basis of a second trial, was executed with other
** heretics " on Oct. 1, 1567. Among the victims
of the Inquisition, not a few were of Neapolitan
origin; and they all belonged to the very great
numbers whom the viceroy's complacency delivered,
year in, year out, to the Curia, though the Spanish
Inquisition was not allowed to operate in the king-
dom proper, and an attempt to introduce it in 1547
had been frustrated by a sanguinary insiurection
of the populace. The viceroy's complacent dis-
position was also proved at the death of Giulia
Gonsaga in 1566, when he seized her correspondence
and despatched it to Rome. By his long years of
superintending the Inquisition Pius V. acquired
the most exact acquaintance with the situation,
and be renewed and intensified the tribimal's ac-
tivity so that he won the name of Fra Michele dell'
Inquisizione. A storm of persecution covered all
parts of Italy in the years of his pontificate (1566-
1572). Concerning the victims only defective in-
formation remains, but it put an end to the reform-
ing movement.

With reference to the additional victims appre-
hended in the south, some information is given in
Luigi Amabile's II satUo offizio della
S* In inquisieiane in Napoli (2 vols., Citt&

South and di Castello, 1892). Nothing short of
Central wholesale murder was perpetrated in
Italy. that quarter in 1560 and 1561 upon the
Ehrangelical inhabitants of San Sisto
and La Guardia. Moreover, the Holy Office's barge
plied regularly back and forth between Naples and
Ostia, incessantly bringing new ** suspects " before
the tribunal. The numbers of emigrants — or rather
fugitives — for the faith from Sicily and the kingdom
continually increased — so far, at least, as this item
can be checked at Geneva, where many sought
refuge (cf. J. Galifife, Le Refuge italien de Genkve,
Geneva, 1881). For southern and central Italy,
some acceptable information is furnished by a
protocol-book of the Roman Inquisition for the
years 1564-67, which contains the sentences decreed
against heretics during that period (cf. Revista
CriiHana, 1879-80). .How matters look^ and fared
in the Roman Inquisition's prison is reported by the
younger Cameranus, who was himself under arrest
there, in 1565, whose RelaHo vera was printed by
J. G. Schelhom (De vtto, faiis ac mentis Philippi
Camerariif Nuremburg, 1749). Camerarius was con-
fined in the upper story, ** where one is in the bake-
oven "; others w^re below, '' in so damp a hole
that it is past understanding how men can exist in
that grave." Frequently monks came in to make
attempts at conversion, Dominicans for the most
part, once Petrus Canisius, the Jesuit. Among their
feDow captives were spies. Camerarius and his
fellow countryman, Peter Rieter, were liberated
through the rigorous intercession of Emperor
Maximilian II., to whom appeal had been made.
On June 23, 1566, there was " public abjuration "

of twenty-three who were imder charge, who, for

the most part, had been sentenced to perpetual
confinement, or to the rigor of the galleys. After
that, sentence was pronounced upon the Neapolitan
nobleman, Pompeo de' Monti, who was beheaded
near the bridge of Sant' Angelo, on July 4, 1566.
Still other victims who were executed in Rome are
named in the roll of Italian Reformation martyrs;
three of them so early as under Julius III., Fanino
of Faenza, Domenico of Bassano, and the Augustin-
ian Giuliano; later, two others, Giovanni Buzio
(also named Mollio), of Montalcino, and an imknown
of Perugia; under Paul IV., the noble youth Pom-
ponio Algieri of Nola was burned, and how many
at that time were still confronted with a similar
fate may be inferred from the fact that on the death
of this pope in 1559, when the people's rage broke
open the prison doors, no fewer than seventy heretics
were set free.

Better information exists as to what occurred
from the beginning of the energetic reaction at

Venice and in its dominion, than with

6. The reference to events and the scope of

Later repression in southern and central

Period in Italy. At Venice, the outcome of the

Italy. movement was connected with the

general political situation, and the
senate, from the time of the downfall of the Protes-
tant party in Germany through the Schmalkald
War, waived whatever considerations it had pre-
viously conceded to their wishes, and showed itself
much more amenable to the Curia than was formerly
the case. Meantime a new religious movement had
sprung up in Venice. In 1550, Julius III. affirmed
that 1,000 Venetians might be counted as belonging
to the Anabaptist sect. A new group thus comes to
the light, inasmuch as the earlier advocates of the
Reformation belonged not to the radical, but to
the conservative Reformation, as espoused by Lu-
ther. Both currents are in collateral progress from
the middle of the century, and both command
eminent names; but the attitude of mutual antag-
onism on the part of their champions contributed
even more than the brute force of their common foe
to nullify the movement itself. Among advocates
of the conservative Reformation are to be named
men such as Pietro Speziali (in Cittadella) and
Francesco Spiera (q.v.). Now, too, the previously
mentioned Fra Baldo Lupetino was seized by his
fate; and only for a little while longer could Bal-
dassare Altieri of Aquila, who had been in corre-
spondence with Luther, Bullinger, and others, still
work in the wake of the Schmalkald party's defeat
after he was compelled to leave Venice in 1549. A
transition to the steadily growing Anabaptist party
is afforded by Francesco Negri of Bassano; in a
measure, as well, by Celio Secondo Curione. The
proper father, however, of the Italian Anabaptists
was Camillo of Sicily, who, after his conversion,
styled himself ** Renato." His system is quite
spiritualistic; whoever is elected receives the
" spirit "; the children of the ** spirit " merely
slumber in death, to enter upon a higher form of
being thereafter; the rest fall away to destruction.
The sacraments are only emblems; Christ is above
all a divinely favored man; and more of the same
sort. Their theological foundations were fixed in a

Italy, the Beformation in
Ivo of Ohartres

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

" council," organized, by sixty of their represent-
atives, at Venice in 1550; though not, indeed,
without the separation of a more moderate from
the radical faction, so that henceforth there are
three distinct groups, instead of two, as previously,
of Protestantism in Italy. In the subsequent fate
of the Anabaptist congregations, which became
closely affiliated with the center of the moderate
Anabaptist cause at Nikolsburg in Moravia, two
brilliant martyr names are encountered in the period
when the storm began to rage: Giulio Gherlandi
and Francesco della Saga, who fell a sacrifice to
the Venetian Inquisition in 1565. Among advocates
of the Reformation in Venetian territory may lastly
be named Bishop Pier Paolo Vergerio, because, ac-
cording to his own acknowledgment, the truth of
the Gospel indelibly impressed itself upon him at
Padua, by the sick-bed of the imfortunate Spiera;
and because the Inquisition at Venice subjected
him to a tedious course of trial. This disputatious
battler wielded an inexhaustible store of fresh
weapons against the Roman Church out of the
armory of his own experience and exact knowledge
of the hierarchy; although he did not equal the
men of the first generation in disinterested devotion
to truth, in courage and joy of sacrifice. Neither
can his writings be justly compared with the other
products of the movement, as some of them are
revealed in the Biblioteca della Riforma Italiana
(6 vols., Florence, 1881-86).

Among the writings of the Italian Reformation,

besides the Invaluable yield of Juan de Valdds, the

previously cited little book ** Of the

7. Italian Benefit of Christ's Death " fills an hon-

Reforma- orable place. There may also be men-
tion tioned the fact that the Sommario della

Writings. Sacra ScriUura was no less effective, al-
though it was not Italian originally, but
a recast Middle Low German (Dutch) work, dating
from the decade 1520-30. A collection of the litera-
ture of the Reformation in Italy after the plan fol-
lowed by E. B5hmer for the Spanish Reformation in
the Bibliotheca Wtffeniana is much to be desired.
Rich contributions toward the project would be sup-
plied by the serial volumes of Rivista Cristiana from
1873; and a considerable portion of the original
issues are to be foimd collected in the library accu-
mulated by Count Piero Guicciardini, and made over
to the national library of Florence. Long forgotten
and concealed, hardly discoverable in their own
country, these writings bear witness to the high
mental significance of that minority which once
existed in the land of the popes and fought under
the banner of reform. K. Benrath.

BiBUOORAPirr: The best 8:uide to the sources is K. Ben-
rath, C/e6er die Quellen der italieniachen ReformaHonage-
•diichte, Bonn, 1876; idem, in ZKO, I 613-626, iv. 394-
413. Rivi&ta criatiana, a periodical published in Florence,
1873 sqq., contains much material of the first importance.
Instructive hints as to sources are given in F. H. Heusch,
Der Index der verbotener Bilcher, i. 373 sqq., Bonn, 1883.
Consult further: J. Bonnet, Vie de Olympia Morata, Paris,
1850, new ed., 1862, Eng. trans!., London, 1852; idem,
Aonio Paleario, Paris, 1862, Eng. transl., London, 1864;
idem, RScita du xvi. aikcle, Paris. 1864; idem, Nouveaux
and Demiere Rieita, ib. 1876; idem, many contributions to
BiiUeHn du proteetarUieme francaiae; D. EIrdmann, Die
Reformation und ihre M&rtyrer in Italien, Berlin, 1855;
J. Stoughton, Footprinte of lUUian Reformere^ London,

1881; K. Benrath. OeedndiU der ReformaHon in Venedig,
Halle, 1887; idem, Bernardino Ochino von Siena^ ib. 1892;
B. Fontana, Renata . . . di Ferrara, 3 vols.. Rome, 1889-
1899; A. R. Pennington, The Chitrch in IteUy, London,
1895; E. Comba, / noeiri proteatanti, vol. ii., Florence (un-
finished, deals only with Venice); A. Agostini, Pieiro Car-
neaecdii e il movimento Waldeaiano, ib. 1899; Cambridge
Modem Hiatory, vol. ii., The Reformatum^ pp. 578-699.
New York, 1904; E. H. Walshe, Under the Inqtdaition ;
TheReformationin Italy, London, 1904; C. Dejob, La Fox re-
ligieuae en Italie au xiv. aiMe, Paris, 1906; C. von Klenze.
The Interpretation of Italy, Chicago. 1907; and the litera-
ture under the articles on the Reformers named in the text.

ITHACIUS CLARUS. See Priscillian, Pris-

CILLIANI8TS.

ITUREA: A region named In Luke iii. 1. The
name of a people, ** the Itureans/' is older than " Itu-
rea '' as the name of a region, and is to be connected
with the Jetur of Gen. xxv. 15, a son of Ishmael deno-
ting a nomadic stock of the Syro-Arabian desert,
whose home, according to the Genesis passage, was in
the neighborhood of Teima on the western border of
Najd, between Medina and the oasis of Jauf. I
Chron. v. 18-22 tells of a victorious campaign of
the Hebrews of the East-Jordan land against Jetur
and other nomads in pre-exilic times, which shows
that Jetur must have changed its place of abode
to the neighborhood of the Jabbok; but the men-
tion in Luke iii. 1 can have nothing to do with this
passage. Aristobulus I. (105-104 B.C.) fought the
Itureans and annexed part of their territory
(Josephus, Ard, XIII., xi. 3), and Strabo (XVI.,
ii. 10, 18) in Roman times locates them on the plain
of Massyas (Marsyas) between Laodicea and Chalcis,
i.e., in Coele-Syria (q.v.), and he is corroborated by
an inscription of Quirinius (Monmisen in Ephemeris
epigrapkicaf iv. 537-542, Berlin, 1881). It is to be
concluded therefore that Jetur and the Itureans
are the same stock, and that they came north with
the migrations of the Arab tribes, settled down, and
adopted the manners of the people of the region.

Iturea as the name of a region is connected with
this last phase of the people's history. The first
ruler of whom mention is made is Ptolemy, son of
Menneus, who reigned 85~40 B.C., and had a king-
dom of considerable size, including some cities on
the coast, and the region about the sources of the
Jordan as far east as the neighborhood of Damas-
cus (Josephus, Ard. XIII., xvi. 3). This Ptolemy
paid Pompey 1,000 talents in order to make his
rule secure with the Romans (Josephus, Ard. XIV.,
iii. 2), and he protected the last of the Hasmo-
neans. His son Lysanias is called king of the Itu-
reans by Dio Cassius, and was executed by order
of Antony, 36 b.c. (Josephus, Ard. XV., iv. 1).
Later there were only remnants of the great
Iturean kingdom, with Chalcis as the capital, one
of which was Abilene, ruled by the tetrarch Ly-
sanias (Luke iii. 1); another was the region of
So^mus, north of Heliopolis; still another was the
region of Chalcis, given by Claudius to Herod,
grandson of Herod the Great; and finally the terri-
tory of Zenodorus, which came into the possession
of Herod the Great (Josephus, Ard. XV., x. 1).
After the death of Herod, Augustus joined a por-
tion of the territory of Zenodorus to the territory
of the tetrarch Philip (4 B.C.-34 a.d.), that part
which included Batanea, Trachonitis, and Aura-

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Italy, the Baformation in
Ivo of Ohartrea

nitis; thus Philip ruled a part of the Iturean ter-
ritory, a fact which partly justifies the statement
in Luke iii. 1. (H. Guthe.)

Bibuographt: G. A. Smith, HiMtorical Oeography of the
Holy Land, pp. 544 sqq.. London. 1897; F. MOnter. De
rtbu9 liuraeorum, Copenhagen, 1824; M. Krenkel, Jo9ephtu
und Lukas, pp. 90-05, Leipac, 1894; SehQier, OeBchichU,
i. 707-725. Eng. tranal., I., ii. 325-344; DB, u. 521-522;
EB, it 2296-2297.

IVERACH, iv'er-OH, JAMES: United Free Pres-
byterian Church, Scotland; b. in Caithness June 1,
1839. He was educated at the University of
Edinburgh (1859-63) and New CoUege, Edinburgh
(1863-67), and was ordained to the ministry in
1869. He held pastorates at West Calder, Edin-
burgh (186^74), and Ferryhill, Aberdeen (1874-
1887) ; was professor of apologetics and dogmatics
in United Free Church College, Aberdeen (1887-
1907), and principal (1905-07); and has been pro-
fetssor of New-Testament language and literature
(since 1907). He has written Life of Moses (Lon-
don, 1881); Is God Knawablef (1884); St. Paul,
his Life and Times (1890); Christianity and Evo-
lution (1894); The Truth of Christianity (1895);
Theism, in the Light of Present Science and Phi-
losophy (1900); Descartes, Spinoza, and the New
Philosophy (1904) ; and Other Side of Greatness, and
Other Sermons (1906).

IVES, oivz, LEVI SILLDfAN: Roman Catholic;
b. at Meriden, Conn., Sept. 16, 1797; d. in New
York Oct. 13, 1867. He served for about a year in
the War of 1812 and subsequently studied at Hamil-
ton CoUege. He was originally a Presbyterian, but
joined the Protestant Episcopal Church in 1819.
After taking orders in 1822, he held charges at
Batavia, N. Y., Philadelphia, and Lancaster, Pa.,
and in New York, till 1831, when he became bishop
of North Carolina. He displayed great zeal and
ability in the religious education of the slaves, but
his Tractarian views brought him into serious
difficulties. While in Rome in 1852 he formally
submitted to the pope and became a Roman Cath-
olic. The following October he was solemnly de-
posed from his episcopal office. On his return to
New York he became professor of rhetoric in St.
Joseph's Seminary, Yonkers, N. Y., also lecturer
on English literature and rhetoric in the Convent
of the Sacred Heart. He was prominent in the
charitable work of the Roman Catholic Church.
He published New Manual of Private Devotions
(New York, 1831); The Apostles' Doctrine and
Fellowship: Five Sermons (iski); On the Obedience
of Faith (1849); and The Trials of a Mind in its
Progress to Catholicism (Boston, 1853; London, 1854).
Bibuoorapht: W. 8. Perry, The Epitcopate in America,

p. 57. New York. 1895.

IVmEY, JOSEPH: English Baptist historian;
b. at Ringwood (17 m. w.s.w. of Southampton) May
22. 1773; d. in London Feb. 8, 1834. In early life
he followed his father's trade, that of a tailor, at
L3rmington and Portsea; became a church-member
in 1790, an itinerant minister in 1794, assistant min-
ister at Wallingford, Berkshire, in 1803; and pas-
tor of the Baptist church in Eagle Street, Holbom,
London, in 1805. He was a pronounced opponent
of Roman Catholicism, and so denoimced the re-
peal of the Test and Corporation Acts; he was also

interest^ in the abolition of slavery and in mission-
ary operations. His chief significance is as historian
of his denomination, by his History of the English
Baptists (4 vols., London, 1834), which, however,
is criticized as to be used with caution on accoimt
of its mistakes. He wrote on other subjects quite
voluminously, his works including Brief Sketch of
the History of Dissenters (1810), and John MUton,
his Life and Times (1833).

BiBuoaRAPHT: G. Pritchard, Memoir of the Life and Wri-
Hnge of . . , Joeeph Ivimey, London, 1835; DNB^ xxix.
81-82.

IVO, l"v6', OF CHARTRES (IVO or YVO CAR-
NOTENSIS): Bishop of Chartres (47 m. s.w. of
Paris); b. in the district of Beauvais c. 1040; d.
Dec. 23, 1116. He studied under Lanfranc at Bee,
became a canon at Nesle in Picardy, then provost
of the abbey of St. Quentin in Beauvais c. 1078, and
bishop of Chartres in 1090. As the bishop before
him had been deposed for simony, and commanded
some support, Ivo's election was contested; but his
cause was espoused by Pope Urban II., who had
given him consecration. The same pope protected
him when subjected to arrest by King Philip I. of
France, because Ivo had not acquiesced in the repu-
diation of Queen Bertha, and the king's liaison with
Countess Bertrada of Anjou. In the investiture
strife (see Investiture), Ivo took a stand of saga-
cious mediation between the rights of the State
and the Church (cf. his Epist, ad Hugonem archi-
episcopum Lugdunensem in MGH, Lib. de lite, ii.,
1893, pp. 642, 649, and his letter of 1106 to Pope
Paschal II. in MPL, cbdi. 19). When subsequently
Paschal II. was sharply attacked for his attitude
to Emperor Henry V., in the year 1111, Ivo vin-
dicated him, and frustrated the design of Arch-
bishop Joscerannus of Lyons, who aimed to have
Paschal's concessions to Henry adjudged heretical
by means of a great French council (MGH, ut sup.,
pp. 649 sqq.). Ivo was highly esteemed in France,
and was also on friendly terms with Anselm of
Canterbury. The date of his canonization is un-
certain; his day is May 20.

The most important among Ivo's writings are his
collections of canons, wherein he anticipated Gra-
tian, the Collectio tripartita, the Decretum, and the
Panormia. Both as reflecting his own life and as
bearing upon the history of his time, his letters are
of weight; and there are also twenty-four of his
sermons preserved, some of which are detailed
treatises on dogmatic and liturgical questions. He
also wrote against Berengar of Tours. Certain his-
torical works of his friend, Hugo of Fleury, have
been attributed to him erroneously. Cabl Mibbt.

Bibuographt: The works, first printed Paris, 1647, are
reprinted with a life in If PL, clxi.-dxii. CoMult: A.
Abry, Yvee de Chartres, ea vie et eee ouvraoee, Strasburg,
1841; F. Ritske, De Ivone, epieoopo Camotenai, Wratie-
law, 1863; J. Dombrowski. Ivo, Biukof von Chariree, aein
LAen und Wirkeri, Breslau. 1881; A. Sieber, Biethof Ivo
von Chartree, KOnigsberK. 1895; R. von Scherer, Handbueh
dee KirehenrechU, vol. i., 53, Gras, 1886; C. Mirbt, Die
PublisieHk im Zeitalier Oregore VII., pp. 512 sqq., Leipsio,
1894; F. Foumier, JLes CoUediona canoniquee atiribuiee d
Yvee de Chartree, in BiMiothique de Vicole dee Chartree,
vols. lvii.-lvm., 1896-97; idem, Yvee de Chartree et k
droit eanonique, in Revue dee queetiona hietoriiiuee, Ixriit
1898: Hauck, KD, m. 862, 904, 914; and Uttrature indi-
cated in Richardson, Encifdopcedia, p. 515.

aokAon

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

J : The symbol employed to designate the Jehovis-
tic (Yahwistic, Judean) document which, according
to the critical school, is one of the components of
the Hezateuch (q.v.). See Hebrew Language
AND Literature, II., § 4.

JABAL. See Cain, Kenites.

JABIN, ]61)in: A Canaanitic king who appears in
two narratives in the Old Testament (Josh. xi. 1-15,
and Judges iv. 1 sqq.). In the first he appears as
overlord of the Canaanitic kings of the region of
Mt. Naphtali, with his capital at Hazor, and as
conquered by Joshua at the ** waters of Merom."
This narrative purports to give the account of the
conquest of northern Canaan as Josh. x. to give
that of the south. In Judges iv. the history of
Jabin is peculiarly bound up with that of Sisera
in the narrative of Deborah and Barak's campaign.
Verses 2 and 7 make Sisera Jabin's general, though
in the song in chap. v. Sisera is king and in com-
mand of kings. Similarly in iv. 12-22 Sisera is
the chief personage, while Jabin hardly appears,
verse 17b being an editorial addition, so that the
narrative concerning Sisera is in chap. iv. the basis
of the story. Two hypotheses have been held con-
cerning this Jabin: that the two accoimts refer to
different persons, and that they refer to the same
person. Judges iv. still retains a trace of the
correct tradition that after the time of Joshua a
war was conducted against Jabin, king of Hazor.

(H. Guthb.)

Bibuoorapht: Besides H. Guthe, Oeachiehie dea Volkea
larael, pp. 61-62. Freiburg, 1899; DB, ii. 624; EB, ii.
2302-03, 2636-37; and C. F. Kent. Student's Old Testa-
ment, vol. i.. 1904, the oommentaries on Joshua and Judges
should be consulted, particularly those on Judges by Budde
and Moore, and the works on the history of Israel, espe-
dally those of Ewald, Kittel, and Wellhausen.

JABLONSKI, ya-blen'ski, DANIEL ERNST: Bishop
of the Moravians; b. at Nassenhuben, near Danzig,
Nov. 20, leeO; d. at Berlin May 25, 1741. He was
educated at the gymnasium of Lissa and studied
theology at Frankfort-on-the-Oder and at Oxford.
In 1683 he was appointed Reformed preacher in
Magdeburg, and in 1686 became pastor of the Polish
congregation and rector of the gymnasium at Lissa.
In 1691 he went to Prussia and became court
preacher at K5nigsberg; but he always remained
faithfiil to the Moravians in their exile and used his
political influence to assist them in every way.
At the synod of Lissa in 1699 he was chosen senior
of the Unity and received their episcopal ordination.
In 1737 he consecrated Count Zinsendorf bishop,
and thus he formed the transition from the old
stock of the Moravian Brethren to the yoimger
branch of the Hermhuters. His influence upon the
development of the Prussian state is still more
important. Since Sigismimd of Brandenburg had
adopted the Reformed creed (1613; see Siois-
ifUND, Johann), a union of the evangelical denomi-
nations had become a necessity for the Hohenzol-
lems, and Jablonski was the man to give this
tendency a concrete form and a theological basis.
Similar efforts were made at the court of Hanover

by Leibnitz and by Molanus (qq.v.). Anthony
IHrich of Brunswick and the court of Gotha also
sympathized with these unionistic movements. In
the meantime Jablonski had become court preacher
at Berlin (1697), and as Brandenburg was being
transformed about this time into the state of
Prussia, he considered it his mission to imite all
Protestants under the leadership of Prussia. He en-
tered into negotiations with Leibnitz and Molanus,
but the undertaking failed on accoimt of the oppo-
sition of the clergy. Another ideal which Jablonski
tried to realize was the introduction of the episco-
pate into the Evangelical Church, which met a re-
sponse in King Frederick's appointment of his court
preacher's bishops. But failure resulted in 1713 when
Frederick William I. ascended the throne. Against
the demoralization of church life Jablonski at-
tempted to introduce ethical societies after the
model of the English societies for the reformation of
manners. The Berlin Academy of Sciences owes
its existence to his advocacy with that of Leibnitz.
Jablonski was its first vice-president and director of
the philologico-historical class, and in 1733 he be-
came its president. His literary activity was not
less important. He made a careful edition of the
Old-Testament text which J. H. Michaelis adopted
as the basis of his well-known Kommentarinbel
(1720); at Jablonski 's instigation the Berlin edition
of the Babylonian Talmud was printed. He trans-
lated Bentley's Canfutatum of Atheism into Latin
(Berlin, 1696) ; his Historia consensus Sendomiriensis
(Berlin, 1731) is important in the sphere of church
history, likewise his Jura et libertales dissidentium
in regno Poloniae (1708). (P. Klbinbrt.)

BiBUoaBAPHT: J. E. Kapp, Sammlung vertraiUer Brief e dee
Preiherm von Leibnitx und Hofpredioers Jablonski, Leip-
sic, 1747; C. W. Bering, Oeschichte der kirchlidie Unions-
versuche, ii. 313 sqq., ib. 1838; G. E. Guhrauer, Q. W.
Freiherr van Leibnitz, ii. 177 sqq., Breslau, 1846; A. L.
Richter, Oesehiehte der evangelischen Kirehenverfaasuno in
DeuisdHand, Leipsic, 1851; F. Brandes. Oesehiehte der
kirMiehen Politik des Harises Brandenburg, vol. i., Gotha,
1872; A. Ritschl, GesehichU des Pietismus, iii. 302 sqq..
Bonn, 1886; J. Kvacala, FUnfzia Jahre im preussisdten
Hofpredigerdienste, Dorpat, 1806; idem, Neue BeiMtge
sum Briefioechsel swisehen D. E, Jablonski und O, W.
• LeibniU, ib. 1890.

JACKSON, FREDERICK JOHN FOAKES: Church
of England; b. at Ipswich (18 m. s.e. of Bury St.
Edmunds), Suffolk, Aug. 10, 1855. He was edu-
cated at Eton and at Trinity College, Cambridge
(B.A., 1879), and was curate of Ottershaw, Win-
chester (1879-^1), St. Giles, Cambridge (1882-^),
and St. Botolph's, Cambric^ (1884-91). He was
appointed lecturer on divinity in Jesus College,
Cambridge, was elected fellow in 1886, and made
dean in 1895 and tutor in the following year. Since
1897 he has been examining chaplain to the bishop
of Peterborough, since 1901 honorary canon of
Peterborough cathedral, and was Hulsean lec-
turer in 1902. Theologically he is an orthodox
member of the Church of England, and heartily
accepts her dogmatic teachings. He has written
History of the Christian Church (London, 1891);
Biblical History qf the Hebrews (Cambridge, 1903);

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

J
Jaokoon

and ChriiUan DifficulHea in the Second and Twen-
tieth Centuriea (Hulsean lectures for 1902; Lon-
don, 1903).

JACKSON, GEORGE ANSON: Congregationalist;
b. at North Adams, Mass., Mar. 17, 1846; d. at
Swampscott, Mass., May 8, 1907. He was gradu-
ated from Yale (Ph.B., 1868) and Andover Theolog-
ical Seminary (1871) ; was pastor at Leavenworth.
Kan. (1871-73), Southbridge, Mass. (1873-78),
and Swampscott, Mass. (1878-97), and librarian
of the Genera] Theological Library, Boston, after
1897. He wrote: The Christian Faith (Boston,
1875); The Apostolic Fathere (New York, 1879);
Fatheno/the ThirdCentury (1881) ; Post^Nicene Greek
Fathers (1883) ; and PostrNicene Latin Fathers ( 1883) .

JACKSON, SHELDON: Presbyterian; b. atMina-
villc, N. Y., May 18, 1834; d. at AsheviUe, N. C,
Aiay 2, 1909. He was graduated at Union College
in 1855, and Princeton Theological Seminary in
1858. He was a colporteur of the Presbyterian
Board of Publication in 1856, and agent of the
American Systematic Beneficence Society in 1857.
In 1858 he was ordained to the Presbyterian min-
istry, and in the same year was appointed mission-
ary to the Choctaw Indians at Spencer Academy,
I. T. From 1859 to 1869 he was a missionary in
western Wisconsin and southern Minnesota, being
also pastor at La Crescent, Minn., from 1859 to 1863,
and an agent of the United States Christian Com-
mission to the Army of the (Xunberland for three
months in 1863, as well as associate pastor with
George Ainslee at Rochester, Minn., and principal
and professor of higher mathematics at Rochester
Female Institute from 1864 to 1869. Throughout
this time he itinerated constantly, and in these ten
years organized over twenty churches. He de-
clined the superintendency of Presbyterian mis-
sions in Minnesota in 1864, but in 1869 he accepted
an appointment as superintendent of Presbyterian
missions for northern and western Iowa, Nebraska,
Dakota, Idaho, Montana, Wyoming, and Utah.
Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, eastern Nevada,
and Alaska were later added to his district, thus
giving him Presbyterian supervision over nearly
half the territorial area of the United States at
that time. It was largely through his efforts that
the Woman's Board of Home Missions was organ-
ized in 1878. In 1879 and 1880 he was commissioned
by the Government to collect Indian children from
the Pueblo, Apache, Pima, and Papago tribes for
education in tl^ Indian Training Schools at Carlisle,
Pa., and Hampton, Va.

After 1877 his main interests were connected
with Alaska, and in 1879 he was commissioned by
President Hayes, together with Rev. Dr. Henry
Kendall, to prepare a special report on the native
tribes of soutbcAstem Alaska as a basis for legis-
lation. Six years later he established the first
canoe mail service in Alaska, and in the following
year secured the enactment of a law giving limited
territorial government, and providing for the es-
tablishment of public schools in the same territory.
In 1885 he was appointed General Agent of fkiu-
cation in Alaska. In 1891 he began the successful
mtroduetioQ of Siberian reindeer into Alaska to

provide the Eskimos with food, and in 1897 was a
special agent of the United States Government in
transporting a colony of Laplanders with their
reindeer to Alaska. In 1897 he was commissioned
by the Secretary of Agriculture to report on the
agricultural possibilities of the Yukon River, and
in 1899 established the first reindeer post-office
routes in America.

He was a member of the executive conunittee
of the International Simday School Association
since 1887, and in 1893 was appointed an advisory
member of the religious congress held in connec-
tion with the Chicago World's Fair. He furnished
exhibits of Alaskan ethnology to every national
exposition from 1885 to 1905, and presented a
valuable collection of ethnological material to
Princeton Theological Seminary, which was later
transferred to Princeton University. He was one
of the foimders of Westminster College at Salt
Lake City. He edited the Rocky Mountain Pres-
byterian at Denver from 1872 to 1882, when he
presented it to the Board of Home Missions and
edited it in New York City as The Presbyterian
Home Missionary from 1882 to 1885. He also
edited the illustrated missionary monthly North
Star at Sitka, Alaska, from 1887 to 1894. In addi-
tion to assisting in editing The World's Best Orations
(11 vols., St. Louis, 1899) and The World's Best Es-
says (10 vols., 1900), he prepared for the United
States Government twenty annual reports on edu-
cation in Alaska since 1881 and fifteen on the intro-
duction of domestic reindeer into Alaska since
1890, and wrote Alaska and Missions on the North
Pacific Coast (New York, 1880).

Bibliography: R. L. Stewart, Shddon Jackson, PeUKflntUr
and Prospector <jf the Mianonary Vanguard in the Rocky
Mountains and Alaska, New York, 1908.

JACKSON, THOMAS: The name of two English
theologians.

1. Church of England divine; b. at Witton-on-
the-Wear (10 m. s.w. of Durham) Dec. 21, 1579;
d. Sept. 21, 1640. He studied at Queen's and at
Corpus Christi College, Oxford (B.A., 1599; M.A.,
1603; B.D., 1610; D.D., 1622), where he was made
probationer fellow in 1606 and subsequently re-
peatedly elected vice-president of Corpus Christi.
At Oxford he won a reputation for his theological
learning and delivered weekly lectures on theology
both at Corpus Christi and at Pembroke. In 1623
he was instituted to the living of St. Nicholas, New-
castle-on-iyne, and in 1625 he was presented to the
living of Winston, Durham, which he held with
Newcastle. About the same time he was made a
royal chaplain. In 1630 he became president of
Corpus Christi, a post which he filled till his death.
In 1632 he was presented to the crown living of
Witney, Oxfordshire, which he resigned in 1637.
He became prebendary of Winchester in 1635, and
dean of Peterborough in 1639. He was originally a
Calvinist of Puritan leanings, but later became an
Arminian. He ranks high as a theologian, and his
theology has particularly conmiended itself to mod-
em High-churchmen. His great work was his Com-
mentaries on the Apostles* Creed (12 bks., London,
1613-57), of which books ten and eleven were edited
by Barnabas Oley. Book twelve first appeared in

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERaOG

complete form in Jackson's Workt (3 vols., 1672-73).
Jackson also piibliabed three collections of sernions,
Namrdh and Bethlehem (Oxford, 1617); Christ'a
Anmver unto John's Question (London, 1525); and
Diverse Sennora (Oxford, 1637). His Theologieal
Works, with the Life of Jackson by Edmund
Vaughan, have been reprinl«d at Oxford (12 vols.,
1844).

JliBLioanu-ar: A. !k Wood, AOitnat Oranitnta. ed. P,
Blisi. ii. 604, and Fatti. i. 281, 290. 33fi. 401. 4 vol.o.,
London. 181S-20; DNB. xvx. 107-108 (whore noticm of

3. English Wcslcyan; b, at Sancton, near Market
Weighton (18 m, e,B,e. of York). Yorkshire, Dec. 12,
1783; d.atShephenl'sBush, London, Mar. 10, 1873.
He joined the Methodist Society in 1801, his educa-
tion having been attained through reading. From
1804 till 1824 he was an itinerant in the Wesleyau
connection, occupying important circuits. He was
editor of the connectional magazines, 1824—13, and
professor of divinity in the Theological College at
Richmond, Surrey, 1842-61. Hia more important
works are: The Li/e of John Goodivin (London,
1822); Memoirs of the Life and WrOings of the Rei:
Hichard Waiaon {ISay, The Centenary ofWesley an
Methodism (1839); The Life of the. Rev. Charles
Wesley (2 voU., 1841); The Life of the Rev. Robert
Newton (1855); The InMUutimig of Chri^ianity
<1868); and Recollections t^ My Own Life and Times
(ed. B. Frankland, 1873). Jackson also edited
numerous works, including The Works of the Rev.
John Wesley (14 vols., 1829-31); A Library of
Christian Biography (12 vola., 1837-10); The Lives
of the Early Methodist Preachers (3 vols., 1837-
1838; 3d ed„ 6 vols., 1865-66); Avlhony Farindon's
Sermons (4 vols., 1849); and The Journal of the
Rev. Charles Wesley (2 voU., 1849).

Dibliogbapbt: Coniult, besides tbe ReeoUtcI'vmi. u( Kup.,

DNB. xxii. loe-ioe.

JACOB (or ISRAEL), THE PATRIAHCH.

The NuaDB Bjid Tboii Menuias <i 1).
jMOb> Voulh (1 2).
His Life in Rarui (| 3).
His Later Life 114).
CharacleriBticii of the founm (( G).
Jamb's Charuter {| B).
Bialoridly of the Nurmtiveii ({ 7),
Jacob, or Israel, the son of Isaac, was the ancestor
who gave his name to the covenant people. Jacob
means " one who holds the heel " or
I. The " one who treads on the heel " (Gen.
names and xzv, 26), and is also explained as " one
Their who overreaches " (cf. Jcr. ix. 4) by
Heaning. means of his practised cunning (Gen,
xxvii. ;j6). Israel, on the other hand,
which became the designation of the people, was
given him by God as a special distinction after be
liad proved his courage and gained a victory (Gen.
■xxxii. 28). Jacob is probably an abbreviation of
lacob-el, for, among the Palestinian towns captured
by Thothrnes III. and mentioned in bis inscriptions
at Kamak, names appear which may be recognized
as Ya'kabh-el and Yoseph-el, a conclusion all the more
probable since the name Ya'kvbh-ilu appears in
Babylonian contract- tablets. The inference usually
drawn from this inscription that in the sixteenth
century the Jacob or Joseph tribes were already

established in Canaan vi over-liasty, since the anal-
ogy of the other names indicates rather that com-
munities are meant. Biithgen explains Jacob-el as
" El recompenses "; an alternative is " El wrestles "
(Gen. xxxii. 24 sqq.).

Jacob's youth was one untiring effort to secure

for himself the birthright which belonged to his

twin-brother Esau, This struggle had

I. Jacob's even a prenatal origin (Gen. xxv.
Youth. 22-23). In contrast with the coarse
and violent Esiiu, Jacob was quiet and
peaceable (Gen, xxv. 27), but shrewd, and able to
use cleverly the weaknesses of bis more sensuous
brother (verse 29). In this he was aided by bis
mother, while the hunter found favor in the eyes
of bis father. Isaac, deceived by hia wife, unwit-
tingly bestowed the blessings of birthright upon
Jacob (Gen. sxvii.; see Isaac), who in consequence
was forced to abandon for a time the land of promise,
und transferred his abode to Haran. the native land
of hia mother. In the course of his wanderings
Jacob came to Bethel, where Yahweh appeared to
him in a dream.

The second period of Jacob's life waa passed with

his kindred in Ilaran. where he founded his house.

He asked of Labon as a reward for

3. Hil Life seven years' labor the hand of his

in Haran. beautiful daughter, Rachel; but her
sister Leah was substituted by the
mercenary father, and Jacob was forced to serve
seven years longer to gain hia beloved Racbel.
The latter, however, was unfniitful, while Leah
brought him four sons: Reuben, Simeon, Levi, and
Judah. As a result of a substitution of slaves for
their mistresses, Jacob's family was further increased
by four sons, Dan, Naphtali, Gad, and Asher.
These were followed by two sons of Leah, Issachar
and Zebulun. At last Rachel bore her husband's
favorite son, Joseph. As God's blessing seemed t«
be attached to Jacob's person, Ijiban was loath
to lose his services; to hia own disadvantage, how-
ever, for although the recompense which Jacob re-
quired might seem small, it always turned out to
be unexpectedly large, and though Laban fre-
quently changed the conditions (Gen. xxxi. 7), the
advantage was always with Jacob. The tense rela-
tions between them hastened Jacob's secret depar-
ture with his wives and goods. Laban pursued and
overtook him at the mount of Gilead, but, although
embitterod by the loss of his household gods, which
Rachel had carried off without her husband's knowl-
edge, he was forced to settle the strife amicably.
The name Gilead (explained as Gatcdk, '' hill of
witness," Gen, xxxi. 48) was from this time a re-
miiider of the treaty thus concluded.

A third phase of Jacob's history b^an with his
reentrance into the promised land and his settle-
ment in the heart of the country. But
4. His first an understanding with Esau was

Later Life, necessary, and then to take possession
of the disputed heritage, for which a
seven' struggle was required, Jacob succeeded by
the help of spiritual powers (Gen. xxxii. 24 sqq,).
After such a victory no human being could do him
harm. The dreaded Esau received him kindly and
retired again to the desert land of the Edomites,

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jackson
Jacob

while Jacob established himself in Shechem, with
whose inhabitants, however, his sons became in-
volved in bloody quarrels. This induced Jacob to
depart at first toward Bethel, where he made drink-
offerings, according to his vow, where also the Lord
appeared to him and gave him the covenant bless-
ings. On their further journey, the last stage of
which was Hebron, Rachel bore Benjamin and died
in giving him birth. In Hebron Isaac, who died at
an advanced age, was buried by Jacob and Esau.
After residing for some time in Hebron, while his
sons, with their flocks, wandered through the land
north of Shechem, Jacob, in his old age, transferred
his abode to Egypt, where his son Joseph (q.v.)
had attained great honors. In Beersheba the
patriarch received a last favorable message from
his God (Gen. xlvi. 1 sqq.). In Egypt he was re-
ceived with favor by the Pharaoh, and lived in
Goshen (according to Gen. xlvii. 28, P) for seventeen
years, dying at the age of 147. He was embalmed
after the EJgyptian method, and brought to the
family tomb and buried there by his children.

The three sources, J, E, and P, appear in the part

of Genesis which contains the Jacob narratives, to

which P contributed the least. J and

5. Charac- E do not always easUy separate, since

teristics they followed practically the same tra-
of the ditions; but in J the cunning of Jacob

Sources, seems the motive of action, while in
E miraculous interpositions and ap-
pearances in dreams are more conmion. In JE the
hatred of Esau because of his exclusion from his
father's blessing is given as the cause of Jacob's
emigration to Haran; in P the reason assigned is
dissatisfaction on the part of his parents with the
Hittite marriages of Esau (xxvii. 46-xxviii. 9).
The two blessings, xxvii. 27 sqq. (JE) and xxviii. 3
(P), are independent, as are the accounts of Esau's
departure to Seir, xxxvi. 6-7 (P) and xxxii. 3 sqq.
(JE), and of the time of the change of name, xxxii.
28 (J) and xxxv. 10 (P). These divergences show
that independent traditions were transmitted which
are followed by the different sources. The chro-
nology of Jacob's life, derived mostly from P, offers
some difficulties. Thus, if from the 130 years of
xlvii. 9 (Jacob's age when presented to Pharaoh)
be deducted the seven fruitful and two unfruitful
years, the thirty years of Joseph when the fruitful
years began (xli. 46) and the fourteen years passed
by Jacob in Haran before Joseph's birth, it would
appear that when he left his father's house he was
about seventy-seven years of age, though chaps,
xxviii. sqq. evidently regard him as a young man.
The three elements of the patriarchal blessing in
xlviii.-xlix. combine supplementary details: xlvii.
3-6 is assigned to P, xlviii. 15-16, 20-22 to E, and
xlix. to J. The post-Mosaic authorship assigned to
xlix. (time of Samson by Bleek and Ewald, time of
David by Knobel, much later than this by Stade)
does not take account of the way in which the
Levites are treated.

Jacob's character is best illustrated by his double
name. He is called Jacob because of his dexterity
and cunning, which always give him the advantage
over the physically stronger Esau and over the
shrewd Laban. On account of his weakness and

his subordinate position Jacob accommodates him-
self to the will of the stronger, yet always succeeds

in attaining his end by courage and
6. Jacob's tenacity. However much dissimulation
Character, there was in his conduct, Jacob did

not employ it for sordid gain. As
Israel he strives for the blessing of God because
he has recognized therein the highest good. He
devotes his whole energy to obtaining the blessings
of the covenant (Hos. xii. 4-5). It is true that
Jacob's character does not show the comparative
straightforwardness of Abraham, and therefore he
can not be regarded as a model for all time. He is
not an ideal, even according to the standard of
IsraeUtic ethics, but a man whose sinful nature
struggles against his better self; but he was purified
by the suffering which made his life a sadder one
than that of his forefathers (xlvii. 9). What raises
Jacob above himself is his reverent, indestructible
longing for the salvation of his God, which after
long struggles attains complete satisfaction.

Whether, and in what sense, Jacob is historical
may be a subject of debate. The simplicity and the

unconventional sincerity of these re-

7. Historic- citals speak in favor of genuine tradi-

ity of the tion rather than of heroic poetry.

Narratives. Some of the alleged facts would surely

never have been invented in later times,
as, for example, the contemporaneous marriage with
two sisters (cf. Rev. xviii. 18), or the distinction
awarded to Bethel and the sanctuary there which
was such an object of aversion to the prophets of
the eighth century. The attempt to derive the his-
tory of Jacob from nature-myths has proved a total
failure. While, in general, only the episode on the
Jabbok (Gen. xxxii.) is looked upon as a possible
survival of this nature, Popper has undertaken to
show that Jacob-Israel is the Asiatic Herakles-
Melcarth Palaemon, i.e., the victoriously striving
sun-god, and has vainly endeavored to bring all
the details of the Biblical narrative into accord
with this myth. More probable is the hypothesis
of an eponymous ancestor. In this way Ewald
saw in Jacob a vigorous Hebrew people which had
emigrated from Mesopotamia (cf. Aram. Arameans;
Deut. xxvi. 5, R.V., margin), coalesced with those of
the same race who had settled in Canaan at an
earlier period, and then proceeded to dominate them,
while elements of conmion ancestry (Esau), which
had entered Canaan at an earlier period, gradually
withdrew farther and farther toward the south.
With the Aramean neighbors to the north, behind
the mountains of Gilead (Laban) , the tribe of Jacob
had many clashes, which are described in the history
of Laban. Stade considers that Israel was a tribe
which lived on the Jabbok, and that their chief city
was Mahanaim; Jacob, on the other hand, was a
tribe of the country west of the Jordan, which lived
in the neighborhood of Bethel. According to him
Rachel, Leah, Isaac, Joseph, and his brothers were
so many different clans, while the combination of
two tribes was represented as a marriage, etc. Ac-
cording to the dominant opinion, later conditions
are reflected in the stories of the patriarchs. WeU-
hausen believes that the popular recitals in regard
to Jacob and Esau must have taken form in the

Jaoob the Patriaroh
Jaoob of Bits

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

earlier period of the kingdom of Israel, after the
subjugation of Edom. For Bernstein, the patriarch
Jacob and his history were invented after the separa-
tion of the kingdom in order to glorify Bethel;
and Seinecke even sees in the despondency of the
returning Jacob a reflex of the fear of the exiles
on their return from Babylon, and in the treatment
of the Shechemites by Simeon and Levi (xxxiv.)
the reproof of the Samaritans by Ezra. Apart
from such fancies, it would never be possible to
transform the natural and characteristic figures of
an Abraham or a Jacob into national experiences
or the disappointments of a tribe. Mere invention
being out of the question, the alternative is to
assume that the stories deal with real persons.
Names such as Jacob-el and Isra-el, which include
the name of a divinity, should be regarded, like
the name of Abraham, as originally individual
rather than ethnic. In this way Kittel, Kloster-
mann, and Ewald have looked upon the bearers of
these names as chiefs who stood at the head of
nomadic tribes. In the traditions of that far-away
time only a few prominent personalities stand out,
while the tribe which accompanied them in their
wanderings appears only in details of the narrative.
The historical standard used in reference to later
periods may not be applied to primitive traditions;
but, just as little should their essentially historical
character be denied as being, in the main, faithful
pictures of the time of the first residence of the
fathers in the land of promise. C. von Orelli.

Biblxoorapbt: J. A. Eiaeomenger, BntdedUet Judenthum,
i. 942-943, KOnigsberK, 1711; C. von Lengerke, Kenaan,
pp. 290 sqq., ib. 1844; L. Diestel, Der Segen Jakob;
Brunswick. 1853; H. Ewald, QMehidae det Volkea Israel,
i. 412 sqq., 489 sqq., Hanover, 1864, Eng. tranal., i. 341-
362. London, 1883; K. Kohler, Der Segen Jakobe, Berlin,
1867; A. N. Obbard. The Prophecy of Jacob, Cambridge,
1867; A. Bernstein, Ureprung der Sagen von . . . Jakob,
Berlin, 1871; J. Hamburger, Reat-EncyklopOdie dee Jur-
denthuma, i. 543 sqq., Neustrelits, 1874; A. KOhler, Bib-
lieehe Geechxehte AUee Teetamentee, i. 136 sqq., Eriangen,
1875; L. Seineoke, Geechichte dee Volkee leraO, i. 40 sqq..
Gdttingen, 1876; J. Popper, Ureprung dee Monotheie-
mue, pp. 346 sqq., Berlin, 1879; C. von Orelli, O. T.
Prophecy, Edinburgh, 1885; R. Kittel. Geechichte der
Hehriier, i. 122 sqq., Gotha, 1892, Eng. transl., London.
1895; W. Staerk, Studien tur Religione- und Sprachge-
echichU dee A, T„ i. 77-83, ii. 1-13, Berlin, 1899; C. A.
Briggs. Meeeianic Prophecy, New York, 1902; DB, ii.
526-535; EB, ii. 2306-12; JE, vii. 19-24. and in general
the works on the history of Israel as given under Ahab.

JACOB (JACOBUS) BARADJEUS or ZANZALUS.

See JACOBrrEs.

JACOB CHRISTOPH AND THE COUNTER-REF-
ORMATION IN SWITZERLAND: The Counter-
Reformation found centers in Switzer-
Relations land at Lucerne (see Ctsat, Ren-
Between ward), and, somewhat later in the
City and bishopric of Basel. The more difficult
Bishop, task presented itself in Basel, since
here the issue was not merely to re-
store Romanism in a district already half conquered
by the Calvinists; there was also a political conflict
with the city of Basel, still striving after complete
independence and extension of its boundaries. The
rights of bishop and municipality often conflicted
even before the Reformation; within the episcopal
domain, in the modem Bernese Jura, the city

possessed sovereign rights at a good many places;
the bishop, on the other hand, was not only the
spiritual lord of the city, but was endowed with
comprehensive rights of sovereignty, being empow-
ered to nominate mayor and council, and the city
was pledged to pay him various taxes and the
temporal domain of the diocese extended up to the
city gates. Before the ecclesiastical agitation, the
city of Basel was striving to enlarge its possessions
at the expense of the bishopric and of the episcopal
rights. In 1521 the municipality, without opposi-
tion, relegated all rights of the bishop to the
nomination of mayor and council. The introduc-
tion of the Reformation dissolved, in 1529, the last
bond between bishop and city, and the chapter
moved over to Freiburg im Breisgau. In a treaty
with the city, in 1530, Bishop Philip of Gimdels-
heim (1527-53) permitted the exercise of the new
doctrine in certain districts of the diocese. The
total dissolution of the bishopric appeared now to
be merely a question of time. The city pursued its
goal quietly but persistently; more and more par-
ishes were united with it in various ways, but
without assuring the status of the Reformation
within the diocese; the bishopric was imperial soil,
and the religious peace of 1555 expressly excluded
the adherents of Zwingli.

From 1560 a more vigorous church life was astir
in Switzerland on the Roman Catholic side; follow-
ing Borromeo's visit to St. Gall, Bin-
Jacob siedeln, and Luzerne in 157 1« the
Christoph Counter-Reformation distinctly begins
Introduces to be perceptible in the original cantons,
the Coun- and even the neglected diocese of Basel
ter-Refor- was reached. On the death of Bishop
mation. Melchior, in 1575, the time of com-
pliance came to a close. At the ensuing
election, the youngest of the canons, Jacob Chris-
toph Blarer of Wartensee (b. 1542), with urgent ad-
monitions, elicited from his colleagues the promise
to labor to restore the right belief, and then became
the electors' choice (June 22, 1575). It was no easy
task that he set for himself; the bishopric was in-
volved in debt and ecclesiastically in confusion, and
the city unquestionably had the ascendancy. At
first Jacob Christoph acted in a friendly manner
toward the city, but he inquired into the patronal
privileges of the diocese and their legal bases. Rela-
tions to the instigator and promoter of the Swiss
Counter-Reformation became visible; it was Carlo
Borromeo of whom Jacob Christoph requested
synodical by-laws, and the decrees of the Council
of Trent were proclaimed in the diocese. The
decisive step which he ventured was the conclusion
of a league with the Roman Catholic cantons of
the confederacy, Sept., 1579. This league was a
significant fact; the Roman Catholic districts of
western Switzerland, Fribourg, and Soleure, until
then isolated between Protestant districts, gained
a territorial connection with these new allies; the
passage to France, a matter of great importance for
the Roman Catholic Swiss mercenaries, was thereby
secured; and against the city of Basel and its de-
mand for the conversion of the diocese to the Protes-
tant cause stood henceforth the combined Roman
Catholic federation. Indeed, the treaty of alliance

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Juob of Bits

'Was fi&med expressly for reciprocal protection in
religious concerns, even against members of the
confederacy, and for the recovery of apoetate sub-
jects; only the bishop was not to use force without
the allies' consent. In 1580 he came out openly
nith his designs; he solemnly excommunicated the
prominent adherents of the Reformation in Pruntntt,
summoned the Protestant congregations of the
diooeae to return to the Roman Church, diamiascd
the Protestant preachers, reinstated Roman worship
in certain places, and even preached himself, at
the most eodangered spots. The Jesuit Canisius
devised a catechism for the bishopric; a synod,
attended by two hundred priests, convened at
Debbeig, in Apr,, 1581, and tKinferred concerning
a diocesan visitation, the reform of the hierarchy,
synodical by-laws, and the revision of the litur-
gical books.

The city of Basel and the Protestant cantons had
not failed to remonstrate when the bishop's first
steps to repress the new doctrine be-
Settlemeat cameknown, Inreply Jacob Christoph
of the affirmed his rights. Disturbances in
Contention the districts affected by the bishop
Between then moved the citixeos of Basel to
Ci^ and bring tbeir grievances before the diet
Bishop, of the confederacy. Acourt of arbitra-
tion waa accordingly appointed, which,
in the course of two years' proceedings, brought
about R solution of the contention, in 1585. Two
treaties were concluded: the first securctl to the
city of Basel the cession of all episcopal claims to
sovereignty, both in the city and in the Sissgau
and certain neighboring districts, for 200,000 florins;
on ita part the city renounced all sovereignty rights
within the diocese. The cathedral chapter, in com-
pensation for its ancient rights in the city, was to
receive an indemnity of 50,000 Borins, In the
second treaty it was provided that the palronal
privileges between Basel and congregations of the
diocese should indeed still nominally exist, but
that no right of the bishop should be thereby in-
fringed, and that the city should be forbidden to
protect subjects against the bishop; in return, the
bishop pledged himself to suffer the subjects of
the city to adhere to their own religion, merely
reserving to himself the right of reinstating Roman
Catholic worship. Every one was to enjoy freedom
of choice in religion, and neither side should injure
the other.

Although both the cathedral chaptor and the pope
protested against these treaties, it nevertheless
appeared that they indicated the only proper course
of action. The eension of untenable righla and tille.'i
of poaseasion made the bishop unlimited lord in hia
dranftin. The city lost its influence over episcopal
subjects. The prosecution of church refonn no
longer encountered insurmountable opposition;
everywhere in the diocese the Roman Church re-
covered firm ground, and the number of Protestants
continually decreased. Although the treaty allowed
the Evangelicals of Basel free exercise of religion,
it soon appeared that the bishop, in virtue of his
conceded right of instituting Roman Catholic woi^
ship collaterally with the E^'angelical. possessed
tbe iBT^n'' of gradually abolishing the latter. The

Evangelical subjects were everywhere confronted
with the bishop's Roman Catholic ofiicialH, from
whom they could obtain justice only with difficulty.
Though the Reformation maintained itself in most
places to about 1595, it was nevertheless constantly
decreasing, and at last quite vanished.

Wai,tbh Gobtk.

BiBUoa kaput; P. O
nJiitft Batrl. vl. vi.. Rfl
Gegenrrformalioii . . , am

H'fi/viM de Bale. vol. i:

der SladI uwi Laiid-
: J. Burekhardt, Dit
[fffl 18. JahfWamierlM,
Laduriff F/i/ffT und
BBm, isao-az; L. Vautrey, HM.

JACOB (JAMES) OF EDESSA (Lat. Jacobua
Edesienua or OrrAoenus; Syr. Urhaya: Arab, al-
Rahawi) : The most important of all Syriac writers
with the exception of Bar Hebrfcus (see Abulfa-
HAJ); b. at Indabo, near Antioch, c. 633; d. June 5,
708. The Syriac and Arabic names are derived
from the older name for Edessa. He began his
studies in a monastery near Kinnesrin and finished
them in Alexandria. In 684 or 6S7 he became bishop
of Edessa, but retired after four years; he was too
severe for bis clergy and burned the canons before
the house of the patriarch as useless because not
kept. For eleven years he hved as teacher of the
monks in the monastery of Eusebona, and then for
nine years in that of Telleda. On the death of
Rabib, his successor as bishop of Edessa, he was
recalled, but died four months Eater while transport-
ing his library to the city. Jacob belonged to the
monophysitic branch of the Syrian Church, but is
highly esteemed also by the Maronites, He was a
" man of three tongues," a theologian, historian,
philosopher, and grammarian — in many respects
the Jerome of the Syrians. His numerous writings
(see BiBLiOQRAPHv) are not yet all published.
£. Nestle.

BluLioQBAniT: Th» works of Jacob, not all publiahMl. in-

IngmpnU sd. W, Wright, Londoti, 1871, and' A. Men in
Hiilana artit grammaltau apwl Sw": Leipuc, 1871:
Kriunlm.tical tmA\ ed. J. P. Martin, London, ISOB. and
a. rhillips, 2 partH. Edinburgh, 1809-70: Scholia □□ tlia
~ ■" Bd. PhiUipe, London. 1864:

.. Hjel.

Heliingfon

e Hem

iatotle S. SchUler has a dlswr-
imion. Erlaneen. 18»7; on bi* conwpondenco. Journal
of Saered LiUralwe. new Kriea. i (1807). 430: ZDMG,
iiiv (1870), 261, »»i (ISTS). 466, 735; on the chrono-
locical canon, E. W. Brooks, in ZDMG. iiii (1890), 261,
£34. fiSO; on his Iranslation of tbe Bible, Usoliui in Oricfit
diritliaKvi, ii. 3; an hia scdeiiiariicat canoiu. the G«nn.
Irani!, of C. Kaynr, Lcipaic. 1886. Tbe Carmen de fide

;, Bibiiolheal ar\t'<-
laii*. i. 468-404. Rome, 1719; W, Wriaht, CaMoaut <^
Siriac MSB.. London. IS70-72: DCB, iii. 332-33S (quit*

JACOB OF ELTZ AITO THE COUHTER-REP-
ORMATION m TREVES: The Reformation no-
where gained firm footing in the arch-
AggieBsive diocese of Treves, and the principal
Hiasures. work of the Counter-Reformation there
was to renovate the ancient r^ime.
To this fask Archbishop Jacob III. of Eltz (1567-
liiSl) applied himself. Bom in 1510, of an old

Jacob of Bltz
Jacob of Baruflr

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

family of Treves, he rose early to the rank of a preb-
endary of the cathedral and, in 1547, to that of
dean of the chapter. After he was elected archbish-
op, Apr. 7, 1567, he sought to secure his position by
forming alliances with the strictly Roman Catholic
states; in 1569 he proposed a Catholic league with
the Duke of Alva in Brussels; and when, in the
same year, by inspiration from the court of Munich,
negotiations began with a view to the extension of
the Landsberg League, he was one of the most
zealous advocates for the admission of Alva to this
league. But, owing to opposition on the Protestant
and imperial side, the extensive plans made resulted
in no more than the accession to the league of the
two electors of Treves and Mainz. Under such
conditions the league could not be what had been
hoped, and Jacob lost interest in it, although there
still survived a close bond between him and the
courts of Brussels and Munich, the two centers of
the Roman Catholic policy in respect to the empire.
He supported, as far as possible, the Bavarian hopes
with reference to Cologne (see Gebhard II.), while
both in advance of the imperial diets and pending
their sessions he resisted every concession to the
Protestants that overstepped the terms of the
religious peace. In 1568 Roman Catholic worship
was restored under the leadership of the Jesuit
Tyraeus, in Neumagen, where the Count of Wittgen-
stein had procured an entrance for the new doc-
trines; and likewise the domain of the sometime
imperial abbey of Priim was cleansed of all heresy
when, in 1576, it became incorporated with the
electorate. In 1571 Jacob removed all non-Catholics
from his court, a measure hitting mainly the nobil-
ity. In 1572 the order was issued that whoever
desired to be received as citizen or inhabitant any-
where in the electorate must establish his Catholic
faith. In 1577 the papal nuncio, Portia, could
report that the electorate was free from all heresies.
Jacob's further activity had to do with the reform
of his own Church.

At Easter, 1569, he was the first in Germany who

solemnly swore to the decrees of Trent. Between

Apr. and Oct., 1569, the council's de-

Refonn cisions were announced in all parishes
of the of the electorate. A liturgy elaborated

Church, by Jacob himself, with the assistance
of certain Jesuits, was issued in 1574,
as standard for worship, moral discipline, and
matrimonial concerns. Portia's further counsels
show why the previously attempted reforms were
insufficient — there was lacking a competent clergy.
What ecclesiastics were then available shared, for
the most part, the general corruption of the Roman
priests. Jacob, too, had directed his attention to
this point at the very outset; he had sent for six
scholars from the Roman Collegium Germanicum
as assistants in 1568, and these were duly followed
by others. Moreover, the Jesuits of Treves, where
there had been a Jesuit establishment since 1560,
stood in high honor with Jacob; in 1570 he fitted up
for them the Minorite cloister in Treves, adding
wealthy endowments, so that their school soon
flourished to such a degree that from 1573 to 1589
the average attendance is estimated at 1,000 stu-
dents annually. In 1580 Jacob also founded a college

for them at Coblenz. Yet the service rendered by
all these useful auxiliaries became really suffi-
cient only when through their help it became feasi-
ble to train up a suitable clergy. In vain did Portia,
in 1577, bespeak the institution of a priestly sem-
inary, and the project was first realized by Jacob's
like-minded successor, John of Schdnberg, in 1585.
Jacob's reforming activity encountered difficulties
in the attitude of the Treves cathedral chapter,
which was not inclined to comply with the strict
requirements of the Council of Trent; and again,
the necessary placetum regium from the Brussels
government for the Luxembourg domains of the
archdiocese occasioned contentions over the pre-
rogatives of the spiritual and the temporal power.
On the other hand, the incorporation of the abbey
of Priim as a part of the archbishopric of Treves
was a great gain; its opulent resources accrued to
the benefit of Jacob's endeavors in the cause of
reform. The rejection in 1580 by imperial decision
of the claim of the city of Treves to hold charter
immediately of the empire likewise strengthened
the cause of the Counter-Reformation.

Jacob died June 4, 1581. Neither his personality
nor his activity can be called great; but the way
once having been pointed out, even
Jacob's lesser intellects, led by capable coun-
Achieve- selors, could carry through the Coun-
ment ter-Reformation. True, the status of
the archdiocese was not entirely satis-
factory at the time of Jacob's death; but his zeal-
ously Catholic-minded successor, John of Schdn-
berg, continued the work along Jacob's lines, and
completed the reforms by him b^un. Out of the
schools of the Jesuits there eventually grew up a
generation submissive to the Church; and in many
channels of activity the fathers of the Society of
Jesus imparted their spirit to the population at
large. In connection with the revival of church life,
Jacob himself had shown the best of examples;
the Roman nuncios continually praise his manner
of life, his zeal, his loyalty to the papal see, and
hold him up as a pattern for all German prelates.
If he did not succeed in accomplishing the reform
completely, the decisive turn came to pass under
his administration. Walter Goetz.

Bibuographt: C. von Stramberg, Rheiniaeher AntiQtuxriuM
i. 2, pp. 295 sqq., Coblens, 1863; J. Marx, Oetehiehte d€9
Erzatifts Trier, vol. i., Trier. 1858: A. Kluckhohn. Brief€
Friedricha dea Frommeny Brunswick, 1867-70; M. Loosen,
Der kdlnische Krieg, Gotha. 1882; J. Ney, Die Reforma-
tion in Trier, 1669, Halle. 1906.

JACOB OF JUETERBOG: Roman Catholic re-
former; b. near Jtiterbog, Brandenburg, 1381; d.
at Erfurt 1465. As a youth he entered the Polish
Cistercian monastery named Paradise, and was
sent by its abbot to the University of Cracow, where
he became professor and university preacher. In
1441, finding the Cistercian discipline too lax, he
joined the Carthusians, and removed to the monas-
tery Ad Montem Sancti Salvatoris in Erfurt. Here
he was active not only as a writer on canon law^
and theology, but also as professor of law at the
university. In 1455 he became its rector. He was
intent upon a regeneration of monastic life. His
propositions of reform, laid down in PetitioneM
religioaarum pro re/ormatione aui status and De

REUGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jacob of Bits
Jacob of Saniff

negligentia pradatorum, rest upon the view that the
pope is only the most prominent member of the
Church; the infallible presence of the Holy Spirit
is promised not to him, but to the Church, which
has the power to depose the pope. He developed
these thoughts in a reformatory memorial addressed
in 1449 to Pope Nicholas V., under the title Avis-
amentum ad papam pro reformatiane ecdesiae. A
later work, De septem stcUibus ecclestae, contains the
passionate lamentation of a hopeless man; its aged
author did not believe any longer in the possibility
of a reform. In spite of his attempts at moral re-
forms, he did not deviate from orthodox Catholi-
cism. He wrote also a great number of works on
canon law, ethics and ascetics, which, however,
have mostly perished. The liberal tendency intro-
duced by him culminated in humanism at the time
of Luther. Paul Tschackert.

Bibliogbapht: F. W. Kampschultpe, Die UnivertiMt Er-
furt, i. 15-16. Treves, 1858 (from the Roman Catholic point
of view; cf. KL, vi. 1166-71); C. Ullmann. Refonnera be-
fore the Reformation, i. 208-216, Edinburgh. 1874 (from
the Protestant viewpoint); Pastor, Popea, ii. 45-49, 93,
04. 106.

JACOB OF KIEF. See Nestor.

JACOB OF MIES (called Jacobellus, from his
small stature): Bohemian reformer, colaborer of
John Huss; b. at Mies (15 m. w. of Pilsen), Bo-
hemia, after 1350; d. at Prague Aug. 9, 1429. He
studied at Prague, receiving both the bachelor's
and the master's degree in theology, and became
pastor of the Church of St. Michael and an outspoken
supporter of John Huss. In 1410 he took part in
the disputations regarding Wyclif, defending the
latter against archiepiscopal condenmation. His
study of Scripture and the Fathers had showed
him that the withholding of the cup in the admin-
istration of the Lord's Supper to the laity was an
arbitrary measure of the Roman Church. In 1414
he propounded and defended his views in a public
disputation; and when Huss, at that time in jail
at Constance, accepted them, he began to admin-
ister the cup to his parishioners, in spite of the
remonstrances of the bishop and the university.
His example was quickly followed by other pastors
in Prague. The fathers of the council, who were
much alarmed, issued a curious decree, admitting
in theory as truth what in practise they condemned
as heresy. Though Jacob would by no means sub-
mit, he was not removed from his office, perhaps
because in other points, as, for instance, in the doc-
trine of purgatory, he agreed with the Roman
Church. During the last decade of his life Jacob
was regarded as one of the foremost of the Utra-
quist theologians. (J. Loserth.)

Bibliography: E. H. Gillett, Life and Timea of John Huaa,
i., chap, xviii.. ii. chap, iii., Philadelphia, 1861; KL, ii.
1315; Neander. Chriaiian Church, v. 297. 331, 337. 338.
367.

JACOB (JAMES) OF IIISIBIS: Bishop of Nisibis,
the chief city of Mygdonia, in northeastern Meso-
potamia; d. 338. He is known also as Jacob of
Mygdonia and Jacob the Great. After leading a
severe life in the mountains of Kurdistan with
Eugenius, the founder of Persian monasticism, he
first, or second; bishop of Nisibis in 309.

In 313 he began to build the great church, the ruins
of which still bear his name, and finished it in 320.
He attended the Council of Nicsea in 325, and the
sudden death of Arius (q.v.) is attributed especially
to his prayers (cf . the Synaxarium ecdesiae Conatan-
tinopolitanae [^Propylaeum ad ASB, NovembrUi],
ed. H. Delehaye, Brussels, 1902, Jan. 13), as is also
the protection of Nisibis against Sapor II. He was
also present at the dedication of the Church of
the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem. No writings of
Jacob's are known, the great work in twenty-two
or twenty-three parts ascribed to him being really
the production of Aphraates (q.v.), with whom he
was early confounded. The Armenians mistakenly
call him the friend of Gr^ory the Illuminator.
His day, with the Syrians, is the 12th lyar (May);
with the Armenians, Dec. 15; with the Copts, the
18th Tobi (Jan.); in the Greek Church, Jan. 13
(14) and Oct. 31; in the Roman martyrology,
July 15. £. Nestle.

Biblioorapht: Ephraem, Carmina Niaibena, ed. G. Bickell,
pp. 11, 20, 07, Leipsic, 1866; Eusebius, Vila Conatantini,
iv. 43, Eng. transl. in NPNF, 2d ser., i. 651; Theodoret,
Hiat. ecd., i. 7, ii. 26, NPNF, 2d ser., Ui. 44-46, 91-92;
Philostorglius, Hiat. ecd., iii. 23; Gennadius, De vir. iU.,
i.; Acta martyrum et aanctorum, ed. P. Bedjan, iii. 393,
iv. 262, Paris. 1890-97; J. S. Assemani, Bibliotheca orien-
talU, i. 17. 395, 557, ii. 398. 588. Conmilt: CeUlier, Au-
teura aacria, iii. 369-372, 525-526; A. P. Stanley, Leo-
turea on the Hiat. of the Eaatern Church, leot. v., London,
1884; DCB, iii. 325-327.

JACOB (JAMES) OF SARUG: Bishop of Sarug;
b. at Kurtam on the Euphrates toward the end of
451; d. Nov. 29, 521. He is mentioned about 503
as visiting presbyter (periodeuLea) at the capture of
Amida, and became bishop of Batnan (Batnae) in
the district of Sarug in 519. He was a most prolific
writer, and was called the " doctor " (malpana) of
the Syrians or of the whole Church, and " the
channel of the Holy Ghost." His memory is cele-
brated by Jacobites and Maronites (July or Dec. 29)
and even the Nestorians recognize him, though he
was monophysite till his end. Seventy scribes are
said to have been always busy copying his homilies,
which are all in the dodecasyllabic meter which
bears his name. Seven hundred and sixty-three
homilies are ascribed to him, besides other works:
Bar Hebrsus had 182 before him, and there are
233 in the Vatican. Four volumes of his Hamiliae
seUdae have been published by P. Bedjan (Paris
and Leipsic, 1903-08), but most of his works are
still in manuscript. E. Nestle.

Bibliography: On his works cf. W. Wright, Catalogue of
Syriac MSS. in the BriHah Muaeum, pp. 502-505, Lon-
don, 1877. The works are not published in collected
form; some are in: Acta aanctorum martyrum orientalium,
ed. 8. E. Assemani, ii. 230, Florence, 1748; Acta martyrum
et aanctorum, ed. P. Bedjan, i. 131, 160, iii. 655, iv. 471,
V. 615, vi. 650, Paris, 1890-97; ZDMO, vols, xii.-xv., xxv.,
xxviii.-xxxi., 1858 sqq.; W. Cureton, Ancient Syriac
Documenta, pp. 86-107, London, 1864; his letter to
Stephan bar Sudaili, a Syrian mystic, is edited and trans-
lated by A. L. Frothingham in Stephen bar Sudaili, Ley-
den, 1886; a discourse on Alexander is translated by E.
A. W. Budge, London, 1889; mx homilies were rendered
into German by P. Zingerle, Bonn. 1867; another is pub-
lished by Sib'ilani. Beirut, 1901. Consult: J. B. Abbe-
loos. De viia et acriptia 8. Jacobi . . . Sarugi, Louvain,
1867; P. Martin, in Revue dea aciencea eccUaiattiquea, 4th
ser., vol: iii., 1876; J. S. Assemani, Bibliotheca orientalia,
i. 283-340. Rome. 1719; DCB, iu. 327-328.

THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZOQ

JACOB (JAMES) OF VITRY {JACQUES DE VIT-
SY): Bishop of Akko, cardinal bishop ofTusculumi
b. at Vitry (20 m. s.e. of Chfllons-sur-Mftrtie) ; d. at
Rome Apr. 30, 1240. While a student in Paris he
heard of the miraculous deeds of Mary of Nivetles,
in Belgium, who, from about 1205, belonged to the
society of Beguines organized by the mother of
.^gidius, prior of Oignies, on the southern border
a( the province of Namur. He soon removed to
Oignies as canon of the Augustinian chapter. In
bis intercourse with the Beguincs. and e.-tpecialty
tvith Mary, he appropriated views and principles
which from thia time decided the course of his life.
At the wish of Mary, about 1210, lie procured
ordination aa priest. About 1211 be undertook a
pilgrimage to Rome. Afterward he became, through
Mary, acquainted with Bishop Fulco, of Toulouse,
tvho, in 1213, adopted him as companion in his agita-
tion for a crusade against the Albigenses. Jacob left
Oigniea after Mary's death (June 23, 1213), and
preached in North France in bebalF of a crusade
■gainst the heretics. Soon he preached also a new
crusade to the Holy Land. Hia success induced the
cathedral chapter of Akko to elect him bishop, but
Jacob preferred to remain io France, and went to
Italy in 1216 to try to secure appointment as
legate for the crusade in that country. Honorius
III., however, consecrated him bishop of Akko, and
Jacob went to hia easteru see. Thence he traveled
AS an itinerant preacher through all places t liat were
BtiU in the possession of the Christians, and eagerly
participated in the expeditions of the large army of
crusaders that gathered in Akko. In May, 1218, he
inarched against Damietta, but the plan failed
and in 1221 be was compelled to return to Aiko.
From that time he tried all possible means to rid
himself of his ofRce, but the pope was relentless.
Nevertheless he allowed Jacob (o return to Europe
in 1226 to preach the crusade as he had done in 1214.
In this function he appears in 1227 in northern
Prance, and also in the bordering districts of Ger-
many, l-ater he became temporarily vicar of the
bishopric of Li^; and finally Gregory IX. , his
intimate friend and protector, released him from
his Oriental olBce, and mode him bishop of Tuscu-
lum, Frascati, and cardinal (1228),

Jacob of Vitry was first of alt a preacher. His
whole literary activity was governed by the habit
of gathering material for sermons and religious
devotion. Two things contributed to his success
and influence as a preacher: (1) hia skill in illus-
trating moral principles by examples, nnecdotca,
parables, and fables; and (2) hi>" manner of iid-
-dressing sermons l« groups and class<'s, such uh
prelates, secular and regular canons, scholars,
lawyers, monks, knights, merchants, etc. Both
were innovations and created a new epoch in the
development of the art of preaching. Encouraged
by the popularity of his sermons, Jacob collecteil
them at tl:^ end of his life. He makes six divisions
in this collection: i.-v., germonea de tempore, ser-
mons in the usual stylo for the pericopes of ihe
church year; vi., sermones vulgareB, sermons for
different classes. The latter are of considerable
value for the history of Cburch and culture, depicl-
ing in realistic maimer the cooditions of West

European society of his age. Jacob's bomiletic and

edilicatory tendencies characterize him also as a

historian. His most important historieal works are

the Liber de mulieribus Leodieyinbua and Vita S.

Mariae CHgniacensts which were composed between

1213 and 1216. The life of Mary contains the moet

valuable documents for the inner history of the

older Beguinism. Of less importance, though of

greater renown, is his Hisloria orienlaliti or Hiatoria

Hierotoltpnitana abbreviala, which he began in 1219.

It is largely copied from a similar work of William

of Tyre. Of much greater historical value are his

letters from 1216 to 1221, which depict the Fifth

Crusade with great fidelity. (H. B6hueb.)

BiBLloaRAFHT: For a (Uide to the chief edltioiu of his

Ltiiera and his Hitlaria arimlaiU comult Potlhsul. Wie-

ueitfr. pp. 633-fl34. For hie life coDnill: ASB. June.

iii. Z3T-2S8; F. L. Mstiner. Dt Jaabi Vitriacma . . .

vita Bt r^ma oeMU. Hunicsh, ESB3; idom. in KL, v. 1170—

nST: //itloire litUraire de la Frante. iviii. 209-248;

U. BarroUK. Jaa/ua dt Vitm. Pirns. 1885; T. A. Archer

and C. L. Kingdord. TKt Crutadet, punm. New York.

ISeS: and other lilerature cited under Chuiiid». On

hia writiDgi eonnilt: J. L. D. Q. Sain (-Gen vis, Sur lea

JiUm inidili, dt Jacqutf dt Vitrv. BniHelii. 1847; O.

ZAcher, Die Hialoria orientalit det Jacob ivn Vitry, KCnlsv-

borg. 1385.

JACOB, EDCAK: Church of England bishop of
St. Albans; b. at Crawley Rectory, near Winchester,
Nov. 16, 1844. He was educated at New College,
Oxford (B.A., 1868), and was ordered deacon in
1868 and ordained priest in the following year. He
was curate of Taynton, Oxfordshire (1868-69),
Witney (1869-71), and St, James', Bermondsey
(1871-72), domestic chaplain to the bishop of Cal-
cutta (1872-76), and commissary to the same
prelate (1876-88), In 1877 he had charge of Wilber-
force Memorial Mission, South London, and was
vicar of Portsea (1878-96). In 1806 he was con-
secrated bishop of Newcastle, and in 1003 was
translated to his present see of St. Albans. He waa
also examining chaplain to the bishop of Winchester
in 1876-79, honorary canon of Winchester in 1884-
1896. honorary chaplain to the Queen in 1887-90
and chaplain in ordinary in 1890-96, rural dean of
Landport and chaplain of the Portsmouth prison
in 1892-96, and select preacher at Oxford in the
same year. He has written The Divine Societi/:
or. The Church'B Care of Large Populations (Cam-
bridge lectures on pastoral theology; London, 1900).
JACOBI, ya-kA'b!, FRIEDRICH HEIRRICH: Ger-
man philosopher; b. at DOsaeldorf Jan, 25, 1743; d.
at Mimich Mar. 10, 1810. He studied at Frankfort
and Oeneva, and in 1764 became the head of hia
father's business in DQ.saeldorf. AfiT liis appoint-
ment to the council for the duchies of Julich and
Berg in 1772 he devoted himself entirely to litera-
ture and philosophy. His house at PempeUort,
near DUsseldorf, became the meeting-place of dis-
ti[iguished literary men. Among his more intimate
friends were Wieland, Hamann, Herder, Lessing,
and Goethe. On account of the political agitation
of the time he went to Hobtein in 1794. During
the next ten years he resided chieSy at Wandsbeck,
Hamburg, and Eutin, In 1804 he accepted a call
to Munich in connection with the proposed Acad-
emy of Sciences there. He was president of the
academy from it« opening in 1807 till 1812. Hia

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jaoob of Vltiy
Jaoobitaa

writings are characterized by poetic fancy and
religious sentiment rather than by logical necessity.
He held that the understanding can only join and
disjoin given facts, without explaining them, and
that knowledge deduced in this way is conditioned
and relatively imimportant, being always related
to a background of existence whi(£ forever remains
beyond abstract thinking. All demonstrable knowl-
edge, therefore, is relative and conditioned; it does
not touch the ultimate nature of things. The
faculty by which we grasp ultimate facts is not the
understanding, but faith, which Jacobi identified
with reason. It was Jacobi who first pointed out
the fatal contradiction involved in Kant's applica-
tion of the category of causality to the Ding an sich.
His doctrine of the relativity of knowledge was
later exploited by Sir William Hamilton. Jacobi's
principal works are the two philosophical novels,
Woldemar (2 vols., Flensburg, 1779) and Eduard
AUwtlU Briefaamlung (Breslau, 1781); Ud)er die
Lehre dea Spinoza (1785; enlarg^ ed., 1789); David
Hume aber den Olavben, oder Idealismue und Real-
iamua (1787), containing his criticism of Kant;
Ueber doe Untemehmen dea KrUigismtiSf die Vemunfi
zu Veretande zu bringen (Hamburg, 1801); and Von
den gotUichen Dingen und ihrer Offenbarung (Leip-
sic, 1811), which was directed against Schelling.
During his last years Jacobi was employed in col-
lecting and editing his Werke (6 vols., Leipsic,
1812-24). His Auserleeener Briefwechsd was edited
by F. Roth (2 vols., 1825-27). Max Jacobi edited
Briefwechad zwiachen Goethe und F. H, Jacobi (1846).

Bzbuogkapbt: J. A. Schmid, Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi,
Eine DaraUUung $einer PeradniuhkeU und aeiner Philoao-
' pkie aia Beitrag gu einer Ofchiehte dea modemen Weltprob-
letna, Heidelbergi 1906; F. H. Jacobi na^ aeinem Ltben,
Ldvrtn vmd Wirken, ed. Schlichtigroll, Weiller and Thiersch.
Ifonicfa, 1819; J. Kuhn, Jacobi und die Phihaophie
•einar Ztit, Maini. 1834; F. Deyokt, F. H, Jacobi im Ver-
hJUiniaa zu aeinen Zeiigenoaaen, Frankfort, 1849; F. D.
Maurice, Modem Philoaophy, pp. 644-651. London. 1862;
E. Zirnciebl. F. H. Jacobi'a Leben, DidUen und Denken,
Vienna. 1867; L. L^vy-Bnihl. La Philoaophie de Jacobi,
Paria. 1804; N. WUde, F. H, Jacobi: a Study in the OrxQin
ef German Realiatn, New York. 1894. Consult also J. E.
Erdmann, OeaehichJte der Philoaophie, 2 vols., Berlin, 1896-
1806. Eng. transl.. 3 vols., London, 1892-98.

JACOBI, JUSTUS LUDWIG: Professor in Halle;
b. at Burg (14 m. n.e. of Magdeburg) Aug. 12, 1815;
d. at Halle May 31, 1888. He studied in Halle, and
in Berlin, where in 1841 he became privat-docent,
and in 1847 professor extraordinary; in 1851 he
went as ordinary professor of theology to Kdnigs-
berg, in 1855 to Halle. As representative of the
** mediating theology " and advocate of the Evan-
gelical Union, he was involved in various contro-
versies with the confessional party. By founding
the hcHDe for deaconesses in Halle with the wife of
ProttBBor Thduck, he took a practical part in the
charitable works of the Church. His writings betray
the influence of Neander. In Die Lehre dea Pelagiua,
ein Beiirag 9wr Dogmengeachichle (Leipsic, 1842)
he represented the standpoint of Augiistine. The
first part of Kirchliche L^tre von der Tradition und
heOigen Sehrift appeared at Berlin, 1847. His
LdiHnteh der Kirchengeachichte (part i., Berlin, 1850)
is characterised by a thorough presentation of the
sources combined with a fine appreciation of ex-

VI.

temal conditions as well as of internal development,

measured by the central doctrine of sin and grace.

He also wrote Die Lehre der Irvingiien verglichen

mU der heUigen Schnft (1853; 2d ed., 1868); Pro-

feaaor SchloUmanny die halleache FakuUdt und die

Centrumapartei (2d ed., Halle, 1882), a defense of

his colleague against the aggressive tendency of

the Roman curia in the so-called Kulturkampf;

and Streiflichter auf Religionf Politikf und Univer-

aii&ten der Centrumapartei (1883). He conmiem-

orated his teachers in Erinnerung an D. Auguat

Neander (1882), and Baron von KoUwiU (1882).

Biblioobapht: J. Jaoobi, J. L. Jacobi und die VermiUelr
ungatheoloffie aeiner Zeit, Gotha, 1889.

JACOBITES: The Jacobites are an offshoot of

the Syrian Monophysites. While the Syrians were

the bearers of Christianity in the East,

General nowhere has ecclesiastical cleavage pro-

Descrip- duced deeper fissiues than among them,
tion. And the same might be said also of
political relations. The peace between
the Persians and Jovinian in 363 made a sharp
distinction between Syrians of the Roman empire
and those of Persia, which has continued to the
present. In religion it was differences concerning
Christology which produced the deep rifts, espe-
cially those connected with the names of Eutyches
and Nestorius. Hence one speaks no more of " an
Aramaic nation,'' rather he speaks of two peoples
of Aramaic lineage as distinct as two nationalities.
Indeed, authorities do not use the term Jacobitic
Chureh or Nestorian Church, they employ the terms
Jacobitic people, Nestorian people. The mutual
dislike of these two descendants from a common
stock is scarcely less intense than their common
hatred of Mohanmiedans. These peoples seem to
have lost consciousness of racial bonds; they speak
and write two dialects of a common speech, and
this difference goes back to an early time, since
the division had its origin in the fifth century. By
the term Jacobites is meant now the Syrian Mon-
ophysites, though in earlier times Egyptian Mon-
ophysites were also included. How early the term
came into use is not known; it occurs certainly in
the anathemas of the Council of Nice (787). The
emperors Zeno and Anastasius favored this form of
teaching, and it was introduced among the Syrians
by Barsumas of Edessa, Xenaias Philoxenus of
Mabug, and Severus of Antioch. Under Justinian I.
many Syrian bishops were deposed and exiled for
refusing recognition to the deliverances of the
Council of Chalcedon. Under the protection of
the Empress Theodora, bishops were consecrated
for the East and South, and particularly Jacobus
Baradseus, whose labors in behalf of monophysitism
were epoch-making.

Jacobus Baradsus (Jacob Baradai) was bom at

Telia Mauzalat (55 m. e. of Edessa) toward the

close of the fifth century, and died

Jacobus at the monastery of Cassianus, on the
Baradseus. Egyptian border, July 30, 578. He
was educated in the monastery of
Phasilta near Nisibis, lived for fifteen years as a
monk in Constantinople, and was consecrated bishop
in 541 or 543. Clad in rags, he then wandered from
Egypt to the Euphrates and to the islands of the

Jacobites

Jacobus de Varagine

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

Mediterranean for nearly forty years, expounding
his doctrines, ordaining deacons and priests, and
consecrating' bishops, doing his work in the day-
time and traveling at night sometimes forty miles
to a new place of labor. He is said to have con-
secrated two patriarchs and twenty-seven bishops,
and to have created 100,000 priests and deacons.
After the death of the patriarch Severus, he at-
tached himself to the party of Sergius of Telia,
and when Sergius died he had Paulus of Egypt
made patriarch. He left little in the shape of
literature. An Anaphora is ascribed to him (Lat.
transl. by E. Renaudot, Liturgiarum orientalium
coUectio, ii., Paris, 1716, pp. 333 sqq.), also a con-
fession extant in Arabic and Ethiopic, the genuine-
ness of which is doubtful. A number of encyclicals
in a Syriac manuscript in London are thought to
be his.

It was from Jacobus Baradseus that the Jacobites
took their name, and not from the Apostle, as was

stated by John of Ephesus, nor from

Their the Hebrew patriarch. They used to

System call themselves " the orthodox,'' and

and in Egypt went under the names of

Order. Theodosians, Severians, and Dioscu-

rians. For the peculiarities of doctrine
consult the articles Eutychianism, and Monophy-
8ITES. In the propagation of this system they were
peculiarly zealous. In 1587 Leonard Abel found the
agent of the Jacobites ready to acknowledge the
Roman Church, but he absolutely refused to con-
denm Dioscorus and to recognize Chalcedon. In
the cultus emphasis is laid upon the making of the
bread of the Eucharist of leavened dough mixed
with salt and oil, and also upon the addition to the
trisagion " who was crucified on your account."
They make the sign of the cross with one finger,
and the lot is often used at the election of patriarchs
and bishops. Their patriarch takes his title from
Antioch, though he never resides there, inasmuch
as the Greeks regard Jacobites as heretics and refuse
to their chief officer residence in Antioch. His
seat is therefore not fixed, but is sometimes in a
monastery, often in Amid (Diarbekr). During the
Jacobitic schism, 1364-1494, there were as many as
four officials claiming the title of patriarch in as
many different places. The jurisdiction of the
Syrian patriarch meets that of the Coptic patriarch,
though Jerusalem has both a Coptic and a Syrian-
Jacobitic bishop. In the most flourishing period
of the Church it had probably 100 bishops. Under
the patriarch is the Maphrian, who is the primate
of the East, and is sometimes called Catholicus.
His office dates as far back as Jacobus Baradseus,
though the title is much later. It is not unconmion
for a married man to be admitted to the order of
deacon or presbyter, though marriage after ordina-
tion is not permitted. They have a number of
monasteries. The monks are not reckoned among
the clergy, yet the bishops are chosen from among
the monks, and have charge of the cloisters. The
writers of the Jacobites include Jacob of Edessa,
Jacob of Sarug, John of Ephesus, John of Dara,
Isaac of Antioch, George, bishop of the Arabs, and
Philoxenus (qq.v.), also Paul of Telia, Thomas of
Heraclea, Stephen bar Sudaili, Dionysius of Tell-

mahre, Moses bar Kepha, and Dionysius bar
SaUbi.

The emperors of the East, with the exception of

Zeno and Anastasius, were opposed to the Jacobitic

doctrines, and Justinian I. attempted

History in vain to unite them with the Gstth-
and olic Church. The Sjrrian Jacobites

Present suffered not only under the emperors.

Status, but also under the Mohammedans,
while their brethren in Egypt seemed
to be able better to conciliate the followers of
Mohammed. The Crusaders refused them access
to the Holy Sepulcher. In the time of Gregory
XIII., the Jacobites are said to have numbered
50,000 families, mostly poor, scattered in the towns
and villages of Syria, Babylonia, and Mesopotamia.
Since that time they seem to have dwindled, as the
reports of different travelers are followed from that
time to the present. Sachau reports that at Mosul
out of 2,328 Christian houses, some 900 were those
of Syrian Jacobites. The most recent statistics give
22,700 adherents, twenty-four parishes, forty-two
churches, eighty-one priests; in Mosul is the largest
number of adherents, 7,000, and in Mardin the
next largest number, 4,000. The situation of these
people has been the more critical because, while
the most of the other sects received recognition
from the Porte, they were without it. Through the
interposition of the English this disability was re-
moved in 1882. What adds to the difficulty of
their position is that they are regarded as heretics
by all other sects in the region. Perhaps their most
flourishing settlement is at Sadad, on the road from
Damascus to Palmyra. In 1653 the Christians of
St. Thomas of India (see Nestorians) seem to have
had relations with them, though there is no indi-
cation of present affiliation. Recently special at-
tempts have been made by the Church of Rome
to have the Oriental churches come into connection
with it; the encyclical Prcedara of Leo XIII. of
June 20, 1894, and particularly the Orientalium
dignUas eccleaiarum of Nov. 30, 1894, are evidences
of this movement. Several periodicals are employed
to further these efforts, notably Bessarione in Rome,
the Revue de Vorient chrHien of Paris, with its auxil-
iaries, and the Calendarium ecclesiae utriueque of
Innsbruck. The earlier attempts of the years
1169, 1237, 1247, and 1442 produced no perma-
nent results. (E. Nestle.)

Bibxjogbapht: The chief work on the Syrian Jacobites is
still J. S. Aaaemani, BibltoAeca orierUalis, especially voL
ii.. Rome, 1721. Consult farther: £. Renaudot, Hitt.
patriarcfuxrum Alexandrinorum Jacobitarum, Paris, 1713;
M. Le Quien, Oriens ChrUtianuB, vols, ii.-iii.. ib. 1740;
J. M. Neale, HiBt. of the Holy Eaatem Chur<A, 2 vols.,
London. 1850 (for the liturgy); O. H. Parry. Six Mantht
in a Syrian Montulery, ib. 1805; C. E. Hammond, Lii^
urgies Eaatem and We§tem, ed. F. £. Brightman, i. 09-
110. ib. 1806; F. Diekamp. Die origeniatischen StreiHih
keiten im 6. Jahrhundert^ MQnster. 1899; R. Duval. La
LitUrature ayriaque, Paris, 1900; £. Sachau, Am BupttyU
und Tigrie, Leipsic, 1900; J. B. Chabot. Chronique de
Michel le Syrien, patriarche jacobique d*Antioche {1108-
1199), 2 vols.. Paris. 1900-04; F. C. Burkitt. Early Eaat-
em Christianity, London, 1904; L. Silbernagl, Verfaa-
aung und gegenioiirtiger Beatand admilither Kirehen dea
Orienta, Regensburg, 1904; Hamack. Dogma, passim;
KL, xi. 1124-34; the periodicals mentioned in the last
paragraph above, together with Eehoa d'orient; and the
literature under Eutychianism; MoNOPHTBrrES. On

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

JACOBS, HBRRY ETSTER: Lutheran; b. at
Gettysburg, Pa., Nov. 10, 1844. He was graduated
at Pennsylvania CoUe^, Gettysburg, in 1862, and
Gettysburg Theological Seminary in 1865. After
being a tutor in Peniuylvaiiia Collie b 1864-67,
be was a home missiooaiy at Pittsburg, Pa., in
1867-68, and then pastor and principal of Thiel
Hall, Phillipaburg, Pa. (now Thiel College, Green-
ville, Pa.), in 1868-70. In 1870 he letumedto
Pennsylvania College as professor of Latin and
history (1870-80), classics (1880-81), and Greek
(1881-83). Since 1883 he has been professor of
qrstetnatie theology at the Lutheran Theological
Seminary, Philadelphia, of which be has also been
dean since 1894. Besides editing The Lutheran
Rmrw from 1882-96, he hss translated and edited
L. Hutter's Compend of Lutheran Theology (in
collaboration with G. F. Spieker; Philadelphia,
1867); H. Schmid's Doctrinal Theology of Out Lu-
therwt Church (in collaboration with C. A. Hay;
1875); The Book of Concord: or, SynOKlietd Sland-
anU of Ihe Luthertm Church (2 vols., 1882-83) ; H. A.
W. Meyer's Commeniary on OtJatians and Bjihesians
(New York, 1884); and F. DOsterdieck's CrUiad
and Bxtgelicai Handbook to the Revdati/m of John
(1SS7). He Ukewise edited The Lutheran Com-
mentary (13 vols.. New York, 1895-09) to which
he eontribut«d the portion on Romans and I
CorinthioDS, and The Lutheran Cyclopaedia (1899),
Aa independent works he has written The Lutheran
Movemejtt in England during the Reignt of Henry
VIII. and Eduiard VL, and iit Literary Monument*
(Philadelphia, 1891); HiAiry of the Evangelical Lu-
theran Church in the United States (New York,
IS93); Elements of Religion (Philadelphia, 1894];
iVarlin Luther, the Hero of the Reformation (New
York, 1898); German Emigration to America, 1709-
1740 (Philadelphia, 1899); and Summary of Me
CArutian Fa^ih (1905).

JACOBS, JOSEPH: Jewish folklorist, histo-
rian, and critic; b. at Sydney, N. S. W., Aug. 29,
1854. He was educated at Sydney and London
universities and at St. John's College, Cambridge
(B.A., 1876), and also studied at Berlin. From
1878 to 1884 be was secretary of the Society of
Hebrew Literature, and in 1882-1900 was secretary
tA the Mansion House (later Ruaso-Jewish) Fund
and Committee, taking an active part in behalf of
the Ruwian Jews. He has likewise devoted him-
self to Jewish history, and for this purpose visited
^Min in 1888 to study manuscript sources, later
turning his attention to the history of the Jews m
England. He helped found the Jewish Historical
Society of England, of which he was president in
1898-99, and also assisted in establishing the Mao-
Ckbeoas; and he was long a member of the execu-
tive committee of the Anglo-Jewish Association.
In 1900 he settled permanently in New York, being
revising editor of the J£ (1901-06), and in 1906 was
apptnnled profeesor of English literature and rhetoric
in the Jewish Theological Seminary, also becoming
editor of the American Hebrew. As a folklorist he
occupies s foremost raok, and was for sonte years

editor of Falt-Lore and honorary secretary of the
International Folk-Lore Society. Among his pub-
lications special mention may be made of the fol-
lowing: Studies in Jewish Statistics, Social, Vital,
and Anthropcmutric (London, 1891); Jews of An-
gevin England, Doeurnenle and Records (1893) ;
Studies in BOlical Archatology (1894): Sources of
the History of the Jews in Spain (1895); Jewi^
Ideals, and other Essays (1896); and As Others Saw
Him (an imaginative life of Christ from a Jewish
point of view; New York, 1903).

JACOBUS DB VARAGDIE, GUCOHO DA VA-
BAZZE, JACOPO DA VARAZZE (often called
Jacob, or James, of Virsggio): Archbishop of Ge-
noa; b. at Casanuova in Varazza (on the coast, 18
m. B.w. of Genoa) c. 1228 (or 1230) ; d. in Genoa July
16 (?), 1298. He entered the Dominican order
in 1244, probably studied at Cologne, Paris, and
Bologna, became prior at Genoa (or Asti) about 1258,
was provincial prior for Lorn bardy 1267-76, 1281-
86, and archbishop of Genoa 1292-98. He fulfilled
several quasi-diplomatic missions and as archbishop
exercised feudal authority over San Reroo and gov-
erned certain churches in the Levant. As arch-
bishop he promoted efforts for the reform of the
clergy, intervened successfully to promote peace
between Guelph and Ghibelline, and transferred
the governroent of San Remo to the civil authority.
He was beatified by Pius VII, in 1816, and is
popularly reverenced in Liguria as the promoter of

Jacobus is best known for his writings, especially

the " Golden Legend," which waa possibly the

most popular book of the Middle Ages. This work,

known atao as " Lives of the Saints " and as Historia

Lombardica, consists of readings from the lives of

the saints for the festivals of the church year. It

was probably written before 1260, and was very

early translated into at leaat French, German,

EngUsb (by William Caxton, 14847), Italian, and

Dutch. Within about fifty years after the inven-

I tion of printing more than 100 editions of original

! and translations hod been printed. Besides the

L " Golden Legend " Jacobus wrote several series of

'. sermons " On the Saints,"" On the Blessed Virgin,"

etc., only less popular than the Legend, and also

known as " Golden " on account of their popularity.

I His " Chronicle of Genoa " is a somewhat hetero-

L geneouB mass, but not without some historical value.

I He is alleged also to have made the first translation

of the Bible into Italian and there are reasons for

supposing that he wrote the " Game of Chess,"

which, like the " Golden Legend," is best known

in English under the name of Caxton. Several

other hitherto disputed or lost writings, an " Art

of Preaching," a " Summary of Vices and Virtues,"

Sermonea in visitationibus religiosorum, etc., have

recently been discovered or established as his.

E. C, RiCBARDSOK.

gillt: Pottbut. Wtavmmer. pp. 631-635. An incomplels
t^rt of the ChniiidA ia in Murvton, Sfriploret. ix. 5-Vii
Ibe mort coDTsnient teil of Ihe Sermoru is that of Aot-
mip, 1T12, in e voLi.l the itud&rd Edition of ttw CMdea

JiMolms
Jahn

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

Legend is by J. O. T. Qraeeee. Leipelo, 1840, new ed.,
Wntialaw, 1890; the Eng. tranel. of the Golden Legend
by Gaxton« with introduction and notes by Eales, was
published London, 1888, and a sumptuous edition, ed.
W. Morris and F. 8. ElUs. 3 vols., ib. 1892. The prefaces
to the many editions and translations contain biographical
and bibliographical material. The standard monographs
are: P. Anfossi, Memorie Utoriehe apparteMnti aUa vita del
. . . Jaeopo da Voragine, Genoa; G. Spotomo, Notisie
atorico-criUco del . . . Oiaeomo da VaroMte, Genoa, 1823;
and V. M. Palassa, Vila del . . . Oiaeomo da Varazze,
Genoa, 1867. Consult also M. Waresquiel, Le Bienhouerux
Jacqvuee de Voraoine, Paris, 1002; J. C. Broussole, Priface
b, la Ligend doreSe, Puis, 1907. The Princeton Theolooieal
Review for April, 1903, contains an article on the Golden
Legend, and for July, 1904, one on " Voragine as a preach-
er." Consult farther: J. Qu^tif and J. Echard, Seriptoree
ordinia praedicatorum, i. 464-460, ii. 818. Paris, 1719-21;
ASB, Jan., i., pp. xix.-xx.; KL, vi. 1178-82.

JACOBUS, MELANCTflOll WILLIAMS: The
name of two American divines.

1. Presbyterian pastor and educator; b. at
Newark, N. J., Sept. 19, 1816; d. at Allegheny, Pa.,
Oct. 28, 1876. He was graduated from the College
of New Jersey (Princeton) in 1834, and from the
Princeton Theological Seminary in 1838. The
following year he was instructor in Hebrew at the
seminary. In Sept., 1839, he entered upon a pas-
torate of twelve years at the First Presbyterian
Church, Brooklyn. In 1851 he became professor of
Oriental and Biblical literature in the Western
Theological Seminary, Allegheny, Pa., and retained
this position till his death. He was also pastor of
the Central Presbyterian Church, Pittsburg, 1858-
1870. In 1870 he presided, conjointly with Philemon
H. Fowler, at the opening of the first General
Assembly of the reunited Presbyterian Church, old
and new schools. His principal works are Notes
on the New Testament (4 vols., 1848-59); Notes on
the Book of Genesis (2 vols., 1864-65); and Notes
on the Book of Exodus (1874).

Bxblioorapht: Preabyterian Reunion: a Memorial Volume,
pp. 530-532, New York. 1871; R. E. Thompson, in Amer-
ican Church Hietory Seriee, vi. 144, 178, 181, ib. 1805;
J. H. Patton, Popular Hiet. of the Preabyterian Church, p.
407, ib. 1900.

2. Congregationalist, son of the preceding; b. at
Allegheny City, Pa., Dec. 15, 1855. He was grad-
uated from Princeton College in 1877, and from
Princeton Theological Seminary in 1881; studied at
GOttingen and Berlin (1881-84). He was pastor of
the Presbyterian Church at Oxford, Pa. (1884-91),
and since 1891 has been professor of New-Testament
exegesis and criticism in Hartford Theological Semi-
nary, where he has been dean of the faculty since
1903, and acting president in 1902-03. He was also
acting pastor of Center Congregational Church,
Hartford, Conn., in 1899-1900, and was Stone lec-
turer in Princeton Theological Seminary in 1897-98,
and lecturer on the New Testament in Mount Holy-
oke College in 1901 and 1903-04. He has written
A Problem in New Testament Criticism (Stone lec-
tures; New York, 1900), and has edited Roman
Catholic and Protestant Bibles Compared (New York,
1905); and A Standard Bible Dictionary (1909).

JACOB Y, HERMANN EARL JOHANN: German
Protestant; b. at Berlin Dec. 30, 1836. He was
educated at the University of Berlin and the
preachers' seminary at Wittenbei^, and after being

a teacher in the gymnasium of Landsberg, deacon
at Heldrungen castle, and gymnasial teacher and
assistant cathedral preacher at Stendal imtil 1868,
was appointed professor of homiletics in the Uni-
versity of KOnigsberg, a position which he still
occupies. He has written Zwei evangdische Lebens-
bilder aus der kaihaUschen Kirche (Bielefeld, 1864);
Liturgik der Reformatoren (2 vols., Gotha, 1871-76);
Beitrdge zur chrisUichen Erkenntnis (GQtersloh,
1871); Christi Tugenden (Gotha, 1883); Lvihers
vorreformatorische Predigt (Kdnigsberg, 1883); All-
gemeine P&dagogik auf Grand der chriistlichen Ethik
(Gotha, 1883); Der erste Brief des Apostels Johannes
(Leipsic, 1891); NeutestamenUiche Ethik (Kdnigs-
berg, 1899); and Die Evangelien des Markus und
Johannes f homiletische Betrachtungen (Leipsic, 1903).

JACOPONB DA TODI, ya"co-p6'n6 dfl to'dl
(properly Jacopo de' Benedetti, Lat. Jacobus de

Benedictis): Franciscan poet; b. at
Life. Todi (24 m. s. of Perugia), c. 1240;

d. at the monastery of CoUazone (near
Perugia) on Christmas night, 1306. Highly en-
dowed by nature, he won both degrees in law at
Bologna, and became respected and prosperous in
his profession in his native city. He had a beau-
tiful, noble, and viituous wife, whose death from
the fall of a gallery in a theater in 1268 changed
his entire life. He renounced all that had formerly
appeared to him great and splendid, gave up his
business, divided his property among the poor,
and joined the Franciscan tertiaries. To express
contempt of the world and self he went to absurd
extremes of fanaticism and sought to realize literally
the " foolishness " described in I Cor. i. 20-29, so
that he received the nickname Jacopone (" silly
James "), which he accepted as a badge of honor.
In 1278 he sought to enter the Franciscan order,
but they would not receive him until he proved
the soundness of his mind by a LibeUus de mundi
contemtu. Becoming a monk did not change his
eccentric habits, and those who judged him most
mildly pronounced him spiritu ebrius. The condi-
tions of the time drew Jacopone into the storm of
political life. His love of truth could not endure
the Church's abuses, and many a judgment full of
bitter earnestness did he hurl in the days of popes
Celestine V. and Boniface VIII . He attacked the lat-
ter personally, and, in May, 1297, joined the league
of Roman magnates that aimed to bring about
the pope's deposition, thereby incurring the ban
of the Church. When Boniface VIII. conquered
Prseneste, in 1298, Jacopone was imprisoned. After
the death of Boniface he was liberated, Dec., 1303,
and spent his closing years in the monastery of
CoUazone.

Jacopone 's literary products include sententious
maxims of the sort found in the Liber conformi-

tatum compiled by Bartholomew of

WritingB. Pisa, which were gratefully preserved

The StalMit and circulated in the Franciscan order.

Mater. But a much larger circle of devotees

was won by his Italian and Latin lyrics.
The Florentine edition by Bonaccorsi (1490) gives
100 Italian poems; the Venetian edition by Tr^sati
(1614) no fewer than 211 satires, odes, penitential

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

hymns, and apEritual love-aongs. He ainka himself
as a mystic into Christian metaphysics, and cele-
brates the exalted flight of the soul to God and its
nuptials with the divine love; be relates the con-
flict between the penitent spirit and the body still
rebellioujsly striving under tlie rod. In other poems
he scourges with holy zeal the wrongs of the time-
popular customs, luxury of ihe women, worldliness
of the nuns, the papal Antichrist. Finally he
brings before the people the life of Jesus, to teach
I bem holy living after the rule of Christ , and cele-
brates poverty most highly.

The question of authenticity is much more diffi-
cult in case of the Latin hymns which bear Jiico-
ponc's name, and they have been ascribed to various
authors. Apart from Cwr nanultit mililat (cf. H. A.
Daniel. Thetaurus hymnalogieu*. ii., Leipsic, 1844,
379; S. W. Duffield, Latin Hymn-Writa-a, New
York, 18S9, 279-280) the most important ts the
renowned sequence Stabat mater dotoroea. beside
which the manuscripts contain also the parody
Slabal matrr speciota juxta /oenum gaudiosa, d'um
jaeebat panmtua. The hymn undoubtedly originated
in the Franciscan order, but who the actual author
wasisopen to many hypotheses. Gregory the Great,
Bernard of Clairvaux, Innocent 111., and others
have been suggested. The hymn is anonymous in
nianuacrjpts of the fourteenth and fifteenth cen-
turies, and it is tradition of the Franciscan order
which names Jacopone as its author. It was sun^ by
the Flagellants who traversed Italy in 1398 {see
Flaobllation, FLAGELi.ANTa) and, according to
the Summa hittorialU of Antoninus Florentinus (d.
1450), sang " hymns in Latin and the vernacular,
and especially that SttAal mater liolorosa which they
say Gregory gave forth." The sequence was used
in the Church as early as Ihe fourteenth txntury,
and eighty-three German translations alone are
known. Of musical settings for this celebrated
hymn, the compositions of Palcstnna and Pergolesc,
.Aatorga, and Haydn are weU known. The Protes-
tant judgment of the hymn must be, doctrinally,
that it divides reverence between mother and son
in a manner never to be endured by a Protestant
temperament; but. regarded esthetically, it may
be pronounced a ficarl among medieval hymns.
E. LBHep.

BlxuoaBAFBT: ButboJomgw of Pin, Li6s- amfarmilalum
p. SOb. Milan. IfilO; L. Wadding. Annaltt Uinoram, v.
*07 Mq., vi. 77 tm., Rome, 1733; F. A. March. Latin
Hlirniu. pp. 171-177. 300-303. New York. 1S74 (lives l«l
of Slaboi maUr. aoim on it. uxt note* on Jaoopone); H.
Ttioda. Fnni urn Attiti utid dia AnfOntt dtr Rnautanre
IB llalin, pp. 40S sqq.. Berlin, 188£: 8, W. Duffield,
Ldfiit Hjflti'^Wntera and their HvmnM. chap, iixv.. ib.
1880; KL. tL 1190-08. On the Global mater the thne
ban nrkg aret F. G. Liwo, Slabal mala-. Berlin. 1853;
C, H. Bitter, Sludu: turn Slabal nufcr. Leipaie. 1883; J.
KayHT, Srilrege nir GtidtitAU und ErklOnnti Her lOtettn
KircAnAvmnrn. li, 100-102, Paderbom, 1886; A. TeD-
Bcnmi, in Nvrsa Anlolooia, June Ifi, 1007; G. Gslli, Dit-
etpUoanti dOi' Vmbria del ItOO e U laro Landi, Turin.
1007. Available in Engliah are R. C. Trench, Sacrrd
Latin Poriry. pp. 262-203, Londdn. 1364; ficven Qraol
Hvmtf. pp. M-10e, New York, 1868 (text, transl,, and
notei); D. T. Morgan, »im»i o/ Ikr Latin ChvrA. pp.
9-a. 184-184. Idodon. 1871; W. A. Merrill. Latin flvnu,
pp. OS-ea, Beaton, 1004 (text and oo(«): JuUu. Him-
■uJOfw. pp. 1081-84 (admirmble nunmuy of data. deUila
of prinopal t«it« uid Eng, traad*.).

JAFFE, yflf'fe', PHILIPP: German historian;
b. at Schweraenz (6 m. e, of Posen), Prussia, Feb. 17,
1819; d. at Wittenberg Apr. 3, 1870. He studied
at the University of Berlin under Ranke, and first
iliatinguiahed himself by his priee-easay, GefckichU
des deutsrhen Htichs unter Lolkar dem Saehsen (Ber-
lin, 1843), which was followed by his Ge»chichU drs
deulsclien Reichi unler Konrad dem Drilien (naiiover,
1845). Finding that, as a Jew, the road to academic
preferment in Prussia was closed to him, he took
up the study of medicine in 1850, and spent the
next three years in the universities of Berlin and
Vienna, In 1854, however, shortly after he had
passed his examination in medicine, he became the
collaborator of G. H. Peril on the Monumenla
Germaniae kistorica and edited for that collection
a number of works in which he showed great ability
in historical-philological criticism. He became ex-
traordinary professor of history at the University
of Berlin in 1862, and withdrew from the Monu-
metUa the following year. He turned Christian in
tSSS. broke with his old friends, fell into despond-
ency, and finally committed suicide. Other im-
portant works by JaiT^ are the invaluable Rigttla
poniificum Romanorum . . . ad annum . . . 1198
(Berlin, 1851; 2d ed., Leipoic, 1881-88); Ihe mas-
terly Biblicthrra rmim GermanUarum (6 vols.,
Berlin, 1864-73) ; and EceUsia melropolitana Coloni-
engis codices (1874), in which W. Wattenbach col-
laborated with him.

JAGGAR, TBOBfAS AUGUSTUS: Proteatant
Episcopal bishop of Southern Ohio; b. in New York
City June 2, 1839. He was educated mainly by
private tutors, and pursued his theological studies
partly privately and partly in the General Theo-
logical Seminary, New York City. He was ordered
deacon in IS60, and advanced to the priesthood in
1863. After being minister at St. George's, Flushing,
N. Y. (1860-62), and Trinity. Bergen Point, N. J.
(1863-64), he was rector of Anthon Memorial (now
All Souls'), New York City, in 1864-68, St. John's,
Yonkera, N, Y., in 1868-70, and Holy Trinity,
Philadelphia, in 1870-75. In 1875 he was conse-
crated first bishop of Southern Ohio. Ill health,
from which he had long suFTered. however, obliged
him to retire from tlie episcopal office in 1889, al-
though he still retains his seat and vote in the house
of bishops. While at Yonkers he founded St. John's
Riverside Ho^^pitat in that city. He has written
Duty of the CUrgy in Rotation to Modem ScefAiciim
(Cincinnati, O., 1883), and The Pereonalili/ of Truth
(Bohlen lectures for 1900; New York, 1900).

JAHN, yOn, JOHAIIH: Roman Csthofic Biblical
scholar; b. at Tasswitz, near Znaim (47 m. o.n.w.
of Vienna), Moravia, June IS, 1750; d, at Vienna
Aug. 16, 1816. He attended the gymnasium at
Znaim. studied philosophy at Olmllti, and in 1772
began the study of theology at the Premonstraten-
sian convent of Bruck, near Znaim. After he had
taken the vow in 1774 he waa employed for a time
in pastoral work at MislitR, but was soon recalled
to Bnick as teacher of Oriental languages and
Biblical hermeneutica. On the suppression of the

Jainlsm

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

convent in 1784, he was given a similar chair in
the lyceum at OhnUtz, and in 1789 he was trans-
ferred to the University of Vienna as professor of
Oriental languages, Old-Testament introduction,
and Biblical archeology. To this professorship dog-
matics was added in 1803. On account of his ad-
vanced views concerning the Bible he was honorably
removed from his chair in 1805 and promoted to
a canonry in St. Stephen's, Vienna. Henceforth
he lived in retirement, devoting himself to Biblical
and linguistic studies. His most important works
are ExrdeUung in die goUlichen Schriften des Alien
Bundes (2 parts, Vienna, 1792; 2d ed., 4 vols.,
1802-03); Biblische Archdologie (5 vols., 1797-
1805); Introductw in libros sacros Veteria Foederis
in compendium redada (1804; 2d ed., 1814; Eng.
transl., Introduction to the 0, T., New York, 1827) ;
ArchoBologia Biblica in compendium redada (1804;
2d ed., 1814; Eng. transl., Biblical Archceology,
Andover, 1823); Enchiridion hermenevJtica (1812);
Appendix hermeneutica (2 fasc, 1813-15); and the
posthumous Nachtrdge (TObingen, 1821). Jahn
also published a number of grammars, lexicons, and
text-books of Hebrew, Aramaic, Syriac, and Arabic,
and an edition of the Hebrew Bible (4 vols., Vienna,
1806). His Introductio, Archoeologiaf Enchiridion,
and Appendix hermeneutica were placed upon the
Index in 1822.

Biblioorapht: Vindiciae JoannU Jahn, Leipsic, 1822;
F. H. ReuBch, Index verbotenen BUeher, ii. 1083-84, Bonn,
1886; KL, vi. 1208-10.

JAINISM.

The Founder (f 1). Basb in Bnthmaniwm (f 4).

Relation to Buddhism The System and its History

^1 2). (I 6).

The Jain Philosophy (f 3). The Literature (f 6).

The remote origin of Jainism is traced to a teacher

named Parsva who lived in north central India in

the eighth century before Christ and

I. The left a school of thought which did not

Founder, become active till two centuries later.
The inmiediate founder was a certain
Vardhamana, a younger son of Siddartha, and a
contemporary of Buddha. The Jain literature,
following the usual tendency of religious books to
exalt and glorify the founder, represents the father
of Vardhamana as king of a large town named
Kundagrama or Kundapura, identified as the mod-
em Basukund. Investigation has shown that this
place was a mere suburb of the town Vaisali, the
modem Besarh. Siddartha could therefore have
been at best only headman of a village, though he
was connected with the king of Vaisali and with
the dynasty then ruling Magadha. Vardhamana
consequently belonged to the Kshatriya or warrior
class, as did Buddha, therefore to the aristocracy.
The traditions represent him as living with his
parents till they died, when his elder brother, Nan-
divardhana, succeeded as head of the household.
Vardhamana was then twenty-eight years of age,
and he sought and gained permission to enter the
spiritual career. For twelve years he followed the
life of the meditative ascetic, after which he was
recognized as a prophet, having claimed '' perfect
knowledge and faith,'' and was hailed Mahavira,
* great hero/' Jina, '' victor,'' and greeted with

other titles indicative of his success. He lived thirty
years after this, following the career of a teacher
and ascetic, preaching his doctrine and organizing
his Church. He died at Papa or Pava, the modem
Padraona. His contemporaneity with Buddha is
established by the fact that the traditions of Jains
and Buddhists alike refer to the same contempora-
ries, which brings out the farther coincidence that
the two religions arose in approximately the same
region, north of the center of India, and that Jain-
ism became active and made its early conquests
in a region comprising the modem Oudh and the
districts of Tirhut and Bihar in westem Bengal,
where its progress can be traced by inscriptions
from the time of Asoka in the third century b.c.

The rise of two religious leaders of the same caste
in the same region and period, bearing the same
titles, which were gained in practically
2. Rela- the same manner, using a common
tk>n to stock of ideas expressed in a common
Buddhism, technic of names and epithets, and
founding churches with similar forms
of organization, and having each a Nirvana as the
goal of human striving, is a phenomenon which
might well cause not only dispute between the later
adherents of the religions, but abo confusion and
perplexity among scientific students. For long the
resemblances between Buddhism and Jainism were
explained by the supposition that one was a schism
or an offshoot of the other, and the question of
priority was hotly debated. Recent study has
cleared the atmosphere not only in the matter of
origins, but in exact knowledge of the details of
the lives of the founders and of the religious and
philosophical conceptions and modifications of such
ideas as were inherited from the society and religion
existent prior to the rise of these two sects. Thus
of the founders it is now known that the birth-
places were different, that Buddha's mother died
while he was an infant, while Vardhamana's lived
to see him reach maturity; that Buddha entered
the ascetic life against the will of his father, Vard-
hamana after his parent's death and with the con-
sent of his family; and that Buddha lived this life
for six years and contenmed its results, while Vard-
hamana pursued it for twelve years and regarded
the exercise as salutary, continuing the vocation
after reaching sainthood. Among the common
titles of the founders are Jina, Arhat, Mahavira,
Tathagatha, Buddha, and Paranivrita, every one
of which is in the sacred writings of the sects given
to the founders. But each sect has a marked and
unmistakable preference for a certain set of these
different from that preferred by the other. Conmion
to both sects as developed is the worship of the
founders; but in Jainism this is consistent with the
fundamental ideas of the system, while in Buddhism
the primitive ideal rigidly excludes it — the practise
there has been fostered by the people's inability
to live up to the abstract ideal the Buddhist faith
presents. A fundamental doctrine in both sects
is that of Ahimsa or the sacredness of all life. In
this the principal difference between the two relig-
ions is the irrational extreme to which the Jains
have carried the practise. The Jain may eat even of
vegetables and fruit only such as have no trace of

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jainlam

life left — ^may not pluck the vegetable or fruit
from its source — and must strain through a cloth
the water he drinks. Further regulations prescribe
the covering of the ascetic's mouth and nose with
a cloth that no insects may be drawn in with the
breath to their death, and the pushing of a broom
before him as he walks that no living thing may be
crushed by his feet. The systems have developed
along similar lines, with orders of monks upon
whom severe duties press, and lay conmiunicants
from whom a lesser degree of abstinence is de-
manded. Both have had temples of ambitious
structure, in which were placed statues of the
founders and their disciples, though those of the
Jains are the more monumental. These resem-
blances and differences are now quite fully ao-
coimted for.

The fundamental assxunption of the Jains is the
eternity of matter, which is regarded as atomic in
structure. Time proceeds in pairs of
3. The Jain cycles each of enormous length, in the
PhlkMOphy. first of which goodness constantly in-
creases, and in the second diminishes.
Since matter is eternal, no necessity arises for
creative agency, and Jains have consequently been
called atheists. But worship is paid to the Jina,
and indeed to Hindu deities, since the native pre-
dilection to polytheism has in Jainism, as in Bud-
dhism, been too strong for the philosophy to over-
come. Over against the eternity of matter the Jain
puts the eternity of individual spirits. The Jain phi-
losophy is therefore dualistic as against the spiritual-
istic monism of Buddhism. These spirits are bound
by the action of Karma (the accumulated effects of
all deeds in former existences), but owing to the
differeaces in the manner of conceiving individual
existence, that action is regarded differently from
the Buddhistic method. To the Buddhist the soul
is not a permanent individual entity passing as a
unit from one state of existence or incarnation to
another, but a dissoluble aggregate of qualities
in which not individuality but the effect of Karma
is the integrating factor. To the Jain the human
spirit is an eternal entity which in its various in-
carnated lives Karma affects as a permanent in-
dividuality. Consequently Nirvana takes a differ-
ent form in the two religions. LogicaUy in Buddhism
it is the annihilation of Karma as an integrating
principle, in consequence of which the individual
as such ceases to exist. In Jainism Nirvana is
release of the soul from union with the body and
from connection with matter, but the soul continues
consciously to exist. Salvation is wrought through
ascetic practises, guided by the three jewels of right
faith, right knowledge, and right conduct. For the
layman eight reincarnations are necessary to secure
release, while the ascetic secures the same result
by twelve years of strenuous self-denial, after which
he may if he will at once enter Nirvana by /do de «e.
The monks are compelled to take the five major
vows, practically identical with those of Buddhism.
The great similarity of the two systems and also
their mutual dislike led to patient search for the
reasons of the resemblances and the differences.
Especially have the religious life and obligations of
tbepre-Jain Bnihznan ascetic been under review.

The result is the discovery that of the Brahman
ascetic of early times were demanded four of the five
major vows, viz., Ahimsa, truthful-
4. Basis ness, honesty, and continence. But
in Brah- besides these points, common to the
manism. three systems, there are others which
are established as clearly pre-Jainistic.
Thus it was required of the Brahman recluse not to
change his residence during the rainy season, at
other times the period of his stay in a place was
limited, though in the later systems the bounds of
his stay varied; the rules for dress in all three
systems reduce to practically the same basis, and
Brahman and Jain ritual provide for the elimination
of hair and beard. Even the straining of drinking-
water is Brahmanic, and the equipment of doth
and begging-bowl is common to Brahman and
Jain. Jainism stands revealed, therefore, as one of
the two revolts against Brahmanic teaching, ritual,
and doctrine which took form in the sixth centiuy
B.C., and for ten centuries threatened the extinction
of the parent faith. Yet, like Buddhism, it bor-
rowed thought and even much of its religious ter-
minology and practise from Brahmanism. Its
monks are called Yatis, a Brahmanic name for
eremite, and the titles given the Jina are conmion-
places in pre-Jain Brahmanism.

On such a basis, in the sixth century B.C., in the
north central part of India, Vardhamana, after
twelve years of asceticism, launched
5. The his system. His social status as a
System Kshatriya opened to him the ears of
and its the wealthy, while his performance of
History, the ascetic vows and the sanctity thus
gained won him the reverence of the
lower orders of the population. He laid the usual
emphasis of the Brahman upon the evil in matter
and on the value of the ascetic life as the means
to evade it. The older vows were made more
stringent; a theology with its heaven and hell and
Nirvana was formulated. The system broke with
Brahmanism in making its benefits extend to all
castes and even to the outcasts, though it was
affirmed that all preceding Jinas (twenty-three in
number) were of the warrior caste. Its ascetics were
called Nirgrantha, *' freed from bonds," Yatis,
" ascetics,'' or Sadhus, " holy ones." And since
not all could follow the ascetic pattern, provision
was made for the lay conununity. The members
vowed obedience to the Jina, the law and the
teacher; in the early morning they worshiped at
home, and in the temple the image of the Jina,
read and recited from the scriptures, sang hymns,
and then at different times of the day practised
their devotions. Meanwhile they had the privilege
of contributing to the support of the monastics,
and received the name of upasakas or ** worshipers "
and sravakas or '' hearers." After eight reincarna-
tions they were promised Nirvana. For the monk a
more rigorous routine is prescribed, and a speedier
release foretold. During the rainy season he seeks
shelter in a monastery of the order, for then life is
more abundant and movement pregnant with dan-
ger to it. For the remaining eight months he takes
the road and wanders barefoot and bareheaded;
he may not sleep in a bed nor take any conveyance,

Jalnism

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

and may haTe as his only possessions his doth,
bowl, broom, and sacred books — indeed, these are
not reckoned his own. He may not touch metal,
may eat no fruit and drink no wine, light no fire,
and take no bath except in water which has been
previously used by another and has so been rendered
void of Ufe. He may not disturb the insects or
vermin which torment his flesh, nor do anything
that may harm even potential life. After twelve
years thus spent he gains his goal and may seize
the possession, or may continue in this life as a
teacher. Moreover, his discipline covers the inner
life as he gains mastery over his own mind, con-
science, and heart. Thus the system was laid. In
the fourth century b.c. differences of opinion re-
specting the stringency of the Jina's commands
regarding clothing split the religion into two parts,
the Svetambaras or '' white-clothed " and the
Digambaras or '^ air-clothed.'' The latter wore a
minimum of clothing, sometimes none, and are
possibly, even probably, the Gymnoaopfun of Greek
literature. The Svetambaras have both monks and
nuns, the Digambaras do not admit women to the
ascetic life. The former have divided into seven
minor sects, differing only on lesser points of faith
or practise. The religion spread to the west and
south, the Svetambaras remaining in the northern
portion, the Digambaras developing to the south.
Its course can be traced by inscriptions dated from
the third pre-Christian century until, in the fifth
Christian centiuy, it is found far south of Central
India. There it met the opposition of the Brahman
sages Manikka Vasagar and Tiru Nana Sambandha,
who were effective in staying its progress in the
tenth century. It has never been a missionary
religion in the sense that Buddhism has been, con-
sequently its adherents have been confined to the
peninsula. Its numbers, according to the census
of 1901, are 1,334,148, though the authorities de-
clare that more exact details would make the total
greater, since many known Jains returned them-
selves simply as '' Hindus." The institutions are
the temples, the monasteries where the monks spend
the rainy season, and the hospitals for animals,
where the maimed and even the healthy are sup-
ported. A great deal of wealth is in the possession
of adherents of the religion, and this is held at the
service of the order.

The literature of Jainism is as yet comparatively
unknown, and until 1870 almost none of it beyond
the Ealpa Sutra was in the possession
6. The of Occidentals. The general name cor-
Literature. responding to the word Scripture is
Siddantha, under which term are in-
cluded six classes of writings, viz.: twelve Angas,
twelve Upangas, ten Painnas, six Ghedasutras, two
sutras without special names, and four Mulasutras.
There is constant reference in this literature to a
class of writings called Purvas, or primitive scrip-
tures, which took form perhaps as early as the
fourth century b.c, but are either lost or embodied
in the Angas. There are references also to the loss
and recovery of these primitive scriptures such as
lead to the suspicion that the sacred books of the
Jains have passed through experiences like those
of the Hebrews, Christians, Zoroastrians, and Con-

fucians. At any rate, so far as known, the present
literature does not contain an3rthing recognized as
Piu^a. The Angas are the authoritative scriptures
of the Svetambaras, and the authoritative recension
took place in the fourth century of our era. The
language is the Prakrit, as is that of most of the
other literature so far as it is known; some of it
is in Gujarati. To each of the Angas there are sub-
sidiary parts, just as there are Brahmanas to the
Vedas. The Kalpa Sutra may be called the manual
of the Svetambaras. The Jains who went south-
ward developed a later literature different from the
Angas, and indeed did much in the way of foimding
the literature of the Kanarese, Tamil and Telugu;
consequently the Digambaras have their own
sacred books apart from that of the rival sect.
The whole of the Angas reproduce in their literary
features the traits of other sacred books, the parts
being of unequal merit, often evidently fragmentary,
and covering a long period in their dates of origin.
They have been subject to recension, in which harmo-
nistic effort is clearly traceable. This often includes
slokas or sections of much earlier literature, much
as the Pentateuch contains bits of early folk-song
like the song of Lamech or of the welL Moreover,
commentaries exist which contain alleged quota-
tions which are not in the extant texts, showing
that parts have been lost. The codification took
place, as is noted above, some 800 years after the
origin of the religion. Two series of publications
embodying the texts are in course of issue, one be-
gim under the auspices of a wealthy Jain, the late
Rao Bahadur Dhanapatisinha, in which some thirty
treatises have been produced, with comment and
explanation, at Calcutta and Bombay. The Jain
Religious Book Society of Murshidabad is publish-
ing the other, which has already duplicated the
first series and has added a number not otherwise
printed. Geo. W. Gilmobe.

Bzbuoorapht: On the literature the moet exhaustive study
is by A. Weber, in Inditdie Studien, xvi.-xvii, Leipsic,
1883-84, reproduced in English in the Indian Ani&ipuxry,
xvii.-xxi., 1888-02, and in his Sacred Literature of the
Jaina, Bombay, 1893. Consult also A. Guerinot. Eemxi
de bibliographie Jaina, Paris, 1906. A very defective
translation of the Kalpa Sutra appeared in London, 1848.
H. Jaoobi has made several of the Sutras available in
English in SBE, xxi., zlv., with valuable introduction
concerning the religion, and has edited the Kalpa Sutra,
with intrwluction and notes, Leipsic, 1879, and the Tatt-
varthadhigama Sutra, ib. 1906. Other sutras have been
edited by Leumann in Abhandlungen fOr die Kunde dee
Morgenlandee, vol. viii., and in ZDMO, vol. xIvL; also by
Hoemle, in Bibliotheca Indioa^ 2 vols., text, commentary
and transl., Calcutta, 1888-W.

On the religion the best single discussion is by J. G.
BQhler. C/e&er die indieche Seeie der Jaina, Vienna, 1887.
Eng. transl.. On the Indian Sect cf the Jaina§t London,
1903. Consult: H. T. Coleridge, Eeeaye, lateed., London.
1879 (good for description, not for explanation of origins);
J. Bird, Hietorical Reeearchee on the Orioin and Principlsa
cf the , . . Jaina RelUn^m, Bombay, 1847; E. Thomas,
Jainitm, London, 1877; J. Burgess, Jain Cave Templsa, in
Fergusson's Cave Templee, ib. 1880; idem, Templee and
Jaina Cavee in Weetem India, 2 vols., 55 plates, ib. 1881-
1883; J. S. Warren, Lea Idfee philoaophiquee etrelioi^uaeetlee
Jainaa, in Annalea de Muaie Ouimel, x. 321-411. Paris,
1887; E. W. Hopkins, Relioicna of India, pp. 280-297.
Boston, 1895 (not up to the standard of the rest of his
book, his verdict is disparaging and condnnnatory); Jo-
gendra Nath Bhattacharjee, Hindu Caatea and Secta, Cal-
cutta, 1896; v. A Smith, The Jain Stupa and Other
AnOquUiea cf MtOhura^ India Arohaxilogical Survey, Re-

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jainism
Jamas

ports, vol. XX., 1901; A. Barth, BuDefo'n des rdiguma ds
rinde, iv., Paris, 1902; RHR, xlv. 171-185 (by Barth).
xlvii 34-60 (by A. Guerenot). The files of the ZDMG
eontain much important matter by the few students of
the subject, e.g., vol. i (by A. Weber), xxzii. 509 sqq.,
xxxrr. 247 sqq., xxxv. 667 sqq., xzzviii. 1 sqq., zl. 92 sqq.
(all by Jaoobi), xxxiv. 445 sqq. (by Khttt). xzxiy. 748 sqq.
(by Oldenberg), zlviii (by Leumann, on the Jain legends).
Similarly contributions have been made to the Indian An^
tiquary by various observers, including Hoemle and B Qhler .
The files of the JRAS contain occasional articles of value.

JAIR (Hebr. YaHrand Ya'ir): An Old-Testament
name which takes two forms and originally had as
an element a divine name which has sloughed off.
Ya*ir (II Sam. xxi. 19) was a Bethlehemite, and
father of the Elhanan who slew Goliath of Gath,
or his brother (I Chron. zx. 5). Fa'tr (E^her ii. 6)
is the father of Mordecai, and also the name of a
strong clan in the district east of the Jordan. With
the last this article is concerned.

Judges X. 3-5 speaks of a Jair who was one of
the minor judges and ruled Israel twenty-two years,
a period which falls within the interregna of the
greater judges, and is included in the chronology
which reckons 480 years between the Exodus and
Solomon (I Kings vi. 1). Ndldeke identifies this
Jair with the eponymous ancestor of the Jair clan.
Though Jair the judge can find no place in the
history of Israel, the Judges passage is serviceable
in investigating the clan. The thirty cities there
mentioned (the Hebrew for '' cities ** involves a
word-play between the words for city and colt
which the Greek poleia and pOlaus reproduces) sug-
gest thirty divisions of the clan, and in one of these
cities, Camon, Jair is said to have been buried.
Camon suggests the Kamun which Antiochus III.
took on the march from Pella to Gephrun (Poly-
bius, v., Ixx. 12), which is located on an old road
by the identification of Pella with the modem
Tabakat Fahil and of Gephrun with Ka^r Wadi el-
Ghafr, not far from Irbid. A Kamm and Kumem
were located by Dr. Schumacher from six to ten
miles east of Irbid. Kamm is a ruined city of con-
siderable extent, Kumem a modem village a mile
south of the road with remains of an old wall still
showing; the former may be the Camon of Judges,
and may indicate the region of the cities of Jair south
of the Yarmuk and in the northern part of Gilead.

Other Old-Testament passages speak of the tents
(or tent-villages) of Jair. Num. xxxii. 41 tells of
the conquest of these tents, but does not state
the place of departure or the time: the intention
of the compiler was to place it in the time of Moses;
but that was not the original meaning, and the
event must have taken place from a starting-point
in the West Jordan land and when Israel was
growing strong in the early days of the kingdom.
The conclusion of commentators that the thirty
cities grew from earlier " tent-villages " disregards
the fact that this was not a region frequented by
ncmiadic herders. Consequently the " tent- vil-
lages " of Jair indicate nomadic settlements, the
" cities ** rather the habitations of the settled por-
tions ot the clan, the former, on the basis of I Kings
iv. 13, to be placed on the border of the desert.
Yet this passage is a later addition and is not in
the Septuagint. Deut. iii. 14 makes Jair conqueror
of the wh(^ region of Aigob: Josh. xiii. 30 gives

to Jair sixty cities. According to I Chron. ii. 23,
the shepherds of the clan were in early times sub-
dued. Num. xxxii. 41 makes Jair belong to the
tribe of Manasseh. According to I Chron. ii. 21-23
the Judahite Hezron married a daughter of Machir,
whose grandfather, Jair, possessed twenty-three
towns in Gilead, representing a mingling of the two
tribes in which Judah took the leadership. But
this expresses a relationship of post-exilic times,
and the number of cities has diminished. This
account forms the bridge to the story in I Mace.
V. 24-54 of the removal of the Gileadite Jews for
security of life to Jerusalem: it was in part the Jews
of the cities of Jair on whose account Judas was oon-
cemed. The passage in the Chronicler seems to
have been taken in part from an old source.

(H. GUTHE.)

Biblioorapht: A. Kuenen, De Statn Manaate^ in ThT., xi
(1877), 478 sqq.; G. Schumacher, Northern Ajlun, pp.
137-138. London, 1890; idem. Dot aOdliche Baton, in
ZDPV, XX (1897). 109, 173; DB, u. 640; EB, u. 2316;
JE, vii. 66-06.

JAMAICA. See West Indies.
JAMBLICHUS. See Neo-Platonibm.
JAMES. See also Jacob.

JAMES.

I. The Apostles and the New-Testament Idea,

Brother of Jesus. Brother (f 2).

1. James the Son of Zebedee. His Life and Work (f 3).

2. James the Son of Alphsus. II. The Epistle of Junes.

3. James the Just. The Readers (f 1).
Brother, Step-brother, or Aim, Contents, and Style

Cousin of Jesus (§ 1). (f 2).

Date, Canoniclty, and Reception (f 3).

I. The Apostles and the Brother of Jesus: In the
New Testament two, or better three, notable men
bear the name of James.

1. James the Son of Zebedee: In the Synoptic
Gospels this James appears only in close connection
with his brother John. Their father pursued the
calling of a fisherman on the hake of Galilee (Mark
i. 19; Matt. iv. 21-22), perhaps near Capernaum
(cf. Luke V. 10 with iv. 31, 38), with his sons and
with the help of hired servants (Mark i. 20). His
wife, Salome, was one of those companions of Jesus
who cared for the needs of his daily life (Mark xv. 41;
Luke viii. 3). It is uncertain whether Salome was ^
in any way related to Jesus, for it is doubtful if the
sister of Jesus' mother (John xix. 25) can be iden-
tified with Salome (Mark xv. 40). Certain only is
her pious devotion to Jesus, whom she faithfully
followed in his wanderings through Galilee, on his
last journey to Jerusalem, and also on his way
to crucifixion (Matt, xxvii. 56; Mark xv. 40). Her
firm faith in the Messianic destiny of Jesus and her
impetuous nature are shown in her somewhat rash
prayer to the Lord that, in his kingdom, he should
seat her sons on his right hand and on his left
(Matt. XX. 20 sqq.). These characteristics she trans-
mitted to her sons; of these, James seems to have
been the elder, since in the lists of the Apostles
and usually elsewhere he is named before John
(Matt. X. 2; Mark ii. 17; cf. Luke vi. 14). It
can not be determined from John i. 40 whether
James had already come into contact with Jesus
in the following of the Baptist at the Jordan;

James

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

the summary way, however, in which both brothers
were called by Jesus to become his disciples, and the
readiness with which they obeyed (Mark i. 19-20),
make it appear probable that they were prepar^
for this sunmions. From that time they remained
disciples of Jesus with all the burning zeal which
characterized them. This zeal was not without its
drawbacks; it could lead them into heartless
fanaticism (Luke ix. 54) and also inspire unbridled
ambition (Mark x. 35 sqq.); but it enabled them to
endure resolutely the hardest sufferings with Jesus
(Mark x. 35 sqq.). How highly Jesus appreciated
their fervent nature is apparent in his applying to
them the epithet " sons of thunder " (Mark iii. 17)
and in his receiving them, with the equally im-
petuous Peter, into the inner circle of the twelve
apostles (Mark v. 37, ix. 2, xiii. 3 sqq., xiv. 33 sqq.).
After the departure of the Lord, however, James
seems to have become less prominent. Neverthe-
less, he soon took precedence over the other apostles
as the first who gave his life for the faith, since he
was executed by order of Herod Agrippa I (Acts
xii. 1, 2).

2. James, the Son of AlphflDus : This James is
mentioned with this name in the four lists of the
apostles (Matt. x. 3; Mark iii. 18; Luke vi. 15;
Acts i. 13), but no other passage of the New Testa-
ment can be brought into connection with him or
his family. Especially groundless is everything
that has been asserted regarding a relationship of
James Alphseus (see Alposus) and his house to
Jesus, based on the identity of the names Alphsus
and Cleophas. The statement of Hegesippus (in
Eusebius, Hist, eccl.j III., xi.) that Cleophas was a
brother of Joseph, the foster-father of Jesus, can
not be accepted, and the identification of the names
Alphffius and Cleophas can not be established.
Possibly James Alphseus is alluded to in Matt,
xxvii. 56; Mark xvi. 1, xv. 40; Luke xxiv. 10; if
so, it may be inferred from these passages that
James's mother was called Mary and belonged to
the followers of Jesus, and that he had a brother
called Joses, and that the epithet of ** the little "
was applied to him. Possibly this passage refers to
another James of whom nothing further is known.
It is altogether improbable, however, that in Luke
vi. 16 and Acts i. 13 the designation " Judas of
James '' [R. V. " Judas the son of James '' marg.
or, ''brother," as in A. V.] signifies that Judas was
the brother of James Alphseus, since this designa-
tion can only mean " Judas the son of James," and
a combination of these passages with those in which
a Mary is named as the mother of James and Joses
is quite impossible. But neither the apostle Judas
Lebbseus (see Judas) nor Simon Zelotes is to be
regarded as a brother of James Alphseus. Nothing
further is heard of James Alphseus, except the legend
that he was active in the southwest of Palestine
and in Egypt, and was crucified in Ostrakine, in
Lower Egypt (Nicephorus, ii. 40).

8. Jamea the Juat: A James who was the Lord's
brother, head of the community of Jerusalem, is
mentioned as a different person from both the
apostles in Matt. xiii. 55; Mark vi. 3; Acts xii. 17,
xxi. 18; I Cor. xv. 7; Gal. i. 19, ii. 9-12, as well as
James i. 1; Jude 1. Also, outside of the New Tes-

tament, by Josephus (Ant. XX., ix. 1), Hegesippus
(in Eusebius, Hist, ecd., II. 23), and other Church
Fathers. The view of the early Church
1. Broth- ^2A that Jesus and this James were
B^'th *^' '^''®^^®™» *^^ James was distinguished
Oouainof ^^^^^ *^® ^^^ apostles of the same
Jeaua. name. Clement of Alexandria ex-
pressly states that this view, which he
himself rejected, was general in his time (Strom.
vii. 93 sqq.). Tertullian refers to the marriage of
Mary after the birth of Jesus and to the mention
of his brothers in connection with her, as a- proof
of the reality of the humanity of Jesus (De mono-
gamiaf viii.; De came Christie vii.; " Against
Marcion," 19) . In the Apostolic Constitutions (ii. 55,
vi. 12, 13), besides the twelve apostles and Paul,
James, the Lord's brother, is mentioned as one of
the advocates of catholic doctrine, and he is reck-
oned among the seventy disciples. Eusebius counts
fourteen apostles; the twelve, Paul and James
(on Isa. xvii. 5; Hist, ecd.f I., xii., II., i., VII., xix.),
and when he once writes of James as the " so-called "
brother of the Lord, the context shows that he is
not suggesting a more distant relationship. When,
however, the idea of the perpetual virginity of Mary
gained ground in the Chureh, the brotherly rela-
tionship between Jesus and James was transformed
into the more distant one of stepbrother, this view
appearing in several popular writings such as the
Proto-Gospel of James (ix. 2), the Gospel of Peter,
the Gospel of pseudo-Matthew (viii. 4), the Gospel
of Thomas (xvi.). and the History of Joseph (ii.).
In the period after Epiphanius, the recognition of
James as a son of Joseph and Mary is seldom met.
On the other hand, the view of Origen, that James
was a stepbrother of Jesus, was followed in the
East by Ephraem, Basil, Gregory of Nyssa, Chrysos-
tom, Cyril of Alexandria, Epiphanius, and later by
Euthymius; in the West by Hilary, Ambrose, and
Ambrosiaster. Alongside of this, however, arose
the other opinion that the brothers of Jesus were
cousins and were identical with the men of the
same name among the apostles. It is possible that
Clement of Alexandria entertained this view as
well as the hypothesis that James was a stepbrother
of Jesus (in Eusebius, Hist, ecd.f II., 1). The first
assured defender is Jerome, who, in his writings
against Helvidius, expounds it, but practicaUy
abandons it in his Commentary on Isaiah (xvii. 6),
in that he counts fourteen apostles: the twelve,
Paul, and the Lord's brother, James. Ambrose
and Augustine express themselves even more doubt-
fully. Gradually, however, the hypothesis of iden-
tification was more and more widely accepted in
the West. In the Middle Ages it was the predom-
inant theory. On the other hand, it found so little
favor in the East that two different festival days,
one for James the Just and the other for James
Alphseus, remained traditional.

The statements of the New Testament favor the
view that James was a full brother of Jesus and
the son of Mary. Matt. i. 25 and Luke ii. 7 imply
that, after the birth of Jesus, a conjugal relation ex-
isted between Joseph and Mary and that they
had children. Whenever in the Gospels brothers
of Jesus are mentioned, they appear in such a

REUGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jamea

connection with Joseph and Mary, or with Mary

alone, that they are clearly regarded as their children

(John ii. 12; Matt. xii. 47; Mark vi. 3;

2. Hew- ^jj^ j i^\ 'pjjg designation of Mary

mIS as the mother of Jesus, employed in
Brother. ^^^^ passages, implies that the word
brothers is used in the same proper
sense. They could not therefore have been
stepbrothers of Jesus, sons of a former wife of
Joseph or of a former husband of Mary, or foster-
children of Mary (thus J. P. Lange); and just as
little only cousins of Jesus and identical with the
apostles James Alphffius, Judas Lebbseus, and Simon
Zelotes. Moreover, nowhere in the New Testament
is James the brother of the Lord called James
Alphsus, and nowhere is the word brother used in
a sense of distant relationship. That James Alphseus
is a brother of the apostles Judas Lebbseus and
Simon Zelotes is absolutely excluded by the way
in which they are named together, to be distin-
guished from other brothers who are alluded to in
the same way. Besides this the brothers of the
Lord are not only named alongside of the apostles
as distinct from them (ut sup.), but they appear
also as a circle, separate in every way from the
disciples of Jesus (Matt. xii. 46; John vii. 5).
Only after the departure of the Lord does there
arise a closer companionship of the brethren of
the Lord with the apostles, and James gains apos-
tolic rank as head of the mother-church in Jerusa-
lem, while still remaining distinct from the apostles
(Gal. i. 19, a. 9; I Cor. xv. 7).

The story of the material and spiritual hfe of
James, the brother of the Lord, is quite clearly
defined in its outlines. During the
3. His Life public ministry of Jesus, his brothers
and Work, adopted a skeptical attitude, probably
because they could not reconcile his
lofty claims with the commonplace conditions in
which they had lived together in their home. Jesus
complains of a lack of recognition on the part of
his own relatives (Mark vi. 4), and he could not
count them as his spiritual kindred (Mark iii. 31-34).
After the miracle of the loaves and fishes in the
desert it seems that then the idea of his Messianic
task may have dawned upon them, but the humility
of his attitude prevented them from confidently
believing in him. Even at the time of his Passion,
the brothers seem to have separated themselves
from his mother, who now believed in him (John
xix. 27). Nevertheless, the superhuman patience
with which Jesus went to his death may have won
their hearts, especially that of James; for to him
was vouchsafed an appearance of the risen Christ
(1 Cor. XV. 7), which affirmed his faith. He there-
fore appears after the ascension of the Lord as a
member of the Christian community, wherein he
won a leading position after the death of James,
the son of Zebedee, and the flight of Peter. In
general, his activity was confined to Jerusalem
(Gal. i. 17). He took part in the council of the
apoBtles with Peter and John as one of the three
pillars of the Jewish-Christian Church (Gal. ii. 1
sqq.; Acts xv. 1 sqq.). There he showed himself
free from the pharisaical and strictly legal views of
tlie Judaixing opponents of Paul who desired to

impose upon Gentile Christians the full observance
of the Mosaic laws. At the same time he gave the
hand of fellowship to Paul in proof of their thorough
agreement on the basis of the Gospel. Nevertheless
he considered it important that Jewish Christians
should strictly observe the laws of their fathers and
should require for these laws a certain respect on
the part of the Gentile Christians. The standpoint
of James also appears in the influence exerted by
his friends in Antioch (Gal. ii. 11 sqq.) upon Peter.
The Ebionite party in the post-apostolic age en-
deavored to cover itself with the authority of James
and to envelop him with a legendary atmosphere
of glory. According to Epiphanius (Haer. XXX.,
xvi.), there were legends even of his ascension to
heaven. Concerning the death of James there are
two contradictory accounts. Hegesippus relates
(Eusebius, Hist, eccl.j II. 23) that he was thrown
from the tower by the Pharisees, not long before
the beginning of the Roman-Jewish war (cf. Zahn,
Forschungen, vi. 235, Leipsic, 1900), therefore,
about 66 A.D. According to Josephus {Ant, XX.,
ix. 1), however, the party of the Sadducees made
use of the change in the proconsulship in 62 or 63
A.D. to have James stoned to death, against the
will of the Pharisees. It is, however, strongly sus-
pected that this passage of Josephus is an inter-
polation (Zahn, ut sup. vi. 301 sqq.). On the other
hand, the date given by Hegesippus is supported
by the pseudo-Clementine literature, according to
which James survived Peter, and also by the
Chronicon Paschale (p. 592), and therefore is to be
preferred.

n. The Epistle of James: This bears a title in

the opening verse which names the writer and those

for whom it was destined. To see in

1. The this only the dedication to a dogmatic

Readers, writing, or a homily, is counter-indi-
cated by the formal salutation common
in Greek letters. Neither should it be assimied that
this epistolary form only served the hterary fiction
of an unknown writer, nor that it is a title added
to the writing about 200 a.d., since in both cases
the author would probably have been called an
apostle. Therefore, the words in the title " to the
twelve tribes which are scattered abroad " may
well be used to determine the first readers. This
expression, however, " the twelve tribes '* is so
specifically national and Israelitic that it can not be
referred even figuratively to all Christianity. Ac-
cording to the title, therefore, the Epistle is ad-
dressed to the whole Jewish people outside of
Palestine. This designation of the readers is lim-
ited, however, by the statement that the writer
calls himself '* a servant of the Lord Jesus Christ ";
therefore he assumes that his readers recognize the
authority of Jesus. Those readers are therefore
neither Jewish and Gentile Christians nor Chris-
tians of Jewish and Gentile descent nor principally
Gentile Christians; and just as little are they Jewish
Christians within or without Palestine: they are
Jewish Christians living outside of Palestine. They
can, therefore, only be called the twelve tribes in
the dispersion in the sense that they were the true
Israel so far as it existed outside the Holy Land.
These Jewish Christians living outside of Palestine

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

are not to be sought only in one place or in one
limited district; indeed, the generalness and fulness
of the expression " the twelve tribes which are
scattered abroad " render it certain that all Jewish
Christians living outside of Palestine were meant,
and make it extremely probable that there already
were such far and wide. The inferences from the
title are not refuted by the letter itself, but partly
confirmed. It is not justifiable to cite the silence
of the author regarding the Law, the temple, and
the unbelieving members of his race against the
Jewish origin of the readers, becaiise he is not alto-
gether silent concerning the Law (ii. 8 sqq.) and
had no occasion to sp^tk of the temple and un-
believing Jews. That the readers are Christians
and not Jews is to be seen from ii. 1, and the whole
tone of the Epistle is opposed to a narrow local
limitation of the circle of readers. In this epistle,
not only is there no personal relation whatever
between the writer and the readers, no special
salutation, etc., but the conditions referred to are of
a very general character. It is not, therefore, jus-
tifiable, because the conditions treated of in the
Epistle of James appear to point more to Palestine
than to the diaspora, to assume that the Epistle
was originally addressed to the community of
Jerusalem and was later sent to communities out-
side of Palestine. The Epistle of James is therefore
not in the true sense of the word a letter, but rather
an address in the form of a circular letter to all
Jewish Christians within the pale of Christianity,
which was already quite widely disseminated.

What, however, the author recognizes as funda-
mental in the spiritual condition of his readers is
the worldliness and superficiality of
2. Aim, their Christianity. With the multifa-
Contenta, rious sufferings (i. 2) and the delay in
and Style, the second coming of Christ (v. 7-8)
they began to lose patience and their
hearts were divided between God and the world
(i. 7). Alongside of flattery to the rich, there is
contempt for the poor (ii. 1 sqq.), there is also
bitterness against the former (iv. 11, v. 9). Along-
side of the prayer for means to satisfy their pleas-
ures (iv. 3), there is impious security on the part
of the well-to-do (iv. 13 sqq.). Stress is laid upon
the profession of faith (ii. 14), which was a subject
of wrangling and dispute, and every one was eager
to impart instruction (chap, iii.); but there were
few signs of application of faith to practical life.
These conditions are not to be derived from Juda-
ism so much as from a stagnation of the spiritual
life succeeding to a period of loving enthusiasm.
The aim and contents correspond to these spiritual
conditions of the readers. After an exhortation to
be steadfast and prudent in trials, there follows the
lesson that the temptation to fail in the hour of
trial proceeds from man's own sinful inclinations,
not from God, the giver of all good, the author of
regeneration by the word of truth (i. 13-18), and
to this is attached the admonition to assimilate
this word of truth in a hiunble and obedient spirit
(i. 19-27). Later on there are special warnings
against the errors and faults named above. The
conclusion consists of various brief admonitions,
V. 12-20. The simple style of the letter suits its

practical contents admirably, following the method
of the didactic writings of the Old Testament, in
which the single proverbs are strung together in
groups like rows of pearls. Instead of the precision
of Paul's keen, logical thinking, there is foimd more
rhetorical amplification. The Greek is compara-
tively pure, although there are not a few Hebra-
isms. While this Gospel is designated as a law,
it is yet the perfect law of liberty (i. 25), not, like
the law of the Old Testament, a heavy yoke but to
be engrafted in the heart (i. 21), so that man, by
his own initiative, responds to the divine will.
Inasmuch as the Gospel is essentiaUy identical with
the law of the Old Testament, everything that con-
cerns the person of the mediator of the new revela-
tion is placed in the background, even the name of
Christ is mentioned only twice, and the synoptic
concepts of the Son of Man and the kingdom of
heaven are lacking. Nevertheless, the moral teach-
ings of Jesus, principally those of the Sermon on
the Mount, are much more freely used than in any
other writing of the New Testament. Therefore
this epistle is somewhat in disaccord with the
Apostle Paul, whose attention is directed more to
that side of the Gospel which is in opposition to
the Law. It has even been held that ii. 21, 24 (cf.
with Rom. iii. 28, iv. 2; Gal. ii. 16) is in irrecon-
cilable opposition to Paul; indeed, that it shows
a conscious polemic against him. This difficulty
can not be avoided by assuming that the Epistle
of James was earlier than the Pauline epistles which
contain the divergent propositions, which would
not affect the objective difference; indeed the sus-
picion of conscious contradiction would merely be
transferred from James to Paul. But this view
of the chronological relation of the writings of Paul
and James is untenable, for there is no indicsr
tion that the formula 'Ho be justified by faith " or
the use of the passage Gen. xv. 6 in support of
this, was common, as is assumed in this epistle,
on the part of its readers. Indeed it remains doubt-
ful whether the Epistle of James is intended to
combat the standpoint of the Pauline epistles. In
any case this epistle is in accord with Paul in what
it really endeavors to prove, that is, that faith with-
out works can not bring salvation (cf. II Cor. v. 10),
and that a faith which does not find expression in
moral conduct is utterly worthless (I Cor. xiii. 2).
Paul regards works as unimportant for justification,
while James looks upon works as a condition of
justification. While Paul would not have said that
there was a justification by the works of faith in
the sense of the Epistle of James, because he has
a stricter conception of what constitutes conduct
well-pleasing to God, his idea of a moral righteous-
ness of believers is approximately that of the
Epistle of James. Therefore, there is, if not perfect
agreement on this point between James and Paul,
at least only an unessential and not an irreconcilable
opposition in principle. It is generally recognized
that the polemic of the Epistle of James is only
directed against a distorted and one-sided Paulin-
ism. The opinion that this epistle was designed
to attack Paul's teaching, though unsuccessfully.
Lb without foundation. What is combated is not
any doctrine in itself, but only a false standard of

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

conduct. It denounces a lack of moral application
of faith, dependent upon a formalizing of Chris-
tianity and palliated by a misuse of Pauline doc-
trine.

These results show that the epistle should be
placed in a relatively late period of the Apostolic

Age when the Church had attained a

8- Bate, considerable extent and Christian life

^^*^?J^^ had lost something of its first fresh

^"^Vion'*^ vigor. It is not the earliest or even

one of the earliest of the New-Testa-
ment writings. The synagogue [so the Am. R.V.,
i 2] is not a Jewish one, as though a common use
of the synagogue still existed with Jews and Chris-
tians; it is a meeting-place for Christians, which
they control (ii. 3). The conception of the im-
minence of the Parousia (v. 8) appears even beyond
the Apostolic Age. That the Epistle of James only
addresses Jewish Christians does not prove that
there were not also Gentile Christians, and if it con-
tains more passages recalling the sayings of Jesus
than any other of the Apostolic epistles, that is
to be attributed to its tl^logical character, and
perhaps to the employment of written sources. Its
use in the Chureh begins at an early period. It is
probably cited in I Peter, in I Clement, in the
Shepherd of Hermas, and by Justin Martyr. It
was certainly used by Irenseus, Clement of Alex-
andria, Dionysius of Alexandria, Cyril of Jerusalem,
Didymus, and Ephraem, and it was also included in
the Peshito version. Origen, who is the first to cite it
expressly as a writing of James, the Lord's brother,
looks upon it as imcanonical; Eusebius counts it
among the antUeffomena, and Theodore of Mopsu-
estia rejected it. Jerome says it was regarded as
pseudonymous in the Latin Church, but he in-
cludes it among the canonical books, and his in-
fluence and Augustine's assured its acceptance as
canonical. This view was not disputed until Eras-
mus expressed certain doubts. Luther thought it a
" right strawy epistle " (recht stroheme Epistd),
written by a certain pious man, and Cajetan
expressed doubts as to its authenticity. C^vin
defended it, but Luther's view's were accepted by
the Biagdeburg Centuriators and by some Lutheran
dogmatists, as well as by the Calvinist Wetstein.
In modem times the opposition to its authenticity
was begun by De Wette and Schleiermacher. Natu-
rally no use could be made of the title in the debate
as to the origin of the epistle on the assumption
that it was added at a later period in order to gain
for the epistle (really the work of an unknown
author) acceptance in the canon through a title
bearing the name of an apostle. Still less tenable
is the hypothesis that the epistle, apart from the
two (assumed as interpolated) mentions of Christ
(i. 1 and ii. 1), was the work of an unknown Jew.
The method of interpolation assumed is devoid of
motive and without analogy. The introduction of
Christian ideas into Jewish writings bearing the
name of highly revered Jews is often met, but is
entirely different from the attempt assumed here,
to make the author of a Jewish writing appear to be
a (Christian. Besides this, much in the Epistle of
James is clearly Christian, apart from the two
supposed additions (i. 1&-21, 25, ii. 8, 12, 14-26).

If, then, "James, a servant of God and of the
Lord Jesus Christ," was originally named as author
of the epistle, there can be no doubt who is to be
understood thereby. James, the son of Zebedee, of
whom Jftger (ZeUachrift fur hUheriache Theologie,
1878) thinks as the author, was no longer living in
the period after the beginning of Paul's mission
(Acts xii. 2); James Alphseus withdraws entirely
into the background in this time, and either of
them would have been designated as an apostle.
The only James who is prominent in this period
and needed no more precise designation is James,
the Lord's brother, the head of the community of
Jerusalem. And there are no imperative groimds
for refusing to ascribe the epistle to him. The
vacillation in the traditions of the early chureh as
to the canonical acceptance of the epistle is ex-
plained by the facts that James was not an apostle;
that he became the patron-saint of the Ebionites,
and that the epistle seemed to contain a polemic
against Paul. The author appears rather to have
been a man of a practical turn of mind, pious and
prayerful, who does not fail to recognize the essen-
tial superiority of the Gospel over the Law, but
who, nevertheless, emphasizes the relationship of
the morality of the former to that of the latter.
All this perfectly suits James, the Lord's brother,
as known through the New Testament and Hege-
sippus. It may therefore be assumed that James,
the Lord's brother, wrote this pastoral letter in
Palestine for the Jewish Christians outside of Pales-
tine, at a time when the activity of Paul had ceased,
either because of his captivity, or his death. For
the Protevangeliiun of James see Apocrypha,

B, I., 1. F. SlEFFBRT.

Bibuoorapht: On the general topic consult: DB, ii. 640-
548; EB, ii 2317-26. On the three Jameses consult the
histories of the Apostolic Age. e.g., 8ch&£f, Chri$iian
Chvreh, i. 100 sqq., 266 sqq., 272 sqq., et passim; A.
C. McGiflfert, ApoUolic Age, passim, New York, 1807.
The question of the relationship of the third James to
Jesus is discussed in DB, i. 320-326; by J. B. Lightfoot
in his Commentary on Galatians, in a special section;
in the Introduction to Mayor's Commentary on James
(see below); in F. W. Farrar, Early Days cf ChrigHanUyt
chap, six., London, 1884; in Schegg's commentary (see
below); and often in the other commentaries. Consult
also W. Patrick, Jamea the Lord't Brother, Edinburgh,
1006. For the questions concerning the authenticity,
date, contents, etc., of the epistle consult in general the
works on Introduction to the New Testament — especially
those of JOlicher, 1804, Eng. transl.. Edinburgh, 1004;
T. Zahn, 1000; and B. W. Bacon, 1000— and those on New-
Testament theology, especially that of Beyschlag, Eng.
transl., Edinburgh, 1806. Works on special topics are:
W. G. Schmidt, LekrtgehaU des Jakofnubriefes, Leipsic,
1860; P. J. Gloag. InirodueHon to the Catholic BpUtlee,
Edinburgh, 1887; W. C. van Manen, in 7^7*. xxviii (1804),
478-406; A. H. Cullen, Teaehing of Jamee; Studiee in the
Ethica of the Epietle of Jamee, London, 1004; M. Meinerts,
Der JaMnubrief und eein Verfaaeer, Freiburg, 1006.

Of commentaries on the epistle the best for English
readers is by J. B. Mayor, London, 1807. Others which
may be mentioned are: W. August!, Lemgo, 1801; J. W.
Greshof, Essen, 1830; M. Schneckenburger, Stuttgart.
1832; G. W. TheUe. Leipsic, 1833; C. R. Jachmann, ib.
1838; F. H. Kern, Tabingen. 1838; C. A. Scharling.
Copenhagen. 1841; C. E. Cell^rier. (3eneva, 1860; A.
Neander. Eng. transl.. New York. 1862; A. Wiesinger.
K6nig8berg, 1864; De Wette. Leipsic. 1866; F. Graupp.
Breslau. 1861; R. Wardlaw. Edinburgh, 1862; H. Bou-
mann. Utrecht. 1866; A. H. Blom, Dort. 1860; H. Ewald,
Gdttingen, 1870; J. C. C. Hoffmann, Nfirdlingen, 1876;
H. Alford, Greek Teatamerd, vol. iv., London, 1877; E. H.

James
Jansen

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

Plumptre, in Cambridoe Bible, Cambridge, 1878; J. T.
Demarest, New York, 1879; D. Erdmann, Berlin, 1888;
K. F. KeU. Leipsic, 1883; P. Sohegg, Munich, 1883; W.
Beyschlag, Gdttingen, 1888; A. F. Manoury, Bar-le-
Duc 1888; C. F. Deems, New York, 1889; E. T. Winkler.
Philadelphia, 1889; A. Plummer, in ExpoHtor*9 Bible,
London, 1891; B. Weiss, in TU, viii. 2 (1892); P. Peine,
Eisenach, 1893; J. Adderley. London, 1900; W. H. Ben-
nett, in Century Bible, ib. 1901; C. A. Bigg, ib. 1902; C.
Brown, ib. 1906; F. J. Taylor, Fourteen Addreseee, ib.
1907.

JAMES, SAINT, OF COMPOSTELLA, ORDER OF:

A military order, founded in 1161, as the Knights
of St. James of the Sword {de Spado) , by Pedro
Fernandez of Fuente Encalada, in the diocese of
Astorga, Spain, united in 1170 with the Canons of
San Loyo (St. Eligius) of Compostella. Toward
the end of the century it was confirmed by Pope
Celestine III. In purpose and character the order
was like those of Alcantara and Calatrava (qq.v.),
but it never equaled them in importance. It came
to an end in 1835. See Compostella.

(O. Z5CKLBRt.)
Bibliography: G. Giucci, Iconografta atorica degli ordini
religioai e cavallereachi, i. 9&-100. Rome. 1836; P. B.
Gams, Die Kirchenoeachichte von Spanien, iii., 1, p. 56,
Ilegensburg, 1876; Currier, Religioue Ordere, p. 217.

JAMES, JOHN AN6ELL: English Congregation-
alist; b. at Blandford Forum (17 m. n.e. of Dor-
chester, Dorset) June 6, 1785; d. at Birmingham
Oct. 1, 1859. After serving four years as an ap-
prentice to a linen-draper at Poole, Dorset, he
entered the theological academy at Gosport in 1802,
and qualified under the Toleration Act as a dissent-
ing preacher the following year. He was called to
Carr's Lane Chapel, Birmingham, in 1805, and or-
dained pastor there early the following year. He
remained in this pastorate till his death. He was
chairman of the board of education of Spring Hill
College, Birmingham (now Mansfield College, Ox-
ford), from 1838 till his death; and in 1846 he was
one of the chief promoters of the Evangelical
Alliance. He was held in high esteem as a preacher
and author, and as a public man. Though a Cal-
vinist in creed, he laid more stress on Christian duty
than on doctrinal niceties. He published numerous
single sermons and addresses and a dozen small
volumes, of which the best known are Christian
Charity (London, 1828); and The Anxious Enquirer
after Salvation (Birmingham, 1834), which was
widely circulated in England and America and
translated into Welsh, Gaelic, and Malagasy. Other
writings by James will be found in his Works (17
vols., London, 1860-64).

Bibliography: James's Autobiography was published as the
last volume of the Works, ut sup. Consult also: J. Camp-
bell, Review of J. A. Jamee* Hiatory and Chamcter, Lon-
don, 1859; R. W. Dale, Life and Lettera of John Angell
Jamea, ib. 1861; DNB, xxix. 216-217.

JAMES, MONTAGUE RHODES: Church of Eng-
land; b. at Livermere (6 m. n.e. of Bury St. Ed-
mund's), Suffolk, Aug. 1, 1862. He studied at
King's College, Cambridge (B.A., 1885), and in
1903 was appointed Sanders Reader in bibliography.
Since 1905 he has been provdst of King's College,
and is also director of the Fitzwilliam Museum.
He has written or edited Psalms of Solomon (in
collaboration with H. E. Ryle; Cambridge, 1891);
TestamerU of Abraham (in collaboration with W. E. I

Barnes; 1892); The Gospel according to Peter and
the Revelation of Peter (in collaboration with J. A.
Robinson; London, 1892); Apocrypha Anecdota
(2 vols., Cambridge, 1893-97) ; On the Abbey of St.
Edmund at Bury (1895); The Life and Miracles of
St, WiUiam of Norwich (in collaboration with A.
Jessopp, 1896) ; Sources of Archbishop Parker's Col-
lection of Manuscripts (1899) ; Verses in the Windows
of Canterbury Cathedral (1901); Ancient Libraries of
Canterbury and Dover (1904) ; and Ghost Stories of an
Antiquary (1904); as well as descriptive catalogues
of the manuscripts (especially western) in the libra-
ries of Eton College (Cambridge, 1895), the Fitz-
william Museum (1895), and Lambeth Palace (1900),
and of the following Cambridge colleges: Jesus
(1895), King's (1895), Sidney Sussex (1895), Peter-
house (1899), Trinity (4 vols., 1900-05), Emmanuel
(1904), Pembroke (1905), Christ's (1905), Clare
(1906), Queen's (1906), Trinity Hall (1907), and
Gonville and Caius (2 vols., 1907-08). .

JAMES, WILLIAM: American psychologist and
philosopher; b. in New York Jan. 11, 1842. He
studied in private schools, then at the Lawrence
Scientific School and the Harvard Medical School
(M.D., 1869) . He has taught at Harvard since 1876,
having been instructor in philosophy 1872-76,
assistant professor of anatomy and physiology
1876-«0, assistant professor of philosophy 1880-85,
professor of philosophy 1885-89, professor of psy-
chology 1889-97, and professor of philosophy again
since 1897. He holds a position in the front rank
of modem psychologists, and in this field has
exercised a potent influence both in Europe and
America. In philosophy he represents what may
be called empirical idealism as opposed to absolute
idealism. His works have been widely translated,
and are characterized by keen analysis, apt illus-
tration, lucid exposition, and a charm of style
rarely encountered in works on philosophy. He has
published The Principles of Psychology (2 vols.,
New York, 1890); Psychology — Briefer Course
(1892); The Will to Believe, and Other Essays in
Popular Philosophy (1897); Human Immortality:
Two Supposed Objections to the Doctrine (Boston,
1898); Talks to Students on Psychology, and to
Teachers on Some of Life's Ideals (New York, 1899);
Varieties of Religious Experience: A Study in Hu-
man Nature (1902), Giflford Lectures delivered at
Edinburgh 1900-01, a work which has attracted
much attention, and establishes his claim to men-
tion in a religious encyclopedia; Pragmatism: A
New Name for Some Old Ways of Thinking (1907);
and Pluralistic Universe (Hibbert Lectures; 1909).
In 1908 a volume of Essays Philosophical and Psy-
chological was published in his honor in New York.

JAMESON, j^'mensun, ANNA BROWNELL: Eng-
lish authoress; b. in Dublin, Ireland, May 17, 1794;
d. at Ealing (9 m. w. of St. Paul's, London), Middle-
sex, Mar. 17, 1860. She was the daughter of Denis
Brownell Murphy, an Irish miniature-painter, who
came to England in 1798 and settled with his family
at London in 1803. After spending a number of
years as governess in the faniily of the marquis of
Winchester, and in other noted families, she con-
tracted an unhappy marriage with Robert Jameson,

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

JameB

a young barrister, in 1825. She practically sepa-
rated from her husband in 1829, when he went to
Dominica as puisne judge. In 1836 she joined
him in Canada, where he had secured, through her
influence, an important legal appointment in 1833,
but left him after six months, though she did not
return to England till 1838. In the course of her
literary work she spent much time in France, Italy,
and Germany. Her most important work is Sacred
and Legendary Art, in four sections, Legends of the
Saints (2 vols., London, 1848), Legends of the
Monastic Orders as Represented in the Fine Arts
(1850), Legends of the Madonna as Represented in
the Fine Arts (1852), and The History of Our Lord
as Exemplified in Works of Art (2 vols., 1864), which
was completed by Lady Eastlake. Other works
deserving mention are the popular Diary of an
Ennuy^ (1826); the excellent Characteristics of
Women (2 vols., 1832), essays on Shakespeare's
heroines dedicated to Fanny Kemble; Visits and
Sketches (4 vols., 1834), a charming work; Winter
Studies and Summer Rambles in Canada (3 vols.,
1838); and Memoirs and Essays (1846). In her
later life Mrs. Jameson became interested in the
work of Sisters of Charity and wrote Sisters of
Charity (1855) and The Communion of Labour (1856).
Bibuographt: Q. Macpherson, MemoirB of the Life of
Anna JameMon, London, 1878; DNB, zxix. 230-232.

JAIINES Ain> JAMBRES: The names given in
II Tim. iii. 8 to the adversaries of Moses, who
opposed their magic to his miracles, but were over-
come by him (Ex. vii. 11 sqq.). Paul derived the
names from Jewish tradition. Jambres appears in
the forms YambriSf Yombros; the Talmudists write it
mamre* and mamrey, " the rebel.'' Janne« appears
as Yannis and YonoSf and in the Talmud as Yo-
hannan (Yohanne). Buxtorf and Levy consider
this last to be the original form; but the analogy
of Jambres suggests that it also had an adjectival
quality expressing a hostile character and that it
was later confounded with the usual name Johannes.
The names probably read Yani we Yamri, Aram.
Yanne tve Yamre^ " he who seduces and he who
makes rebellious."

Jewish tradition makes them sons of Balaam
(Targum of Jonathan on Num. xxii. 22), and places
their rise at the time the Pharaoh gave conunand
to kill the first-bom of Israel {Sanhedrin^ f. 106a;
Sopah 11a), and supposes them to have been teach-
ers of Moses, the makers of the golden calf (Midrash
Tant^uma, f. 115b), and to have accompanied their
father Balaam.

These names were doubtless familiar to the
apostle educated in the school of Gamaliel, and
they seem also to have been well known in the
heathen world. Origen and Ambrose mention an
apocryphal book about Jannes and Mambres (see
PsEUDEPiGRAPHA, Old Te8Tami»it, II., 37). The
I^hagorean Numenius (second century) knew of
the two Egyptian magi (Eusebius, Praeparatio evan-
gelica, ix. 8), Apuleius had heard of them {Apologia^
u,). The two names occur in the Gospel of Nico-
demus (chap, v.), in the Martyrium Petri et Pauli
(chap, xxxiv.; R. A. Lipsius, Acta apostolorum
apocrypha, Leipsic, 1891, pp. 148-149), in the Acta
Petri ei Pauli (chap. Iv.; Lipsius, ut sup. p. 202),

and elsewhere. The apostle has been blamed for
employing so unimportant a tradition, but may be
justified by the resemblance between these men
and the fake teachers of II Tim. iii. 6 sqq.

C. VON Orblu.

Bibuoobapht: Seharer, Oetchichle, iii. 292-294. Eng. tranal.,
XL, iii. 149-160. Tho forms are disciused in the lexicons;
e.g.: J. Buxtorf, ed. of Basel, 1639, pp. 946 sqq.; J. C.
Suioerus, The^aunu eccle8ia»ticu9, s. v. " Iannis "; J. A.
FabriduB, Codex peeudepioraphua Veterie Te9tam»nH, i.
813 sqq., Hamburg, 1723; DB, ii. 649; EB, ii. 2327-29;
JB, vii. 71.

JANOW, yfl'nef, MATTHIAS OF: The first of the
so-called precursors of Huss; d. in Prague Nov. 30,
1394. He descended from a noble Bohemian family
and studied theology in Prague and Paris, where
he remained nine years, to which was due his
title of magister Parisiensis. In 1381 he was ap-
pointed canon in the cathedral of St. Vitus in Prague
and confessor. He was not a great preacher, but
exercised influence through his pastoral labors and
writings. He considered that the abuses of the
Church started from the papal schism, and that
they could be healed only by moral renovation.
Therefore he was intent upon church reform. In
his writings he addressed himself to the common
people. The reforms which he advocated were the
abolition of all human additions to Christianity
(doctrinal and ceremonial), and a return of believers
to the love of Jesus and the simple foundation on
which rested the Apostolic Church. He laid special
stress on frequent communion, since he regarded
the Lord's Supper as the most important means
for spiritual growth, and emphasized the common
priesthood of believers. He was a diligent student
of the Bible and wrote from 1388 to 1392 various
treatises which he later collected under the title
Regulae veteris et novi testamenti. Parts of this work
were erroneously ascribed to Huss and embodied in
the Nuremberg collection of his works (vol. i., pp.

376-471). (J. LOBERTH.)

BiBLiooRAPHT. J. P. Jordan, Die VorlSufer dee Huuiten-
tume in B6hmen, Leipsic, 1846; F. Palacky, Oeechichte
von Bdhmen, iii. 1, pp. 173 sqq.. Prague. 1851; idem, Doc-
umenta Joannia Hue, pp. 699 sqq.. ib. 1869 (the retracta-
tion of Janow); E. H. Gillett. Life and Timee of John
Hue, pp. 26 nqq.. Philadelphia, 1870; A. H. Wratislaw,
John Htu, pp. 61 sqq.. London, 1882; J. Loserth, Widif
and Hue, ib. 1889; Count Latsow, John Hue, pp. 3-60,
ib. 1909.

JANSEN, CORNELIUS, JANSENISM.

Origin of Movement (SI). Quesnel. The Bull Unig^n-

Cornelius Jansen (§ 2). itue ({ 5).

Jansenism Condemned by Acceptants and Appellants

Pope (§ 3). (J 6).

Amauld and Pascal ({ 4). Convolutionists ({ 7).
Close of Controversies ({8).

The religious movement known as Jansenism
originated in the controversy on the doctrine of
grace. It divided the Roman Catholic
I. Origin Church of France for over a century
of Move- and developed a puritanical and sep-
ment aratist spirit in many ways analogous
to that of French Calvinism. Since
the writings of Augustine, after Paul, chiefly deter-
mined the belief of both Luther and Calvin, the
Counter-Reformation was driven into an attitude of
practical, though veiled, hostility toward his special
teachings. They had had a powerful influence in

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

the Middle Ages on the mystioB and the scholastioB,
which left its mark on the Thomistio theology of
the Dominican order. At the Council of Trent, in
regard to the doctrines of grace and of sin, they
opposed the Scotist tendency toward semi-Pelagian-
ism exemplified in the Franciscans and Jesuits.
These tatter, however, were victorious in the main,
and soon boldly developed their deductions from
the concessions made to them. The Pauline and
Augustinian doctrine was now upheld especially
by Michael Bajus (q.v.), professor of Louvain.
Tlie Franciscans obtained the condemnation of
seventy-six of his propositions in 1567 and 1579.
When the Jesuit Molina in 1588 taught semi-
Pelagianism, the Dominicans brought -serious
charges against him. In order to settle the dispute
between the two orders, Clement VIII. convoked
in 1597 a cangregatio de auxUiis to define decisively
the relation of grace to conversion, but it was dis-
solved in 1607 by Paul V. As the gulf between
the Roman Catholic Church and the churches of
the Ref omuktion became wider, the spirit of semi-
Pelagiajiism in Ufe and doctrine assumed larger
dimensions in the Roman Catholic Church, and as
Thomism degenerated into a lifeless scholasticism,
it is not strange that the doctrine of Augustine
became, in 1612, a new revelation for two young
and zealous students of the University of Louvain,
Cornelius Jansen and Duvergier de Hauranne, after-
ward abb4 of St. Cyran (see Duvergier de Hau-
banne).

Cornelius Jansen (b. at Aoquoy in North Holland
Oct. 28, 1585; d. at Ypres [66 m. w. of Brussels,

Belgium] May 6, 1638) studied the^

2* Comeliufl ology at the college of Adrian VI. in

Jansen. Louvain, where he formed an intimate

acquaintance with Duvergier. He de-
clined a position as teacher of philosophy, hating
Aristotle as the father of scholasticism, and believ-
ing Plato's ideas of God and virtue superior to
those of some Roman Catholic theologians. As
president of the college of St. Pulcheria he taught
theology. By continually reading the writings of
Augustine, Jansen came to the conviction that
the Roman Catholic theologians of both parties
had deviated from the doctrine of the primitive
Church, and in 1621 he resolved, with his friend
Duvergier, to work for reform. For this purpose
he entered into intimate connections with prom-
inent Irish divines, and with the leaders of the new
French Congregation of the Oratory. At his instiga-
tion, the University of Louvain excluded Jesuits
from positions as teachers, and, in behalf of the
university, he imdertook journeys to Madrid, in
1623 and 1627, with reference to certain encroach-
ments of the Jesuits. In 1630 he was appointed
regius professor of Holy Scripture in Louvain, and
in 1636 bishop of Ypres. He laid down the results
of his studies of Augustine in his comprehensive
work, Augu8tinu8t sea doctrina SancH Aitgiutini de
kumanae naturae sanitaie, aegritudinef medicina ad-
versus Pdagianoa et MaesUienaea (3 vols., Louvain,
1640). The first volume gives a historical expo-
sition of the semi-Pelagian heresies; the second sets
forth the Augustinian doctrine as to the state of
innocence and the fall; while the third treats of

the grace of Christ and of predestination in the
spirit of Augustine. While the work was still in
the press at Louvain, strenuous efforts were made
by the Jesuit party there, through the papal nuncio
at Cologne, to prohibit its appearance, but in vain.
It was immediately reprinted in Paris and Rouen.
The bidl In eminerdi (1642) reproached Jansen
for the renewal of the heresies of Bajus, but he had
then been dead for four years. It was only after
a resistance of several years on the part of bishops,
universities, and provincial estates that the bull
was published in the Spanish Netherlands and its
subscription enforced.

The leader of the Jansenist party after the death
of Jansen and Duvergier was Antoine Amauld (see
Arnauld), the learned doctor of the
3. Jansen- Sorbonne, who, in 1643, published De
ism Con- la fr^qaenJte communion on the basis of
demned the doctrine of predestination as taught
by Pope, by Augustine and Jansen. At the
same time the Jesuits were eagerly at
work to effect the condemnation of the Jansenist
principles, being aided in their efforts by the French
Dominicans, while the Dominicans of Spain and
Italy took the part of Jansen. The University of
Louvain requested the assistance of the Sorbonne
in repelling the encroachments of the Jesuits and
preventing the condemnation of Jansen's doctrines.
As no particular doctrines of Jansen had been Con-
demned as heretical in the papal bidl, the Jesuits
attempted to formulate, in the shape of definite
propositions, the heresy of which they accused him.
Th^ were finally reduced to five, and in 1650 for-
warded to Rome. They are as follows: (1) Some
commandments of God are impossible of execution
by the just, and the grace by which they might
be truly fulfilled is lacking; (2) in the state of
fallen nature inward grace is never resisted; (3)
in the fallen state merit and demerit do not de-
pend on a liberty which excludes internal neces-
sity; freedom from external constraint sufiSces; (4)
the semi-Pelagians admitted the necessity of an
inward prevenient grace for the performance of
every (good) act, even for the first act of faith;
their heresy consisted in their assertion that this
grace was of such a nature that the will of man
was able either to resist or to obey it; (5) it is
semi-Pelagian to say that Christ died or shed his
blood for all men without exception. Pope Inno-
cent X. condemned these theses in 1653 in the bull
Cum occasione. Although this bidl was confirmed
neither by the assembly of the clergy nor by par-
liament, it was sent to the different dioceses for
subscription, at the instigation of the Jesuits. The
Jansenists declared their willingness to condemn
the five theses in their heretical sense, but not as
propositions of Jansen. Most of the Jansenists ad-
mitted the infallibility of the pope in matters of
faith, but not as to facts of merely human knowl-
edge. In 1654 the pope decliured that these
condemned theses were really in Jansen's Augus-
tinu8f and that their condemnation as the teach-
ing of Jansen would have to be subscribed on
pain of deprivation. Under these circumstances
hundreds of the " party of grace " signed the
condemnation.

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jansen

Id 1654 a priest at St. Sulpioe, in Paris, refused

absolution to the duke of Liancourt because of his

protection of a priest who had refused

4. Arnanld subscription. Thereupon Antoine Ar-
and PascaL nauld (q.v.) published his LeUre a une

personne de qualiUy from which two
propositions were immediately extracted by his
opponents: (1) The grace of God, without which
we can not do anything good, had left Peter at the
time when he denied the Lord; (2) since not every-
body can convince himself that the five condemned
theses are in Jansen, a submission of respectful
silence under the papal decision suffices; the sub-
mission of faith can not be required for the fact.
Amauld was expelled from the Sorbonne (1656),
and eighty doctors went out with him rather than
sign his exconununication. At this time Blaise
Pascal (q.v.) sent forth his Lettres d un proinnctalf
in the first of which he attacked the Thomists for
opposing the teachings of Jansen and Amauld,
while they themselves, according to him, with their
mechanical view of predestination, really shared
their views. In the following letters he attacked the
casuistry and moral theology of the Jesuits. But
Louis XIW. was intent upon thoroughly eradicating
Jansenism. In 1660, at an assembly of the French
clergy, a formulary was prepared which condemned
the five propositions of Jansen, and subscription
was again required not only from the clergy, but
now from nuns as well. Those who refused were
imprisoned, De Sacy, one of the most excellent men
of the Port Royal group, in the Bastile. Amauld
insisted upon the distinction between /at/ and droits
though in 1656 Alexander VII., in the constitution
Ad sandam beati Petri sedenif had again laid down
the " fact '' that Jansen had taught the five theses
in an objectionable sense. In 1664 he issued a
new constitution in which he required all clergy
to accept by a new signature the papal pronounce-
ments of 1642, 1653, and 1656. Four bishops would
promise no more as to the fact, and a number of
others signed with reservations intended to protect
the doctrine of Augustine. The strength of the
opposition impressed both the Curia and the king.
After some hesitation, the distinction between fait
and droit and the possibility of a ^' respectful
silence " was admitted by Pope Clement IX. in
1668, and thus a temporary peace was established.
This " peace of Clement IX." was evidently a defeat
for the Curia, which practically admitted that the
situation was beyond its control unless it was
supported by the secular arm.

llie dissensions were revived by the publication

of QuesnePs Nouveau Testament en fran^ia avec dea

reflexions morales (1693), which was

5. QuesneL dedicated to Noailles, at that time
The BuU bishop of Ch&lons. But before the

Unigenitos. development of this new stage, Jan-
senism of the older period had come to
an end. Louis XIV. became more and more jealous
of his authority and inclined to assure the pardon
of his sins by the persecution of heretics. He
availed himself of a dissension which had broken
out among the Jansenists themselves, by urging
Pope Clement XI. to adopt severe measures against
them. The pope was glad to seize an opportunity
VI.-7

to assert his authority over the Galilean Church,
and issued the bull Vineam Domini (1705) in which
the five theses of Jansen were unconditionally con-
demned. The nuns of Port Royal refused to sub-
scribe the bull, and their convent was suppressed
in 1709 and destroyed a year later. In the mean
time Cardinal de Noailles had become archbishop
of Paris. By his protection of QuesnePs '' New
Testament " he had incurred the hatred of the
Jesuits, who influenced the pope to condemn certain
propositions which Le Tellier, the Jesuit confessor
of the king, had selected from the New Testament
of Quesnel. Thereupon the pope issued, in 1713,
the bull UnigenituSf in which 101 propositions
from Quesnel were condemned as Jansenistic or
otherwise heretical. Among these, however, were
not only some which may be found almost literally
in Holy Scripture and in Augustine, but even some
substantially identical with the decrees of the
Council of Trent, as, for instance, the second, '' The
grace of Jesus Christ is necessary for all good works;
without it nothing (truly good) can be done "; the
twenty-sixth, *' No grace is imparted except
through faith "; the twenty-ninth, " Outside of
the Church no grace is given "; and the fifty-first,
'' Faith justifies when it is operative, but it is opera-
tive only through love." The bull was laid before
the assembly of the French clergy and accepted by
the majority. Noailles prohibited the book; but
before he accepted the bull, he asked the pope for
several explanations. The parliament obeyed the
order of the king to enter the bull in the laws of
the kingdom, with the reservation, however, that
its views regarding excommunication should not
interfere with loyalty to the king. The Sorbonne
split into different parties, and some of its most
prominent teachers were banished from Paris or
lost their right of voting. The king, intolerant of
resistance, thought of settling the matter by a
national council, but the pope would not hear of
so risky a measure; and at his death in 1715,
Louis XIV. left the Jansenist question in the great-
est confusion and bitterness of feeling.

The successor of Louis XIV., the frivolous duke

of Orleans, cared for neither party, considering the

principles of both equally foolish. The

6. Accept- exiles were allowed to return, and the
ants and Sorbonne withdrew its half-hearted ac-

Appellants. ceptance of the bull Unigenitus. Ac-
cordingly, the pope threatened Noailles
with deprivation and even excommunication. But
now a number of hitherto submissive bishops began
to ask for explanations, and in 1717 several of them
appealed from the pope and his bidl to a future
general council. These were called Appellants, in
distinction from the Acceptants, who accepted the
bull. Almost twenty bishops, the faculty of Paris
and two other theological faculties, and a large
part of the secular and monastic clergy joined the
cause of the Appellants. They were stigmatized
as Jansenists by their opponents, though in some
cases unjustly. Noailles also took the part of the
Appellants, after a vain attempt at mediation*
The party of the Acceptants was headed by Mailly,
archbishop of Reims. But Dubois, the favorite
of the regent, was ambitious of a cardinal's hat.

Jansen
Jansenist OhQroh

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

and took sides against the Appellants; and Louis
XV., led by his former teacher, Cardinal Fleury,
oppressed them in every way. Noailles was com-
pelled to submit (1728), and in 1730 the bull was
formally registered as the law of the kingdom.

A young Jansenist clergyman, Francois de PAns,

had died in 1727 as a result of his ascetic practises,

with his " appeal " in his hand, and

7. Conyolu- some miraculous cures performed at

tionists. his grave were looked upon as a divine
confirmation of the cause of the Ap-
pellants; even children fell into convulsions and
trances on his grave, prophesying and testifying
against the bull. Infidels were carried away by
the fanaticism of the thousands who knelt at the
grave of PAris in the churchyard of St. M^ard.
In 1732 the king ordered the graveyard to be closed;
but portions of earth which had been taken from
the grave were equally efficacious, and the number
of convulsionary prophets of coming ruin to Church
and State continued to increase until the movement
ended in strife, and sometimes in moral disorder,
after giving occasion to the skeptics to draw con-
clusions unfavorable to the miracles of Christianity.

The Jansenists of the first generation had en-
deavored to enforce the practise of confession to
the parish priest, not to friars and

8. Close Jesuits, but the subsequent persecu-

of Con- tion compelled them to confess to
tfoverues. appellant priests. On their death-bed,
however, they had to confess to their
regular pastor if they wished to be buried with the
rites of the Church. Under the influence of the
Jesuits, Beaumont, archbishop of Paris, resolved
to refuse the last rites of the Church to all those
who produced no evidence that they had confessed
when in health to their parish priest. When a
priest in 1752 accordingly refused absolution to an
Appellant, the archbishop was simunoned before
parliament and threatened with confiscation of his
revenues. Most of the bishops took the side of
the archbishop, in defense of the unrestricted
right of the Church to control the sacraments, while
other parliaments took sides with that of Paris,
on the groimd that it was trying to protect citizens
against clerical oppression. In 1753 the king forbade
the parliament to meddle in ecclesiastical affairs,
and its members were dispersed and banished;
but in the following year they were recalled, al-
though they still insisted upon their rights, and
the archbishop who still refused absolution to
Appellants was exiled. The bishops, supported by
the king, requested the decision of the pope, who
now manifested considerably more caution in regard
to the bull Unigenitus by refusing the sacraments
only to such Appellants as were recognized as such
publicly and by law. The king referred grievances
concerning the refusal of the sacraments to spiritual
courts, but with the right of appeal to secular
courts. The dissensions of Jansenism ceased only
with the excitement preceding the expulsion of
the Jesuits. The literature on these disputes from
the time of the bull UnigeniiiLa comprises three
or four thousand volumes in the Biblioth^ue
Nationale of Paris.

(Paul Tbchackert.)

Bzbuoorapbt: The best earlier literature is giveii in Schaff,
Creed*^ L 102. Consult: T. Bouvier, Hiat. du Janainiame,
Strasburg, 1804; 8. P. Treselles, The JantenitU; their
Ri$e, PereeeutionM and exiaHng FragmenU, London, 1851;
R. F. W. Guett^, Janeiniame et JiauUiame, Paris, 1857;
R. Rapin, Hiat. du Janahiiame, Paris, 1865; idem. Mi-
moirea aur Vigliae 1644-99, ed. L. Aubineau, 3 vols., ib.
1865; F. X. Linsenmann, M, Baina und die Orundleguno
dea Janaeniamua, Tflbingen, 1867; W. H. Jervis, The
OaUiean Churchy i chaps, xi.-xiv., ii. chaps, v. vi., viii..
2 vols.. London, 1872; A. SchiU. Die ConatituHon Uni-
genitua, Freiburg. 1876; E. L. T. Henke, Neuere Kirchen-
ffeadiichte, ed. Gass, iL 97 sqq.. Halle. 1878; A. Vanden-
peerenboom. Ccmdiua Janaeniua, Bruges, 1882; A. Ri-
card. Lea Premiera Janainiatea, Paris. 1883; L. 8<$che,
Lea Demiera Jana^iaiea, 1710-1870, 3 vols., ib. 1801; C.
Gilardoni. La BuUe Unioenitua, Vitry-le-Francois, 1892;
idem. L'Abbaye de Haute-Fontaine et le Janainiame, ib.
1894; C. Callewaert, Janaeniua ivique d'Yprea, Louvain.
1893; Mrs. M. Tollemaohe. French Janaeniata, London.
1893; G. Doublet, Le JanaHiiame dana Vancien diockae de
Vence, Paris, 1901; J. GaiUard, Un prflai janainiate.
Choart de Buaeuval, fvitpte de Beauvaia, 1661-79, ib. 1902;
A. M. P. Ingold. Bouaauet et le Janainiame, ib. 1904; V.
Durand, Le Jana&niame au xviii. aiMe et Joachim Col-
bert, ivique de Montpdlier 0696-1738), ib. 1907; Camr
hridoe Modem Hiatory, v. 82 sqq.. New York. 1908. The
bull Unigenitus is given in Lat. in Reich. Documents,
pp. 386-389. The reader should consult also for further
light on the subject the literatiue given under Pascal,
Blaise; Port Rotal; and QnBSNKL, Pasquieb.

JANSENIST CHX7RCH IN HOLLAND.

Contributory Causes of the Schism of 1702 ({ 1).

Its Immediate Occasion ({ 2).

History ({ 3).

DifFerences from the Roman Catholic Churdi ({ 4).

The doctrines of Jansenism (see Jansen, Cor-
NELiUB, Jansenism) left no permanent trace in
Belgium or in France, but in Holland
I. Con- there has been for more than two cen-
tributoiy turies a church popularly called Jan-
Causes senist. Its adherents reject the name,
of the rightly calling themselves the Old
Schism Catholic Church of Holland, since the
of 1702. schism among the Dutch Roman Cath-
olics in 1702, to which they owe their
origin, sprang from the adherence of the Dutch
cleigy to the privileges of their church rather than
from dogmatic principles. The first bishop in
Holland was Willibrord (q.v.), consecrated bishop
of Utrecht by Pope Seigius I. in 695. Among his
successors were not a few who opposed the growing
tendency to r^ard the pope as the unrestricted
governor of all Christendom. The bishop of Utrecht
was originally chosen by the cleigy, and in 1145
the Emperor Conrad III. confirmed the right to
the chapter of St. Martin's Cathedral. The choice
was not always accepted by Rome. In 1559 in
accordance with the wish of Philip II. of Spain,
then ruler of the Netherlands, the pope elevated
Utrecht to the rank of an archbishopric with five
suffragan sees, and it was then agreed by pope
and king that the tatter should select the bishops,
to be confirmed by the pope. Nine years later
the War of Liberation broke out, lasting for eighty
years, and involved the Roman Catholics in many
difficulties. Though they joined with the Protes-
tants in fighting against the Spanish yoke, they
were mistrusted, and about 1573 the public exer-
cise of Catholic worship was forbidden — a prohi-
bition which remained in force till the revolution
of 1795. As the incumbents of the episcopal sees

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDU

Jansan
Jansenist Ohuroh

died, it was found difficult to fill their places. Sas-
bold Vosmeer, chosen general vicar by the Utrecht
chapter in 1583, after the death of the archbishop
in 1580, was consecrated archbishop by the pope in
1602, but with the title archbishop of Philippi.
His successors were chosen and consecrated in the
same way. Under the fifth of them, Petrus Ckxide
(consecrated 1689), occurred the schism.

More formidable opponents than the Protestants

had appeared against the Roman Catholic clergy of

Holland. During the turbulent con-

3. Its ditions of the long war the country

Immediate had been invaded by " r^;ular " clergy

Occasion, especially by the Jesuits after 1590,
who accused the Dutch clergy of the
Jansenistic heresy. In 1697, during the negotia-
tions of peace at Ryswik, there appeared an anony-
mous treatise in French, soon afterward also in
Latin, and some years later in Dutch, under the title
" Short Memorial concerning the Condition and
Progress of Jansenism in Holland." Some copies
fell into the hands of Codde, who hastened to send
the book to Rome with an apology. He was de-
clared innocent in Rome, although there was no
end of insinuations. Since Alexander VII. had issued
his constitution against the so-called five theses
of Jansen in 1656, the accusation implied that the
accused was suspected of agreeing with the five
condemned theses, or of refusing to believe that
Jansen had taught those theses in his AugitstimUf
and thereby given rise to the heresy condemned
by the church. Ckxide and his subordinate eccle-
siastics could easily defend themselves against the
charge of agreeing with the content of the con-
demned theses, although the former did not express
himself on the question whether Jansen had really
taught them or not. But since the decision of
Aldcander, this point involved the absolute suprem-
acy and infallibility of the pope, and the Jesuits
were intent upon having this question decided.
Codde was simunoned to Rome in 1700, and in
1702 was declared guilty of heresy. There was
great consternation in Holland when it was learned
that he had been dismissed from office, and still
more when Theodor de Kock, his opponent, was
appointed general vicar. The estates took the part
of Codde and forced his opponents to let him return
to Holland, where he arrived in 1703. The ques-
tion now was, what attitude would Codde, the
Dutch clergy, and the Utrecht chapter assume.
If they accepted Codde's dismissal, the independ-
ence of the Utrecht church was necessarily aboliished.
Codde himself, from love of peace, remained until
his death in a passive attitude, stedfastly asserting
his rights and those of his church, but refraining
from exercising them. A large party of the Dutch
clergy and laity, however, remained faithful to him,
although another part followed De Kock. Thus
Codde's dismissal led to a schism in the Dutch Ro-
man Catholic Church which has never been healed.

It was to be expected that the church of the
Janaenists, as Codde's party was now called, would
decrease in niunbers after Rome had spoken. Ow-
ing to the lack of higher ecclesiastics, the church of
Utrecht was on the point of extinction, when aid
came in an unexpected manner. Several French

clergymen who refused to sign the bull Unigeniius
in 1713 (see Jansen, Cornelius, Jansenism) sought
refuge on Dutch soil. Moreover, in
3. History. 1719, Dom Maria Varlet (chosen bishop
of Babylon in 1718 and consecrated as
bishop of Ascalon Feb. 19, 1719) spent some time
in Amsterdam before he undertook his journey to
the Orient. In Amsterdam be became acquainted
with ecclesiastics of the Old Catholic Church and
was active in their behalf. He had hardly reached
the Orient when the pope suspended him as a Jan-
senist. He then returned to Holland, where the
Utrecht chapter in 1723 had elected ComeUs
Steenoven as archbishop to prevent the extinction
of the Old Catholic Church. In 1724 Bishop Varlet
consecrated him. The pope, of course, immediately
put Steenoven under the ban, but the Utrecht
church was saved from extinction. Steenoven died
in 1725, and was succeeded by Barchman Wuytiers
(d. 1733), who was followed by Theodor van der
Croon (d. 1739), both consecrated by Varlet. The
Utrecht church soon recognized the danger of
making its continuance dependent upon the life
of a single bishop, and consequently Hieronymus
de Bock was consecrated bishop of Haarlem in 1742,
and B. J. Bijevelt bishop of Deventer in 1758.
Several attempts to reconcile the pope failed. A
serious danger threatened the Old Catholic Church
in Holland under the administration of the Roman
Catholic king, Louis Bonaparte (1806-10), and
under the regime of Emperor Napoleon (1810-13),
who contemplated prohibiting the election of a
new Old Catholic bishop; but this danger passed
with the restitution of the independence of Holland,
and in 1814 W. van Os was elected archbishop of
Utrecht, and in 1819 Johannes Bon bishop of
Haarlem (see Episcopacy, III.). The difficulties
which threatened the church under King William I.
and King William II., who desired to establish a
concordat with the pope, passed as soon as the
agreement failed. The law concerning church asso-
ciations enacted in 1853 assured entire freedom to
all ecclesiastical organizations, including the Old
Catholics. In this way the small church has grad-
ually increased its members from 5,000 to almost
8,000, and its parishes from twenty-five to twenty-
six. It is not strange that the Old Catholic bishops
disapproved the dogma of the immaculate concep-
tion in 1854, and that of papal infallibility in 1870.
The chief points of difference between the Old
Catholics of Holland and their Roman Catholic op-
ponents are the following: (1) The Old
4. Differ- Catholic Church considers the deposi-
ences from tion of Archbishop Codde illegal, and
the Roman asserts that, in spite of the Reforma-
Catholic tion of the sixteenth century and its
Church, influence upon the affairs of Holland,
the Roman Catholic Chiu'ch has existed
without interruption, and has continuously retained
its right to administer its own affairs as a national
church, independent of the church in Rome. (2)
It refuses to sign the formula of Pope Alexander
VII., unless permitted to make a distinction between
a signature quoad jtu and quoad fartum; namely,
between the question whether the five incriminated
theses were heretical, and the question whether

Janss«n
Japan

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

100

Janfien had taught them in a heretical sense. (3)
It rejects the bull UnigenUiLSf since this bull val-
idates the moral system of the Jesuits for the whole
Roman Catholic Church. The importance of the
Old Catholic Church of Holland for all Roman Cath-
olic Christendom lies not only in the fact that it is
a monument of the spirit of the earlier centuries,
but also in the fact that it has entered into rela-
tions with the Old Catholic movement in Germany
and Switzerland. When the Old Catholic spirit
was aroused in Germany in opposition to the dogma
of infallibility in 1870, and the necessity of a bishop
for the newly organized Old Catholic Church was
felt, it was H. Heykamp, the Old Catholic bishop of
Deventer, who, in 1873, consecrated J. H. Reinkens
bishop of the German Old Catholics. See Old
Cathoucs. (J. A. Gerth van Wijk.)

Bibliography: C. P. Hoynck a Papendreeht, Hi9t. eccU-
Hae UUrajectinae, Mechlin, 1725; T. Backhuaius, Beieija-
Schrift, 3 vols., Utrecht. 1726-30; M. G. Ihipao de Belle-
garde, Hiat. abr^ie de Viglite mHropolitaine d'UtredU, ib.
1852; J. W. Neale. Hiat. of the to-calUd Janaeniai Churdi
of Holland, London, 1858; R. Bennink JanBsonius, Oe-
•chiedenia der Oud-RoomacK-Katholieka Kerk in Nederland,
The Hague. 1870; F. Nippold. Dia rSmiach-katholiache
Kirche . . . der Niederlande, Leipsic. 1877; J. A. van
Beek, Oeachiedenia der hoUandache Kerk, Rotterdam, 1886;
Neerlandia Catholica, Utrecht. 1888; J. de HuUer, Bij-
draqe tot de geachiedenia van het Utrecktacka Sdiiama, The
Hague. 1892; W. P. C. Knuttel, De Toeaiand der nader-
landache Katholieken, 2 vols., ib. 1892-94; J. Meyhoffer.
Le Martyrolooe proteatant dea Paya-Baa, 14£S-1607t The
Hague, 1907. The literature of the church is given by J.
A. van Beek, lAjat van boeken uitQeven in de Oud-Kaiho-
lieke Kerk, 3 vols., Rotterdam, 1892-93. Much of the
literature under Jansenisii is pertinent, e.g., the work of
Tregelles.

JANSSEll, yOns'sen, JOHANNES: Roman Cath-
olic; b. at Xanten (15 m. s.e. of Cleves) Apr. 10,
1829; d. at Frankfort Dec. 24, 1891. He studied
at MUnster, Louvain, Bonn, and BerUn from 1849
to 1853 (Ph.D., Bonn, 1853), and was professor of
history in the gymnasium of Frankfort from 1854
until his death. He was ordained to the priesthood
in 1860, was a member of the Prussian House of
Deputies in 1875-76, was created a domestic prelate
to the pope and an apostolic prothonotary in 1880.
His theological position was so ultramontanistic
as to evoke sharp criticism from Protestant his-
torians for his partizan views of the moral, economic,
and religious results of the Reformation. Of his
many books the chief is the monumental Geschichte
des deutschen Volkes seit dem Atugang des MittdaUera
(8 vols., Freiburg, 1879-94), the last three edited
and completed by L. Pastor; Eng. transl. by M. A.
Mitchell and A. M. Christie, Hist, of the German
People <it the Close of the Middle Ages, 12 vols.,
London, 1896-1907; Pastor has also reedited the
whole work, and has supervised the publication of
a series of monographs in defense of it under the
title Erl&uterungen und Ergdmungen zu Janssens
Geschichte des deutschen Volkes (6 vols., Freiburg,
1898-1908). Janssen replied to his critics in his
An meine KrUiker (Freiburg, 1882) and Bin zweUes
Wort an meine Kritiker (1883).

Bibuoorapbt: L. Pastor, Johannea Janaaen, 1829-91, ein
LtbenabUd, Freiburg. 1893; F. Meister, Erinnerung an
Johann Jananen, Frankfort, 1896.

JANNSENS, ERASHUS (ERASMUS JOHAN-
NES): Dutch Unitarian tiieologian; b. about

1540; d. at Clausenburg (220 m. e.s.e of Budapest)
1596. He became rector of the college at Antwerp
in 1576, but because of his Socinian teaching was
compelled by William of Orange to resign and go
into exile. He became rector of the college at Em-
den, and in 1579 he went to Frankfort, where there
seemed prospects of larger religious liberty. But
his Clara demonstratio Antichristum immediate post
mortem apostolorum coepissi regnare in ecdesia
ChrisH (n.p., 1584) caused him new trouble, and he
emigrated to Cracow in Poland. A disputation
with Faustus Socinus Nov. 29-30, 1584, led to Jans-
sens' De unigeniti filii Dei existentia (Oacow, 1595).
A little later Janssens withdrew his opposition to
the Unitarian doctrine, being offered the pastorate
of the Unitarian church at Clausenbuig, ii{ the
service of which he closed hb life.

His system of theology is stated in his Antithesis doc-
trincB ChrisH et AntichrisH de uno vero Deo (n.p., 1583;
reprinted with refutation by J. Zanchius, Neustadt,
1586). He was author also of Scriptum quo causas
propter quae vita cetema contingat complectitur (1589),
and furnished the part on the prophets in the Latin
Bible of Tremellius and Jimius (Frankfort, 1579).

Bibuographt: C . Sandiua, Bibliotheea aiUOrinitariorum,
paasim, Freistadt, 1684; J. N. Paquot, Mimoirta pour
aervir h Vhiat. litUraire de , , , Paya-Baa, vii. 328-333,
18 vols., Louvain, 1763-70; J. C. A. Hoefer, Nouvelle hi-
ographie ghkirala, xxvi. 357, Paris, 1861.

JANUARIUS, SAINT: The patron saint of Naples;
b., according to tradition, either at Naples or Bene-
vento about the middle of the third century; mar-
tyred at Puteoli Sept. 19 (according to other ac-
counts, May 1 or 2, Oct. 19, or Dec. 16), 305.
Within a century after his death his relics are said
to have been translated to a church before the
gates of Naples, whence they were taken, about
820, to Benevento (the head being left in Naples),
and were finally interred in a church of Benevento
in 1129. Since 1497 they have rested in the Janu-
arius chapel of the cathedral of Naples, the head
and two glass flasks said to contain his blood being
in the Capelladi Tesoro of the same structure.
The famous miracle of the liquefaction of the
blood in the flasks when brought near the head is
said to have taken place first in the twelfth century,
and is abundantly confirmed since the middle of
the fifteenth century, as by Pius II. (Aeneas Syl-
vius), the physician Angelus Cato (1474), the Bol-
landists Henschen and Papebroch (Mar. 10, 1661),
and the Bollandist Stilting (Aug. 21, 1754); cf. the
account of J. P. Peters, in American Church Maga-
tine, Aug. or Sept., 1902. It occurs three times a
year — on the first Saturday of May, in the evening,
on Sept. 19 and Dec. 16, between 9 and 10 a.m.
** According as the liquefaction is rapid or slow it
is considered a good or evil omen for the ensuing
year." (Baedeker.) Other miracles are also re-
lated as occurring in the nineteenth century in
connection with this phenomenon. There are other
less important saints and beatified of the same name.

Bibliography: The early Ada and TranaUUio, with com-
ment, are in ASB, Sept.. vi. 762-894. A list of litar»-
ture is given. Potthast. Wegweiaar, p. 1386. Consult:
Kirwan's Romaniam at Home^ pp. 81--94, New York, 1852:
J. Peter, La Ligende de S. Janvier, T4Misaniie. 1884; E.
Gothein, Die CuUwrentwickluno SUd-Iiaiiena, pp. 112-
142. BreaUu. 1880.

101

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

J«naen
Japan

JAPAN.

1. Tbe Country and PM>ple.
IL Native RelifdonB.

I.Shinto.

lu Character ({ 1).

Ito Obscuration by Buddhism ({ 2).

Ito Revival (i 3).

Its Writings and Cosmogony ({4).

lU Worship and Sects (f 5).

2. Buddhism.

Its Establishment in Japan (§1).
Its Dominance, Decline, and Re-
covery (I 2).
Buddhist Secto (S 3).
Modem Doctrinal Basis ((4).

m. Christianity in JaiMm.
1. Roman Catholic Missions.

Introduction under St. Francis
Xavier ({ 1).

Conditions Favoring Christianity
(5 2).

Beginnings of Persecution (§3).

Dissensions among Roman Catho-
lics (S 4).

Persecution under leyasu (§5).

Period of Exclusion of Christianity
(5 6).

Renewed Missionary Efforts (S 7).

Modem Roman Catholic Missions

(5 8).

Results (i 9).

2. Missions of the Eastern Church.
Initiation by Nioolai Kawatlrin ({ 1).
Results (i 2).

3. Protestant Missions.
Beginnings in 1850 ({ 1).
Alternating Advance and Reaction

(§2).
The Advance, 1873-88 ({ 3).
The Obstacles Encountered ($4).
The Reaction of 1889 (S 5).
The New Advance since 1899 ({ 6).
Harmony of Protestant EflFort ({ 7).
General Results (S 8).

I. The Country and People: [Japan, called by its
own people Nihon or Nippon, consists of a chain of
nearly 4,000 islands, of which about 500 are in-
habited, in the western Pacific, reaching from
Formosa to the Kurile Isles, or from 22*" to 51 **
north latitude, a distance of about 2,400 miles,
and lying generally in direction n.e. to s.w. off the
eastern coast of Asia. Its climate, consequently,
ranges from the subtropical to the subarctic.
Its central portion is the most important, consisting
of the four great islands (named from north to
south), Yezo, Honshin, Shikoku, and Kiushiu. Its
territory, including Formosa, has an area of 162,154
square miles with a deeply indented coast line
nearly 20,000 miles in length, favorably conditioned
therefore for commerce by water. It is a country of
high mountain ranges, deep valleys, few plains,
no great rivers, many volcanoes, and frequent
earthquakes, few of which are severe. Its popula-
tion, slightly under 50,000,000, is of varied stock,
the result of the fusion of several migrations pos-
sibly of Mongol stock with the original inhabitants.
The Ainu, found only in the northern parts, seem
to represent the aborigines. The Formosans betray
a strong Malay infusion. The principal industries
are agriculture and the fisheries, though the devel-
opment of mining and manufactures during the
last quarter century has been enormous. Its gov-
ernment, since 1889, is a constitutional monarchy,
with two houses of parliament, the lower entirely
elective by the people, the upper partly elective
and partly appointive.]

n. Native Religions. — 1. Shinto: This indigenous
cult of Japan combines nature worship, hero wor-
ship, and reverence for ancestors. At
1. Ite times its most distinguishing character-
Oharaoter. istic has been reverence for the im-
perial family, and the present tendency
is to emphasize this feature; nevertheless through
long periods of Japanese history the emperors were
almost foiigotten by the mass of the people, and the
extreme honor shown at the present day is largely
a growth of the last forty years. The name Shinto
is the Chinese equivalent of the Japanese Kami no
michif " Way of the Superior Beings," the word
kami (Chinese shin), although employed by Chris-
tians as the name for God, being used of super-
natural beings — whether good or evil— of the
spirits of departed heroes, and even of extraordi-
nary natural objects. The number of these beings
is said to be 800 myriads. The beginnings of the
system are lost in antiquity; but its oldest elements

are found in the worship of the forces of nature.
Phallicism was once common, but in recent times
the government has caused most of the symbols to
be removed from public view. Shinto combines
religious and non-religious elements, the former
being sometimes so overshadowed by the latter as
to be hardly discernible. In its present form it
has no system of dogmas, no prescribed code of
morals, and no sacred writings unless a few semi-
historical books and some forms of addresses to the
kami can be considered such.

Buddhism came to Japan in 552 a.d., and in the
ninth century it taught that the kami were avatars

(reincarnations) of Buddhist saints.

2. Its Ob- Buddhism proved the stronger religious

■onratlon element in this combination, and most

by of the prominent Shinto shrines, with

Buddhism, the exception of those at Ise and Izumo,

were served by Buddhist priests, who
introduced the images, incense, and elaborate ritual
of their worship. Many of the smaller shrines re-
mained unchanged, and there was nothing in either
Shinto or Buddhism that made it seem inconsistent
for the people to observe the rites of both. While
every locality had its Shinto shrine where some
hero or other superior being was honored as the
patron saint of the community, it may be said that
the people were at the same time Buddhists and
Shintoists. There was, however, one marked dis-
tinction in their conceptions of the two systems.
The chief concern of Shinto was with the present
world, while Buddhism busied itself more with
what came after death. The erection of buildings
and the commencement of public works were pre-
ceded by Shinto rites, and infants were taken to
the village shrine for consecration to the local deity;
but funerals and memorial services for the dead
were conducted by Buddhist priests. Hence grave-
yards were contiguous to Buddhist temples, while
Shintoism avoided the pollution associated with
death. In the rare cases where Shinto funerals
were held, there were usually additional Buddhist
rites.

In the seventeenth century a movement began
for the revival of ancient Shinto, largely political

in its motives. It was chiefly conduo-

8. Its ted by scholars who investigated old

Bevival. records and embodied the results in

books that advocated a return to
ancient ideas of government and ritual. Their
writings, though reaching only a small section of
people, had an important influence in bringing

Japan

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

108

about the overthrow of the shogunate in 1868 and
the restoration of imperial power. In connection
with that great change the ancient department of
Shinto rites was reestablished. Buddhist orna-
ments and ritual were banished from the ancient
shrines, a grant equal to about (300,000 a year
was made for their maintenance, and preachers
were sent out to instruct the people in the ancient
beliefs. This movement was shortlived. The de-
partment of Shinto rites was degraded until it
became a subbureau of the home department, the
Buddhists recovered many shrines, and in most
respects people returned to their former ways. In
1899 the officials of the most honored Shinto shrine,
that of Dai Jingu in Ise, obtained the government's
consent to their request that they no longer be
considered as forming a religious body, but as an
association for performing rites in honor of the
imperial ancestors and for conducting patriotic
ceremonies. The tendency of recent years has
been to consider Shinto itself a system for fostering
patriotisn> and loyalty. This makes it possible,
without violation of the freedom of conscience
guaranteed by the national constitution, to claim
that every Japanese ought to support it and take
part in its ceremonies. While, however, the shrines
are not considered religious buildings, there are
frequently connected with them voluntary associa-
tions of a religious character called kyOkwai, the
name iised by Christians to designate a church.
The chief authority for the cosmogony and myth-
ology of Shinto is the Kojiki {" Records of Ancient

Matters ''), a compilation of legends

4. Its Wrl- that was completed in 712 a.d. The

tinffsand Nihongi ("Chronicles of Japan ")i

Ooamoffony. though compiled only eight years later,

is much more affected by Chinese ideas.
The Yengishiki describes the ritual as practised in
the Yengi era (901-923) and includes prayers that
had come down from more ancient times. Accord-
ing to the Kojikif after heaven and earth were
separated from the original chaos, three kami
came into existence on the Heavenly Plain and
afterward passed away. They were succeeded by
others until finally there came two named Izanagi
(" Male who Invites ") and Izanami (" Female
who Invites '0- Standing on the bridge of Heaven,
these two thrust a spear into the liquid mass below
them, and as they drew it back, the falling drops
became an island, to which they descended. They
there gave birth to the other islands of Japan and
afterward to a number of gods and goddesses. The
birth of the Fire-god caused the death of Izanami.
Izanagi visited her in the underworld, but did not
succeed in bringing her back to earth. After his
return, as he purified himself from the pollution
he had incurred, new deities were produced from
each article of clothing and from different parts of
his body. The most important of these was Ama-
terasu-0-Mi-Kami, the Sun-goddess, who, after a
quarrel with one of her brothers, withdrew into a
cave, leaving the earth in darkness. The 800 myriad
deities lured her forth by offerings, dances, songs,
and the exhibition of a mirror in which she seemed
to see another being as splendid as herself. One of
her descendants was Jimmu TennO, the first em-

peror of Japan, whose ascension to the throne is
said to have occurred 660 b.c.

A Shinto shrine in its purest form is of very
simple architecture, being constructed of impainted

wood and thatched with bark or thin

6. Its Wor- shingles. Before it is a torii or de-

■hipand tached portal. There is no visible

S««t«« object of worship, but hidden within

the sanctuary is something in which the
spirit of the kami is supposed to reside. At the
shrine in Ise there is a mirror said to have been
bestowed by the Sun-goddess on her grandson when
she sent him to subdue the land. Shrines where
mirrors are exposed to view and those with tiled
roofs or painted wood show the influence of Bud-
dhism. Services consist chiefly of the recital of ancient
prayers, the offering of articles of food, and dancing
by priestesses. Ise and other prominent shrines
are visited by large numbers of pilgrims, who carry
home charms to be placed in their household shrines.
Shinto lays stress on ceremonial purity. There is
no formulated system of ethics, such being thought
necessary only for the immoral people of other
lands, while in Japan each person's heart teaches
him what he ought to do. A number of popular
sects have more of the religious element than has
the Shintoism thus far described. The Kurozumi,
TenrikyO, and RenmionkyO sects are the best
known. Springing up in the last century, they
combine SUnto, Buddhist, and Confucian elements.
Most of these sects make much of curing disease
through faith or by incantations, and at times have
gained large numbers of adherents.

8. Buddhism: Buddhism was introduced into
Japan in 552 a.d. when the king of Kudara, a

Korean state, sent to the mikado a

1. ItsBs- golden image, some sutras, and other

tabllshment religious objects. A temple was built

in Japan, and put under the care of the prime

minister. An epidemic that soon after
broke out was attributed to the anger of the gods
at the introduction of the foreign religion, and the
temple was overthrown; but it is averred that all
attempts to destroy the image proved vain, so that
it is in existence at the present day, there being,
however, two temples, each of which claims to
possess it. Priests and nuns, with images and
books, were soon after sent from Korea. Though
Buddhism found much favor at court, there was a
strong party that opposed the supplanting of
Shinto by the foreign system, but an appeal to arms
resulted in the defeat of the Shintoists. The new
religion made a great gain when a Korean priest
claimed to recognize in the mikado's infant son the
reincarnation of a famous priest of China and ob-
tained permission to superintend the boy's educa-
tion. The prince, best known by his posthumous
name, Sh5toku Taishi (572-621), afterward became
regent and was an earnest defender of Buddhism.
An imperial edict in 621 made it the established
religion of the country. There were at that time
forty-six temples with 1,385 priests and nuns.
Many of these had come from Korea and China,
countries which had contributed to Japan their
literature, arts, and sciences through the teachers
of Buddhism. Appreciation of the new civilization

108

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Japan

made progressive people more ready to listen to
the religious doctrines of its representatives.

Acceptance of the doctrine that the ruler of a
nation gained great merit by abdicating and becom-
ing a monk vastly increased the in-
8. Its Dom- fluence of the monasteries, which thus
^^^•' became allied with the imperial famUy.
^^^ *' The new faith spread from the upper
Beoovery. ^ ^^ lower classes. Its progress was
more easy because it did not demand
the abandonment of old beliefs and forms of wor-
ship. As in other countries, Buddhism could ac-
commodate itself to the religious ideas of those
whom it desired to win. At the beginning of the
ninth century the priest KOkai (better known by
his posthumous title, K0b6 Daishi) formulated the
doctrine that the Shinto deities were avatars of
Buddhist saints, while the classification of many
deified heroes as gongen, temporary manifestations
of Buddha, simplified the problem and provided
for the apotheosis of future emperors and great men.
Most of the Shinto shrines soon lost their former
simplicity, images and decorations of various kinds
being introduced into them, while the forms of wor-
ship combined Shinto and Buddhist elements in pro-
portions that differed with time and locality. Bud-
dhism became the chief religious force in Japan and
gradually attained to great political influence and
even military power. In the Middle Ages some of
the monasteries were strong fortresses, the monks of
which took an active part in war with rival sects or
political enemies. In the last half of the sixteenth
century these fortresses were destroyed by the
military leaders, Nobunaga and Hideyoshi, while
the power of Buddhism was further weakened by
the success of the Roman Catholic missions. Under
the Tokugawa shoguns (1603-1867) it was restored
to favor. The advent of Christian missions has done
much to arouse the Buddhist priests from the
lethargy into which they had fallen. Some of the
sects imitate Christian methods, establishing schools
for boys and girls, young men's associations, wo-
men's societies, and charitable institutions, while
many Buddhist journals are published. Preachers
have been sent to Korea, China, Hawaii, and Cali-
fornia, primarily for the sake of Japanese colonists,
but also with the hope of gaining converts.

Japanese Buddhinn is divided into many sects.
Some of these were brought from China, while
others originated in Japaii itself. Those
8. Buddhiflt now in existence, with the dates of
Sects. their establishment, are as follows:
Tendai (three subsects), 805; Shingon
(two subsects), 806; Yuzu Nembutsu, 1127; Jodo
(three 8ub«iects), 1174; Rinzai (nine subsects),
1 168; Shin, also called Monto or Ikko (ten subsects),
1224; Soto, 1227; Nichiren or Hokke (seven sub-
sects), 1253; Ji, 1276; Obaku, 1650. The Rinzai,
Soto, and Obaku sects are offshoots from the old
Zen sect, by whose name they are sometimes called.
The word zen signifies " contemplation," the earnest
follo¥rers of this system giving much time to medita-
tion, or rather to an attempt to induce a sort of
hypnotic condition in which there is a complete
absence of thought. The Zen sects together with
the Tendai and Shingon are sometimes called the

learned sects, as they have attached much im-
portance to the study of the Sanscrit texts. The
sects having the most influence with the people at
the present time are the Jodo, Shin, and Nichiren.
The name of the first signifies " Pure Land." It
teaches that Amida (Amitabha), the object of its
worship, made a series of vows to the effcHst that on
attaining the state of a Buddha he would create
a paradise into which those who had faith in him
should enter after death. This faith is chiefly
shown by use of the formula Namu Amida Butsu
{" Hail, Amida Buddha! "), The Shin sect sprang
from the Jodo, which it rebukes for seeking salva-
tion through " self-effort depending on the merits
of another," while it teaches reliance upon Amida's
merit alone. This belief in salvation by faith, the
rejection of penance, fasting, and other forms of
asceticism, together with the fact that it permits
its priests to marry, has caused the Shin sect to be
called the Protestantism of Japanese Buddhism.
The Nichiren sect highly esteems charms, amulets,
and pilgrimages. Its temples are gorgeous and the
services noisy, and its priests are considered expert
in exordsing demons. Delighting in controversy,
the priests attack the doctrines of other sects,
while these declare that the Nichiren sect ought
not to be considered as belonging to Buddhinn.
The Yuzu Nembutsu and the Ji sects have but a
small following.

Though three extinct sects belonged to the Hin-

ayana {** Smaller Vehicle "), Japanese Buddhism

of to-day belongs to the Mahayana

4. Kodem (" Greater Vehicle "). The differences

Doctrinal that divide the sects turn upon ab-
Baais. struse metaphysical and technical
points, and often depend upon the
sutras that are held in chief honor, here being one
point in which the divisions of Buddhism differ
from those of Christianity with its one Bible. It
is to be remembered further that, as very few of
these books have been translated into Japanese,
they are read only by the priests. The common
people have but slight knowledge of Buddhist doc-
trines. Simply following the religious customs that
have been handed down in their families for genera-
tions, they know little about the meaning of the
rites or the nature of the beings that they worship.
The beliefs of the yoimger priests are being greatly
influenced by Western ideas. One resulting move-
ment has taken the name " New Buddhism.'' It
is an attempt to bring Buddhist doctrines, or
rather nomenclature, into harmony with modem
thought. The doctrines are so explained as to bear
Uttle resemblance to what was formerly taught;
and there is an attempt to replace the pessimism
of Buddhism by a more hopeful philosophy. No
formulated system has yet been constructed, as
the leaders differ greatly among themselves; some
being atheistic, some pantheistic, while others
assert that they believe in a personal God.

m. Christianity in Japan. — 1. Boman Catholic
Missions: The Portuguese, who had previously vis-
ited the Liukiu Islands, reached Japan proper about
1542. Six years later one of their ships brought a
young Japanese named Yajiro (the Paul Anjiro of
the Jesuit accounts) to Malacca, where he met St.

Japan

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

104

Francis Xavier. He was sent to the Jesuit college

in Goa, and there, with his servant and another

Japanese, was soon afterward bap-

1. Intro- tized. In response to Yajiro's en-

dnotion treaties that missionaries be sent to

his people, Xavier, with Fathers Cosmo

Under
St. Franois

and Torres and Brother Juan Fernan-
dez, accompanied the three Japanese
back to their own land, reaching Kagoshima Aug. 15,
1549. There they met a favorable reception, the
daimio (feudal lord) of that region authorizing
them to teach their religion and permitting his
subjects to become Christians. With Yajiro's help
Xavier prepared a summary of Christian doctrine
in Japanese, which he wrote out in Roman letters,
and since he never learned much of the language
of the country, his direct evangelistic work while
in Japan consisted chiefly in reading this book upon
the streets to those who were drawn by curiosity
to see and hear the foreigner. About 100 persons
bad been baptized in Kagoshima when the Buddhist
priests stirred up the daimio to order that no more
of his people should become Christians under pen-
alty of death. After having been in Kagoshima
a little more than a year, the missionaries went to
Hirado, where Xavier says that '^ in a few days
about 100 persons became Christians.'' He and
Fernandez then pushed on to Kyoto, the capital,
where it was their hope to convert the rulers of
the land. That city was so convulsed by civil
strife that it was impossible to obtain a hearing.
They therefore returned to Yamaguchi, where they
had spent a few days on their way to Kyoto, and
where ere long a number of converts were secured.

In all, Xavier spent only twenty-seven months in
Japan before returning to India. Though he led
the way and inspired others, the real
2. Condi- ^ork was done by Torres and Fer-
^^"L^^°'" nandez, who spent the remainder of
ti^Tiifcy " their lives in Japan, and by those who
afterward joined the mission. Many
circumstances favored their success. The Japanese
were to a remarkable degree ready to listen to new
doctrines. Shintoism had little religious influence;
Buddhism was powerful, but its leaders were taking
an active part in political and military affairs, and
for this reason many of the daimios were ready to
favor a movement that seemed likely to weaken the
power of the arrogant priesthood. Some of the
feudal lords were also desirous of attracting foreign
commerce. The country had long been vexed by
internal strife; and Nobunaga, the military leader
who, by gaining control of the central provinces,
began the work that finally resulted in the unifica-
tion of the country, was a bitter enemy of the
Buddhists and openly favored the missionaries.
Among the early converts were several feudal lords
and other men of high rank. Some of these con-
fiscated the Buddhist temples, destroyed the
images, and compelled their subjects to be baptized.
Christianity soon gained a strong foothold in
Kiushiu and in the region of Kyoto. Churches,
monasteries, and schools were built, and many
books of instruction or devotion were published.
In 1583 the Christian lords of Kiushiu sent four
young men on an embassy to the pope. In 1581

the Christians numbered about 150,000, and prob-
ably the highest number ever attained was 300,000
m 1596.

Hideyoshi, who, soon after Nobunaga's death

(1582), gained control of political affairs, seemed

at first inclined to favor the Christians,

V**^; some of whom were among his leading

ninffs of Qfliogrg jj^ 1537, however, he suddenly

^l^j^ " sent into exile Takayama Ukon (the
Justo Ucondono of the Jesuit histo-
rians), the most prominent of the Christians, and
ordered all the missionaries to leave the country
within twenty days. The chief reasons given by
Roman Catholic historians for this action are the
scandalous lives of the Portuguese merchants, that
Hideyoshi was angered at Christian maidens who
would not yield to his lust and that the refusal of
a Portuguese captain to bring into harbor a lai^
ship that he wished to examine aroused suspicions.
Japanese accounts say that from the first he had
considered Christianity dangerous to the state and
had only been waiting a favorable opportunity for
attacking it, and also that the arrogant demeanor
of the missionaries enraged him. Murdoch suggests
that Hideyoshi probably had no desire to extirpate
Christianity, but only to reduce it to the position
of a serviceable tool. However this may be, he
postponed the time of the missionaries' departure
for six months, and even then did not insist upon the
enforcement of the decrees, though he pretended
to be angry at the failure to carry them into effect.
The missionaries worked in a less public manner
than formerly, but there continued to be many
baptisms.

Papal bulls by Gregory XIII., Jan. 28, 1585, con-
firmed by Clement III., 1600, had decreed that none
but Jesuits should go as missionaries
*• ^^■^f'*" to Japan; and Philip II., ruler of Spain
and Portugal, had given the merchants

of the latter country a monopoly of

Oatholios. ^1^6 ^^^ Japan. The Spanish colo-
nists in the Philippines and the different
religious orders that had established themselves
there were very restive imder these restrictions, and
finally broke them. Franciscan monks, coming as
envoys from the governor of the Philippines, were
allowed by Hideyoshi to reside in Kyoto on con-
dition that they would not attempt to teach their
religion. Soon, however, they were engaged in
the open propagation of Christianity. Bitter feeling
arose between the two orders, and also between
the Portuguese and Spanish merchants who allied
themselves respectively with the Jesuits and the
Franciscans. In 1595 the pilot of a Spanish ship
wrecked on the coast of Japan was pointing out on
a map the wide possessions of his king. When asked
how so many lands in different parts of the earth
had been brought under one sway, he replied : *' The
king first sends out teachers of religion. After they
have gained the hearts of a sufficient number of
persons, soldiers are sent to imite with these con-
verts in subduing the desired territory." This
speech was reported to Hideyoshi, who had always
suspected that the missionaries had political ends
in view. Thinking it time to give them another
warning, he ordered arrests to be made, and six

■ions

105

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Japan

Franciscan missionaries and twenty Japanese Chris-
tians were taken to Nagasaki and crucified. A
new edict forbade any of the daimios to become
Christians, and ordered all missionaries to leave the
ooimtry. By dressing Portuguese merchants in cler-
ical robes and sending them on board a ship, the
Jesuits pretended to be obeying the command, and
thus, with a few exceptions, they were able to remain
concealed in Japan.

Hideyoshi died in 1598. The missionaries came

out from their hiding-places and were reenforced

by new arrivals. Unfortunately their

6. Perseoa- work was weakened by dissensions be-

tion Under tween the orders. Augustinians and

leyami. Dominicans, as well as Franciscans,
disregarded the papal prohibitions and
came to Japan from the Philippines. After a period
of civil strife, leyasu, the foimder of the Tokugawa
line of shoguns, gained control of the country. His
desire for oonmieroe led him to adopt a kindly policy
toward the missionaries; but some of the Chris-
tians were active supporters of his enemies, and
they were also accused of plots with foreign rulers
to effect his overthrow. Indeed, in all this history
of Roman Catholicism in Japan, the chief cause of
official opposition was the suspicion that its teachers
were agents of the European nations that wished
to gain possession of Japan. In 1614 leyasu or-
dered the expulsion of the missionaries and the
suppression of Christianity, and the flames of per-
secution broke out. Not only missionaries, but
many Japanese Christians were deported, and hor-
rible tortures were invented to secure recantation.
Although multitudes apostatized, there were many
that stood firm. Men, women, and even little
children were beheaded, burned at the stake, or
crucified. Many missionaries also suffered, for they
had endeavored to remain in the country, and even
those who had been once expelled returned under
various disguises to face almost certain martyrdom.
After leyasu's death (1616) the persecution was
continued by his son, Hidetada. The final blow
came in the suppression (1638) of a rebellion raised
by the peasants living in Shimabara and Amakusa.
Though largely a revolt against the oppression of
their daimios, the leaders were Christians, and they
fought imder banners inscribed with the names of
Jesus, of Mary, and also of St. James, the patron
saint of Spain. The rebels seized an old castle,
where they defended themselves so bravely that
they were put down only with the greatest difficulty.
When finally defeated, all of them were put to death.
The taws against Christianity were thereafter en-
forced still more strictly, and the country was closed
to all foreigners except the Dutch, who were per-
mitted under restrictions to have a trading-poet in
Nagasaki.

For more than two centuries Japan refused to
have intercourse with foreign nations. The Chris-
tians were deprived of all the sacra-
^'^^^^ ments except baptism. In every town
was posted a notice saying *' The evil

Xxolnsion
of CliTla-

tt^»><ty ^^ called Christian is strictly prohib-
ited," and offering rewards for infor-
mation against believers. Every householder was
required to procure annually from the Buddhist

priests a certificate that no member of his family
was a Christian. In many parts of the land all were
compelled to trample on a cross or on a copper
plate that bore a representation of the crucified
Jesus. The publication of books containing refer-
ences to Christianity was prohibited. The Dutch
ships that came to Nagasaki were closely searched
for priests and Christian books. Nevertheless Chris-
tianity was not completely extirpated, but was
carefidly handed down from parent to child. Sacred
images were hidden in what had the appearance of
Buddhist shrines, lay baptism was practised, in
some villages nearly all the inhabitants were be-
lievers, and had their catechists and baptizers.
Ways were devised for evading the tests used for
the detection of believers. In some places where
the officials were themselves Christians the plate
on which the people trampled was engraved with
Buddhist symbols. Elsewhere the believers, after
stepping upon the cross, would wash their feet and
drink the water while returning thanks that they
had been permitted to touch the sacred symbol.
But from time to time Christians were discovered
by the officials and punished.

The missionaries made some attempts to return.

In 1642 five Jesuits entered the country and were

put to death; they were followed a

7. Benewed year later by five others, who were im-

Kissionary prisoned until their death; as was also

Efforts, the case with Sidotti, an Italian priest
who, in 1709, had himself set ashore
on the coast of Japan. In 1844 a French war vessel
left under the name of official interpreters a mission-
ary and a Chinese evangelist in Liuchiu, which was
a dependency of Japan. It was thought that they
might there learn the Japanese language, do mission-
ary work among the people, and be preparing for the
opening of the Japanese group itself. They and
others who succeeded them were so closely watched
that they were able to have but little intercourse
with the inhabitants. Protestants were also seeking
entrance to Japan. In 1837 the ship Morrison
attempted to restore some shipwrecked Japanese
to their country. In addition to this philanthropic
motive, there was a hope that the expedition might
help to open the land to trade and the Gospel.
Three missionaries from China accompanied it.
The waifs were not allowed to land, and the Morrison
was fired upon, so that it had to return without
having accomplished anything. A number of
British officers organized the Loochoo Naval Mis-
sion, and in 1845 sent Dr. Bettelheim, a medical
missionary, to the Liuchiu Islands. Though sub-
jected to the most annoying surveillance and op-
position, he baptized a few persons. He also pre-
pared Japanese translations of portions of the
Scriptures, and some of these were printed.

In 1854 Commodore Perry succeeded in negotia-
ting a treaty between the United States and Japan.
This did not provide for the residence
8. Kodem Qf Americans; but later treaties made

<?th^ with the United States and some other

KUslons JMitioJ^ permitted their citizens after

July, 1859, to live in certain ports.

The Sod^t^ des Missions £!trangdres at once

commenced work in Yokohama, Hakodate, and

Japan

THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZ0G

106

Nagasaki. At first tbe missionaries could do little
except study the language and open schools, where
they taught those desiring to learn French. In
1862 a dburch, nominaUy erected for the use of
foreigners, was dedicated in Yokohama, and the
missionaries soon found themselves engaged in
addressing the crowds that gathered about them,
and several of their auditors were arrested. The
French minister secured the release of these per-
sons by promising that there should be no more
preaching in the Japanese language. In 1865 a
church building was dedicated in Nagasaki. One
morning, as M. Petitjean, the missionary in charge,
was kneeling before the altar, three women drew
near and kneeling near him, said in a low voice,
" Our heart is one with yours," and then told him
that all the people in tli^ village from which they
came were Christians. The descendants of the
ancient Christians, for whom the missionaries had
from the first been seeking, were foimd. The dis-
covery of other Christian communities followed,
and ultimately the missionaries learned of about
50,000 persons, most of them living near Nagasaki,
who considered themselves Christians, though for
various reasons about half of these refrained from
entering into close relations with the missionaries.
The missionaries became busily occupied in instruct-
ing and caring for these believers. Though they
tried to exercise due caution, it was not long before
arrests began to be made. After the new govern-
ment was thoroughly established in 1868, the per-
secution became severe, and from one cluster of
villages 3,000 persons were exiled to distant prov-
inces. The official representatives of Western na-
tions imited in a protest, declaring that by per-
secuting Christians Japan was showing dishonor to
the countries whose people believed in the same
religion. The Japanese government at first refused
to yield and told the foreign ministers that '^ it
would resist the propagation of Christianity as it
would oppose the advance of an invading army."
In 1873, however, orders were issued for removing
from public view the edicts against Christianity.
Though the laws had not been repealed, it was
evident that they would not be eniforced. From
that time Roman Catholics shared with others the
constantly increasing degree of religious freedom
which at last found expression in the following
article of the constitution promulgated in 1890:
" Japanese subjects shall, within limits not pre-
judicial to peace and order, and not antagonistic
to their duties as subjects, enjoy freedom of reli-
gious belief."

In comparing the growth of Roman Catholicism
with that of Protestantism and of the Greek Church,
it must be remembered that it began
0. Besults. its new propaganda with several thou-
sand adherents, while the others had
none. On the other hand, it has been more hindered
than they by the prejudices aroused three centuries
ago against Christianity. Its work has spread into
most of the large towns of Japan. It is governed
by an archbishop who, with his coadjutor, lives
in Tokyo; and there are four bishops, whose resi-
dences are in Tokyo, Sendai, Osaka, and Nagasaki.
At the dose of 1907 the missionaries, most of whom

are French, numbered 124 men and 124 women.
There were 33 Japanese priests and 303 catechists.
The number of believers was 61,095, of whom more
than half were in the island of Kiushiu. 1,551
adults and 3,604 infants were baptized in 1907.
Schools for the training of priests had 20 students.
There were several other schools, while in 19 or-
phanages 1,027 children found a home. Among
other forms of charity, two hospitals for lepers de-
serve special notice. A large number of books is
published, among them being a translation of the
Bible. There are also two periodicals issued by
the mission.

2. MlMions of the Bastem Ohuroh: In 1861
Nicolai Kasatkin went to Hakodate as chaplain of
the Russian consulate there. As a
1. Initia- student he had been moved by a desire
tionby to give the Gospel to the Japanese,
Nioolai and this position furnished an opening
Kasatkin. for carrying out his wish. His first
convert was a Shinto priest whose
prejudice against Christianity led him to come to
the chaplain either to conquer him in argmnent,
or to assassinate him, who, however, became con-
vinced that the foreigner's doctrine was true, and
in 1868 he and two others were secretly baptized.
When the Shogunate was overthrown, many of
those who belonged to the defeated party went to
Hakodate, among them several from the Sendai
clan. Led in part by curiosity and in part by the
thought that a new religion might subserve their
political aims, some of them began to study Chris-
tianity. Many accepted it and returned as evan-
gelists to their own province, or went elsewhere to
teach what they had learned. In a visit to Russia,
Nicolai organized a missionary society to support
his efforts, and when in 1871 another priest took
his place in Hakodate, he removed to Tokyo, where,
besides engaging in direct evangelistic work, he
opened a seminary for training evangelists and also
a school for teaching languages and the sciences.
In 1872 three evangelists in Sendai were arrested
with several of their hearers, and there were arrests
in Hakodate. Appeals to the imperial government
resulted in the release of these persons. That same
year Nicolai baptized ten persons in Tokyo; the
greatest secrecy was observed, but a few days later
a Buddhist priest showed him a sketch, drawn by
a spy of the government, of the room in which the
ceremony had taken place. But, as no arrests fol-
lowed, anxiety gave way to confidence. Other
spies entered the school as pupils and at least two
became Christians. Great success attended the
early efforts at evangelization, especially in Sendai
and its vicinity. In 1875 the man mentioned above
as the first convert was ordained as the first priest.
Nicolai was made a bishop in 1880. The growth
of the Eastern Church in Japan has been to a re-
markable degree due to this one man.
2. Beaults. There have never been more than four
other missionaries, and most of the
time only one. He trained the Japanese priests
and, in addition to the supervision of churches and
schools, he prepared a tnmslation of the New Tes-
tament and published several other books. A force
of ten translators and writers is kept busy under his

107

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Japan

direction. The connection of this mission with
Russia, and the relations of Church and government
in that land have made it the object of much sus-
picion. The large cathedral in Tokyo occupies one
of the most conspicuous sites in the city, and stands
on groimd leased in the name of the Russian lega-
tion, facts which have caused considerable ill-
feeling, and even given rise to threats of destruction.
Bishop Nicolai has, however, gained the respect of
all; when war broke out in 1904 between Japan and
Russia, he left it to his followers to decide whether
he should remain in Japan or return to his own land.
They urged him to stay with them, and this he did,
to the general approval of the public. The statistics
for 1907 show 265 churches, 30,166 members, 37
ordained Japanese priests, and 129 other evangelists.
The contributions of the churches for the year
amounted to 10,711 yen ($5,355.50). Workers for
the Church are trained in a theological seminary and
an evangelists' school. The former gives a liberal
education and teaches theology in the Russian
language; the latter is of a lower grade, and uses
only the Japanese language. There are two board-
ing-schools for girls and several day schools, while
three periodicals are published. In 1907 Nicolai
was made an archbi^op, another Russian being
sent out as bishop.

8. Protestant Missions: The treaty made by
Japan with the United States in 1858 provided that
in July of the next year certain ports
1. Bsffin- should be opened for the residence of
"^^J? American citizens; also that " Amer-
icans in Japan shall be allowed the free
exercise of their religion, and for this purpose shall
have the right to erect suitable places of worship.
No injury shall be done to such buildings, nor any
insult offered to the religious worship of the Ameri-
cans." This treaty was followed by similar ones
with other Western nations. Though no permission
was given for teaching Christianity to the Japanese,
it was believed that this would soon become pos-
sible. Soon after the treaty was signed, Chaplain
Wood, U. S. N., Dr. S. Wells Williams, the well-known
missionary and diplomatist, and Rev. E. W. Syle
met in Nagasaki. As a result of their conference,
they decided to write to the Episcopal, Reformed
(Dutch), and Presbyterian Boards in America urging
that they send missionaries to Japan. Withki a
year all three societies had done this. In May,
1859, two months before the time set for opening
the ports, the Rev. J. Liggins, of the Episcopal
Board, was in Nagasaki, where he was followed
a month later by the Rev. (afterward Bishop) C. M.
Williams. In October, J. C. Hepburn (q.v.), of
the Presbyterian Board, reached Kanagawa, while
the next month saw the arrival of three missionaries
of the Reformed Board — Rev. S. R. Brown and
D. B. Simmons, M.D., at Kanagawa, and Rev. G. F.
Verbeck (q.v.) at Nagasaki. The next April, Rev.
J. Goble, who had been a marine on Perry's ex-
pedition, came to Kanagawa under the American
Baptist Free Mission. At first the missionaries
labored under great difficulties. They were sur-
roimded by spies and were in danger of attack from
those who hated all things foreign, and especiaUy
the Christian religion. One man became Dr. Hep-

bum's teacher with the intention of assassinating
him. Japanese who showed any inclination toward
(Christianity were in danger of arrest. The teaching
of English gave some opportunities for exerting
an influence over young men. Even before mis-
sionaries came, Chaplain Wood, U. S. N., had held
classes, and though extreme caution was necessary,
the questions asked by students about words found
in their books could be answered only by telling
something concerning Christian beliefs. In 1861
the Shogim's court itself sent several persons to
the missionaries for instruction in English. As many
of those who were gathered in such classes afterward
held places of influence, the honor in which they
held their teachers and the ideas that they received
concerning morals, politics, education, and religion
had much influence in shaping the course of events
in which these men became leaders. It was a great
help to the propagation of the Gospel that educated
Japanese could read Chinese. Their curiosity to
learn about Western ideas led them to purchase
not only works on geography, history, and science
prepared by missionaries in China, but also those
dealing directly with Christian truth, and even the
Bible itself.

In Jan., 1866, a meeting held by Christian believ-
ers of various nationalities living in Yokohama
issued an address to the Christian
2. Altema- world asking that special prayers be
tinff Ad- offered for Japan. It mentioned among
vanoe and encouraging changes that the mission-
Beaotion. aries were no longer watched by spies,
but were in some instances employed
by the goverment as school-teachers, that students
of English no longer uttered the name of Jesus with
bated breath, but manifested a readiness to talk
about Christianity; and that some of them went
daily to the missionaries '' to read the English Bible,
preferring this to the study of school-books." At
Yokohama in 1864 occurred the first Protestant
baptism in Japan. In 1866 at Nagasaki a high
official from Saga was baptized with his brother.
The greatest secrecy had to be observed, as the new
converts were liable to capital punishment. Up
to the spring of 1872 only ten persons had been
baptized. Soon after the restoration of imperial
power in 1868, the attempt to revive the Shinto
religion was accompanied by a renewal of strong
opposition to Christianity. The new government
posted edicts against it almost identical with those
of the Shogunate. One of the few baptized Protes-
tants was cast into prison. In 1870 and 1871 two
teachers of missionaries were arrested under sus-
picion of being Christians, and one of them died
in prison. Knowledge of these persecutions made
other persons afraid for a while to visit the mission-
aries. Yet even before the removal of the edicts
in 1873, it became evident that the government
was becoming more liberal, and in Mar., 1872, the
first Japanese church was organized in Yokohama
with eleven members as a result of the work of
the Reformed and the Presbyterian missionaries.
Though this church has since become connected
with the Nihon Kirisuto Kyokwai (Presbyterian),
it at first had no denominational name. The next
two churches, those of Kob4 and Osaka, organized

Japan

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

108

in 1874 in connection with the mission of the Amer-
ican Board, were of a simiJar nature, and it was the
hope of most of the missionaries then in Japan that
this policy could be continued; but that same year
new churches in Yokohama and Tokyo were put
" on a strictly Presbyterian basis."

The year 1873 marked the beginning of a period
of rapid advance. Among progressive Japanese
there sprang up a great desire to adopt
8. The Ad- Western customs and ideas. Protes-
vanoe, tant Christianity, as the religion of
1878-88. England and America, was thought to
be at least worthy of investigation, and
large audiences listened to its proclamation. Some,
like the popular leader Fukuzawa, argued that as
a matter of policy it would be well for the country
nominally to adopt Christianity. The Christian
schools became crowded with earnest young men
and women, many of whom became Christians and
showed much zeal for carrying the Gospel to others.
Bibles and other religious books had an increasing
sale. The churches received large accessions to
their membership, and several became self-support-
ing. In 1883 a general convention of the mission-
aries and a union meeting of the Japanese Christians
were followed by marked religious awakenings. So
rapid did the growth of the churches become that
extravagant expectations were aroused, and even
some enemies of Christianity said that ere the cen-
tury closed it would be the most prominent religion
of the land. The statistics of Protestant missions
for 1888 showed 249 churches with a membership
of 25,514, the number of adults baptized in the year
being 6,959. Outside of the professedly missionary
ranks there were those from foreign kuids who did
much to help on the movement. Among them may
be mentioned President Clark of the Massachusetts
Agricultural College, who, in 1876, went to Japan
to assist in establishing a similar institution in
Sapporo. Capt. Janes, U. S. A., who was employed
as a teacher in the city of Kumamoto, invited his
pupils to come to his house for the study of the
Bible. Some of them became Christians, whereupon
a severe persecution broke out. A number of these
went, in 1876, to the Doshisha School which Joseph
Neesima and missionaries of the American Board
had opened the preceding year in Kyoto. Mr.
Neesima was a young man who, at a time when
an attempt to leave the country was a capital
crime, had been led by his desire to learn about God
and Western civilization to go to America (1864).
He was there befriended by Alpheus Hardy, a
Boston merchant, and given opportunities for study
such as fitted him to do a noteworthy religious and
educational work for his own people.

The period of rapid growth was not without its
difficulties. The movements of missionaries were
hampered by regulations that limited
4. The Ob- freedom of travel in the interior. While
■taolea Bn- the imperial government as a whole
oonntered. pursued a liberal policy, the educa-
tional department was much of the
time in control of those who exerted a strong in-
fluence against Christianity. Local officials some-
times put hindrances in the way of evangelization,
and there was much petty persecution by the rela-

tives and neighbors of believers. Fear of losing
office, trade, or popularity deterred many from
following what they believed to be the truth. Bud-
dhism awoke from its slumber to oppose the rival
religion by means of lectures, tracts, schools, and
societies. When elections were to be held in 1890
for the first national diet, the Buddhists entered
the political arena and urged that the people should
not choose any Christians to represent them. It
was a bitter disappointment when returns showed
that out of the 300 members of the House of Com-
mons, thirteen were Christians, one of whom was
made president, while another became chairman of
the conmiittee of the whole. Incidentally it may
be mentioned that in subsequent diets Christians
have several times held the same offices or that of
vice-president, which is one of many facts that dis-
prove the assertion that the influential classes in
Japan are not reached by the Gospel.

The movement in favor of Christianity was

checked by a reaction that began to be apparent

about 1889. Failure to secure desired

6. The Be- revision of treaties, with other im-

aotion of toward events, caused the Japanese to
1880. feel much irritation against foreign na-
tions. Conservatives seized the oppor-
tunity to foster a nationalistic spirit; while the
relations of Christianity with western lands had once
been helpful, now they proved a hindrance. Preach-
ing-places were no longer crowded; pupils left the
Christian schools, there were few additions to the
churches, and many defections. Hitherto there
had been but little doctrinal discussion; this was
now aroused by the coming of Unitarian and other
liberal missions, as well as by the increased reading
of books written in other lands. The fondness of
the Japanese for novelty and the desire of many
to show their independence of the missionaries who
had been their teachers increased the tendency to
advocate all sorts of views, while theological unrest
led to spiritual decline and a relaxation of evangel-
istic efforts, and the growth of trade and manu-
factures fostered a commercial spirit that made it
more difficult to interest men in religious themes.
Nevertheless, some advance was made in this period,
so that in 1900 there were 538 churches with 42,451
members.

This reaction gradually spent its force. Revised

treaties, becoming effective in 1899, lessened the

feeling against foreigners and made it

6. The New possible for missionaries to travel or

AdTanoe reside in any part of the land, while
Slnoe 1809. the treaty of alliance with Great Brit-
ain (1902) increased the favor with
which Christian lands, and consequently their re-
ligion, were regarded. Regulations issued by the
government regarding buildings used by religious
bodies were a practical recognition of Christianity
and put it on the same standing as Buddhism.
Moreover, the twentieth century opened with the
manifestation of renewed earnestness and evangel-
istic zeal on the part of the Christians. The war
with Russia did much to sober the thoughts of the
people and incline them to consider other than
material interests, and also opened up many (^por-
tunities for work in behalf of the soldiers, the

100

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Japan

military authorities cordially welcoming that carried
on by the Young Men's Christian Association in
Manchuria, the emperor himself contributing to its
support, while in Japan there was much done for
the soldiers on their way to the front, for the in-
valids in the hospitals, and for the families that
were in distress. The statistics of Protestant mis-
sions show that at the close of 1907 there were 295
male missionaries and 255 immarried women; the
total, including wives, being 789. There were 529
organized churches, of which 102 were wholly self-
supporting. The church-members (including pro-
bationers and baptized children) niunbered 71,818,
of whom 57,830 were conmiunicants. The adult
baptisms in the year had been 8,623; and the
money raised by the churches amounted to 274,-
608 yen ($137,304). There were 469 ordained Japa-
nese ministers, 626 evangelists, and 208 Bible-
women.

While many varieties of Protestantism are repre-
sented in Japan, there has been a great degree of
harmony among the different bodies.
7. Harmony Nearly all have joined heartily in
ofProtas- united evangelistic efforts, and have
tant Effort, manifested a tendency toward the or-
ganic union of churches having similar
forms of government. The churches connected
with the various Presbyterian missions form the
Nippon Kirisuto Kyokwai (Church of Christ in
Japan); those connected with Episcopal missions
of America and England form the Sei Kokwai
(Holy Catholic Church); and a similar union of
Methodists was effected in 1907. These three
bodies and the Kumi-ai Kyokwai (Congregational
churches) are of nearly equal strength, their mem-
bership including more than five-sixths of the whole.
Nearly all the churches except the Sei Kokwai use
the same hymn-book; and by arrangement with the
latter body 100 of its hymns are uniform with those
of the Union Hynmal. Most of the missions are
represented in the '' Standing Conmiittee of Co-
operating Missions,'' which serves as '' a general
mediiun of reference, communication, and effort."
The Japanese Christians are also united in an al-
liance that holds large conventions from time to
time. Most of the missions have educational insti-
tutions of various grades; a few schools have been
established by the Japanese Christians. In many
of the government schools of higher grade there are
Christian associations. The International Young
Men's Christian Association has sent secretaries to
several of the larger cities of Japan, and these, in
addition to work for the general associations, give
counsel and help to those in the schools. The
educational officials have also used their aid in
securing from America men of good character and
ability as teachers of English. In the island of
Yexo the Church Missionary Society has a mission
to the Ainu, an aboriginal race which is gradually
becoming extinct. Of the 16,000 survivors, about
1,200 are Christians. Much successful work has
been done among the Japanese emigrants in Hawaii
and on the Pacific coast of the United States. Since
Formosa came into the possession of Japan, some
of the Japanese churches have sent evangelists
there to labor for their own people and also for the

native inhabitants. Other evangelists have been
sent for similar work in Korea (q.v.) and the
Chinese ports.

Even before the country was opened to foreign
intercourse, most Japanese men were able to read

more or less; and since the establish-

8. General ment of the educational system this

Besnlts. ability has become almost universal

among both men and women. This
has made a great opening for Christian literature.
The translation of the New Testament was com-
pleted in 1879, that of the Old Testament in 1877.
For the most part the Scriptures are sold, and not
given, to the people, the largest work of gratuitous
distribution being in the army. Other Christian
books and tracts were at first prepared by the
missionaries or under their supervision, but now
they come almost entirely from Japanese writers
and are to a large extent published by Japanese
firms. The same is true of Christian periodicals.
Schools for poor children, orphan asylums, hos-
pitals, dispensaries, leper asylums, schools for the
blind, reform schools, and homes for released prison-
ers have been established, and these institutions
have been founded and conducted by the Japanese
Christians themselves. They have so far gained the
approval and confidence of the people that believers
and non-believers alike have contributed toward
their support, and some of them have received
large gifts from the emperor and empress. The
Christians are also recognized leaders in reform
movements, such as those against intemperance,
debasing exhibitions, and the system of licensed
prostitution. The influence of Christianity is being
felt in many ways that can not be tabulated. Partly
because many literary men are Christians, or have
been educated in Christian schools. Biblical quota-
tions, theistic expressions, and arguments based on
religious thought are common in newspapers and
magazines. This shows that, in addition to what
is visible to the eye, the leaven of Christian truth is
silently working in the hearts of men. Apart from
the directly religious results produced by the
preaching of the Gospel, society is being in many
ways affected by Christian ideas. No one can un-
derstand modem Japan who overlooks the influence
that Christianity is exerting upon the thoughts and
sentiments of the people. Ons Cary.

Biblioobapht: F. von Wenekstem, BihUography of the
Japanese Empire, 1869-93, vol. i., Leyden. 1895; vol. ii.,
Tokyo, 1907. On I. consult: E. Kaempfer, HieL of
Japan, 2 vols., London, 1728, new ed., 3 vols.. New
York, 1906; H. Faulds, Nine Years in Nipon^ Boston,
1888; P. Lowell. The Soul of the Far East, ib. 1888;
E. Lamairesse, Le Japon, histoire, religion, Paris, 1892;
H. Norman, Real Japan: Studies in Contemporary Man-
ners, Morals, Administration and Politics, New York,
1893; D. Murray. The Story cf Japan, ib. 1894; J.
Page, Japan, its People and Missions, London. 1895; C.
Munxinger, DieJapaner, Berlin. 1898; W. G. Aston, His-
tory of Japanese Literature, New York. 1899; F. Brinkley.
Japan, Boston, 1902; B. H. Chamberlain, Things Japanese,
New York, 1902; W. E. Griffis, Japan in History, Folklore
and Art, Boston. 1906; idem, Mikado's Empire, 2 vols.. New
York, 1903; idem. The Japanese Nation in Evolution,
ib., 1907; Augusta M. C. I^vidson, Present Day Japan,
Philadelphia. 1904 ; S. Guliok. Evolution cf the Japanese,
Social and Psydtie, New York, 1903; L. Heam, Japan:
an Attempt at Interpretation, London, 1904; G. W.
Knox, Japanese Life in Town and Country, New York.

THE NEW SCHAFP-HERZOG

On II, l.contull:
MirUiin, the BuppleK

itoM, Batliido, On Soal of Japan,
I. E. BickersMth, Japan, 190S.
le KaiiH. ininsl. by B. 11. Cham-

I Trann

of 0

Sodtty of Japai
G. AstoD in the Trai

W. G. Alton, Shinto. New York, IWU; F, L^wclJ, OccaU
Japan, BuMon. I8S5: F. Kinder, Oid Wnrld Japan: Ug-
endi of the Land of Codt. New Yort. ISOS; J, Batchelof,
Tht Ainu and Otir Fatklort, LoDdon. IBOl; F. Brinkley.
/span. u( sup.; W. E. Griffii. TkBReHoiant of Japan, iitw
York. 1904; M, Revon, Lt Shinlniinm, Paris. 1907: G. W.
Knoi. Tht Danlopmcnt af Rtlioian in Japan, New York,
1907: E, Ruekjey. Phallicism in Japan. Chicago, privalEly
printed. There are nuuiy papers of importaDCe in tlie
TVtmmciiDM of Om Afialie Saciilu of Japan, e.g.. E. Satow,
TKa Shinta Templa of Iti. ii. 113; idem. The Revival kT
Pura Shinto, iii. appeJidix; idem, Ancimt Japanae Rituata,
i*. WO. vu. 97, ix. 183: P. Looell, Emoltric Shinlo. ni.-
xiii,: D, C. Greeoe, Tenrikjio. ziiii. 24; K. Floreoi,
Antiimf Japanae Ritual, xxvil. I; A. Lloyd and D. C.
Greeae. Tht Acmnamtva. xxiv, I. 17; J, Leo, Dia Enl-
vicktlung det QUeaten japanischm SeelenJtbena, Leipsic,
1907.

On It. 2, mriBiilt^ B. Nanjio. A Short Hit. of Oit Tmlet
Japanae Buddhitl Stdi, Tokyo. 1886: [ftTU'i Parlia-
tnenl of Rilieiant. 2 volt., Chieaga, 1S03: L. Heani. Glian-
inga in Buddha Fielde, Boxton. 1897: idem. Japan, an
lnterprelali«n, m sup.; F, Brinkley, u[ nip.; W. E. Grif-
fa. The RilifpunM of Japan, ut lup.: and the following
papers in Iho TranMoctiona of the Atiatie Soeitii/ of Japan:
J. U, JiLToeB, NoUt on Roaariee untf bv DifferenJ SecU of
BuddhitU. ix. ITS; J, Troup, On the Temrit of Shinthtu.
xiv. 1: J. Summera. Buddhim and TradiHona amerrnino
ill InlToduelion into yapan. xiv. 73: J. Troup. The Oa-
buneha, KVii. 101; A. Uoyd. Developmena tjf Japaneae
Buddhitm. iiti, 337.

On 111. 1, the mort vajuahle sources of information sja
to be found in the letters and reports

orp, 1605. Oinsul

t: Abb4 ds Talon (J

ds l-fgliae rfu Jo

pan, 2 vols.. Paris.

.. London, ITOfi:

P. F. ChailBvoix, H

I Crujuet)
1689. Eng

Hiai

si.. London. ITOfi. -.

Hut. du cArulldniime au Japan. 3 vols., in. 1716: L.
Pages. Hiai, de la rtlitrion thriHenne au Japon, 2 voir,
Paris. 1S6B: L« Pmnier Afmiotmire colftoii^u* du Japor
ou zix. lUrlc. Lyons, 188& (largely composed of the lelten
of T. A. Forcadi); F. Mamas. La Rrliaion dt Jfaut ret
ntriUe ou Japan, 3 vols.. Paris, 1898; B. A. WilbEf.
foree, Dominican Miaaiona and Alarlyra in Japan. Lon-
don. 1897: J. Murdoch and Y. YBBuigaU, HhIotb oj
Japan ISiM-tesl. Kob*. 1903; " "■ ' ' ~ ""

I. Steichen. The Chiit-

tian Daivtvo.

Vokobama. 1903

part of

Ihe literature

under Franob XjiviiiHi also the

lelten an

(A and C^holit Miaaima.

bUsbed in London

On III, 2.

»nsult: C. Hale.

Church, in A

nerican Church Riaieu:. Oct

1978: 0. W.

Tatt. Bishop Wicoloi, in Jopoji*

hSwixkJ

wt. June, 1896;

The first two

yolumes of ■ Don

history in Jap-

BDese, Nihon Seikyo Dendo Ski. were pu

blished Tokyo,

1900.

On III. 3, cc

oault: Proceeding

of the Oeneral Conftranet

af Prolalani

Miaaionarie. of Japan. Yd

kohams, 18S3:

Oeneral Confr

rmo af PtoUilan

tria ^ Japan.

Tokyo. 1901:

H. Hitter, Dreta

•V Jahre

MiHion in J

Eng. ir»

osl., tliton, of

ProUalanl Mu

aiaiia in Japan. Tokyo. 1898: U. L. Gor-

don. An Ame

Tican Miaaianani

BoFlon. 189!;

A Modm Paul

n Japan:

Account of tk.

Lift and IVitrk af Rac. P. Saicauana. ib. 1893; K. B. Feeo',
The Gill qf Japan. New York, 1897; idem, Lalhtram in
Japan, Newberry, B. C. 1900: A. D. Hail. Japan and ita
Raeue. Nashville. 189S: £. Stock, Japan and the Japan
Mission of Out Church Uiationaru Sodelu. Iflndon. 189S:
O. Gary, Jopan and ill Regeneration. New York. 1904;
W. E. GrifEs, Dux CArisdu, ib. 1904; H. iloore. The
Chriatian Faith in Japon. London. 1904: E. W. Clem-
ent. Chrialianitv in Modem Japan. Philadelphia. 190S:
H. K. Miller, Jfisl. of the Japan Miaaion of tht Re-
formed Church. lUTB-igOi. ib. 1905; A. Arnold. The Light
of Japan. Church Work in . . . South Tokyo. Oaaka,

and Kivlhiu under Ihe ChurcX of Enoland, Hartford. 1906:
W. M. Imhrie. The Church of ChrUt in Japan. Philadel-
phia. 1906; The ChvHan Motrmtnl in iti Rilaban lo At
N™ Lift of Japan, an annual published in Tokyo, 1903
sqq.: R. Allier. Li Protabintitme ou Japon, Paris, 1908:
O. Cory, Hist, of ChriUianily in Japan. New York. 1909.

JAFHET. Se« Tables o

e; Nations, $ 4.

JASOH: A Greek name borne oflen by Jews of
Maccabean or later tEmes and by Jewish Christians.
On account of its resemblance to the Hebrew-Jewish
name Jesus nr Joshua, it waa often assumed by Jews
ini;lincd to Greek culture or living in a Gt«ek en-
vironnipnt. The following are notable bearers of
the name.

1. A brother of the high priest Oaias III., him-
self occupying the office 174-172 b.c. Two very
different accounts of him exist, the first in II Mace.
iv. 7 sqq., v. 5 sqq. (cf. i. 7), and the second in
Jo»ephus,^ni. XII.,v.l {i;f. XV., iii.l). According
to the first account, Jason betame an apostate from
the Jewish religion, bought from Antiochua IV. the
office of high priest for 440 talents, and for 150 more
the right to erect in Jerusalem training- places tor
G reek athletics and to enroll Jeruaalcmites as citiiens
of Antiocb. He encouraged Greek sports, and sent
an embassy with a gift to the Heraclcs-Meicarth
festival at Tyre. After three years he was super-
seded by MenelauE, who outbid him for the oifice.
He fled to the .Ammonites across the Jordan, but
returned in 170 B.C. with a band of 1,000 men,
when a report was spread that Antiochus had died
on his second Egyptian expedition, took Jerusalem,
and inflicted great slaughter there. He was com-
pelled again to flee, first to the Anmionifes, then to
Ihe Arabian Prince Aretaa, next to Egypt, and
finally to Lacedemonia, where he died. According
lo JosephuB be came into the office in an orderly
manner, after the death of his brother, fell into
disfavor with Antiochus, and was compelled to
yield his office to his brother Menelaus, who was
the real sponsor for Greek culture. Willrich accepts
Josephus' account on the ground that II Maccabees
ia a falsified " tcndency-WTiting," but the majority
of scholars are against this.

2. The son of Eleazar, who, accordii^ to I Macc.
viii. 17 (cf. II Macc. iv. II and Josephus, Ant.
XII., X. G), was sent about 161 b.c. with Eupolemus
to Rome by Judas Maccabeia as ambassador to
make a treaty of friendship. The treaty was made,
though its results were not actually apparent. Will-
rich casts doubts upon the historicity of the event.

8, Jason of Cyrene, a Hellenistic Jew who, ac-
cording to II Macc. ii. 19, wrote a history in Greek
in five btwks on the Maccabees, the purification of
the temple, the wars of the Jews against Antiochus
Epiphanes and Eupator, and the divine help which
came in those times. It embraced the period 171-
161 B.C., and is the basis of II Maccabees, the author
of which lays the responsibility for his form of state-
ment of the facts upon Jason, though probably
Jason is also a mask through which his own per-
sonality speaks. Jason wrote between 162 and 125
n.r., and probably in Egypt.

4. In Rom. xvi, 21 Paul speaks of a kinsman
I.^on, who possibly lived in Corinth (cf. Rom.

xvi. 1).

Ill

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

{apan
Javan

6. According to Acts zvii. 5-9, Paul, while at
Thessalonica, dwelt at the house of a Jason, who
is probably to be distinguished from the foregoing.

6. For the Jason of the ** Dialogue between Jason
and Papiscus " see Abisto of Pella.

(R. KRATZSCHMARf.)

Bibuoorapht: A treatment of the whole subject may be
found in DB, u. 551-552; EB, ii. 2336-37; and of 1-3 in
JB, vii. 74-76.

For 1 consult: H. Willrich, Juden und Orieehen vor der
makkabdi9chen Erhtbung, G^ttingen, 1895; A. P. Stanley,
Lteiurf on the HxBt. of the Jeunsh Church, iii. 324, Lon-
don, 1884; J. Wellhausen, I9raeliii9che und iHdiache Oe-
•ehichte, p. 325, Berlin, 1895; A. Bachler. Die Tobiaden
und die Oniaden, pp. 106 sqq., Vienna, 1899; SchOrer,
OeschiehU, i. 220. 194-196. Eng. transl.. I., i. 202-205. 231
(on 1 and 2).

On 3: Trieber. in NachrUhten der kdnigliehen OeeeUeduift
der Wieeenaehaften su OdtHngen, 1895, pp. 401, 406; Will-
rich, ut sup., chap, ii.; idem, Judaica, chap, iv., Qdttin-
gen, 1900; A. Schlatter, in FeeUchrift der UnivereiUU
Greifewald, Greifswald, 1899; SchOrer, ut sup., i. 40, 359-
361. Eng. transl., I., i. 47. II., iii. 211-216.

On 5 consult: W. M. Ramsay, St. Paul the Traveller,
p. 231. London. 1897.

JASPER, JOHN: Colored Baptist pulpit orator;
b. a slave on the Peachy plantation on the James
River, in Fluvanna Co., Viiginia, July 4, 1812; d.
in Richmond, Va., Mar. 30, 1901. His father was
Philip Jasper, his mother's name was Nina, and he
was her twenty-fourth child, bom two months after
his father's death. When grown to manhood he
came to Richmond as a slave and was employed
as a stemmer in the large tobacco factory of Samuel
Hargrove, a prominent Baptist. He had no educa-
tion, but with the help of a colored man almost
as ignorant as himself he learned to read six months
before his conversion, which occurred on Thursday,
July 25, 1839. His father had been a preacher, and
he followed his example. He soon became a fa-
vorite among the colored people of Richmond, then
his fame spread, especially as a funeral preacher,
until he was known all over the State. He made
himself master of the Bible, and was a formidable
opponent of those who questioned his interpreta-
tion. When emancipated he gathered about him
a congregation and soon had a building to preach in.
More and more came to hear him until at length the
Sixth Mount Zion Church was built for him, and
there he preached to several thousand people every
Sunday. In 1878, in the regular course of his min-
istry, he preached from Ex. xv. 3, " The Lord is
a man of war; the Lord is his name." He began
with Biblical illustrations of the almighty power
of God, but branched off into the demonstration
by Biblical texts literally construed of the proposi-
tion that ** the sun do move.'' The sermon was
prepared to end a dispute upon the question of
the sun's motion and was delivered without any
desire to cause talk. It made a sensation, had to
be repeated again and again, and he was even sent
out by a lecture bureau to repeat it outside of
Richmond. But it only made his name a by-word
and obscured to many the fact that he really had
solid claim to be considered a pulpit orator. Even
this particular sermon was saved from being ridic-
ulous by the preacher's profound reverence for the
Bible, simple faith in the Bible miracles, and his
logical power and remarkable eloquence of a rude

but genuine kind. He had also humor of the most

delicious variety. In short, in him the t3rpe of the

ante-bellum uneducated but gifted, pious, and witty

colored preacher reached its culmination.

Bibuoobapht: W. E. Hatcher, John Jaeper, New York,
1906.

JASPISy ALBERT SIGISMTJND: General superin-
tendent of Pomerania; b. at Nossen (19 m. w. of
Dresden) Feb. 15, 1809; d. at Stettin Dec. 20, 1885.
He studied at the gynmasium in Freibuig-on-the-
Mulde and at Leipsic. In 1832 he became catechist
and afternoon-preacher in St. Peter's Church in
Leipsic. In 1835 Jaspis became pastor in Lugau,
three years later diaconus in Lichtenstein, and pas-
tor in Rodlitz. His faithfulness and especiaUy his
success with children and young people won him
the hearts of his parishioners in both places. In
1845 he went over to the Prussian State Church,
after having been elected third preacher of the
Evangelical Lutheran congregation in Elberfeld.
In 1855 he was called to Stettin as general super-
intendent of Pomerania. He represented a pietistic
confessionalism, and his gifts lay in the direction
of the practical cure of souls. He was not without
success as a writer of devotional and pastoral literar
ture, and some of his tracts found a large circulation.
But the publication which carried his name far
beyond the borders of Evangelical Germany was
his compilation of Luther's small cateclusm for the
instruction of young people to be confirmed. This
booklet is one of the most successful attempts at
the solution of the catechetical problem of the
Church as it was conceived in the middle of the
nineteenth century in the circles of pietistic con-
fessionalism. (Hans Kbssler.)

Bibliography: Sketches were written by hia son. one pre-
fixed to Jaspis' Erinnerungen an eine Zeii wo ea trObe und
finater toar, Cologne, 1888, the other in Bilder aue dem
Hrchliehen Leben , . , in Pommem, pp. 206 sqq., Stettin,
1895.

JAUFFRBT, zh6"M', GASPARD JEAN ANDRE
JOSEPH: Bishop of Metz; b. at Roque-Brussane
(15 m. n. of Toulon), Provence, Dec. 13, 1759; d.
in Paris May 13, 1823. He studied at Toulon, Aix,
and Paris, where, in 1791, he established the
Annates de la religion et du sentiment to oppose the
civil constitution of the clergy. After the Revolu-
tion he was one of the principal collaborators on
the Annales religieuses. About 1801 he became
vicar-general of Lyons. Subsequently he was re-
called to Paris as secretary of the grand almonry.
He became bishop of Metz in 1806. In 1811 he was
appointed by Napoleon to the archbishopric of Aix,
but was never instituted. His best-known works
are: De la religion d VAssembUe Nationale (Paris,
1790); Du cuUe public (2 vols., 1795); Meditations
sur les souffrances de la eroix de Notre-Seigneur
Jisus-Christ (1800), and Entretiens sur le sacrement
de la confirmation (1809).

J AV AN : A designation conunon to the Old Testa-
ment and the entire Orient for Greeks in general
and those of Asia Minor in particular. The name
is an example of a tribal name being given to a
whole people, and the Hebrew (YauHin) form
corresponds to the Greek laones or laFones, In
an inscription of Sargon II. (722-705 b.c), also

Jeoiui

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

112

in one of the Indian King Asoka, the name occurs as

Javana, and on one of Darius as Jauna. The

reason why all Greeks were called lonians in the

Orient is that after the eighth century before Christ

the lonians controlled the commerce of the East.

Old-Testament mention is found in Ezek.xxvii.lS,

where Javan is mentioned with Tubal and Meshech,

and refers probably to the lonians settled in Asia

Minor on the coast of the Black Sea; Isa. Ixvi. 19

(Septuagint) connects Lud, Meshech, Tubal, and

Javan; Javan in Ezek. xxvii. 19 is a corruption of

the text, as the Septuagint shows. The word has

the general sense of " Greeks " in Gen. x. 2, 4; in

verse 2 they are connected with Tubal and Meshech,

but in verse 4 the term includes Elishah (probably

Sicily), Tarshish in Spain, Kittim (Cyprus), and

Rodanim (see Dodanim), and therefore covers the

people of the Mediterranean. The priestly writer

who wrote this verse knew of the supersession of the

Phenicians by the Greeks, in conmiercial matters.

Joel iii. 6 mentions the Greeks, Zech. ix. 13 speaks

of the Greek empire, Dan. viii. 21 has in mind

Alexander's kingdom, and x. 20 that of the Seleu-

cidfiB. (H. GUTHB.)

Biblioobapht: B. Stade, De populo Javan, Qiessen, 1880,
alao in Reden und Ahhandlunoeih PP. 123-142. ib. 1809;
E. Meyer. Oeschiehie de» AUertunu, i. 490-404. ii. 433,
085 nqq.. Stuttgart, 1884-93; A. H. Sayoe, Higher CriH-
eirnn and the MonumentB, London, 1894; DB, ii. 652-553;
SB, ii. 2338^-39; also literature under Tabud of the
Nations.

JAY, WILLIAM: English dissenting preacher and
author; b. at Tisbury (13 m. w. of Salisbury),
WUtshire, May 8, 1769; d. at Bath Dec. 27, 1853.
After serving for two years as apprentice to his
father, a stonecutter and mason, he entered the
religious seminary of Cornelius Winter at Marl-
borough in 1785, and began to preach in the neigh-
boring villages the same year. On leaving Marl-
borough in 1788 he preached at Surrey Chapel,
London, and achieved considerable notoriety as
the ** boy preacher." After short ministries at
Christian Malford, near Chippenham, and Hope
Chapel, Clifton, he became pastor of the Aigyle
Independent Chapel at Bath Jan. 30, 1791. He
retired from this pastorate sixty-two ye&TS later.
His preaching attracted hearers from all classes
and from all denominations. John Foster calls him
the prince of preachers, and Sheridan styles him
the most natural orator he had ever heard. Some
of his writings have been widely circulated and
frequently reprinted in America. His best-known
works are : The Mutual Duties of Htubanda and Wives
(London, 1801); An Essay on Marriage (Bath,
1806); The Domestic Minister's Assistant (London,
1820); The Christian Contemplated (1S26); Morning
Exercises in the Closet (2 vols., 1829); and Evening
Exercises for the Closet (2 vols., 1831). HisTTorib*
(12 vols., Bath, 1842-48) were edited by himself.

Biblioorapbt: His AtUobioffraphtft «(i. O. Redford and J.
A. James, appeared London. 1855. Consult T. Wallace,
Portraiture of W. Jay, ib. 1854; 8. Wilson. Memoir of
W. Jay, ib. 1854; C. Jay. ReeoOeeHone of WiOiam Jay,
ib. 1859 (by his son); DNB, xzix. 255-256.

JATNE, FRANCIS JOHN: Church of England
bishop of Chester; b. at Llanelly (15 m. s.e. of
Carmarthen), CannarthBnBhire, South Wales, Jan.

1, 1845. He was educated at Wadham College,
Oxford (B.A., 1868), and became deacon and priest
in 1870. He was fellow of Jesus College, Oxford,
1868-73, and lecturer in the same college and tutor
of Keble College, Oxford, 1871-79. He was curate
of St. Clement's, Oxford, 1870-71; principal of
St. David's College, Lampeter, as well as sinecure
rector of Llangeler, 1877-86; rural dean of Lam-
peter, 1885-86; vicar and rural dean of Leeds,
188&-88; and was consecrated bishop of Chester
in 1889. He was also Whitehall Preacher, 1875-77,
and select preacher at Oxford in 1884.

J£: The product resulting, according to the
critical school, from the union of the J document
and the E document in the Hexateuch (q.v.). See
Hebrew Language and Literature, II., §§ 4, 7.

JEALOUSY, TRIAL OF. See Ordeal.

JEANNE D'ALBRET, shOn dol'^br^': Queen of
Navarre; b. at Pau (56 m. e.s.e. of Bayonne) Jan. 7,
1528; d. at Paris June 9, 1572. She was the eldest
child of Henry of Navarre and Margaret of An-
goul6me-Alen9on, the sister of Francis I. of France.
By the death of her brother John, she became heir-
presumptive of Navarre-Bdam, a kingdom which
was important on account of its position between
France and Spain. She received a thorough educa-
tion, although her trend was practical and am-
bitious rather than scholarly, nor could she sym-
pathize with the intellectualism and mysticism of
her famous mother. Suitors for her hand were
numerous, and as early as 1535 Francis had in-
tended to marry her to Anthony of Boiu'bon, but
when, in 1540, Charles V. of Spain sought her as
a wife for his son Philip, her imcle decided to wed
her to Duke William of Cleves. Despite her resist-
ance, the ceremony was performed on Jime 14,
1541, but her youth made the marriage a mere form,
and her ill health obliged her to remain in France
while her husband returned to Germany. The
change of political conditions caused Francis to
desire an annuhnent of the marriage, and a brief
of Paul III. on Oct. 12, 1545, declared the enforced
wedlock void. Three years later (Oct. 20, 1548)
she married Duke Anthony of Bourbon- Vend6me.
The first two children of this imion died while still
infants, but on Dec. 14, 1553, she gave birth at
Pau to her son Henry, afterward Henry IV. of
France. The death of her father on May 29, 1555,
made her queen of Navarre, and she succeeded in
having Anthony recognized as king, although the
actual sovereignty devolved on her.

It was in her relation to the Reformation that
Jeanne was most important. She had been brought
up in an atmosphere favorable to the new teaching,
although Margaret of Navarre never formally
became a convert to Protestantism. Jeanne re-
mained true to Roman Catholicism, even after her
husband entered into correspondence with Oalvin
in 1557, and became the mainstay of the Reformed.
Her disaffection with the Roman Catholic Church,
however, steadily increased, and on Christinas of
the same year she publidy renounced her former
faith and received communion aocording to the
Reformed rite. Within a year her court became

118

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

iDCUi

the center of the Reformed, and her zeal for her
new creed and its adherents was most pronounced.
She educated her son in the Reformed faith, and
Navarre was thoroughly Calvinized by Raymond
Merlin in 1563-64. llany statues were forcibly torn
from the churches, and the monasteries were trans-
formed into schools, while their incomes were
devoted to the establishment of educational institu-
tions.

A sudden opponent aroee, however, in the person
of Pius IV., who, in a bull of Sept. 28, 1563, cited
her to appear before the tribunal of the Inquisition
or to forfeit her territories both for herself and her
children. This peril was obviated by her suzerain,
Charles IX., and the buU was annulled, but the
peace which she now hoped to enjoy was broken
by the wars of religion which broke out anew, and
she was forced to flee from Navarre and to take
refuge in La Rochelle. During the war she was un-
tiring in her encouragement of her coreligionists,
and her son Henry (then sixteen years of age) was
the nominal head of the Huguenot party, with
Coligny and Andelot as his advisers, a course by
which Jeanne increased her own prestige. Mean-
while Navarre-B^m had been overrun by the
royal troops under Terrides, Pau was captured,
and only the little fortress of Navarrein still held
out. Thither Jeanne sent Montgomery, who re-
conquered the coimtry for its queen within two
months. Jeanne thereupon forbade the exercise
of the Roman Catholic religion, and expelled the
priests and monks, but in Navarre, where her power
was limited, she tolerated it. In the Peace of St.
Germain (Aug. 8, 1570) her counsels and persever-
ance were important factors in obtaining favorable
terms for the Protestants, and she remained at La
Rochelle until Aug., 1571, declining to be present
at the marriage of Charles IX. with Elizabeth of
Austria (Nov. 26, 1570), but attending the third
Reformed synod held at La Rochelle Apr. 2-10,
1571.

Though she had pleaded the length of the journey,
she was, in reality, deeply distrustful of the court,
and repeatedly declined invitations to visit it,
despite the fact that she was planning a marriage
of her son with Margaret, the daughter of Henry II.
This match had been proposed by Henry himself
as early as 1556, but had been foi^otten until nego-
tiations were renewed during the war in the autiunn
of 1569, and again in Jan., 1571, this time in earnest.
In Nov. the reluctance of Jeanne was overcome,
despite the difiference in religion of Henry and
Margaret, for she hoped that the princess would
become a convert to Protestantism. In Jan., 1572,
the queen of Navarre consented to visit the French
court, and in the following month met Catharine.
Negotiations for the marriage dragged, but in April
it was decided that the ceremony should be per-
formed at Paris. On Apr. 11 the marriage-contract
was signed, but the pope would not give the requisite
dispensation, although CHiarles IX. earnestly advo-
cated the union which was so necessary for the peace
of the land. Jeanne then hastened to Paris to
make the final preparations for the marriage, and
on June 3 received conmiunion at Vincennes with
a number of her coreligionists, but died six days

VI.— 8

later. It was this marriage which was followed
by the massacre of St. Bartholomew's Day.

(ThEODOR SCHOTTt.)

Biblioorapht: The best aooount* baaed on documentary
evidence, of the life of Jeanne d'Albxet is in the three
works of A. de Ruble, Le Matiaoe de Jeanm d'AWret,
Paris, 1877, Ant. de Bourbon et Jeanne d'AWret, 4 vols.,
ib. 1881-86, and Jeanne d'Albrei et la guerre HvUe, ib»
1897; for her later life very important is Lettrea d*Anioine
de Bourbon e< de Jeanne d'Albret^ ib. 1877. Consult
further: W. O. Soldan, Oeediiehte dee ProtettanUemue in
Prankreich, 2 vols., Gotha, 1865; G. von Polens, Oe-
echiehte dee franzdeieehen CalviniermMt 6 vols., Leipaic,
1867-69; N. de Boodenave, Hiat, de B(am et Navarre,
Paris, 1873; J. Delaborde, EUonore de Roue, ib. 1876;
idem, Oaepard de Coligny, vol. i., ib. 1879; H. M. Baird,
Hiat. of the Riee of the Huguenots, 2 vols.. New York, 1880;
Cambridge Modem Hietory, iii. 6, 11, 13, 17-18, New York,
1906.

JEBB, JOHN: Bishop of Limerick; b. at Drog-
heda (26 m. n. of Dublki), Ireland, Sept. 27, 1775;
d. at East Hill, near Wandsworth (6 m. s.w. of
London), Surrey, Dec. 9, 1833. He studied at the
Londonderry grammar-school, and in 1791 entered
Trinity College, Dublin (M.A., 1801; B.D. and D.D.,
1821). He was ordained in 1799 and instituted to
the curacy of Mogorbane, Tipperary county, in 1801.
He became Archbishop Brodrick's examining chap-
lain in 1805 and archdeacon of Emly in 1820. For
his services in maintaining order in his parish
during the disturbances that followed the famine
of 1822 he was rewarded with the bishopric of
Limerick in Dec. of that year. In 1827 a stroke of
paralysis incapacitated him for active work. There-
after he resided at various places in England,
devoting himself to literary pursuits. He had a
strong tendency toward High-church ritual, and is
regarded as a forerunner of the Oxford movement.
His chief works are: Sermons (London, 1815); Sacred
Literature (1820); Practical Theology (2 vols., 1830);
and a Biographical Memoir of William Phdan
(1832). His correspondence with Alexander Knox
was edited by C. Forster (2 vols., 1834).

Biblioorapht: C. Forster, Life and Letters c/ John JeU,
London, 1861 ; Anne Motley, Letters of J. H. Newman, L
440, 470. ib. 1890; DNB, xzix. 259-261.

JEBUS, ji'bus, JEBUSITES, jeb'uHsaits: Upon
the basis of Judges xix. 10-11 and I Ohron. xi. 4-5
Jebus was formerly supposed to have been the pre-
Israelitic name of Jerusalem (cf. II Sam. v. 6).
But Judges xix.-xxi. took its present form in post-
exilic times, and probably Jebus did not occur in
the original text; consequently the testimony for
Jebus as the name of a city is late, for in all early
narratives only the name Jerusalem is found, as it
is in the Amama Tablets (see Aicarna Tablets,
III.). The passages cited, therefore, embody the
erroneous conclusion that the earlier name of the
city was Jebus. It is to be noted, however, that
the Jebusites were not spoken of as limited in their
dwelling-place to the city, but as inhabiting the
immediate region thereabout (II Sam. v. 6) or the
mountain region in particular (Num. xiii. 29;
Josh. xi. 3). The better conclusion therefore is
that the people derived its name from a district
rather than a city. They are represented as holding
an important point in the highland after Israel
had carried on a victorious campaign against the
Canaanites, and from the mountain fortress of Zion

THE NEW SCHATF-HERZOO

ruling ft small territory limited on the north by the
Benjaminitic Nob, Gibeah of Saul, and Ramah, aod
on the south by Bethlehem of Judah. Their in-
dependence WB8 not especially important until the
time of David, when he wished to unite hia northern
and bis Bouthem t«rrilDrie8, and therefore captured
the place (11 Sam. v. &-S; I Chron. xi. 4-6). After
that they were in part freemen on their own posaea-
elons (implied by the story of Araunah or Oman,
II Sam. jcxiv. 16; I Chron. xxi. 15). and in part
slaves (under Solomon, I Kings ix. 20-21), The
text of the description of the boundary between
Judah and Benjamin calU the hill north of the
Valley of Hinnom " the Shoulder of the Jebusites "
(Josh. XV. 8, xviii. 18), whence it may be concluded
that the part of the city which the Jebuaites occu-
pied in later times was that to the southeast.
It might be concluded from Josh. x. 5 that as Adoni-
ledek is reckoned to the Amorites the Jebusitea
were also Amorites; but this is not conclusive, as
it may be held that the Amorites had recently
come in, while the Jebusitea were regarded as early
inhabitants of the land. From the frequent men-
tion of the people (e.g., Gen. x. 16; Deut. vii. 1,
XX. 17) nothing certain can be gathered regarding
the racial affinities of the Jebuaites, (H. Gitthe.)
BiBLioaRAi^T: The eubjcci in trented in tbe litenlure

G. F. Moon. Commmlaru on JurfoM. New York, 1885:
K. Budde. Dm Budi der RichUr, GUdingen. 1806; DB. ii.
M*-65fi: F.B. ii. 2415-1(1.

JEFFERS, ELIAKIM TDPPER: Presbyterian;
b. at Stewiacke, Nova Scotia, Apr. 6, 1841. He
studied at Jefferson College, Canonsburg, Pa. (B.A.,
1862), and Princeton Theological Seminary (1862-
1865), and at the United Presbyterian Theol<^i-
cal Seminary, Alleghany, Pa (1865-68). He was
pastor of tlie United Presbyterian Church at Ox-
ford, Pa. (1865-72), after which he was president of
Westminster College, New Wilmington, Pa., until
1890, and professor of theology in Lincoln Univer^
sity, Oxford, Pa (1883-90). He was pastor of the
Firet Presbyterian Church, Oil City, Pa. (1890-93)
and since 1893 has been president of the York
Collegiate Institute, York, Pa. He has written
Skortent Road to Canar (New York, 1896).

JEFFERS, WILLIAUHAHILTOII: Presbyterian;
b. at Cadiz, O., May 1, 1838. He was graduated
from Geneva College, Northwood, Pa. (now Beaver
Falls, 0.; A.B., 1855), and at the United Presby-
terian Theological Seminary at Xenia, O, (1859).
He was pastor of the combined United Presbyterian
churches of Bellefontaine and Northwood, 0. (1862-
1866) ; was professor of Latin and Hebrew in West-
minster College, New Wihnington, Pa. (1866-60);
professor of Greek in the University of Wooster,
Wooster, O. (1869-75); pastor of the Euchd Avenue
Presbyterian Church, Cleveland, O. (1875-77); and
professor of historical theology in the Western
Theological Seminary, Alleghany, Pa. (1877-1903).
He has since resided at Loh Angeles, Cat., and lec-
tures on church history. While at Bellefontaine
he was a member of the committee to revise the
United Presbyterian metrical version of tbe

JEFFERSON, CHARLES EDWARD: Congrega-
tionaHst; b. at Cambridge, 0., Aug. 29, 1860. He
was educated at Ohio Wesleyan University (A.B.,
1882); was superintendent of public schools in
Worthington, O. (1882-84); studied at the School
of Theology attached to Etoston University (1884-
1887). He was pastor of tbe Central C-ongrega-
tional Church, Chelsea, Mass., from 1887 to 1898.
Since 1898 he has been pastor of the Broadway
Tabernacle, New York City. He has wTitt«n:
Quiet Talks u-xth EarnMt People in My Study (New
York, 1898); Quiet HinU to Grovdng Preachers in
My Study (_1901); Dodrine and Deed {imi); Things
Fundamental (1903); Faith and Life (1905); The
Minister as Propha (1905); The New Crusade
(1907); The Old Year and the New (1907); Charat>-
ter of Jems (1908); and My Father's Business:
Series of Sernuna to Children (1909).

JEHOAHAZ, je-he'a-haz: 1. Eleventh king of
Israel, son and successor of Jehu. His dates, ac-
cording to the old chronology, are 856-840 B.C.;
according to Kautzsch, 814-708 b.c. Under him
the oppression of the northern kingdom by tbe
Arameans reached its height, the army being
reduced to fifty horsemen, ten chariots, and 10,000
toot soldiers. An addition to II Kings siii. 22 in
the Septuagint shows that the Arameans operated
from the southwest as well as from the north against
Jehoahaz. Under him the Asherab worship seeou
to have revived (II Kings xiii. 6).

3. Sixteenth king of Judah, third son and suc-
cessor of Josiah (called Sliallum, Jer. xxii. 11).
He reigned only three months, according to the
old chronology, in 610 B.c; according to Kautxscb,
609 B.C.; according to Peake, 60S B.C. He was
evidently regarded as more energetic than his elder
brother (see Jehoiakiu), since the people elevated
him to the throne; but both the Book of Kings
and Josephus give him a bad character (II Kings
xxiii. 30 sqq.; Ant. X., v. 2). Pharaoh Necho, on
his return from his campaign to the Euphrates,
summoned Jehoahaz to Riblah and threw him into
chains to be carried to Egypt, whence he never
returned, and put his brother Jehoiakim (Eliakim)
in his place as king. Whether the name Sliallum
(-^"retribution"?) was symboUcally applied or
was his original name, discarded when he became
king, is a subject of debate. (The list of Joaiah's
sons in I Chron. iii. 17-18 erroneously makes Sbal-
lum to be a difTerent person from Jehoahaz.]

Tbe name appears also in II Chron. xxi. 17 as that
of King Ahoziah of Judah, and also, II Chron.
xxxiv, 8, of a recorder under Josiah of Judah.
(E. Eautzbcb.)

BiBUOotuPBT: Sourcuare: 11 Kings xiii, 1 -S. iziii. 30-3JS:
n Cbfon. iU, 17-18. ixivi. 1-3; Jer. «ii. 10-12. Cob-
Arab: vid IsiucL, HIBTORT Of. and tbe aniolet in DB.
BB. and JE.

JEHOIACmn, je-hoi'a-kin: Eighteenth king of
Judah, son and successor of Jehoiakim. He reigned
only three months, in 508 b.c. according to the old
chronology, 597 B.c. according to nearly all modem
historians. The difference in his age at his acces-
sion and in the length of his reign as given in II
Kings xxiv. 8 and II Chron. xxzvi. 9 is probably

116

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

J«hoiAkiiii

due to a shifting in the Chronicler's narrative of the
numeral ten from his age to the length of his reign.
When Jehoiachin ascended the throne, Jerusalem
was already under siege by the Babylonians or was
besieged soon after, and he rendered himself prisoner
to the besiegers, with his household and his officers,
and was carried into exile to Babylon, where he
remained a prisoner until Evil-Merodach set him
free in 562 (II Kmgs xxiv. 10-16, xxv. 27 sqq.)
and gave him an honorable place at the court of
Babylon. (E. Kautzsch.)

Bibuoorapht: Sources are II Kingfi xziv. ^16. xxv. 27-
30 ; II ChroD. xxxvi. ^10; Jer. xxii., xxiv., xxvii.-xxix.
Consult the pertinent sections in the works on the his-
tory of Israel cited under Arab, and the articles in the
Bible dictionaries; J. W. Rothstein, Die Qttaalooie det
K&nige Jojachin und aeiner Nachkommen, Berlin, 1902.

JEHOIADA, je-hei'a-da: High priest in the time
of Athaliah and Joash, king of Judah. His wife,
Jehosheba, sister of Ahaziah, saved Joash from
death at the time of the slaughter of the seed royal
by Athaliah. Six years after that event Jehoiada
set Joash on the throne, and had Athaliah killed.
He followed this up by destruction of the Baal
temple and the slaying of the priest of Baal, and
renewed the service in the temple of Yahweh.
While Jehoiada was practically regent during the
minority of Joash, the independence of the king
on reaching maturity is indicated in II Kings xii. 7.
The Chronicler relates that Jehoiada died at the
age of 130 and was buried among the kings because
of his good deeds (II Chron. xxiv. 15-16).

Others of the name are the father of Benaiah,
one of David's heroes, and a son of Eliashib, a
priest among the returning exiles named in Neh. xii.
10 sqq. (E. Kautzsch.)

Bibliookafbt: Sources are II Kings xi.-xii. 16; II Chron.

xxii 10-xxiv. 16. Ck>nsult the pertinent sections in the

works on the History of Israel mentioned under Arab,

and the articles in the Bible Dictionaries.

JEHOIAKIM, je-hei'a-kim: Seventeenth king of
Judah, second son of Josiah, and successor of
Jehoahaz. His dates, according to the old chronol-
ogy, are 609-598 B.C.; according to recent author-
ities 606-597 B.C. He was set on the throne by
Pharaoh Necho in place of his brother Jehoahaz
(q.v.), and his name changed from Eliakim. Through
the defeat of Necho at Carchemish the Egyptian
overlordship of Hither Asia was broken and the
Judeans came practically under the sway of the
Babylonians, though not for some time did a Baby-
lonian force appear in the land. After remaining
a vassal of Nebuchadrezzar for three years, Jehoi-
akim rebelled, doubtless at the instigation of Egypt,
while the neighboring Edomites, Moabites, and
Ammonites were encouraged to ravage his territory.
Finally Jerusalem was besieged by the Babylonians,
and possibly during the siege Jehoiakim died (II
Kings xxiv. 6), though the Chronicler reports that
Nebuchadrezzar put him in chains, which may be
due to a confusion of Jehoiakim with his successor,
or to an omission indicated in the Septuagint, which
adds to II Chron. xxxvi. 8 " and buried him in
the garden of Uzza." Ewald is of the opinion that
the difficulties occasioned both by the brevity of the
accounts and by their lack of agreement are solved
by supposing that Jehoiakim was decoyed from

the city, an assault made on him to take him
prisoner, and that he was killed in the m^\6e; in
this way he accounts for the definiteneiis in the
lamentation of Jeremiah.

Jehoiakim ( Joiakim) is also the name of a post-
exilic high priest (Neh. xii-10 sqq.), and (Joakim)
of the husband of Susanna. (E. Kautzsch.)

In 609 B.C. Pharaoh Necho advanced from Egypt
against Babylon. Josiah, king of Judah, as ally
of Babylon met him at Megiddo, was defeated and
slain (II Kings xxiii. 29). The people of Jerusalem
then made Jehoahaz king, passing by the elder
brother, Jehoiakim, with the purpose doubtless of
continuing the pro-Babylonian policy of Josiah.
Three months later Necho placed Jehoiakim upon
the throne and carried Jehoahaz to Egypt. Jeru-
salem was distracted. The court party favored
Egypt, but Jehoiakim was not the people's choice.
The anti-Egyptian party was incensed at the fine
which Necho imposed — not on the royal treasury,
but on the inhabitants (II Kings xxiii. 34, 35), and
Jeremiah earnestly warned against the Egyptian
alliance (Jer. xxvi).

The Egyptian and Babylonian armies did not
meet in 608, but the conflict was only postponed,
and four years later, 605, Necho was back again.
The intervening time was employed by Nebuchad-
rezzar in making alliances and suppressing enemies
on the line of Necho 's projected return. This ap-
pears from Berosus (Josephus, Apion^ i. 19), who
says that after the defeat of Necho at Carchemish
in 605, ** Nebuchadrezzar was sent by his father
against the parts of Ccele-Syria and Phenicia which
had revolted from him, and that he reduced the
country under his dominion again.'' If they
revolted they must have been in subordination of
some sort. The interval 608 to 605 suggests itself
as the time when that subordination took place.
Judah was one of those countries. It had -been
friendly under Josiah. It must be made friendly
under Josiah's son. The three years' vassalage
(II Kings xxiv. 1) fits into this interval. It is a
meaningless phrase applied to any other portion
of Jehoiakim 's reign. Jeremiah's silence also from
the ** beginning " of Jehoiakim 's reign to the
*' fourth year " of that reign (Jer. xxxvi. 1) is con-
sistent with friendly relations between Judah and
Babylon. During this interval, i.e., in 606 B.C.,
the young nobles of Judah were taken to Babylon
(Dan. i. 1) to be brought up at court — an arrange-
ment designed to promote good feeling between the
subordinate and the dominant powers. That these
young men became captives along with their whole
nation was due to Jehoiakim 's folly.

But when, in 605, the tramp of the Egyptian army
was heard again Jehoiakim put aside pretense and
joined Necho. Necho's defeat at Carchemish threw
the whole country into Nebuchadrezzar's hands.
He punished the nations which had fallen away
from allegiance to him by transporting some of
their people to Mesopotamia (Josephus, ut sup.).
Jerusalem was in great fear. A fast was proclaimed
in Jehoiakim's fifth year (Jer. xxxvi. 9) and Nebu-
chadrezzar's vengeance did not fall immediately.
Nebuchadrezzar contented himself with allowing
bands of ChaldeanSi Ammonites, and others to

Jehoshaphat
Jenka

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

116

ravage Judah (11 Kings xxiv. 2). The Jewish
monarchy existed thereafter only on sufferance.

Jehoiakim reigned eleven years, dying in 597 b.c.
He was not put to death by Nebuchadrezzar, as
Joeephus says, but may have perished by assassina-
tion, for he had filled Jerusalem with innocent blood
and was a curse to his country.

Joseph D. Wilson.

Bibuoobapht: Sources are II Kings xxiii. 34--xxiv. 7; II
Chron. xxzvi. 4-8; Jer. vii.-ix., x. 17-26, xiv.-xvii. 18,
xviii.-xx., etc.; and the Book of Habakkuk. The subject
is treated in the pertinent sections of the literature named
under Ahab and in the Bible Dictionaries.

JEHOSHAPHAT, je-hesh'a-fat: Fourth king of
Judah, son and successor of Asa. His dates, accord-
ing to the old chronology, are 914-893 B.C.; accord-
ing to Kamphausen, 876-852 b.c; according to
Duncker, 869-848 B.C.; according to Curtis (DB,
i. 401), 876-861 b.c. He was an energetic ruler,
whose extensive preparations for war and prudent
measures (II Chron. xvii. 2, 12-13) induced Ahab
of Israel to seek an alliance in view of the strained
relations between Israel and the Syrians, and of
the dangers arising from the pressure from the rising
power of Assyria (e.g., the victory of Shalmaneser
II. at Karkar; see Assyria, VI., 3, § 8). Good rela-
tions with Israel were also desired by Jehoshaphat;
accordingly he became only too intimate with the
heathenized court of Samaria and sealed his friend-
ship by arranging a marriage between his son Joram
and Athaliah, daughter of Ahab and Jezebel. This
alliance had its first test in an imsuccessful cam-
paign against the Syrians, the object of which was
to recapture the fortress of Ramoth in Gilead, which
was important as the center of the country east of
the Jordan (I Kings xxii. 1 sqq.). When Jehosha-
phat returned he received a severe rebuke from
the prophet Jehu, son of Hanani, for entering into
relations with those whom the Lord hated (II Chron.
xix. 1 sqq.; cf. II Chron. xx. 34). Nevertheless,
moved by his continued desire for a closer connec-
tion with the northern kingdom, he was ready
to undertake, in company with Joram (q.v.),
another campaign against the Moabites, who had
revolted from Israel (II Kings iii.). This expedi-
tion, to which Edom was also forced to furnish aid,
marched through the desert of Edom around the
southern end of the Dead Sea, and was threatened
with defeat through the lack of water in this r^on,
when Elisha, for Jehoshaphat's sake, gave counsel
and promised rescue and victory. King Mesha, be-
sieged in his fortress Kir-hareseth (the modem
Kerak), in his dire extremity offered his son as a
sacrifice to the national god, Chemosh, whereupon,
according to the mysterious statement in II Kings
iii. 27, ** there was great indignation against Israel "
(i.e. on the part of Chemod^) and the allies were
forced to turn back, so that they returned home
without having accomplished their task. The
Chronicler, who omits this story and does not allude
to the activity of the prophet Elisha, speaks (II
Chron. xx.) of a defensive, but more successful, ex-
pedition of Jehoshaphat against the Ammonites,
Moabites, and Meunim (cf. II Chron. xx. 1, R.V.
maiigin, but read Mehamme^unim), As this expe-
dition is mentioned only by the Chronicler, many

critics maintain that his story \a a readjustment
of the events related in II Kings iii., and credit it
with no historic value. Nevertheless, in view of
the great difference in all the principal details, it is
best regarded as an account of an independent act
of Jehoshaphat.

Both earlier and later sources praise Jehosha-
phat's piety and his reforming tendencies (I Kings
xxii. 43, 46; II Chron. xvii. 3, 6, xix. 3). According
to the Chronicler he was a zealous reformer of legal
procedure (II Chron. xix. 5 sqq.), and sought to
impress his judges with a true sense of their respon-
sibilities. In each city of the land he established
a court of justice, and in Jerusalem a supreme
tribunal composed of the chiefs of the families, of
Levites and of priests, entrusted with decision in the
most difficult cases. In this tribunal a priest pre-
sided when the religious cases were tried, and a
prince when the action was a civil one. Both sources
tell of an unsuccessful mercantile venture of Je-
hoshaphat, though the narratives are not altogether
concordant (I Kings xxii. 48; II Chron. xxi. 35, 37).
He endeavored to reestablish the traffic to Ophir
from Ezion-geber, but the newly equipped ships
were wrecked by a storm.

The picture of Jehoshaphat, although not without
its shadows, is stiU the brightest presented by the
house of David after Solomon's time. The land
was densely populated (II Chron. xvii. 14 sqq.) and
highly prosperous; little Judah was respected
beyond her boundaries because of the wisdom and
bravery of her king (II Chron. xvii. 10-11). Justice
and religion flourished and developed, the sacred
writings were carefully guarded and enriched. The
king himself, another David in his piety, submitted
to the sharp reproach of the prophets, was far-
sighted, endowed with a noble, generous nature,
and displayed tireless energy in his care for his
people's welfare. That the condemnation of the
well-meaning efforts of Jehoshaphat for a closer
connection with the idolatrous royal house of Israel
did not spring from narrow fanaticism was only
too well proved immediately after his death, since
the marriage of his son with Athaliah bore the
worst possible fruits and robbed the land of the
blessings which Jehoshaphat's reign had bestowed
upon it. C. VON Orelli.

Bibliography: The sources are I Kinss xxii.; II Kings
iii.; II Chron. xvii.-xxi. 1. The literature is given under
Ahab. Ck>nsult also: C. F. Biimey, NotM on Qt€ Hebrew
Text cf Kino9, Oxford. 1003: DB, u. 561; EB, ii 2352-
2353, cf. i. 770; JE, vu. 86-87.

JEHOVAH, je-hdVa: An erroneous form of the
divine name of the covenant God of Israel which
appears first about 1520 a.d. The error arose from
the fact that the utterance of the divine name, in
original quadrilateral form (the tetragranmiaton)
YHWH, became unlawful in Jewish usage as early as
the third Christian century and probably much
earlier, at least outside the sacred precincts (cf . Ex.
XX. 7; Lev. xxiv. 16, the Septuagint of which reads
'* name the name '' for '* blaspheme the name ").
Consequently in reading the sacred text, " Adonai ''
(Heb. Adhonaij " my lord ") was pronounced in-
stead of it (or *' Elohim ** in case the collocation
Adhanai Yhwh occurred) and the consonants of

117

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jehoshaphat
Jenka

Adhonai were often written in the mai^gin of the
manuscripts. When the vowel punctuation was
added, the vowels of Adhonai were written in the
text with the tetragrammaton, which thus appeared
to read Yehowah (rarely Yehawih), or, according
to an older system of transliteration, Jehovah. This
form, with anglicized pronunciation, entered the
English Bible and so came into general use in wor-
ship and theology as one of the names of God,
connoting especially his majesty and greatness. For
the derivation, meaning, etc., of the Hebrew form,
see Yahweh.

In Christian theology since the Reformation
'' Jehovah ** has become an expression inclusive
of the three persons of the Trinity. In the case of
the Third Person this is rather tacit than explicit;
in the case of the Second Person, the inclusion is
explicit. Thus C. Hodge remarks: " This mani-
fested Jehovah [i.e., the Malakh Yahweh or " Angel
of Y'ahweh ''j, who led his people under the Old-
Testament economy, is declared to be the Son of
God, the y^6yo^^ who was manifested in the flesh "
{SysUmaJtic Theology^ i. 485; cf. " Christ is repre-
sented ... as the Jehovah of the Old Testament,
who led the Israelites through the wilderness,''
p. 512). Similarly Shedd first identifies the Malakh
Yahweh with Yahweh and then says: " The Jehovah
in the theophany was the same trinitarian person
who is in the incarnation " (Dogmatic Theology ^
i. 110, New York, 1888). To the same purport may
be cited A. H. Strong (Systematic Theology y p. 146,
New York, 1902), A. A. Hodge (Popular Lectures
an Theological Themes, i. 263, Philadelphia, 1887),
S. Harris (God the Creator and Lord of All, i. 315, New
York, 1896), W. F. Gess (Das Dogma von Christi
Person und Werk, pp. 244-246, Basel, 1887), and
dogmaticians in general. Church covenants not
infrequently use the term " Jehovah- Jesus '* to
emphasize the deity of Christ.
BiBUOOBArar: See literature under Yahweh.

JEHU (Hebr. Yehu; Assyr. Ya-vra: LXX. lou;
Josephus, leous): Tenth king of Israel, a usurper,
successor of Joram, whom he slew. His dates, ac-
cording to the old chronology, are 884-856 b.c;
according to Kamphausen, 843-815; according to
Kdhler, 881-853 b.c; and according to Curtis
(DB, i. 401), 842^15 b.c. The Books of Kings
(I, xix. 16-17; II, ix.-x.) give a detailed account
of the manner in which Jehu gained his throne,
rooted out the house of Ahab, and exterminated
the worship of Baal. The statement (II Kings
X. 32-34) that during the reign of Jehu Hazael of
Damascus took possession of the whole of the
country east of the Jordan is to be understood of
the whole of Bashan and Gilead. The rest of the
recital, as well as I Kings xx. 22, and probably II
Kings iii. 4-27, vi. 24-vii. 17 is derived from a spe-
cial North-Israelitic soiu'ce, both old and valuable.

Jehu was a leader in Joram's army and, during
the battle with the Arameans at Ramoth-gilead,
had the chief command. As one day he was taking
eoundl with his captains, a youth appeared, gave
him a message from the prophet Elisha, anointed
him Idng over Israel, and hastened away. Jehu
then regarded himself as Yahweh's appointed instru-
ment to execute justice upon the house of Ahab.

He had the gates of the city guarded so that no
news could reach Joram, and then hastened with a
troop toward Jezreel. After two messengers des-
patched by Joram had been detained, Joram and
his friend Ahaziah went to meet Jehu. In answer
to the question whether he brought good news, he
replied with the sinister remark that nothing could
be good as long as the heathenish practises of
Jezebel continued, and then sent an arrow through
the heart of the fleeing Joram. Jehu ordered the
dead body to be thrown into the neighboring field
of Naboth, and then entered Jezreel. Jezebel, by
his command, was hurled from the window at which
she stood and mocked. The nobles, who felt no
disposition to risk anything for the house of Ahab,
submitted to Jehu, and he ordered them to appear
before him the next day with the heads of the sev-
enty princes who were in Samaria. He declared,
hypocritically, that he was innocent of the death of
the princes, which had been accomplished by the
will of God in fulfilment of the words of Elisha, and
then proceeded to slay all the relations of Ahab
as well as his oflicials, friends and priests. There-
upon he advanced against Samaria. On his way
thither, he slew forty-two princes of the house of
David, who were on their way to Jezreel to visit
their kindred (II Kings x. 12-14). Jehu openly
sided with the party which would not tolerate the
worship of Baal and proceeded to do all in his
power to extirpate it.

All that is known of the subsequent twenty-eight
years of Jehu's reign is that he fought unsuccess-
fully against the Arameans imder Hazael (II Kings
X. 32), who ascended the throne of Damascus about
the same time as Jehu became king of Israel (II
Kings viii. 7-15) and by the same means — r^cide.
The misfortune in this war with Syria is ascribed
(II Kings X. 31) to Jehu's protection of the calf-
worship in Israel, although the continuance of his
dynasty for four generations is regarded as a re-
ward for rooting out Baal-worship. W. Lotz.

Bibliography: The sources are I Kinss xix. 1&-17; II
Kings ix.-x.: II Chron. xxii. 7-0. The literature is given
under Ahab (q.v.). Consult also^ C. F. Bumey, JVotet on
the Hebrew Text of . . . Kinge, Oxford, 1903; 2>B. ii.
664-566; EB, U. 2366-2367; JE, vii. 88-89.

JENKS, BENJAMIN: English clergyman and
theological writer; b. at Eaton-under-Haywood (13
m. s. of Shrewsbury), Shropshire, May, 1646; d.
at Harley (8 m. s.e. of Shrewsbury), Shropshire,
May 10, 1724. Very little is known of his life.
After his ordination he officiated for a time as curate
at Harley, and subsequently became vicar of the
parishes of Harley and Kenley, and also chaplain
to Francis, Viscount Newport, the patron of these
livings. He is remembered for his Prayers and
Offices of Devotion for Families, and for Particular
Persons upon Most Occasions (London, 1697; 2
vols., 1706; 26th ed. by C. Simeon, 1808; 13th ed.
of Simeon's revision, 1866). Other works by Jenks
are Meditations, with Short Prayers Annexed, in
Ten Decades (London, 1701); A Second Century of
Meditations (1704); and The Poor Man's Ready
Companion (1713).

Biblioobapht: OetUUman^a Maoatinet Dec., 1862; DNB,
316.

Jennings
Jeremiah

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

118

JENNINGS, ARTHUR CHARLES: Church of
England; b. in London Dec. 19, 1847. He was
educated at Jesus College, Cambridge (B.A., 1872),
and was ordered deacon in 1873 and ordained
priest in 1874. He was curate of St. Edward's,
Cambridge (1873-74), and rector of Whittlesford,
Cambridgeshire (1877-^). Since 1886 he has
been rector of King's Stanley, Gloucestershire.
Theologically he is a broad churchman. Besides
contributing the commentary on Nahimi, Haggai,
Habakkuk, and Zephaniah to the fifth volume of
C. J. Ellicott's Old Testament Commentary (London,
1884), was joint author of Commentary on the Psalms
(2 vols., London, 1875-77); Ecdesia Anglicana: A
History of the Church of Christ in England ... to
the Present Times (1882); Synopsis of Ancient
Chronology (188G); Manual of Church History (2
vols., 1887-88; 3d ed., 1905); Chronological Tables
of the Events of Ancient History (1888); and Medi-
CBval Church and the Papacy (1909).

JEPHTHAH, jef'tha: The name of one of the
Judges of Israel. It is related (Judges x. 6-xii. 7)
that he was driven from his home because of il-
legitimate birth, and became captain of a band of
freebooters in the land of Tob. When the Israelites
of the East Jordanland were oppressed by the Am-
monites, they sent for him to return and lead them
against their enemies. This he consented to do
if he were given the headship, which was promised
him. After vainly trying by argument to induce
the foe to retire, he made a vow to sacrifice whatever
should come forth to meet him if he should return
from the campaign victorious. He won a brilliant
victory, and was met by his daughter on his return
who consented to the performance of his vow,
asking, however, a reprieve of two months. He
performed the sacrifice, and a yearly celebration
was established in which for four days the women
lamented Jephthah's daughter. Jephthah was
assailed by the Ephraimites for not summoning
them to the battle, and in an ensuing conflict in-
flicted upon them a stinging defeat. He then ruled
as judge for six years.

Examination of the narrative shows that several

sources are employed, and the story enclosed in the

pragmatic framework is itself complex.

Discussion Jephthah is mentioned as the son of

of the Gilead by a foreign wife; but Gilead

Sources, is the name of a district or of its popu-
lation. Moreover, the section xi. 12-28
severs the continuity of the narrative and discusses
the Moabites, whom the Hebrews had left unassailed
(Num*. XX. 14 sqq.), while xi. 34 shows that the hero
had a house in Mizpah, which does not accord
with verse 3. And it is difficult to relate the episode
of the Ephraimitic conflict with the two months of
the reprieve of Jephthah's daughter, since it is not
likely that the Ephraimites would await the issue
of that event. Many scholars have suspected an
extension of the original text by interpolation, the
passage xi. 12-28 especially being regarded as of
late introduction, though this is opposed by Holz-
inger and Budde on the ground that the verses in
which the Ammonites are mentioned (12-15, 27)
show the same conception as the main portion of

the narrative. It is probable, however, that this
is an independent report which the redactor wished
to bring into connection with the Anmionitic war.
Wellhausen and Frankenbei^g suspect also xii. 1-7
as a late interpolation founded upon viii. 1-3.
While the individuality of this section differentiates
it from viii. 1-3, it is probably taken from an in-
dependent source. Holzinger disposes of one of the
difficulties by supposing that Jephthah, on his
recall from Tob, acquired a residence in Mizpah.
That a war with Moab is implied in xi. 12-28 goes
well with the place names in verse 33, some of which
are Moabitic, while others are Anunonitic, and thus
a double narrative is suggested dealing with two
episodes, which an addition in verse 33 of the
Septuagint, " and imto Amon," supports. Then
the Moabitic war was later, and the residence in
Mizpah already acquired goes well with the '' I "
and " me " of verse 27. Holzinger finds in xi. 29
a suggestion of a journey made by Jephthah in the
West Jordanland ('* and Manasseh **) connecting
xi. with xii. 1-6, and concludes that there are two
sources combined inside the framework of this
story.

Against the historical character of the narrative
of the Anunonitic war there is no reasonable objec-
tion. Jephthah appears as an exile

Historicity who has gained position as head of a
of the band like that of David. The differ-

Narrative. ences of the two sources do not oppose
the historicity, since the events may
be referred to different times and occasions, a war
with the Anunonites and one with Moabites. The
hero is not to be taken as a mythical invention to
explain the celebration of the death of his daughter,
and analogies of the event are not lacking in the
history of other Semitic peoples. One is furnished
by the story of II Kings iii. 27, and another comes
out of Arabic history of the seventh Christian cen-
tury (Tabari, i. 1073-1074), so that the historical
character of the event which the celebration com-
memorated appears at least probable. Since in the
narrative there is no mention of substitution, it
must be that Jephthah really sacrificed his daughter.
This was the imderstanding of the early exegetes
until D. Kimchi, who asserted that the maiden was
simply devoted to the service of Yahweh, an ex-
planation which gained the approval of later Chris-
tian exegetes, who combined the idea .with that of
an enforced celibacy. The reason for this is not
far to seek, since not only is human sacrifice in itself
imusual for such a state of society, but it was
supposed that the Pentateuchal legislation was well
known in the time of the Judges (cf. Lev. xviii. 21,
XX. 2-5, and see Vows, L; cf. also the Targiun on
Judges xi. 39); moreover emphasis was laid on the
fact that the maiden bewailed not her life, but her
virginity, as though condemned to a single life.
Some support was gained from Ex. xxxviii. 8 and
I Sam. ii. 22, though it is not said that the women
mentioned here were celibates. But the true ex-
planation of verse 37 doubtless is that the cause of
the maiden's grief was that she must die without
being either wife or mother. Some take refuge in
a disjunctive in the statement of the vow (verse
31) making the last two clauses apply to di£Ferent

110

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jennings
Jeremiah

objects, human and animal. Other syntactical
devices have been proposed with the object of
getting rid of the sacrifice of a human being, but
they all fail in view of the fact that the verb used
in the passage (he^ekJi) is that employed in the
technical language of the ritual for sacrifice. More-
over, human sacrifice is involved in the whole story;
only thus can be explained the despair of the father
and the grief of the daughter; and the celebration
itself finds no adequate ground short of the actual
sacrifice of the maiden. In anti-prophetic circles
human sacrifice was not unknown (Jer. xzzii. 35);
indeed, within the prophetic circle itself the idea
was not absolutely strange (Gen. xxii.). That the
words of Jephthah's vow involve that he thought
only of a human being and must therefore have
reckoned upon the possibility of the victim being
his daughter is rightly characterized by Reuss as
" detestable." But the idea of hiunan sacrifice
lay in the background of the Yahweh-religion,
and in later times under foreign influence the

practise broke out in opposition to the prophetic

teaching. (F. Buhl.)

Bzblioobapht: The beet discuasion ia in the Commentary
on Judges by G. F. Moore, with whidi should be com-
pared the treatment in the Commentaries of Studer, Keil,
Caasel, Bertheau, Harvey. OettU and Budde, as men-
tioned under Judges, and that in the standard works on
the History of Israel, mentioned imder Ahab. Consult
further: E. W. Hengstenberg, Einleitunc in dot A. 7*.,
iii. 127, Berlin, 1839. Eng. transl., Edinburgh. 1847-48;
K. A. Auberlen, in TSK, 1860, pp. 640 sqq.; E. Reuss,
Otschiehie der heUigen Schriften A, T., Brunswick, 1874.
Eng. transl.. Boston, 1884; I. Goldsiher, Der MyOntt Ui
den Hebrdern^ pp. 113 sqq., Leipsic, 1876; A. Kuenen,
Hi§Umadt-kritiadi Ondenoek, i. 349. Leyden, 1885; J.
Wellhausen. Kompotition dee HexcUeudie, pp. 228-229,
Berlin, 1889; K. Budde, Richter und Samuel, pp. 125
sqq., Giessen. 1890; M. KOhler, Bibliedte OeediidUe dee
AUen Bundee, ii. 1. p. 100; H. Schults, O. T. TheoUHfy-
London. 1892; W. Frankenberg. Die KompoeiHon dee
deuteronomiechen RidUeHmchee, Marburg, 1895; A. Kamp-
hausen. D<u VerhMinie dee MenecKenopfere sur ieraeUHr'
edien Religion, pp. 46 sqq., Bonn, 1896; E. SelUn, Bei"
irUge sur ieraeliUedien und jUdiecKen Religion, i. 200 Kiq.f
Leipsic 1896; DB, u. 567-568; EB, ii. 2359-62; JB^ TiL
94-95.

I. The Prophet.

Family and Social Connections

(§1).
His Life and Times (f 2).
Literature Ascribed to Jeremiah
(§3).
II. The Book of the Prophet Jeremiah.
1. The Contents.

JEREHIAH, jer^'e-mod'a.

Chapters i.-x. (f 1).
Chi4>ters xi.-zvii. (f 2).
Chapters zTiii.-xzix. (f 3).
Chapters xxx.-lii. (§ 4).
2. The Composition.
The Groimdwork and its Expansion

(§1).
The Greek and the Hebrew Text (f 2).

3. The Importance of the Book.
lU. The Lamentations of Jeremiah.
Names, Place in the Canon (f 1).
The Artistic Form (f 2).
Traditional View of Authorship

(§3).
Arguments Concerning Jeremianic
Origin (§ 4).

and Social
Connec-
tions.

L The Prophet: The name (Hebr. Yirmeyahu or
YirmeycJi; Gk. leremuu) is borne not only by the
prophet, but also by the fathei^in-law
3lf S^Ji of King Josiah (II Kings xxiii. 31), by
a Rechabite (Jer. xxxv. 3), by a priest
of the time of Nehemiah (Neh. x. 3)
and by persons in the Chronicler's
tables (I Chron. v. 24, xii. 4, 10, 13). In spite of
his importance the prophet is seldom mentioned
in the Old Testament outside of his book (II Chron.
xxxv. 25, xxxvi. 12, 21, 22; Ezra i. 1; Dan. ix. 2),
which remains the principal and quite full source
for knowledge of his life. According to this source
Jeremiah was of priestly lineage from the little city
of Anathoth, 3 m. north of Jerusalem (i. 1), a son of
Hilkiah (i. 1), and nephew of Shallum (xxxii. 7).
A possible relationship to Abiathar is suggested by
I Kings ii. 26, but the identity of his father with
the Hilkiah of II Kings xxii. is improbable. His
known history begins in the thirteenth year of Josiiekh
(626 B.C.), when he was called to the prophetic
office (i. 6). His position regarding sacrifice (vii. 22)
is against the supposition that he acted as a priest.
Notwithstanding the hatred aroused among the
people of Anathoth by his preaching, he exercised
his rights there (xi. 21, xxxii. 8, xxxvii. 12), though
his duties as prophet were performed at the capital.
From xvi. 2 it seems probable that he was un-
married.

Jeremiah lived in critical times. Five years after
his call the law book was found which caused the
Josianic reformation, to which his words in chap,
xi. apply. But little ia known, however, of his
work under Josiah, though of his activities under
Jehoiakim (q.v.) more is told. Jehoiakim was not

of a nature to respond to prophetic ideals, being
a brutal despot wrapped up his building-projects
(xxii. 13-19). The prophet denounced
^* ^^* in his addresses the heathen and un-
~?*^* ethical influences protected by the
^** princes, and at the time of the battle
of Carchemish appeared with a prophetic pro-
gram which aroused against him the bitterest hisite.
At the beginning of the king's reign an address
in the court of the temple foretelling the fate of
that structure incensed priests, prophets, and
people (vii., xxvi.), and in 605 he gave definite form
to this, pointing to the Chaldeans as the people into
whose power Judah was to fall, and had Baruch
commit it to writing. This was brought to the king,
who tore it into pieces and threw it into the fire
(xxxvi) . The events of succeeding years proved the
justification of Jeremiah, though they caused him,
in his love for his people, tl^ deepest suffering.
Jehoiakim had become the vassal of the Chaldean
king, but soon began to intrigue against him, relying
on the power of Egypt, thus causing a Chaldean
attack which was the beginning of the end, and his
successor Jeconiah, with the best of the people, was
carried away to Babylon (597 b.c). The new king,
Zedekiah, was not so hostile to Jeremiah, and
indeed twice saved his life, in spite of the court
party which wished to continue the policy of
Jehoiakim. Jeremiah was opposed also by false
prophets, who predicted speedy restoration of
power, and reliance on Egypt was encouraged.
After this, the final revolt broke out in the br»udi
of Zedekiah's oath and Nebuchadrezzar's army
came against Jerusalem. When Zedekiah applied
for counsel to Jeremiah, the latter advised unoon-

Jeremiah

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

120

ditional surrender to the Chaldeans. Temporary
retirement of the Chaldeans filled the people with
joy, which Jeremiah foretold would be short-lived,
as events proved (xxxiv.). Meanwhile, as Jeremiah
was going out of the city to visit Anathoth, he was
arrested and thrown into prison, but removed by
the king to another place of detention and by him
supported there (xxxvii.). His opponents, who
rightly feared his influence, besought the king to
have him put to death, and to that end had him
thrown into a foul cistern to die, whence he was
again rescued by the king's order and placed in
detention near the king (xxxviii.). At the capture
of the city Jeremiah was taken prisoner, but was
released by a Babylonian commander and given his
choice between going to Babylonia and remaining
in Judea, accepting the latter alternative. He gave
his support to Gedaliah, the governor appointed by
the Chaldeans. Gedaliah was soon after murdered,
and the leaders of the people, in fear of the con-
sequences, and following the advice of a prophet
who opposed Jeremiah, fled with a number of the
population to Egypt, taking with them both Jeremiah
and Baruch. There the hostile relations between
prophet and people continued because of his denun-
ciations of their heathen proclivities and his pre-
diction that Eg3rpt should fall into the power of
Nebuchadrezzar (xxxix.-xliv.). This closes the
authentic record of the prophet's life. The Old
Testament does not tell of his death. Tradition
has it that he was stoned to death in Eg3rpt (Ter-
tullian, Scarpiace, viii.; ANF, iii. 640; II Mace. ii.
gives a report of his hiding certain sacred utensils
in a cave, on which is founded the Paralipomena
of Jeremiah and the apocryphal Baruch literature
with its sequells (see Apocrypha, A, IV., 5; Pbeu-
DBPiGRAPHA, Old TESTAMENT, II., 10-11, 35; and
cf. SchUrer, Oeackichie, iii. 223 sqq., 285-286, Eng.
transl. II., iii. 83-93; II Mace. xv. 11 sqq.; Matt.
xvi. 14),

It IB reported in II Chron. xxxv. 25 that Jeremiah
wrote a dirge on the death of Josiah, called Lamenta-
tions; this is probably the first trace
8. Xiitera- ^f ^jj^ tradition which ascribes to him
the book of that name, which is, how-

taT6

oribed to

Jeremiah. ^^^^* opposed by the contents of the
book. A manuscript of the Septuagint
ascribes Ps. Ixv. and cxxxvii. to him, and there is
an apocryphal £}pistle of Jeremiah (see Apocrypha,
A., IV., 6). A passage in the Book of Jeremiah is
luminous for the history of that production (xxxvi.
2 sqq.). According to this, in the fourth year of
Jehoiakim Jeremiah dictated to Baruch the proph-
ecies which he had uttered in the twenty-three
years of his prophetic activity. This being burned
by the king, he had Baruch rewrite it with many
additions (xxxvi. 32). This new book is not iden-
tical with the present book, since the latter contains
prophecies of a later time; but that it formed the
basis of our book may be confidently assimied, and
it may be reconstructed by putting together the
pieces which are older than Jehoiakim's fifth year.
n. The Book of the Prophet Jeremiah. — z. The
Oontents: Chap. i. states that the prophet is in-
formed in the thirteenth year of Josiah before his
birth that he had been called to predict the com-

ing of powers from the north against his people,
whose hate he was to incur. But the indication
in the chapter itself of the lapse of
1. Chapters twenty years proves that the narra-
tive depends upon the memory of the
prophet and is not exactly contemporary with the
utterance itself. It is clear that Jeremiah narrates
the story of his earlier experiences in the light his
later life had given him, and sharp distinction be-
tween later and earlier utterances is not possible.
In ii.-vi. the parts are closely related to each other
and belong to the same conditions in the reign of
Josiah. These chapters bewail the people's sins,
their idolatry, their fondness for covenants with
foreign powers, and foretell coming judgment.
Yet in this section passages suggest the time of
Jehoiakim (v. 1, ii. 18, 36). Who the northern foe
in these chapters is raises a diflicult question. They
are an ancient people, whose speech is unknown to
Israel, carrying bow and spear and possessing
chariots. Some of these marks appear when the
prophet's utterances concern the Chaldeans in the
time of Jehoiakim. Some scholars refer them to the
Scythians, in which case Jeremiah must later have
modified them, since their present form hardly fits
references to that people. It is questionable there-
fore whether Jeremiah's earlier prophecies were not
general; when the Chaldeans appeared on the scene
he may have identified them with the foe foretold.
While V. 18 and the related v. 10 are not un-
Jeremianic, they do not fit their present place;
similarly iii. 6-iv. 2 is hardly intelligible unless iii.
14-18 is taken out. It is probable that these pas-
sages are genuine, but transferred hither by an editor.
Chapters vii.-x. contain a discourse delivered in
the court of the temple, upon which structure the
people put their trust. If they continue in their
sins, the temple will be no help, but will perish as
did the sanctuary at Shiloh. Its sacrifices are
worthless, the people who bring them are untrue
and have filled it with heathen symbols which repre-
sent their own unethical nature. Chaps, ix. 22-x.
give the impression of fragmentariness, and, as the
Septuagint shows, have been expanded, and suggest
a deutero-Jeremiah. The little pieces ix. 22-23 and
24-25 have no connection with the previous context,
while X. 17 sqq. appear to be genuine and the orig-
inal continuation of ix. 21. Genuineness is apparent
in vii. l~ix. 21, but, contrary to Hitzig, H&vemick,
and others, the passage appears to belong rather
with xxvi. and to connect not with the time of
Josiah, but with the beginning of the reign of
Jehoiakim, especiaUy in the matter of heathen
practises.

In xi. 1-17 Jeremiah warns the people to regard
** the words of this covenant." In spite of the pun-
ishment of their fathers, the present
2. Ohaptera generation continues its service of other
zi.-zvli. gods and renders divine punishment
inmiinent. That the " covenant " is
the law book found under Josiah is generally recog-
nized; the passage can not, however, in its present
form have been uttered then, but in the time of
Jehoiakim, and so furnishes a good example of the
way in which in the reduction of his words to
writing Jeremiah mingled past and present. In xi.

idi

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jeremiah

18-xii. 6 the prophet deals with the hostility of
his fellow villagers of Anathoth. Formally, by the
"then" of xi. 18, it is connected with the prece-
ding; but the exact relation expressed is not clear,
and this suggests that the passage is not in its orig-
inal context. Uncertain in date is xii. 7-17. It
contains a lament for the desolation of the land
and threats against the neighbors who have done
the evil. It fits in well with the destruction sug-
gested by II Kings xxiv. 2, but stiU better with
conditions during the exile. Indeed, the lament
seems to have been put together out of two diverse
compositions of different age. The humiliation of
Judah in Babylon is figuratively described in xiii.,
with a lament for the condition resulting. Most
critics date the piece (by verses 18-19) in the time
of Jeconiah (Jehoahaz), Graf in that of Jehoiakim,
the latter regarding verses 18-19 as an addition out
of Jeconiah's age. A terrible drought is the occa-
sion of xiv.-xv., in which Jeremiah prays for his
people — unavailingly, for even Moses and Samuel
oould not save them (xv. 1). At the close (xv. 10-
21) Jeremiah bewails his personal sorrows caused
by his foes. Whether this piece is in its original
connection is uncertain, but it may be placed in
the original book and dated at the beginning of
the reign of Jehoiakim. In xvi.-xvii. the prophet
is forbidden to marry, or to participate in mourning
or feasting; the destruction of the people is near,
since its sins can not be foigotten and its punish-
ment is certain. The connection of this with the
preceding is quite certain, though probably xvii.
14-18 is inserted by a later hand from another
place. The genuineness of xvii. 19-27 is, however,
very doubtful.

In xviii. 1-10 the work of the potter pictures
God's methods with man; judgment might be

averted were it not for the people's

8. Ghaptere wilful sin (11-17); the prophet bewails

zTiU.-zxix.his people's hostility to Wm (18-23);

as an earthen vessel is broken, so shall
the people be (xix. 1-15); the prophet retorts upon
Pashhur, who had put him in the stocks, with a
prophecy of personal evil and general doom (xx.
1-6), and then bewails his own sad lot (7-18).
The indications favor the time of Zedekiah, espe-
cially the mention of Pashhur and the imprisonment
of Jeremiah In the stocks. Some have seen in chap.
xvii. an earlier piece, and regard xix.-xx. as pieces
edited by later hands and containing genuine ex-
periences of the prophet. To the time of Zedekiah
belongs xxi. 1-10, and to the time of the siege
verses 4-5, but 11-14 has no connection with the
preceding, and perhaps goes with xxii. The kings
of Judah are dealt with in xxii. 1-xxiii. 8. A king,
not identified, is warned to do justice in order to
escape judgment (xxii. 1-5); in succeeding verses
Shallum (i.e. Jehoahaz), Jehoiakim, and Jeconiah
are dealt with; better shepherds are to be given
(xxiii.1-4), and a new shoot is to spring from the
Davidie stump (4-8). The principal part of this is
of the time of Zedekiah, but xxii. 6-9, 20-23 are
later insertions. The genuineness of xxiii. 1-4
has been questioned and is hard to prove, and the
passage has been assigned to exilic times. A speech
against false prophets is found in xxiii. 9-40. In

xxiv. the exiles are compared with good figs, Zede-
kiah and the people remaining with bad ones.
According to the superscription xxv. belongs to the
fourth year of Jehoiakim, the year of the battle of
Carchemish. In it Jeremiah foretells the desolation
and captivity which are to come through Nebu-
chadrezzar, and then after seventy years God will
again rule his people. The genuineness of this
chapter has been sharply attacked (cf. verses 12-
14), though Giesebrecht rightly sees a Jeremianic
basis. The cipher in verse 26 (cf. R.V. margin) is
not in Jeremiah's style. A report of the danger
of death incurred by the prophet through the ad-
dress in the temple court, given in chap, vii., is given
in chap. xxvi. It does not belong to the ground-
work or original basis of the book. According to
xxvii.-xxix., ambassadors had come to Jerusalem
from the neighboring states to urge common action
against Babylon (xxvii.). A prophet Hananiah
foretells the return of the exiles to Babylon within
two years; Jeremiah retorts with a prediction of
Hananiah's death within the year and a contradic-
tion of his prophecy of a speedy return (xxviii.). A
letter from Jeremiah to the exiles in Babylon is in
xxix. These chapters appear to have existed at one
time as a separate and independent section.

A series of prophecies of comfort are continued in
xxx.-xxxiii., and xxxii. rests on a personal relation

of Jeremiah regarding the purchase

4. Ohaptera of a field, which is made the basis of a

XXX. -111. prediction of return from exile. The

chapter bears the marks of an editor,
however, and verses 17-23 have been especially
suspected, while xxxiii. 14-15 recall xxiii. 5-6, the
genuineness of which is imder a doud. Even iif the
earlier passage is genuine, it does not seem likely
that Jeremiah would so modify the representation
as the later passage does. Smend denies xxx.-xxxi.
to Jeremiah, and is possibly right as to xxx., though
xxxi. seems to contain more of Jeremiah's work;
possibly those two chapters are exilic. Chapter
xxxiv. belongs to the narrative part of the book
and is placed in the time of the siege of the city.
The Rechabites appear in xxxv. as an example of
faithfulness and as a lesson to Judah. The time is
that of the passing of a Chaldean army through the
land in the time of Jehoiakim, but the occasion can
not be decided; it belongs to the narrative portion
of the book, and Jeremiah speaks in the first person.
Chapter xxxvi. is also narrative, and tells of the
committal to writing of the predictions of the
prophet. Similar narrative portions are xxxvii.-
xliv.; xxxix. is an insert and an expansion of part
of lii. Consolation is offered in xlv. A series of
prophecies against foreign peoples is contained in
xlvi.-li., the nations mentioned being £!gypt, Phi-
listia, Moab, Anunon, Edom, Damascus, Arabia,
Elam, and Babylonia. Chapters l.-li., according
to li. 59-64 imparted to Seraiah in the fourth year
of Zedekiah, are by most modem critics regarded
as im-Jeremianic. These chapters depend not only
on secondary parts of Jeremiah, but on later parts
of Isaiah. Some critics separate li. 59 sqq. from the
rest as genuine; others regard the chapters as
expanded statements of genuine oracles of Jeremiah.
In general, the use of other predictions in these

J0r«miah

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

122

chapters and the departure from the accustomed
forms of Jeremiah's usage seem to warrant suspicion.
On the other hand, in the undoubted portions of
the book there are prophecies against foreign nations,
and in this portion Nebuchadrezzar is represented
as the medium of divine punishment, which is a
Jeremianic conception; moreover, the time noted
in xlix. 34 looks genuine. Chapter lii. is not by
Jeremiah, but is chiefly an excerpt from II Kings
xxiv. 18-xxv. 30.

2. The Oomposition : The foregoing review shows

that to the groimdwork written in the fourth year

of Jehoiakim and rewritten the next

1. The year belong i. 2-6, xi. 1-17, vii. 1-9,

arouna- 21 xi. 18-xii. 6, xiii. (except verses

worlc ana ,0 in\ • •• / i.

its Ex- 18-19), xiv.-xv., xvi.-xvu. (except

pansion. some interpolations), xxv. (so far as it
is original), and xlvi. 1-xlix. 33 (so far
as they are Jeremianic), referring to the times of
Josiah and Johoiakim. To the time of Zedekiah
belong xxiv., xxi., xxiii. 9-40, and xlix. 34 sqq. (if
genuine). Of the rest which may be ascribed to this
prophet the time of writing is less evident, though
xxxi., iii. 14-16, and perhaps the genuine parts of
xxiii. IS, seem to belong to the time of the capture
of Jerusalem. Lai^r parts which can not be cer-
tainly ascribed as a whole to Jeremiah are x. 1-16,
xvii. 19-27, l.-lii. The narrative portions present
a difficult problem, and the boundaries between
them and the oracle portions are not always easy
to fix. Some of these are in the first person, and
were doubtless dictated to Baruch. Such pieces are
xviii. (probably from the beginning of Jehoiakim's
reign), xxxii. (under Zedekiah), and xxxv. (under
Jehoiakim). Other pieces speak in the third person
of " Jeremiah '' or ** the prophet Jeremiah," and
can be only secondarily Jeremianic; such are xix.-
XX., xxvi., xxvii.-xxix., xxxiv., xxxvi., xxxvii.-xliv.
These rest on Baruch's authority, as does xlv., an
oracle of consolation imparted to him by the prophet.
So that in the Book of Jeremiah there are earlier
and later pieces, passages in Jeremiah's words and
those reported of him, and some not at all Jeremianic,
bound up together in variegated fashion. Chrono-
logical order can not always be determined. The
history of the book ia not one that can at the present
be made out. Certainly the composition of the
fourth year of Jehoiakim lies at the basis, and this
is expanded by later oracles and by narrative por-
tions. The latter is in part no doubt from Baruch
and contains reports of Jeremiah's discourses de-
livered to him by the prophet. The supposition
that a life of the prophet has been interwoven into
the book is improbable, since the earlier life of the
prophet is not related. More likely is it that a
literature of Jeremiah including his later speeches
and narratives about him grew up, out of which
our book is edited. Little dependence can be
placed in i. 3, since that verse is probably only a
secondary title.

To the foregoing considerations is to be added the
fact that the Book of Jeremiah belongs to those
portions of the Old Testament in whidi the Sep-
tuagint diverges essentially from the Massoretic
text, a divergence which is very variously ex-
plained. Some esteem the Septuagint so highly

2. The
Ghreekand
the Hebrew
Text.

that they speak of two recensions, a Palestinian
and an Egyptian; while others speak of arbitrary
changes by the translator. Both of
these hypotheses have been shown
unfounded (Kuenen, Giesebrecht, and
others). While evidences of misun-
derstanding by the Greek translator
and indeed of wilful change exist, there are passages
where the text at the base of the Septuagint points
to a text more original than the Massoretic. One
such passage is that relating to the foreign nations,
in which in the Greek xlvi.-li. follow xxv. 13, and
the order of arrangement is different. The original
connection of these parts is evident, though the
entire section should not stand before xxvi. 15, and
the Alexandrine order is less natural than the
Massoretic. The difference in the length of the two
texts, altogether apart from proofs of arbitrariness
on the part of the translator, show that at the time
of the translation the book had not yet reached a
fixed form, a conclusion which is strengthened by
observation of the evidence of inclusion of glosses.

8. The Ixnportcknoa of the Book: This can not be
appreciated if only the contents of the predictions
are kept in mind. In this particular Jeremiah is
not specially original, and particularly so if the
purely Messianic passages, such as xxiii. 5-6, xxxiii.
15-16, are the basis of estimate, since these are
lusterless in comparison with such passages as
Isa. ix. 5-6, xi. 1-2. One might say in general that
Jeremiah took over the prophecies of Amos and
Hosea, being in his earlier deliverances especially
dependent upon Hosea. For twenty years the
prophet preached the insecurity of the basis of the
people's hopes and trust. Even by the captivity
of 597 the people were not awakened, but supposed
that the deportation of Jeconiah was the excision
of a worthless limb. For Jeremiah it was the fulfil-
ment of prophecy which demanded submission and
humility instead of new pride and the waking of
hopes to be unrealized. The complete destruction
of Jerusalem awaited persistence in the people's
wilful course. Yet the prophet was not without
hope in its truest sense. A new generation was to
arise which was to bear Yahweh's law on the inner
tablets of the heart, not on tablets of stone. In all
ttiis there was little that was not already existent
in prophecy. Jeremiah's originality stands out in
the vivid impression of his work as that of a prophet
who was accounted a traitor to his people and a
godless despiser of the sanctuary while he was yet
the mouthpiece for the utterance of divine truths.
It was this which made of him the greatest martyr
among the prophets, and the evidence of it exists
in his prayers written in his book, which give the
clearest insight into the motive of his life. He
bewails the hate with which the people pursued him
who was that people's truest mediator with God,
and reveals himself not merely as a prophet, but
as a man living in the closest fellowship with God.
In this respect he is creative and a pattern of
religious sincerity, and thus he inspired the poets
of the Psalm-book and the great poet of the Book
of Job. The sense of the personal relation of the
individual to God which appeared in later Judaism
is a result of his work. In view of the importance of

188

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jeremiah

this service, the question of external form becomes
a minor one. The disturbed conditions of his times
did not minister to esthetic expression. The beauty
of the book lies not in its poetic form, but in its
deep and noble expression of the life of tenderness
which it portrays. (F. Buhl.)

IIL The Lamentations of Jeremiah: This is the

name given by tradition to five elegies bearing a

close resemblance to one another and

1. Names, bewailing the sad lot which befell
Plaoein Jerusalem and its inhabitants during

the Canon, and after the siege by the Chaldeans
(587-586 B.C.). In Hebrew manu-
scripts and editions these elegies usually bear the
title ekhahf ** how," from the opening word of three
of them; the Jews were, however, familiar with the
designation kinoth^ " lamentations " (Jerome, Pref-
ace to Lamentations, cf. Baba Bathra, 14b; LXX,
Thrinoi; Lat. Threni or Lamentationes). In the
Greek version, which differs in character from that
of the prophecies of Jeremiah, they are placed next
to the prophecies (after Baruch), and are counted
with tl^ prophecies as one book. Only in this way
could twenty-two canonical books be counted
(Josephus, ApioUf i. 8; Origen in Eusebius, Hist
ecd,, vi. 25; Jerome in Prologua galeaius). Still the
number twenty-four was common, in which com-
putation Ruth and Lamentations were counted
separately and placed among the Hagiographa.
This arrangement differs from that followed by the
Christians, which was the same as that of the Sep-
tuagint, but is in accord with that of the Talmud
(Baba Bathra 14b), which places Lamentations
among the Kethubinif where they probably stood
from the time of the formation of the third division
of the canon.

In form the first four of these five elegies are

characterized by an acrostic use of the alphabet.

They are also composed in the rhythm

2. The Ar- which Budde has shown to be that of
tistio the lament or threnody. In chaps.
Form. i._ii. a group of three lines in this

meter (composed of a normal and a
shortened member) is placed under each of the
acrostic letters; the same is true in chap, iii., except
that each of the three lines (in this case a verse)
begins with the same letter, which, therefore, ap-
pears three times. In chap, iv., on the other hand,
each acrostic letter includes two lines. No acrostic
is found in chap, v., although the elegy consists
of twenty-two verses presenting the usual parallel-
ism, though the peculiar meter of the dii*ge is not
very manifest. The five elegies refer to the same
national misfortune and have many similarities in
thought and form; yet each has its own peculiar
quality. So chap. i. shows the sorrowing Zion,
deserted and abandoned; chap. ii. describes the
act of the angry God, the just enemy, who has
destroyed the city; chap. iii. presents a more in-
dividual point of view; chap. iv. describes the sad
fate of the populace of the city during and after
the siege; chap. v. sketches briefly the resulting
miserable state of the people. That the five songs
were all produced under one inspiration is psycho-
k)gicaUy improbable; but in any event they did
not arise without regard to one another. Style and

language show many points of resemblance, and the
historical situation is essentially the same in all.
They can not have appeared during the siege itself;
the misfortune is already complete, intense agony is
already changing into a softer sadness, and feeling
finds relief in seeking for a form of artistic expression.

Ancient tradition unanimously names Jeremiah
as the author. The Preface to the Septuagint de-
clares that ** after the captivity of
^.^' ^.ti^" Israel, and the desolation of Jerusa-
"?^tho^ lem, Jeremiah sat down weeping and
ship. ' ^^"^ ^^ lamentation over Jerusalem
and said." This same tradition ap-
pears in the Talmud and is accepted by the Church
Fathers. Jerome is indeed mistaken when (on
Zech. xii. 11) he refers to Lamentations the state-
ment in II Chron. xxxv. 25, where mention is made
of elegies composed by Jeremiah on the death of
Josiah. Perhaps he was misled by Lam. iv. 20.
Josephus had already fallen into the same error.
The Chronicler's notice shows that the prophet was
accustomed to compose such elegies, and was
naturally qualified to compose a kina on a grand
scale, treating of the fall of Jerusalem, just as
Ezekiel composed a series of such ** threnodies **
over other cities and peoples. Many passages in
the Lamentations are in agreement with the thought
and diction of the prophet; indeed, a prophetic
note runs through these poems. The older author-
ities, almost without exception, hold the traditional
view; only in modem times has the Jeremianic
authorship been contested, and on groimds of im-
portance. Thenius attributed only chaps, ii. and
iv. to Jeremiah, Meier chaps, i.-iii.; others, for in-
stance, Ewald, Noldeke, Schrader, N&gelsbach,
Ldhr, Budde, entirely abandon Jeremianic author-
ship.

The arguments against Jeremiah's authorship are

partly formal and founded on esthetic grounds and

partly refer to the contents of the

4. Arffa- poems and their theological quality,
ments Con- Nftgelsbach (Commentary, p. xi. sqq.)
Jere^Sic ^^^ ^^^ (ZATW, 1894) have noted

Oriffln. statistically the agreements and differ-
ences in the vocabulary of Lamenta-
tions and of the prophecies of Jeremiah, and the
probability appears to favor difference of authorship
or a reediting of Jeremianic elegies. This prob-
ability is strengthened by linguistic similarities
with the writings of Ezekiel. It was believed that
an important distinction had been discovered be-
tween the writings of the prophet and these songs,
in that these lacked the strong emphasis upon the
sins of the people which would be expected from
the prophet. Thus v. 7 is cited, according to which
the unhappy generation suffered not so much for
its own sins as for those of its forefathers (contrast
Jor. xxxi. 29). That, in addition to inherited
suffering, the measure has been filled up by the
people's own faults and that thus a judgment has
been called down upon them is a thought which
runs through Lamentations also and finds partic-
ular expression in v. 16, 21. Budde finds that the
consciousness of the guilt of the people is little
developed in chape, iv. and ii. (but cf. iv. 6). If
Jeremiah was the author he does not here appear

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

AS God's advocaU: to bring an acFuaation against
liis people, but he gives free expression to natural
sympathy, which he had suppressed UDlil at lost
judgment was fully executed. Jeremiah loved his
people and his rulers more than did the patriots,
although a higher power had set him in opposition
to them (Jer. i. 18). In this way iv. 20 must be
explained, where the manner in which the king is
spoken of might be thought strange as coming from
Jeremiah, while iv. 17 offers no ditlicultiea since he
may well have voiced the timid hopes of the people
in the last period of their trials, although these hopes
were not shared by him. On the otlier hand, an
■unsolved difficulty for all who reject Jeremiah's
authorship is offered by the unconditional condem-
nation of the prophets of Jerusalem (ii. 9, 14, iv. 13).
Jeremiah might indeed have expressed himself in
this way (ef, Jer. xiii. 13, xiv. 13 sqq., xxiii. 15);
"but if another had composed a lament over these
events be could scarcely have forgotten the prophet
■who had won the highest reverence from the whole
people through his sufFerings, It was the general
cpinion that only Jeremiah's personal sufferings
'were described in chap, iii., and this seems most
probable according to verse 8 (cf. Jer. vii. 16. xi. 14,
3civ. U). Verses 37-38 would then refer to those
prophecies of misfortune with which he was re-
proached. Smend {ZATW, 1888, pp. 62-63) and
many others suppose that in chap. iii. the poet
epeaks in the name of the community; iu that case
the very beginning, " I am the man," is exceedingly
Iiarsh and without analogy in this manner. The
family of Shaphan (Gedaliah) has been especially
considered in this connection (L(Jhr, ZATW, 1894,
p. 55). As there is no mention of the rebuilding of
Jerusalem and of the temple, and as dependence
■upon the second Isaiah can not be proved by a tew
lexical similarities, the exilic origin of Lamentations
seems most reasonable. Whether these songs
originated in Palestine, in Egypt, or in Babylonia
is indeterminable, but it aeema most probable that
Jeremiah had a share in their production. This
does not mean that they came from his hand in
their present poetical form; the artificiality of form
BUggesta the work of a school or of a group of dis-
ciples who, collecting and completing such thren-
odies, wove them together into the form in which
they now appear. C. von Orblu.

BlBuoaBAPQT. On (be life uid timea of Jemniah eoDeultt
T. R. CheyDfl. Jervniak, hu W and Timet. Lonilon,
1888: C. H. Coraill, Jrremia tind Hinz Zeil. HeldeJberg.
1880: K. Marli. Drr Praphcl J«-™ia, Buel. 1889: M.
Lukrui, Da- /VopAif Jurrmia, Bnslau. 18B4: W. Erbl,
Jtrtmia uorf seiiu Ztil. Gjittiogeil. 1002: F. B. Meyer,
Jenmiah. PHal awf Propiul, London, 1902; J. R. Gil-
liea. Jtremiah; the Man and hi4 Mtuage, ib. IBOT; J. F.
HcCunly. HiMUrry. Prophtey- "i^ >}" liamtmmU, vol. iii..
New York. 1901.

Jeremiah an diicuiued in: G. C. Workmiui. The Text of
Jermiah. or a Crihral BiaminaHon of U« Grtdc ond At
Hebrea isiOk Ihe VarHUiimt ><i liie LXX. Edinburgh. ISSfi;
E. Kflbl. DoM VerhflUnitt der MoMtora tur Sepluaaint im

Htra de Jfrfmit dara la rritiipte d^ I' A. T„ MoQtauban,
1893; A. VOD BuImeriDoq, Dai ZuiutfUbild da Proplirten
Jtnmia, Riga, 180*: C. H. Corolll, in SBOT. 1895: idem,
Die malritclitii Sltlcke da Buihei Jeremia, Lcipdo. 1902:
A. W. Strwuie, Tie DavbU Text of Jermiah, London,
IBM.

CommentarieB which cover both the prophaciee Mid

, Londo

, Andover. 18B8; H. Cowles. New York. I88B:
C W. E. NS«eleb»ch, in Lango'a Comnenlani. New York,
1871: R. P. Smith, in Biblr ComMmlan/. London. 1876;
A. W. atraane, in Camhndgt Biblr. Cftmbridge. 1881:
T. K. CheyoB Bnd others in Che Pulpit Commtnlar]/, 2
vols., LoDiIon, 1885-98.

CommenUrieg on the Propbedea *n: 8. R. Dnver.
Ixindon ISM: W. Lowth. London. 1718; J. C. DsUcr.

. Ene.

. I,ODdon

1878:

C. F, Keil. 2 Tola., Edinburgh, 1873-7*: 8. 8
buri. 1880; L, A. Scbneedorler. Pnsue. Isoi: ■... von
Oielli, 2d ed., Munich, 190S. Ene. Innal., EdinburKh. ISSfi:
C. F. Ball, in Eipoiilor't Biblr, London. ISBO: T. Giear-
brechl. Grttiingen, 189*: W. H, Bennell, London, 1895: B.
Duhm. TQhiiuren. 1901; G. Douglas, Londoo, 1903; A.
Hamaay. ib. lOOb; A. Maclsnn, ib. 1006.

Commentarien on Lunenuiions are: W. Engelhudl.
Leipsic, 1867; E. Gerlach. Berlin, 1868: C, F. Keil. Leip-
eic, 1872: L, A, SchneedorfBr, Praffue, 187S: J. M, Schon-
felder. Munich. 1887; 8. Ofttli. Ndrdlingsn. 1389: U.
Lehr, Gotlinean, ISOl. 1907; P. MnyricI, Hontauban.
18fi4; C, Budde, Freiburg. ISOS; J. P. Wilea. Hair-IIour.
vnthlheMinorPropheUond tomfntatfotu (Londoo, 1909).
Consult also: DB. ii. 669-578; £0, ii. 2366-95: JB, vii.
S«-I07: and the works on O.-T. Theology, on Introduclion
to the O. T„ on Prophecy in general, and on Meuianio
Prophecy.

JEBEHIAS IL, ier"e-mai'as: Patriarch of Con-
stantinople; b. at Anchialoa (now Abiolo, 130 m.
n.w. of Constantinople) about 1530; d. at Constan-
tinople 1595. He received no systematic education
in his youth. After officiating as metropolitan of
Larissa, he was patriarch of Constantinople from
1572 to 1573 or 1579, from 1580 to 1584, and again
from 1586 to 1595. In his efforts to reorgaaiie the
Greek Church he reenforced the existing laws and
ordinances, and reached the climax of his endeavors
in the synod held at Constantinople in 1593, which
assailed simony, demanded a better education of the
clergy, who were also required to preach frequently,
took up the question of common schools, and re-
instituted the " national synod." In his foreign
relations Jeremias is noteworthy as the founder of
the patriarchate of Russia, during a visit to that
country in 1583-89, while he vigorously mamt^ned
the independence of the Greek Church against the
Jesuits sent by Gregory XIII. to the East to win
it over to the Roman Catholic Church. In the same
spirit he refused to accept the Gregorian calendar,
which was regarded by the Greeks as heretical.

Jeremias is particularly interesting on account of
his correspondence with the Lutherans of Ttlbingen,
the letters being contained in the Ada el Kripta
thedogorutn WirtenAergenidum et Patriarcluie Con-
atantinopolHani D. Hieremiae (Wittenberg, 1584),
Although the replies of the patriarch were not ac-
tually written by him, but by his pronotary, Theo-
dosios Zygomalas, and arc merely compilations from
such Church Fathers as Basil and Chrysostom, and
modem authors like Joseph Bryennios, Nikolaos
Kabasilas, and Symeon of Thessalonica, they are
important for an evaluation of the modem Greek
Church, since tliey manifest genuine Greek ortho-
doxy and contain its first official verdict on Luther-
aniam, which they definitely rejected.

The history of the affair was as follows: In 1573
Stephen Gerlach went to Constantinople as preacher
to the German ambassador with letters of recom-
mendation to the patriarch from Jakob Andreli

186

REUGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jeromlah
Jeroboam

(q.v.)> chancellor of the university at TQbingen, and
Martin Crusius, the celebrated Hellenist and his-
torian. The letters were well received; and the
TObingen professors were not slow to avail them-
selves of the opportunity of establishing communica-
tion between the Greek Church and the Lutherans,
especially as Gerlach had become a personal friend
of Zygomalas. They accordingly sent a second
letter, dated Sept. 15, 1574, together with a Greek
translation of the Augsburg Confession, and a third
letter, dated Mar. 20, 1575, with a Greek translation
of two sermons by Andre& and a request for an
opinion concerning the Lutheran creed. The pa-
triarch's answer, dated May 15, 1576, consisted of
an elaborate treatise, in which he praised the
articles on the church, the ecclesiastical office, the
marriage of priests, and eschatology, but cen-
sured the introduction of ** filioque " in the creed,
and the depreciation of good works. He also in-
sisted on seven virtues, vices, and sacraments, trine
inmiersion, monastic vows, and the invocation of the
saints at the consecration of the elements. The
treatise, however, induced the TObingen theologians
to give a systematic defense of the principles on
which their confession rested, and a new letter was
sent, dated June 18, 1577, but it took two years
before the patriarch's answer arrived (Biay, 1579),
and it read more like a rebuke than an answer.
Nevertheless, the Lutherans determined to try once
more, and in the spring of 1580 sent a defense to
Constantinople, but the patriarch's answer of
June 6, 1581, was curt and final, and the Protestants
were obliged to dose the correspondence.

(Phiupp Mstbr.)

Bibuoobapbt: P. Meyer, Die theolooieehe lAUenUur der
gri0eki»cheH Kvrek$ im 16. Jahrhundmi, Leipsio, 1890;
Hefele, in TQ8, 1843, p. 544; P. Kerameua, in BvaatUi-
niaehe Zeittehrift, 1800. pp. 302 eqq.

JEREMIAS, y^^'re-mt'Os, ALFRED: German Lu-
theran; b. at Bfarkersdorf (a village near Chemnitz),
Saxony, Feb. 21, 1864. He was educated at the
University of Leipsic (Ph.D., 1886); was a teacher
at a high school for girls in Dresden from 1887 to
1890, and deacon at the Lutherkirche, Leipsic, from
1890 to 1901. Since 1901 he has been pastor of the
Lutheridrche, and since 1905 privat-docent for the
history of religion and Old Testament in the Uni-
versity of Leipsic. In theology he is a believer in
revealed religion. He has written Die Hdllenfahri
der IttoTf eine aUbabylonische BeschwOrungslegende
(Munich, 1886); BabyhrMch-iumiriache VordeUungen
rem Liben nach dem Tode unter BerUcksichiigung der
aUiesiamenUichen ParaUelen (Leipsic, 1886); Izdvbar
Nimrod, eine aUbabylomsche Helderuage nach den
KeHechriftfragmenten dargeetelU (1891); Im Kampfe
um Babd und Btbel (1903); Afanotheietieche StrOm^
tmgen innerhalb der habyloniechen Religion (1904);
Dae AlU Testament im Lichte dee alien Orients (1904);
Baln^omachee im Neuen Testament (1905); and Die
Panbabj^anislen. Der alte Orient und die Hgyptische
Religion {1907).

JERICHO. See Judsa* II.» 2, { 1.

JEROBOAX, ier^'oWam: The name of two
kin^i of Israel.
1. Jtroboam L: First long of Israel, son of

Nebat and Zeruah, an Ephraimite of Zereda (Zare-
tan and Zartanah; Gk. Sareira or Sarida) north of
Jericho and not far from Beth Shean (Josh. iii. 16;

I Kings iv. 12). His dates, according to the old
chronology, are 975-958 b.c. ; according to Riehm,
938-917 B.C.; according to Cooke (DB, ii. 582) 937-
915 B.C. According to the narrative in I Kings xi.
26 sqq., he was a servant of Solomon who, on ac-
count of his industry, was raised to a place of
command in the region which he afterwani ruled.
On one occasion, when leaving Jerusalem, he was
met by the prophet Ahijah from Shiloh, who rent
his own (not Jeroboam's, as Ewald has it) mantle
into twelve pieces and gave ten of them to Jeroboam
as a sign that he was to rule over ten tribes, while
one tribe was to remain under the Davidic dynasty.
The Deuteronomic editor gives as the reason for
this division of the kingdom the idolatry of Solomon;
but there were probably also political and religious
motives, among the former the old jealousy of the
northern tribes and among the latter a prophetic
interest (Ahijah was a Shilonite). Solomon heard
of the incident and Jeroboam was forced to flee to
Egypt, where he remained under Shishak till
Solomon's death.

In I Kings xii. 3 (probably a later report) Jero-
boam appears as spokesman for Israel at the gather-
ing at Shechem to make Rehoboam king; but verse
20 makes it appear that Jeroboam was made king
immediately on his return from Egypt. Reho-
boam's intention to subject the revolted tribes by
force of arms was overruled by the prophet She-
maiah on the ground that the division was of divine
provision. Probabilities are against the representa-
tion of a long war between Jeroboam and Reho-
boam (I Kings xiv. 30, xv. 6; II Chron. xiii. 2 sqq.);
but it is not unlikely that an alliance was form^
between Abijam and Damascus, renewing that
which had been broken under Solomon (I Kings
xi. 24).

Important measures of Jeroboam were the for-
tification of Shechem and the selection of it as his
capital, and the fortification of Penuel to secure
his eastern possessions. Tirzah, often a residence of
the kings of Israel until the time of Omri, was also
a place of note in his time (I Kings xiv. 17). Of
supreme importance was Jeroboam's measure in
sanctioning the cult of Bethel and of Dan to remove
the necessity of going to Jerusalem to worship.
This was probably only the legitimating of existing
worship, and was not intended to be a rejection of
the Yahweh cult (see Calf, The Golden, and Calp
Worship). The later (Judaic) reports make Jero-
boam create priests of the lower classes of the
populace, the Levites being deposed. The festival
estiEiblished by Jeroboam is regarded by the narrator
as intended to replace the Feast of Tabernacles
(I Kings xii. 32). Of the narratives in I Kings
xiii.-xiv. that in chap. xiii. is a midrash upon

II Kings xxiii. 17 sqq.; that in chap. xiv. has made
use of an earlier source, and is in Deuteronomistic
spirit.

2. Jeroboam IL: Thirteenth king of Israel, son
and successor of Joash. His dates according to the
old chronology are 825-784 b.c. ; according to Curtis
(DB, i. 401) 782-741 b.c, according to Cooke (Z>B,

Jerome

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

186

ii. 583) 790-749 b.c; Jeroboam II. was one of the
most important and powerful kings of the northern
kingdom, his rule extending ** from Hamath to the
sea of the plain ** (II Kings xiv. 23-29), probably
including Moab under his power. According to
Schrader {KATf pp. 212 sqq.) his extraordinary
success is to be explained from his relations with
Assyria. Ranmian-nirari III. of Assyria had over-
thrown Man of Damascus, and in his inscription
he claims to have laid the land of Omri (i.e., Israel)
under tribute. It is not improbable that the con-
quered Damascus and its territory was turned over
to Jeroboam in return for tribute. Conmientators
are at variance over the meaning of the reference in
Hos. X. 14, ** as Shalman spoiled Beth-arbel/'
whether it refers to a conquest of the Galilean city
under Shalmaneser III. or IV., or to a calamity
experienced by the Moabite King Salamanu men-
tioned by Tiglath-Pileser. II Kings xiv. 25 regards
the success of Jeroboam as the fulfilment of the
prophecy of Jonah the son of Amittai; but the
prophecies of Hosea and Amos give a far different
impression of the state of his kingdom, which under
the external glory carried the seeds of decay,
speedily to bear fruit. (E. Kautzsch.)

Biblioobapht: 1. The souroes are: I Kinss xi. 26-40, xii.
1-xiv. 20; II Chron. x. 2-19, xi. 14-16, xii. 16, xiu. 2.
Sources are: II Kings xiv. 23-29, xv. 1, 8; and especially
the books of Amos and Hosea. For literature on both
kings see the pertinent sections in the works cited under

AhAB; ISRABL, HI8TORY OF.

JEROME.

L Life, Historical (f 2).

Studies and Travels to Dogmatic and Polemical

378(11). (§3).

Sojourn in Rome, 382- Letters (f 4).

386 (f 2). III. Theological Position.

Residence in Palestine His Excellences and De-
after 386 (f 3). fecU (fi 1).

IL Works. His Lack of Independence

Biblical and Exegetical (fi 2).

(§1).
L Life: The famous ecclesiastical author com-
monly known as St. Jerome, whose full name was
Eusebius Sophronius Hieronymus, was
z. Studies bom at Stridon, on the border between
and Travels Pannonia and Dalmatia, in the second
to 378. quarter of the fourth century; d. near
Bethlehem Sept. 30, 420. He came of
Christian parents, but was not baptized until about
360, when he had gone to Rome with his friend
Bonosus to pursue his rhetorical and philosophic
studies. These were principally secular, probably
including Greek literature; he seems as yet to have
had no thought of studying the Greek Fathers, or
any Christian writings. His journey with Bonosus
to Gaul seems to have followed immediately upon
a stay of several years in Rome. During this so-
journ in eastern Gaul and '* on the semi-barbarous
banks of the Rhine," he seems to have been occu-
pied with theological studies, and to have copied
for his friend Rufinus Hilary's commentary on the
Psalms and treatise De synodis. Next came a stay
of at least several months, possibly years, with
Rufinus at Aquileia, where he made many Christian
friends. Some of these accompanied him when he
set out about 373 on a journey through Thrace and
Asia Minor into northern Syria. At Antioch, where

he made the longest stay, two of his companions
died and he himself was seriously ill more than once.
During one of these illnesses (about the winter of
373-374) he had a vision which determined him
to lay aside his secular studies and devote himself
to the things of God. In any case he seems to have
abstained for a considerable time from the study
of the classics and to have plimged deeply into that
of Holy Scripture, under the impulsion of Apol-
linaris of Laodicea, then teaching in Antioch and
not yet suspected of heresy. Seized with the desire
for a life of ascetic penance, he went for a time to
the desert of Chalcis, to the southwest of Antioch,
known as the Syrian Thebaid, from th^ number of
hermits inhabiting it. During this period, however,
he seems to have found time for study and writing.
He made his first attempt to learn Hebrew under
the guidance of a converted Jew; and at this time
he seems to have been in relation with the Jewish
Christians in Antioch, and perhaps as early as this
to have interested himself in the Gospel according
to the Hebrews, asserted by them to be the source
of the canonical Matthew.

Returning to Antioch, in 378 or 379, he was or-
dained by Bishop Paulinus, apparently with some
unwillingness and on condition that he
2. Sojourn still continue his ascetic life. Soon
in Rome, afterward he went to Constantinople
382-385. to pursue his study of Scripture under
the instruction of Gregory Nazianzen.
There he seems to have spent two years; the next
three (382-385) he was in Rome again, in close
intercourse with Pope Damasus and the leading
Roman Christians. Invited thither originally to
the synod of 382, held for the purpose of ending the
schism of Antioch, he made himself indispensable to
the pope, and took a prominent place in his coimcils.
Among other duties he undertook the revision of
the text of the Latin Bible on the basis of the Greek
New Testament and the Septuagint, in order to
put an end to the marked divergences in the current
western texts (see Bible Vsrsions, A, II., 2). This
conmiission determined the course of his scholarly
activity for many years, and gave occasion to his
most important achievement. He undoubtedly
exercised an important influence during these three
years, to which, outside of his unusual learning,
his zeal for ascetic strictness and the realization of
the monastic ideal contributed not a little. He was
surrounded by a circle of well-bom and well-edu-
cated women, including some from the noblest
patrician families, such as the widows Maroella
and Paula (qq.v.) with their daughters Blaesilla
and Eustochium. The resulting inclination of these
women for the monastic life, and his imsparing
criticism of the life of the secular clergy, raised a
growing hostility against him, especially in the class
just named. Soon after the death of his patron,
Damasus (Dec. 10, 384), he decided to retire from
a position which was fast becoming impossible.

In August, 385, he returned to Antioch, accom-
panied by his brother Paulinianus and several
friends, and followed a little later by Paula and
Eustochium, who had resolved to leave their pa-
trician surroundings and to end their days in the
Holy Land. In the winter of 385 Jerome accom-

id7

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jerome

panied them and acted as their spiritual adviser.
The pilgrims, joined by Bishop Paulinus of Antioch,
visited Jerusalem, Bethlehem, and the
3. Rest- holy places of Galilee, and then went
dence in to E^ypt, the home of the great
Palestine heroes of the ascetic life. In Alexan-
after 385. dria Jerome listened to the blind cate-
chist Didymus expounding the prophet
Hosea and telling his reminiscences of the great
Anthony, who had died thirty years before; he
8p)ent some time in Nitria, admiring the disciplined
community life of the niunerous inhabitants of that
*' city of the Lord," but detecting even there " con-
cealed serpents," i.e., the poison of Origenistic
heresy. Late in the sunmier of 386 he was back
in Palestine, and settled down for the remainder of
his life in a hermit's cell near Bethlehem, sur-
rounded by a few friends, both men and women
(including Paula and Eustochiiun), to whom he
acted as priestly guide and teacher. Amply pro-
vided by Paula with the means of livelihood and
of increasing his collection of books, he led a life of
incessant activity in literary production. To these
last thirty-four years of his career belong the most
important of his works — ^his version of the Old
Testament from the original text, the best of his
scriptural commentaries, his catalogue of Christian
authors, and the dialogue against the Pelagians,
the literary perfection of which even a controversial
opponent recognized. To this period also belong
the majority of his passionate polemics, which dis-
tinguished him among the orthodox Fathers, in-
cluding notably the treatises occasioned by the
Origenistic controversy against Bishop John of
Jerusalem and his early friend Rufinus. As a result
of his onslaughts on the Pelagians, he was subjected
to actual persecution at their hands about the be-
ginning of 416, when a body of excited partisans
broke into the monastic buildings, set them on fire,
and laid violent hands on the inmates, killing a
deacon, and forcing Jerome to seek safety in a
neighboring fortress. The date of his death is given
by the Chromcon of Prosper. His remains, orig-
inaUy buried at Bethlehem, are said to have been
later translated to the church of Santa Maria
Maggiore at Rome, though other places in the West
claim some relics — ^the cathedral at Nepi boasting
the possession of his head, which, according to an-
other tradition, is in the Escurial.

n. Works: The writings of Jerome cover nearly
all the principal departments of Christian theology;
but the most numerous and important
I. Biblical belong to that of Biblical study, in-
and eluding especially his labors for the
Ezegetical. improvement or translation of the
Latin text. His knowledge of Hebrew,
primarily required for this branch of his work,
gives also to his exegetical treatises (especially to
those written after 386) a value greater than that
of most patristic conmientaries, although he is as
a rule too much hampered by Jewish tradition, and
indulges too often in allegorical and mystical sub-
tleties after the manner of Philo and the Alexan-
drian school. But he deserves credit for the dis-
tinctness with which he emphasizes the difference
between the Old-Testament Apocrypha and the

Hfbraica Veritas of the canonical books (cf. espe-
cially his introductions to the Books of Samuel, see
Proloous Galeatus, to the Solomonic writings,
to Tobit, and to Judith. His exegetical works fall
into three groups: (a) his translations or recastings
of Greek predecessors, including fourteen homilies
on Jeremiah and the same niunber on Ezekiel by
Origen (translated c. 380 in Constantinople); two
homilies of Origen on the Song of Solomon (in
Rome, c. 383); and thirty-nine on Luke (c. 380, in
Bethlehem). The nine homilies of Origen on Isaiah
included among his works were not done by him.
Here should be mentioned, as an important contri-
bution to the topography of Palestine, his book
De situ et nominilma locorum Hebraeorumf a transla-
tion with additions and some regrettable omissions
of the Onomasttcon of Eusebius. To the same period
(c. 390) belongs the Liber interpretaiionia nominum
Hebraicorumf based on a work supposed to go back
to Philo and expanded by Origen. (b) Original
commentaries on the Old Testament. To the period
before his settlement at Bethlehem and the following
five years belong a series of short Old-Testament
studies — De seraphimj De voce Osannaf De tribna
qaaestionxbMe veteria legis (usually included among
the letters as xviii., xx., xxxvi.); Quaestiones he-
braicae in Genesin; Commentarius in Ecclesiasten;
Tractatus eeptem in Pscdmoa x.-xvi, (lost); E^
planationea in Michaeamj Sophoniam, Nahum,
Habacuc, Aggaeum. About 395 he composed a
series of longer commentaries, though in rather a
desultory fashion — ^first on the remaining seven
minor prophets, then on Isaiah (c. 395-c. 400), on
Daniel (c. 407), on Ezekiel (between 410 and 415),
and on Jeremiah (after 415, left unfinished), (c)
New-Testament commentaries. These include only
Philemon, Galatians, Ephesians, and Titus (hastily
composed 387-388); Matthew (dictated in a fort-
night, 398); Mark, selected passages in Luke, the
prologue of John, and Revelation. Treating the
last-named book in his cursory fashion, he made
use of an excerpt from the commentary of the North-
African Tichonius, which is preserved as a sort of
argument at the beginning of the more extended
work of the Spanish presbyter Beatus of Libana.
But before this he had already devoted to the
Apocalypse another treatment, a rather arbitrary
recasting of the conmientary of Victorinus (d. 303),
with whose chiliastic views he was not in accord,
substituting for the chiliastic conclusion a spiritu-
alizing exposition of his own, supplying an introduc-
tion, and making certain changes in the text.

One of Jerome's earliest attempts in the depart-
ment of history was his Temparum liber, composed
c. 380 in Constantinople; this is a re-
2. His- casting in Latin of the chronological
toricaL tables which compose the second part
of the Chronicon of Eusebius, with a
supplement covering the period from 325 to 379.
In spite of niunerous errors taken over from Euse-
bius, and some of his own, Jerome produced a valu-
able work, if only for the impulse which it gave to
such later chroniclers as Prosper, Cassiodorus, and
Victor of Tannuna to continue his annals. Three
other works of a hagiological nature are the Vita
PatUi manachif written during his first sojourn at

Jerome

Jerome of Pra^rue

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

ld8

Antioch (c. 376), the legendary material of which
is derived from Egyptian monastic tradition; the
Vita Maichi tnanacki capHvi (c. 391), probably
based on an earlier work, although it purports to
be derived from the oral communications of the aged
ascetic Malchus originally made to him in the desert
of Chalcis; and the Vita Hilarionia, of the same
date, containing more trustworthy historical mat-
ter than the other two, and based partly on the
biography of Epiphanius and partly on oral tradi-
tion. The so-call^ Martyrologium aancti Hieronymi
is spurious; it was apparently composed by a
western monk toward the end of the sixth or b^in-
ning of the seventh century, with reference to an
expression of Jerome's in the opening chapter of
the Vita Malchiy where he speaks of intending to
write a history of the saints and martyrs from the
apostolic times. But the most important of Je-
rome's historical works is the book De viris tUxis-
trihu8, written at Bethlehem in 302, the title and
arrangement of which are borrowed from Suetonius.
It contains short biographical and literary notes on
135 Christian authors, from St. Peter down to
Jerome himself. For the first seventy-eight Euse-
bius (Hist, ecd,f i.-viii.) is the main source; in the
second section, beginning with Amobius and Lao-
tantius, he includes a good deal of independent in-
formation, especially as to western writers.

Practically all of Jerome's productions in the
field of dogma have a more or less violently po-
lemical character, and are directed
3. Dog- against assailants of the orthodox doo-
maticand trines. Even the translation of the
PolemicaL treatise of Didymus on the Holy Spirit
into Latin (begun in Rome 384, com-
pleted at Bethlehem) shows an apologetic tendency
against the Arians and Pneumatomachi. The same
is true of his version of Origen's De principiis (c.
399), intended to supersede the inaccurate transla-
tion by Rufinus. The more strictly polemical
writings cover every period of his life. During the
sojourns at Antioch and Constantinople he was
mainly occupied with the Arian controversy, and
especially with the schisms centering around
Meletius and Lucifer. Two letters to Pope Damasus
(xv. and xvi.) complain of the conduct of both
parties at Antioch, the Meletians and Paulinians,
who had tried to draw him into their controversy
over the application of the terms ousia and hypo-
stasis to the trinity. At the same time or a little
later (379) he composed his Liber contra Lucifer-
ianos, in which he cleverly uses the dialogue form
to combat the tenets of that faction, particularly
their rejection of baptism by heretics. In Rome
(c. 383) he wrote a passionate counterblast against
the teaching of Helvidius, in defense of the doctrine
of the perpetual virginity of Mary, and of the
superiority of the single over the married state. An
opponent of a somewhat similar nature was Jovin-
ianus, with whom he came into conflict in 392
{Adversus Jovinianunif and the defense of this work
addressed to his friend Pammachius, numbered
klviii. in the letters). Once more he defended the
ordinary catholic practises of piety and his own
ascetic ethics in 406 against the Spanish presbyter
Vigilantius, who opposed the oultus of martyrs

and relics, the vow of poverty, and clerical celibacy.
Meanwhile the controversy with John of Jerusalem
and Rufinus concerning the orthodoxy of Origen
occurred. To this period belong some of his most
passionate and most comprehensive polemical works
— the Contra Joannem Hierosotymitanum (398 or
399); the two closely-connected Apologiae contra
Rufinum (402); and the " last word " written a few
months later, the Liber tertius seu tUtima responsio
adversus scripta Rufini, For further details see
Origenistic Controversies. The last of his
polemical works is the skilfully-composed Dialogus
contra Pelagianos (415).

Jerome's letters, both by the great variety of
their subjects and by their qualities of style, form
the most interesting portion of his
4. Letters, literary remains. Whether he is dis-
cussing problems of scholarship, or
reasoning on cases of conscience, comforting the
afflicted, or saying pleasant things to his friends,
scoux^ging the vices and corruptions of the time,
exhorting to the ascetic life and renunciation of the
world, or breaking a lance with his theological op-
ponents, he gives a vivid picture not only of his own
mind, but of the age and its peculiar characteristics.
The letters most frequently reprinted or referred to
are of a hortatory nature, such as xiv.. Ad Helio-
dorum de laude vitae solitariae; xxii.. Ad Eutiochium
de custodia virginitatis; lii.. Ad Nepotianum de vita
dericorum et monachorunif a sort of epitome of pas-
toral theology from the ascetic standpoint; ]m., Ad
Paulinum de studio scripturarum; Ivii., to the same,
De institutions monachi; Ixx., Ad Magnum de scrip-
tonbus eccUsiastids; and cvii.. Ad Laelam de in-
stitutione filiae,

m. Theological Positron : Jerome undoubtedly
ranks as the most learned of the western Fathers.
He surpasses the others especially in
z. His his knowledge of Hebrew, gained by
Excellences hard study, and not unskilfully used,
and It is true that he was perfectly con-
Defects, scious of his advantages, and not en-
tirely free from the temptation to
despise or belittle his literary rivals, especially
Ambrose. His own scholarship is by no means
without its weak points. His acquaintance with
Greek and Latin literature, both pagan and Chris-
tian, is great, but by no means without its gaps
and its traces of superficial reading; and his knowl-
edge of Hebrew offers innumerable points of attack
to modem criticism. As a general rule it is not so
much by absolute knowledge that he shines as
by an aknost poetical elegance, an incisive wit, a
singular skill in adapting recognized or proverbial
phrases to his purpose, and a successful aiming at
rhetorical effect. His weaknesses are most notice-
able in dogmatic subjects. He was so little of a
dogmatic theologian that he contributed only in-
directly to the development of doctrine. The same
may be said of his contribution to moral theology,
in which he showed less an interest in abstract
ethical speculation than a morbid ascetic seal and
passionate enthusiasm for the monastic ideal.

It was this attitude that made Luther judge him
so severely. In fact. Evangelical readers are gener-
ally little inclined to accept his writings as authori-

189

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jerome

Jerome of Pmcuo

tative, especially in consideration of his lack of in-
dependence as a dogmatic teacher and his submis-
sion to orthodox tradition. He ap-
2. His proaches his papal patron Damasus

Lack of with the most utter submissiveness,
Independ- making no attempt at an independent
ence. decision of his own. The Church
founded upon the rock of Peter is to
decide whether he is to recognize, with the Mele-
tians, three hypostases in the divine ausia, or, with
the Paulinians, one hypostasis with three prosSpa or
persons. ** Decide, I pray thee, and I shall not
fear to speak of three hypostases,*' He may be
called not only the forerunner of modem ultra-
montanism, but even of the Jesuit imreasoning
obedience. The tendency to recognize a superior
comes out scarcely less significantly in his corre-
spondence with Augustine (cf . the letters numbered
Ivi., Ixvii., di.-cv., cx.-cxii., cxv.-cxvi. in his own,
and xxviii., xjcxiz., xl., Ixvii.-lxviii., Ixxi.-lxxv.,
hnm.-lxxxii. in Augustine's).

Yet in spite of the defects and weaknesses already
mentioned, Jerome has retained a rank among the
western Fathers. This would be his due, if for
nothing else, on account of the indalculable influence
exercised by his Latin version of the Bible upon
the subsequent ecclesiastical and theological devel-
(^ment. But that he won his way to the title of a
saint and doctor of the catholic Church was possible
only because he broke away entirely from the
theological school in which he was brought up,
that of the Origenists. In the artistic tradition of
the Roman Catholic Church it has been usual to
represent him, the patron of theological learning,
as a cardinal, by the side of the Bishop Augustine,
the Archbishop Ambrose, and the Pope Gregory.
Even when he is depicted as a half-clad anchorite,
with cross, skull, and Bible for the only furniture
of his cell, the red hat or some other indication of
his rank is as a rule introduced somewhere in the
picture. (O. ZOcKLERf.)

Bibuoorapbt: The article in W. Smith, Dictionary cf Greek
and Roman Biography and Mythology, ii. 450 sqq.. London,
1890, is valuable as a bird's-eye view of Jerome's works,
particularly in givins a table showing the numbers of the
letters as they i4>pear in the three principal arrangements.
A valuable bibliography is given in Potthast. Wegweiser,
pp. 505-690. 1370-71: another is in the BriUsh Museum
Cakdoguo and Supplement; still another in U. Chevalier,
Repertoire dee eoureee hietoriquee du moyen Age^ pp. 1263-
1205. Paris, 1894 sqq.

The edition of the *' Works " by Erasmus, including all
then known, appeued, 0 vols., Basel, 1510-20, followed
t^ that of Marianus Vict<xrinus, 9 vols., Rome, 1565-72;
then came editions by U. Caliztus and A. Tribbechovius
12 vols., Frankfort. 1684-90, the Benedictine by J. Mer-
tianay, 5 vols., Paris. 1693-1706; the edition of Vallarsi,
11 v<^, Verona, 1734-42, reproduced in most subsequent
editions, including that of MPL, xxii.-xxz. NPNF, 2d
■er., vol. V. contains Eng. transl. of many of the 150 Letters,
the Prefaces to his works, and a number of treatises, includ-
ing his " Life of Hilarion," " Dialogue against Jovinianus "
and ** Dialogue against the Pelagians," with a valuable
introdueium and Life.

The beet sources for a life are his own writings, par-
tieolarly his Letters and Prefaces, the latter of which often
tpire a dear indght into hb mental states as well as a
knowledge of external events in his life. Augustine refers
to him in Spiel. 261, Ad Oeeanum^ Contra JiUianum /.,
and " City c€ Qod," xviii. 42; Sulpidus Severus records
his impreosion, received during a stay with Jerome at
BethMiem lasting six months, in his Dialogi, i. 7-0. Elab-

VI.— 9

orate modem treatments of the life are O. ZOekler, Hierony-
mite, eein Leben und Wirken, Qotha, 1865, and A. Thierry»
S. Jir&me, la eoctiti chritienne it Rome et rtmigraUon
romaine en terre eainte, 2 vols., Paris, 1875. Consult far*
ther: F. C. CoUombet. Hiet, de S. Jir&me: ea tfie, ee§
fcrite, et ea doctrine, 2 vols.. Paris, 1844; W. 8. Gilly.
VigUanHue and hie Timee, pp. 91-124, London, 1844;
C. F. de T. Montalembert. Lee Moinee d'occideni, i. 144-
187, Paris, 1861; £. Bernard, Lee Voyagee de 8. Jfrdme,
ib. 1864; E. L. Cutts. St. Jerome, in Fathere for Bngliek
Readera, London. 1878; A. P. F. de Lambel, S. JirAme,
Tours, 1880; C. Martin, Life of St, Jerome, Jx>ndon, 1888;
F. W. Farrar. Livee of the Fathere, ii. 150-297, New York,
1889; P. Largent, S, Jir&me, Paris, 1898, Eng. transl.,
London, 1900; G. GrOtsmacher, Hieronymue, 3 vols.,
Leipaio, 1901-08; J. Brochet, S. Jir(hne et eee ennemie,
Paris, 1906; J. Tunnel, Saint Jir&me, ib. 1906; Jose
de Segufinsa (Father Fxay), Life of St, Jerome, London,
1907; TiUemont, Mimoiree, vol. xii.; Ceillier, Auieun
eacrie, vii. 545-711 et passim (other volumes contun much
useful matter, consult Index); Schaff, Chrietian Churth,
iii 205-214, 967-988, and in general, the church historiei
dealing with the period; DB. iv. 873-874; DCB, iii. 29-50.
Volumes dealing with special phases of Jerome's activity
are: M. Rahmer. Die hebr&iedien Traditionen in den
Werken dee Hieronymue, Breslau, 1861; Aemil. Ldbeck,
Hieronymue quoe noverit ecriptoree et ex quibue haueerit,
Leipsic, 1872; A, Ebert, AUgemeine Geediichte der Litter-
atur dee Mittelaltere, i, 176-203, ib. 1874; W. Nowack,
Die Bedeutung dee Hieronymue fOr die aUteetamerUUdu
Textkritik, Gdttingen, 1875; H. (joelser, Atude lexieo-
graphique et grammaticale de la latinitS de S, Jir&me, Paris,
1884; A. Rdhricht, Eaeai eur S. Jir&me, exigHe, ib. 1891.

JEROliE OF PRAGUE: One of the chief follow-
ers and most devoted friends of John Huss; b. at
Prague about 1379; burned at the stake at Con-
stance May 30, 1416. His family were well-to-do,
and, as he was desirous of seeing the world, after
taking his bachelor's degree at the University of
Prague in 1398 he secured in 1399 permission to
travel. In 1401 he returned to Prague, but in 1402
visited England, and at Oxford copied out the
Dialoffus and Triahgus of Wyclif, and thus evinced
his interest in the great Oxford doctor. He also
became an ardent and outspoken advocate of
realism, and ever afterward Wyclifism and realism
were charges which were constantly getting him
into trouble. In 1403 he was in the Holy Land, in
1405 in Paris. There he took his master's degree,
but Gerson drove him out. In 1406 he took the
same degree in the University of Cologne, and a
little later in that of Heidelberg. Nor was he any
safer in Prague, to which he returned, and where,
in 1407, he took the same degree. In that year
he returned to Oxford, but was again compelled
to flee. During 1408 and 1409 he was in Prague,
and there his pronoimoed Czech preferences aroused
opposition to him in some quarters. Early in
Jan., 1410, he made before the university a cautious
speech in favor of Wyclif 's philosophical views, and
this was cited against him at the council of Con-
stance four years later. In Mar., 1410, the bull
against Wyclif's writings was issued, and on the
charge of favoring them Jerome was imprisoned in
Vienna, but managed to escape into Moravia. For
this he was excommunicated by the bishop of
Cracow. Returned to Prague, he appeared publicly
as the advocate of Huss. In 1413 he was in the
courts of Poland and Lithuania, making a deep
impression by his eloquence and learning. In
Cracow he was publicly examined as to his accept-
ance of the forty-five articles which the enemies of

Jerome of Praflroe
JemsaJem

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

180

Wyclif had made up from Wydif's writings and
which they asserted represented Wyclif's heretical
teachings. Jerome declared that he rejected them
in their general tenor.

When, on Oct. 11, 1414, Huss left for the coimcil
of Constance, Jerome assured him that if need be
he would come to his assistance. This promise he
faithfully kept, for on Apr. 4, 1415, he arrived at
Constance. As he had, unlike Huss, come without
a safe-conduct, his friends persuaded him to return
to Bohemia. But on his way back he was arrested
at Hirschau on Apr. 20 and taken to Sulzbach,
where he was imprboned, and was returned to Con-
stance on May 23, and immediately arraigned before
the council on the charge of fleeing a citation — one
having been really issued against him, but as he
was away at the time he was ignorant of it. His
condemnation was predetermined in consequence of
his general acceptance of the views of Wyclif, and
also because of his open admiration of Huss. Con-
sequently he had not a fair hearing. His imprison-
ment was so rigorous that he fell seriously ill and
so was induced to recant at public sessions of the
council held on Sept. 11 and 23, 1415. The words
put into his mouth on these occasions made him
renounce both Wyclif and Huss. The same physi-
cal weakness made him write in Bohemian letters
to the king of Bohemia and to the University of
Prague, which were declared to be entirely volun-
tary and to state his own opinions, in which he
annoimced that he had become convinced that

Huss had been rightfully burned for heresy. But
this pitiful course did not secure his liberation nor
decrease the likelihood of his condemnation. For
on liay 23, 1416, and on May 26, he was put on
trial by the council. On the second day he boldly
recanted his recantation, and so on May 30 he
was finally condemned and immediately thereafter
burned. He died heroically.

Jerome was of blameless life, and his attachment
to the Roman Church was sincere; consequently,
as he rejected Wyclif 's teachings as to the Lord's
Supper, the council really had slender grounds for
his execution. His extensive travels, his wide eru-
dition, his eloquence, his wit, made him a formidable
critic of the degenerate church of his day, and it was
for his criticisms rather than for heresy that his
death was compassed.

Bzbuooraphy: The contemporary sources of his life are the
well-known letter of Poggio Bracciolini describini; his trial
{Opera, pp. 301-305, translated by William Shepherd,
Life of Poggio Bracciolini, 2d ed.. 1837, pp. 69-79), and the
chronicle of Jan Zixkovi, edited by Jaronlav GoU in
Bohemian and published in Prague in 1878, Vypeani o
Mittru Jeronymovi z Prahu. It has been followed by the
Bohemian scholars, A. H. Wratislaw in his John Humm,
London, 1882, pp. 376-408; and Count LQtxow. John
Hue, ib. 1909. pp. 321-334. Consult further: L. Heller.
Hieronymue von Prag, LQbeck, 1835; C. Becker, Die
heiden bOhmiMchen Reformatoren . . . Hue und Hierony-
mue von Prag, Ndrdlingen, 1858; E. H. Gillett, Life and
Timee of John Huee, 2 vols., New York« 1871; and the
literature tmder Huss, John.

JEROliE, SAINT, ORDERS OF. See Hiebont-

MiTEs; Jbsuatbs.

JERUSALEM.

1 Topography.

IL Water Supply,
m. Soil and Formation.
IV. Climate.

V. History of the City.

Pre-Israelitic Jerusalem (fi 1).

Davidic and Solomonic Jerusalem

(«2).
From Solomon to the Exile ({ 3).
From the Exile to Herod ({ 4).
From Herod to the Destruction, 70

A.D. ({ 5).

Until Constantine the Great (f 6).
From Constantino to the Capture by

the Arabs (fi 7).
Under the Arabs tothe Cruaades (fi 8).
During the Crusades ({ 9).
From 1187 to the Present (fi 10).

L Topography: The ground upon which Jeru-
salem stands is formed by a plateau extending
southward from the Palestinian mountain range,
and cut by valleys into several heights. The cul-
mination of the range or watershed runs west of
the city, and the surifaoe on which the city is built
slopes to the east and south, and on the south and
southeast sinks abruptly into deep valleys. The
watershed northwest and north of the city rises to
a height of 2,675 feet above the Mediterranean; the
lowest place in modem Jerusalem is 2,360 feet in
elevation; while the whole city is situated at a
lower elevation than the country round about. The
heights about the city are in part still known by
their old names. That to the east is the Mount of
Olives (Zech. xiv. 4; Matt. xxi. 1), in early times
the site of a sanctuary (II Sam. xv. 32). Looking
from the city, it is seen to have four summits, of
which the second from the north (Karam alr^ayyad)
is the highest (2,680 feet), while the third (JabaU
aJIrfur) , from twenty to forty feet lower, on which
are several consecrated buildings, passes in common
speech as the Mount of Olives. The most southern
peak {Bc4n al-Harvaj 2,430 feet high) was known as
the Mount of Corruption or Destruction (II Kings
xxiii. 13; cf. I Kings xi. 7). The hill to the west
oorresponds probably to the hill Gareb of Jer.

xxxi. 39, rising to the height of 2,555 feet; that to
the south, called Goah in Jer. xxxi. 39 (2,545 feet
high), is the modem Abu T^r^ called by Europeans
the Hill of Evil Counsel, on the basis of John xi.
47-53. The elevation north of the city is called
Skopos by Josephus (Ant, XL, viii. 5).

The principal valley is that of the Kidron, rising
north of the city, bending east and then south, and
dividing the city from the Mount of Olives, all the
time deepening rapidly. At present, parts of this
valley bear different names. Of tributary valleys
may be mentioned one which in early times emptied
opposite the Garden of Gethsemane of the Latins
immediately below the Golden Gate of the present
east wall of the Haram al-Sharif; it is now prac-
tically filled up. Formerly it was formed of two
branches which served to divide the city, as is
shown by the researches of Warren and Wilson.
Another tributary valley used to empty inunediately
north of the Virgin's Fount, opposite the upper
part of the village of Silwan, but is now completely
filled. A third empties below the Pool of Siloam,
opposite the lower part of the village of Silwan,
and rises in two hollows above the Damascus Gate.
It mns first southeast, then south, and then again
southeast, being joined about the middle of its
course by a valley coming from the west. Both

181

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jenuudem

this and the valley which joins it are now filled up,
but their importance for the old city must have
been great. The name as given by Josephus (War,
v., iv. 1) is the Tyropceon valley. A fourth trib-
utary valley empties into the Kidron still farther
south than the TyropcBon. It begins in the water-
shed west of the present Jaffa Gate, runs south and
then east till it joins the Kidron opposite the south-
em end of Silwan, falling a distance of 650 feet in
its course. It has different names for different
parts, but is in general known as the valley of
Hinnom (Josh. xv. 8 and often; cf. Gehenna). It
is remarkable that Eusebius and Jerome place the
valley of Hinnom to the east of Jerusalem, but they
were probably influenced by Zech. xiv. 3-4. In
the eighteenth century it became the erroneous
fashion to caU the upper and middle part of this
valley the Gihon.

n. Water Supply: The preceding description
shows that the drainage of the region is from north
to south or from northwest to southeast. While
the watershed is at an elevation of 2,675 feet, the
union of the Kidron and Hinnom valleys is only
2,065 feet above the Mediterranean; there is there-
fore no deadwater in the brooks which in the
rainy season flow through these valleys. Part of
the drainage is subterranean. The hill country of
Palestine is poor in water, and such expressions as
'* the brook Kidfon " may convey a false impression
if it is not recalled that " brook '' means no more
than the Arabic ** wadi," a natural channel of
drainage for the flow of the rainy season, dry the
rest of the year except near a spring. In the upper
and lower parts the valleys are tilled; between the
city and the Mount of Olives the floor of the valley
is denuded of soil. In the Kidron water flows only
during exceptional rainfall or when there is a quick
melting of a heavy snowfall. A shallow brook runs
even yet in the TyropoBon after long-continued rains,
forming a pool called the Birkat al-Qamra. In
the Himiom valley a small ditch between the garden
plats suffices to carry off the drainage. The region
is poor in springs, the Old Testament naming only
three, Gihon, En-rogel, and the Dragon's Well. The
Gihon was in the Kidron valley (II Chron. xxxiii.
14), and its waters were led by Hezekiah into the
City of David (II Chron. xxxii. 30). These data
serve to identify it with the only spring which is
found to-day in the Kidron valley near Jerusalem
and feeds the pool of Siloam through the Siloam
conduit. It is known now as the Virgin's Fount
and the Fountain of Steps, the second name due
to the fact that the water is reached by a stone
stairway. The spring is covered by an arch to
protect it from debris, and lies in a deep hollow
some seventy-five feet lower than the heaps of
debris round about. It is intermittent, but rather
irregularly so; in winter it may flow three or four
times a day, in sunmier once or twice, in autimin
at most once. This peculiarity is probably to be ex-
plained by the fact that the spring has two sources
in the hill, one constant and one variable, the latter
intermittent and fed from below. Doubtless the
action of this spring influenced the prophetic repre-
sentations in Ezek. xlvii. 1-12; Joel iv. (iii.) 18; Zech.
xiv. 8, which went upon the supposition that there

were great chambers of water in the interior of the
mountain. Josephus calls the water of this spring
sweet; at present it is brackish. The second spring,
En-rogel (Josh. xv. 7, xviii. 16), was on the boundary
between Judah and Benjamin, and at some distance
from the city (II Sam. xvii. 17; I Kings i. 9, 41
sqq.), in the royal gardens south of the city (Jose-
phus, Ant, VII., xiv. 4); therefore it is to be sought
near the union of the valley of Hinnom with that
of Kidron. There is now no spring in the region,
but there is a well, called by the Arabs Job's Well,
by Jews Joab's Well, and by Christians Nehemiah's
Well, having a depth of 122 feet, partly walled
and partly sunk in the rock. In very wet seasons
it fills up and drains off a part of its water, a dr-
cimistanoe regarded by the inhabitants as presaging
a fruitful season. From this overflow it probably
got its name as a spring, though in earlier times,
when the country was wooded, its overflow may
have been constant and so justified the name of
spring. About a third of a mile south and on the
west side of the valley is a spring which flows during
the rainy season, and in early times may have been
constant. A third spring, the Dragon's Well, ap-
pears to be mentioned in Neh. ii. 13 (LXX, " Spring
of Figs "), as approached from the valley gate,
which was probably at the southwest comer of the
old city. It should therefore lie in the lower Hin-
nom valley or in the Kidron valley; but no spring
or well besides those already mentioned is now
known.

in. Soil and Formation: The old city was built
upon the naked rock. The situation is altogether
unfavorable to the formation of vegetable soil and
to the retention of any which may be artificially
created, since the heavy rainfall of winter washes
it into the crevices of the rocks or sweeps it into
the valleys. Disintegration of the rock produces a
rich loamy soil which adheres well to the rocky
substratum where the lie of the land permits it.
The rock is a crystalline chalk of the middle cre-
taceous period, and of dark gray color. Varieties
distinguished at the present are: a pure hippuritic
chalkstone, granular, not hard, esteemed for build-
ing, not blemished by cracks, when quarried gen-
erally pure white, and hardening with exposure
to the atmosphere; a second variety, of three kinds,
cither gray or marked with red and gray veins and
not found in such large masses as the fiirst variety;
a variety which laminates and does not break in
the fire; a fourth variety, so soft as to receive and
retain the imprint of the fingers, sometimes, how-
ever, hard and worked with the saw, reddened often
through infiltration of iron, and generally used for
the little sarcophagi so numerous in the neighbor-
hood.

IV. Climate: The usual rainy season is from
October to May, rarely September to June, while
the average rainfall for the year is about twenty-
three inches, and the southwest and west winds
carry the rain clouds. Snow may fall from Decem**
ber to March, rarely in April, though it does not
often lie long. The temperature ranges from 25^ to
102** Fahrenheit, with high average for July of 77**
and for January of 43**. Ice may form at night in
January, but melts during the day except in shady

Jmmlmk

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

I8d

spots. The atmospheric humidity ranges widely.
The prevailing winds are from the northwest,
though the radiation of the land in sunmier often
produces a sea breeze from the Mediterranean which
lasts well through the night and brings much mois-
ture. East winds blow in autumn, winter, and
spring, rarely in summer. The sirocco blows from
the southwest. The months in which sickness pre-
vails are May to October. The preceding data are
the result of observations taken during the second
half of the nineteenth century, and the question
has been raised whether the climate is the same as
it was in early times (see Palestine). Here it need
be said only that great changes are improbable;
such changes as may have taken place are most
likely in the direction of greater contrast of tem-
perature and of reduced rainfall. But Jerusalem
must always have been a city not abundantly sup-
plied with water, as is proved by the many devices
for conserving the rainfall.

y. History of the City: It is dear that the name

Jerusalem was not given by the Israelites, since it

appears c. 1400 b.c. in the Amama

X. Pre- Tablets (q.v.) in the form Urusalintf

Isnielitic which corresponds consonantally with
Jerusalem, the Hebrew form of the name, though
the vocalization of the last syllable is
different in the Old Testament but not in the Ara-
maic or Septuagint. The form Yeruahalayiin is
Massoretic. The legend of the founding of the city
reported by Josephus (Apion, i. 14 sqq.) and Plu-
tarch (/ns et Osiris, xxxi.) goes back to Manetho,
who attributes the building of the city to the Hyksos
when they left Egypt. But the legend unites the
Hyksos and the Hebrews in a manner which pre-
vents giving credit to the story. The earliest men-
tion is that of the Amama Tablets ut sup., in which
Ebed-Qiba appears as tributary to the Pharaoh,
while the correspondence suggests that the ruler
of Jerusalem was chai^ged with oversight of the
princelings of southern Syria (cf . the representation
in Judges i. 5-7 of Adoni-bezek with his seventy
subject kings). The Israelitic accounts dealing
with the time c. 1020 b.c. make the Jebusites mas-
ters of Jerusalem and the inmiediate surroundings,
and Zion the stronghold (II Sam. v. 7). Until the
second half of the nineteenth century Zion and the
City of David w^re located between the valleys of
Hinnom and the Tyropoeon at the southwest cor-
ner of the city. At present scholars agree that Zion
was applied to the eastern part of the city and that
the southeastern hill corresponds to the fortress of
Jebus. The " city of David ** is not to be confused
with " Jerusalem," since it formed only a part of
the greater whole (cf. II Kings xiv. 20). The city of
David was situated on lower ground than the temple
and the palace of Solomon (II Sam. xziv. 18; I
Kings viii. 1-4), and Solomon's palace lay lower
than the temple (II Kings xi. 19), from which it
was separated only by a wall (Ezek. xliii. 8). The
location of the temple, it is agreed, was on the site
of the present Mosque of Omar, whence the direc-
tions implied in the foregoing data can lead one only
to the southeastern hill between the Kidron and
the Tyropoeon. This conclusion is fully corrobora-
ted by the indications in Neh. iii. 15-26, xii. 31-39

compared with ii. 13-14. According to II Sam. v. 6
the fortress of Zion was difficult of access, which
corresponds with the situation to the east and the
south of the southeastern comer of Jerusalem, and
it must have been protected to the west by the
Tyropoeon before the latter was filled with debris.
Similarly on the north a ravine extended, men-
tioned above as one of the tributary valleys of the
Kidron. Consequently at that early time the for-
tress was entirely isolated by ravines, while the
boundaries suggested probably marked out the city
of the Jebusites, placed on the lowest of the emi-
nences in the neighborhood. The Jerusalem of the
Amama Tablets has been placed westward of Jebus
and on the southwest hill of the modem city.

With the capture of the Jebusite fortress Jerusa-
lem fell into David's hands, and this may have been
while he was still king of Hebron. He

2. Davidic was thus placed in contact with the
and northem tribes and in conmiand of the

Solomonic roads, while the stronghold became

Jerusalem, the capital of his kingdom, a place be-
longing neither to Judah nor to the
northem tribes, and therefore neutral. But because
of David's relationship to Judah, it is sometimes
ascribed to Judah, while elsewhere it is caUed Ben-
jamin's territory because of its situation. David
did not exterminate the Jebusites, but left them life
and property (II Sam. xxiv. 18); he forced them,
however, to evacuate Zion, whence they went to
the southwest elevation, while he and his following
occupied " the city of David." The old fortress was
completely transformed, being built up by David,
and a palace erected there (II Sam. v. 9, 11; cf.
Neh. xii. 37) upon one of the westem levels of the
hill, while the 'tombs were hewn out still lower;
the fortification was completed by walls and towers,
the remains of which have been traced. In this
part of the city was the tabernacle-sanctuary (II
Sam. vi. 17), and here were the residences for the
people of the court, as well as a great number of
cisterns for water supply. Solomon extended the
building toward the north and built the MiUo for
protection, though as yet the exact location of this
defensive work is not determined and the same is
tme as to its exact character — whether it was a
wall or a tower. Solomon's palace and temple were
to the north and on higher ground, the temple on
Moriah and the palace on Ophel, the latter sur-
rounded by defensive walls, probably pierced with
great gate? on the south, where were the principal
approaches. The arrangement included three parts,
a greater court with an inner court containing the
temple, and a second or middle court (I Kings
vii. 8, 12; II Kings xx. 4), the temple thus being
the farthest north, while these separate parts were
probably upon different levels. In the great court
to the south were the house of Lebanon, the hall
of pillars, and the throne hall. The middle court
contained Solomon's palace and the palace of his
Egyptian queen. To Solomon is ascribed the build-
ing of the wall which surrounded Jerusalem (I
Kings in. 1, ix. 15). The question of the extent of
the city in thoee times and therefore of the extent
and course of this wall is much debated. It must be
home in mind that a distinction was made between

188

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jarosalem

the ** city of David " and Jerusalem, and by the
latter was meant the city on the southwest hill,
which must have been the part so protected by
Solomon's wall, the course of which Joeephus claims
to give (WoTf v., iv. 2). Remains of a wall which
may have been the northern part of Josephus's wall
have been discovered south of David Street, viz.,
the so-called Wilson's arch; but the latter can
hardly be ascribed to the time of Solomon. Inves-
tigations respecting the course of Solomon's wall
have been carried on by the English engineer, H.
liaudsley, and the American, F. J. Bliss, during
which several gates have been discovered as well as
the direction of the fortification, but whether these
belonged to the erection of Solomon or to later times
is not fully determined. The valley gate was prob-
ably at the southwest comer of the old city, the
dung gate on the south, and the fountain gate to
the east by the TyropcBon valley (formerly called
the gate between the two walls, Jer. xxxix. 4).

The successors of Solomon, according to the Old

Testament, often added to the fortifications of the

city, and probably all the additions

3. From made are not mentioned in the records.

Solomon Of special importance is the report that
to the Hezekiah built '' the other wall " (II
Exile. Chron. xxxii. 5), i.e., one outside what
had been till then the city limits, called
by Joeephus the second wall {War, V., iv. 2). A
good basis for tracing this wall is found in Neh. iii.
(cf. xii. 31, 37-40), and some remains have been dis-
covered which are with good reason identified with
the wall of Nehemiah. These remains are to the
north of the so-called David's Tower, under the
foundation of the German Evangelical Church, and
still farther near the northwest comer of the Haram
al-Sharif. This wall was pierced by two gates,
called the old gate and the fish gate (Neh. iii. 6,
xii. 39); the first was probably near the quarter of
the Holy Sepulcher comer of the city, by the Prus-
sian Hospice of St. John; the fish gate must have
led to the TyropoBon. From Zeph. i. 10 it may be
deduced that in this quarter or new city the Phe-
nician traders had their shops. The towers of
Hananeel and Hammeah (Jer. xzxi. 38; Neh. iii. 1)
are usually located on the site of the later Antonia,
and not far to the east must have been the sheep
gate (Neh. iii. 1), perhaps identical with the gate
of Benjamin (Jer. xxxvii. 13). A short distance
east of the sheep gate the wall bent southward to
foUow the bank of the Kidron; the complete course
of the wall is not yet made out, but that it changed
direction several times is clear from Neh. iii. 19-20,
24-25, while iii. 26 compared with xii. 37 leaves
doubtful the location of the water gate giving toward
the east. Other gates mentioned are the middle
gate (Jer. xxxix. 3), the gate of potsherds (Jer. xix.
2), the first gate of Zech. xiv. 10 near the comer
gate, the gate of the guard (II Kings xi. 19, be-
longing to Solomon's palace), and the horse gate
(Neh. iii. 28), the locations of which have not been
found. The residents continued to make provision
for water supply by hewing or constmcting cisterns
in which to collect rain-water. Neh. iii. 16 men-
tions an artificial pool in the city of David, called
" the pool that was made," probably to distinguish

it from the natural pools theretofore used. It is
difficult to locate all the cisterns or pools mentioned
in the Old Testament. The upper pool of Isa.
xxxvi. 2 seems to have been to the north or
northwest of the old city, perhaps therefore the
Mamilla pool west of the C^aza gate or the pool of
Hezekiah; but many have distinguished the former
as the upper pool and the latter as the lower pool
(Isa. xxii. 9). The reservoir between the two
walls of Isa. xxii. 11 is to be sought in the Tyro-
poeon valley between the city of David and Jerusa-
lem; the pool of Shelah of Neh. iii. 15 is identified
by many with that of Siloam. The inhabitants
sought in three ways to make available the waters
of the Gihon spring; an approach through the
rock of the hill, a channel from the foot of the
hill southward in the neighborhood of the water
gate, and a tunnel conducting the water into the
city. The first was discovered by Charles Warren
in 1867-68; the second, in part, by Conrad voo
Schick in 1886 and 1890, found to be partly a cov-
ered channel, partly a tunnel; the third is the
famous Siloam timnel (in which is the Siloam in-
scription, q.v.), hewn not in a straight line, but first
leading west from the spring, then south, and finally
west again into the king's pool of Neh. ii. 14. If it
be right to attribute this tunnel to Hezekiah, the
other means of leading the water into the dty belong
to an earlier age, the first perhaps going back to the
time of David or of the Jebusites. Signs indicate
that during the Davidic dynasty numerous attempts
were made to supply the city with water from a
distance. To the south of Bethlehem is a group of
waterworks which divide into three parts. To the
west of the little village of Artas, three hours south
of Jerusalem, are three great pools called the pools
of Solomon, fed partly by springs in the neighbor-
hood, partly by two canals, the one leading from
the Wadi al-Biyar emptying into the upper pool,
the other from the Wadi al-'Arrub emptying into
the middle pool. The connection with Jerusalem
was by two channels, an upper and a lower, of
which the upper has a remarkable peculiarity. At
first an ordinary canal, at the grave of Rachel it
becomes a line of piping, which sinks and then
rises farther on, built of stones bored into hollow
cylinders fitting closely together and laid in a bed
of masonry. This breaks off north of the tomb of
Rachel, and from there only indistinct traces are
discoverable. This must be regarded as ancient,
possibly Solomonic or Davidic; the date of the lower
channel is about that of Herod the Great. Besides
these two conduits, traces of a third have been
found.

The capture of Jerusalem by Nebuchadrezzar,

587-586 B.C., resulted in the buming of the temple,

the royal palace, and the laiger dwell-

4. From ings of the city; the encircling wall

the Exile was also thrown down. The remnant

to Herod, of inhabitants left by the conqueror in

the city was too poor and dispirited to

think of rebuilding. Gedaliah had his residence in

Mizpah, which indicates the unfitness of Jerusalem

as a capital. From Haggai (i. 4) is first heard the

story of rebuilding in the year 519 B.C. and of

the rebuilding of the temple 519-15 e.g., though the

Jerasalem

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

184

stress of circumstances continued to be felt. In
445 B.C. Nehemiah came with full powers from
Artaxeixes I., rebuilt the wall and erected its gates
in fifty-two days (Neh. iii., xii. 27-43), finishing
with a festival. The most of the repairs had to be
made on the north, east, and south, while mention
is made of the house of the mighty men, the great
tower of the upper palace, and David's palace
(Neh. iii. 16, 25, xii. 37) as though still standing.
The priests were masters of the temple and its
vicinity, while some dwelt in the neighborhood of
the old Davidic residence (Neh. iii. 20 sqq.). From
Neh. xi. 4-10 it may be gathered that the popu-
lation when Nehemiah came was about 10,000, a
small number for so large a space (Neh. vii. 4).
But during the next two centuries the city must
have grown greatly in spite of the damage it suf-
fered from Persians and Egyptians. In 198 B.C.
it came into the power of the Seleucids. It is after
this that mention is made of a fortress inside the
dty held by a foreign force and called the Akra (or
the acropolis). It is related in I Mace. i. 33-37 that
the officers of Antiochus IV. fortified the city of
David with a strong wall, and that this became a
menace to the sanctuary. In thus distinguishing
the dty of David from the rest of the city, and both
of these from the temple hill, the author of Mac-
cabees follows Old-Testament usage. The supposi-
tion that the Akra hill overlooked the temple con-
tradicts all testimony regarding the relative levels.
The importance of David's city was gradually less-
ened by meAns of the temple hill. The high priest
Simon (Ecdus. 1. 1) and later the Hasmonean Judas
(I Mace. iv. 60) fortified the temple, and Jonathan
renewed the protection after Antiochus Eupator
had destroyed it. Thus Zion became a fortress in-
side the unwalled city. The encircling wall of
the dty was restored by the Hasmoneans several
times, and they also cut off the Akra by a high
wall to shut out the garrison from the market.
Another work of this period was the palace of the
Hasmoneans, west of the temple and on higher
ground, probably on the edge of the southwest hill,
the upper city of Josephus (Ant, XIV., i. 2). It
came later into the possession of the Herods, and
was occupied by Agrippa II. when he stayed in
Jerusalem. Near it, but lower in the Tyropoeon
valley, was the Xystos, either a great hall or an
open place, while across on the east side of the
valley was the coimcil-house of the Sanhedrin and
near it the hall of records. Toward the end of this
period belongs probably the description of Jerusalem
found in the letter of Aristeas, in all likelihood
based on Hecataios of Abdera.

For the next period Josephus is the authority,

and he distinguishes between the upper dty, or the

upper market, the lower dty, the tem-

5. From pie or the temple hill, the proasteion,

Herod and the new city or Bezetha, but never

to the uses the name Zion. The upper city

Destruction, lay opposite the temple and the lower

70 A.D. city; the latter was the Akra, south
of the temple and situated on the low-
est level within the walls; the proasteion coindded
with the new city enclosed within the so-called
second wall of the post-Solomonic kings; the new

dty of Josephus arose in the decade after Herod
to the north of the temple and westward about the
wall to the tower of Hippicus. Still farther, Josephus
distinguishes between Bezetha, the new city, and
the wood market; Bezetha lay north of the temple
and Antonia and east of the street leading from the
gate by the Women's Tower to Antonia. His ac-
count can not be followed without a knowledge of
the earlier arrangement of the city. Through Her-
od's building operations the city took on some-
thing of the splendor of a Grecian dty. Besides the
temple he erected a stately tower, which he named
Antonia in honor of the Roman triumvir, and the
palace of Herod (located by its three great towers,
Hippicus, Phasael, and Mariamne) which com-
manded the city as the Antonia conunanded the
temple hill. The three towers served as a protec-
tion for the city as well as for the palace (cf. for
description of towers and palace Josephus, War,
v., iv. 3-4). The palace was occupied later by
Axchelaus and Agrippa I.; when the Romans ap-
pointed a procurator over Judea, it was ceded to
him and his guard. Gessius Florus and Pontius
Pilate are said to have had their judgment seat in
front of the structure, hence here must be sought
the pretorium. In the upper city was the hippo-
drome, and Herod is said to have built a theater
in Jerusalem and an amphitheater in the plain (the
latter probably discovered in 1887 by Dr. Schick
above Bir Eyyub). Finally, Herod took care for the
water supply of the city. Schick has shown that the
lower of the two conduits from the pools south of
the dty near Artas is of Herod's building. It begins
immediately below the lowest of the three pools
and is carried in a winding course past Bethlehem
to Jerusalem as a masonry or hewn canal covered
with flat stones, only twice taking the character of
a tunnel. It has been repaired or improved several
times — by Pontius Pilate, again in the fourteenth
and sixteenth centuries, and in 1865. The third
wall to the north of Jerusalem protects the ** new
city " of Josephus. Agrippa I. began to build it,
but ceased because of the distrust of the Romans.
At the outbreak of the Jewish war it was again
undertaken and speedily finished. It was pierced
by many gates, the names of which are unknown;
one, protected by the so-caUed Women's Tower,
was probably where the Damascus Gate now is.
Its course was approximately that of the present
north wall. The inhabitants of Jerusalem at this
time, including the guests at the Passover, are
reckoned by Josephus at 2,700,000 (Wear, VI..
ix.3; cf. II., xiv. 3); Schick would place the normal
population at the beginning of the Christian era
at from 200,000 to 250,000. In the reign of the
Emperor Claudius (41-54 a.d.), Queen Helena of
Adiabene on the upper Tigris, her son Izates, and
other members of her family became converts to
Judaism and built residences for themselves in the
lower city (Josephus, War, IV., ix. 11, V., vi. 1).
Agrippa I. had the streets of the city paved to
give occupation to the great number of laborers left
without work (Josephus, Ant,, XX., ix. 7). The
Amygdalon pool mentioned in War, V., xi. 4 is
doubtless the pool of Hezekiah; the name is a Greek
form of the Hebrew mighdal, "tower," and the

186

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

JeroaalMii

pool was near the Mariamne tower of the palace.
The Struthion pool of TTor, V., xi. 4 lay north of
Antonia, but its site is not yet certainly recovered.
The location of the pool of Bethesda is also uncer-
tain; it seems to have been near the sheep gate
and north of the temple. Dr. Schick has located
the Bethesda of the Middle Ages to the west of the
church of St. Anne north of the temple. Gethsem-
ane lay at the foot of the Mount of Olives, cer-
tainly not far from the city, according to John
xviii. 1 a garden, and the site of the betrayal of
Jesus. The present garden in the possession of the
Franciscans has been known since the tenth or
eleventh century, but there are indications that the
earlier site was farther to the north. The Herodian
monument was located to the west of this, above
the valley of Hinnom, and has been identified by
Dr. Schick. The tomb of Queen Helena of Adia-
bene was about a third of a mile from the north
waD of the city {Ant. XX., iv. 3); it is probably
the crypt with court, portal, and niunerous cham-
bers known as the King's Tomb north of the
Damascus Gate.

The city suffered greatly during the siege and

gradual capture under Titus. His express conunand

to destroy the city received willing

6. Until obedience from the embittered Roman
Constan- soldiery. Titus regarded only the three

tine the towers of the palace as worth preserv-
Great ing, and he spared the western part of
the city wall, as it guarded the camp
of the garrison on the southwest hill in the upper
city. The investment of the city began at the
Passover, when there was present a vast number of
visitors, so that the coimt of Josephus (War, VI.,
ix., X.) is not improbable. The place where the
faith of the Jews had received so severe a blow was
naturally avoided by them and Jabne (Janmia)
became the center of Jewish life in Palestine. The
yoimg Christian community, which before the in-
vestment by Titus withdrew to Pella, east of the
Jordan, had as headquarters the house of John Mark
and his mother Mary (Acts xii. 12-17). Probably
there was the great upper chamber (Mark xiv. 15)
in which Jesus celebrated the last supper and also
the chamber mentioned in Acts i. 1 3 and ii. Although
the site of this place is pointed out by a tradition
reaching to the fourth century, there is no doubt
concerning its correctness. Epiphanius of Salamis
(392 A.D.) reports {De menauris, xiv.) that when
Hadrian made his visit to Jerusalem in 130-131
he found city and temple destroyed except for a
few dwellings and the little Christian church on
what was then called Mount Zion. Since the time
of Cyril of Jerusalem this church, or another built
on its site, has been well known; it corresponds to
the present NM Da*ud on the southwest hill south
of the wall and above the tombs of the Davidic
dynasty. The name Zion was probably attached
to the church through an extension of usage out of
the Old Testament, since the name is not found
used of a part of the city by Josephus. According
to this usage the place of assemblage of the early
Christian community came to be called " the holy
Zion"; out of this grew the identification of the
southwest hill as Mount Zion, and so the topo-

graphic signification of the term was lost. Hadrian
made an end of the desolation of the dty and com-
manded that it be rebuilt as a Roman colony;
during the rising of Bar Kokba it was for a few
years a free city, after that again a Roman colony,
but without the jus Italicum, and was called .£Ua
Capitolina, shortened in common speech to .£lia, in
the Arabic to Uiya, till the late Middle Ages. The
city deity was Jupiter Capitolinus, whose temple
was on the site of the Jewish temple. Jews were
excluded from the new city under pain of death.
The area was diminished, and the old city of David
was outside the city limits. In this period were
fixed the form and topography of the city which
have survived till the present.

The heathen character of the city did not prevent
Christians from visiting or settling there; pilgrim-
ages began in the third century and

7. From were numerous in the fourth. Helena,
Constan- the mother of Constantine, came there
tine to the in 326-327 and had churches built on

Capture the sites of the birth and ascension of
by the Christ, in Bethlehem, and on the Mount
Arabs, of Olives (for Constantine's building
see Holt Sepulcher). Constantine
relaxed the harsh laws against the Jews, Julian gave
them permission to restore their temple, but after
Julian the earlier prohibitions against the Jews seem
to have been renewed. In the second half of the
fourth century eremites and monks from Egypt
and Syria began to crowd into Palestine, in the
fifth and sixth centuries causing bloody feuds
through dogmatic strife. The first monastery in
Jerusalem seems to have been built in the fifth
century. The coming of the Empress Eudocia,
consort of Theodosius II., in 438 had great conse-
quences for the city. To her is ascribed the renewal
of the old wall to the south, and various sacred
sites were joined to the city. She built the Church
of St. Stephen (possibly included in the present
possessions of the Dominicans). The Emperor
Justinian had the architect Geoigios of Constan-
tinople erect a great basilica (that of theTheotokos)
in connection with a pilgrims' house and a hospital
in the middle of the city, perhaps south of the
Church of the Holy Sepulcher. The capture of the
city by the Persians under Chosroes II. (614) re-
sulted in the destruction of most of the ecclesiastical
structures, in the restoration of which the abbot
Modestus showed great zeal, though when the
Emperor Heraclius marched in (638), much of the
city was in ruins. In 638 the Caliph Omar took
Jerusalem.

The stipulations of the surrender to the effect

that civic and ecclesiastical protection should be

given and that the churches were not

8. Under to be used as dwellings were observed
the Arabs with comparative good faith. The

to the Arabs named the city Bait aJrMukaddoM
Crusades, or at-Makdis, ** Place of the Sanctuary,"
shortened to al-Kuds, but made Lydda
their first military capital in Palestine. Only oc-
casionally had the pilgrims cause to complain of
hard usage, the relations between the E^ast and the
West being good under the friendship of Charle-
magne and Harun al-Raschid. In the tenth o«d-

J«nis»lem

JcnuMtlem, Bishoprio in

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

186

tury began the strife between Islam and Chris-
tianity, furthered by the bad faith of the Egyptian
Fatimides, who disregarded all treaties; the pil-
grims were compelled to pay a fee for entrance into
the city, and the Caliph al-Hakim in 1010 began a
severe persecution of the Christians. Merchants
from Amalfi, however, gained a footing in Jerusa-
lem with permission to trade, and soon had a church
(Sancta Maria Latina) and a monastery (Monas-
terium de Latina) to the south of the Church of
the Holy Sepulcher.

When Godfrey of Bouillon captured the city,
July 15, 1099, only two churches were found unin-
jured, that of the Holy Sepulcher and

9. During that of the Italian merchants, for the

the latter of which tribute was paid. Dur-
Crusades. ing the continuance of the kingdom of

Jerusalem great zeal was displayed in
building. The principal gates of this period were
David's gate (Jaffa gate), Stephen's (Damascus),
Jehoshaphat's, and Zion gate in the south. Near
David's gate was David's tower (the present cita-
del, often repaired from the ruins of Herod's palace),
hence the later location of the "city of David."
Extensive building operations went on within the
grounds of the Amalfi merchants; the Benedic-
tines built a hospital in honor of Johannes Elee-
mon (q.v.) in connection with which a community
dressed in black robes with a white cross came into
being — the beginning of the Knights of St. John.
The Hospitalers under the patronage of John the
Baptist took over the woman's guest-house. Since
the Latins located the pretorium north of the Zion
Church, later northwest of the temple square, the
direction of the Via Dolorosa was placed accordingly.
The pool of Bethesda (John v. 2) was placed by
them near the Church of St. Anna, discovered in
1888 northwest of this site; later it was located
north of the Haram al-Sharif. The Church of St.
Anne was known as early as the seventh century,
was repaired by the Franks, and later was con-
nected with a nimnery. The hiUs to the west and
south of the Hinnom valley were called Gihon. In
the valley of Jehoshaphat the Franks repaired the
tomb of the Virgin Mary and its church; while on
the third peak of Olivet stood, about 1130, a great
Church of the Ascension, where Constantine had
built a sanctuary.

Jerusalem opened its gates to the victorious
Saladin Oct. 2, 1187. Most of the Latin Christians

departed; the Greeks remained. The

10. Ftom Christian and Occidental character
XI 87 to the which the city had assumed during

Present the crusades soon changed as (Iliristian
churches and cloisters became mosques
or Mohaounedan schools. Saladin had the walls re-
newed when Richard the Lion-hearted threatened
a siege in 1191-92, but the Sultan Malik al-Muazzam
of Damascus ordered them destroyed that they
might not become a protection to the Christians
( 1219-20) . A treaty between the German Frederick
II. and the Egyptian Sultan al-Kamil secured the
city for the Christians (except the Haram al-ShariO
for about ten years and a half from Feb. 1, 1229,
after which Nasir Daud, prince of Kerak, took the
city and destroyed the walls. The EJgyptian Sultan

Eyyub took it in 1244, in 1517 it fell under the
power of the Turks under Selim I., and his successor
Solyman in 1542 gave to the walls of the city their
present form. Syria was in the possession of
Mehemet Ali of £^t 1831-40. In 1219 the Fran-
ciscans gained a footing in the city, in the thirteenth
century held firmans under the Egyptian sultans,
in 1333 came into possession of the Zion Church
and perhaps of other sacred places, some of which
they had to 3rield to Solyman in 1523 and 1551;
their present location, northwest of the Church of
the Holy Sepulcher, was obtained in 1559. Since
the conquest of Jerusalem by the Turks the Chris-
tian powers, with France in the lead, have protected
the Roman CathoHo Christians in Palestine, Russia
has cared for the Greek Christians. A revolution in
the situation at Jerusalem was brought about by the
English (1826) and American (1821) missionaries;
an English consulate was established there in 1839,
a Prussian in 1842. England and Prussia had the
Evangelical bishopric of St. James created (see Jeru-
salem, Anglican-German Bishopric in). Other
Christian powers thus had their attention drawn to
the situation. The Greek patriarch Cyril transferred
his seat from Constantinople to Jerusalem in 1845,
and Rome reestablished the Latin patriarchate in
1847. Pilgrim-houses, hospitals, churches, schools
and monasteries have been erected, and these mark
the character of the peaceful crusade of the nine-
teenth century, with the result that Jerusalem b
no more an Oriental city. Of its 60,000 inhabitants,
41,000 are Jews, 12,800 are C^hristians, 7,000 are Mo-
hammedans. Of the Christians, 6,000 are Greeks,
4,000 Latins, 1,400 Protestants, 800 Armenians,
200 Uniate Greeks, 150 Copts, 100 Abyssinians,
100 Syrians, and 50 Uniate Armenians. The Jews
are poverty-stricken and do not exert an influence
corresponding to their numbers. (H. Guthe.)

Bibuoobapht: Lists of literature are the Bibliotheea oeo-
Oraphica Paleatinae, by R. Rdhrioht, Berlin, 1800, and by
T. Tobler, Leipsic, 1867. Indispensable for following re-
cent investigations are the Quarterly SlatemerUa of the
PEF, also the files of ZDPV, the MUteUunoen und Nack-
richien of the Deutscher Pal&stina-Verein. the files of
ZDMG, Recueil d'archiologie orierUaU, and JBL, Valuable
as summaries are the articles in DB, ii. 584-601; BB, it
2407-2432; JE, vii. 118-167; DCO, i. 849-850.

For excavations and topographical details consult:
C. Warren, C. R. Conder. Survey cf Weetem Paleetine,
Jerumdem, London, 1884; E. G. Schults, Jenualem, Ber-
lin, 1845; W. Krafft, Die Topographie Jeruealetne, Bonn,
1846; T. Tobler. Die SiloaKquelle und der Otifberg, St. Gall.
1852; idem, Zwei Biieher Topoffraphie von Jeruealem, ib.
1853-54; E. Pierotti, JeriMUem Explored, 2 vols., London,
1864; C. J. M. de VogQ^ Le Temple de Jeruealem, Paris,
1864; C. W. Wilson, Ordnance Survey ofJeruealem, 2 vols.,
Southampton, 1867-70; C. Wilson and C. Warren, Re-
covery of Jeruealem, London, 1871 ; P. Wolff, JerueaUm,
Leipsic, 1872; C. Warren, Underground Jeruealem, Lon-
don, 1876; H. Guthe, Auegrabungen hei Jeruealem, Leipsic,
1883; C. Wilson, Jeruealem the Holy City, London, 1888;
F. J. Bliss, ExccanUione at Jeruealem, 189jh97, London,
1808; C. Mommert, Topographic dee alien Jerttealem, 4
vols., Leipsic 1002-06; S. Merrill, Andent JerueaUm, New
York, 1008; G. A. Smith, The Topography, Beonondee and
Hiatory of Jeruealem to 70 A.D., 2 vols., London, 1006;
Robinson, Researchee, and Later Reeearehee. On the qaea>
tion of the Akra consult C. E. Caspari, in TSK, 1864, pp.
300-328; G. Gatt. in TQ. Ixvi (1884), 34-84, Izxi (1880),
77-125; idem. Die HUgel von Jeruealem, Freiburg. 1807.

For descriptions of the city consult: J. F. Thrupp,
Ancient Jeruialem, London, 1856; A. B. MaoOrigor, Index
of Paeeagee . . . upon the Topography of Jenutdem, Glaa-

187

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jenuwlem, Biahoprio in

fow, 1876; C. Zimmemuum, Karten und PUknt tur Topo-
giupkU dU aUtn JenudUm, Basel, 1876; G. Williams,
Tk» Holy City, 2 vols., London, 1840; C. Ritter, Com-
paraHvoOtooraphyofPaluHn*, iv. 1-212, Edinburgh, 1866;
W. M. Thomson, The Land and the Book, vol. i.. New York,
1880; F. SpiesB, Da$ Jeniaalem dee Joeephue, BerUn, 1881;
H. Nicole, Plan topographique de Jenualem et »e» environa,
Paris, 1886-87; J. H. Lewis, The Holy Placee ofJerueaUm,
London, 1888; G. R. Lees, Jeniaalem lUuetraied, ib. 1804;
G. A. Smith, Hietorical Geography of the Holy Land,
passim, ib. 1807; F. Diekamp, Hippolytua von ThAen,
pp. 06 sqq., MOnster, 1808; W. Sanday, Sacred Sitee of
the OoepeU, Oxford. 1003; Miss A. Goodrich Freer, Inner
Jeruealem, London, 1004 (an excellent description of the
present city); Baedeker's Handbook on Syria and Pales-
tine, 6th Germ. ed.. Leipdc, 1004, 4th En«. ed., 1006.
Pictorial productions are G. Eb«rs and H. Guthe, PalAeHna
in Bild und Wort, vol. L. Stuttgart, 1883; Hartnuum-
Benxinger, PaUUtina, Hamburg, 1880; and the views
published by the PEF.

On the history of the city in the Biblical period consult:
1.. B. Paton, Jeruealem in Bible Timee, Chicago, 1008;
E. Bevan, Jeruealem under the High Prieete, London, 1004;
and the works on the history of Israel cited under Ahab.
For later periods consult: C. J. M. de VogQ^, Lee Aglieee
de la terre eainte, Paris, 1860; T. Levin, Siege of Jeruealem
hy Titue, London, 1863; V. Gu^rin, La Terre eainie, 2
parts, Paris, 1884; J. Guy le Strange, Paleetine under the
Moeleme, London, 1800; G. Dodu. Hiet. dee ineHtuHone
monartkiquee dane le royaume latin de Jeruealem, Paris,
1804; Jeruealem et eee principaux eanetuairee, ib. 1805;
C. A. Couret, La Priee de Jeruealem ... en 6iJi^; iroie
deeumente, ib. 1806; C. R. Conder. The Latin Kingdom of
Jeruealem, 1099-1291, London, 1807; S. Lane Poole,
Saladin and the Fall of the Kingdom of Jeruealem, New
York, 1808; R. Rfihrioht, Geechichie dee Kdnigreiche
Jeruealem, Berlin, 1808; W. Besant and E. H. Palmer,
Jeruealem, the City of Herod and Saladin, London, 1800;
A. Achleitner. Jeruealem, Mains, 1005; W. S. Galdeeott,
The Second Temple in Jeruealem, London, 1008; and the
publications of the Palestine Pilgrim Text Society.

Maps of value are the Plan of Jeruealem prepared by the
PEF. and Karte der Malerialen eur Topograj^ie dee AUen
Jeruealem, accompanied by Malerialen eur Topographie
dm AUen Jeruealem, both by A. KOmmel, Halle, 1004-06.

JERUSALEM, ANGLICAN-GERMAN BISHOP-
RIC IN : An episcopal see founded in Jerusalem in the
nineteenth century by joint agreement of the Angli-
can and the German Lutheran churches. As a
result of more than one missionary effort in the Holy
Land in the earlier years of the century, and of the
expedition sent thither in 1840 by the so-called
Quadruple Alliance, Frederick William IV. of Prus-
sia thought the occasion favorable for establishing
a firm position for Evangelical Christians in that
coimtry. The Armenian, Greek, and Latin churches
had long possessed the advantage of permanent
corporations irnder treaty sanction, the two latter
having also powerful protectors, while Protestants
had no regular standing. The king therefore sent
Bunsen on a special mission to Queen Victoria to
lay before the archbishop of Canterbury and the
bishop of London, who welcomed the proposal, a
plan for the joint erection of a Protestant bishopric
under the protection of England and Prussia. The
endowment of the see was fixed at £30,000 in order
to secure an annual income of £1,200 for the bishop.
who was to be appointed by Prussia and England
alternately; the archbishop of Canterbury, how-
ever, had a veto on the Prussian nomination; in
other particulars the organization of the see was
practically that of an Anglican bishopric, and its
holder was at first subject to the metropolitan au-
thority of Canterbury. His jurisdiction, which ex-
tended provisionally beyond Palestine over the

Protestants of all Syria, Chaldea, Egypt, and Abys-
sinia, was to be exercised according to the canons
and usages of the Church of England. An act of
Parliament (Oct. 5, 1841) authorized the consecra-
tion of a bishop for a foreign country who need not
be a subject of the British crown nor take the oath
of allegiance, while, on the other hand, the clergy
ordained by him would have no right to oflKciate
in England or Ireland. It was agreed by both
parties that the bishop should protect and aid Ger-
man communities, among whom the cure of souls
should be provided for by German clergy, ordained
according to the English rite after examination and
subscription of the three ecumenical creeds; that
the liturgy was to be compiled from those received
in the Lutheran church of Prussia and authorized
by the archbishop of Canterbury; that confirmation
was to be administered to the Germans by the
bishop after the English form. These far-reaching
concessions aroused great dissatisfaction among the
German Lutherans, and the project was unfavorably
received by the High Church party in England on
opposite grounds. The first bishop appointed under
the agreement was a Jewish convert, Michael Sol-
omon Alexander (b. at Schdnlanke, 50 m. n.n.w. of
Posen, 1799; became a rabbi, and while serving at
Plymouth was converted, 1825. He entered the
ministry of the Church of England, became a mis-
sionary of the London Society for the Conversion of
the Jews, and professor of Hebrew and rabbinical
literature at King's College, London). He took up
his residence in Jerusalem at the beginning of 1842,
and died in the desert near Cairo Nov. 23, 1845.
He was succeeded by Samuel Gobat (q.v.), a native
of Cr^mine in the Bernese Alps, and a former mis-
sionary in Abyssinia. In his time it became evident
that the joint bishopric could not endure. The
German commimity showed a notable increase, num-
bering 200 members in 1875, and important chari-
table works were connected with it; a provisional
chapel for their worship was erected in 1871, to be
replaced by the larger church dedicated in the
presence of the German emperor on Oct. 31, 1898.
Meantime the relations between the German and
English congregations had become more and more
merely nominal. Bishop Gobat was succeeded in
1879 by an Englishman, Joseph Barclay (q.v.), who
died two years later, and the next nomination came
to Germany. The final separation was brought
about by the insistence of the English Church that
the bishop should subscribe the Thirty-nine Articles
and be consecrated according to the English rite.
Germany objected to this, and the agreement was
finally abolished by the emperor on Nov. 3, 1886,
[since which time the bishopric has been maintained
by the English Church alone. The present incum-
bent, George Francis Popham Blyth (q.v.), was con-
secrated Mar. 25^ 1887. His title is '' Bishop of the
Church of England in Jerusalem and the East," and
his jurisdiction includes the English congregations
in Egypt, the regions about the Red Sea, Palestine,
Syria, Asia Minor (except portions attached to Gib-
raltar), and the Island of Cyprus].

(FIlILIPP MSTBB.)

BnuooRAPHT: Conault the literature under Qobat, Saitdbl;
W. H. Heckler, The Jeruealem Biehopric, London, 1883;

JaroMklem Ohamber
Jerasalem, Synod of

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

188

H. Smith, The ProtMtarU Bithopric in Jeruaaiem, ib. 1846;
A. McCaiU, Jeruaalem, tit Biahap, ii» MiuionariM, ib. 1866;
A. Riley, ProgrtM and Protpeda of the ArdUfiahop of Can^
ierhury'a Miation to the Aaayrian Chriatiana, ib. 1889; Der
Heir baut Jenualem, Etna Denkaehrift Uber daa Werk der
evanoeUaAen Kirehen in JeniadUm^ Berlin, 1805.

JERUSALEM CHAMBER: A large hall in the
deanery of Westminster, London, adjacent to the
abbey. The origin of the name is obscure; possibly
it Lb derived from the tapestries with which it is
hung, representing in part scenes from Jerusalem or
vicinity, including the adoration of the magi, the
circumcision, and also the wanderings in the wilder-
ness. The hall was built by Abbot Littlington be-
tween 1376 and 1386, and served as the guest-room
or parlor of the abbot. In it Henry IV. died (Mar.
20, 1413) when about to set out on a pilgrimage to
Jerusalem, and the prophecy that he was to die in
Jerusalem was supposed thus to be fulfilled (cf.
Shakespeare, Henry IV. ^ part II., act iv., scene 4).
It became the meeting-place of the Westminster
Assembly (q.v.) when cold weather came on in Sep-
tember, 1643, the hall being heated from its huge
fireplace. There Addison (1719) and Congreve
(1728) lay in state previous to burial in the abbey.
It was the place of session of the company of re-
visers of the New Testament, and from it the Revised
Version of the New Testament is dated: '' Jerusar
lem Chamber, Westminster Abbey, 11th November,
1880." The revisers of the Old Testament also
met there when the New-Testament company was
not in session. It is the place of meeting of the
lower house of convocation of the province of
Canterbury.

Bibuographt: A. P. Stanley, Memcriala of Weatminater
Abbey, reinued in Everyman'a Library, 1906; W. J. Loftie,
Weatminater Abbey, London, 1889.

JERUSALEM, PATRIARCHATE OF: A see of

the Eastern Church (q.v.), supposed to have been
founded by James, the brother of the
Early Lord. Though Jerusalem has remained
Bishops, for Christianity the "holy city," it
has never occupied an authoritative
position. Nevertheless it produced some note-
worthy men, and several synods of importance
have been held there. During the crusades it
was the center of interest as the object, not
as the subject, of action. The patriarchate, that
was established there in 451, could never be com-
pared to other patriarchates, not even to that of
Antioch. The city lost its importance after its
capture by Titus and especially after Hadrian had
made it, in 136, the JElia Cajritolina in which Jews
were no longer tolerated, but the old name of the
city never entirely vanished, although it was offi-
cially recognized again only in the fourth century.
Eusebius states that until the time of Hadrian there
were only Jewish Christian bishops in Jerusalem,
and afterward only Christians converted from pa-
ganism. The list of bishops until c. 300 is contained
in the church history of Eusebius and in his Chrorir-
icon, also in Epiphanius. but it is not wholly trust-
worthy. Among the Christian bishops of Jerusalem
before Juvenal, under whom the patriarchate was
founded, may be mentioned especially Narcissus,
Alexander, Macarius, Maximus, a supporter of Ath-

anasius, Cyril (q.v.), and John (see Origenibtic
CoNTROVEBSiEs). The Council of Nicsea decreed
that according to ancient usage the bishop of ^lia
should be honored, but the first rank should be
given to the bishop of the '' metropolis," by which
undoubtedly Csesarea was understood. The rela-
tion of Jerusalem to Csesarea was naturally dis-
turbed from that time. Ambitious and energetic
bishops such as Maximus and especially Cyril did
not recognize the bishop of Csesarea as metropol-
itan. Cyril was opposed successfully by Acacius of
Cffisarea, a not less vigorous personality. But
Juvenal especially won for Jerusalem an important
position. At the Council of Nicsea, however, the
questions as to the rank of the bishops were still
comparatively simple and only slightly developed
from a legal standpoint. Only under the political
organization of the empire undertaken by Diocletian
did the church constitution provide rigidly circimi-
scribed eparchies and dioceses, and only then did
the capital of the political eparchy or metropolis
have also ecclesiastical precedence. Jerusalem, how-
ever, obtained no political supremacy. Even when
Palestine was divided inio several distinct prov-
inces by Valens, and afterward, it did not become a
metropolis. In Palestina Prima, to which it be-
longed, Csesarea remained the chief seat of the epis-
copacy, in Palestina Secunda it was Scythopolis, in
Palestina Tertia Petra. Jerusalem was only fourth
in rank.

Juvenal (q.v.) induced Emperor Theodosius 11.
to make him patriarch, and at the council of Chalce-

don succeeded in obtaining the three

During the Palestines as patriarchate. At the fifth

Crusades, ecumenical council of Constantinople

in 663, it was ordered definitely that
Jerusalem should possess the fifth see in the church.
There are only a few prominent names in the long
series of patriarehs. The history of the patriarchate
is intimately connected with the vicissitudes of
political history. In 637 the Mohammedans under
Caliph Omar conquered Jerusalem, Patriarch So-
phronius mediating the surrender on conditions re-
garding the toleration of Christian faith. Never-
theless there followed a time of great oppression, no
patriarch being elected for more than sixty years
(644-706), but even after the restoration of the
patriarchate the church was almost always in a
destitute condition. The crusades (conquest of
Jerusalem 1099) caused a new interruption of the
succession of patriarchs. The first patriareh elected
after this period (in 1142?) resided at first in Con-
stantinople; only after Saladin in 1187 had taken
Jerusalem from the Franks did the patriarchs return
to Palestine, although not immediately to the holy
city. The chief importance of Palestine, especially
of the neighborhood of Jerusalem, from early times
lay in the fact that it had become the country of
monks and hermits. In the sixth century Palestine
took the leadership in Greek monasticism; through
men like Euthymios (d. 473), Sabas (d. 632), and
especially Theodosius (d. 629), Palestine became a
shining example for the whole East, but after the
tenth century its importance began to decrease.

In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries Jeru-
salem became so desolate that the patriarchs, owin^

189

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jerusalem Ohamber
Jeruaalem, Synod of

to the failure of their revenues, traveled to collect
funds. Tamerlane conquered Syria in 1400, and
afterward Palestine was ruled by the Mamelukes
from Egypt. In 1517 the Ottoman
In Middle sultan conquered Syria, and conse-
Ages and quently the patriarchate of Jerusalem
Modem became dependent upon the ecumen-
Times. ical patriarchate in Constantinople.
While in the time of the Arabs only
natives of Palestine were patriarchs, now Greeks
stepped into the foreground. Many patriarchs of
the city fixed their residence at Constantinople;
only since 1845 have the patriarchs permanently
resided there. At the time of the foundation of the
patriarchate the three Palestines comprised not less
than fifty-nine bishoprics, at present there are only
a few. There is still a metropolitan of Csesarea,
but in 1880 he ruled Haifa only, a place of a thou-
sand inhabitants. Beside the metropolitan of
Caesarea there is still a metropolitan of Scythopolis
and Petra, also one of Ptolemais, Bethlehem and
Nazareth; beside them, six archbishops and one
bishop. According to Baedeker (Palestine and Syria,
pp. lix.-lxii., 4th ed., Leipsic, 1906), Syria and
Palestine with 3,526,160 inhabitants h^ 978,068
Christians. The mutessarifat of Jerusalem Lb esti-
mated to have 341,638 inhabitants (p. Ix.), while
the number of Christians in Jerusalem amounts to
about 13,000 among 60,000 inhabitants (p. 24).
There are 6,000 members of the orthodox Greek
church in Jerusalem.

After the conquest of Jerusalem in 1099 Godfrey
of Bouillon as king of the city established a Latin
patriarchate which assimied the whole
Latin organization of the Palestinian church.
Patriarchate The orthodox patriarchate was ignored.
and Other There were Latin patriarchs until 1291,
Bishoprics, nominally even until 1374. They re-
sided in Ptolemais (Accon) until 1291,
then in Cyprus. In 1847 Pius IX. named J. Valerga
as patriarch (d. 1872), and at present there are in
Jerusalem 4,000 Latin Catholics, besides several
himdred " United ** Catholics of different rited.
There are also the patriarchates of the Melch-
ites (imited Greeks) and that of the Armenians.
The Gr^orian Armenians possess a patriarch-
ate of Jerusalem, organized in the seventeenth
century.

The Jacobites have a bishop and a small church
in Jerusalem, and the Abyssinians also have a
church. (F. Kattbnbusch.)

Biblzoorapht: The fundamental work is in Greek by
Dooitheus, a patriarch of Jerusalem (d. 1707), " On the
Patriarchs in Jerusalem," ed. by his successor Chrysanthos,
Bucharest, 1715. Consult further: M. Le Quien, Orieng
Chri9tianu», iii. 101 sqq., Paris, 1740 (important); H.
Guthe. in ZDPV, xu (1890). 81 sqq.; O. Werner. OrbU
Urrarum CalKolieuM, chap, xvii., Freiburg, 1890; Schlatter,
in Be%trAo€ tur FOnUrung ehrigaicher Theologie, ii. 3 (1898);
E. EEampel, VnUrtuehungen aber daa kUeiniache Patriarchat
9on Jgruaalem, Erlangen, 1899; Vailh^ in Revue de VarierU^
1800. pp. 44 sqq.. 512 sqq., 19(X). pp. 19 sqq.; A. ZagarelU,
in ZDPV, xii (1899), 35 sqq.; T. Zahn, Forachunaen tur
Ogadne/Ue det Kanona, vi. S^l sqq.. Leipsic, 1900.

JERUSALEM, SYNOD OF, 1672: By far the most
important of all the synods held in Jerusalem after
the meeting of the apostles (Acts xv.; see Apos-
TOUC Codncil). From the time of Cyril Lucar

(q.v.), the Eastern Church had lain under the sus-
picion of Calvinistic tendencies, and not altogether
without cause. But Cyril's violent death sealed the
fate of the movement he had led. His successor,
Cyril of Berrho^, condemned his teaching at a synod
in Constantinople in 1638, and so did his successor,
Parthenius, four years later, in a synod at Jassy.
Peter Mogilas, the Russian metropolitan of Kiev,
put together a confession of faith in 1643, for which
he obtained the sanction of Parthenius and of the
patriarchs of Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem, and
Moscow. Meantime the Roman Catholic and the
Protestant parties in the West were trying to sup-
port th^p* respective sides by adducing Eastern tes-
timony, not always, if the Greeks are to be believed,
quite accurately. Thus the French Calvinist
preacher, Jean Claude, in his controversy on the
Eucharist with Nicole and Amauld, appealed to
the older Eastern writers, whose teaching seemed
to have been revived by Cyril and his adherents;
the Jansenists, supported by the French court, to
the orthodox profession of the Greeks. Nectarius
(q.v.), patriarch of Jerusalem, published a book
against Claude; and his successor Dositheus (q.v.)
considered it necessary to take still more formal
action, not without pressure from the French am-
bassador, Olivier de Nointel, who injQuenced him
to call a synod at Jerusalem to refute these accusa-
tions of Calvinism. This synod was attended by
most of the prominent representatives of the East-
em Church, including six metropolitans besides
Dositheus and his retired predecessor, and its de-
crees received so universal a sanction as to make
them more truly an expression of the faith of the
Greek Church than any later synod could claim for
its own. Its occasion is seen in the fact that the
first part of its discussions is directed to the refuta-
tion of the ** shameless " attempts of the Calvinists
to support their teaching by Eastern authority.
This part contains the acts of the councils of Con-
stantinople and Jassy, and reviews the recent his-
tory with the purpose of showing the freedom of the
patriarchate from error, while at the same time
anathematizing the heretical writings and proposi-
tions which bore the name of a patriarch. The
second part contains the declaration of orthodox
faith which Dositheus, in the name of the assembled
Fathers, set forth in opposition to the rejected tenets
of Cyril. It follows them point by point, adhering
as far as possible to their structure, but changing
their substance into an orthodox content. It con-
tains eighteen decreta and four quaestiohes. The
former deal with the Trinity; Holy Scripture and
its exposition by the Church; predestination; the
origin of evil, and the relation to it of divine provi-
dence; original sin; the incarnation; the media-
torial office of Christ and the saints; faith working
by love; the Church, its episcopate, its membership,
its infallibility; justification by faith and works;
the capability of natural and regenerate man; the
seven sacraments; infant baptism; the Eucharist;
and the condition of the soul after death. The
questions cover the canon of Scripture, whether it
can be understood by all, the matter of images, and
the cultus of the saints. Taken as a whole, the
** Shield of Orthodoxy,'' as the entire pronounce-

jMllitS

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

140

ment was entitled, is one of the most important
expressions of the faith of the Eastern Church.

(Rudolf Hofmann.)

Bibuookafht: A good edition of the Acts is in Harduin,
Condha^ id, 17^272. and a critical edition in E. J. Kimmel,
Monumenla fldei eeclenae occidentaliM, Jena, 1850; they
are in English in The Acts and Decrees . . . iranaL from
the Greek . . . eoniainina the Confeeeion . . . of Cyril
Lukar, with Notee by J. N. W. B. RoberUon, London, 1899.
Consult: W. Gass, Symbolik der ffriediiaehen Kirehe, pp.
79 sqq., Berlin, 1872; F. Kattenbusch, Vergleiehende
Konfeeeiofukunde, p. 145, Freiburg, 1890; KL, vi 1359-
1360.

JERUSALEM, ^-^ra'za-lem, JOHAHN FRIED-
RICH WILHELM: Apologist and theologian; b. at
Osnabruck, Hanover, Nov. 22, 1709; d. at Wolfen-
bUttel (7 m. s. of Brunswick) Sept. 2, 1789. He
began the study of theology at Leipsic in 1727,
continued his studies in Leyden, and for a time
preached in the German church of that city. He
was appointed court preacher to Duke Charles of
Brunswick in Wolfenbdttel and tutor of his son
(1742); in the following year he became provost
of the monasteries of the Holy Cross and St. .£gid-
ius, in 1749 abbot of Marienthal, in 1752 abbot of
Riddagshausen, and in 1771 vice-president of the
consistory of WolfenbOttel. He founded the Karo-
linum, an institution of learning in Brunswick, and
organized the system of the poor laws. His most
important work is Betrachtungen uber die vomehmr
9ten Wahrheiten der Religion (2 vols., Brunswick,
1768-79), which was translated into many languages
and was still used in the beginning of the nineteenth
century as a work on apologetics. Jerusalem took
also a significant rank as preacher; two collections
of his sermons appeared in Brunswick, 1745-53.
His son, Karl Wilhelm Jerusalem, was the friend of
Goethe who committed suicide at Wetzlar in 1772
and gave occasion for Die Leiden dee jungen Werth-
ere. (A. Hauck.)

Bibuogkapht: An autobiography was printed in his
Nachotlaetene Sehriften^ Brunswick, 1793. Consult J. M.
H. D6ring, Die deuUchen Kaneebredner de§ 18. und 19. Jahr-
hunderU, Neustadt, 1830; ADB, xiii. 779; KL, vi. 1365-
1366.

JESSOPP, jes'op, AUGUSTUS : Church of England ;
b. at Cheshunt (13 m. n. of London), Herts, Dec. 20,
1824. He was educated at St. John's College, Cam-
bridge (B.A., 1848), and was ordered deacon in 1848
and ordained priest in 1850. He was curate of
Papworth St. Agnes, Cambridgeshire, in 1848-55,
master of Helston Grammar School, Cornwall, in
1855-59, headmaster of King Edward VI.'s School,
Norwich, in 1859-79, and has been rector of Scar-
ning, Norfolk, since 1879. He has been honorary
canon of Norwich, as well as honorary fellow of St.
John's College, Cambridge, and of Worcester College,
Oxford, since 1895, and chaplain in ordinary to the
king since 1902. He was select preacher at Oxford
in 1896, and has written or edited Donne'8 Essays
in Divinity (London, 1855); Norwich School Ser-
mons (1864); Dissertations on the Fragments of
Primitive Liturgies and Confessions of Faith con-
tained in the Writings of the New Testament (1871);
Letters ofF. Henry^al'pole^from the Original Manvr
scripts at Stonyhurst College (Norwich, 1873); One
Oeneration of a Norfolk House: A Contribution to

Elitabethan History (London, 1876); History of the
Diocese of Norwich (1884); Autobiography of Roger
North (1887); Arcady for Better for Worse (1887);
The Coming of the Friars, and Other Historical Essays
(1888); The Trials of a Country Parson (1890);
Studies of a Reduse (1892); Random Roaming
(1893); Simon Ryan the PeteriU (1896); Frivola
(1896); The Life and Miracles of St. WHliam of
Norwichf by Thomas of Monmouth (in collaboration
with M. R. James, Cambridge, 1896); John Donne,
Sometime Dean of St. Paul's (1897) ; Brfore the Great
Pillage (1901); and WiUiam Cecil, Lord Burghley
(1904).

JESSUP, jes'up, HENRT HARRIS: Pre8b3rterian;
b. at Montrose, Pa., Apr. 19, 1832. He was gradu-
ated at Yale in 1851 and Union Theological Semi-
nary in 1855. In the latter year he went to Tripoli,
Syria, imder the auspices of the American Board of
Commissioners for Foreign Missions, remaining there
until 1860, when he went to Beirut, where he has
since remained. Since 1870 he has worked under
the auspices of the Presbyterian Board of Foreign
Missions, and has been professor of church history,
theology, and homiletics in the Syrian Theological
Seminary, Beirut. He was a member of the Turco-
American oonmiission on indemnities after the mas-
sacres of Oct., 1860-July, 1861. In theology he is
Calvinistic according to the Revised Confession of
Faith of the Presbyterian Church, and has written
Women of the Arabs (New York, 1874); Syrian
Home Life (1874); The Mohammedan Missionary
Problem (Philadelphia, 1880); and The Life of
KamU (1894). He has in preparation A History of
the Syria Mission (2 vols.).

JESUATE, jez'yu-^t: A religious order, originally
called Clerici apoStolici SancH Hieronymi, founded at
Sienna about 1360 by Giovanni Colombini, a weal-
thy merchant and senator. After living with his
wife in continence for some time, he separated en-
tirely from her and placed her in a convent, with his
daughters, giving them a portion of his property.
The rest he bestowed on the religious and poor and,
with his friend Francesco Miani, lived in poverty,
caring for the sick and preaching. Ebcpelled from
Sienna, he continued his work in Arezzo and else-
where. In 1367, when Urban V. returned from
Avignon to Rome, he was besought by Colombini
and his followers to permit them to found an order
and to assign them a habit; but this was refused for
some months because of a suspicion that the Jesu-
ates were connected with the heretical Fraticelli.
This Colombini was able to disprove, and the order
was confirmed. After the founder's death (July 31,
1367), Francesco Miani assumed control. The Jes-
uates devoted themselves chiefly to the care of
the sick and to works of mercy, and consisted of
lay brothers with minor vows. Their rule was
originally a mixture of Benedictine and Franciscan
elements, but later was changed to a somewhat
modified Augustinian rule. In 1668 the order,
which had already been reformed by Paul V. in
1606, became so worldly that it was suppressed by
Clement IX. The female branch of the order,
founded at Sienna by Caterina Colombini (d. 1387),

141

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDU

JwaMtom

a Idnswoman of Giovanni Colombini, preserved the
original vigor of its rule, and consequently survived
the male Jesuates fully two centuries.

(O. ZACKLERf.)
Bibuoobapht: VUa J. Cotumbini, in ASB, July, viii. 3M-

308, and by G. Bonafide, Rome, 1642. Later working over
of the material is given in the lives by F. Poesl, Regens-
burg, 1846; and Countess Rambuteau, Paris, 1889. Con-
sult: Helyot, OrdrM mofiash^uM, iii. 407 sqq.; Heim-
buoher, OnUn und KonortOoHonen, u. 240-242; KL, vi.
1371 sqq.

JESUITS.

I. Organisation and Disdi^ne of the
Society.
Qualifications of Candidates (f 1).
Analysis of the Constitutions (12).
'* On the Virtue of Obedience " (i 3).
Rules and Other Manuals (I 4).
II. History of the Society.

Privileges and Exemptions (f 1).
Early Achievements in Itsly, Portu-
gal, and France (I 2).
In Germany and Austria (I 3).
In Belgium. Holland, and England (1 4).
Mission Work in America (I 5).
Unethical Teachings and Practises (§ 6).

III.

Internal Development and Moral

Declension (§ 7).
Decline and Proscription (I 8).
Illicit Continuance and RMtoration

(§9).
Female Orders in Imitation of

Jesuits.

The Jesuits (SocieUu Jent, ** Company of Jesus ")
is ** the most wide-spread of all the religious orders
founded in modem times.'' For an account of the
founding of the order see Ignattus of Lotola.

L Organization and Discipline of the Society:

The ConsHtiUiones Societatis Jesu cum earum dec-

laraHonibus, having been approved by

I. Qualifl- Paul III., Julius III., and Paul IV.,

cations of and commended after careful exami-
Candidates. nation by the Council of Trent, was
again emphatically approved and con-
firmed by Gregory XIII. (Feb., 1582) and printed
in Rome in 1583. The text is accompanied by mar-
ginal declarations or explanatory notes printed in
italics, with a full alphabetical index. The end of
the society is declared to be the salvation and per-
fection of the souls of its members as well as of
men in genera]. The ordinary vows of obedience,
poverty, and chastity are required of all members,
and that of poverty is explained so as to exclude
absolutely not only individual but collective posses-
sions. Receiving compensation for masses, sermons,
lectures, or any sort of religious service, even in the
form of alms, is absolutely prohibited (Examenf i. 3).
An exception is made in the case of colleges and
houses of probation with their buildings and rev-
enues. Sdujlcen take the three ordinary vows of
poverty, obedience and celibacy and promise to
enter the higher ranks of service if the glory of Grod
should require it. CoadjtUors or helpers, whether
in spiritual or in temporal things, take only the
same. Their promotion to the ranks of the Pro-
fessed depends on their faithfulness and efficiency
in the things committed to them. The Professed,
or members of the inner drole, who possess the
secrets of the order, and from whom the officers are
diosen, take in addition to these vows a special
Yow to the pope, that they will journey without
parleying and without asking for traveling expenses,
whithersoever he may order, whether among be-
lievers or imbelievers. A fourth class is made up of
those whose position in the order has not yet been
determined, but who are in readiness to enter either
grade that the superior may direct. A period of
probation (novitiate) usuaUy lasting for two years,
in which the candidate is trained in obedience and
thoroughly tested as regards aptitude, mental, phy-
sical, moral, and spiritual, for the purposes of the
order, precedes entrance into any of the grades men-
tioned (Examen, i. 12). Inquiry is to be made of ■
each candidate whether he has ever been separated

from the Church by reason of denial of the faith or
falling into errors or into schism; whether he has
perpetrated homicide or become infamous on ac-
count of enormous sins; whether he has belonged
to another order; whether he has been bound by
the chain of matrimony or servitude; whether he is
afflicted with poor judgment. Affirmative answers
to these questions disqualify for admission (Examerif
ii.). Careful inquiry is fiuther to be made respect-
ing name, age, birth-place, legitimacy of birth, re-
ligious character of ancestors, names, occupations,
and worldly condition of parents (similar inquiries
about brothers and sisters) ; whether he is under ob-
ligation to marry, whether he has any son, whether
he is in debt or has civil liabilities, whether he has
a trade and can read and write, whether he has any
disease, has received ecclesiastical ordination, or is
under a vow; what have been his habits of religious
devotion, reading, and meditation; whether he en-
tertains any religious opinions different from those
of the Church, whether he is ready to leave the
world and to follow the counsels of our Lord Jesus
C!hrist, whether he fully purposes to live and die in
the society; and when, where, and by whom was
he first moved to take this position. The answers
expected to these inquiries are manifest (ibid. iii.).
The candidate is required to relinquish his posses-
sions, if not immediately, at latest after one year.
Intercourse with relatives is restricted and prac-
tically prohibited. He must agree to have all his
defects and errors pointed out to him. He must
submit to training in the " Spiritual Ebcercises,"
and spend a month doing menial work in a hospice
and another month in traveling as a mendicant.
For the rest of the two years of probation many
other tests are applied, the aim being to make the
candidate as a " corpse or a staff " in the hands of
his superior. The candidate must express a willing-
ness to become a secular coadjutor or whatever his
superiors may determine to be for the greater glory
of God and to be willing in all things to submit his
own feeling and judgment to that of the society
(ibid. v.). For coadjutors and scholars a still fur-
ther testing of absolute obedience and requisite effi-
ciency is provided (ibid, vi.-viii.).

The body of the work consists of eight books.
Part I. treats of " Admission to Probation." To the
general belongs the final decision as to whether an
applicant shaU be accepted or rejected. The qual-
ities sought in those to be admitted are given in de-
tail: good appearance, health, youth, physical

Jefluits

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

142

strength and endurance, sound doctrine or aptitude
for learning it, discretion in doing things or good
judgment for acquiring it, good memory, avidity for
all virtue and spiritual perfection, quiet-
2. Analysts ness, constancy, strenuosity in service,
of the zeal for the salvation of souls, grace-
Constitu- fulness of speech, honorable appear-
tion. ance, nobility, wealth, good reputation
(these last not necessary, but highly
desirable). Detailed directions are given (Part I.)
concerning the manner of admitting those who seem
to have in sufficient measure the qualities desired.
Part II. pertains to dismissing those who have been
received on probation and have proved imfit. The
main thing here is to satisfy the person to be dis-
missed that no injustice is done him, but that the
greater glory of God requires his dismission, and so
to retain his friendship, and to satisfy the rest of
the household that he has not been arbitrarily dealt
with. Part III. treats of the training and pro-
moting of those who remain in probation. The
cultivation of all the mental, moral, and spiritual
elements that are considered desirable, especially of
prompt and cheerful obedience and deep interest
in the purposes of the society, and such hygienic
living as will conserve and increase the physical fit-
ness of the probationer, are described in detail. No
stress is laid upon asceticism, perfect physical con-
dition being the thing sought. Part IV. treats of
the education of the members and education as a
means of influence up>on those that are without.
Conditions of admission, discipline, and curricula,
with prescribed texts, in theology and in liberal
arts, science, and philosophy are somewhat minutely
given. Public schools to be open to non-Jesuits are
to be conducted in connection with the colleges.
Universities are to be established under the auspices
of the society; but it is not thought wise for the
society to burden itself with faculties of law or med-
icine. The ultimate aim of all educational effort
was evidently to gain an absolute mastery over the
pupil and the devotion of his powers to the purposes
of the society. Part V. treats of the things that per-
tain to admission into the body of the society, that
is, into the rank of the " professed." The right of
admitting belongs to the general, but he may dele-
gate it to subordinates when he thinks it expedient
to do so. Only those are to be admitted into the
inner cirde who have manifested the possession in a
high degree of the gifts and graces, the acquisitions,
the enthusiasm, the efficiency, the absolute devotion
to the interests of the order that the system was de-
signed and adapted to produce. Out of this body
come the officials, including the general. Part VT.
deals with the demeanor and duties of the professed.
The utmost stress is laid upon obedience and the
scrupulous execution of the constitution and rules
of the society. They must love poverty as the strong
wall of religion and preserve it in its purity. Part
VII. treats of the things that pertain to the distri-
bution of the professed throughout the Lord's vine-
yard for the good of mankind {proximorum). Their
obligation to go without questioning wherever the
pope or the general may direct and to devote them-
selves unsparingly to the accomplishment of what-
ever tasks may be assigned is much emphasized.

Part VIII. deals with methods to be employed in
keeping the parts of the organization in close touch
with the head and with each other. The utmost
importance is attached to the vital unity of the
body, and frequent and full correspondence with
the head and among those charged with various en-
terprises is insisted upon. Provision is also made
for general congr^ations for the discussion and
settlement of important matters. It is thought to
be in the interest of imity that the general reside
in Rome, where he can always be reached, and that
each provincial reside continuously at the point
determined upon in his province. In case of the
death or retirement of the general, a general congre-
gation is to be called for the election of his successor,
and detailed directions are given for the election.
The general is expected to appoint a vicar to assist
him and to sunomon the general congregation in
case of his demise. Part IX. deals with the fimo-
tions and authority of the general and of the au-
thority and watch-care of the society over the
general. The society controls the expenses and
manner of living of the general. He is subject to
constant watching, to admonition, and to deposi-
tion in case his conduct or teaching should warrant
it. He must confess regularly to a properly au-
thorized confessor. The provincials are to lead in
proceedings against the general. Part X. (and last)
treats of the manner in which the whole body of
the society may be conserved and increased in its
good estate. The vow taken by the professed closes
the work. He promises that he will never consent
to a change of the ordinances concerning poverty,
" unless at any time from just cause of exigent af-
fairs it seems that poverty ought rather to be
restricted," that he will never directly or indirectly
put forth effort to secure his own election or pro-
motion to any office or dignity in the society, that
he will never seek or consent to be elected to any
office or dignity outside of the society unless com-
pelled by obedience to higher authority, that he
will report on any brother that he knows to be
seeking office or promotion, that if he should accept
an ecclesiastical position he would have constant
regard to the obedience due to the general.

For " The Spiritual Exercises," see Exercitia
Spirituaua.

Ignatius' tract " On the Virtue of Obedience "

stands side by side with the Spiritual Exercises

and the Constitution as one of the

3. " On the foundation books of the society. It

Virtue of b a letter of less than 4,000 words
Obedience." addressed in April, 1553, to " the breth-
ren of the Society of Jesus who are in
Lusitania." He wishes his brethren, while being
perfect in all spiritual gifts and ornaments, to be
preeminent in the virtue of obedience:

" The only virtue that inserts the other virtues in the mind
and guards those that have been inserted. While this
flourishes, beyond doubt the rest will flourish. . . . Our
salvation was wrought by Him who ' became obedient unto
death.' . . . We may the more easily suffer ourselves to be
surpassed by other religious orders in fastings, vigils, and
other asperity of food and clothing, which each by its own
ritual and discipline holily receives: I could wish, dearest
brethren, that you who serve our Lord Jesus Christ in thin
*K>ciety should be conspicuous indeed in true and perfect
obedience and abdication of will and especially of judgment:

148

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jasnits

and for the true and gennane progeny of thia nine society
to be difltinguiflhed as it were by this note, that they never
look upon the person himself whom they obey, but in him
look upon Christ the Lord for whose sake they obey. Even
if the superior be ornamented and furnished with prudence,
goodnem, and whatever other gifts, he is not to be obeyed
on account of these things, but solely because he is Qod's
vicegerent by whose authority he performs his fimctions, who
aasrs * he that heareth you heareth me,' ' he that despiseth
you despiseth me ': nor, on the contrary, even if the superior
should be somewhat deficient in counsel or prudence, ought
there to be any remission of obedience on that account, so
long as he is one's superior; since it has reference to the
person of Him whose wisdom can not be deceived: and He
will supply whatever may be wanting to his minister, whether
he be lacking in probity or in other ornaments — seeing that
when Christ had said in express words ' The Scribes and
Pharisees sit on Moses' seat,' he straightway added ' All
things therefore whatsoever they have said to you, observe
and do, but refuse to do according to their works.' "

He proceeds to show that mere outward obedience
to a superior, with inner disapproval of the com-
mand, is the '^ lowest and utterly imperfect form of
obedience, not worthy of the name of virtue unless
it ascends to another grade, which makes one's own
the will of the superior and so agrees with it that
not only the execution appears in the effect, but
also the consent in the affection, and so both will
the same thing and disapprove the same thing."
Obedience is declared to be " the sacrifice of one's
own will, which Lb the highest part of the mind,"
the highest possible offering we can make to God.
He warns his readers never to attempt to bend the
will of a superior to their own. This would be not
to conform your will to the divine, but to wish to
regulate the divine will by the standard of your own.
As a third degree of obedience, which he would have
his readers attain, he urges that they should not
only will the same, but also think the same as the
superior; they should subject their judgment to
his. The devout will is able to sway the intelligence,
so that ** whatever things the superior commands
and thinks may seem to the inferior right and true."
The best way to accomplish this " holocaust " so
essential to personal peace and tranquillity, alacrity,
and diligence, and to the unity and efficiency of the
society, is *' not to look upon the person of the
superior as a man obnoxious to errors and miseries,
but as Christ himself, who is the highest wisdom, im-
measurable goodness, infinite love, who can neither
be deceived nor does he wish to deceive you; and
since you are conscious within yourselves that
by the love of God you have subjected yourselves
to the yoke of obedience, that in following the will
of the superior you follow more certainly the divine
will, do not allow yourselves to doubt that the
most faithful love of the Lord will go on by his own
ministry which he has appointed over you to govern
you from step to step and lead you in right ways.
Therefore the voice of your superior and his orders
receive not otherwise than as the voice of Christ."
On Jan. 1, 1604, Aoquaviva, general of the so-
ciety, prescribed the reading of this tract by every
member of the society every two days. It is
appended to the Regulae Societatia Jesu in the
edition published in Rome in 1616 and frequently
afterward.

Early in the history of the society a body of rules
was printed for the guidance of members in private
and in public life. The edition of 1616, published in

Rome by Bemardus de Angelis, secretary of the
society, embraces additions made by the Seventh
General Congregation. It begins with
4. Rules a summary of the Constitution. "Com-
and Other mon rules " to be observed by all re-
Manuals, garding general deportment, religious
exercises, reading, etc., follow. Next
come the '' Rules of the Provincial," the responsible
leader in a province, and hb assistants; those of the
provost of the house of the professed; those of the
college rector; those of the examiner who has to
pass upon the qualifications of candidates for ad-
mission into the society; those of the master of the
novices (with a list of ascetical books suitable for
his use); instruction for rendering an accoimt of
one's conscience, comprising fourteen questions to
be answered in confession and intended to cover all
experiences of soul for six months (a year in case
of the professed) follows. Rules for those who go
on pilgrimages, for assistante of provosts and rec-
tors, consultors (experts without office available for
the settlement of difficulties that may arise in any
institution of the society), the monitor (whose func-
tion is to admonish superiors and report to con-
sultors, to collect the letters of consultors and send
them to superiors, etc.). A formula for writing
letters by superiors to provincials and by provin-
cials to the general, and directions for the prepara-
tion of the annual catalogue of each institution with
full information about each member, follow. Rules
for prefects, priests, preachers, proctors, librarians,
sextons, those who have the care of the sick, etc.,
are also given.

The Instiiutum Societaiis Jesus (Rome, 1606,
Lyons, 1607) and the Corpus Institutionum S. J.
(Antwerp, 1709) include a collection of the works
already mentioned, with the '* Decrees and Canons
of the General Congregations," the ** Ordinances of
the Generals," and some ascetical works.

In 1614 there was published at Cracow what pur-
ported to be the secret instructions given to mem-
bers of the society as to the means to be used to
acquire influence over the rich and the noble and
to get the advantage of members of other orders
and of secular priests in the confessional and other
kinds of service. It aboimds in worldly-wise advice
and recommends the use of all kinds of chicanery
for the enrichment and aggrandizement of the
society. It consists of seventeen short chapters.
It has been frequently reprinted and translated
into many languages, thus becoming widely circu-
lated. It seems highly probable that Hieronymus
Zahotowski, who had recently severed his connection
with the society, published the book with the co-
operation of Coimt Geoi^ Zbaraski and other Polish
enemies of the order. The repudiation of the work
by the society is no conclusive evidence of its spu-
riousness. It has been its policy from the beginning
to deny all discreditable reports and to take the
chances of being proved unveracious. If the MonUa
Secreta was really written by Jesuit officials, it is
probable that it was never printed by them and
that copies in manuscript were very closely guarded
before and especially after the publication of 1614.
On the other hand, there is no conclusive proof of
the genuineness of the work. It embodies in true

Jesuits

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

144

Jesuit style what was believed to be the actual
practise of members, and if it be formally a fabrica-
tion, it was written by one who was thoroughly con-
versant with the society's literature, modes of
thought, and practise at that time. There is nothing
in the work that is more cynical or immoral than
much that is found in acknowledged Jesuit writings.
n. History of the Society: The popes from Paul
III. to Urban VIII. bestowed one after another al-
most every imaginable privilege and
z. Privi- exemption upon the society, including
leges and the performing of religious services
Exemp- of all kinds without regard to the
tions. rights of the clergy and of other orders
and even when an interdict is in force.
Nothing seems to have been omitted that would
add to their influence and authority (cf. LiUerae
apostolicaef guibua instiiutiOf confirmation et varia
privUegia contineniur SocietaHs Jesu, Antwerp, 1635,
and often, with later dociunents, and Compendium
privilegiorum et gratiarum Societatia JeeUf Antwerp,
1635). These privileges and exemptions covered
nearly all cases ordinarily reserved to the popes
and all cases ordinarily reserved to the bbhop,
ordination, unction, chrism, adjuration, exorcism,
confirmation, distribution of indulgences, granting
divorces, baptizing bells, making new statutes, dis-
pensing from fasts and prohibited foods for mem-
bers of the order and others, neglecting canonical
hours for worship and masses, and acting as advo-
cates, judges, and guardians in all sorts of cases,
criminal, civil, or mixed. Gregory XIII. ordered
that all refusing to assist them in work of this kind
be excommunicated. He expressly conunanded
archbishops, bishops, and other clergy to assist the
Jesuits laboring within their jurisdiction with their
power and resources and never to permit them to be
impeded, molested, expelled, or deprived of their
possessions. In 1575 he appointed Jesuits as pon-
tifical librarians and charged them with the censor-
ship of books. Armed with such privileges, and with
the resources of the whole papal church at their
command, it Lb bo wonder that they multiplied in
numbers and planted their institutions of learning
and their religious houses throughout the world;
nor that they became arrogant and oppressive.
That they should have incurred the jealousy and
hatred of the other religious orders, of the secular
clergy, and of the prelates, and that they should
have struck terror to the hearts of Protestants in
regions exposed to their ravages, might have been
expected. A learned Roman Catholic writer (Caspar
Scioppius [?] in his Analomia Societaiia Je9u,' n.p.,
1668) charges them with attempting to establish
for themselves a monopoly of things of the greatest
necessity and dignity:

" Of grace with God, that nobody may be able to be in God's
grace nor to obtain indulgence or absolution of sins save
through the Jesuits; of grace with princes and magnates,
that no one may be able to obtain honors, offices or wealth
from them, save through the Jesuits; of the Catholic faith,
that no one may be able from being a i>agan to become a
Christian or from being a heretic to become a Catholic, save
by the work of the Jesuits; of perfection, that no one may
be able to be perfect or holy, save through the Jesuits, i.e.,
unless he be received into their society; of learning, that no
one may be able to learn divine and human letters, unless
he avail himself of Jesuit masters; of virtue or good morals.

that no one may become well moralised, save through the
admonitory examples of the Jesuits; of reputation or good
name, that no one may be esteemed good or learned, save by
their votes, or at least with the suffrance of the Jesuits "
(p. 11; for several other classified and tabulated statements
against the society cf. pp. 9-23).

Having approved of the constitution of the
society and conferred upon it extensive privileges,
Paul III. proceeded at once to employ
2. Early its members in the most difiicult and
Achieve- responsible undertakings. In fact his
ments in eagerness to send his associates on
Italy, missions was embarrassing to the
Portugal, founder, who feared that such promi-
and nent service would interfere with the
France, maintenance of obedience, humility,
and poverty that he thought essential.
They soon came into sharp rivalry with the Domin-
icans, the recognized leaders in philosophy and
theology, and formerly the promoters and executive
officers of the Inquisition (see Dominic, Sajnt, and
THE Dominican Order). In the Council of Trent,
especially the later sessions, they were the confi-
dential spokesmen of the papal teaching and policy
and took a leading part in the revival and the es-
tablishment of the Inquisition wherever it was prac-
ticable. In Italy the influence of the society soon
became paramount. The Collegium Romanum, en-
dowed with special privileges and most generously
supported by the pope and his friends, carried on
the educational work of the society with the greatest
enthusiasm and success (1550 onward). Side by
side with this the Collegium Germanicum was estab-
lished by Gregory XIII. (1753) for the education
of those who were to carry forward the Counter-Ref-
ormation in German-speaking countries. It was the
policy of the pope and of the Jesuit administration
to fill this college with students of noble birth,
though it was not found practicable to make the
restriction absolute. About the middle of the sev-
enteenth century the nobles were in the majority
(cf . documents cited by Reusch in ZKO, xiii. 269-
270, 1892). The king of Portugal invited Francis
Xavier (q.v.) and Simon Rodriguez d'Azendo, two
of Ignatius' earliest and most zealous associates,
to his court and committed himself to the fullest
cooperation with the society. Rodriguez became
his chief counselor and Xavier went on his great
mission to India and China under the king's patron-
age. The Jesuits were soon in control of the
college at Coimbra, and until a reaction occurred
in 1578 they virtually ruled the state. In Spain
their conquest was less rapid and complete. They
were opposed to the policy of conciliation in rela-
tion to Protestantism that had been adopted by
Charles V. The Dominicans, who had gained great
prestige in Spain because of their leadership in the
drastic measures against Mohammedans and Jews
as well as against nascent Protestantism, bitterly
opposed the society, partly because of its early
manifestation of Pelagian tendencies. Melchior
Cano (q.v.) denounced the Jesuits as the forerunners
of Antichrist (II Tim. iii. 2). Philip 11., though in
accord with their uncompromising hostility to Prot-
estantism and influenced to some extent by them,
never surrendered himself completely to their dom-
ination. The winning of Francis of Borgia (q.v.),

145

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jesuits

duke of Gandia, who had been a courtier of Charles
v., and had been employed in important admin-
istrative offices, to Membership (1548) was no doubt
the most important addition to the personnel of the
society since it received papal recognition. He was
to prove one of the ablest and most enthusiastic
workers and to become the third general (July 2,
1565). The universities of Alcala and Salamanca
resisted strenuously the efforts of the Jesuits to gain
control; but they finally succeeded in establishing
themselves in these centers of influence. Further
progress was less difficult. The society encountered
antipathy and mistrust in France. A number of
youths sent by Ignatius to the University of Parb
in 1540 were driven away. The archbishop of Paris,
the parliament of Paris, and the Sorbonne united
their forces in opposition to the aggressions of the
body. The cardinid of Lorraine supported the soci-
ety. The Jesuits did not succeed imtil 1661 in
establishing a college in France, and this (Clermont)
was long denied university privileges. The Jesuits
Auger and Pelletian preached and labored with
such efficiency in Lyons (1559) as to cause an up-
rising against the Huguenots that resulted in the
burning of their books, the banishment of their
preachers, and the suppression of their worship. A
Jesuit college was established there in commemora^
tion of their triumph. They persistently opposed
Henry of Navarre in his struggle for the crown, re-
fused to pray for him after his submission to the
pope, and denounced the Eklict of Nantes. Henry
did everything in his power to conciliate them, re-
called a decree of banishment that had been issued
against them, made a Jesuit his confessor, and sought
to use the Jesuite in defending himself against Spain,
where the Dominicans were highly influential. He
was not content with giving to the Jesuite a fore-
most place in France, but he sought to secure their
restoration to Venice, whence they had been ex-
pelled in 1606, and to extend the sphere of their
influence in other lands. He eagerly promoted the
canonization of Ignatius Loyola and Francis Xavier
(1608). Yet he was distrusted by the society and
when, as he was on the point of marching an army
against the emperor and his allies, he was assas-
sinated by Fnm9ois Ravaillac, the Huguenots
charged that Jesuit influence had compassed his
death, though direct instigation could not be proved.
After the death of Henry IV. the society became
still more powerful in France, and the Revocation
of the Edict of Nantes (q.v.) and the destruction of
the Huguenots (q.v.) were largely due to their per-
sistent efforts. The Jansenists asserted that their
theology was Pelagian and that their morals were
lax (q.v.; see also Arnauld; Du Vsrgier de
Hattranne, Jean; Pascal, Blaise; Port Rotal;

QUESNEL, PaSQUIER).

Germany and Austria were the scenes of their
greatest triumphs. The first Jesuit to enter Ger-
* many was Lefdvre, who, in 1640, ao-
5. In Ger- companied Ortiz, deputy of Charles V.,
many and to the Diet of Worms. In the city of
Austria. Worms he found only one priest that
was not a concubinary or polluted with
crime, so with a zeal rarely surpassed he un-
dertook to rally the demoralized Catholic forces
VI— 10

and to inspire with love for Romanism and hatred
for Protestantism the few priests and laymen that
were amenable to his influence. He participated in
the Diet of Regensburg (Apr., 1641), at which
Butzer and Melanchthon represented the Evangel-
ical interests. Deeply lamenting the lack of zeal
and efficiency in the Catholics present, he invited
bishops, prelates, electors, ambassadors, vicars-
general, theologians, and others to his courses in
training in the Spiritual Ebcercises. He was made
the confessor of the son of the duke of Savoy.
Germans, Portuguese, Spanish, and Italians eagerly
sought his spiritual guidance. He extended his
efforts to Nuremberg. Having been ordered by the
general to Portugal, his place was taken by LeJay,
whose chief work was to train the priests for ag-
gressive work against heresy and to inspire the
nobles with the conviction that heresy must be
exterminated at whatever cost. He was soon re-
inforced by Bobadilla, who in 1541 had achieved
a great success in the diocese of Viterbo, had formed
an intimate acquaintance at Innsbruck with Fer-
dinand I., king of the Romans, won him to the
Jesuit way of thinking, and accompanied him to
Vienna, and had supported the Catholic cause in
a number of diets. A college was established in
Vienna, which soon became affiliated with the uni-
versity. LeJay succeeded in filling with enthusiastic
zeal against Protestantism many priests who had
been idle and indifferent and in enlisting many
nobles in the coercive and educational measures
proposed by the society. Lefdvre returned to Ger-
many in 1642 and made his influence powerfully
felt in Speyer, Mainz, Brandenburg, and other
places. Peter Canisius (q.v.) was even more im-
portant than Lefdvre or LeJay in organizing Jesuit
work in Germany and in establishing training-schools
for the propagation of Jesuit principles. From 1559
onward Munich was the chief Jesuit center, and
came to be known as the " German Rome "; and
the college established there attracted many noble
Protestant youths, who were won over by their in-
structors. All the chief cities of Germany where
Catholics had retained the ascendency and many
where Protestantbm had made great headway felt
the influence of these enthusiastic and daimtless
missionaries. Under their guidance Albert V. of
Bavaria gave his Protestant subjects the choice of
becoming Catholics or leaving the country. With
their help Baden was cleared of Protestants in two
years (1570-71). Similar measures were carried out
in the territory of the abbot of Fulda, in Cologne,
MUnster, Hildesheim, Paderbom, and Wikrzburg.
In 1595 the bishopric of Bamberg was cleared of
heretics, and about 1602 the work was completed
in the archbishopric of Mainz. From 1578 onward
Jesuits led in the work of exterminating Protestant-
ism in the Austrian provinces. The Counter-Refor-
mation had lai^ly accomplished ite work in Austria
and its dependencies before the outbreak of the
Thirty Years' War (1618; q.v.). It was rapidly
pressed to completion from this time onward. For
the details of Jesuit activity in the Counter-Reforma-
tion and in the revived Inquisition, see Coxtntbr-
Reformation and articles there referred to; also
Inquisition.

Jesuits

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

146

From 1542 onward the Jesuits had been active in

Belgium. They were expelled from the country

during the early years of the war with

4. In Bel- Spain, but were readmitted, under the
gium, Hoi- patronage of Alexander Famese, after

land, and Spanish authority had been reestab-

England. lished , and were protected by Philip II.,
who had formerly opposed them (1581-
1584). Within a few years they had almost taken
possession of the land and made it the base of suc-
cessful propagandism in the Protestant Nether-
lands. By 1692 twenty-two Jesuits and 220 secular
priests, most of whom had been educated in their
colleges, were working in the United Netherlands,
and the Catholic membership had increased from a
few thousand scattered and discouraged souls to
345,000. The assassination of William of Orange
(1584) was commonly attributed to Jesuit in-
fluence on the ground that, as was asserted, Baltha-
sar Gerard claimed the blessing of the rector of
the Jesuit college at Treves before conunitting the
crime.

The Jesuits early addressed themselves to the
task of reestablishing papal supremacy in England.
In 1542 Paschasius Brouet and Alphonso Salmeron
(q.v.) made a secret and rapid tour through Ire-
land, and in thirty-four days succeeded in inflaming
the Catholics of Ireland against the government of
Henry VIII. and against Protestantism. But the
Jesuits met with little success in Scotland. In
England they carried on for more than a century a
secret but effective propaganda. In 1569 William
Allen (q.v.), afterward a cardinal, established at
Douai (q.v.) a training-school for Jesuit missiona-
ries to England, where a large number of British
Catholic youths were prepared for the extremely
perilous work of restoring papal authority in Britain.
Sacked by the Protestants of Flanders at the insti-
gation of the English government, the college was
reopened at Reims under the patronage of the arch-
bishop, and continued to train men for English
work and martyrdom. In 1579 an English college
was opened in Rome for the same purpose. The
most active leaders of the Jesuit work in England
were Robert Parsons and Edmund Campian (qq.v.).
In Scotland Jesuits attached themselves to the
court of Mary Stuart (c. 1587), and by encouraging
her aspirations after the English crown wrought
her destruction. The " Gunpowder Plot " (1605)
was commonly attributed to their machinations.

The missionary efforts of the Jesuits, under

French patronage, in North America among the

Indians (see Indians of North Amer-

5. Mission ica, Missions to; Missions to the
Work in Heathen, A) and the French col-
America, onists were from their own point of

view highly successful. In Florida,
Mexico, South America and Central America, and
California they established their great mission com-
pounds where captured natives, sometimes guarded
and forced by Spanish and Portuguese troops, were
employed as laborers and compelled to conform to
Roman Catholic observances. Their work among
the North American Indians, as well as among the
natives of India, China, and Japan, displayed heroic
self-sacrifice of the highest order along with a will-

ingness to receive a very superficial knowledge of
Christianity as evidence of its acceptance. Those
whom they baptized, even clandestinely, they
claimed as members of the Christian Church.

Attention has already been called to the obliga-
tion of absolute and unquestioning obedience incul-
cated by Ignatius that involved the
6. Uneth- suppression or destruction of the in-
ical Teach- dividual conscience. The doctrine of
ings and Probabilism (q.v.) was not originated
Practises, by the Jesuits, but was wrought out
by their writers during the seventeenth
century with more mmuteness than by earlier
Roman Catholic writers. According to this teaching
one is at liberty to follow a probable opinion, i.e.,
one that has two or three reputable Catholic writers
in its favor, against a more probable or a highly
probable opinion in whose favor a multitude of the
highest authorities concur. To justify any practise,
however immoral it might be commonly esteemed,
a few sentences from Catholic writers sufficed, and
these were often garbled. Some Jesuits and some
popes repudiated this doctrine. In 1680 Gonzales,
an opponent of the doctrine, was made general of
the society through papal pressure; but he failed
to purge the society of probabilism and came near
being deposed by reason of his opposition. Another
antiethical device widely approved and employed
by members of the society is Mental Reservation or
Restriction (see Reservation, Mental), in ac-
cordance with which, when important interests are
at stake, a negative or a modifying clause may
remain unuttered which would completely reverse
the statement actually made. This principle jus-
tified unlimited lying when one's interests or con-
venience seemed to require. Where the same word
or phrase has more than one sense, it may be em-
ployed in an unusual sense with the expectation
that it will be understood in the usual (amphibol-
ogy). Such evasions may be used under oath in a
civil court. Equally destructive of good morals
was the teaching of many Jesuit casuists that moral
obligation may be evaded by directing the inten-
tion when committing an immoral act to an end
worthy in itself; as in murder, to the vindication
of one's honor; in theft, to the supplying of one's
needs or those of the poor; in fornication or adul-
tery, to the maintenance of one's health or comfort.
Nothing did more to bring upon the society the fear
and distrust of the nations and of individuals than
the justification and reconmiendation by several of
their writers of the assassination of tyrants, the
term " tyrant " being made to include all persons
in authority who oppose the work of the papal
church or the order. The question has been much
discussed, Jesuits always taJring the negative side,
whether the Jesuits have taught that ''the end
sanctifies the means." It may not be possible to
find this maxim in these precise words in Jesuit
writings; but that they have always taught that for
the " greater glory of God," identified by them
with the extension of Roman Catholic (Jesuit) in-
fluence, the principles of ordinary morality may be
set aside, seems certain. The doctrine of philosoph-
ical sin, in accordance with which actual attention to
the sinfulness of an act when it is being committed

147

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jasnits

18 requisite to its sinfulness for the person commit-
ting it, was widely advocated by members of the
society. The repudiation of some of the most scan-
dalous maxims of Jesuit writers by later writers,
or the placing of books containing scandalous
maxims on the Index, does not relieve the society
or the Roman Catholic Chiuxih from responsibility,
as such books must have received authoritative ap-
proval before publication, and the censuring of them
does not necessarily involve an adverse attitude
toward the teaching itself, but may be a mere
measure of expediency.

Lainez, who succeeded Ignatius in the office of
general (1558-65), manifested in the administra-
tion of the affairs of the society more of worldly
wisdom and less of pietistic enthusiasm than the
founder. Paul IV. became alarmed
7. Internal at the remarkable growth and aggres-
Develop- siveness of the society. He sought
ment and (1558) to curb the almost irresponsible
Moral power of the generals by limiting their
Declension, tenure of office to three years, and to
limit the freedom of the body by re-
quiring the observance of the canonical hours for
winging in the choir. These changes would have
placed the society on somewhat the same basis as
the other orders and would have stripped it of half
its power. These measures were earnestly resisted
and the death of the pope (1559) prevented the ca-
lamity. Pius IV. let Lainez have his ambitious and
aggressive way and employed his services in the
later sessions of the Council of Trent. Frauds of
Borgia had spent his fortune in foimding a college
in Gandia and the Collegium Romanimi and came to
the office of general (1565) with all of the ascetical
enthusiasm of Ignatius, but with little of his worldly
wisdom. He was succeeded in 1572 by Mercurian,
whose administration was relatively feeble. The
greatest of all the generals was Claudius Acquaviva
(1581-1615), a Neapolitan. He had to contend
with a powerful and determined Spanish faction in
the society that resented Italian control. The
Spanish Jesuits secured the support of the Inquisi-
tion, of Philip II., and of Qement VIII. The lat-
ter summoned a General Congregation (1592) to
deal with the difficulties. Acquaviva managed the
meeting with such adroitness that he was trium-
phantly vindicated and thoroughly established in
his office. Molina's Pelagian teaching provoked a
fresh Dominican onslaught on the society. Acqua^
viva and his supporters espoused the cause of Mo-
lina (q.v.), though he had been condemned by the
Spanidi Inquisition. The pope transferred the dis-
pute to Rome (1596) and for a time it looked as if
the Dominicans would triiunph; but Acquaviva's
consummate skiU again averted calamity. At the
General Congr^ation he confounded his opponents
by springing upon the assembly the news that Henry
IV. of France had espoused his cause. Under Acqua-
viva the Counter-Reformation was carried forward
with astonishing success. The failure of Domin-
icans, Inquisition, and pope to silence the Pelagian
anthropology of the order encouraged its members
to go to the greatest extremes in their moral theol-
ogy. Under the administration of Mutius Vitel-
leschi (161&^5) the Counter-Reformation was car-

ried almost to its completion and the Thirty Years'
War almost ran its cotu*8e. In 1640 the jubilee of
the society was celebrated with great ^clat. It now
numbered 15,000 members distributed into thirty-
nine provinces. The ascetical requirements of Ig-
natius had been put aside. The professed had in-
creased in numbers in far greater proportion than
the membership, and now freely accepted positions
of honor and influence, enjoyed regular incomes,
and lived like gentlemen, leaving the drudgery of
the educational and church work to younger and
less experienced men. They constituted a sort of
aristocracy that neutralized to some extent the au-
tocracy of the General. Degeneration continued
unimpeded under Caraffa (d. 1649) and Piccolomini
(d. 1651). The German Nickel (1651-64) proved
so unsatisfactory as general that Oliva was made
his vicar (1661). Oliva was a favorite of the pope
and lived in splendor. His independent adminis-
tration (1664-81) was favorable to the development
of the worst features of Jesuitism. He was an ad-
vocate and promoter of Probabilism and other im-
moral forms of teaching and encouraged to the ut-
most the disposition to meddle with national and
international politics that had become characteris-
tic of the society. Ignatius had opposed with all his
might the promotion of Jesuits to high ecclesiastical
positions. In 1593 Tolet was made a cardinal; in
1599, Bellarmine; in 1629, Pazmany; in 1643, De
Lugo, and many afterward. Their literary activ-
ity in all religious and secular branches of learning
was very great during the seventeenth and eight-
eenth centuries. The same may be said of the
more recent time.

The growing secularization of the society and its
need of vast resources for the maintenance and ex-
tension of its world-wide work and the diminution
of free-will offerings that had sufficed in the times
when religious enthusiasm was at its
8. Decline height led the society to engage in
and Pro- great speculative business enterprises,
scription. those conducted in Paraguay and Mar-
tinique resulting in disaster to many
innocent investors (1753 onward), and brought upon
the society much reproach in Portugal and France.
In Portugal the Marquis of Pombal, one of the fore-
most statesmen of his time, became convinced that
the liberation of the country from ecclesiastical rule,
in which Jesuits had long been predominant, re-
quired the exclusion of the latter. An insurrection
in Portuguese Paraguay by the natives furnished an
occasion to Pombal for denouncing the Jesuits to the
king and for demanding papal prohibition of their
commercial undertakings. The papal prohibition
was issued in 1758 and priestly privileges were with-
drawn from Jesuits in Portugal. An attempt upon
the life of the king (Sept. 3, 1758) was attributed to
Jesuit influence and led to a decree for the expul-
sion of the society and the confiscation of its prop-
erty (Sept. 3, 1759). The pope tried in vain to
protect them and his nuncio was driven from the
country. Malgrida, a Jesuit, was burned at the stake
in 1761. Speculations by Jesuits in Martinique, in
which vast sums of money were lost by French
citizens, led to a public investigation of the methods
of the society, and on April 16. 1761. the Parliament

Jmuxdtm

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ

148

of Paris decreed a suppression of Jesuit establish-
ments in France and on May 8 declared the entire
order responsible for the debts of the principal pro-
moter of the collapsed enterprise. Other parlia-
ments followed that of Paris. King, pope, and
many bishops protested in vain. Eighty of their
colleges were closed in April, 1762. Their consti-
tution was denounced as godless, sacrilegious, and
treasonable, and the vows taken by Jesuits were de-
clared to be null and void. On Nov. 26, 1764, the
king agreed to a decree of expulsion. In Spain
6,000 Jesuits were suddenly arrested at night and
conveyed to papal territory (Sept. 2-3, 1768). Re-
fused admission by the pope, they took refuge in
Corsica. A similar seizure and transportation of
3,000 had occurred at Naples (Nov. 3-4, 1767).
Parma dealt with them similarly (Feb. 7, 1768),
and soon afterward they were expelled from Malta
by the Knights of St. John. The Bourbon princes
urged Clement XIII. to abolish the society. He
refused, and when he died (Feb. 2, 1769) there was
much intriguing among friends and enemies of the
Jesuits in seeking to secure the election of a pope
that would protect or abolish the society. Cardinal
Ganganelli was elected and it is highly probable
that he had bargained with the Bourbons for the
destruction of the Jesuits. From the beginning of
his pontificate powerful pressure was brought to
bear upon him by Spain, France, and Portugal for
the abolition of the order. He gave promises of
early action, but long hesitated to strike the fatal
blow. He began by subjecting the Jesuit colleges
in and around Rome to investigation. These were
promptly suppressed and their inmates banished.
Maria Tlieresa of Austria, who had been greatly de-
voted to the Jesuits, now regretfully abandoned
them and joined with the Bourbons in demanding
the abolition of the society by the pope. This com-
bined pressure of the chief Catholic powers was more
than the pope could withstand ('' Coactua fecif*' he
is reported to have afterward said). On July 21,
1773, he signed the Brief Domxnus ac Redemptor
noater, which abolished the society, and on August
16 the general and his chief assistants were im-
prisoned and all their property in Rome and the
States of the Chiu-ch confiscated (Eng. transl. of
this brief is most easily accessible in Nicolini, Hist,
of the Jesuits, pp. 387-406, London, 1893). The
brief recites at length the charges of immoral teach-
ing and intolerable meddlesomeness in matters of
church and state, of the abuse of the unlimited
privileges that the society has enjoyed, and virtu-
ally admits that it has become totally depraved and '
a universal nuisance. To restore peace to Christen-
dom its abolition is declared to be necessary. A
papal coin was struck the same year in commem-
oration of the event, with Christ sitting in judg-
ment and saying to the Jesuit fathers arraigned on
his left, " Depart from me all of you, I never knew
you."

At the time of its abolition the society had about
22,000 members. It would have been unreasonable
to expect that so large a body of trained men,
adepts at secret and evasive methods of work, and
with centuries of successful effort behind them,
would suddenly vanish in response to a papal brief

extorted by the Roman Catholic powers. Thou-
sands of them, without change of principles, became
members of societies of the Sacred
9. Illicit Heart of Jesus; others of the society of
Continu- Fathers of the Faith, founded by Nicolo
anceand Paccanari (q.v.); others becune Re-
Restoration, demptorists or Liguorists (see Liguobi,
Alfonso Mabia db). Frederick II.
of Prussia encouraged and protected them with a
view, no doubt, to using their political knowledge
and skill against the Bourbons, the Hapsbuigers,
and the pope. Catharine II. of Russia hoped by
showing them favor to conciliate her new Polish
subjects and to use them against Bourbons and
Hapsbuigers. In Naples and in France the papal
decree was only imperfectly executed. Pius VI.
gave full papal approval (1783) to the perpetua-
tion of the society in Russia, while Pius VII. (1801)
approved of their designating their vicar-general as
general. The same pope approved of the restora-
tion of the society m Naples and Sicily (July, 1804)
so that the head of the society now became " Gen-
eral for Russia and Naples." The Napoleonic dis-
turbance of Europe having come to an end and
Pius VII. having been released from his French cap-
tivity, the need of the society for leadership in an
aggressive movement for the restoration of the
Roman Catholic Church to its former power was
profoundly felt by the Curia. On Aug. 7, 1814,
Pius VII. issued the bull Solidtudo omnium ecde-
siarum, by which he restored the society. Since
that time it has suffered many reverses and much
persecution. Most of the states of Eiut)pe have
repeatedly expelled its members. Yet it has stead-
ily grown in power and has for nearly a century
dictated the policy of the papal administration.
Jesuits are to-day the chief diplomats of the Ro-
man Catholic Church and they are surpassed in
astuteness and the ability to achieve results by
those of no civil government. The promulgation
of the dogma of the immaculate conception of Mary
(1854), the Encyclical and Syllabus of 1864, the
Vatican Council with its decree of papal infallibility
(1869-70), the recent drastic measures against Bib-
lical criticism and in opposition to freedom of re-
search and freedom of teaching and publishing, are
commonly attributed to Jesuit influence. T^ so-
ciety had, in 1902, 15,231 members, 6,743 being
priests and 4,542 students for the priesthood. There
are about 1,800 in the United States, and they are
numerous in Canada, Mexico, Centnd and South
America, Cuba, and the Philippines. [The Jesuits
have from the beginning laid especial stress upon
education and adopted a high standard. But they
have had to run the gantlet of sharp criticism not
only from Protestants but from Roman Catholics.
Nor can it be explained away that the order w&s for
a considerable period under the papal ban. Their
secrecy, superior skill and learning, and especially
the casuistry advocated in books written by mem-
bers of the order, have concentrated much attention
on them, not always to their approval. They can not
claim exemption from the common failings of man-
kind, or any special divine leadership. They have
had ambitious and unscrupulous members and
buve been imder unworthy leadership. Their mcd-

149

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jesuits

dling in politics has not always been to their
credit. But when all has been said against them
the Jesuits still retain their preeminence. They
were the authors of the Counter-Reformation which
prevented the collapse of the Roman Catholic
Qiuroh in lands in which Protestantism had gotten
a hold. They gave their church its theology and
raised its standard of education and of clerical
morality. They cleansed it of much of its foulness,
put new breath into its foreign missions, and every-
where displayed a seal, patience and piety which
revived the whole church. And these services in
the past are continued into the present, and every
year the Roman Catholic Church is still heavier in
their debt.]

The number of Jesuits throughout the world is
small. In 1902 there were but 15,231 of all grades.
The Official Catholic Directory for 1909, pp. 746-747,
gives these figures for the United States:

Fathers.

Scholas-
tics.

Lay
Brothers.

New York - Maryland
Proviooo

HiflKniri Province

New Mexico and Colo-
rado Miaaion

New Orleans Province. .

California and Rocky
Mountain Mission ....

340
338

59
132

154

333
252

128

157
158

26
48

106

1.023

824

495

m. Female Orders in Imitation of Jesuits: The
Society of Jesus has no recognized af^liated socie-
ties of women. Before his first pilgrimage to Je-
rusalem Ignatius formed the acquaintance in Bar-
celona of Isabella de Rosella, a gifted and wealthy
woman, and greatly interested her in his plans and
purposes. When he returned in 1524 she minis-
tered to his needs for a considerable time. In 1543,
after the society had secured papal approval and
when he was occupied with world-wide schemes for
the mastery of the nations, she visited him in Rome,
with two other like-minded ladies, and begged to
be taken under his spiritual guidance. He was un-
willing to assume this additional burden; but the
persistent women secured from the pope an order
(1545) that Ignatius should accede to their wishes.
With great reluctance he yielded; but soon found
that these women, with the small sisterhood that
they had gathered, gave him more trouble than the
administration of the affairs of the entire society,
and at his earnest request the pope relieved him of
the obligation (1547). It was no easy task to se-
eure the consent of Isabella and her companions to
be released from the obligations that they had been
so eager to assume; but he was inexorable and Isa-
bella had to be content to be a '' mother " rather
than " daughter " of the great leader. The Eng-
lish Ladies (q.v.) founded by Mary Ward, an Eng-
lish woman, at St. Omer in Fltoders in 1609, sought
affiliation with the Jesuits, but failed to secure per-
manent recognition as Jesuitesses. A similar soror-
ity, founded in 1607 by Johanna, marchioness of
Montserrat, came into close relations with the
Jesuits without becoming identified with the so-
ciety. The same may be said of the sisters of the

Sacred Heart and of the Faith of Jesus. It is the
policy of the Jesuits to influence and control many
of tlue sisterhoods without assuming any responsi-
bility for them and without entrusting to them the
secrets of the society. A. H. Newman.

Bibugorapht: A rather full list of works, including aouroea,
is given in Hauck-Hersog, RE, viii. 742 sqq.; and a mono-
graph devoted to the subject is A. Carayon, Biblioffraphis
hiatorique de la CompagnU de Jeaua, Paris, 1864. Without
consulting the earlier and now often inaccMsible editions
of the documents which created and protected the society,
it is possible to obtain a view of all that is essential in the
late edition of the documents, 3 vols., Rome, 1860 sqq.,
which contains the Constitutions, the Examen QeneraUt
the pertinent papal bulls, briefs, and privileges, the decrees
and canons of the General Constitution, the plan of study,
the " Spiritual Exercises," and the LHredorium. A late
edition of the Monita privata is by C. Souvestre, Paris,
1880.

On the general history of the order the great work of
De Backer (see vol. i., p. xxiii. of this work) and of Cr^
tineau-Joly are of first importance; and the literature
under Ignatius of Loyola contains much of importance.
Consult further for the general history: Masmard, The
Studiee and Teaching of the Society qf Jeaue at the Time of
ita Suppreeeion, 1760-176S, Baltimore, 1856; C. Paroissen,
Principiea of the Jeeuita, London, 1860; J. M. 8. Daurignao,
Hiet. of the Society of Jeeue, 2 vols.. Cincinnati. 1866; F.
Nippold. Der Jeettitenorden von seiner WiederhersMlxtno
hie zwrOegenwart, Mannheim. 1867; S. Rose. Ignatitke Loyola
and (he Early Jeeuite, London. 1871; J. Stephen, Foundere
of Jeauitiem, in Eaeaye in Ecdeaiastical Biography, London,
1875; W. C. Cartwright. The Jesuita; their ConatituHon
and Teadiinga, London. 1876; P. Bert. La Morale dea
JiauUea, Paris, 1880; T. Griesinger. The Jeauita; a com-
plete Hiatory of their Proeeedinga, London. 1883; T. Carlyle,
Jeauitiam, in Worka, II. 250-485. Boston, 1885; T. Hughes,
Loyola and the Educational Syatem of the Jeauita, London,
1802; G. B. NicoUni. Hiat. of the Jeauita; their Origin,
Progreaa, Doctrinea and Deaigna, London, 1803; £. Pii^t,
Eaaai aur Vorganiaation de la eompagnie de Jiaua, Paris,
1803; F. H. Reusch, Beitrdge aur Geachichte dea JeauHen-
ordena, Munich, 1804; R. W. Thompson, The Fooiprinta
of the Jeauita, New York, 1804; E. Gothein, Ignatiua von
Loyola und die Oegenreformation, Halle, 1805; M. F.
Cusack. The Black Pope; a Hiat, of the Jeauita, London,
1806; H. Mailer. Lea Originea de la Compagnie de Jiaua;
Ignace et Lainex, Paris, 1808; A. Hamy, Oalerie iUuatrie de
la Compapnie de J6aua, Paris. 1000; J. Michelet and E.
Quinet. Etude aur lea JiauUea, latest ed. Paris. 1000; J.
Hochstetter. Monita Secreta; Die geheimen Inatruktionen
der Jeauiten, Stuttgart, 1001; Kaiaer Franz Joaeph /. und
die Jeauiten, Barmen. 1001; L. Wittwe. FriedruA der
Oroaae und die Jeauiten, Halle. 1001; R. Schwickerath,
Jeauit Education, Ua Hiatory and Principlea, St. Louis. 1003;
J. B^y. Un pridieateur apoaiolique au 16. aiMe, Frey de
NeuvUU, ie9S-ir74. Paris. 10O4; B. Pascal. The Pro-
vincial Lettera, often reprinted. e.g.. New York, 1004; P.
Suan. St, Franeoia de Borgia, 1610-167$, Paris, 1005;
A. Brou, Lea Jiauitea de la legende. Part I. Lea Originea
iua^'6 Paaeal, Paris, 1006.

For the Jesuits in England consult: H. Foley. Reoorda
of the Englith Province of the. Society of Jeeua, 8 vols.,
London, 1877-83; A. Kobler, Die Mdrtyrtr und Bekenner
der Oeaellachaft Jeau in England 1680-1681, Innsbruck,
1886; E. L. Taunton, Hiat. of the Jeauita in England, 1680-
1778, London. 1001; W. Walsh. The JeauiU in Great
Britain, London. 1003. For their history in France: A.
Carayon, Doeumenta inMita concemanta la Compagnie de
Jia%u, 23 vols., Poitiers, 1863 nqq.; J. Prat, La Compagnie
de JSaua en France, 4 vols., Paris. 1877; £. Piaget. Hiat
de I'itabUaaement dea JSauitea en France 1640-1660, Leyden,
1805; M. Chosaet, Lea Jfauitea et leura ctuvrea h Avignon,
1668-1768, Avignon, 1806; E. SouUUer, Lea Jiauitea &
MaraeUle aux 16. et 18. ai^lea, Avignon, 1800; J. Pra,
Lea Jiauitea h QrenobU, 1687-1768, Lyons, 1001; J. Del-
four. Lee JHuitea h Poitiera, 1604-176B, Paris, 1002.
For Germany: S. Sugenheim, Oeadtichte der Jeauiten in
DeutaeMand 1640-1778, 2 vols., Frankfort, 1847; J. Hansen,
Rheiniadte Akten sur Oeachichte dea Jeauitenordena, 1649-
168S, Cologne, 1806; B. Duhr, Die Jeauiten an den
deutaehen FUratenhdfen dea 16. Jahrhunderta, Freiburg,

THE XEW

-HERZOG

150

I90I: idem. AkienMOdU »r O^tekUkle dti
aumen in DevUeAlaryi. l843-IS7t, ia 1«3: idem. G*-
MrkwJiU 4tr Jeruilen in den Lindem deufcKtr Znngt, ib.
1007; M. Rist. iHt dnUarKtn JeruUen auf den S^Jaekl-
f^tldem umd in den Laxarttten tSSe. 1870-1871, FmburK.
1404. For North Amerieft: Jee^it ReUttiema and Allied
Doeumentt: TraxtU and ExplartUufKM of the Jentii Mieman-
ariee in \ev Franre. fA. R, G. Thw»it«. 73 toU.. Clrv«-
Und. (}.. \^^rVJitl. T. Hu«hM. HuiL f^f Society o^ J*
in SortK America eoUmuxi andftderal, xt,l. L to 1645.
don, iy/7; id*m. l/orumenU, rrA. i., part T-. noa. 1-140
'i006-l*C» . Londoo. 1908; F. Parkman. The Jeemia im
Sorlh Am^ri^a in the Sevenleenth CenhoTf. Boatoo. 1897:
id*m. Fi^yntern of France in the Sete World, ib. 1879: idem.
Im Salle and the Dieemery of the Great Weat, ib. 187»: W. L

Iu|». The Emriy Jeemi Miamoma in Sartk Amariea, New
York. 1882: idem. Hiatorieal Seanea from the Old Jeauit
Miaatama, ib. 1875: Z. Emeelbardt. The Miaaioma and Mi*-
ntmariea af C^ifarmia, fiwn Fnuiciaco. 1908. For other
countries: H. Lmteroth, RuaalaMi und die Jamnten 1772-
1880. Stottcut, 1846: P. Mary. Laa jSntitea h Cayenne,
StTMbors. 1805: U. de AncKs y Gortari. Loa JeauUaa en
ai Faragmay, Aflnimpckm, 1806; R. Pnex. La Campania de
Jeme en Colombia y Centra- America. ValladoUd. 1896; A.
Afltrain, Hiaktria de ia eompania de Jeaua en la aaialencia
de Eapama. 2 Tob.. Madrid. 1902-05: R. B. Cunninsham
Graham. A Vani»hed Arcadia: bein4f aome account of the
JtamU ia Farag^y. IWTT to 1767. New York. 1901: F.
Colin. Lobar etangeiiea de loa Obraroa de la CompaJiia de
Jeaua em laa Idaa FQipinaa, Barodooa, 1904.

A.
I.

II.

0»:4irleration of the .S'jurcea.

Heathen Writers (| 1>.

The Apoetle Pwal (I 2).

Paul and the Earthly Life of Jesiu
^§3).

Other Kpii^tolars <^ 4).

The Gospel of Luke (i 5>.

Mark and Matthew r| r- .

The Primitive "Narrative Source*'
(5 7;.

"Sajrings of Jesus'* ff 8;.

Indiridual Sections of Luke and
Matthew rf 9).

The Gospel of John (I 10).

Goepel Portrait of Christ not In-
Tented ^1 11).

The Portrait of Jesus.

His Humiliation (I I).

His Messiahship and Deity 112).

Central Conoeptioos (13-.

JESDS CHRIST.

TTL AttcmpU to Nataralixe the Pbrtrait
ci Jesus.
Literary and Historical Critieian

•I 1 .
Methodd of Historical Criticism

(I 2).
Its Embarrassment ',| 3i.
lu Historical Development (| 4).
Its Issue (I 5).
IV. The Life of Jesus.

In What Sense a " Life " Impoenble

(ID.
Framework of the "Life" (i 2).
Outline of the "Life" (i 3).
The PubUc Ministry (I 4).
Instruments ci the Ministry (f 5).
The Virsin-Birth; the Resurrection

(16).

Limitation of the Fidd.

The Sources.

The Epistles of Pftnl (| 1).

(12).

The PlMitine Goqwl (i 3).
Its Relations and Character (I 4).
The IVtrine Gospel (f 5).
Its Character (| 6).
Cooaequencee (i 7).
Poor Types of Tradition (| 8).
The Gospel of John (I 9).
Blatthew and Luke (| 10).
Q and the Aramaic Source (I 11).
Results of Source Analysis (I 12).
in. Critical Outline of the Story of Jesus.
Relations with John the Baptist

(ID.
The Motive for Jesus' Ministry ( I 2).
Messace and Miracles (i 3).
Breaking of Bread (i 4).
Collision with the Authorities (I 5).
The Crisis in (Galilee (| 6).
Jesus as " Son of Man " (| 7).
The Finale (I 8).
(19).

A. I. Cozisideration of the Sources: The rise of
Cbristianity was a phenomenon of too little apparent
significance to attract the attention of the great
world. It was only when it had refused to be
quenched in the blood of its founder, and, breaking
out of the narrow bounds of the obscure province
in which it had its origin, was making itself felt
in the centers of population, that it drew to itself
a somewhat irritated notice. The interest of
such heathen writers as mention it was in the
movement, not in its author. But in speaking

of the movement they tell some-

1. Heathen thing of its author, and what they

Writers, tell is far from being of little moment.

He was, it seems, a certain " Christ,"
who had lived in Judea in the reign of Tiberius
(14-37 A.D.), and had been brought to capital pun-
ishment by the procurator, Pontius Pilate (q.v.;
cf. Tacitus, AnnuU, xv. 44). The significance of
his personality to the movement inaugurated by
him is already suggested by the fact that he, and
no other, had impressed his name upon it. But
the name itself by which he was known particu-
larly attracts notice. This is uniformly, in these
heathen writers, " Christ," not *' Jesus." * Sue-
tonius (Claudius, xxv.) not unnaturally confuses
this " Christas " with the Greek name ** CJhres-
tus "; but Tacitus and Pliny show themselves bet-
ter informed and preserve it accurately. ** Christ,"
however, is not a personal name, but the Greek

• In Jmt'phuM. iln/. XVIII.. iii. 3, XX.. iz. 1, •*J«eui,"
"Jrmii^. Htirnanied Christ," occur. But the authenticity of
the pansagea m questionable, especially that of the formsr.

rendering of the Hebrew title '* Messiah." Clearly,
then, it was as the promised Messiah of the Jews
that their founder was reverenced by *' the Chris-
tians "; and they had made so much of his Messiah-
ship in speaking of him that the title '* Christ "
had actually usurped the place of his personal
name, and he was everjrwhere known simply as
" Christ." Their reverence for his person had, in-
deed, exceeded that conmionly supposed to be due
even to the Messianic dignity. Pliny records that
this ** Christ " was statedly worshiped by ** the
Christians " of Pontus and Bithjmia as their
God (Pliny, Episi., xcvi. [xcvii.] to Trajan).
Beyond these great facts the heathen historians give
little information about the founder of Christianity.
What is lacking in them is happily supplied,
however, by the writings of the Christians them-
selves. Christianity was from its beginnings a

literary religion, and docimientary

2. The records of it have come down from the

Apostle very start. There are, for example,

Paul. the letters of the Apostle Paul (q.v.),

a highly cultured Romanized Jew of
Tarsus, who early (34 or 35 a.d.) threw in his
fortunes with the new religion, and by his splen-
did leadership established it in the chief centers
of influence from Antioch to Rome. Written
occasionally to one or another of the Chris-
tian communities of this region, at intervals
during the sixth and seventh decades of the cen-
tury, that is to say, from twenty to forty years
after the origin of Christianity, these letters reflect
the oonceptioDS which ruled in the Christian com-

161

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jesus Christ

munities of the time. Paul had known the Chris-
tian movement from its beginning; first from the
outside, as one of the chief agents in its persecu-
tion, and then from the inside, as the most active
leader of its propaganda. He was familiarly ac-
quainted with the Apostles and other immediate
followers of Jesus, and enjoyed repeated intercourse
with them. He explicitly declares the harmony of
their teaching with his, and joins with his their
testimony to the great facts which he proclaimed.
The complete consonance of his allusions to Jesus
with what is gathered from the hints of the
heathen historians is very striking. The person
of Jesus fills the whole horizon of his thought,
and gathers to itself all his religious emotions.
That Jesus was the Messiah is the presupposition of
all his speech of him, and the Messianic title has
already become his proper name behind which his
real personal name, Jesus, has retired. This Mes-
siah is definitely represented as a divine being who
has entered the world on a mission of mercy to sin-
ful man, in the prosecution of which he has given
himself up as a sacrifice for sin, but has risen again
from the dead and ascended to the right hand of
God, henceforth to rule as Lord of all. Around
the two great facts, of the expiatory death of the
Son of God and his rising again, PauPs whole teach-
ing circles. Jesus Christ as crucified, Christ risen
from the dead as the first fruits of those that sleep
—here is Paul's whole gospel in summary

Into the details of Christ's earthly life Paul had
no occasion to enter. But he shows himself fully
familiar with them, and incidentally
^* ?*^ conveys a vivid portrait of Christ's
^rthi personality. Of the seed of David on
j^^^ the human, as the Son of God on the
Jesus. divine side, he was bom of a woman,
under the law, and lived subject to its
ordinances for his mission's sake, humbling hunself
even unto death, and that the death of the cross.
His lowly estate is dwelt upon, and the high traits
of his personal character manifested in his lowli-
ness are lightly sketched in, justifying not merely
the n^ative declaration that " he knew no sin,"
but his positive presentation as the model of all
perfection. An item of his teaching is occasionally
adverted to, or even quoted, always with the ut-
most reverence. Members of his immediate circle
of followers are mentioned by name or by class —
whether his brethren according to the flesh or the
twelve apostles whom he appointed. The institu-
tion by him of a sacramental feast is described, and
that of a companion sacrament of initiation by
baptism is implied. But especially his sacrificial
death on the cross is emphasized, his burial, his
rising again on the third day, and his appearances
to chosen witnesses, who are cited one after the
other with the greatest solemnity. Such details
are ne\'er communicated to Paul's readers as pieces
of fresh information. They are alluded to as mat-
ters of common knowledge, and with the plainest
intimation of the unquestioned recognition of them
by all. Thus it is made clear not only that there
underlies Paul's letters a complete portrait of
Jesus and a full outline of his career, but that this
portrait and this outUne are the universal posses-

sion of Christians. They were doubtless as fully
before his mind as such in the early years of his
Christian life, in the thirties, as when he was writing
his letters in the fifties and sixties. There is no
indication in the way in wliich Paul touches on
these things of a recent change of opinion re-
garding them or of a recent acquisition of knowl-
edge of them. The testimony of Paul s letters, in
a word, has retrospective value, and is contempo-
rary testimony to the facts.

Paul's testimony alone provides thus an excep-
tionally good basis for the historical verity of Jesus'
personality and career. But Paul's

4. Other testimony is far from standing alone.
Bplstolars. It is fully supported by the testimony
of a series of other writings, similar
to his own, purporting to come from the hands of
early teachers of the Church, most of them from
actual companions of our Lord and eye-witnesses
of his majesty, and handed down to us with cred-
ible evidence of their authenticity. And it is ex-
tended by the testimony of a series of writings of
a very different character; not occasional letters
designed to meet particular crises or questions ari-
sing in the churches, but formal accounts of Jesus'
words and acts.

Among these attention is attracted first by a
great historical work, the two parts of which bear
the titles of " the Gospel according to Luke " and
" the Acts of the Apastles." The first contains an
account of Jesus' life from his birth to his death and
resurrection; or, including the opening paragraphs
of the second, to his ascension. What directs at-
tention to it first among books of its class is the un-
commonly full information possessed concerning
its writer and his method of historical

6. The composition. It is the work of an ed-
GK>spel of ucated Greek physician, knoi^ii to have
Luke. enjoyed, as a companion of Paul, spe-
cial opportunities of informing him-
self of the facts of Jesus' career. Whatever Paul
himself knew of the acts and teachings of his
Lord was, of course, the common property of
the band of missionaries which traveled in his
company, and could not fail to be the subject
of much public and private discussion among
them. Among Paul's other companions there
could not fail to be some whose knowledge of Jesus'
life, direct or derived, was considerable; an
example is found, for instance, in John Mark,
who had come out of the immediate cirele of
Jesus' first followers, although precise knowledge
of the meeting of Luke and Mark as fellow com-
panions of Paul belongs to a little later period
than the composition of Luke's Gospel. In com-
pany with Paul Luke had even visited Jerusalem
and had resided two years at Cssarea in touch with
primitive disciples; and if the early tradition which
represents him as a native of Antioch be accepted,
he must be credited with facilities from the begin-
ning of his Christian life for association with orig-
inal disciples of Jesus. All that is needed to ground
great confidence in his narrative as a trustworthy
account of the facts it records is assurance that he
had the will and capacity to make good use of his
abounding opportunities for exact information*

Jesus Ohrlst

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

152

The former is afforded by the preface to his Gospel
in which he reveals his method as a historian and
his zeal for exactness of information and state-
ment; the latter by the character of the Gospel,
which evinces itself at every point a sincere and
careful narrative resting upon good and well-sifted
information. In these circumstances the deter-
mination of the precise time when this narrative was
actually committed to paper becomes a matter of
secondary importance; in any event its material
was collected during the period of Paul's mission-
ary activity. It may be confidently maintained,
however, that it was also put together during this
period, that is to say, during the earlier years
of the seventh decade of the century. Confi-
dence in its narrative is strengthened by the com-
plete accord of the portrait of Jesus, which its de-
tailed account exhibits with that which imderlies
the letters of Paul. Not only are the general traits
of the personality identical, but the emphasis falls
at the same places. In effect, the Jesus of Luke's
narrative is the Christ of Paul's epistles in perfect
dramatic presentation, and only two hypotheses
offer themselves in possible explanation. Either
Luke rests on Paul, and has with consummate art
invented a historical basis for Paul's ideal Christ;
or else Paul's allusions rest on a historical basis
and Luke has preserved that historical basis in his
careful detailed narrative. Every line of Luke's
narrative refutes the former and demonstrates the
latter supposition.

Additional evidence of the trustworthiness of
Luke's Gospel as an account of Jesus' acts and
teaching is afforded by the presence by its side of
other narratives of similar character and accordant
contents. These narratives are two in number and
have been handed down under the names of mem-
bers of the earliest circle of Christians — of John
Mark, who was from the beginning in the closest
touch with the apostolic body, and of

0. Mark Matthew, one of the apostles. On

and comparison of these narratives with

Matthew. Luke's, not only are they found to

present, each with its own peculiar

point of view and purpose, precisely the same

conception and portrait of Jesus, but to have

utilized in large measure also the same sources

of information. Indeed, the entire body of

Mark's Gospel is found to be incorporated also

in Matthew's and Luke's.

This circumstance, in view of the declarations
of Luke's preface, is of the utmost significance
for an estimate of the trustworthiness of the narra-

tive thus embodied in all three of the " Synoptic "

Gospels. In this preface Luke professes to have

had for his object the establishment of absolute

" certainty," with respect to the things made

the object of instruction in Christian circles; and

to this end to have grounded his nar-

7. The rative in exact investigation of the

Prixnltive course of events from the beginning.

"Narrative In the prosecution of this task, he

Sonrce." knew himself to be working in a

goodly company to a common end,

namely, the narration of the Christian origins on

the basis of the testimony of those ministers of

the word who had been also " eye-witnesses from
the beginning." He does not say whether these
fellow narrators had or had not been, some or
all of them, eye-witnesses of some or of all the
events they narrated; he merely says that the
foundation on which all the narratives he has in
view rested was the testimony of eye-witnesses.
He does not assert for his own treatise superiority to
those of his fellow workers; he only claims an hon-
orable place for his own treatise among the others
on the ground of the diligence and care he has exer-
cised in ascertaining and recording the facts,
through which, he affirms, he has attained a cer-
tainty with regard to them on which his readers
may depend. Now, on comparing the narrative of
Luke with those of Matthew and Mark, it is dis-
covered that one of the main sources on which
Luke draws is also one of the main sources on
which Matthew draws and practically the sole
source on which Mark rests. Thus Luke's judg-
ment of the value and trustworthiness of this
source receives the notable support of the judg-
ment of his fellow evangelists, and it can scarcely
be doubted that what it contains is the veri-
table tradition of those who were as well eye-
witnesses as ministers of the Word from the be^-
ning, in whose accuracy confidence can be placed.
If the three Synoptic Gospels do not give three in-
dependent testimonies to the facts which they re-
cord, they give what is, perhaps, better, — three in-
dependent witnesses to the trustworthiness of the
narrative, which they all incorporate into their own
as resting on autoptic testimony and thoroughly
deserving of credit. A narrative lying at the basis
of all three of these Gospels, themselves written
certainly not later than the seventh decade of the
century, must in any event be early in date, and
in that sense must emanate from the first follow-
ers of Christ; and in the circumstances — of the
large and confident use made of it by all three of
these Gospels— can not fail to be an authentic
statement of what was the conviction of the earliest
circles of Christians.

By the side of this ancient body of narrative
must be placed another equally, or, perhaps, even

more ancient source, consisting largely,
8. The but not exclusively, of reports of " say-
Sayinsrs ings of Jesus." This underlies much
of Jesus." of the fabric of Luke and Matthew

where Mark fails, and by their em-
ployment of it is authenticated as containing, as
Luke asserts, the trustworthy testimony of eye-wit-
nesses. Its great antiquity is universally allowed,
and there is no doubt that it comes from the very
bosom of the Apostolical circle, bearing independ-
ent but thoroughly consentient testimony, with the
narrative source which underlies all three of the
Synoptists, of what was understood by the primi-
tive Christian community to be the facts regarding
Jesus. This is the fundamental fact about these
two sources — ^that the Jesus which they present is
the same Jesus; and that this Jesus is precisely the
same Jesus found in the Synoptic Gospels themselves,
presented, moreover, in precisely the same fashion
and with the emphases in precisely the same places.
This latter could, of course, not fail to be the case

158

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jesna Ohrist

Binoe these sources themselves constitute the main
substance of the Synoptic Gospels into which they
have been transfused. Its si^iificance is that the
portrait of Jesus as the supernatural Son of God who
came into the world as the Messiah on a mission of
merpy to sinful men, which is reflected even in the
scanty notices of him that find an incidental place
in the pages of heathen historians, which suffused
the whole preaching of Paul and of the other mis-
sionaries of the first age, and which was wrought
out into the details of a rich dramatization in the
narratives of the Synoptic Gospels, is as old as
Christianity itself and comes straight from the rep-
resentations of Christ's first followers.

Valuable, however, as the separation out from
the Synoptic narrative of these underlying sources
is in this aspect of the matter, appeal can not be
made from the Synoptics to these sources as from
less to more trustworthy documents.
0. Individ- On the one hand, these sources do not
nal Seo- exist outside the Synoptics; in them
tions of they have " foimd their grave." On
Luke and the other hand, the Synoptics in large
Xatthew. pj^^ g^j^ these sources; and their trust-
worthiness as wholes is guaranteed by
the trustworthiness of the sources from which
they have drawn the greater part of their materials,
and from the general portraiture of Christ in which
they do not in the least depart. Luke's claim
in his preface that he has made accurate in-
vestigations, seeking to learn exactly what hap-
pened that he might attain certainty in his
narrative, is expressly justified for the larger
part of his narrative when the sources which
underlie it are isolated and are found to approve
themselves under every test as excellent. There
is no reason to doubt that for the remainder of
his narrative (and Matthew too for the remainder
of his narrative) not derived from these two sources
which the accident of their common use by Mat-
thew, Mark, and Luke, or by Matthew and Luke,
reveals, he (or Matthew) derives his material from
equally good and trustworthy sources which hap-
pen to be used only by him. The general trust-
worthiness of Luke's narrative is not lessened but
enhanced by the drcmnstance that, in the larger
portion of it, he has the support of other evange-
lists in his confident use of his sources, with the
effect that these sources can be examined and
an approving verdict reached upon them. His
judgment of sources is thus confirmed, and his
claim to possess exact information and to have
framed a trustworthy narrative is vindicated.
What he gives from sources which were not used
by the other evangelists, that is to say, in that por-
tion of his narrative which is peculiar to himself
(and the same must be said for Matthew, muUUia
mutandu), has earned a .right to credit on his own
authentication. It is not surprising, therefore, that
the portions of the narratives of Matthew and Luke
which are peculiar to the one or the other bear
every mark of sincere and well-informed narration
and contain many hints of resting on good and
trustworthy sources. In a word, the Synoptic
Gospels supply a threefold sketch of the acts and
teaching of Christ of exceptional trustworthiness.

If here is not historical verity, historical verity
wduld seem incapable of being attained, recorded,
and transmitted by human hands.

Along with the Synoptic Gospels there has been
handed down by an unexceptionable line of testi-
mony under the name of the Apostle John, another
narrative of the teaching and work of (Christ of

equal fulness with that of the Synop-

10. The tic Gospels, and yet so independent of

Oospelof theirs as to stand out in a sense in

John. strong contrast with theirs, and even

to invite attempts to establish a con-
tradiction between it and them. There is, however,
no contradiction, but rather a deep-lying harmony.
There are so-called Synoptical traits discover-
able in John, and not only are Johannine elements
imbedded in the Synoptical narrative, but an oc-
casional passage occurs in it which is almost more
Johannine than John himself. Take, for example,
that pregnant declaration recorded in Matt. xi. 27-
28, whidi, as it occurs also in Luke (x. 21, 22),
must have had a place in that ancient source
drawn on in common by these two Gospels which
comes from the first days of Christianity. All
the high teaching of John's Gospel, as has been
justly remarked, is but " a series of variations "
upon the theme here given its ** classical expres-
sion." The type of teaching which is brought
forward and emphasized by John is thus recognized
on all hands from the begiiming to have had a
place in Christ's teaching; and John differs from
the Synoptics only in the special aspect of Christ's
teachhig which he elects particularly to present.
The naturalness of this type of teaching on the lips
of the Jesus of the Synoptists is also undeniable;
it must be allowed — and is now generally allowed —
that by the writers of the Synoptic Gospels, and,
it shoidd be added, by their sources as well, Jesus
is presented, and is presented as representing him-
self, as being all that John represents him to be
when he calls him the Word, who was in the be-
ginning with God and was God. The relation of John
and the Synoptists in their portraiture of Jesus
somewhat resembles, accordingly, that of Plato
and Xenophon in their portraiture of Socrates;
only, with this great difference — that both Plato
and Xenophon were primarily men of letters and
the portrait they draw of Socrates is in the
hands of both alike eminently a sophisticated and
literary one, while the evangelists set down simply
the facts as they appealed to them severally. The
definite claim which John's Gospel makes to be the
work of one of the inner circle of the companions of
Jesus is supported, moreover, by copious evidence
that it comes from the hands of such a one as a com-
panion of Jesus would be — a Jew, who possessed an
intimate knowledge of Palestine, and was ac-
quainted with the events of our Lord's life as only
an eye-witness could be acquainted with them, and
an eye-witness who had been admitted to very
close association with him. That its narrative
rests on good information is repeatedly manifested:
and more than once historical Hnks are supplied
by it which are needed to give clearness to the
Synoptical narrative, as, for example, in the chron-
ological framework of the ministry of Jesus and the

Jeans Olxxlst

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

164

culminating miracle of the raising of Lazarus,
which is required to account for the incidents of
the Passion-Week. It presents no different Jesus
from the Jesus of the Synoptists, and it throws the
emphasis at the same place — on his expiatory death
and rising again; but it notably supplements the
narrative of the Synoptists and reveals a whole
new side of Jesus' ministry, and if not a wholly
new aspect of his teaching, yet a remarkable mass
of that higher aspect of his teaching of which only
occasional specimens are included in the Synoptic
narrative. John's narrative thus rounds out the
Synoptical narrative and gives the portrait drawn
in it a richer content and a greater completeness.

This portrait may itself be confidently adduced
as its own warranty. It is not too much to say
with Nathaniel Lardner that " the history of the
New Testament has in it all the marks
11. Qospel of credibility that any history can
Portrait have." But apart from these more
of Ohrlst usually marshaled evidences of the
Not trustworthiness of the narratives, there
Invented, ig the portrait itself which they draw,
and this can not by any possibility
have been an invention. It is not merely that the
portrait is harmonious throughout — in the allusions
and presuppositions of the epistles of Paul and the
other letter-writers of the New Testament, in the de-
tailed narratives of the Synoptists and John, and
in each of the sources which underlie them. This
is a matter of importance; but it is not the matter
of chief moment; there is no need to dwell upon
the impossibility of such a harmony having been
maintained save on the basis of simple truthful-
ness of record, or to dispute whether in the case of
the Synoptics there are three independent witnesses
to the one portrait, or only the two independent
witnesses of their two most prominent '* sources."
Nor is the most interesting point whether the abo-
riginality of this portrait is guaranteed by the har-
mony of the representation in all the sources of in-
formation, some of which reach back to the most
primitive epoch of the Christian movement. It is
quite certain that this conception of Christ's per-
son and career was the conception of his immediate
followers, and indeed of himself; but, important as
this conclusion is, it is still not the matter of pri-
mary import. The matter of primary significance
is that this portrait thus imbedded in all the au-
thoritative sources of information, and thus proved
to be the conception of its founder cherished by
the whole of primitive Christendom, and indeed
commended to it by that founder himself, is a por-
trait intrinsically incapable of invention by men.
It could never have come into being save as the
revelation of an actual person embodying it, who
really lived among men. '* A romancer," as even
Albert R^ville allows, '* can not attribute to a being
which he creates an ideal superior to what he himself
is capable of conceiving." The conception of the
God-man which is embodied in the portrait which
the sources draw of Christ, and which is dramatized
by them through such a history as they depict, can
be accounted for only on the assumption that such
a God-man actually lived, was seen of men, and
was painted from the life. The miracle of the in-

vention of such a portraiture, whether by the con-
scious effort of art, or by the unconscious working
of the mythopeic fancy, would be as great as the
actual existence of such a person. Of this there is
sufficient a posteriori proof in the invariable deteri-
oration this portrait suffers in its secondary repro-
ductions— in* the so-called " Lives of Christ," of
every type. The attempt vitally to realize and
reproduce it results inevitably in its reduction. A
portraiture which can not even be interpreted by
men without suffering serious loss can not be the
invention of the first simple followers of Jesus.
Its very existence in their unsophisticated narra-
tives is the sufficient proof of its faithfulness to a
great reality.

n. The Portrait of Jeans: Only an outline of
this portrait can be set down here. Jesus appears
in it not only a supernatural, but in all the sources
alike specifically a divine, person, who came into
the world on a mission of mercy to sinful man.
Such a mission was in its essence a humiliation and
involved humiliation at every step of its accomplish-
ment. His life is represented accord-

1. His ingly as a hfe of difficulty and con-
Hnmili- ffict, of trial and suffering, issuing in a

ation. shameful death. But this humiliation
is represented as in every step and stage
of it voluntary. It was entered into and abided in
solely in the interests of his mission, and did not ar-
gue at any point of it helplessness in the face of the
difficulties which hemmed him in more and more
until they led him to death on the cross. It rather
manifested his strong determination to fulfil his
mission to the end, to drink to its dregs the cup
he had undertaken to drink. Accordingly, every
suggestion of escape from it by the use of his in-
trinsic divine powers, whether of omnipotence or
of onmiscienoe, was treated by him first and last as
a temptation of the evil one. The death in which
his life ends is conceived, therefore, as the goal in
which his life culminates. He came into the world
to die, and every stage of the road that led up to
this issue was determined not for him but by him:
he was never the victim but always the master of
circumstance, and pursued his pathway from begin-
ning to end^ not merely in full knowledge from the
start of all its turns and twists up to its bitter con-
clusion, but in complete control both of them and
of it.

His life of humiliation, sinking into his terrible

death, was therefore not his misfortune, but his

achievement as the promised Messiah,

2. His ^y and in whom the kingdom of God
Messiah- is to be established in the world; it
ship and was the work which as Messiah he

Deity, came to do. Therefore, in his prose-
cution of it, he from the beginning
announced himself as the Messiah, accepted all
ascriptions to him of Messiahship under what^
ever designation, and thus gathered up into
his person all the preadumbrations of Old-Testa-
ment prophecy; and by his favorite self-
designation of " Son of Man," derived from
Daniel's great vision (vii. 13), continually pro-
claimed himself the Messiah he actually was,
emphasizing in contrast with his present humilia-

166

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JesTis Ohrist

lion his heavenly origin and his future glory.
Moreover, in the midst of his humiliation, he ex-
orcised, so far as that was consistent with the per-
formance of his mission, all the prerogatives of that
" transcendent ** or divine Messiah which he was.
He taught with authority, substituting for every
other sanction, his great " But I say unto you,"
and declaring himself greater than the greatest of
God's representatives whom he had sent in all the
past to visit his people. He surrounded himself
as he went about preaching the Gospel of the king-
dom with a miraculous nimbus, each and every
miracle in which was adapted not merely to mani-
fest the presence of a supernatural person in the
midst of the people, but, as a piece of symbolical
teaching, to reveal the nature of this supernatural
person, and to afford a foretaste of the* blessedness
of his rule in the kingdom he came to found. He
assumed plenary authority over the religious ordi-
nances of the people, divinely established though
they were; and exercised absolute control over the
laws of nature themselves. The divine preroga-
tive of forgiving sins he claimed for himself, the
divine power of reading the heart he frankly exer-
cised, the divine function of judge of quick and
dead he attached to his own person. Asserting for
himself a superhuman dignity of person, or rather
a share in the ineffable Name itself, he represented
himself as abiding continually even when on earth
in absolute communion with God the Father, and
participating by necessity of nature in the treas-
ures of the divine knowledge and grace; announced
himself the source of all divine knowledge and grace
to men; and drew to himself all the religious affec-
tions, suspending the destinies of men absolutely
upon their relation to his own person. Neverthe-
less he walked straight onward in the path of his
lowly mission, and, bending even the wrath of men
to his service, gave himself in his own good time
and way to the death he had come to accomplish.
Then, his mission performed, he rose again from
the dead in the power of his deathless life; showed
himself alive to chosen witnesses, that he might
strengthen the hearts of his people; and ascended
to the right hand of God, whence he directs the
continued preparation of the kingdom until it shall
please him to return for its establishment in its
glorious eternal form.

It is important to fix firmly in mind the central

conception of this representation. It turns upon

the sacrificial death of Jesus to which the whole

life leads up, and out of which all its

8. Central issues are drawn, and for a perpetual

Oonoep- memorial of which he is represented
tions. as having instituted a solemn memo-
rial feast. The divine majesty of this
Son of God; his redemptive mission to the world, in a
life of humiliation and a ransoming death; the com-
pletion of his task in accordance with his purpose; his
triumphant rising from the death thus vicariously
endured; his assumption of sovereignty over the
future development of the kingdom foimded in his
blood, and over the world as the theater of its de-
velopment; his expected return as the consum-
mator of the ages and the judge of all — this is the
circle of ideas in which all accounts move. It is

the portrait not of a merely hiunan life, though it
includes the delineation of a complete and a com-
pletely human life. It is the portrayal of a human
episode in the divine life. It is, therefore, not
merely connected with supernatural occurrences,
nor merely colored by supernatural features, nor
merely set in a supernatural atmosphere: the su-
pernatural is its very substance, the elimination of
which would be the evaporation of the whole. The
Jesus of the New Testament is not fundamentally
man, however divinely gifted: he is God taber-
nacling for a while among men, with heaven lying
about him not merely in his infancy, but through-
out all the days of his flesh.

m. Attempts to Katnralize the Portrait of
Jesus : The intense supematuralism of this por-
traiture is, of course, an offense to our anti-super-
naturalistic age. It is only what was to be ex-
pected, therefore, that throughout the last century
and a half a long series of scholars, imbued with
the anti-supematuralistic instinct of the time, have
assumed the task of desupernaturalizing it. Great
difficulty has been experienced, however, in the
attempt to construct a historical sieve which will
strain out miracles and yet let Jesus through; for
Jesus is himself the greatest miracle of them all.
Accordingly in the end of the day there is a grow-
ing disposition, as if in despair of accomphshing
this feat, boldly to construct the sieve so as to
strain out Jesus too; to take refuge in the coun-
sel of desperation which affirms that there never
was such a person as Jesus, that Christianity had
no founder, and that not merely the portrait of
Jesus, but Jesus himself, is a pure projection of
later ideals into the past. The main stream of
assault still addresses itself, however, to the at-
tempt to eliminate not Jesus himself, but the
Jesus of the evangelists, and to substitute for him
a desupernaturalized Jesus.

The instruments which have been relied on to
effect this result may be called, no doubt with some
but not misleading inexactitude, Uterary and his-
torical criticism. i?he attempt has
1. Literary heen made to track out the process by

and His- which the present witnessing docu-

torioal ments have come into existence, to
Oriticism. show them gathering accretions in
this process, and to sift out the
sources from which they are drawn; and then
to make appeal to these sources as the only
real witnesses. And the attempt has been
made to go behind the whole written record,
operating either immediately upon the docu-
ments as they now exist, or ultimately upon
the sources which literary criticism has sifted out
from them, with a view to reaching a more primi-
tive and presumably truer conception of Jesus than
that which has obtained record in the writings of
his followers. The occasion for resort to this latter
method of research is the failure of the former to
secure the results aimed at. For, when, at the
dictation of anti-supernaturalistic presuppositions,
John is set aside in favor of the Synoptics, and
then the Synoptics are set aside in favor of Mark,
conceived as the representative of ** the narrative
source " (by the side of which must be placed —

GOixist

THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZ0G

156

though this is not alwasrs remembered — ^the second
aouroe of "Sayings of Jesus/' which underlies so
much of Matthew and Luke; and also — though
this is even more commonly forgotten — whatever
other sources either Matthew or Luke has drawn
upon for material), it still appears that no progress
whatever has been made in eliminating the divine
Jesus and his supernatural accompaniment of
mighty works — ^although, chronologically speaking,
the very beginning of Christianity has been
reached. It is necessary, accordingly, if there is
not to be acknowledged a divine Christ with a
supernatural history, to get behind the whole lit-
erary tradition. Working on Mark, therefore,
taken as the original Gospel, an attempt must be
made to distinguish between the traditional ele-
ment which he incorporates into his narrative
and the dogmatic element which he (as the
mouthpiece of the Christian commimity) con-
tributes to it. Or, working on the " Sayings,"
discrimination must first be made between the
narrative element (assumed to be colored by the
thought of the Christian commimity) and the
reportorial element (which may repeat real sayings
of Jesus); and then, within the reportorial element,
all that is too lofty for the naturalistic Jesus must
be trimmed down until it fits in with his simply hu-
man character. Or, working on the Gospels as they
stand, inquisition must be made for
2, Kathods statements of fact concerning Jesus or
of His- for sayings of his, which, taken out of
torioal the context in which the evangelists
Oritioism. have placed them and cleansed from
the coloring given by them, may be
made to seem inconsistent with ** the worship of
Jesus *' which characterizes these documents; and
on the narrower basis thus secured there is
built up a new portrait of Jesus, contradictory
to that which the evangelists have drawn.

The precariousness of these proceedings, or
rather, frankly, their violence, is glaringly evident.
In the processes of such criticism it is pure subjec-
tivity which rules, and the investigator gets out as
results only what he puts in as premises. And even
when the desired result has thus been wrested from
the unwilling documents, he discovers that he has
only brought himself into the most extreme his-
torical embarrassment. By thus desupematural-
ising Jesus be leaves primitive Christianity and
its supernatural Jesus wholly without historical
basis or justification. The naturalizing historian
has therefore at once to address himself to supply-
ing some accoimt of the immediate universal as-
cription to Jesus by his followers of
iiaxr ' ^^^^^*®s which he did not possess and
ment ' ^^ which be laid no claim; and that
with such force and persistence of con-
viction as totally to supersede from the very begin-
ning with their perverted version of the facts the
actual reality of things. It admits of no doubt,
and it is not doubted, that supernaturalistic Chris-
tianity is the only historical Christianity. It is
agreed on all hands that the very first followers of
Jesus ascribed to him a supernatural character.
It is even allowed that it is precisely by virtue of
its supernaturalistic elements that Christianity has

made its way in the world. It is freely admitted
that it was by the force of its enthusiastic proc-
lamation of the divine Christ, who could not be
holden of death but burst the bonds of the grave,
that Christianity conquered the world to itself.
What account shall be given of all this 7 There is
presented a problem here, which is insoluble on the
naturalistic hypothesis. The old mythical theory
fails because it requires time, and no time is at its
disposal; the primitive Christian community be-
lieved in the divine Chriist. The new " history-of-
religions " theory fails because it can not discover
the elements of that " Christianity before Christ "
which it must posit, either remotely in the Baby-
lonian inheritance of the East, or close by in the
prevalent Messianic conceptions of contemporary
Judaism. 'Nothing is available but the postulation
of pure fanaticism in Jesus' first followers, which
finds it convenient not to proceed beyond the gen-
eral suggestion that there is no telling what fanati-
dsm may not invent. The plain fact is that the
supernatural Jesus is neecfed to accoimt for the
supernaturalistic Christianity which is grounded
in him. Or — ^if this supernaturalistic Christianity
does not need a supernatural Jesus to account for
it, it is hard to see why any Jesus at all need be
postulated. Naturalistic criticism thus overreaches
itself and is caught up suddenly by the discovery
that in abolishing the supernatural Jesus it has
abolished Jesus altogether, since this supernatural
Jesus is the only Jesus which enters as a factor
into the historical development. It is the desuper-
naturalized Jesus which is the mythical Jesus, who
never had any existence, the postulation of the
existence of whom explains nothing and leaves the
whole historical development hanging in the air.

It is instructive to observe the lines of develop-
ment of the naturalistic reconstruction of the Jesus
of the evangelists through the century and a half
of its evolution. The normal task which the student
of the life of Jesus sets himself is to penetrate
into the spirit of the transmission so far as that

transmission approves itself to him

torlc^*' *® trustworthy, to realize with exact-

Develop- °®^ ^^^ vividness the portrait of Jesus

memt. conveyed by it, and to reproduce that

portrait in an accurate and vital por-
trayal. The naturalistic reconstructors, on the
other hand, engage themselves in an effort to sub-
stitute for the Jesus of the transmission another
Jesus of their own, a Jesus who will seem ** nat-
ural " to them, and will work in ** naturally " with
their naturalistic world-view. In the first instance
it was the miracles of Jesus which they set them-
selves to eliminate, and this motive ruled their
criticism from Reimarus (1694-1768), or rather,
from the publication of the Wolfenbuettel Frag-
ments (q.v.), to Strauss (1835-36). The domi-
nant method employed — ^which found its culmina-
ting example in H. E. G. Paulus (1828) — ^was to
treat the narrative as in all essentials historical,
but to seek in each miraculous story a natural fact
underlying it. This whole point of view was tran-
scended by the advent of the mythical view in
Strauss, who laughed it out of court. Since then
miracles have been treated ever more and more

157

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jatfos Christ

eonfidently as negligible quantities, und the whole
strength of criticism has been increasingly ex-
pended on the reduction of the supernatural figure
of Jesus to " natural " proportions. The instru-
ment relied upon to produce this effect has been
psychological analysis; the method being to re-
work the narrative in the interests of what is called
a ** comprehensible " Jesus. The whole mental
life of Jesus and the entire course of his conduct
have been subjected to psychological canons derived
from the critics' conception of a purely human life,
and nothing has been allowed to him which does
not approve itself as " natural " according to this
standard. The result is, of course, that the Jesus
of the evangelists has been transformed into a
nineteenth-century ** liberal " theologian, and no
conceptions or motives or actions have been allowed
to him which would not be " natural " in such a
one.

The inevitable reaction which seems to be now
asserting itself takes two forms, both of which,
while serving themselves heirs to the negative criti-
cism of this " liberal " school, decisively reject its
positive construction of the figure of Jesus. A
weaker ciurent contents itself with drawing atten-
tion to the obvious fact that such a Jesus as the
** liberal " criticism yields will not account for
the Christianity which actually came into being;
and on this ground proclaims the " liberal '* criti-
cism bankrupt and raises the question, what need
there is for assuming any Jesus at all. If the only
Jesus salvable from the debris of legend is obvi-
ously not the author of the Christianity which
actually came into being, why not simply recog-
nise that Christianity came into being without any
author — was just the crystallization of conceptions
in solution at the time? A stronger current, scoff-
ing at the projection of a nineteenth-century
" liberal " back into the first century and calling
him " Jesus,' insists that ** the historical Jesus "
was just a Jew of his day, a peasant of Galilee with
all the narrowness of a peasant's outlook and all
the deficiency in culture which belonged to a Gali-
lean countryman of the period. Above all, it in-
sists that the real Jesus, possessed by those Mes-
sianic dreams which filled the minds of the Jewish
peasantry of the time, was afflicted with the great
delusion that he was himself the promised Messiah.
Under the obsession of this portentous fancy he
imagined that God would intervene with his al-
mighty arm and set him on the throne of a conquer-
ing Israel; and when the event falsified this wild
hope, he assuaged his bitter disappointment with
the wilder promise that he would rise from death
itself and come back to establish his kingdom.
Thus the naturalistic criticism of a hundred and
fifty years has run out into no Jesus at all, or worse
than no Jesus, a fanatic or even a paranoiac. The
" liberal " criticism which has had it so long its
own way is called sharply to its defense against the
fruit of its own loins. In the process of this de-
fense it wavers before the assault and incorpor-
ates more or less of the new conception of Jesus —
of the ** consistently eschatological " Jesus — into
its fabric. Or it stands in its tracks and weakly
protests that Jesus' figure must be conceived as

greatly as possible, so only it be kept strictly
within the limits of a mere human being. Or
it develops an apologetical alignment which, given
its full validity and effect, woiSd undo all its pain-
fully worked-out negative results and lead back
to the Jesus of the evangelists as the true
** historical Jesus."

It has been remarked above that the portrait of
Jesus drawn in the sources is its own credential; no
man, and no body of men, can have invented this
figure, consciously or unconsciously, and dramatised
B ita ^^ consistently through such a varied
2^^^^^^ and difficult life-history. It may be
added that the Jesus of the naturalistic
criticism is its own refutation. One wonders whether
the ** liberal " critics realise the weakness, ineffect-
iveness, inanition of the Jesus they offer; the piti-
ful inertness they attribute to him, his utter passiv-
ity under the impact of circiunstance. So far from
being conceivable as the molder of the ages, this
Jesus is wholly molded by his own surroundings,
the sport of every suggestion from without. In
their preoccupation with critical details, it is pos-
sible that its authors are scarcely aware of the
grossness of the reduction of the figure of Jesus
they have perpetrated. But let them only tiun to
portray their new Jesus in a life-history, and the
pitiableness of the figure they have made him smites
the eye. Whatever else may be said of it, this must
be said — that out of the Jesus into which the nat-
uralistic criticism has issued — in its best or in its
worst estate — the Christianity which has conquered
the world could never have come.

IV. The lilfls of Jeans: The firmness, clearness,
and even fulness with which the figure of Jesus is
delineated in the sources, and the variety of activ-
ities through which it is dramatized, do not insure
that the data given should suffice for drawing up a
properly so-called *' life of Jesus." The data in
the sources are practically confined to
1. In What ^^ ^^^^ period of Jesus' public work.
Sense a Only a single incident is recorded from
"Life" his earlier life, and that is taken from
Impos- his boyhood. So large a portion of
aible. the actual narrative, moreover, is oc-
cupied with his death that it might
even be said — ^the more that the whole narrative
also leads up to the death as the life's culmination
— ^that little has been preserved concerning Jesus
but the circumstances which accompanied his birth
and the circumstances which led up to and ao-
companied his death. The incidents which the
narrators record, again, are not recorded with a
biographical intent, and are not selected for their
biographical significance, or ordered so as to
present a biographical result: in the case of each
evangelist they serve a particular purpose which
may employ biographical details, but is not it-
self a biographical end. In other words the Gos-
pels are not formal biographies but biograph-
ical arguments — a circumstance which does not
affect the historicity of the incidents they select for
record, but does affect the selection and ordering
of these incidents. Mark has in view to show that
this great religious movement in which he himself
had a part had its beginnings in a divine interpo-

JesoB Ohrist

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

168

sition; Matthew, that this divine interposition was
in fulfilment of the promises made to Israel; Luke,
that it had as its end the redemption of the world;
John, that the agent in it was none other than the
Son of God himself. In the enforcement and illus-
tration of their several themes each records a wealth
of biographical details. But it does not follow
that these details, when brought together and ar-
ranged in their chronological sequence, or even in
their genetic order, will supply an adequate biog-
raphy. The attempt to work them up into a
biography is met, moreover, by a great initial dif-
ficulty. Every biographer takes his position, as it
were, above his subject, who must live his life over
again in his biographer's mind; it is of the very es-
sence of the biographer's work thoroughly to un-
derstand his subject and to depict him as he un-
derstands him. What, then, if the subject of the
biography be above the comprehension of his biog-
rapher? Obviously, in that case, a certain reduc-
tion can scarcely be avoided. This in an instance
like the present, where the subject is a superhuman
being, is the same as to say that a greater or lesser
measure of rationalization, " naturalization," in-
evitably takes place. A true biography of a God-
man, a biography which depicts his life from with-
in, untangling the complex of motives which moved
him, and explaining his conduct by reference to the
internal springs of action, is in the nature of the
case an impossibility for men. Human beings can
explain only on the basis of their own experiences
and mental processes; and so explaining they in-
stinctively explain away what transcends their ex-
periences and confounds their mental processes.
Seeking to portray the life of Jesus as natural, they
naturalize it, that is, reduce it to correspondence
with their own nature. Every attempt to work
out a life of Christ must therefore face not only the
insufficiency of the data, but the perennial danger
of falsifying the data by an instinctive naturaliza-
tion of them. If, however, the expectation of
attaining a "psychological" biography of Jesus
must be renounced, and even a complete external
life can not be pieced together from the fragmentary
communications of the sources, a clear and consist-
ent view of the course of the public ministry of
Jesus can still be derived from them. The consecu-
tion of the events can be set forth, their causal rela-
tions established, and their historical development
explicated. To do this b certainly in a modified
sense to outline " the life of Jesus,'' and to do this
proves by its results to be eminently worth while.

A series of synchronisms with secular history in-
dicated by Luke, whose historical interest seems
more alert than that of the other
* "^®- evangelists, gives the needed informa-

<( I^e " ^^^ placmg such a life m its
right historical relations. The chrono-
logical framework for the " life " itself is sup-
plied by the succession of annual feasts which are
recorded by John as occurring during Jesus' public
ministry. Into this framework the data fur-
nished by the other Gospels — which are not with-
out corroborative suggestions of order, season of
occurrence, and relations — fit readily; and when so
arranged yield so self-consistent and rationally de-

veloping a history as to add a strong corroboration
of its trustworthiness. Differences of opinion re-
specting the details of arrangement of course re-
main possible; and these differences are not always
small and not always without historical signifi-
cance. But they do not affect the general outline or
the main drift of the history, and on most points,
even those of minor importance, a tolerable agree-
ment exists. Thus, for example, it is all but uni-
versally allowed that Jesus was bom c. 5 or 6 b.c.
(year of Rome 748 or 749), and it is an erratic
judgment indeed which would fix on any other
year than 29 or 30 a. d. for his crucifixion. On the
date of his baptism — which determines the duration
of his public ministry — more difference is possible;
but it is quite generally agreed that it took place late
in 26 A.D. or early in 27. It is only by excluding
the testimony of John that a duration of less than
between two and three years can be assigned to
the public ministry; and then only by subjecting
the Synoptical narrative to considerable pressure.
The probabilities seem strongly in favor of ex-
tending it to three years and some months. The
decision between a duration of two years and
some months and a duration of three years and
some months depends on the determination of
the two questions of where in the narrative of
John the imprisonment of John the Baptist (Matt,
iv. 12) is to be placed, and what the unnamed
feast is which is mentioned in John v. 1. On
the former of these questions opinion varies only
between John iv. 1-3 and John v. 1. On the
latter a great variety of opinions exists: some
think of Passover, others of Purim or Pentecost,
or of Trumpets or Tabernacles, or even of the
day of Atonement. On the whole, the evidence
seems decisively preponderant for placing the im-
prisonment of the Baptist at John iv. 1-^3, and for
identifying the feast of John v. 1 with Passover.
In that case, the public ministry of Jesus covered
about three years and a third, and it is probably
not far wrong to assign to it the period lying be-
tween the latter part of 26 a.d. and the Passover

of 30 A.D.*

The material supplied by the Gospel narrative
distributes itself naturally under the heads of (1) the
preparation, (2) the ministry, and (3) the consum-
a o til ^nation. For the first twelve or thir-
*of the ^^^ years of Jesus' life nothing is
'*Ijife. " recorded except the striking circum-
stances connected with his birth, and
a general statement of his remarkable growth.
Similarly for his youth, about seventeen years and
a half, there is recorded only the single incident, at
its beginning, of his conversation with the doctors
in the temple. Anything like continuous narrative
begins only with the public ministry, in, say, De-
cember, 26 A.D. This narrative falls naturally into
four parts which may perhaps be distinguished as

* Ramaay, Sanday, and Turner prefer 29 a.d. for the date
of the cnioifixion. Turner's dates are: birth, 7-6 B.C.;
baptism, 26 a.d.; ministry, between two and three srears;
death, 29 a.d. Sanday's dates are: birth, — ; baptism,
late 26 a.d.; ministry, two and a half srears; death, 29 a.d.
Ramsay's dates are: birth, autumn, 6 b.c; baptism, early
in 26 A.D.; ministry, three years and some months; death,

29 A.D.

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RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jeans Ohrist

(a) the beginning of the Gospel, forty days, from
December, 26 to February, 27; (b) the Judean
ministry, covering about ten months, from Feb., 27
to Dec., 27; (c) the Galilean ministry, covering about
twenty-two months, from Dec, 27 to Sept., 29;
(d) the last journeys to Jerusalem, covering some
six months, from Sept., 29 to the Passover of (Apr.)
30. The events of this final Passover season, the
narrative of which becomes so detailed and precise
that the occurrences from day to day are noted,
constitute, along with their sequences, what is here
called " the consiunmation." They include the
events which led up to the crucifixion of Jesus, the
crucifixion itself, and the manifestations which he
gave of himself after his death up to his ascension.
So preponderating was the interest which the re-
porters took in this portion of the " life of Christ,"
that is to say, in his death and resurrection, that
about a third of their whole narrative is devoted
to it. The ministry which leads up to it is also,
however, full of incident. What is here called " the
beginning of the Gospel " gives, no doubt, only
the accounts of Jesus' baptism and temptation.
Only meager information is given also, and that by
John alone, of the occurrences of the first ten months
after his public appearance, the scene of which lay
mainly in Judea. With the beginning of the min-
istry in Galilee, however, with which alone the
S3moptic Gospels concern themselves, incidents be-
come numerous. Capernaum now becomes Jesus'
home for almost two full years; and no less than
eight periods of sojourn there with intervening cir-
cuits going out from it as a center can be traced.
When the object of this ministry had been accom-
plished Jesus finally withdraws from Galilee and
addresses himself to the preparation of his follow-
ers for the death he had come into the world to
accomplish; and this he then brings about in the
manner which best subserves his purpose.

Into the substance of Jesus' ministry it is not
possible to enter here. Let it only be observed

that it is properly called a ministry.

-p^HH* He himself testified that he came not

^^^~~® to be ministered unto but to minister,

and he added that this ministry was
fulfilled in his giving his life as a ransom for many.
In other words, the main object of his work was to
lay the foundations of the kingdom of God in his
blood. Subsidiary to this was his purpose to make
vitally known to men the true nature of the king-
dom ol God, to prepare the way for its advent in
their hearts, and above all, to attach them by faith
to his person as the founder and consunmiator of
the kingdom. His ministry involved, therefore, a
constant presentation of himself to the people as
the promised One, in and by whom the kingdom
of God was to be established, a steady " campaign
of instruction " as to the nature of the kingdom
which he came to found, and a watchful con-
trol of the forces which were making for his de-
struction, until, his work of preparation being ended,
he was ready to complete it by offering himself
up. The progress of his ministry is governed by
the interplay of these motives. It has been broadly
distributed into a year of obscurity, a year of
popular favor, and a year of opposition; and if

these designations are imderstood to have only a
relative applicability, they may be accepted as gen-
erally describing from the outside the development
of the ministry. Beginning first in Judea Jesus
spent some ten months in attaching to himself his
first disciples, and with apparent fruitlessness pro-
claiming the kingdom at the center of national life.
Then, moving north to Galilee, he quickly won the
ear of the people and carried them to the height
of their present receptivity; whereupon, breaking
from them, he devoted himself to the more precise
instruction of the chosen band he had gathered
about him to be the nucleus of his Church. The
Galilean ministry thus divides into two parts, marked
respectively by more popular and more intimate
teaching. The line of division falls at the miracle
of the feeding of the five thousand, which, as mark-
ing a crisis in the ministry, is recorded by all four
evangelists, and is the only miracle which has re-
ceived this fourfold record. Prior to this point,
Jesus' work had been one of gathering disciples;
subsequently to it, it was a work of instructing and
sifting the disciples whom he had gathered. The
end of the Galilean ministry is marked by the con-
fession of PeteY and the transfiguration, and after
it nothing remained but the preparation of the
chosen disciples for the death, which was to close
his work; and the consmnmation of his mission in
his death and rising again.

The instruments by which Jesus carried out his

ministry were two, teaching and miracles. In both

alike he manifested his deity. Wher-

6. Instru- gyg^ jjg went the supernatural was

™®^2!. present in word and deed. His teach-

iBtrv "^ ^*^ ^^ authority. In its m-
sight and foresight it was as super-
natural as the miracles themselves; the hearts of
men and the future lay as open bejfore him as the
forces of nature lay under his control; all that the
Father knows he knew also, and he alone was the
channel of the revelation of it to men. The power of
his ** But I say unto you " was as manifest as that
of his compelling " Arise and walk." The theme
of his teaching was the kingdom of God and him-
self as its divine founder and king. Its form ran
all the way from crisp gnomic sayings and brief
comparisons to elaborate parables and profound
spiritual discussions in which the deep things of
God are laid bare in simple, searching words. The
purport of his miracles was that the kingdom of
God was already present in its King. Their num-
ber is perhaps usually greatly underestimated. It
is true that only about thirty or forty are actually
recorded. But these are recorded only as speci-
mens, and as such they represent all classes. Mir-
acles of healing form the preponderant class; but
there are also exorcisms, nature-miracles, raisings
of the dead. Besides these recorded miracles, how-
ever, there are frequent general statements of
abounding miraculous manifestations. For a time
disease and death must have been almost banished
from the land. The country was thoroughly
aroused and filled with wonder. In the midst of
this universal excitement — when the people were
ready to take him by force and make him king —
he withdrew himself from them, and throwing his

Jesus Ohrist

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

160

oirouits far afield, beyond the bruit and uproar, ad-
dressed himself to preparing his chosen companions
for his great sacrifice — first leading them in the so-
called ** Later Galilean ministry " (from the feed-
ing of the 5,000 to the confession at Cssarea Phi-
lippi) to a better apprehension of the majesty of
his person as the Son of God, and of the character
of the kingdom he came to found, as consisting not
in meat and drink but in righteousness; and then,
in the so-called ** Persan ministry " (from the con-
fession at Csesarea Philippi to the final arrival at
Jerusalem) specificaUy preparing them for his death
and resurrection. Thus he walked straightforward
in the path he had chosen, and his choice of which
is already made clear in the account of his tempta-
tion, set at the beginning of his public career; and
in his own good time and way — in the end forcing
the hand of his opponents to secure that he should
die at the Passover — shed his blood as the blood
of the new covenant sacrifice for the remission of
sins. Having power thus to lay down his life, he
had power also to take it again, and in due time he
rose again from the dead and ascended to the right
hand of the majesty on high, leaving behind him
his pronilse to come again in his glory, to perfect
jhe kingdom he had inaugurated.

It is appropriate that this miraculous life should
be set between the great marvels of the virgin-
birth and the resurrection and ascen-
6. The sion. These can appear strange only
Virgin- when the intervening life is looked
~[^2^* upon as that of a merely human being,
endowed, no doubt, not only with un-
usual qualities, but also with the un-
usual favor of God, yet after all nothing more than
human and therefore presimmbly entering the
world like other human beings, and at the end
paying the universal debt of human nature. From
the standpoint of the evangelical writers, and of
the entirety of primitive Christianity, which looked
upon Jesus not as a merely hiunan being but as
God himself come into the world on a mission of
mercy that involved the humiliation of a human
life and death, it would be this assiuned commu-
nity with conunon humanity in mode of entrance
into and exit from the earthly life which would seem
strange and incredible. The entrance of the Lord
of Glory into the world could not but be super-
natural; his exit from the world, after the work
which he had undertaken had been performed,
could not fail to bear the stamp of triumph. There
is no reason for doubting the trustworthiness of the
narratives at these points, beyond the anti-super-
naturalistic instinct which strives consciously or
unconsciously to naturalize the whole evangelical
narrative. The ** infancy chapters " of Luke are
demonstrably from Luke's own hand, bear evident
traces of having been derived from trustworthy
sources of information, and possess all the author-
ity which attaches to the communications of a his-
torian who evinces himself sober, careful, and
exact, by every historical test. The parallel chap-
ters of Matthew, whUe obviously independent of
those of Luke — recording in common with them
not a single incident beyond the bare fact of the
virgin-birth — are thoroughly at one with them in

tion.

the main fact, and in the incidents they record fit
with remarkable completeness into the interstices of
Luke's narrative. Similarly, the narratives of the
resurrection, full of diversity in details as they are,
and raising repeated puzzling questions of order and
arrangement, yet not only bear consentient testi-
mony to all the main facts, but fit into one an-
other so as to create a consistent narrative — ^which
has moreover the support of the contemporary
testimony of Paul. The persistent attempts to
explain away the facts so witnessed or to substi-
tute for the account which the New Testament
writers give of them some more plausible explana^
tion, as the natunalistic mind estimates plausibility,
are all wrecked on the directness, precision, and
copiousness of the testimony; and on the great
effects which have flowed from this fact in the rev-
olution wrought in the minds and lives of the apos-
tles themselves, and in the revolution wrought
through their preaching of the resiurection in the
life and history of the world. The entire history
of the world for 2,000 years is the warranty of the
reality of the resurrection of Christ, by which the
forces were let loose which have created it. ** Unique
spiritual effects," it has been remarked, with great
reasonableness, " require a unique spiritual cause;
and we shall never understand the full significance
of the cause, if we begin by denying or minimizing
its uniqueness."

For details see the separate articles on the several
distinct topics, e.g., Chribtoloot; Gobpeus; Mib-
acleb; Parables; Resurrection; Virgin-birth.

Benjamin B. Warfield.

B. L Limitation of the Field: The means of wri-
. ting a satisfactory life of Christ have never existed.
From the outset what the Church attempted was
no more than the story of Jesus covering a twelve-
month. Even in this its object was not historical
but apologetic. There exists a bare mention by a
few secular writers of 110-120 a.d. of the origin of
the obnoxious ** Christians." Pliny, the earliest
(112 A.D.), merely describes the sect. Tacitus, an
accurate historian, c. 115 a.d., dates its rise from
the execution of ** CJhristus '* by Pilate, procurator
of Judea imder Tiberius. Seciilar writers have no
more to tell. They would have been compelled to
refer inquirers to the tradition preserved by the
sect itself. Now even the latest of our four Gos-
pels can be traced in some form by its use in or-
thodox, heretical, and even anti-Christian writers,
to about the same period; so that the whole ques-
tion of the historical investigator resolves itself
into a valuation and comparison of the writings
preserved by the Church itself, in the interest of its
own defense and edification.

H. The Souroes: The story of Jesus included
what was needful for the uses of the Church. For-
tunately the severest tests known to the science of
literary and historical criticism leave the Church
in possession of two groups of writings which cir-
culated in Christian conventicles 50-100 a.d. These
are (1) apostolic letters, homilies and " prophe-
cies," writings directly addressed to the edification
of particular churches; and (2) etiological nar-
ratives, purporting to give account of Christian
origins.

161

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jesus Christ

Of these sources the former contain from the
nature of the case but slight and incidental allusion
to the tradition; but for the very rear
J^.^* son that no effort is made to prove a
?Patd c^^BC, the readers being merely re-
minded of generally accepted facts,
this testimony, so far as it goes, is of far greater
value than apologetic narrative. Moreover, the
nucleus of this group consists of extensive ** epis-
tles ** by a known author addressed at a fixed date
to definite localities critically authenticated, and
from twenty to fifty years earlier in date than the
anonymous narratives. It is needless, in view of
this, to explain why the historical critic takes his
stand primarily at the situation of belief and prac-
tise indirectly revealed by the great Pauline Epis-
tles, employing them as a standard. The minor
elements of this group, disputed letters of Paul,
later and doubtful writings attributed to Peter,
John, James and Jude add little in any event to the
knowledge of Christianity as it existed in Corinth
e. 55 A.D. derivable from the two Epistles to the
Corinthians alone.

The narrative writings (2) are four in number, all
anonymous, none earlier than 65 a.d., the latest, at-
tributed in veiled language, in a subsequently at-
^ _. tached appendix, to the Apostle John
Q^J^^^ not earlier than 98 a.d. They show a
large degree of mutual dependence,
but certainly have no mere partial presentation in
mind. Each aims to furnish to its respective re-
gion " the Gospel " as locally understood inclusive
of all essential features. Not in the case of Mark,
admittedly representing the tradition as it circu-
lated at Rome, nor even in the case of John, repre-
senting that of proconsular Asia, can it be supposed
that the writer intended merely to supplement cer-
tain standard authorities already current. Just as
Mark represents ** the Gospel " as understood in
Rome, one of the two chief Pauline centers, and
John that of Ephesus, the other, so the double
work attributed to Luke, whom tradition declared
of Antiochian parentage, represents ** the Gospel "
(Luke i. 4) as understood in ** Syria and Cilicia "
(Acts XV. 23; Gal. i. 21); while southern Syria,
whose historic relations are with Egypt, seems to
be represented by the Gospel attributed to Mat-
thew. Critical examination shows these four Gos-
pels to be largely interdependent so that practicaUy
the whole of Mark has been transcribed to form
the narrative outline of both Matthew and Luke
while John shows dependence on all three. Yet
in each there persists a significant local type. Both
Syrian gospels, besides the conspicuous Mark ele-
ment, make large use of a factor absent from gos-
pels of the Pauline or Greco-Roman field, that of
the commandments of Jesus. This factor (Q) de-
termines the very nature of Matthew, whose whole
mission is to teach men ** to observe all things
whatsoever I conmianded you " (Matt, xxviii. 20).
Luke's drafts from this same ** teaching *' source
are only second in extent to his extracts from Mark,
and are transcribed with much greater exactness.
He adds, however, quite a body of narrative not
used by Matthew, including his whole second
" treatise," and by such additions, as well as the
VI-— 11

treatment of material, generally approximates more
nearly than Matthew to Mark's idea of " the Gos-
pel '' as the whole drama of Jesus' career (Acts
i. 1). The motive of the Ephesian Gospel is differ-
ent. While in form largely composed of dialogue,
often tending to monologue (iii. 1-21), it does not
aim to transmit " commandments of the Lord."
Its discourses are controversial expositions of the
great Pauline doctrines of new birth, life in the
Spirit, etc. Nor does the author aim at history.
The " works " he relates are seven symbolic " signs "
" manifesting the glory " of the incarnate Logos.
The explicit aim is to produce faith in Jesus as the
incarnate Son of God, and thus convey that mys-
tical " life " which is the essence of Paidine religion
(John XX. 31; cf. Gal. ii. 20).

The great Pauline Epistles recall the conditions out
of which the Greek C^ospels have grown. They re-
o mv produce not only Paul's own conception
Pauline ^^ " ^^® Gospel " including an outline
Gospel. ^^ ^^^ story, but certain fundamental
differences between Paul and the older
apostles, which in some degree correspond to and
explain the persistent differences of type in the
Greco-Roman and the Syrian tradition. Paul was
both unable, and of principle unwilling, to coq^
pete with those who claimed to report acts and ut-
terances of the Lord from their own observation.
Even had he known a fiesh and blood Messiah,
such a Messiah, were it even the earthly Jesus
himself, he would know no more (II Cor. v. 16),
because since his experience in conversion, re-
demption had lost all interest save as a spiritual
experience beginning in the individual soul. His
own hopeless struggle for the righteousness of the
law, on which participation in the Messianic age, the
rabbinic " world to come," was in his view condi-
tioned, had issued in a moral death, from which he
had been raised by vision of the risen Lord of
Stephen and of many another Christian martyr.
Dawning faith in the crucified Messiah of the pub-
licans and sinners, outcasts from synagogue ortho-
doxy, had brought to him not merely hope of a
forgiveness without the works of the law, but an
experience similar to that he witnessed in them,
though of loftier moral type, an influx of life and
power from " the spirit." The starting-point of
everything was to Paul the risen, glorified Chnst,
giver of the Spirit. He had been revealed as the
Son of God with power by the resurrection (Rom.
i. 4). This inward experience made Paul an apos-
tle (Gal. i. 16) and gave him his message. (Donfeiv
ence with those who were apostles before him was
not needful to prepare him to preach it (Gal. i. 16-
17). And yet without the safe anchor of coimeo-
tion with the historic Jesus, this doctrine of a spiri-
tual Christ was exposed to all kinds of vagaries.
From what it actually suffered at the hands of
docetic Gnostics (see Docetibm), and of ultra Paul-
inists like Mardon (q.v.), it seems that it would
soon be assimilated in the hands of Greek converts
to the myths of the redeemer-gods (theoi sOUrea)^
who, incarnate in the form of demigods, or as in-
visible eons, " powers," or " emanations," were
held to participate in the life of men. The whole
ethical content of Paul's religion of the Spirit was

Jesus Ohrist

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

162

dependent on the identification of this Spirit, whose
manifestations formed the basis of all chm^h life
with ** the mind that was in Christ Jesus." Rigidly
his converts must be disciplined in the subordina-
tion of the spectacular gifts of the Spirit, ** mir-
acles," " tongues," " prophecies," to the " abi-
ding," the moral (I Cor. xiii.).

It is no surprise, therefore, to find Paul, three

years after his conversion, going up to Jerusalem

to *^ become acquainted with Peter, " literally

" to hear his story " (Gal. i. 18). From that Pe-

trine story must have come many an

B^ti aUusion in Paul's letters to Jesus'

^^^ teachings (I These, iv. 15; I Cor. vii.

Oharaoter. ^^» ^' 1^)» ^^ purity of his life (II Cor.
V. 21), the tragedy of his betrayal and
death (I Cor. xi. 23), the manifestations of his res-
urrection glory (I Cor. xv. 3-7). From it came cer-
tainly the institution of the Eucharist (I Cor. xi.
23-25; see below, II., { 8), but not that of baptism
(I Cor. i. 17). Moreover, if it related, as may surely
be assumed, marvels of healing and exorcism out-
shining those of the ** strolling Jews, exorcists "
and even the " gifts of healing " and " miracles "
boasted in the Church (I Cor. xii. 28-29), it is
somewhat significant that Paul ignores this whole
element, large as it looms on the pages of Mark.
Ultimately in the latest of the undisputed epistles
Paul states the essence of his Gospel in a " nut-
sheU" (Pha. ii. 4-11; cf. Mark. x. 42-45). Such
is Paul's messianism, the starting-point of which
is the glorified one of his vision, but in its backward
look almost overleaps the earthly career as a mere
episode, a period of ** humiliation," in the great
economy of God, ^ith whom this second Adam
had enjoyed the riches of heaven (II Cor. viii. 9)
before the first Adam walked in Paradise. Essen-
tially and fundamentally Paul's Gospel is an in-
carnation doctrine, closely allied in its sacraments,
its aspiration to life by mystic union with CHirist
and God in the Spirit, and even in its terminology,
with Greek and Oriental mystery religion. Its
soteriology recalls the avatar doctrine of the re-
deemer-gods (see Hinduism). That which gives
it power to assimilate rather than be assimilated
in the maelstrom of intermingling religious ideals,
is its ethical root in the life and teaching of the
historic Jesus.

It can not be too emphatically insisted that the

gospel of Peter was essentially, in its starting-point,

and in religious value, identical with that of Paul

(I Cor. XV. 11; Gal. ii. 2, 6-8, 15-16). It also did not

start from the story of the ministry,

■B^IT* hut from the resurrection (Acts iv.
Petrine „o\ ta _^ j • r

Gospel. ^^^' '^ rested upon an experience of

Peter only less profoundly ethical than
Paul, a rescue by the felt presence of the risen
Christ from the abyss of moral agony. The four
canonical Gospels have uniformly canceled the
story of this fundamental event in the history of
the Chiistiftn religion in favor of more concrete,
more tangible and marvelous tales of the empty
tomb and reappearances of Jesus in palpable form.
Not a trace of this appears in Paul. His account
of the tradition of the resurrection appearances is
unassailable, and certainly complete. It puts his

own experience in line with Peter's, and coincides
with the remnants and allusions in the Gospel nar-
rative of how first of all " the Lord appeEtred to
Simon " (Luke xxiv. 34). Many traces of this in-
itial vision of Peter exist in the canonical story
itself (Mark xiv. 28, xvi. 1, cf. ix. 2-10), in addi-
tions to it (John xxL 1-13), in extrarcanonical frag-
ments (Gospel of Peter, end), and above all in the
recorded prayer of Jesus for the *' turning again "
of Simon (Luke xxiL 32). These amply corrobo-
rate the statement of Paul that the first " appear-
ance " was ^* to Simon," and establish the essential
justice of the tradition which explains the name
of " Cephas " or " Peter " (" Rock ") as given be-
cause the Church owed its foundation to the new-
bom faith of this disciple. Because Peter in Gali-
lee rallied his ** brethren " with the assurance of
his experience of a manifestation of Jesus in glory,
Christianity became a religion. What was — what
is the experience of the presence of the risen Christ?
This is not a problem of history but of religious
psychology. With Peter's experience, soon re-
peated in that of his '' brethren," of 500 at once,
of Pentecost, of James, of Paul (I Cor. xv. 3-8)
" the Gospel " began its career. It was essen-
tially the story of the resurrection as a message of
redemption (II Cor. v. 19-21). The psychological
phenomenon, vital as it is in the spiritual history
of the race, faUs from its very nature outside the
limits of this discussion; yet it alone accounts for
the preservation of the implied story of Jesus' pre-
vious career.

In Peter's case as in Paul's this starting-point
was the resurrection. But that which tradition
reports (Papias, in Eusebius, Hist, ecd., III.,xxxix.
15) of the nature of Peter's preaching is that which
could be anticipated from all known of his past.
To Peter the remembrance of Jesus' earthly
g - career would not be, as to Paul, a

Oharaoter ^^^^ episode in the eternal plan of re-
* demption, an avatar of God's redeem-
ing Spirit suffering humiliation and death. It
would be a priceless jewel of personal recollections
filled with foregleams of the later glorification.
Peter's Christology would be fundamentally not
an incarnation doctrine, but just as it is actually
found in the Petrine speeches of Acts (ii. 32-36,
iii. 18-23, 26) an apotheosis doctrine. An early
source even sketches the outline of Peter's story.
It " began from Galilee, after the baptism which
John preached; how God anointed Jesus of Naza-
reth with the Holy Ghost and with power; who
went about doing good, and healing all that were
oppressed of the devil, for God was with him."
From this point it passes immediately to the story
of the crucifixion in Jerusalem and the witness to
the resurrection (Acts x. 37-41). The correspond-
ence of this outline with the outline of that Gospel
(Mark) which tradition declares to be founded on
Peter's narrative, is a phenomenon of great signifi-
cance. Disregarding the portions elaborated in
the Pauline interest, which show connection at
many points with Q and perhaps also with the
** special source " of Luke, and taking only the un-
derlying narrative, three essential data appear in
Mark: (1) the beginniDgs m Galilee after the bap-

168

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

J«muiOhxlst

tism of John, including the healings which center
in Capernaum, and in fact at the very door of
Peter's house (Mark i. 15-39, ii. 1-22, iv. 35, v.
43); (2) the journey to Jerusalem, interpreted by
Peter as a Messianic enterprise (Mark viii. 27 sqq.,
xi. 15 sqq.); (3) the night of betrayal (cf. I Cor.
xi. 23), the crucifixion and resurrection (Mark xiv.
16). In all these Peter's figure is central.

Two unavoidable inferences from what Paul has
shown of Peter's Oospel confirm the tradition which
connects the story of Jesus with him. (1) With-
out the impression of an extraordinary personality

« -- _ and an extraordinary career, the ini-

ManencM. *^^ experience of Peter, echoed in
* that of his brethren and of Paul (I Cor.
XV. 3-11), the true foundation experience of the
CJhurch, could never have occurred. (2) Having
occurred, all Peter's remembered intercourse with
Jesus would be shot through with transfiguring
rays from the later vision of his heavenly glory.
The process is artlessly acknowledged in the case
of the so-called triumphal entry in John xii. 16.
What proved Jesus to have been the Christ whose
coming to establish his kingdom only awaits Israel's
repentance (Acts iii. 19-26) — ^this formed the sub-
stance of Peter's story.

Turning to the second and later group of sources,
the fourfold tradition, the four canonical Gospels
in their fundamental character may fairly be com-
pared with the four tendencies so distinctly marked
by Paul among the Corinthian believ-
ers of 55 A.D. The Roman Gospel

8. Four
Tsrpesof

Tn£tion. (M*^k) recalls those " of Paul," the
Ephesian (John) those ** of ApoUos,"
the Antiochian (Luke — Acts), those "of Cephas,"
the Palestinian (Matthew) those " of Christ." Mark
and John are both Pauline in the sense of making
faith in the person of Christ essential rather than
obedience to precept. But in Mark it is the ex-
ternal side of Paulinism which is presented. It ai>-
pears with the same crudity in its doctrine of the
Spirit, and brusqueness in repudiation of Jewish
scruples, which calls forth Paul's rebuke of his too
inconsiderate adherents in Corinth.

The Fourth Gospel systematically idealizes the
tradition both of " sayings " and " doings " for
the inculcation of a Christology now openly allied
to the Logos philosophy of Ephesus
fCom^ t ^^^ Alexandria. Differences exist
John &ii>ong critics as to its authorship, but
comparatively none as to its specula-
tive and theological character. Its slender modicum
of underlying historic tradition can be employed
only with utmost critical caution to criticize or
supplement the Petrine story in a few details, so
completely has it been volatilized in the domi-
nant interest of presenting Christological theory.
Aiming only to depict the drama of the incarnate
Logos, this Gospel takes indeed the foremost rank
as a source for the later history of Pauline Chris-
tology, but is almost unusable for the history of
Jesus of Nazareth.

The two Gospels assigned respectively to Jerusa-
lem and Antioch have much in common after the
subtraction of Mark. They do not, with Paul,
Ifaric and John, ignore the Davldic descent of Jesus

(cf. Rom. i. 3-4 with Mark xii. 25-37; John vii. 40-
43), but prefix independently to the Petrine narra-
tive two genealogies, followed by accounts of Jesus'
10 Xftt. ^"^^^o^ birth and childhood. The
thewand P^^^^fST^^t though mutually exdu-
John. ^^^f ^^^ really ancient attempts to
justify the tradition alluded to by Paul
(Rom. i. 3), which possibly had some foundation
in the claims of Jesus' family. The stories of the
virgin-birth are equally inconsistent with one an-
other, and merely seek in a crude way to adjust
the Jewish-Christian doctrine of the pedigrees
(Jesus the Christ as son of David) to the Greek or
Pauline incarnation doctrine. These also have
significance for the history of Christological doc-
trine, but not for the history of Jesus. The most
important new element contributed by Matthew
and Luke is the source which they share in com-
mon. This was certainly in its fundamental char-
acter more closely allied in aim to Matthew than
to Luke, its principal object being not to narrate the
career of Jesus, but to embody his precepts. If it
be supposed that those of Corinth who said ** I am
of Christ " meant " my conduct is governed by the
precepts delivered as from him," their later devel-
opment may be traced in the combination effected
in Matthew, as all critics now admit, of the Gospel
of Mark with that primitive compilation of Jesus'
teachings made by the Apostle Matthew in the
tongue of Palestine, to which Papias refers in 145
A.D. as the ** Logia or Syntagma of the Dominical
Oracles." The greater leaning of Luke to narra-
tive material, his less intolerant attitude toward
teachers and workers of ** lawlessness," and the
central position accorded to Peter and to the Pe-
trine solution of the great issue at Antioch in his
second treatise (Acts xv.; cf. Gal. ii.), justify in
classifying the Antiochian Gospel as corresponding
to those who declared ** I am of Cephas."

It will readily be seen that the most invaluable
of all sources for that extraordinary character and
career which through its influence on Peter and
Paul has given rise to the Christian re-
^ ***** ligion, is the underlying non-Mark
Aramaic ®^®°^®°^ common to Matthew and Luke
Source. ^Q^' ^^^se relation to the reported
" Hebrew " compilation (the Logia)
is as yet unexplained. Unlike the ** wonder-lor-
ing " Mark, Q is not dominated by the effort to
prove by accounts of prodigies surrounding his
career that Jesus was the Son of God in the Pauline
sense (Mark i. 1), but aims primarily to report his
teaching. Even more, while it alludes to Jesus'
miracles, as Paul alludes to those of his time, it
presents Jesus' attitude toward them as one of
severe rebuke of the popular craving for signs
(Matt. xii. 38 sqq.; Luke xi. 29 sqq.) as well as of
the suggestion that he might violate by his himmn
will the divine order of the world (Matt. iv. 3-7;
Luke iv. 3, 4, 9-12). This aim, and this relative
independence of Pauline Christology qualify Q,
fragmentary as it is, for use as a corrective in rela-
tion to the Petrine tradition, much as the Pauline
epistles have been used in relation to the fourfold
narrative.
The foregoing analysis of the sources in their

Jesua OhriBt

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

164

nature and their relation to one another and to
doctrinal development in the Church or its equiva-
lent, is indispensable to every serious-minded mod-
ern student of the subject. The har-
12. Bestdts monistic method, satisfying to an age
of Source which made the equal value and error-
Analysis, lessness of all Biblical writings its
point of departure, confronted a rela-
tively simple task. Whatever each evangelist said
must be added to, or dove-tailed into, the report of
every other. Discrepancies could be ignored or ex-
plained away. Variant forms could be attached
one after the other, as subsequent similar occur-
rences or repetitions. To-day the comparative
method is displacing the harmonistic. The more
vital the subject, the less can the truth-loving and
reverent mind be satisfied to exempt it from the
most searching analysis possible under the methods
of documentary and historical research. The re-
sults concern not mere individual anecdotes or say-
ings, but the traditional story of Jesus as a whole.
As already seen, the beginnings of the Christian re-
ligion do not deal so much with the career of the
carpenter of Nazareth, as with the glorified Lord,
whom Paul identified with the redeeming Spirit of
God (II Cor. iii. 17), in whom he even sees that
semi-personal wisdom which the '' wisdom ** writers
had presented as the agency of God in creation
(I Cor. viii. 6; cf. Prov. viii. 22 sqq.; Wisdom of
Sol. vii. 21-30). It is this Hellenistic incarnation
doctrine which became " Christianity." And yet
'' Christianity '' was saved from absorption in eclec-
tic Gnosticism only by virtue of the persistence of
the career and teaching of the historic Jesus, the
contribution of the Syrian type of Gospel tradition,
whose respective elements ** Petrine " and " Mat-
thean " fall now to be analyzed.

It is true that Paul was dependent on Peter;
but it is at least equally true that Peter, or more
exactly those secondary sources which represent
the Petrine tradition, show to an enormous extent
the influence of Paul. Only the ultimate substra-
tum of narrative in the Greek Gospels can claim
to represent the Aramaic story of the Galilean fish-
erman. The one source which in its original Ara-
maic form was comparatively unaffected by Paul-
ine soteriology was the Matthean collection of the
'* Sayings," which survives only in fragments from
a Greek version utilized by Luke in connection with
an otherwise imknown narrative source, and by
Matthew to complete his manual of " conmiand-
ments." Even the Logia must have started with
the presupposition of Jesus' superhuman authority,
and, at least in the Greek form, applied to him
the apocalyptic title " Son of Man " from Dan.
vii. 13.

m. Oritical Outline of the story of Jesus: The
task here is to draw from these materialB a
consistent outline of Jesus' historical career and
teaching, determining from these the character of
the man, and the natiu^ of the movement which he
set on foot *' first in Galilee and afterward in Jeru-
salem."

The story of Jesus began " after the baptism
which John preached." (On the infancy chapters of
Matthew and Luke see above, I., § 10). The further

back the sources are traced the more apparent is it

that the movement which Jesus inaugurated was

a continuation of that of John, from

ti ^iifch ^^^^ ^^® Church subsequently bor-

John the ''^^®^ ^^ "^ ^^ initiation. Great

Baptist, s^i'^ss is laid in the earliest source (Q)
on the distinction between John's as-
cetic life, emphasizing his stem warnings of judg-
ment and wrath to come, and that of Jesus, who
came into the populous haunts of men with his
winning proclamation of forgiveness. The latest
source (John) is deeply concerned to show how
void of all significance was the whole Johannine
movement, except as premonitory of the Gospel.
And yet the true relation is evident in the rever-
ential regard of Jesus for John, in whose movement
he saw no less a matter than the great repentance,
to be effected according to Scripture " before the
great and terrible Day of Yahweh " (Q, Matt. xi.
2-19, xii. 41, xxi. 32; Luke vii. 18-28, 31-35, xi.
32, xvi. 14-16). Equally apparent is it in the
fundamental note of Petrine story, which begins
with Jesus' coming into Galilee after John's arrest,
with an invitation to the fishermen to join him in
gathering men, rescuing the strayed sheep of the
flock of Israel. There is all the less reason to doubt
the statement that Jesus had been himself bai>-
tized by John, inasmuch as later evangelists expe-
rience great difficulty in adjusting this fact to their
doctrine of Messiah's sinlessness (Matt. iii. 13-15;
Gospel of Hebrews, fragment 3).* But the so-called
Prologue of Mark (i. 1-13), wherein this scene is
depicted on the basis of the Jewish legend of the
anointing of Messiah by Elias, with employment
of the voice from heaven of the transfiguration
apocalypse (see below II. 7) does not belong to the
basic Petrine tradition, which begins at verse 14
(cf. Acts X. 37).

The real impulse under which Jesus took up the
standard of the martyred prophet and carried it
away from the wilderness into the centers of half-
heathen Galilee, is clearly apparent

•S' «*^* ^''°°^ ^ invitation to the fishermen

Kinistry ^^^^* ^^. 47), and kindred utterances
from Q (Matt. ix. 35-38, x. 6, xviii. 12-
14; Luke x. 2, xv. 3-7). It is made even more un-
mistakable in the special source of Luke, in which
the humanitarian and sociological aspect of Jesus'
work is strikingly emphasized. Synagogue relig-
ion under the domination of the scribes had in fact
made it almost impossible for the " people of the
land " to expect any " share in the world to come."
The spiritual inheritance of Israel as a whole had
been monopolized by the scribes and their devout
followers the Pharisees. The ideal since even the
times before the monarchy (Ex. iv. 22; Hoe. xi. 1)
had been that Israel was to be a people of God's
'' sons." Now none were allowed to be so reckoned

who did not '' do the will," as revealed in the
cred law and interpreted by the scribes. The Jo-
hannine movement as interpreted by Jesus (Q, Matt.
xxi. 32 = Luke vii. 29) was a protest against this

* In John i. 32-34 the baptism and yoioe of adoptkHi be-
come a mere manifeetation to John and Israel. Tbe Lofoe
is of course already oonsdous of his nature and miwlon.

166

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jeaus Ohriot

usurpation. The rite of baptism itself, foreign as
it is to the Mosaic code, and spontaneous in its
symbolism, justifies this view of the movement of
John. The epithet " friend of publicans and sin-
ners," flung at Jesus by his foes the synagogue au-
thorities, the scene of his early ministry, the very
class in society to which he belonged, make it ap-
parent that the beginning of Jesus' ministry in
Galilee had exactly this character of protest in the
name of the " little ones '' whose poverty alone would
have made the yoke of the law, ever heavier as the
scribes were making it, a yoke which in Peter's words
(Acts XV. 7) " neither we nor our fathers were able
to bear.'' It was sociological, and ethico-religious.

Jesus did more than merely carry on the baptism
of John. He renewed John's preaching of repent-
ance in view of the coming kingdom, but instead of
awaiting in the wilderness those whom curiosity
g ^ OP conscience might drive to him, he

and^ carried the message where the lost

'MirA^\mm. sheep of Israel were most numerous.
He enlisted the aid of fishermen, pub-
licans, wage-earners like himself to proclaim it. He
went from Capernaum to the towns of Gennesaret,
from Gennesaret to the villages of Galilee. He
preached in the synagogues and in the streets. Bap-
tism itself was for the time being left behind, since
physical conditions made it impracticable. The
message also was infinitely bolder, and at the same
time infinitely more hopeful than John's. Fortu-
nately much of it is preserved in substantially orig-
inal form. The repentance itself of the sinful was
to Jesus a proof of that divine forgiveness for the
attainment of which the repentance had been de-
manded (Matt. xxi. 28-32 « Luke xv. 11-32, vii.
36-50). He declared in the name of the great
Father, Lord of heaven and earth, that there was
access to him, forgiveness, adoption, life in the
kingdom, for those who " did the will "; not in the
sense of scribe and Pharisee, but by simple imita-
tion of the spirit of the loving God of nature (Q,
Biatt. V. 43-48 -Luke vi. 27-36). He welcomed
such to spiritual brotherhood with himself (Mark
iii. 35 and parallels). Inward, not outward, purity
was made the condition of " seeing God "; and the
essence of the law simple-hearted devotion to God,
and God-like goodness to one's fellow men, *' even
to the unthankful and the evil." This was much
more than all whole burnt-offering and sacrifice.
The immense effect of Jesus' preaching was not due
alone to the reawakening in the land of the voice
of prophetic authority, with its moral imperative,
'* thus saith the Lord "; but to certain startling
accompaniments, which at their first appearance
were the occasion to Jesus of one of his vigils of
prayer (Mark i. 35-39), but were ultimately wel-
conoed by him as a divine aid and seal upon his
proclamation of forgiveness. His stem rebuke of
an outcry from a " possessed " person in the syna-
gogue in Capernaum resulted in an involuntary
exorcism. The " demon " went out. In Peter's
house inunediately after, a " healing " took place
on the appeal of the inmates that he would lay
hands upon the patient. Straightway Jesus was
besieged with the importunities of the sick in body
and mind, with the result that he appears divided

between the desire to give physical help, and the
vivid appreciation of the danger involved of being
forcibly diverted from his higher aims. A whole
cycle of marvels of healing and exorcisms, even the
subduing of the demons of wind and storm, appears
at this point of the Petrine tradition. Q, with
more sobriety, presents Jesus' attitude on the sub-
ject in contrast with the malignant interpretation
of the scribes. The " mighty works " are the evi-
dence of God's gracious intervention to overthrow
the power of Satan. Such evidence would have
led Tyre and Sidon, Sodom and Gomorrah, to re-
pentance; but to that hardened generation they
were simply an occasion of " stumbling in him."
In point of fact he was accused by leading scribes
of collusion with Beelzebub.

Before relating the irrepressible conflict with the
scribes into which Jesus was led by his champion-
ship of the " people of the land," a few words must
be devoted to a cycle of narratives presented in du-
plicate by Mark and Matthew, occupying a central

position in every one of the Gospels.

*'lnff^" The chief feature of these is the feed-

^J*^ ing of the multitude. They owe their

conspicuous position, as appears from
the features on which they dilate, to their etiolog-
ical significance, as explaining and defining the
order of the church rite of the breaking of bread;
and the very existence from earliest times of this
institution, with its significant name of Agape or
Love-feast (qq.v.; Acts vi. 4; I Cor. xi. 2(3-34;
Jude 12), proves the fundamental historicity of the
tradition. True, Mark's narrative is controlled by
the idea of a prodigy outstripping the miracle re-
lated of Elisha in II Kings iv. 42-44, and the later
evangelists follow this lead. Still the original mo-
tive is different. It inculcates that wonderful spirit
of absolute abandon in self-denying service which
formed one of the primitive " gifts of the Spirit "
(I Cor. xiii. 3; Acts ii. 44-46, iv. 32-37), and which
was rightly attributed to the influence of Jesus.
The multitude gathered about Jesus in the wilder-
ness had hung upon his words until the hour of
the evening meal. Yet instead of dismissing them
to find shelter and food as they best could in the
neighboring villages, as the disciples luged, Jesus
directed that the whole stock of their conmion re-
sources be set before them. He not merely made
the multitude thus materially his guests, but took
them formally into the very circle wherein he was
himself wont to act as house-father, " blessing and
breaking the bread." The results in even a phys-
ical sense seem to have filled his followers with
amazement, but became far more memorable after
Jesus on- a later occasion had exemplified the same
spirit in the surrender of his very life-blood. Paul
is the witness (I Cor. xi. 24) that on the night of
his betrayal Jesus asked the continuance of this cus-
tom of the breaking of bread as a fitting memorial
of the life which was being laid down to open the
kingdom of heaven to the spiritually disinherited. *

* In I Cor. xi. and John vi. the two rites, agape and Eu-
charist, are inextricably interwoven; for church practise
had already taken this inevitable coxirse. But in Luke
xxiv. 35 men who know nothing of the latter recognise the
practi.v of tho formor.

Jesus Ohrist

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

166

Invasion of the domain of synagogue authority
by such a movement as that of the prophet of Naz-
areth could not fail to provoke a violent reaction.
This became apparent first in the murmurs of the
Galilean Pharisees at the disregard
6. Oolli^on shown by his followers fcfr set fasts,

A «i rT oe'^n^onial ablutions, and feven for the
ties^ " Sabbath. Jesus deprecated icono-
clasm, but insisted on thd prior right
of ** the greater matters of the law, judgment, mercy
and good faith.'' Local orthodoxy was reenforced
by a delegation of ** scribes from Jerusalem.''
These, when their unworthy ascription of the heal-
ings wrought " by the Spirit of God " to Beelzebub
had been rebuk^ by Jesus, openly challenged his
authority to teach, and demanded a prophet's au-
thentication by ^* sign from heaven." Jesus' reply
was a noble repudiation of such criteria in favor of
God-given " signs of the times." He denounced
the usurpation by the scribes of the right to ad-
mit to or exclude from ** sonship," and their pre-
tensions to be solely qualified to reveal ** the Fa-
ther." Against them he appealed to the *' inward
light." He thanked the infinite " Lord of heaven
and earth " that his truth was not given to the
wise and prudent, but to minds as simple as babes.
As representative and champion of the ** little
ones " he even declared that real knowledge of the
Father belongs to him who has the filial spirit;
while the Father reserves to himself alone the right
to say who is a son (Q, Matt. xi. 25-27 « Luke x.
21-22). ♦

But the Jews required a sign. The scribes re-
mained masters of the field. Whether because of
popular desertion, or the threatening attitude of
Antipas, whose secret murder of John the Baptist
. _. at Machaerus falls at about this period

oAtdmin (^*^^ ^- ^^29; cf. Luke xiii. 31-35),

Qalllee. ^^^ public work in Galilee is from
now on abruptly broken off. He re-
mains in hiding on the northern frontier until, after
secretly rallying his adherents in Capernaum, he
undertakes with them the last emprise. The ulti-
mate decision was made at Csesarea Philippi, near
the ancient Dan. Jesus consulted his few remain-
ing followers as to his own career. The campaign
must either be abandoned, or else reopened on a
larger, but far more perilous scale. The impetuous
Peter, so Petrine tradition relates, broached at this
time the daring proposal of an actual Messianic
coup d*4tat at Jerusalem. It was met by Jesus with
a rebuke of crushing severity. He did indeed pro-
pose to attack the central seat of hierocratic usur-
pation, to vindicate in the temple itself the right of
all the people to their own national sanctuary, now
perverted into a mere instnunentality of extortion
by a godless band of " robbers." Jesus was con-
templating the throwing down of a gage of battle,
in the face of the degenerate priestly aristocracy
whose only relic of the splendid heritage of Macca-
bean sovereignty was the citadel of the temple.
But he would do so in the name only of '^ the things
that be of God." Zealot nationalists should not

* For the generic use of " the ran " cf. John viii. 35.
For the being known ("recognized") of Qod, cf. GaJ. iv. 9;
II Tim. u. 19.

seize the reins to pervert his movement into a mere
fruitless insurrection against the Romans. Once
turned in this direction the result to himself, his
followers, his cause, as he could not but foresee,
would be inevitably fatal. Of the imminence of
this danger he warned them, once and again. Yet
withal, in the spirit of that unconquerable faith in
God which they had learned to know as his most
distinctive trait he assured them that even if — as
was only too probable — shipwreck did thus come
of all their earthly hopes, even if they lost their
lives for his sake and the Gospel's, they should find
them again. Within the lifetime of that unworthy
generation should come his vindication in the great
** day of the Son of Man " of Danielle vision.

In the light of later conviction this assurance of

divine vindication in the Messianic judgment came

to be interpreted as a prediction by Jesus that he

himself would come again as the Son

a8"S^ of Man. This term is ab«ady con-

of Kan." sistently employed in the oldest evan-
gelic source (Q) as a self-designation
of Jesus, though not yet in Paul. From Q it passes
to Mark and thence to the entire evangelic tradi-
tion, creating the wrong impressioti that Jesus was
a visionary {EkBtaiiker), carried away with the
apocalyptic enthusiasm of the early post-resurrec-
tion conventicles. In reality his ideal was ethico-
religious; and the integrity and unswervable fidel-
ity of his simple, straightforward purpose ought to
have made it impossible in the present to impute
to him a perversion from this ideal. In spite of
Jesus' crushing rebuke, a later element of the Pal-
estinian Gospel (Matt. xvi. 17) makes Peter's sug-
gestion of Messiahship at this time the foundation
of the Church. Jesus, it is said, declared it a haih
kolf or revelation from God. Parallel to this prose
statement is the apocalypse or " vision " story of
the transfiguration, interjected by Mark in ix. 2-
10 from some Pauline source of the symbolic type
represented in John. Jesus was " metamorphosed "
(cf. II Cot. iii. 18) before the eyes of Peter, James
and John into his glorified form, while the trans-
lated " witnesses of Messiah," Moses and Elias,
stood beside him. The voice of God then declared
his true character. This again, it need hardly be
said, belongs to the history of Christological doc-
trine; not to the story of Jesus.

The exodus from Galilee was accomplished se-
cretly. The little body of those who were willing
to leave all and follow Jesus to possible martyr-
dom went by way of the Jordan valley, Peraea and
Jericho. At this last stage of the

y^^* journey it received an encouraging ac-
cession, whether the story of Mark is
followed or the " special source " of Luke. Shortly
before Passover, Jesus entered the temple, sur-
roimded by a motley company of enthusiastic, yet
orderly supporters. The priestly authorities were
overawed. The most obnoxious of abuses inaugu-
rated in the sanctuary by ** the hissing brood of
Annas " was abolished, peremptorily, and yet
without mob violence. In answer to the challenge
of the sanhedrin Jesus gave as the sign of his aur
thority ** the baptism of John," a movement " from
heaven and not of men." He had succeeded in

167

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

JosnsOhrlBt

averting the danger of Messianistic outbreak, and
asserted the religious rights of the ** lost sons " in
the central sanctuary, without affording a just pre-
text for Roman intervention. But his success was
short-lived. He had to deal with a hierocracy
which had no scruples about defending its suprem-
acy by intrigue and midnight assassination; a Ro-
man governor notorious for his ruthless harshness
and readiness to shed innocent blood; and for sup-
port the broken reed of a fickle populace, ready at
a moment's notice to forsake the champion of their
rights in the kingdom of God. The tragedy as re-
lated by the first witnesses has but a single act —
** the night in which he was betrayed." The scenes
of that night, the last supper with its warning of
the end, its pathetic " memorial," Gethsemane, the
arrest, with desertion of the twelve, sequestration
of Jesus till the morning in the high priest's house,
Peter's denial and flight, show a vividness un-
equaled elsewhere in the Gospel story. All that
follows is relatively vague and self-contradictory.
Trial was impossible from time conditions alone.
It could only prove self-stultifying to the accusers,
if attempted. Annas and his fellow conspirators
were far too shrewd to involve themselves in such
public responsibility. They merely " delivered
over " Jesus to Pilate as a Messianistic agitator.
It may well be believed that Pilate put no faith in
the disinterestedness of such accusers, and even
that he hesitated at another judicial murder. But
he soon discovered that the popularity of Jesus
was less formidable than the pressure of synagogue
authorities and priestly aristocracy. Jesus' con-
science-stricken disciples emerged from their hi-
ding-places to hear the awful issue. On the day be-
fore the Passover, as the priests had planned (Mark
ziv. 2), Jesus was crucified. The accusation was
written as custom prescribed upon his cross. He
died as having aspired to the throne of David.
Friendly but unknown hands accorded him hasty
burial.

Such is the career whose outline critical analysis
dimly discerns beneath the tradition of the Church.
The vindication came, though not as Jesus ex-
pected it. The throne to which he had not aspired
9 Th ^^ given him by the love and faith
j^^^ of humanity. There was a " turning
again " when the influence of Jesus,
whether by the reaction of memories of the past,
or in direct spiritual intervention from the unseen
world, reawakened the faith of Simon Peter, and
Christianity began, founded in devotion to the
risen and glorifi^ Lord. Benjamin W. Bacon.

Bibuoorapht: The literature is enormous and the foUow-
infi is no more than a selection aiming to direct to the most
useful works from various points of view. The literature
cited is exclusive of works on the teaching, work, and
character of Jeeus, and on special topics or phases of his
life, trial, death, resurrection, and ascension. A bibliog-
raphy carrying all these and other topics is: 8. Q.
Ayres, Jema Chritt Our Lord; an Englith BibHography
of ChrUtology comprUino over 6,000 TUUb annotated and
cUuHAed, New York. 1906; cf. W. B. Hill. A Guide to
Ch« Livee of Chritt for Enolieh Readere, New York, 1905
(gives evaluation of thirty-six lives of Christ). Volumes
which review discussions of the life and works of Christ
are: A. Schweitser. Von Reivuxrue su Wrede, Eine Oe-
aekiekte dm lAhen-Jeeu-Forechung, Strasburg. 1906 (re-
views the attempts up to date to write the life of Jesus);

H. Jordan, Jeaue im Kampfe der Parteien der Oeoemsari,
Stuttgart, 1907; F. Spitta. StreUfragen der Oeeekiehie der
Jeeu, Q6ttingen, 1907; W. Sanday. Life of Chriat in Re-
cent Reeeardi, New York, 1907; H. Weinel, Jeeue im 19.
Jahrhundert, Tdbingen, 1907 (a review of the work of the
century); Q. PfanmtUler. Jeeue im Urteil der Jakrhun-
derte, Leipsio, 1908.

Posdbly the earliest attempt at a systematic Ufe was
that in a series of MedOaHonee viiae Chrieti attributed to
Bonaventura, Eng. transl. by W. H. Hutchings, New
York, 1881; a corresponding effort in English is Jeremy
Taylor's Oreai Exemplar of Sanctity and Holy Life, Lon-
don, 1649 (devotionsil). A new period opened with J. Q.
von Herder, Erldeer dee Menechen and Von Gottee Sohn,
in his Chrieaiehe Sehriften, Biga, 1794-98 (the first no-
table works to apply scientific research). Stadia were
marked by H. E. Q. Paulus. Dae Leben Jeeu, Heidelberg,
1828 (rationalistic); D. F. Strauss, Dae Leben Jeeu, 2
vols., Tdbingen, 1835-36; Eng. transls.. e.g., 3 vols.,
London, 1846, and Dae Leben Jeeu fOr dae deuikshe
Volk, Leipsic. 1864, Eng. transls., London, 1879 (advanced
the mytUcal theory and evoked a storm of protest and
a large number of replies); A. Neander, Dae LAen ChrieH,
<3otha, 1837, Eng. transl., London, 1846 (one of the ear-
liest and best answers to Strauss); E. Renan, Vie de
Jiette, Paris, 1863, Eng. transls., frequent eds., e.g.. New
York, 1904 (more appreciative than Strauss of historical
verities, but yet so stressed the legendary that it evoked
as much opposition as Strauss's work); T. Keim, GeediidUe
Jeeu von Naaara, 3 vols.. Zurich, 1867-72, Eng. transl.,
6 vols., London, 1873, new ed.. 1897 (critical, rationalis-
tic, yet to be reckoned with). It may be serviceable to
the historical student to know that Uie British Mueeum
Catalogue gives in Uie entries under each of these notable
works the titles of replies or criticisms which Uiey evoked.
While the works just named in a way mark stages in
the study, the lives which follow are those which are of
chief value among the very large number of works on
the life of Christ; F. W. Farrar. Life of Chriet; with
an appendix. 2 vols., London, 1874 (popular); C. Gteikie,
ib. 1876; E. De Pressens^. London, 1879; J. Stalker,
Edinburgh. 1879; A. M. Fairbaim. Studiee in ike Life
of Chriet, New York, 1882; A. Edersheim. London, 1883
(utilises rabbinic sources); S. J. Andrews, New York,
1884 (one of the best in English); B. Weiss, 2 vols.,
Berlin. 1884, Eng. transl.. 3 vob.. Edinburgh. 1884; G.
Dalman and A. W. Streane. Jeeue Chriet in the Tal-
mud, Midraeh, Zohar, and the Liturgy of the Syna-
oogue, texts and transl., London, 1893; A. Robinson,
A Study of the Saviour in the Newer Light, London, 1898
(critical but reverent); G. Matheson, Studiee in the Per-
trait of Chriet, 2 vols., London, 1900 (sympathetic and
spiritual); R. Rhees, New York, 1900 (oondse); O.
Holtsmann, Tdbingen, 1901, Eng. transl.. London, 1904;
N. Schmidt. The Prophet of Naeareth, New York, 1906
(critical, of high value); D. Smith, The Daye cf Hie
Fleeh, London. 1905 (highly esteemed); A. Whyte, The
Wcdk, Convereation and Character cf Jeeue Chriet, Ow
Lord, Edinburgh, 1905 (brilliant and original); W. Boua-
set, Jeeua, Eng. transl.. London. 1906 (a judicial con-
sideration of the testimony of the CSospels); A. RtfviUe,
2 vols.. Paris. 1906 (critical); W. Sanday, Outlinee cf
the Life cf Chriet, 2d ed., Edinburgh. 1906. For the
critical literature on Uie sources see under Gosjpblb;
Paxtl the Apostle; and under the articles on the
separate Gk>epels.

JESUS CHRIST, BROTHERS OF. See Jambs,
I., 3, {§ 1-2.

JESUS CHRIST, MONOGRAM OF.

I. Christ.

Different Forms (Si).
Date of Origin (S 2).

Symbolism (S 8).
II. Jesus.
III. Jesus (Jhrist.

** Monogram of Chrifit " is the term usually ap-
plied to a combination of the first two letters of the
Greek word for Christ (XP), although it is also
given to an abbreviated form of the name Jesus
as well as to a synthesis of both.

L Christ: The monogram for "Christ" shows
two chief forms, the "rho" being either placed

Christ

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

168

1. IMflSBFmt

within the " chi " (<), or the latter being set
iq;>right and the fonner Buperimpoeed on that arm,
which thus becomes verti<^ ( f ). Two additional
forms were given by the reversal of the '* rho "
(f: , t )> and the addition of a horizon-
tal line at right an^es to the " rho "
in the first of the main types gave yet
another pair of monograms (M, k)- There are also
a number of less usual forms, as when the Latin
" r " is substituted for the Greek " rho," which
is found in Syria (420), Gaul (after the middle
of the fifth century), and Italy (chiefly at Ravenna
and on a tombstone at Milan).

The form f is exclusively Cliristian, although
it closely resembles the Egyptian ankh ( t )» the
symbol of life, which is twice altered into the Chris-
tian monogram in an inscription of the sixth cen-
tury from the island of Philse, where it marks the
transformation of a temple into a church. The
monogram f , on the other hand, is pre-Christian,
and appears on Attic tetradrachms, on Ptolemaic
coins, and in an inscription to Lds of 13S-137 B.C.,
while in Greek manuscripts of the Christian period
it forms an abbreviation of various words.

It has long been a problem whether the mono-
gram for the name of Christ was introduced by the
Emperor Constantine or was in use before his time.
The inscriptions with this symbol to which appeal
has been made in confirmation of the latter hjrpoth-
esis are either spurious or extremely doubtful.
The oldest Roman epitaphs of certain date which
bear the monogram < are of 323 and 331, both
in the reign of Constantine, wliile the earliest dated
monument from Gaul is in 347. Yet
^ ^** since a monogram was made for the
Origin, name Jesus in the second century, it
would seem that the name Christ
underwent the same process, and that Constantine
adopted a form which was already current. This
is confirmed by the fact that f as an abbre-
viation for ' 'Christ " is found in certain inscriptions
of the third century. The monogram occurs with
great frequency in the inscriptions on Christian
graves, sometimes alone and sometimes with the
" alpha " and " omega " (see Alpha and Omega),
with the fish, between two doves, between palm-
branches, in a gariand, in a circle, and the
like. It is found throughout the Greek and Ro-
man worid, as well as among the Copts and in
Germany. Nor is it confined to inscriptions, but
occurs on funeral lamps, glass vessels, sarcophagi,
wall-paintings, ornaments, and even on clothing
and other articles of daily life. The two main forms
of the monogram long existed side by side, and
occasionally occurred on the same monument, but
in the fifth century f gradually yielded to f , and
both finally gave place to the simple cross.

The Emperor Constantine placed the monogram,
apparently in the form 4, on his standard and
helmet, as well as on the shield of his soldiers, and
its use was very frequent on the coins of his suc-
cessors (except Julian) until Justinian I. (d. 565),
when it was replaced by the cross. In the second
half of the fourth century the monogram was placed
on public buildings, the earliest dated instance
being from Sion (Switaseriand) in 377. It was like-

wise employed in the churches, the oldest example
being a mosaic in the Church of St. Constantia at
Rome, where it appears in a scroll in the hand of
Christ. In the remarkable church of the Savior
at Spoleto, which dates probably from the Kcond
half of the fourth century, the monogram ft oc-
curs on the great arch above the altar, while the
% is found on the tympanum of two side-windows
of the facade. Other structures showing the mono-
gram are the temple on the banks of the Clitumnus
(apparently transfonned into a church in the fifth
century), Sta. Maria Maggiore in Rome (fifth cen-
tury), and Sta. Franoesca Romana in the same
city (twelfth or thirteenth centuiy).

In epitaphs the monogram is either used as a
simple abbre\iation of the name Christ, or, if
isolated grammatically, denotes confession of
Christ. In eariy art it stands as a symbol of Christ,
as when he is typified on a sarcophagus in the
Vatican grottos by a lamb which stands on a
mount (Rev. xiv. 1) and bears the f on its head.
It is likewise associated with the human figure of
Christ, a single monogram being placed either above
his head or in a halo, while in other cases one is
represented on each side of his head.

8. Sym- When set between two persons on

bolism. glass vessels, the monogram symbol-
ises the presence of Christ in their
midst. Particulariy interesting is the symbolism
frequently found on sarcophagi which represents
the monogram f in a gariand sustained by a
flying eagle above the cross, at the feet of which
appear the guardians of the grave. Here the lower
portion typifies the crucifixion and the repose of the
tomb, while the upper part is an emblem of the
resurrection and ascension. The monogram appears
also as a purely symbolic figure, as when a tomb-
stone of 355 represents a man holdiog the f in
his outstretched right hand.

XL Jesus: The oldest form of the monogram
for the name Jesus is the Greek Tu, which is im-
plied in the Epistle of Barnabas ix., where in the
318 men circumcised by Abraham (a combination
of Gen. xvii. 23 with xiv. 14) is traced an allusion
both to Jesus (IH) and to the cross (T), the Greek
mode of writing 318 being I'fT', an interpretation
which passed to the Latin Church. The employ-
ment of this monogram in ancient Christian monu-
ments, however, is rare, although it is found in the
catacomb of Prisdlla and in the atrium of the so-
called Capella GrcBca. In the Occident the form
IHS has been extremely wide-spread since the end
of the Middle Ages, this being due especially to the
sermons of Bemardin of Sienna, who used to dis-
play at the close of the addresses which he delivered
in various cities a tablet containing these letters
written in gold and surrounded by the rays of the
sun. This monogram later became the iqiedal
emblem of the Jesuits.

in. Jesus Christ: The simplest form for the
combination of both the divine names in Greek is
H, consisting of the initials I X. This mono-
gram, though ancient, is rare, but is found on a
tombstone from Rome in 268 or 279, and on others
from Gaul in 491 and 597. It likewise occurs
between the " alpha " and " omega " (bronse

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

^MnuiOhxlst

lamp in the museum of Estense) and in a circle
(above a throne in the center of a sarcophagus at
Tusculum). The form is occasionally modified to
Hf especially in graffiti of the catacomb of St.
Calixtus, while a Gallic gravestone of 498 shows
the three forms i y M , and "f . The monogram
occurs also in the mosaics of several churches of
Ravenna.

The usual abbreviation of the two names in the
oldest manuscripts of the New Testament is fc
Xc, which is also found in the Neapolitan cata-
combs, while in the Greek Church it was frequently
placed on the base of the paten. It appeared on
the coins of the Byzantine emperors from John
Zimiskes (969-975) to the fall of the dynasty, and
was also employed in Greek paintings and sculp-
tures, as well as on the bronze doors of 1070,
formerly in the church of St. Paul at Rome. Par-
ticularly noteworthy is the transfer of this mono-
gram to the medieval Latin Church. In the ancient
church of St. Peter at Rome were mosaics of the
time of Innocent III., which represented Christ
enthroned between Peter and Paul with the in-
scription fc 5r&, while similar mosaics are still
preserved from the eariy part of the fourteenth

century in the church of Sta. Bfaria Blaggiore at
Rome. Italian easel-pieces of the fourteenth and
fifteenth centuries likewise show this form of the
monogram. The Latin fonn of the monogram for
Jesus Christ was IHS XRa which occur in the
earliest Latin manuscripts of the Bible, the first
two letters of each part being expressly declared
to be Greek and the last Latin. In the Occident
this form was used from the earliest times in in-
scriptions, sculptures, and paintings, especially in
miniatures of the Carolingian period and in medie-
val panel-paintings, while it was placed on Byzan-
tine coins from Basilius Macedo (867-886) to
Romanus Diogenes (1068-71). (A. Hauck.)

Bibuoorapht: SpieiUgium SoUmnenue, ed. J. B. Pitra, iv.
606 sqq., Paris. 1868; £. le Blant, /ntcrtpfiofM dvri-
Uennu ds la OauU, vol. i.. panim. ib. 1866; G. B. de Roeoi.
InBcripHonet ehrUHano! urtn» RomWt vol. i. fMMsim, Rome,
1861; R. Gamicci, StcriadeUa arte criaHana, i. 163 sqq.,
Prato. 1881; F. X. Kraus, Real^Eneyklapddie der duriat-
lidien AUerthUmer, ii. 125 sqq., 412 sqq.. Freiburg, 1886;
V. Sohultie, ArcfUUjiooie der altchrUUidten Kunet^ pp.
235 aqq.. Munich. 1896; DCA, ii. 1310-14; C. M.
KauflEmann. Handbuch der chriaUiehen Arehtkciooiet pp.
296 sqq., Paderborn, 1905; H. Ledercq. Man%»el d'ar-
cKMooU ehritienne, ii.. 383 sqq.. Paris. 1907; F. Cabrol,
DicHonnaire d'arehiolooie chrHiennet i. 178 sqq., Paris, 1903.

JESUS CHRIST, PICTURES AND IMAGES OF.

I. Tbe Oldest Views and Data on the II. Literary Data on the Oldest Pio-

Extemal Appearance of Jesus. tures of Jesus.

The Apocrypha and Pseudepig- III. Extant Pictures of Jesus.

rapha (f 1). 1. Portraits Ostensibly Authentic.

The Church Fathers (f 2). Portraits by Painters. Sculptors.

Other Data (f 3). etc. (f 1).

Alleged Supernatural Pictiues (f 2).

2. Pictures of Jesus in Ancient Art.
Symbolical and Allegorical Repre-
sentations (i 1).
Representations as Teacher and
Lawgiver (12).
IV. Origin of the Pictures of Jesus.

L The Oldest Views and Data on the External
Appearance of Jesus: Neither the New Testament
nor the writings of the earlier po6t-BibIic2.1 Chris-
tian authors have any statements regarding the
personal appearance of Jesus, thus contrasting
sharply with the Apocrypha and the Pseudepig-
rapha and especially with the works of the Gnos-
tics. In the '' Sheidierd " of Hennas (ix. 6, 12) the
lofty stature of the Son of God is emphasized, and
according to the Gospel of Peter he even towered
above the heaven at his resurrection. Gnostic
influence is betrayed by visions in which Christ
appears as a shepherd, or the master of a ship, or in
the form of one of his apostles, as of Paul and of
Thomas, or again as a young boy. In the Acts of
Andrew and Matthew he assumes the figure of a
lad, and the same form is taken in the
X. The Acts of Peter and Andrew, in the

Apociypha Acts of Matthew, and<in the Ethiopic

and Acts of James. Manazara is healed

Pseud- by a youth in the Acts of Thomas,

epigxapha. and a beautiful lad appears to Peter
and Theon in the Actti8 Vercellensia,
which also mentions the smile of friendship in the
face of Jesus. A handsome youth with smiling
face appears at the grave of Drusiana in the Acts
of John, but certain widows to whom the Lord
restored their sight saw him as an aged man of
indescribable appearance, though others perceived
in him a youth, and others still a boy. The
youthfulness of Christ is also mentioned in
the life and passion of St. Cffidlius, and the pas-

sion of Saints Perpetua and Felicitas ascribed to
the risen Christ the face of a youth with snow-
white hair.

The early Christian authors were by no means
concordant in their opinions of the personal appear-
ance of Jesus. Some, basing their judgment on
Isa. lii. and liii., denied him all beauty and come-
liness, while others, with reference to Ps. xlv. 3,
regarded him as the most beautiful of mankind.
To the former class belong Justin
2. The Martyr, Clement of Alexandria, Basil,

Church Isidor of Pelusium, Theodoret, Cyril of

Fathers. Alexandria, Tertullian, and Cyprian.
Origen declared that Christ assumed
whatever form was suited to circumstances. It
was not until the fourth century that Chiysostom
and Jerome laid emphasis upon the beauty of Jesus.
While Isidor of Pelusium had referred the phrase,
" Thou art fairer than the children of men " in
Ps. xlv. 2, to the divine virtue of Christ, Chiysostom
interpreted the lack of comeliness mentioned in
Isa. liii. 2 as an allusion to the humiliation of the
Lord. Jerome saw in the profound impression
produced by the first sight of Jesus upon disciples
and foes alike a proof of heavenly beauty in face
and eyes. From the insults inflicted upon Jesus
Augustine concluded that he had appeared hate-
ful to his persecutors, while actually he had been
more beautiful than all, since the virgins had loved
him.

The problem of the external appearance of Jesus
possessed but minor interest for the Church Fathers,

Jeans Christ

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

170

although the Catholic Acts of the Holy Apostles
ascribe to him an olive complexion, a beautiful
beaxxl, and flashing eyes. Further details are first
found in a letter to the Emperor Theophilus attrib-
uted to John of Damascus (in MPG, xcv. 349),
which speaks of the brows which grew together,

the beautiful eyes, the prominent nose,

3 Other the curling hair, the look of health.

Data. the black beard, the wheat^4x>lored

complexion, and the long fingers, a
picture which almost coincides with a hand-book
on painting from Mt. Athos not earlier than the
sixteenth century. In like maimer, Nioephorus
Gallistus, who introduced his description of the
picture of Christ (MPG, cxlv. 748) with the words,
" as we have received it from the ancients," was
impressed with the healthful appearance, with
the stature, the brown hair which was not very
thick but somewhat curling, the black brows
which were not fully arched, the sea-blue eyes
shading into brown, the beautiful glance, the prom-
inent nose, but brown beard of moderate length,
and the long hair which had not been cut since
childhood, the neck slightly bent, and the olive and
somewhat ruddy complexion of the oval face. A
slight divergence from both these accounts is shown
by the so-called letter of Lentulus, the ostensible
predecessor of Pontius Pilate, who is said to have
prepared a report to the Roman Senate concerning
Jesus and containing a description of him. Accord-
ing to this document Christ possessed a tall and
handsome figure, a countenance which inspired
reverence and awakened love and fear together,
dark, shining, curling hair, parted in the center in
Nazarene fashion and flowing over the shoulders,
an open and serene forehead, a face without wrinkle
or blemish and rendered more beautiful by its
delicate ruddiness, a perfect nose and mouth, a full
red beard of the same color as the hair and worn
in two points, and piercing eyes of a grajrish-blue.
The unauthentic character of this letter is admitted
by all.

n. Literary Data on the Oldest Pictures of Jesus:
(1) A handkerchief embroidered with the figures
of Jesus and his Apostles, and made, according to
legend, by his mother, is said to have been seen by
the monk Arculfus during his residence in Jerusa-
lem (Adamnan, De locis Sanctis, i. 11 [12]). (2) In
his account of his visit to Csesarea Philippi, Eusebius
mentions (Hist. eccl. vii. 18) a group of statuary in
brass which consisted of a kiieeling woman and a
man standing with his hands stretched out toward
her. Local tradition saw in this a figure of Jesus
and the woman healed of an issue of blood, who
was said to have come from Csesarea Philippi.
This legend was accepted by Eusebius, Asterius
Amasenus, Photius, Sozomen, Philostorgius, and
Macarius Magnes, the last-named calling the woman
Beronike. The actual meaning of the group is
uncertain. Some have seen in it an emperor and a
province, possibly Hadrian and Judea, while others
have regarded it as iEsculapius and Hygeia, a view
which is vitiated by the fact that no mention is
made of the serpent-staff characteristic of statues
of the god of healing. It is entirely possible that
the group actually represented Christ and either

the woman with an issue of blood or possibly the
woman of Canaan who implored him to heal
her daughter. (3) According to Irenseus (Hear.,
I., XXV. 6), pictures of Christ were possessed by the
Gnostic sect of Carpocratians, who crowned them
with garlands like the pictures of philosophers —
Pythagoras, Plato, Aristotle, and others — ^while,
according to the Carpocratians, Pilate had a
portrait of Jesus painted during his lifetime, and
the Carpocratian Marcellina pos^ssed a picture of
Christ which she honored, like those of Paul, Homer,
and Pythagoras, with prayer and incense. (4)
The Emperor Alexander Severus had a picture of
Jesus; it must have been, however, only an ideal
portrait, like those of Apollonius, Abraham, Or-
pheus, and others, which were also included in his
larariimi (Lampridius, Vila Alex. Sev. xxix.).
(5) A brass statue of the Savior was erected by
Constantine the Great before the main door of the
imperial palace of Chalce (Theophanes in MPG,
cviii. 817). (6) A picture of Jesus " painted from
life " was possessed by the Archduchess Margaret
which may be the same one as Dilrer's altar-piece
of St. Luke at Brussels (M. Thausing, Durer,
p. 420, Leipsic, 1876).

While the portraits just mentioned were prepared
by human agency, there were others to which a
supernatural origin was ascribed. To this cate-
gory belong (7) a picture at Camulium in Cappa-
docia, apparently on cloth and perhaps a copy of
that of Edessa (see below). It was mentioned at
the second Nicene Council and was carried to Con-
stantinople by Justin II., where it was regarded as
so sacred that a special festival was instituted in its
honor, and it was frequently carried in war as a
potent icon (/. Gretsei opera, xv. 196-197, Re-
gensburg, 1741). (8) In the war against the Per-
sians the General Philippicus had a picture of Christ
which the Romans believed to be supernatural in
origin, and the same portrait served to quell a
mutiny in the army of Priscus, the successor of
Philippicus. This icon was apparently on cloth,
and was a copy of an original which was frequently
confounded with a portrait in Amida, although the
latter is expressly said to have been painted, and
was, consequently, natural in provenience (Zach-
arias, MPG, Ixxxv. 1159). (9) A Syriac fragment
mentions a picture of Jesus painted on linen and
found unwet in a spring by a certain Hypatia
shortly after the Passion. This portrait left a
miraculous imprint on the napkin in which it was
wrapped, and one of these pictures found its way
to Csesarea while the other was taken to Comolia
(possibly identical with the city of Camulium al-
ready mentioned), although a copy was later found
at Dibudin (?) (Lipsius, Die edessenische Abgarsage,
p. 67, n. 1, Brunswick, 1880). (10) About 570 a linen
mantle was shown at a church in Memphis which
bore the impress of the Savior's face and was so
bright that none could gaze at it (Antoninus Martyr,
De locis Sanctis, xli v. ). (11) Byzantine literature fre-
quently mentions pictures of Christ impressed on
bricks. According to a legend which presents sev-
eral slight variations, the portrait of himself which
Jesus had sent to Abgar at Edessa was believed to
have been walled up to save it from the attack of

171

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jesus OlurUt

King Ananun and to have been rediscovered in
639 together with a brick which bore a miraculous
oop7 of the original (Georgius Cedrenus, ed. fiekker,
i. 312, and others). (12) The patriarch Germanus,
when forced to leave Constantinople, is said to have
taken with him a picture of Christ which later came
into the possession of Gregory II. (G. Marangoni,
Iftofia dell* oratorio di San Loremo, pp. 78 sqq.,
Rome, 1747). (13) The doth with a picture of
Christ presented by Photius to the hermit Paul at
Latro in the ninth century was merely a copy of a
miraculous original, although only he to whom the
gift was made was able to perceive the portrait,
others seeing only the cloth (Gretses, ut sup. p, 186).
(14) More important than all other statements con-
cerning the oldest pictures of Christ is a passage of
Augustine (De trin. viii. 4), stating that the por-
traits of Jesus were innumerable in concept and
design.

in. Extant Pictures of Jesus. 1. Portraits Os-
tensibly Authentio: (1) The paintings of Luke, of
which the best known are two at Rome. One of
these is in the chapel Sanctus Sanctorum, although
the statement that Luke painted a portrait of Jesus

dates only from medieval times, the
1. Portraits monk Michael, the biographer of Theo-
by Paint- dore of Studium, being one of the car-
ers, Sonlp- liest sources. In the last quarter of the
tors* etc twelfth century the legend of Luke was

interwoven by Wemher of Niederrhein
with the tradition of Veronica (see below). Luke,
in answer to Veronica's entreaties, is said to have
made repeated attempts to portray Christ, but his
endeavors were unsuccessful. Jesus then impressed
the image of his face upon the handkerchief of
Veronica. Another picture ascribed to Luke and
painted on cloth is in the Vatican library, while
a third is said to have been placed in the
cathedral of Tivoli by Pope Simplicius. Other
pictures are likewise ascribed to a similar prove-
nience, and very late traditions even attribute
statues of Christ to the chisel of Luke. [In the
church of San Miniato at Monto, in the en-
virons of Florence, Italy, is shown a portrait
of Christ, attributed to Luke.] (2) To Nicode-
mus is ascribed a statue of the crucified Christ
carved in black cedar and preserved in the Ca-
thedral of Lucca. Its design shows that it dates
at the earliest from the eighth century, although
tradition states that the model of Nicodemus was
furnished by the impress of the Savior's body on
the linen cloths purchased to cover the corpse at
the descent from the cross. (3) A " true and only
portrait of our Savior taken from an engraved
emerald which Pope Innocent VIII. received from
Sultan Bajazted II. for the ransom of his brother,
who was a captive of the Christians," frequently
reproduced in photograph, is in reality the copy of
a medal which may have been cut at the command
of Mohammed II., and which is, at all events, of
comparatively modem date. (4) The mosaic in
the Church of St. Praxedis in Rome, which is ex-
hibited on festal occasions, is by no means one of the
earliest Christian mosaics, although tradition re-
f^iuda it as a present to Pudens from the Apostle
Peter.

Alleged supernatural pictures may be divided
into those which represent the entire figure of Jesus,
and those which give only his face. (1) Cloths of
medieval date containing more or less dear outlines
of the figure of a man, all claiming to be the " nap-
kin " in which Jesus was wrapped in the grave and
on which his image was impressed,
3. Alleffol were formerly found in Chamb^ry,
UJ?^^ and, until the end of the eighteenth
^^j^y^j^ " century, in BesanQon, while they still
exist at Compidgne and Turin, the lat-
ter " napkin " being declared authentic by a bull
of Sixtus IV. Far more famous, however, are the
cloths which bear only the impress of a head or face
and of these one of the best known is (2) the picture
of Edessa, or the Abgar picture. According to the
Doctrine of Addai and Moses of Choren, Hanan, the
envoy of the king of Edessa, painted a portrait of
Jesus and took it to his royal master. Evagrius,
on the authority of Procopius, states that Christ
sent to the king a picture of miraculous origin.
The legend apparently arose about 350, and may
well have been based on an actual painting which
remained at Edessa till 044, when it was brought
to Constantinople by the Emperor Romanus I. Its
subsequent fortunes are uncertain, although various
cities laid claim to its possession, especially Genoa,
Rome, and Paris, the first-named city advancing
the most probable arguments for authenticity and
receiving the confirmation of Pius IX. (see Aboar).
This picture shows only the head of Jesus, but
legend also knows a full-length Edessene portrait
on linen produced by contact with the body of
Christ. It is mentioned by Gervase of Tilbury in
the beginning of the thirteenth century, who bases
his statement on ancient sources and says that it
was exhibited on festivals in the chief church of
Edessa, and that on Easter it shows Jesus succes-
sively as a child, boy, youth, young man, and in the
ripeness of years. (3) One of the choicest treasures
of the Roman Church is the handkerchief of Ve-
ronica, which is shown only on special occasions,
particularly in Passion Week. This portrait is
said to have been transferred in 1297 by Boniface
VIII. from the Hospital of the Holy Ghost to St.
Peter's in Rome, where it reposes behind the statue
of St. Veronica. The picture, which is now much
faded, shows an elliptical face with a low-arched
forehead, in marked contrast with the long nose.
The mouth is slightly open, and the scanty hair is
visible only on the temples. The beard on the
cheeks is thin, but is stronger on the chin, where it
ends in three points, while the mustache is more
conspicuous for color than for strength. The
eyes, arched by scanty brows, are closed, and,
combined with features distorted by agony and
stained with blood, complete the picture of a
martyr pale in death. From the point of view of
esthetics and the history of art, the picture is
probably Byzantine. Although one would expect
the picture of Veronica to be regarded as the napkin
which covered the head of Christ, there is no tra-
dition as to its origin, although a mass of medieval
legends connects it with the name of a woman.
These may be divided into two classes. In the older
group, apparently written shortly before the ninth

Jesus Ohrist

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

178

century, Veronica appears as the woman afflicted
with an issue of blood, who had a portrait of Jesus
either painted by herself or at her bidding, or else
impressed by Christ himself upon a piece of cloth.
The second form of the legend sprang up in France
and Germany in the course of the fourteenth cen-
tury and superseded the older version before 1500.
According to this tradition, Veronica gave the
Savior a handkerchief on his way to Golgotha, and
received it back impressed with his features.
Further amplifications of the tradition stated that
the napkin was brought to Rome by John VII., or
even during the reign of Tiberius, while it is certain
that Celestine III. prepared a reliquary for it. At
all events, what is clear is that during the medieval
period Rome possessed a cloth picture of Christ,
which was apparently supposed to be the miracu-
lous impress of the head of Jesus in the sepulcher.
It is significant, moreover, that it bore the name
sudarium before the rise of the legend of the hand-
kerchief given Christ to wipe his face on his way to
the cross, nor was it until the twelfth century that
the name of Veronica even began to form a part of
the tradition, a connection suggested by a popular
etymology of Veronica as Vera eiKuv (" true
image ''). This legend of Veronica gave rise to a
tendency of art which reached its culmination in
DQrer, who represented the napkin of Veronica and
the Savior with a crown of thorns, combining the
suffering in the face of Jesus with the loftiness and
the majesty of the Son of God. (4) The picture of
Christ in the apse of St. John Lateran at Rome is
supposed to have been miraculously produced when
the church was dedicated by Pope Sylvester, al-
though it is in reality a mosaic of recent date.

2. Piotures of Jesus in Andent Art : In the course
of time pictorial representations of Jesus became
either real or symbolical and allegorical, the latter
tendency gradually giving way to the former. To
the category of symbols belong the fish, the lamb,
the various monograms of Christ, and the Good
Shepherd, the last-named leading to representations
of Jesus in human form. As early as Tertullian the
Good Shepherd adorned chalices,

*• Symbol- ^j^j i^ ^^^ ^ favorite form of decora-

Aii ^ ition in the catacombs, where the
Allefforioal ^ ,, . ' .

Bepresen- ^S^^ usually cames a goat or a

tations. wether. In these pictures, often
adorned with other animals, trees,
and shrubs, and based on Luke xv. 5; John x.;
and Ps. xxiii., the Christ appears only in youth-
ful guise, although the Shepherd is usually clad in
garments of a higher rank and wears the Roman
tunic and the pallium as well as sandals. The
figure, moreover, is Latin instead of Oriental in
type, and represents a youthful and beardless,
sometimes even bo3rish, figure, a round head with
curling hair, and a frank face with regular features.
This type of picture, purely ideal as it was, under-
went evolution in the course of time. In the third
century the face grew more oval, while the unparted
hair grew slightly over the forehead in the center
and flowed on the sides in wavy or curly locks.

The first real impulse, however, to artistic rep-
resentations of Jesus was given by his miracles,
though the risen Lord as a teacher and a lawgiver

became more and more a subject for pictorial
representation. In the midst of all or a part of his
disciples, including Paul, Christ appears either on a
plain, as in Spain and southern France, or standing
on a mountain either within or without the four
rivers of Eden, or sitting on a throne
2. Bepre- yf^^ y^ f^Q^ q^ ^ footstool or on the

*®^**^'* clouds, while mosaics represent him
and Law- *® seated on the celestial globe. As
fflver. ^ teacher, he is depicted as speaking
and as holding a book or scroll either
in his hand or on his bosom, while as a lawgiver
he proffers the Gospel to Peter or Paul. In
both of these latter categories, the beardless,
youthful type gradually grows less frequent, so
that on Roman, Upper Italian, and French sarcoph-
agi the central Christ appears bearded, although
in the reliefs on their sides he wears no beard, the
former representing the risen Lord and the latter
the earthly Savior. Originally a characteristic of
the ascended Christ, the beard was attributed to
Jesus during his earthly ministry after the end of
the fourth or the beginning of the fifth century.
The strug^e between the two types is seen in the
mosaics of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo at Ravenna and
of St. Michael, but the earliest specimen of the
bearded Christ is generally believed to be the so-
called CalUstinian mosaic which was found in the
catacomb of St. Domitilla. In conformity with
the manhood implied by the beard, the body in-
creased in height and breadth, while the features
became more sharply defined as the bones gained
in accentuation over the flesh. The nose became
longer and more prominent, and the eyes were
deeper and their pupils enlarged, while the angles
of the nose and mouth were more sharply outlined.
The hair, while frequently less curling than hitherto,
was now represented as falling to the neck and
shoulders, and was often parted in the middle.
The color both of the hair and of the beard varied
through all shades from yellow to gray and black.
The upper lip was never dean-siiaven, and the beard
was sometimes dose and sometimes either pointed
or rounded, the parted type being found only in
rudimentary form in early Christian art.

The bearded Christ represents the climax of the
art of early Christianity, and the fifth century
ushered in a period of decay marked by all manner
of exaggeration. Majesty became stiffness, ex-
altation unapproachability, and earnestness gloom.
Thus the Christ of Saints Cosmas and Ihunian
(q.v.) in Rome, dating from the sixth century, is
a figure with long face, projecting cheek bones,
ashen complexion, attenuated nose, mane-like hair,
and scanty beard.

It was the task of the Middle Ages to reduce the
multiplidty of concepts of the likeness of Christ
to imity, a task which required centuries for its
completion. The Carolingian period saw a sort of
fruitless recrudescence of the process of evolution
of the early Christian period. Even during the
Renaissance the beardless type strug^^ed for su-
premacy with the bearded, espedally in miniatures
and ivories, but the former steadily lost ground,
so that its last sporadic occurrence is a Scandi-
navian Christ in glory of the thirteenth century.

178

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

JMnui Christ

such pictures as the Pietdi of Botticelli at Mimich
being mere anachronisms.

IV. Origin of the Pictures of Jesus: While the
theory may be advanced that the oldest pictures of
Christ were based either on works of art still more
ancient or on tradition, it is practically certain that
they are not real portraits but ideal representations.
This is clear both from their extreme diversity and
from the words of Augustine: " What his appear-
ance was we know not." The most primitive type,
wherein early Christian and Gnostic documents
agree, is that of a boy or youth. The youthful
vigor of the early Church in religious and in moral
thought, sustained by the belief in the second
coming of the Lord and strengthened by persecu-
tion, inspired the artist to depict the Christ as the
incarnation of undying youth, even as Noah, Job,
Abraham, and Moses were represented as beard-
less boys. Herein, too, lay the genesis of the con-
cept of the Good Shepherd.

With the fourth and fifth centuries the bearded
type was evolved side by side with the beardless.
The explanation of this change lies in the perfection,
strength, and manliness implied by the beard.
The parted hair, on the other hand, which is charac-
teristic of the pictures of Christ in this period, espe-
cially in the mosaics, typifies his earthly lineage
and designates him as one of the children of Israel,
since of human beings only Jews and Judeo-Chris-
tians are represented with parted hair in early
Christian art. The theory, advanced by many
scholars, that Greek religious art influenced the
various eariy Christian concepts of the personal
appearance of Christ seems to lack sufficient evi-
dence to be in any wise conclusive.

(NlKOLAUS MOller.)

Bibliookapht: W. Bayliss. Rex rtfftun. A Painier'9 Study
of Oi€ LikenMt of Christ from the Time of the ApoetUe,
London, 1908; A. N. E^dron. leonographie ehritienne,
Hiaioire de Dieu, Paris, 1843; W. Grimm. Die Sa4fe vom
Urepruno der Chrietuatrilder, pp. 121-175, Berlin, 1844;
Mrs. Jameaon, Hieiory of our Lord aa Exemplified in Worka
of Art, 2 vols.. London. 1872; A Hauck, Die EnUlehuno
dee Chrietuetypue in der abendlAndieehen Kunat^ Heidel-
beis, 1880; T. Heaphy. Likeneaa of Chriat, New York.
1880 (illustrations valuable): H. M. A. Guerber. Legenda
of the Virgin and Chriat, tcith Special Reference to , . .
Art, ib. 1896; £. M. HurU. Life of Our Lord in Art, Bos-
ton. 1888 (valuable); E. von Dobochats, Chriaturirilder,
Leipme. 1899; F. W. Farrar. Life of Chriat aa Repreaented
in Art, London, 1900; J. L. French. Chriat in Art, Bos-
ton, 1900; F. Johnson. Have We the Likeneaa of Ckriat,
Chicago. 1903; J. Bums. The Chriat Face in Art, New
York. 1907; J. S. Weis-Uebersdorf. Chriatua- und Apoa-
telbitder, Freiburg. 1902: J. Reil. Die frOhchriaUichen Dar-
ateOungender Kreuxigung Chriati, Leipsic. 1904: K.M . Kauf-
mann. HandJlnuk der thria&ieken Arehdologie, Paderbom,
1906; G. A. MOUer. Die lieUiche OeataU Jeau Chriat, naeh
deradiriftlichen und monumenlalen UrtradiHon, Styria, 1909.

JESUS CHRIST, THREEFOLD OPnCE OF: A

phrase connoting the functions of Christ as prophet,
priest, and king. From the earliest times Jesus has
been recognized as the representative of a twofold
and yet unitary theocratic function, as king and
priest. The spiritual kingdom of the Messiah has
its foundation in the sacrifice of his life (Matt. xvi.
15-25, xz. 25-28). This thought may be traced
from the second century to the time of the Refor-
mation. But as eariy as Eusebius a threefold office
is ascribed to Christ, that of prophet, priest, and

king, and this is traceable to Jewish sources. The
view of a threefold office, however, did not suppress
the tradition of a twofold office, although the three

designations of Christ were always used

Historical separately. Among the medieval theo-

Survey. logians, Thomas Aquinas approaches

closely the conception of Eusebius since
he speaks of legidator, sacerdoSj and rex, but with
him this is merely a mechanical division, and Thomas
makes no further use of the threefold scheme. The
Evangelical doctrine followed in the beginning the
tradition of a twofold office (cf . the works of Luther
and the older Evangelical catechisms). Calvin added
the prophetic office as a third function, and his
conception of the doctrine of Christ's work be-
came the basis for its treatment in Reformed theol-
ogy and soon also in Lutheran theology. As prophet
the Messiah brings the full light of intelligence and
thus becomes the fulness and consummation of all
revelations. As king of a spiritual and eternal king-
dom he not only brings his people external and
passing aid, but equips them especially with the
gifts for eternal life and guards them against their
enemies. As priest Christ secures to his people by
his atonement and vicarious suffering the blessing
that God deals with them not as judge, but as grar
cious father. In accordance with these principles
Calvin emphasized the truth that communion with
God is found in Christ's living personality and in
life communion with that personality. In the Hei-
delberg Catechism (Questions 31 and 32) the thought
of Calvin received a finished form and found a large
circulation. The orthodox followers of Calvin, how-
ever, attempted both to explain the full content of
the Messianic person from three points of view, and
to analyze the act of salvation in its historical de-
velopment according to the threefold scheme, thus
not easily escaping the mistaken assumption that
Christ had become first prophet, then priest, and
finally king. It became the custom to deprive
Christ of his royal function in the state of humilia-
tion and of the prophetical function in the state
of exaltation. Against this mechanical tendency,
Cocceius opened new and fruitful points of view by
returning to the living material of the Bible. The
usual order of the offices of Christ seemed to him
justified in so far as the dignity of Christ rose in
the growing mind of the people, from the state of a
prophet to that of a king. But in reality, he states,
Christ's priesthood must be put in the first place,
since even before time he mediated between bia
Father and the people; then follow the royal and
prophetic offices. The first office is that through
which Christ acquires his people; the second that
through which he keeps them; and the third that
through which he leads them to the knowledge and
love of the king. This double consideration would
have resulted in an oiganic and simultaneous union
of the offices in the living personality, even if Coc-
ceius had not expressly added that the entire media-
torial act lasted until the end of days.

The Roman catechism also teaches the threefold
office of Christ. In Lutheran theology the doctrine
was adopted only at a late period. Melanchthon
had not left to the school of theology which followed
him a uniform system as Calvin -had left for Re-

Jesus Ohxlst

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

174

formed orthodoxy. The interest in the individual
reception of justification drew attention from an all-
sided objective observation of Christ and his
gifts. There was even a tendency to
In Lu- reduce the twofold office of Christ to a
theran single function. According to Me-
Theology. lanchthon and Hesshusen, Christ is be-
fore everything priest; even as king he
exercises essentially priestly functions. Selnecker
seems to have been the first who used the formula
of a threefold office, but his exposition is governed
also by the priesthood of Christ, to which the two
other offices are related like introduction and con-
clusion. Others again, like Gerhard, tried to iden-
tify the priestly and prophetical offices. Henmiing
and Nicolaus Hunnius taught that the office of the
king was supreme and that it comprehended the
other two functions. Everywhere the same con-
centration upon one point is found. In the mean
time, however, Hafenreffer and especially Gerhard
had directed their attention to the idea of a three-
fold office as advocated by Eusebius and Calvin.
Gerhard not only used the new expression, but
tried to prove that only the sum of the three offices
offers the fulness of Christ's benevolent gifts. In
the regnum poterUiae he found a specific function
for the royal office. Since the middle of the seven-
teenth century, after the old Melanchthonian scheme
of dogmatics had been replaced by an objective
and historical arrangement of the material, there
was room for a coherent representation of the work
of Christ, which was systematized according to the
threefold office. There was a reaction of the old
Lutheran sentiment in 1773 when Emesti criticized
the reigning doctrine because he could not see why
the clear and sufficient designation of the work of
Christ as saiiafactio should be obscured by meta-
phorical phrases. Moreover, he was of the opinion
that the different offices were not clearly separated
from each other, so that one title might justly cover
all of them. Other dogmaticians after him raised
similar objections on the ground that neither the
prophetical nor the royal office stands upon equal
footing with the priestly office, but that both point
to the atonement which is included in it. But the
majority of recent dogmaticians adhere to the
scheme of a threefold office. Schleiermacher took
the lead in this tendency by attempting the suc-
cessful proof that the three offices in their indisso-
luble union completely define and circumscribe the
character of redemption as accomplished by Christ.
With the exclusion of the prophetic office, he holds,
the clear consciousness of the believer would be su-
perseded by a magical mediation of salvation.
Without the royal office, there would be lacking the
relation of the individual believer to a community.
Finally, the absence of the priestly office would rob
the foundation of Christ of its religious content.

The doctrine of Christ's threefold office repre-
sents the redeemer as the fulfiller of all Old-Testa-
ment prophecies and thus of all needs of the human
being. Everything that Israel expected of its future
salvation had concentrated itself more and more in
the hope of the Messiah, " the anointed of God "
(John i. 41, iv. 25). He was thought of as the king
who was to restore the glory of David's kingdom.

In the course of time the prophet, who as successor
of Moses was never to be wanting among God's people
(Deut. xviii. 15), became identical with the Messiah
(John vi. 14-15). The third office is
Interpreta- reflected in the picture of the Mes-
tion and siah in Isa. liii. God's people can feel
Significance themselves secure only when all con-
of the flict of the theocratic offices is excluded
Doctrine, by unity and every blessing of sal-
vation is to be found in one single
person (Heb. vii. 23 sqq.). There was a longing
especially for the solution of the frequent historical
conflict between kingdom and priesthood (I Sam.
ii. 35; Zech. vi. 12 sqq.). A priest-king after the
manner of Melchizedek was hoped for (Ps. ex. 4).
All these elements were combined in the idea of the
Messiah who was to possess the spirit of God in
many-sided fulness and as the power of a compre-
hensive redeeming activity (Isa. xi. 1 sqq., Ixi. 1
sqq.; cf. Luke iv. 18 sqq.; John iii. 34). The
anointing with the spirit mentioned in these pas-
sages has the significance of the anointing of kings,
priests, and to a certain extent also of prophets in
so far as they were endowed with the charismata.
By confessing Jesus as Christ, the Christian congre-
gation expresses that it finds in him the performer
of all activities which secure salvation to the p>eople
of God. Jesus is king (Matt. xxi. 5, xxvii. 11),
prophet (Matt. xxi. 11; Luke vii. 16), and high
priest (Heb. ii. 17, iii. 1). The scheme of the three-
fold office permits of arranging the Biblical material
in its original connection, as it belongs to a com-
plete representation of the person of Christ. Its
systematic value becomes evident only from the
proof that for the fulfilment of the Messianic ac-
tivity there is necessary nothing more and nothing
less than the functions designated by it. The three
offices of prophet, priest, and king correspond to
the needs of the moral education of man and of his
connection with human society and the surround-
ing world. If the activity of Christ on earth were
restricted to atonement, it would not be possible
to speak of the perfection of the human being in
connection with Christ. It is a matter of course
that in every moment of his earthly and heavenly
activity Christ exercises at one and the same time
all his offices. Socinianism claims for the entire
activity of Christ on earth only the prophetical
office in order to reserve the other functions as faint
ornaments for the state of exaltation (Racovian
Catechism, §§ 191 sqq., 456 sqq.). The permanent
union and simultaneous exercise of the three fimo-
tions do not exclude, however, a fixed aim, namely,
the kingdom. To this as the organizing purpose of
the whole points before everything the Biblical
basis of the formula, the starting-point and essential
content of the Messianic office is royal dominion
over and for God's people, the peculiar modification
of which is described by the other titles.

(E. F. Karl MOller.)

Biblioora'pht: For history of the doctrine oonsult: H. L. J.
Heppe, Dogmatik det dmUadten ProUstanUamtu im 16.
Jahrkundert, pp. 209 sqq., 222 sqq., Gotha, 1867; idem,
Dogmatik tier evanoeli^ch-reformirUn /CtrcA«, Elberfeld,
1861; A. Schweiser, GlaubeiuUhre der evaiweliBeh-reformir-
ten Kirdke, vol. ii., Zurich, 1847; H. Schmid. DoomaHk
der evanifditehHrBfvt wiw-fca Kirdktt Fhnkfort. 1876; A.

176

REUGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Christ

Ritfldil« Die diriaUi€k$ Lehre von der tUiidftriiguna umd
V9n6knuf%a, i. 520 sqq., iiL 394 aqq., Bonn, 1882-83. Eng.
transl.. of vol. i., Edinburgh, 1872. For exposition of the
doctrine consult the literature under Dooma, Dogmatics;
Westminbter Absemblt.

JESUS CHRIST, TWOFOLD STATE OF: The doc-
trine dealing with the humiliation and exaltation
of Christ. Christian faith has always spoken of a
humiliation and exaltation of Christ when it com-
pared the earthly appearance of Jesus on the one
side with the mode of existence of the preexisting
Logos, and on the other side with the present worki-
nile of the Mediator. But the formula
The of a twofold state has been coined only
Lutheran in connection with the definite inter-
Doctrine, pretation given to the incarnation by
Luther and the Christological theory
that followed in his steps. From the dogmatic idea
of the unchangeableness of God and of the commu-
nication of divine attributes to the human nature
of Christ there results a terminology which must
make room in the earthly life of the Redeemer for
a human development, otherwise inconceivable, by
a special " state of humiliation." Incarnation de-
notes, accordingly, not a descent of the Logos, but
an elevation of human nature, which has been re-
ceived into the most intimate connection with the
divine nature. In virtue of the Communicatio
Idiomatimi (q.v.) which b^an with his incarna-
tion, it was impossible for Christ to rid himself of
his divinity. With the incarnation the exaltation
of human nature to divine glory was completed
once for all. ** When he [Christ] began to be a
man, he also began to be God " (Luther). Ac-
cording to Brenz, the real ascension of Christ began
with the incarnation. " Divine nature," however,
" can neither be humiliated nor exalted." The life
of Jesus within the limits of human development
rests, therefore, upon that act of self-limitation of
the God-man — not of the Logos — which is described
in Phil. ii. 5-9. In this way the state of self-renun-
ciation is brought about. The exaltation or ** maj-
esty " of Christ was self-evident, but the great prob-
lem to be solved was how humiliation was possible.
Johann Gerhard among the Lutheran theologians
most fully developed the doctrine of the two states
of Christ. The communicatio idiomatum, accord-
ing to him, was accomplished at the moment of in-
carnation, but Christ did not make use of them, he
renounced them, he took upon himself the form of
a servant, until he ascended to heaven and sat on
the right hand of God; hence the distinction be-
tween the state of self-renunciation and the state
of exaltation. The state of humiliation, there-
fore, does not denote the unconditional lack and ab-
sence of the divinity and majesty communicated t^
the flesh, but only the retraction and intermission
of its use. In 1616 there originated a controversy
between the theologians of Giessen and those of
Tabingen (see Christologt, IX.) as to the manner
in which Christ emptied himself (see Kenobis) of
his divine attributes, whether it was mere conceal-
ment (Gk. krypsis) or an actual emptying (kendns).
The orthodox theologians did not consider the self-
renunciation of Christ mere simulation, but a true
and real self renunciation of the plenary commimi-
cated divine majesty and virtue. There arose also

a question as to the time when the state of self-
renunciation began. According to Luther's inter-
pretation of Phil. ii. this state began only after the
birth of Jesus. After his birth Jesus might have
exalted himself above men, if he had not been will-
ing to serve them. But according to the later dog-
maticians the state of humiliation began with the
conception. Since humiliation, however, does not
consist in the assumption of human nature, but in
the assumption of the form of a servant, incarnation
is distinguished from its incongruous form — the in-
carnation of the Logos is not his humiliation but
an exaltation of human nature, while the act of
conception is the first act in the humiliation of the
God-man. The state of exaltation begins with the
descent of Christ into hell as the triumph of the
God-man over the devil (see Descent of Christ
INTO Hell).

For Reformed theologians the doctrine of the
twofold state of Christ is of minor dogmatic im-
portance; their attention was concentrated not so
much upon the dogmatic assertion of the unchange-
ableness of God as upon the practical Biblical view
of the truly hmnan development of
The Jesus. According to the Reformed
Reformed doctrine the Logos himself is the sub-
Doctrine, ject of the kenOsis described in Phil,
ii. In this way it was impossible for
the Reformed to avoid contradiction with the dog-
ma of the unchangeableness of God. In reference
to Phil. ii. they accepted the Lutheran doctrine
that the Logos did not assume human nature in
general, but the form of a servant, and by identify-
ing incarnation with Christ's obedient conduct until
his death on the cross, the Reformed were able to
speak of a humiliation of the God-man. The exaK
tation beginning with the resurrection actually ex-
tols human nature to a higher stage.

Within Protestant orthodoxy the treatment of
the doctrine of states has led to a tendency to dis-
solve the theory of the two natures in its scholastic
form. On the Lutheran side the true
Develop- humanity of Christ became inconceiv-
ment able, on the Reformed side there was
Modem at least proposed the full revelation of
Teachings. God in Christ. Holding to the ortho-
dox standpoint of the unchangeable-
ness of God, the Lutherans could not make conceiv-
able the humiliation of Christ, while the Reformed
could not explain the full and essential connection
of God with the humiliated Christ. By their efforts
to satisfy merely the immediate religious needs, in
consonance with the practical and empirical spirit
of modem times, theologians like Ritschl have dis-
carded altogether the doctrine of states, holding
that we must not transcend the simple belief that
the man Jesus stands over against us on the side of
God. Thus they simply cut off all insoluble ques-
tions concerning the relation of the eternal to the
earthly son of God, and accordingly there is no
need to speak of a special state of hmniliation. But
the development not only of the thought, but of
practical faith results in the recognition that the
truth of God's appearance in the flesh must in the
end suffer if this side of the doctrine of states is dis-
carded. In this connection the question of pv^

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

exiHtenee can not be discussed, but it is to be re-
merobered that the Biblical passages relating to it
confirm an actual participation of God in the revela-
lion in Christ. God's eelf-offer in Christ becomes
conceivable only by the humiliating sacrifice of the
eternal son for sinful humanity. Passages like John
iii. 16: I John iv. S; Rom. viii. 31-32; Gal. iv. 4
testify that in Christ we have the living and deci-
aive expression of divine love, not merely a histor-
ical phenomenon which assures this love. As to
the interpretation of Phil, ii., there has been brought
forth only one really exegetical reason which ti.p-
parently excludes the relation of that passage to
the descent of Christ from heaven. It has been
pointed out that the apostle desires to give in Christ
an example of humiliation which is imitable. But
this objection maj' be refuted if it is com^idered
that the imitation of Christ in the sense of the New
Testament does not always mean an actual appro-
prialion of his actions in their essential quality, but
simply the mode and manner of his actions and
sentiments so that he, like God himself, may be an
example in matters which are not imitable in their
essence (Eph.v. 25; I Pet. iii. 13, 18-19; Matt. v. 45;
Eph. V. 1-2). See Chbistologt.

(E. F. Kabl MCller.)

Bibuookapht: J. J. V&n Oosterue, Chrutian Dogmatia,
iL 4M >4q., Nfw York, D.d.; J. H, EbrBrd. Cluvllirltt
Doamahk, vol. ii.. KODigaberg. I8A2: F. A. Ptiilippl, KircS-
lidie aiaubentUkn. vol. iv., GUl«rsloh, 1885; A. B. Bruce,
H^umilia^on of Chritl in id Phvtical, Ethical and Official
AipecU. New York, 1887: J. Kfistlin. L^Mm Thrologir.
BtutlflUt. 1901; W. A. Brawo. ChriMan Theotoni in
OuUitw, pp. 332-33fl. N'sir York. 190Q; imd the litenture
under CoimimicATio idiobatuii.

JETZEH,yet'ser,JOHAlIHES: Journeyman-tailor
and religious impostor; b. at Zurzach (16 m. n.n.e.
of Aarau) in the canton of Aargau, c. 1483; d. after
1520. In 1506 he entered the Dominican mon-
astery of Bern as lay brother. He is described
OS uneducat«d. morally depraved and deceitful,
even suspected of theft. On Mar. 24, 1507, ac-
cording to his story, St. Barbara appeared to him
and a few days afterward the mother of God to an-
nouacc that she had been indeed conceived in sin,
as the Dominicans taught. To prove the truth of
her divine revelations, she impressed upon him in
repeated visits the stigmata of Christ, and now Jet-
cer began to act the story of Christ's sufferings in
the church in lively manner. The monastery, whose
picture of Mary shed bloody U^ars, attracted large
crowds of people, and sold with great success hand-
kerchiefs moistened with the blood. But doubts
arose, and in July the bishop of Lausanne under-
took an investigation which came to nothing. Sub-
sequently the magistrate of the town investigated
the case. Jetzer viaa imprisoned and tried; after
various denials he confessed that the whole affair
was an imposture in which the four head-maslers
of the monastery, Johannes Vatter. Dr. Stephan
Boltzhurst, Franz Uelschi, and Heinrich Steineg-
ger, were implicated. The matter was immediately
reported to Rome and aft«r a competent jury had
been instituted, the culprits were tried under tor-.
ture. In IfiOQ the four monks were condemned

and burned alive as blasphemers, and Jetzer disap-
peared. The scandal caused great sensation and
indignation, especially at Bern. A large literature
of pamphlets in Latin, German, French, and Dutch
told the scandalous story and confirmed the gen-
eral verdict concerning the corruption of monastic
life. (E. BLOBCHf.)

BiDuooaAPBt: G. RetlU;. Die Urkunden dta Jriierprotaaa,

in Arrhic dea AittoriarAen Vereinx dea Kanton Bvm, vol.
xi., I88B; R. PbuIub, Ein Juiliimord an vitr Dominilcanim
braaneen, Frankfort, 18B7.

JEWEL, JOHN : Bishop of Salisbuiy and a noted
defender of the Reformation settlement in Eng-
land; b. in the parish of Berimber, Devonshire,
May 24. 1522; d. at Monkton Forleigb (2 m. n.w.
of Bradford), Wiltshire, Sept. 23, 1571. He went
Grat to McrtOD College, Oxford, and then, winning a
scholarship, to Corpus Christi College, taking his
bachelor's degree in 1540. Two years lal«r he was
elected to a fellowship at Corpus Christi. During
his university life he was strongly influenced in the
direction of BibUcol criticism by John Parkburst.
his tutor, and confirmed in a general Protestant at-
titude by Peter Martyr, who came to Oxford in
1547. Some time before 1551 he took orders, and
about the end of that year became vicar of Sun-
ningwell, near Oxford. On the acceasion of Mary
in 1553 he lost his fellowship, and ultimately, after
seeking peace even at the coat of signing articles
which he did not believe, was forced to flee. He
arrived at Frankfort in March, 1555, but soon joined
Peter Martyr at Strasburg, and foUoH-ed him to
Zurich in the following year. On receiving the
news of Queen Mary's death he started for Eng-
land, arriving there in March, 1559, and was made
bishop of Salisbury Jan. 21, 1560. He was active
in preaching and in the visitation of his diocese, and
soon took a prominent place in the controventy
with Rome. His Apologia pro ecdeiria Anglicana
(London, 1502) has been called " the first methodi-
cal statement of the position of the Church of Eng-
land against the Church of Rome." By it Jewel se-
cured acknowledgment as the official champion of
Anglicanism. He was engaged for several years
in an exchange of controversial works with Thomas
Harding, an old Oxford contemporary, who eap-
ported the papal cause. All his writings are not/^d
for learning, clarity, and precision. Of his works,
which are all deliberate, scholarly, and logical, a
completfi edition was published in 1609. Modern
editions are those by R. W. Jelf (8 vols., Oxford,
1848) and another in 4 vols., published by the
Parker Society (Cambridge, 1845-50).

Biblioosapbt: Thearisiiial biography vasby L. Humphrey.
Jaannit JueUi . , , vila tt mnn. London. 1573, and wu
lOQdeneed by D. Featloy in the Mrmoir prefixed (o tha
Warkt. 1B09: a Mconil modeDsalion vae pT«<aed (o an
pd. of the AjiotPtiti and the EpitOe to Sripia. London. 1685.
r^rodueed In C. Woodaworth, Etfletiattieal Bioorajthu^

ib. 1863

The« Ii™

<™re t

c bMia of that by C. W.

LeBaa.

b. 1835. A Memoir i>

prefiiEd aim to the Parker

ed. of the Wa-ks. Co

Ault lurther: DNB, udi.

378-382

S. a. Ovorlo

. Thj, a^uTch in England, i. WB^

401, ii.

6-37, London.

18OT;

W. H. Frere. Tht Snghth

ChuriJ,

Bim, ib

1904; and in Beueiml the

workgo

the hielory o

Jei™l'

JEWS. See Israel, History (

177

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

JesQS Christ

Jews, KUalons to the

III.

In the Primitive Church.

In the Roman Catholic Church.

Early Miasions (f 1).

Missions in Spain (f 2).

Missions in Other Countries (f 3).

In Protestant Churches.

JEWS, MISSIONS TO THE.

Lutheran and Reformed Churches (f 1 ).

English Missions (f 2).

Minor English Missionary Societies

(§3).
Missionary Societies in Other Countries

(§4).
Missions in the United States (f 5).

rv. Methods and Practical Conaidera-
tions.

Methods in Christian Lands (| 1).

Methods in Non-Ehrangelical Coun-
tries (i 2).

Influence of Zionism on Jewish
Missions (| 3).

L In the Primitive Church: Although the king-
dom of God which Christ had come to realize was
to extend, according to the predictions of the proph-
ets, not only over Israel, but over the whole earth,
Jesus had, nevertheless, restricted his personal ac-
tivity to Israel; and had even commanded his dis-
ciples not to go in the way of the Gentiles (Matt.
X. 5). It was not till he was about to depart from
the earth that he conunanded them to teach and
baptize all people. The Twelve, however, directed
tlieir efforts primarily to the Jews; and the earliest
Christian congregations were composed entirely of
Jews and proselytes to Judaism. Apostolic mis-
sions among the Jews were so successful that James
could point out to Paul thousands of converted
Jews (Acts xxi. 20) . A large number of priests were
also obedient to the faith (Acts vi. 7); and in the
congregations which Paul founded in Asia Minor,
Greece, Crete, etc., the nucleus was Jewish. That
the conversion of the Jews was not lost sight of in
the second or third century is proved by the dia-
logue of Justin Martyr with the Jew Trypho and
Tertullian's Adversua Judceos. But Jewish Chris-
tianity had long developed a heretical tendency by
insisting upon the national and religious peculiari-
ties of Judaism and by avowing the most pro-
nounced Gnosticism. The further growth of the
Jewish element in the Church would have seriously
endangered her inner life and existence, if the in-
surrection of Bar Kokba had not led to a sharp
separation of Judaism from the universal catholic
chiEiracter of the Church. Deprived of their polit-
ical power and national autonomy, the Jews con-
centrated their whole spiritual life upon the study
of the Law and produced the Talmud. The trans-
formation of prophetism into Talmudism created
a wide gulf between Jews and C^hristians. From the
very beginning, the spirit of the Talmud drew a
veil over their eyes (II Cor. iii. 13-16).

XL In the Roman Catholic Church: The early

church did not possess any special institutions for

the conversion of the Jews, although

X. Eariy there were always those whom the love

Missions, of Christ compelled to preach the Gos-
pel to the Jews, and there were like-
wise other factors which made it advisable for the
leaders of both Church and State to win the Jews
for Christianity. Cassiodorus, when he became a
monk, felt himself constrained, in his exegesis of
the Psalms (as in his conclusio to Ps. Ixxxi.), to urge
the Jews to be converted. So the Emperor Jus-
tinian, from political motives, stated that the pur-
pose he had in ordering the synagogues to use the
Greek and Latin translations of the Old Testament,
and to abstain from Talmudic exegesis, was to lead
the Jews to Christianity. Bishops did not hesitate
to resort to acts of violence to compel the Jews to
become Christians. Justice, however, demands reo-

VL— 12

ognition of the fact that many popes protected the
Jews. Gregory I. condemned all compulsory bap-
tisms, and by kindliness and rewards tried to win
the Jews for the Church. Although he put no
high estimate upon converts gained in this way, he
counted upon their descendants. '' If we do not
win the parents," he said, " we shall have their
children " — a remark which experience proved to be
ill-founded, especially in Spain. There was hardly a
century that works were not written to bring about
the conversion of the Jews, hardly one in which re-
wards were not offered to secure them for the Church,
and also not a century in which numbers of prose-
lytes, thoroughly convinced, did not pass over to
Christianity, many of whom became an honor to
the Church.

Proselytes have ever been especially active in

missions to the Jews. In the seventh century

Bishop Julian of Toledo (d. 690) wrote

2. Missions the De sextcs cetatis comprobatione conr

in Spain, tra Judceoa to refute the Jewish no-
tion, then asserting itself, that Jesus
could not be the Messiah, as he was not to appear
until the sixth millennium of the world. Almost at
the same time Isidore of Seville wrote two books in
which he proved the Christian doctrine of faith
from the Old Testament and especially pointed out
that the Christians now formed the true Israel.
Raymond of Pennaforte, general of the Domin-
icans, introduced the study of the Hebrew language
and Talmudic writings in his order, especially for
the promotion of missionary activity among the
Jews; and another Dominican, Pablo Christiani
of Montpellier, a Jew by descent, was the first
real missionary preacher. He traveled in southern
France and elsewhere, preaching and disputing with
the Jews in churches and synagogues, and proving
the Messiahship and divinity of Jesus from Bible
and Talmud. At the same time the Dominican
Raymund Martin, a Christian by birth, but well
versed in Hebrew, Aramaic, and Arabic, wrote his
Pugio fidei contra Mauros et JudceoSf an armory for
the disputes of the following times. Abner of Bur-
gos, a respected physician and Christian convert,
wrote several Hebrew and Spanish books for the
conversion of the Jews. John of Valladolid, an-
other proselyte, wrote an exposition on Ibn Ezra's
commentary on the Ten Commandments and a
Concordia legum of Judaism and Christianity. Car-
dinal Pedro de Luna, later Benedict XIII., himself
had a debate in Pampeluna with Rabbi Shem Tob
ben Shaprut, and took a lifelong interest in the
conversion of the Jews. He was the first patron of
Rabbi Solomon Halevi (135^1435), later known
as Paul of St. Maria, archbishop of Burgos, and in-
terchanged controversial letters with Joshua of
Lorca, until he finally became a Christian. Among
the thousands who at that time entered the Church,

Jews, Missions to the

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

178

frequently, it is true, for secular reasons, or from
fear or compulsion, there was a great number of
sincere believers in Christ. In the beginning of the
fifteenth century the Dominican Vincent Ferrer
((J. v.), who wandered through Italy, France, and
Spain as a missioner, developed an astonishing ac-
tivity in converting Jews; at least 20,500 are said
to have been baptized in Castile and Aragon. The
reason for such zeal of conversion in Spain was due
to the extraordinary power of the Jewish popula-
tion which threatened to suppress the spiritual and
material development of Spain.

In France there were comparatively few eCForts

in this direction; and at the court of Louis the

Pious there was even a suspicious sympathy with

Judaism. With the exception of Nicholas of Lyra

(1300-40), of Jewish descent, though

3. Missions bom a Christian, who wrote a number

in Other of controversial writings against the
Countries. Jews, there was hardly any one who
labored for the conversion of the Jews.
Still, France lacked neither pious proselytes and
families of proselytes nor numerous compulsory
baptisms, persecutions, and acts of violence. In
Italy both power and monks were deeply interested
in the conversion of the Jews. Lorenzo of Brun-
disiimi (d. 1619), general of the Capuchins, preached
with great power and traveled through Italy, He-
brew Bible in hand, converting rabbis and laymen.
In Rome many Jews accepted Christianity at all
periods, and in 1550 Paul III. founded an institute
for the conversion of the Jews; while Pius V. won
more than a hundred learned and rich Jews for the
Church. Many of the innumerable proselytes in
Italy occupied high positions in the Church, or
were received into the nobility of the nation. The
history of missions among the Jews in England is
singular. During the reign of William Rufus, the
Jews complained because so many of their number
became Christians; the king attempted to force
them to return to Judaism, but the steadfastness of
these prosel3rtes hindered the execution of his men-
aces (1100). About 1200 Richard, prior of Ber-
mondsey, established a hospital of converts, and
the Dominicans in Oxford opened a similar institu-
tion. Henry III. set apart a special house in Lon-
don for the reception and care of proselytes, for
which it soon became necessary to organize branch
institutions. Under Eklward I. 500 proselytes re-
ceived baptism in the Converts* House, yet this
same king was compelled, in 1290, to banish 16,500
Jews for usury and coining. Germany stands in
the strongest contrast to England. Here there is
no record of any missionary efforts, but only of
compulsory baptisms occasioned by the persecu-
tions during the crusades, the invasions of the Ta-
tars, and the Black Death.

Modem Roman Catholic efforts for the conver-
sion of the Jews began in France, The two brothers
Lehmann, both proselytes, worked successfully un-
der Pius IX. among the Jews of France. The
proselyte Abb<^ Bauer used his brilliant oratorical
gifts for the conversion of the Jews in Paris and
Vienna. The most extensive work, however, was
carried on in Palestine by the proselyte Maria Al-
phonse Ratisbonne, who joined the Roman Catho-

lic Church in 1842. With his brother he established
the order of N6tre Dame de Sion for the education
of Jewish girls and founded many charitable insti-
tutions, not only in Palestine, but also in France,
England, Chalcedon, Galatia, and elsewhere.

in. In Protestant Churches: Luther's attitude
toward the Jews was at first favorable, as is evi-
dent from his Dasa Jesus ein geborner

1. Lutheran Jvde war, but in later works, as in his

and Von den Juden und ihren Liigen, he
Reformed showed utter hopelessness of the con-
Churches, version of the Jews, so that little zeal
in that direction could have been ex-
pected. Nevertheless, there were numerous pros-
elytes in the Lutheran and Reformed Churches,
among them Immanuel Tremellius of Ferrara, who
at Heidelberg, with Ursinus and Olevianus, took
part in the compilation of the Heidelberg Catechism.
In the seventeenth century Ezra Edzard (b. at
Hamburg June 28, 1629; d. there Jan. 1, 1708) of
Hamburg, was greatly interested in the conversion
of the Jews, and from his own means established a
considerable fund for that purpose. His sons Georg
and Sebastian continued his work. Similar funds
seem to have existed in other cities; as, for example,
in Geneva, where a part of the ecclesiastical rev-
enue is still called Fond des proselytes^ and again in
Darmstadt and Frankfort. Among the Pietists,
who distinguished themselves by their missionary
zeal, Spener declared it the duty of the government
to take care of the conversion of the Jews; while
the Moravian Samuel Lieberkiihn labored thirty
years among the Jews. In 1728, at the suggestion
of A. H. Francke, Callenberg founded at Ilalle an
Institutum Judaicum, which lasted until 1792.
The two first missionaries of that institution were
Widmann and Manitius, who from 1730 to 1735
traveled through Poland, Bohemia, Germany, Den-
mark, and England. In 1736 they were joined by
Stephan Schulz, the most important worker of that
institute, who extended his travels over the whole
of Europe and the Orient. Through the instm-
mentality of Lessing, and still more through Moses
Mendelssohn, a reform movement took place among
the Jews, starting from Germany and penetrating
the East, while in the Romance countries similar
results were achieved by the French Revolution.
The gradual renunciation of the Talmud on the
part of the liberal Jews dates from that time. The
immediate result was that large numbers turned
to Christianity, especially in Berlin. In 1816-^3,
3,984 Jews, and these the richest and most cultured,
were baptized in the eight old Prussian provinces.

The corruption of the churches and their institu-
tions, and the apostasy of thousands from all faith,
led many in England to believe that

2. English the end of the world was near, and
Missions, that soon a general conversion of the

Jews was to take place. With Simeon
of Cambridge, Marsh of Birmingham, the proselyte
J. F. Fry, and the preacher Legh Richmond, Lewis
Way, a wealthy clergyman, founded in 1808, under
the patronage of the Duke of Kent, the London
Society for Promoting Christianity among the Jews,
which included both churchmen and dissenters until
1815, when the latter withdrew from the organiza-

179

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jews, XUsions to the

tion. Way traveled in Holland, Germany, and
Russia to better the political and social position of
the Jews and to awaken missionary zeal among the
Christians. He induced Alexander I. to promise,
in 1817, his sp>ecial protection, as well as lands, to
baptized Jews. In 1814 the Duke of Kent laid the
comer-stone of a church for the Jews, to which was
added an educational institution for children of
proselytes, a Hebrew college for the training of mis-
sionaries, and a trade school for proselytes. Bap-
tisms became so numerous that in 1832 the found-
ing of a Hebrew-Christian Church in England was
planned, but could not be realized. The society is
the oldest, largest, richest, most enterprising, and
best organized of its type, and has auxiliary socie-
ties throughout the British Isles and Canada. The
society, whose income in 1900-01 was £46,338, with
an expenditure of £36,910, employed at 52 mission-
ary stations 199 workers, among them 25 clergy-
men, 19 physicians, 34 female missionaries, 20 lay
missionaries, 35 colporteurs, 58 teachers, and 8
apothecaries. Of these, 82 were converts from Ju-
daism. Of the 52 stations 18 are in England, 3 in
Austria, 1 in France, 4 in Germany, 2 in Holland,
1 in Italy, 4 in Rumania, 1 in Russia, 1 in Constan-
tinople; in Asia there ^re 10 stations, among them
Jerusalem with 27 workers; in Africa there are 7
stations. About 5,000 Jews have been baptized by
the society since its foundation. Its principal or-
gans are the Jewish Missionary Intelligence and the
Jewish Missionary Advocate,

Among the other English missionary societies for
the conversion of the Jews are the following: The
Free Church of Scotland Jewish Mission, estab-
lished in 1840, with about 77 workers

3. Minor and stations at Budapest, Constanti-

English nople, Breslau, Tiberias, Safed, and
Missionary Edinburgh, and publishing the Free

Societies. Church of Scotland Monthly and The
Children's Record; the Presbyterian
Church in Ireland Jewish Mission, established in
1841, with stations at Hamburg- Altona (with two
ordained missionaries and three colporteurs and
Evangelists) and Damascus (with four ordained
missionaries and four other laborers), and publish-
ing The Missionary Herald of ike Presbyterian Church
in Ireland; the British Society for the Propagation
of the Gospel among the Jews, established in Lon-
don in 1842, its membership including representa-
tives of the various dissenting bodies, with twenty-
two missionaries and sixteen stations in England,
Germany, Austria, Russia, and Turkey, and pub-
lishing The Jewish Herald; the Church of Scotland
Jewish Mission, established in 1841, with stations
in Alexandria, Beirut, Smyrna, Constantinople, and
Salonica, and publishing The Church of Scotland
Home and Foreign Mission Record; The Presby-
terian Church of England Jewish Mission, estab-
lished in 1860, with two missionaries in London,
one agent in Aleppo and one in Corfu; Parochial
Missions to the Jews at Home and Abroad, estab-
lished in 1875, under the auspices of the Estab-
lished Church, laboring chiefly in parishes with a
large percentage of Jewish population, having sta-
tions in England and Bombay, and publishing
Church and Synagogue; the Mildmay Mission to the

Jews, established in 1876, with stations in Russia,
South Africa, Egypt, and Bulgaria, and publishing
Trusting and Toiling; the East London Mission to
Jews, established in 1877, with a mission house and
orphans' home; the Barbican Mission to the Jews,
established in 1879; The Jerusalem and the East
Mission Fund, established in 1897 by Bishop Blyth
of Jerusalem, with eighteen assistants in Jerusa-
lem, Beirut, Haifa, Cairo, and Suez, and publish-
ing Bible Lands; The Kilbum Mission to the Jews,
established in 1896 by the proselyte Ben Oliel, es-
pecially for the well-to-do business men of London;
and The London City Mission to Jews with sixteen
laborers among the 250,000 foreign Jews in Lon-
don. Besides these societies, a Hebrew Christian
Union and a Prayer Union for Israel were founded
in 1897, the latter publishing The Friend of Israel,

In Germany there are three societies for missions

among Jews. The Gesellschaft zur Verbreitung des

Christentums unter den Juden was established in

1822 at Berlin under the influence of

4. Mission- Lewis Way and Tholuck. It has sta-

ary tions in Berlin, Posen, Czemowicz, and

Societies Stanislau. Since its existence about

in Other 713 baptisms have taken place. Its
Countries, official organ is the Nathanael. Inde-
pendently of this missionary society
Prof. H. L. Strack manages the Institutum Judai-
cum, an association formed for the purpose of ac-
quainting theological students at the university
with the mission among the Jews. The Evangel-
isch-lutherischer Centralverein fUr Mission unter
Israel was established in 1871 at Leipsic. It tries
to unite all Lutheran missions among the Jews to
uniform activity and employs three laborers in
Leipsic and in Galicia; its organ is the Saat avf
Hoffnung. In connection with it Professor De-
litzsch founded in 1880 the first Institutum Judai-
cum. There is also a seminary for missionaries
among the Jews. The Westdeutscher Verein fOr
Israel was established in 1843 in Cologne. It has
stations at Cologne, Frankfort, and Strasburg. Its
organ is the MissionsblaU des westdeutschen Vereins
far Israel.

Switzerland has a Verein der Freunde Israels at
Basel, established in 1830. It publishes Der Freund
Israels and UAmi d' Israel, France has a Soci4t6
fran^ise pour T^vang^isation d 'Israel, established
in 1888 by the Rev. G. Krttger, with one mission-
ary for France and agencies in Algiers and Oran.
Its oigan is Le R&veU d*Israd, Scandinavia has
three societies for missions among the Jews: the
" Evangelical National Society," established in
1856, with a station at Hamburg; the " Society for
Missions among Israel,'' established in 1875 by the
Rev. A. Lindstrdm at Stockholm, with a home for
proselytes at Stockholm and lay missionaries at
Budapest and Cracow, and publishing Missions
Tidning fiir Israel; the " Norwegian Central Com-
mittee for Missions to Israel," established in 1865
at Christiania, with two missionaries at Galas and
Bralla in Rumania, and publishing Missions Blad
for Israel. In Russia, where half of all the Jews of
the world live, the government limits Protestant mis-
sionary work among the Jews. Missionary work in
the proper sense is restricted to the State Church.

Jews, Missions to the
Jesreel

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

180

In Kishinef Faltin developed a successful mission-
ary activity after 1859, and Joseph Rabinowitz in
1882-09. In Melbourne, Australia, there is the
Friends of Israel Association, of which the proselyte
Abramowitz is the head.

In the United States there are eleven church mis-
sions: the Church Society for Promoting Christian-
ity amongst the Jews (Protestant Epis-
5. Missions copal) established in 1842 in New York,
in the with stations at New York and Phila-
United delphia and five missionaries, and pub-
States. UsUng The Gospel of the Circumcision;
the Board of Foreign Missions of the
Presbyterian Church of North America, established
in 1871 in New York, working at Urumia, Teheran,
Hamadan, and Sidon, and publishing The Assenv-
bly Herald; the Reformed Presbyterian Mission to
the Jews, established in 1894 in Philadelphia, with
three laborers; and the Messiah Mission of Chicago,
established in 1896 and continued since 1899 as the
Mission of the Women's Association of the United
Presbyterian Church of North America. Specif-
ically Lutheran are the four following missions:
the Norwegian Zionsforeningen for Israelsnussionen
blandt norske Lutheranere i Amerika, established
1878 at Minneapolis, with three laborers in Minsk
and Odessa in Russia and New York; the Jewish
Mission of the Evangelical Lutheran Synod of Mis-
souri, Ohio, and Other States, established in 1885
in New York; the Jewish Mission of the Joint
Synod of Ohio, established in 1892; and the Mis-
sion of the German Lutheran Synod of the Jews in
Chicago, established in 1894 in Chicago. The
Methodists have the New York City Church Ex-
tension and Missionary Society, established in 1892;
the Baptists, the Missionary Society of the Seventh
Day Baptists, established in 1887; and the Quakers
the Friends' Mission at Ramallah in Palestine, es-
tablished in 1870 by English Quakers, and continued
in 1887 by American Quakers as the Eli and Sibyl
Jones Mission. Besides these, there are twenty-one
independent missions, the most important of which
are: the New York City Mission, the oldest of all
American missions, established in 1828; the Chicago
Hebrew Mission, founded in 1887 and publishing
The Jevxish Era; the Gosp>el Mission of the Jews,
formerly the Hope of Israel Mission, established in
1892 in New York; the Brooklyn Christian Mission
to the Jews, established 1892 in New York and pub-
lishing Our Hope and the Yiddish '' Hope of Israel ";
the World's Gospel Union, established in 1892 at
Kansas City, Mo., with eight missionaries, one in
Morocco; the American Mission to the Jews, es-
tablished in 1895 by the proselyte Warschaviak;
and the Inunanuel Mission to the Jews in Cleveland,
established in 1898, and publishing ImmanueVs
Wiiness, The American missions to the Jews en-
gage 150 laborers in all.

IV. Methods and Practical Considerations: A dis-
tinction must be drawn between missions among
those Jews who live scattered in a Christian coun-
try, and those who live in a compact mass and have
their own language and customs, and those in Mo-
hanmiedan and heathen countries. Missions to the
Jews living within the pale of Christian churches
dm have no other purpose but to incorporate

them in the churches. This is especially the case

with the Jews of western Europe. For more than

a century they have been in a process of assimilation

with Christian nations. Self-preserva-

1. Meth- tion, if no other motive, must compel
ods in the Christian Church to carry on mis-
Christian sionary work among the Jews; for it

Lands, would be extremely dangerous if so
many thousands of Jews in the midst of
Christians were equal or even superior to them in
political, social, moral, and economical respects,
and yet opposed in religion. It is the duty of the
Church to educate suitable catechetes and evangel-
ists for this work among the Jews. All missionary
activity should start from the Church. Among the
Evangelical churches only the English and Scotch
and some smaller free churches promote these mis-
sions as a branch of their churchly activity. It is
not the duty of the Church, however, to provide
for the material assistance of proselytes; this be-
longs rather to private charity and independent
associations. The proper p>ersons to be employed
in converting the Jews are Christian clergymen;
although it is much more difficult to prepare bom
Christians for work of that kind than bom Jews,
who can more easily adapt themselves to the mode
of thinking of their brethren. But it would be en-
tirely wrong to gather the Jews into a separate
Judso-Christian Church, since that would lead only
to a new sect; and, on the other hand, extreme
caution must be observed that baptism may not be
granted too hastily or to unworthy recipients.
Methods of missionary work differ according to the
various conditions of the Jews. While the Jews
lived almost without any legal rights among the
Christians, the State and the Church could force
them to hear the preaching of the Gospel in their
own synagogues or in churches. Since the eman-
cipation of the Jews, this method has become im-
possible, and they have accordingly been visited
in their homes, and the Gospel has been announced
to them by the distribution of tracts and books.
But as such visits may be considered by the Jews
an invasion of their homes, nothing is left but occa-
sional meetings in public places. Public lectures,
reading-rooms, and free schools have also contrib-
uted to the success of missions. The instruction of
catechumens must be adapted to their religious con-
dition and spiritual training. Special considera-
tion must be devoted to those difficult doctrines
which for the Jew are not only offensive, but even
detestable, such as the doctrines of the Trinity, of
the divinity of Christ, and of the atonement.

Missionary activity must assume a different atti-
tude in non-EvangeUcal countries, where Jews live
in a compact mass. This is the case

2. Meth- principally in eastern Europe, espe-
ods in cially in the western provinces of Rus-

Non-Evan- sia that formerly belonged to Poland.

gelical The number of Russian Jews is esti-

Countries. mated at from 4,500,000 to 6,000,000.

Thousands of Jews are also crowded

together in Galicia and Rumania. In countries like

Russia missionaries encounter special difficulties,

owing to deep-rooted Jewish fanaticism, hatred of

the ChristiaoB, Jewish narrowness, and great em-

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

dition in the Talmud and Cabala. A missionary who
is not thoroughly versed id Hebrew literature and
science will here be little respected. As only con-
verted Jews thoroughly know the Jewish heart and
the Jewish head, they have, abnoat without excep-
tion, been used for this kind of missionary work.
But there is always danger that inefficient miasion-
aries may be employed merely because they are
proselytes, and that bom Jews may be too indul-
(^nt to Jewish peculiarities and prejudice. Such
cleficieneies and dangers will best be avoided bythc
combined work of bom Christians and proselytes.
Missionary activity among foreign Jews has offered
almost insuperable difficulties. If an individual
person or family in the midst of large Jewish con-
gr(>t!ations adopts Christianity, reception into a
Christian congregation already in existence is often
impossible. The conversion of whole families has
been almost impossible, but since a peculiar inter-
est in Evangelical Christianity has arisen in Poland
and Russia, and dozens of Jews desire instruction
from elei^ymen and missionaries, it will perhaps be
possible to gather eventual converts into JudKO-
Christian congregations; for the Jews of the East
are neither suited nor witling to be absorbed into
another nationality and church. Literature is a
very important means of inBuencing Jews, espe-
cially as the Hebrew New Testament is well received
and much read by the Jews of the E^ast, particu-
larly in the excellent translation of Delitssch. Jews
in heathen or Mohanunedan countries form the
smallest part of the population and they are on the
lowest level in spiritual and moral respects. Though
not learned in the Talmud, they cling obstinately
to their old traditions, and Christianity baa taken
little root among them.

Since 1897 the movement of Zionism has pre-
sented new problems to Christian missiona. It
arose as a reaction against the efforts
3. Influence of assimilation, and as a means of

of Zion- remedying the oppressions of anti-
ism on Semitism; and its object is to regain
Jewish the Jewish country for the Jewish peo-

Misstons. pie. It looks upon missions as an in-
strument by which an increasing num-
ber are cut off from the national body of the Jews;
but on the other hand, the Zionists seek the friend-
ship of the Christians because they need their moral
and material aid in the realization of their plans.
Thus Zbnists are enemies of missions, but not ene-
mies of Christianity. Hissionaries must, therefore,
convince the Jews that acceptance of Christianity
does not necessarily include the sacrifice of Jewish
nationality, and that a national r^eneration of
their people is impossible without a religious re-

The total number of missionaries working among

the 10,000,000 or more Jews in the world is about

SOO. (F. Heuan.)

BmuooiUPnT: F. F. A. de ■■ Roi Dit rvangiiUelu Chnttit-

Acil and dit Judtn tinlrr dtm OttcAiMtpunkt dr MUtion.

3 vob., C«tlarubc, 18M-W; A. A. Bod»r, JVomifiM ef a

UiMiion of Etuiuirv lo Of Jetn from On Ckurdnif Scotland,

Edinbursh. 1861: J. Muoa. Thm Ytart in Ttirtt^;

Jttdital Munon lo l/it Jtta, London. 1880; Ura. EdmnU.

MitnoTiaru Work among Ae Jrv9 in Moldavia. Oahaa,

and SiUtia. Vb. ISBT; ('. K. KaUur, Itratt und dit Kirdt*.

Hunburc ISM: G. A. DkIdiw. Kungefaitei Han/Oniek

dtr Uittion unfrr tmrl. Berlin. 1803: J. Daslop. JU
of Ootprl Triumphi amane liu Jmt, Ixjndon. ISM; 7'M
Jiteitk Quation and iSt JtfUnon lo Uu Jtut. ib. 18M;
A.L. Willmnu: Miui«n,loOuJtm.ih.\«n: W. T. Gid-

and Abnad. ib. IBOO;
A. E. Thomp»a. A Ctnlnni ofJmdtli Mittiont, Edinbunb,
1902: J. Riobler. JOditdit Sli—ioiutadtiMi. Oatenloli,
H. O. Dwiaht. Blut Book of MittionM for

Nei

York. I

OQICnloh. i

JEZEBEL: Wife of Ahab, seventh king of Israd.
She was a daughter of Ethbaal, king of Tyre, and
one of the most unscrupulous yet energetic queens
of history. She seems to have swayed the mind of
her husbuuid, and where he was weak and vacilla-
ting, she supplied courage and resolution. She es-
tablished the worship of the Phenician Baal in the
kingdom, and, while supporting at her own table
the priests of Baal, persecuted the prophets of larael
(I Kings xviii. 4), and vowed vengeance upon Elijah
(I Kings xuc. 2). When her husband despaired of
getting Naboth's vineyard, she ordered the judidal
murder of Naboth and secured for her husband the
coveted possession (I Kings xxi. 5). She survived
Ahab fourteen years, but continued to have great
influence at court, and saw her daughter Athalioh
married to the king of Judah (11 Kings viii. 28).
When Jehu drove into Jezreel, with the deaign of ex-
tirpating the house of Ahab, Jezebel was thrown
from the upper story of the palace to death on the
stones beneath. Her body was crushed under Jehu's
chariot-wheels, and, according to II Kings iz. 30-
35, devoured by dogs. See Ahab; and Eluah.

Bibuoobapht: Consult, bnldfig the p«rtiii«Dt ■ootioni \a Iba
worka named under Ahab: DB, iL SM-flCT; EB, it. 24ST:
JB. vii. ISA.

JEZREEL: A plam mentioned Josh. xviL 16;
Judges vi. 33; Hos. i. 6, etc. The name (" God
sows ") denotes the fniitfulness of the plain as
something unusual, extraordinary, and wrought
by God, and indicates that from the most ancJent
times agriculture was adequately recompensed in
the region. Jeireel is the largest pltun in the
mountain land of Israel, and is therefore called
the " valley " (Judges v. IS; I Sam. xxxi. 7), and
" the great plain " (I Macc. xii. 49). It was of
great significance in commerce, and the road from
Egypt led by tliree branches to the southern edge
of the plain and continued northwest to the coast,
northeast to T^>or and Damascus, while the eastern
edge was crossed by the road from Samaria to Gali-
lee. This made it a continual cause of strife. Hie
IsraeUtes first gained possession of it by the victory
of Barak and Deborah (Judges v.), though the
Canaanitos retained possession of Megiddo, Ibleam,
Taanach, and Dor until the time of the kings (Judges
i. 27). To Hanasseh belonged the southern portion
(Josh. xvii. 11-13), to Isaachar the eastern part
(Josh. six. 18-20), while Zebulun was on the north
(Josh. xix. 10 sqq.). The Israelites imder Saul and
Jonathan sustained a defeat beneath Gilboa (I Sam.
xxxi.); Ahab defeated Ben-hadad II. near Aphek
(I. Kings zx 26); and Josiah was defeated by Necho
II. at Megiddo (II Kings xxiii. 29). The city of
Jezreel, belonging to Isaachar, was situatAd on the
plain, at the foot of Gilboa (Joah. xix. 18), above
Beth-ahean (I Kiuga iv. 12), not far from Cannd

Joab
Joaohizn

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

18d

(I Kingp xviii. 45), and was the home of Ahab and
Naboth (I Kings xxi. 1) and the scene of Jehu's
exploit (II Kings ix. 17 sqq.). It is called Esdrae-
Ion in Judith, iii. 9, iv. 6, and in later times, as in
the Onomasticon of Eusebius; the modem village
Zer'in has preserved the name. There were other
places of note on the plain. Josephus {Ard. XX., vi.
1) mentions Ginaca, the modem Jenin, the old En-
gannim of Josh. xix. 21. Taanach of Judges v. 19
is the modern Ta'annuk. The city of Megiddo lay
on the south border of the plain, and appears as
the Egyptian Maketi and as Magidda in the Amama
Tablets; it was a royal Canaanitic city, and was re-
fortified by Solomon. In the western part lay the
village of Nein, to be identified with the Nain of
Luke vii. 11 sqq. The modem Endur bespeaks the
ancient En-dor of Josh. xvii. 11, south of which is
Sulem, the Shunem of Josh. xix. 18. Aphek must
be sought not far from the city of Jezreel, possibly
in the mins of the modem El-Fule.

(H. GUTHE.)

Bibuooraphy: G. A. Smith, HUttorical Geography of the
Holy Land, chap, xix., London, 1897; H. Reland, Pal&a-
tina, pp. 359-370, Utrecht. 1714; C. Hitter, Comparative
Oeoffraphy of PalesHne, ii. 314-315. 317. 322. iv. 333, 343-
350. Edinburgh, 1866; G. Ebers and H. Guthe, PalOatina
in Bild und Wort, i. 275-290. Stuttgart, 1883; W. M.
Thomson, The Land and the Book, ii. 177-191, New York.
1886; W. M. MQlIer. Aeien und Europa, pp. 157-158. 167,
Leipsic, 1893; F. Buhl, Oeographie dee alien Pal&stina,
pp. 106 sqq., 204 sqq., Tilbingen, 1896; Robinson,
Reeearchee, iii. 161-168; Sch<lrer. Geechichte, i. 494-495,
Eng. transl.. I., ii. 89; DB, ii. 657-658; EB, ii. 2458-2460,
JB, vii. 186-187.

JOAB: One of the most notable contemporaries
of David, son of Zeruiach, sister of David, and
brother of Abishai and Asahel (II Sam. ii. 18). He
first appears in II Sam. ii. 13 as one of David's cap-
tains in the war with Ish-bosheth, though I Sam.
xzii. 1 implies that he had then been long a com-
panion of David. In this war Abner, the leader of
Isb-bosheth's forces, slew Asahel, Joab's brother,
* causing a blood feud with Joab, who avenged his
brother by killing Abner, but under such circum-
stances as to involve David in the suspicion of
playing Abner false, since he was treating with
Abner for the union of the northern tribes under
his sway (II Sam. ii.-iii.). Joab was so powerful
in the army tliat David had to confess his inability
to punish Joab for the murder and the consequences
which might have resulted (II Sam. iii. 39). I
Chron. xi. 4-8 makes Joab win his position of
leader by capturing the fortress of Jerusalem; but
this does not agree with II Sam. v. 6-9 and the
context, according to which Joab was already a
leader.

According to II. Sam viii. 16, when David became
king of all Israel, to Joab was given command of
the army, but since military achievements there-
after were ascribed to David himself, the name of
Joab appears only occasionally. He waged a bloody
war in Edom and drove the Edomitic king in exile
to Egypt (I Kmgs xi. 15-17); defeated the Ara-
mean allies of the Ammonites (II Sam. x. 6-14);
executed the command of David to have Uriah
killed in a skirmish (II Sam. xi. 14-27); and yielded
to David the glory of a hard-earned victory over
the capital of the Ammonites (II Sam. xiL 2&-31)*

It was Joab who, by employing a stratagem carried
through by a wise woman of Tekoa, persuaded
David to recall from exile Absalom, who had killed
his brother Amnon, and two years later secured a
formal reconciliation between father and son (II
Sam. xiii. 39-xiv. 33). In the rebellion of Absalom
Joab remained true to David, killed the iinfilial
rebel, and advised the king wisely when the latter
in mourning for his son was likely to alienate the
affections of his people. He defeated an attempt
of David to appoint Amasa in his place (II Sam.
xvii.-xx.), killing Amasa in the war which arose
over the rebellion of Sheba and thus raising another
blood-feud. He opposed the census of the people
ordered by David (II Sam. xiv. 1-9). At the end
of David's reign Joab favored Adonijah as the right-
ful heir to the throne, and thereby incurred the en-
mity of Solomon, who was designated David's suc-
cessor and was favored by the party of Nathan.
For this and earlier offenses Joab was slain at the
altar by command of Solomon (I Kings ii. 18-34).

(H. GUTHE.)

Biblxoqrapht: The commentaries ou Samuel and Kings and
the relevant sections in the works on the history of Israel
(named under Ahab); DB, ii. 658-659; EB, ii. 2460-2462;
JE, vii. 187-189.

JOACHIM Ly jo'a-kim: Margrave of Branden-
burg; b. Feb. 21, 1484; d. at Stendal (40 m. n.u.e.
of Magdeburg), July 11, 1535. Although only fif-
teen years of age at the death of his father he as-
sumed control of the government and appeared in
the diet of 1500 with the dignity of electoral prince,
having associated his ten-year-old brother with
dimself as nominal co-ruler. Through Dietrich of
Billow the young prince had received a thorough
himianistic education, and in his intense admiration
for the new learning he sought and secured the
friendship of the famous Tritheim, abbot of Spon-
heim, who, after a long soUcitation, visited Berlin
in 1505 <and took part in the following year in the
foundation of the University at Frankfort-on-t he-
Oder. Both by Tritheim and by Aleander Joachim
was praised as a learned prince and as a patron of
the sciences. In the government of his territories
he displayed exceptional energy in the suppression
of public disorder and he followed this up with the
introduction of the Roman law and important ju-
dicial reforms which, however, were slow in com-
ing into effect. In the imperial election which re-
sulted in the choice of Charles V., Joachim played
an unworthy r61e of mingled duplicity and weak-
ness, carrying on secret negotiations both with Em-
peror Maximilian and with Francis I. of France and
appearing finally as a candidate himself. He failed,
however, to secure the vote even of his brother
Albert, whom his influence had made, in 1514,
archbishop of Mainz (see Albert of Branden-
burg). He held himself aloof from the imperial
court until the victory of Pavia in 1525 made Charles
all-powerful in Germany. Thereupon Joachim be-
came a thorough partizan of the House of Hapsburg.

As early as 1514 he had allowed the sale of in-
dulgences to be carried on in his dominions, and
three years later Tetzel was permitted to pursue his
practises there. The theologians at the University
of Frankfort took sides a^cainst Luther, whom the

183

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Joab
Joaohlxn

margrave regarded with personal dislike because of
the former's bitter attack on Archbishop Albert.
A personal interview with Luther previous to the
meeting of the Diet of Worms served only to inten-
sify the opposition between the two. In the exe-
cution of the provisions of the Edict of Worms
Joachim took the leading part, gaining thereby in-
creased favors from the emperor. In 1524 he mar-
ried his eldest son to a daughter of Luther's enemy,
George of Saxony, and in the following year joined
the association formed at Dessau for the destruction
of " The Abominable Sect of Lutherans." In sjflte
of all his efforts, however, the new teachings made
rapid progress in Brandenburg and created dissen-
sions in his own household. In 1527 his wife Eliza-
beth received the communion secretly from a Lu-
theran priest, largely through the influence of her
brother Christian II. of Denmark, whose interfer-
ence in his domestic affairs aroused bitter resent-
ment in Joachim. The electress escaped lifelong
imprisonment only by flight, and Luther's inter-
vention served but to intensify the elector's hatred.
At the Diet of Augsburg he appeared as one of the
leading champions of a policy of relentless warfare
against the Lutherans. In 1533 he concluded with
George of Saxony and Archbishop Albert a league
at Halle in opposition to the Schmalkald League.
In his will, drawn up in 1534, he laid the injunction
upon his successors to remain faithful to the Roman
communion, and, when his son Joachim's wife died,
he obtained for him the hand of Hedwig, daughter
of Sigismund, king of Catholic Poland. His death
revealed, however, that his efforts against the spread
of the reformed faith were practically vain.

(G. Ka-wbrau.)

BiBLioGRAPmr: J. G. Droysen, OeschicfUe der pretiuiachen
Politik, ii. 2, pp. 1-163, Lcipsic. 1870; A. Milller. OetehiehU
der Reformation in der Mark Brandenburg, Berlin, 1839;
C. W. Spieker, Oe»chichte der Einfiihrung der R^ormaiion
in , . . Brandenburg, ib. 1839; D. Krdmann, Luther und
die Hohenzollem, pp. 37 sqq.. Brehlau, 1883; J. Heidemann,
Die Reformation in der Mark Brandenburg, Berlin, 1889.
For matter upon the choice of the emperor consult:
Reichstagaakien, new series, vol. i., Gotha, 1893; E« R.
Roesler, Die Kaiserwahl CarU V„ Vienna, 1878. Consult
also the literature given under TBiTBEMins.

JOACHIM IL: Margrave of Brandenburg; b.
Jan. 9, 1505; d. at Kdpenik (8 m. s.e. of Berlin),
Jan. 3, 1571. He was the son of Joachim I. (q.v.),
was educated under the supervision of his uncle the
Elector Albert (see Albert of Brandenburg),
and at an early age conceived an interest in theo-
logical questions. By his marriage with the daugh-
ter of George of Saxony in 1524 and of Sigismund of
Poland in 1535, his father had sought to bind him
to the Roman faith. But it was early apparent
that he would not follow closely in the footsteps of
his father, whom he succeeded in 1535. At first he
attempted to play the part of mediator between
the two parties and eagerly embraced the plan of a
general council for the settlement of the religious
schism, but whnn the convocation of such an as-
sembly was repeatedly postponed he turned his
efforts solely in the direction of establishing har-
mony within the empire. In 1538 he submitted to
the emperor a compromise program for the attain-
ment of such an end, which led to prolonged nego-
tiations in that and the following year without re-

sulting in any definite achievement. The death of
George of Saxony in 1539 removed one of the strong-
est influences for Catholicism in Brandenburg. For
some years before this event Joachim had per-
mitted the open extension of the Lutheran influ-
ence, and in 1538 he submitted to Melanchthon a
program of church reform drawn up for him by the
dean of Elgersma. Melanchthon rejected the con-
stitutions as insufiiciently Evangelical, and the wide-
spread movement among the nobles and the third
estate convinced the margrave that the time for a
radical change had come. New church constitutions
were drawn up, after preparation by Prince Georg
von Anhalt, by a conunission comprising Jacob
Stratner, Georg Buchholzer, and Georg Witzel and
were approved by Melanchthon. In November, 1639,
the margrave formally received the Lord's Supper
according to the Lutheran form and subsequently
the revised church constitutions were sent to Wit-
tenberg, where they received the approval of Lu-
ther, Melanchthon, and Jonas, though of all Prot-
estant Church systems they represented the least
departure from the Roman Catholic position.
Joachim succeeded in obtaining the confirmation
of the emperor on the promise of submission to the
decisions of a futiu^ council. The new ordinances
were speedily introduced and the gradual abolition
of the monastic system was begun.

In the field of politics also Joachim attempted to
play the r61e of arbitrator between the two parties.
At the Colloquy of Worms (q.v.) in 1540-41 his rep-
resentatives sat with the '^ submissive '' as opposed
to the '^ protesting " deputies, and he based much
hope upon the plan here secretly formulated for
another conference at Regensburg where it was
hoped that the reunion of the parties might be
achieved. Luther, to whom the project was sub-
mitted, rejected its terms as unsatisfactory both to
the Roman Church and to the Protestants, but
Joachim did not abandon his activity, and when the
emperor contemplated the despatch of a special
mission to Luther he offered himself for the service.
Before the outbreak of the Schmalkald War (1546)
he attempted to mediate between the leaders of the
League and the emperor, but, failing, sent a force
of cavalry in the following year to the aid of Maurice
of Saxony in return for the elevation of his second
son Frederick to the post of coadjutor bishop of
Magdeburg and Halberstadt. He pledged himself
to abide by the decisions of the coilncil to be assem-
bled at Trent and obtained the same concessions
in the religious sphere that had been granted to
Maurice of Saxony. He was active in advocating
the adoption of the Augsburg Interim (see Agric-
OLA, Johann; Interim, 2). From this time his
political importance declines; his subsequent efforts
were directed toward dynastic aggrandizement, and
with this ambition he permitted his son Sigismund
to accept the archbishopric of Magdeburg and the
> see of Halberstadt on the condition of complete sub-
mission to the pope. It was only political interests,
however, that prevented the complete introduction
of the Protestant confession in his dominions, an
event which followed the death of Joachim and the
succession of his son John Geoi^.

(G. Kawbrau.)

Joaohlxn of Flore
JoMh

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

184

Bibliography: Besides the literature given under Joachiic
I., consult: A. Hartung, Jotichim II. und wein Sohn Johann
Oeorg, Berlin, 1708; F. Meine, Die vermittelnde Stellung
Joachima 11. , , . tu den polUiuhen und religiiieen Parteien
teiner Zeit, LQneburg. 1808; articles in the Forai^unoen
gur brandenburgiechen und preuaaiachen Oeachichte, ii (1880),
306 sqq., and vii (1804). 181 sqq.. by F. Holtie. and vi
(1803), 520 sqq., by H. Landwehr; and new articles of im-
portance by N. Muller in Jahrbuch fOr brandenburgiache
GeachichU, 1904 hqq.

JOACmM OF FIORE (Lat. Fhris) and the
" EVERLASTING GOSPEL " (Evangelium aeternum) :
Joachim, abbot of San Giovanni in Fiore (in
the Sila Mountains, 25 m. e. of Co-
Joachim's senza), Calabria, is said to have been
Life and bom of wealthy parents at Celico, a
Writings, village near Cosenza, in 1145(?), to
have made a pilgrimage to Palestine,
and then to have become a monk. In 1177 he was
abbot of a Cistercian monastery at Corazzo (12 m.
s.e. of Cosenza), but often withdrew to the mother
monastery of Casamari (near Veroli, 50 m. s.e. of
Rome) to pursue his studies. Later (not before
1188) he gave up his place at Corazzo and founded
San Giovanni in Fiore, which became the center of
a congregation comprising more than thirty monas-
teries. Leading a strictly ascetic life and being re-
puted a prophet, he was highly respected by po-
tentates and popes, who encouraged him in his
Biblioo-apocalyptic studies. He was very loyal to
the papacy, and required the members of his order
not to publish the writings which he left before they
had passed the examination of the papal censor.
Of his works only the three which he considered the
most important have been printed, viz.: (1) Liber
eoncordiae novi ac veterU testamenti (Venice, 1519);

(2) PsaUerium decern chordarum (Venice, 1527);

(3) Expositio apocalypsis (also called Apocalypsis
novOf Venice, 1527). There are other works still in
manuscript. The conmientaries on Isaiah and Jere-
miah, attributed to him as early as the middle of
the thirteenth century, are not his and differ from
his genuine writings especially by their harsh atti-
tude toward the Church of Rome. Now that they
have been eliminated (by Engelhardt and Fried-
erich), a correct estimate of Joachim is first made
possible.

He belongs in part to those of the twelfth cen-
tury who, like Bernard of Clairvaux and Gerhoh of

Reichersberg, in spite of their ecclesias-

HIs Rela- tical sentiment and attitude, had never-

tioiis and theless a keen eye for the shortcomings

Significance, of ecclesiastical life. To this, Uke the

visionaries Hildegard of Bingen and
Elizabeth of Sch6nau, he added an excited expec-
tation of an impending transformation of all things.
The ancient hope of a glorious time of the Church
on earth, preceded by fearful struggles, was revived
anew. This hope Joachim based not on new revela-
tions, but mainly upon the Holy Scriptures, for
whose deeper understanding he imagined himself
especially equipped through divine illumination.
This illumination, however, did not take the place
of study, but rather led him to a very thorough and,
in his way, closer examination of the Scriptures, re-
quiring much time and pains, and united to an
artificial system of historico-prophetical theology.
One may say that in this respect — ^following certain

predecessors like Rupert of Deutz — ^he opens up a
new development in the department of prophetical
theology — a treatment which was afterward con-
tinued by Cocceius and Bengel, but it must not be
forgotten that Joachim differs from both suc-
cessors at least as much as each differs from the
other.

Upon the principles indicated above the following
notion of history is established. It is divided into
three dispensations (status) of the Fa-
His Ex- ther, of the Son, and of the Spirit; or,
position of with reference to the three chief classes
History, in the Church, the times of the pre-
dominance of the married, of the clerics,
and of the monks. The first commenced with Adam,
the second with John the Baptist; the preparation
for the third began with St. Benedict, its develop-
ment commenced with the order of the Cistercians,
and about 1260 the final development will take
place. The helping power, the Parwli de ecdesia
laiina^ will come from the Church of the West, which
he thinks of as a monastic order, the ordo justorum.
The elect in the Greek Church will also be united
with the Roman Church, and the conversion of
Gentiles and Jews will take place. This is the time
in which, as is written in the Scriptures, Spirit and
Life shall be in the Church, the time of the eternal
Gospel (cf. ALKGf i. 52 sqq. and iii.). But there
must still take place a last fight against the power
of evil, which appears in the person of the last and
worst antichrist, in Gog. After this will follow the
final judgment and the great Sabbath <)f the con-
simunation will be ushered in.

These thoughts, as further expanded in Joachim's
writings, were favorably received. The thirteenth
century was filled with more extrava-
His Infiu- gant expectations of the future than
ence and the twelfth even, and the zealous Fran-
FoUowers. ciscans, w^ho thought more of the ideal
The " Ever- of poverty than of the official Church,
lasting were not the last to foster them. Here
Gospel." the ideas of Joachim found the most
ready reception, and received an inter-
pretation and expansion which were contrary to his
own meaning. Here belong also the commentaries
on Isaiah and Jeremiah. The Minorite Gerhard of
Borgo San Donnino went the furthest. He regarded
the three principal works of Joachim as truly in-
spired and canonical writings, as the last and high-
est part of the canon, which as Evangelium aeter-
num surpassed the Old and New Testaments. He
prepared an edition of the same, supplied it with
glosses and an Introdudorius in evangelium aeter-
num. This work, published at Paris in 1254, caused
a great stir (cf . the passage from the Roman de la
rose in Haupt, 379, note 1). The theologians of the
University of Paris, who saw themselves threatened
in their ecclesiastical and scientific position by the
mendicant monks, took up the gauntlet and made
a complaint at Rome. In 1255 Alexander IV. ap-
pointed a commission to examine the matter (cf.
the protocols in AKLG, i. 99-142). On Nov. 4,
1255, a bull was issued which condenmed the /n-
troductarius, without censuring, however, the wri-
tings of Joachim. When a synod at Aries (1260 or
1263) afterward condenmed the writings of Joachim,

185

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Joaohim of Fiord

JOASh

this decision obtained no general ecclesiastical au-
thority. His name remained as that of one beati-
fied (beatus) in the memory of the Church, and as
such he has a place in the Acta Sanctorum. Still less
could this condemnation prevent Joachim's pro-
phetical expositions from being read over and over
again, and finding believers, though the year 1260
passed without change in the ecclesiastical relations.
Johannes Petrus Olivi and Ubertinus of Casale, in
general the Spiritualea of the Minorites, are under
their spell. There were Joachimites who adhered
to the pope as well as Ghibelline Joachimites, and
through the entire medieval period traces of Joa-
chimism are found. S. M. Deutbch.

Bibuooraphy: Besides the writings of Joachim and scat-
tered notices, the first source is: Synopn* virtutum beati
Jixichimi, by Luca Consentinas, in F. Ughelli, Italia sacra,
ix. 205 sqq., Venice, 1722 (also, with the Vita by Jacobus
Graeeus Syllanaeus and prefatory remarks, in ASB,
May. vii. 83-112). Consult: J. G. V. Engelhardt. XireA^n-
OeadiichUiche Abfiandlunoen, pp. 1-150. 260-201, Erlangen,
1832 (fundamental); C. U. Hahn. GetJiidiU der Ketter
im Mittelalter, ui. 72-175, 250-346. Stuttgart, 1850 (in
EIngelhardt and Hahn's comprehensive extracts from
Joachim's works); Friederich. in ZWT, ii (1850). 340-363,
444-514 (on Joachim's commentaries on Isaiah and Jere-
miah); J. J. I. von DdUinger, in HUtoriachsM Taachenbuch,
v., i (1871). 257-370; W. Preger. OeschidUe der deut9dten
Myatik, i. 106-207, Leipsio. 1874 (defective); H. F.
Renter. GetchiefUe der religid^en AufklOrung im Mittelalter,
u. 101-218. 364-368. 536 sqq.. Berlin, 1877; S. Denifle.
Das Evangelium aetemum und die Commiuion mu Anaoni,
in ALKO, i (1885), 40-141; H. Haupt, Zwr Oeechiehte
dee Joaekimiemiu, in ZKO, vii (1884), 372 sqq. (agrees
with Denifle on independent grounds); W. Bousset, Der
Antichriet in der Ueberlieferung, Gdttingen. 1805; E.
Wadstein. Die eeehatologiache Ideengruppe, ArUichriet^
WeUeabbat und Weltgerieht, Leipsio. 1806; Neander,
ChriHian Church, iv. 220-232 et passim; Moeller, Chrie.
Han Church, u. 416-417.

JOAN, POPE: An alleged female pope, the cen-
tral figure of a legend dating from the middle of
the thirteenth century. The story occurs for the
first time in the chronicle of Jean de Mailly, whence
it was borrowed by his brother Dominican Stephen
of Bourbon (d. 1261), both dating Pope Joan about
1100. The legend was chiefly disseminated, how-
ever, by the chronicle of Martinus Polonus (d. 1278).
According to him, she was bom either in Mainz or
England, disguised as a man studied in Athens,
aroused deep admiration at Rome by her learning,
and was finally elected pope in 855, ruling two and
a half years under the name of Johannes Angelicus.
She died in childbirth in the street during a public
procession and was buried where she expired. In
the fifteenth century the legend of Pope Joan was
regarded as a fact and was one of the main argu-
ments in the controversies on the justification and
extent of the papal power, additional credibility
being given the story through its circulation by
Roman Catholic historians. The legend is now re-
garded as based on a local Roman tradition con-
cerning an ancient statue which has disappeared,
but which seems to have represented a priest of
Mithra and a child. This figure of the priest was
popularly supposed to be a woman, and the unin-
telligible inscription on the group was taken to be
the epitaph of the female pope. The name Joan
(Johanna, Johannes) is obviously due to the nu-
merous popes John, some of whom bore an indiffer-
ent reputation. The double date of 855 and 1100

originated in an attempt to fill a supposed lacuna

in the list of popes at those times. (R. Schmid.)

Bibuooraphy: The one book of importance is J. J. I. von
Ddllinger. Papetfabeln dea Mittelaltera, ed. Friedrieh.
Munich, 1800. Enc. transl. of Ist ed., pp. 3-74, New York,
1872. Consult also: E. Rhoides, La Papeeee Jeanne^
Paris, 1878, Eng. transl., London, 1887, Germ, transl.,
Leipsic 1004; Neander. ChrieHan CAurcA, ui. 367, v. 286,
307; MoeUer, Chrietian Church, u. 150.

JO ASH (JEHOASH; the two forms are used
interchangeably in the sources): 1. Seventh king
of Judah, son and successor of Ahaziah after the
six years' usurpation of his mother Athaliah. His
dates according to the old chronology are 878r^38
B.C.; according to Kamphausen, 836-797 b.c; ac-
cording to Dimcker, 837-797 b.c; and according
to Curtis (DB, i. 401), 836-796 B.C. He was hidden
by his aunt Jehoshebah when Athaliah massacred
the seed royal, and in his seventh year was brought
out from his concealment and made king under the
practical regency of the priest Jehoiada (q.v.). The
important external event of his reign was a threat-
ened or real attack on Jerusalem by the Arameans
under Hazael, which, according to II Kings xii. 18,
was averted by a heavy tribute which stripped the
city of its treasures, but according to the Chronider
(II Chron. xxiv. 23-24) was consununated and
proved disastrous to the kingdom. Joash's relig-
ious significance lies in his services to the temple,
which, under the usurpation of Athaliah, had been
allowed to fall into disrepair. This was first com-
mitted to the charge of the priests and Levites, but
was neglected by them. The matter was then
taken out of their hands and entrusted to the chief
priest and a civil officer. The sources seem to im-
ply a defection from religious seal after the death of
Jehoiada; both sources. Kings and Chronicles,
record his death by assassination at the hand of
*' his servants," and the Chronicler asserts that he
was not buried " in the sepulchers of the kings."

2. Twelfth king of Israel, son and successor of
Jehoahaz. His dates, according to the old chronol-
ogy, are 840-823 b.c; according to Kamphausen,
797-782 B.C.; according to Duncker, 798-790 B.C.;
according to Curtis, 798-782 B.C. He gained a
series of victories over Ben-hadad of Damascus by
which he recovered large parts of the kingdom
which had been lost to Hazael under Jehoahaz — an
event made possible by the fact that under Sham-
shi-Ramman Ass3nria had renewed its battering at
the gates of Damascus (see Asstria, VI., 3, { 9),
and the Syrians were therefore fully employed
guarding their eastern frontier. A second important
matter was the defeat of Amaziah of Judi^ after
the latter had wantonly provoked a conflict, and
his punishment by a partial destruction of the wall
of Jerusalem and reduction to vassalage. Some
light is cast upon the religious status of Joash by
II Kings xiii. 14 sqq., telling of a real attachment
between himself and the prophet which suggests that
the sentence of condemnation uttered in II Kings
xiii. 11 implieft a Judaic standpoint from which flJl
the kings of Israel were regarded as recreant.

Bibliography: For 1 the eouroes are II Kings xi.-ziL;
II Chron. xxii. ll-xxiv.; and for 2. II Kings xiii. 10-26,
xiv. 8-16. Besides the literature given under Ahab. con-
sult: C. F. Bumey. i^olet on the Httrew Text of , , ,
Kino; Oxford, 1908; DB, U. 666-667; BB, u. 2463.

Job, Book of

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

186

I. PUoe of the Book in the Canon.
II. The Text.

The Septuasint Text Shorter than
the Hebrew (ID.

PoMtible ExRJanationB of Difference
of Text (i 2).

Parallelism as an Aid to Text-
Criticism (i 3).

Corruptions of Consonantal Text
Explained (} 4).

JOB, BOOK OF.

Early Condition of the Text (} 6).
III. Plan, Contents and Purpose.

The EUhu Section a Later Addition

(ID.
The Plan (i 2).
The Religion of Job and Hi»

Friends (i 3).
Genuineness of the Prologue ({4).
Satan in the Prologue and in Other

Scripture (} 5).

The Purpose (i 6).

Organic Interconnection of Dla^

logue and Narrative (§ 7).
Result of the Divine Admonitions

(§8).
Job's Attempt to Comprehend His

Misfortunes (§ 0).
Job's Ultimate Position (§ 10).
IV. The Author and the Time of

Composition.

I. Place of the Book in the Canon: Among the
Kethubhim, constituting the third division of the
Hebrew canon (see Canon of Scripturb), three
books stand together as a class marked by a sys-
tem of accentuation different from that of the other
books of Scripture. These are Psalms, Proverbs,
and Job. The position of Job in the sources, how-
ever, varies greatly. The Talmud (Baba batra I4b)
places it between Psalms and Proverbs; Jerome's
Prologua galeatua puts it before Psalms; Origen
seems to say (Eusebius, Hist, eccl., vi. 25) that while
Psalms and the three Solomonic writings separate
the historical and prophetical books, Job stood after
the prophetical books and before Esther. Melito
places Job after Psalms and the Solomonic books
and before the prophetic writings. Indeed no uni-
formity appears and a very varying order of ar-
rangement is attested; it is sufficient to say that
the order in the English Bible — Job, Psalms, Prov-
erbs, Ek^clesiastes, Canticles — is attested by a large
group of patristic writings. There is, on the other
hand, a group of authorities which arrange the his-
tory of pious Job with those of other pious persons,
Tobit, Judith, Esther, and Ezra, placing these
among the historical books. A noteworthy posi-
tion, due to the supposition that Job is a work of
Moses, locates it with Joshua immediately follow-
ing the Law. The idea underlying these various
arrangements is either the poetic form, the relation-
ship of contents, or the supposed authorship or the
connection of its hero with early celebrities.

n. The Text: The best helps to the text are the
direct translations, including that of the Targum
(which often gives a double rendering), the Pe-
shito, the translations of Jerome and the Greek of
Origen. The Hebrew basis of these versions wit-
nesses to the same recension of the Hebrew as un-
derlies the Masoretic text. From this the Septua-
gint varies in an astonishing manner, not only in
its additions (like that of the speech of Job's wife
in chap, ii., explicable on psychological grounds)
but in its omissions; and with the Septuagint goes
the Old Latin derived from it. With this corre-
sponds also the Old Latin which Jerome sought to
supplement by his Latin translation of the Septua-
gint pixta Graecoa and later by his editio juxta He-
hraeos. Jerome testifies to the lacunas, amounting
to seven or eight hundred verses, in the Old Latin
and the Septuagint, which Origen had suppUed from
other versions in which the readings, according to
Jerome, were often without sense. The number of
omissions might be suspected as exaggerated in the
foregoing statement were it not that, in the first
place, Jerome indicates that the Old-Latin version
is more defective and disfigured than the Greek
basis, and, in the second place, the statement ex-

I. The

Septuagint

Text

Shorter

than the

Hebrew.

ceeds only a little the results from stichometric
counts. Zahn gives the reckoning for the first
form as varying between 1,800, 1,700,
and 1,600 stichoi, the last testified by
a number of manuscripts, for which
the number of the corresponding im-
proved text is 2,200. This last num-
ber as a round statement agrees closely
with the count of a number of man-
uscripts and editions, and also with
the Masoretic count of the verses of Job as 1,070,
which gives 2,140 stichoi, allowing two stichoi to
each verse. According to this testimony, the im-
proved Greek was 500 or (according to Hesychius)
600 stichoi longer than the earlier Septuagint; but
how this result was reached or upon what basis the
statement was made is now unknown. It is further
noticeable that the statement refers to a form of
the Septuagint which differs from that of Origen.
And the situation is further complicated by the
fact that the Hexaplar notes transmitted can not
be either fully or rightly understood. At any rate,
it is possible to affirm that the Job of the old Sep-
tuagint was at least a fourth part shorter than the
present Hebrew text. The traditional explanation
was that a text corresponding to the present lay
before the Greek translator, but that the rendering
was shortened either by one of the ordinary mis-
haps attending copying and translation, or pur-
posely because the contents were offensive to the
translator, or because the words were not under-
stood, or because the book seemed too long. If it
is noted that in many cases corruption is inherent
in the Greek text, individual cases are explained
upon that ground. But when it is noted that the
translator is dexterous in substituting phrases in-
telligible in Greek for obscure Hebrew phrases and
in making the condensed Hebrew luminous by ad-
ditions, it becomes more difficult to hold that the
translator wilfully shortened the text or passed
over passages because they were difficult.

On the other hand, it has often been the case
that scholars, prejudiced in behalf of the Hebrew,
have found in the other Greek versions and in the
tradition reaching back to Jerome pure creation,
even where the paraphrase is, like that of the Tar-
giun, suggested by the Hebrew. Such a pasvsage
is vi. 7, where, instead of orgS, hormi is to be read
as the rendering of naphshi in the sense of intensity
of hunger. The extension of this verse is not to be
explained by the introduction of a gloss, but by the
attempt in the paraphrase to express clearly the
meaning of the original. A similar example is
found in the passage iv. 12, where the free transla-
tion expresses well, though in expanded form, the
original Hebrew, with slight changes in reading.

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

These and simiUr cascx, of which many might be
adduced, show that the Septuagint ia an iiidepeail-
c.nt and close equivalent, and that, no nmttcr how
changed it may be, the translator exercised thought
and criticism upton the text trhich lay before him,
nhicli wa.4 in very cIohc rektionsiiip with that
ivhich is now in our poiuiesHioii. This ia shown
in vi. 6 in which the diflicult phrase in the
present Hebrew text JllDjn T13 was read in
liie texl before the IrunBlator of the
J. Possible Se|HiiaKiiil nioi-n '1313. It is to be
Eiplaoa- recoKniziil tliul aloii^^ide of the prea-
iions of ent Hebirw text, which may be called
Difference Palestinian, there was in the father-
of Text. Land of the Septuagint a second to
which liie name Egyptian may be ai)*
plied, and that liisae had the same parentage,
l-'or both of these, the Septuagint in rather extended
form, have prologue and epilogue, the omiasion of
(he third speech of Zophar for which another by Job
U substituted; and both have the speech of Klihu
:ind the same plan of dialogue. In the tranalution,
even when paraphraKtic. the correspondence of the
Greek with the Hebrew is so close that the text out
of which the translation aroae can be restored. On
the other tuind, the Hebrew text has oft^n a longer
reading of which at most the rudiments appear in
the Egyptian. No a priori decbion can be made in
either case, for it ia a possibility both that the
Palestinian text has received additions and that tbe
Efcyptian has been abbreviated. It is possible to
solve tbe question in one of two ways. Our Pales-
tinian l«xt may be considered as the last edition of
an archetype meant for tlie Palestinian community,
which became the ancestor of the Egyptian Job.
Tbe fact t)mt it has certain parts which the Egyp-
tian lacks may be emphasized without attempting
to make it a characteristic of the whole. The sec-
ond way i^ to discriminate in ttie Greek Job, after
ulimiuaticig the corruptions of the Greek as such,
Iwtween the translation of the Hebrew and the ex-
gtansion of the translator and to try tbe resulting
ii'Xt with reference to its congruency and to the
impression it makes of deficiency and fragmentari-
ivrts. Of the Hcsapla there are only trafrmenta,
anil there is no text which gives the Septuagint and
that alone: the Sahidic and the Old-Latin Job were
translated from Greek manuscripts more or less
t'xactly. but from them it can not be deduced how
they werp rclateil to I he original. Moreover, it ap-
pears that the Alexandrian translator wels influenced
in his understanding by an Aramaic targum (cf. F.
Buhl, A'unon un>l Ttxt, p. 171; TLB, 189S, pp. 446-
447), a fact which further complicates the problem.
Another help to the recovery of the text is the
poetic form based upon the principle of parallelism.
The clearly apprehended structure of a first line is
a. sure indication of Ilie sense and the content of
the second, when couplets are in question; but when
one passes from Ihe distich and possibly the tris-
tich to the strophe of four, five, or more lines, this
canon tails as » hcl|i to the recovery of the text or
an a test upon which to ilecide upon the correctness
of the text. Moreover, the question of the transmis-
nion of the author's text arises, since the task of the
editor was to present a text intelligible and instruc-

tive to the community, in which it is probable that

the matter of metrical and straphical structure was

disregarded. Modern studies, also,

3. Paimllel- have too inexact a basis, sinco the pro-
ism as an nunciation and accent of Hebrew is all

Aid to Text- but unknown, and schemes of strophes
Criticism, presented differ greatly. Moreover, it
is improbable that the author would
present a uniform meter and strophe in the varying
parta of the poem. Thus in chap. iii. the " why "
and " wherefore " of verses II and 20 divide that
chapter into three parts, 3-10, 11-IS, 20-26. the
first of which boa eighteen lines, the second eight-
een, but the third only fourteen; further, when in
verse 6 " that day " is restored for " that night "
(aa the sense requires), verses 4-6 give nine lines in
three triaticha, devoted to the cursing of the day,
while verses 7-10 give as many lines devoted to the
cutting of the night, but in distlt^hs, except verse 9
which ia a tristich. This change from the tristich
to the distich seems to be grounded in the nature
of the contents, and Uickell's attempt to do away
with the tristich of verse 9 has no basis outside of
his preconception. On the other hand, the balaotw
of the first two parts of the chapter raises the ques-
tion why the last part has only fourteen lines. The
answer tliat we do not know may possibly be
deemed sufficient. But on exegetical groimds verac
23 can not be conneettd with verse 20 and the ab-
rupt introduction of the first person and of the
idea of eating in verses 24-26 suggests a loss of two
couplets from the text, though neither in the Pales-
tinian text nor in the Egyptian is there a trace that
their ancestor possessed them.

The punctuation of the Uasoretic text is a most
valuable commentary upon Job, and, in view of the
great difficulties, an extremely significant one. The
passages are many in which the punctuation is in-
dicative of difficulties which tbe Masorites re-
solved by seeing in the consonantal text the tele-
scoping of words, aa minlam in xv. 29 ia taken for
mi» lahem. The fact that the Masorites made so
many mistakes may be explained either as due to
false divisions of the unseparated words or to de-
tect in the text aa it lay before them. Examples
explicable from both causes are at hand.

The older consonantal text is to be regarded as
the edition (established by an authority of the com-
munity) of a text still older which existed in a num-
ber of manuscripts, fidelity to which was traversed
by a desire to tumiBb to the community an intel-
ligible text, and, where the exemplar wai= meaning-
less or corrupt, to set carefully a«ide possible shocks
to the religious feeling ot the reader. Examples of
this are found in i. 1&-I3, where in the exemplar a
defective njf was changed to the fully written lljf,
while in xxxiv. 23, 1^13, having lost

4. Conup- its initial sound through the effect of
tions of the closing syllable of the preceding
Conso- D*!^, was protected against the pos-

nantal TeM gible meanii^ TS " witness." A talae
Explained, ji^;^^ ;„ ^viii. 20 has been mediated
by the introduction ot a 1 in to'pj?,
which was then separated into the two words lDi'"?Jf
The short or abbreviated form of the suffixes and

Job, Book of

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

188

affixes which the earlier scribe used was treated
with the greatest freedom and became a potent
source of error. In such cases as xiv. 3, xix. 28
(cf. R. V. margin), ix. 19b, the third person is in-
dicated by the parallelism, the logical sequence,
and the versions. There are directions in rabbin-
ical instructions which point the same way, as when
in zii. 2b the instruction reads: say not tmwth, but
ivmith. Changes due to religious timidity are also
in evidence. Thus in xxxii. 3c " Job " is substi-
tuted for a word which might through changes in
the text have been read as " God." Similarly
xxxii. lb, Septuagint, reads " in their eyes," and is
justified by logic, since there is no adequate reason
in Job's self- justification alone for the silence of the
friends. Probably also to the same cause is due
the identical expressions in xxxviii. 1, xl. 6, where
" out of the whirlwind " is to be explained by the
dropping of a word beginning with n after a word
ending with the same, which would be represented
by the expression " out of the roar of the storm."
It is not impossible that by rnyo in the passages
just cited, differently from the m^Tfe^ of ix. 17
(where the Targiun reads " hair "), was imderstood
not an atmospheric storm, but the theophanic hur-
ricane like that in which Elijah was rapt away.
But other causes have brought about changes in
the text, such causes as are common in the trans-
mission of all texts of antiquity. In reading the
copyist has dropped out a letter or a syllable. Thus

in xii. 2 the unintelligible word Dy, '' people," is

doubtless to be explained as the remains of the

word D^^n, and the verse should read: " No

doubt ye are the possessors of knowledge, and wis-
dom shall die with you " (cf. xxxiv. 2). Other mis-
takes are due to the confusion of letters that look
alike, either in the old form or in the square wri-
ting, and still others to similarity in sound when the
copy was made from dictation. Still another po-
tent source of error are glosses, which have either
lengthened the text or made it unintelligible.

From a view of all these cases it is possible to as-
sert that the Hebrew consonantal text is the edition
of a copy which goes back to an archetype, trans-
mitted through we know not how many transcrip-
tions, which was also the original to which the He-
brew text which the Greek translator used is to be
traced. This archetype was already characterized
by mistakes and corrections, by gaps in the text
and by conflate readings. In the course of trans-
mission these changes have been so increased that,
in spite of the close general resemblance, in particu-
lar passages copies seem altogether foreign to each
other. In proportion as we are successful in recon-
structing this archetype out of its descendants and

in understanding it with its gaps, mis-

5. Early takes, and additions, we approach the

Condition form which the poet gave to his work.

of the There is a consensus among modem

Text critics to the effect that the original

Job has been enlarged by the insertion
of the four speeches of Elihu, chaps, xxxii.-xxxvii.
But the circiunstance that the surviving text refers
neither in the preceding nor in the following parts
to the entrance of Elihu (for which preparation

could have been made in a few words), which is the
chief ground for suspecting the originality of the
section, is proof positive that the one who inserted
the passage regarded with respect the text to which
he made the addition. This is indeed a guaranty
that in the earliest times Job was looked on as the
inviolable possession of an inspired man for which
he himself assimied the responsibility. When it
became a book for the community, for which the
leading authorities in that community assumed ac-
countability, the liberty was taken of changing it
where the interests of instruction of the community
seemed to demand it.

nL Plan, Contents, and Purpose: Prior to con-
sideration of the artistic form of the book it is neces-
sary to take up the question of the originality of
the Elihu section. The argument from linguistic
considerations may be answered by the suggestion
that it was prematurely given out and has been cor-
rupted. The consideration that the section brings
nothing new against the friends and anticipates
what Yahweh is to say is explained by Elihu's dif-
ferent attitude toward Job and his sorrows. On
the other hand, in ii. 11-13 only the three friends
are mentioned and in xlii. 7-8 reference to them
alone is found. Does Elihu belong to the party on
whose side the truth is, though he charges Job with
adding to his sin that of rebellion (xxxiv. 37), or to
those of whom Yahweh demanded repentance?
When Yahweh gives his testimony of
I. The truth to his servant Job or ignores this
Elihu judge of Job, nothing more can be
Section meant than that the author of the
a Later book and the readers have also ignored
Addition. Elihu, since neither had in him any in-
terest. In other words, this points to
a time when the book of Job was read without the
speeches of Elihu, when at the silence of the friends
and the last speech of Job God entered to teach and
instruct. This is substantiated by the express tes-
timony of Elihu, xxxii. 12-14. Since the friends
have nowhere said that Job seemed to have so sur-
passed them and all men in cleverness that God
alone could overcome his error, Elihu must speak
under the impression that the intention of the au-
thor was to have deity take up the discourse that
Job might recognize his folly. Mai. iii. 16 speaks
of a book of remembrance caused by Yahweh to be
written for discernment between righteous and
wicked; and this recalls the fact that Job wished
for such a book (xix. 23) and that Elihu (xxxvii.
20) raises the question whether a scribe is noting
for Yahweh what he has to say. Elihu comes for-
ward as a man filled with new knowledge. There
can be no doubt that he does so on the ground of
a newer insight into the instructive meaning of evil
for the community gained from the teaching of the
prophets and thus comes forward as a young man
pushed out from his position of reserve to confront
the older men who stand for the old wisdom.
Whether the writer who introduced this section
wished to identify himself with Elihu or to diffei^
entiate himself from him must be decided in favor
of the latter supposition by consideration of the
stilted vanity of Elihu 's introduction of himself, in
which he vaimts that he is bringing into view new,

189

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Job, Book of

weighty, and incontrovertible arguments, by which
course he prejudices his hearers against himself.
While, then, the innovator introduced Elihu with
great promises and then let him conclude in terri-
fied fashion with the statement of the unsearchable-
ness of God (xxxvii. 23), whither the approach of
the storm appears to bring him (xxxvii. 1), the con-
clusion of the original Job so returns to the point
reached before the introduction of Elihu as to make
it clear that the book of Job rightly understood is
not affected by the indirect criticism represented by
Elihu. In that case the writer of the section was
a man of like spirit with the original poet and the
speeches of Elihu are as worthy a place in Scripture
as are those of the three friends. But, in taking ac-
count of the book of Job in its original form, this
part must be put out of account. The meaning of
the book with Elihu included can best be seen in
Budde, who has used great industry and keenness
in attempting to vindicate that section.

The real body of the poem is built about the in-
tercourse of the four friends mentioned in ii. 11,
from early times regarded as set forth in three sets
of speeches (chaps, iii.-xiv., xv.-xxi., xxii.-xxvi.),
followed by two addresses of Job (chaps, xxvii.-
xxviii., xxix.-xxxi.), after which Yahweh speaks
out of the storm (chaps, xxxviii.-xxxix., xl. 6-
xli.). Since the author has placed Job's cry of
pain (which opens and defines the whole discus-
sion) in close connection with the seven days of
silence and since the silence of the friends during
that time is intelligible only on the ground that Job
first broke that silence, it is reasonable to assimie
that the first round of speeches filled the first day
of the second week, and that each of the two next
rounds consumed a day. Such a reckoning is im-
plied in xxiii. 2, where a distinct difference in time

is expressed. This helps to explain
2. The the similarity of formulas in xxvii. 1
Plan. and xxix. 1, different from that in iii.

1, and also the identity of formulas in
xxxviii. 1, xl. 6. The reader was expected to un-
derstand that the two speeches of Job in xxvii.-
xxxi. occupied the fourth and filth days, while the ad-
monitions of Yahweh occupied the sixth and seventh
days. So that the seven days of silence, the toi^
tures of which led Job to ciu-se his life, are carefully
balanced against the seven days of speech, at the
end of which Job yields humble submission. Theo-
dore of Mopsuestia rightly compared Job to the
drama of the Greeks in which the speeches of the
characters owe their origin to the art of the poet.
To criticisms of the treatment it may be said that
the range of the poem reveals to the ear the tones
of an inner life, that a stream out of experience is
flowing in our presence which at length reaches the
appointed end of its course. In vi. 2-7 Job aban-
dons the cry of pain of chap. iii. as an error forced
from him by the very fever of his sorrow, that over
against the argumentation w^hich had so shocked
his friends he protests solemnly in xxvii.-xxviii. his
willingness to persevere in piety as the basis of life,
and, at the conclusion of the contrast between for-
mer happiness and present misfortune (which is in
spite of his good conscience toward God and men),
he reveals his heart's desire for the living God.

Job is no prophet receiving his instruction direct
from God; he gets his religious instruction from
men and with it a limitation of thought and judg-
ment from which he is freed only by his experience
of God (xlii. 5), through seeing him with his own
eyes. His earlier experiences do not appear as fal-
sity, but only as incompleteness. The
3. The religion of Job and his friends is not a

Religion folk-religion, but that of the wise, so
of Job far as an orderly view of the world

and His goes, and it may be compared with

Friends, that of (say) Plutarch and Seneca.
God is the incomparably wise and
mighty one, the creator, the pattern of morals who
has ordered life and its penalties for evil. Man who
is bom of woman is bound up in native sinfulness,
his life-course is marked out and comprises a period
of growth, of activity in work, and of enjoyment
which makes that life worthful. There is implanted
in man knowledge of the right way of using life,
knowledge also of God as creator and giver of all
good. Correct appreciation of this knowledge is
the pivot upon which move right and wrong, good
fortune and bad, as the direct reaction of righteous
or evil acts. And at the end, after the enjoyment
of a satisfied life, he is brought to the rest of the
grave like the wheat which is gathered to the gamer
after it has reached the end of its being. Such a view
tells of a simple mode of life in a primitive com-
munity, where the paterfamilias is directly respon-
sible to God for his household and its ordering, and
where the complexities of later society and world-
empire had not yet entered. Judgment is drawn
from standard facts and concatenations of cireum-
stances as to the rule of God over man. Man the
individual is brought into connection with his suc-
cessors in life, and thus the time period in which
the heaven of divine righteousness returns is pro-
longed beyond the death of the individual. The
present good fortune of the evil is balanced by the
greatness of final loss, the sorrow of the good
is compensated by the overbalancing good of man's
final end. This conception has close relations with
the religion of Israel, and the speeches of the three
friends may be put alongside the didactic Psalms.
But great elements of the religion of Israel are lack-
ing, those which relate to the world-purpoee of
Israel's being and the full balancing of the great
day of Yahweh. Still there is to be discovered the
firm grip of the idea of God as a living personality
and of man as being so related to him as to find
therein possibilities of joy; there is also a firm
faith in God as the one in whom the course of nature
is fixed. A limitation which must be observed,
however, is the view of death and the life beyond,
which seems to place the soul deprived of God for
endless time in absolute darkness. Though even
here the trust in God which shines through the book
points to a possibility of the developments which
were reached in other parts of Scripture.

But how shall the primitive irrational dogma of
the end of man's relationship with God at death be
shaken and faith be raised to a basis of confident
verity 7 Clearly by presenting the case of one who
has faith, whose conduct in the fear of God, in self-
instmction, righteousness, and charity is univer-

Job, Book of

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

190

sally known, but who, in the midst of an unwonted
accumulation of misfortunes inflicted by divine de-
crees which deprive him of his dearest and best,
after he has bowed to the stroke and has been af-
flicted personally with a terrible illness, appears to
man to be delivered over to judgment, whose faith
even brings a conflict into his own soul, which faith,
short and defective as it was, is given up for a bet-
ter. The problem before the author therefore took

flesh and blood; Job appears as the

4. Genu- hero and is himself the problem. Wlio-

ineness ever has caught the connection of the

of the seven days of silence of the introduc-

Prologue. tion and the seven days of the dialogue

will be prepared to see in the introduc-
tion and in the poem the work of a single hand. A
recent hypothesis sees in chaps, i.-ii. and xlii. the
remains of an independent " folk-book." And this
view has led to interesting developments, in the
course of which attempts were made to discover
how this book handled the problem. It has been
thought that Ezekiel knew it, while it was held that
the poet of the dialogue was later than Ezekiel.
Parts of this theory are not entirely new. While
Pseudo-Origen regarded the poem as older than
Moses, who (according to him) wrote the prologue,
it was probably the authority of Theodore which
led JunUius to place Job among the historical books.
Theodore thought that the historical Job could not
have spoken the irrational ciu-ses of chap. iii. nor
have given to his daughter the heathen name Keren-
happuch. Yet it seems impossible for a right un-
derstanding of the speeches to take the two parts
for anything but the necessary work of the same
author. The opening of the drama in the changing
of scene between heaven and earth, the presenta-
tion of the secret divine counsel preceding the
c\'ents, and the conduct of men following them be-
tray the same hand as the dialogue. Evidences of
the intent of the author to model the narrative after
the mashal exist in the monotony of the reiteration
of the four misfortunes by the messengers (i. 13
sqq.), and in the repetitions of i. 6, and ii. 1, of i.
11, and ii. 5, of 1, 7, and ii. 2, while the introduction
of the reader to the scenes in heaven serves the same
purpose as the prologues of Euripides in giving him
the key to the action of the persons in the drama.
There is a correspondence also in the religion of
Job and his friends in the dialogue and the position
assigned them as Edomites, therefore nearly related
to Israel, with an ancestor brother to Jacob, conse-
quently heir of Abraham and his religion, but with-
out the special promises which were Israel's, while
the hero as a shepherd-prince reproduces the life of
the patriarchs. Further correspondence is found in
particular incidents, such as the sin-offering of Job
for his children (i. 5) and the curt rejection by Job
of his wife's advice to curse God and die (ii. 9), with
Job's reiterated claim to right speech (vi. 10, xxiii.
11-12) and with Bildad's statement that the death
of Job's children was punishment for the sin they
had committed (viii. 4).

A large element in the supposition that prologue
and epilogue are from a folk-book is doubtless the
flgure of Satan which corresponds to the Satan of
folk-lore, the thought that as Goethe drew his Faust

from the book of Dr. Faustus, so our poet borrowed
his figure. But the analogy does not hold. Job and
his friends know nothing of a Satan or that he is
Job's foe. The friends think that God is Job's foe,
and 80 thinks Job; they know nothing of the coun-
cil in heaven. But the heavenly council and the
figure of Satan correspond to the representation of
Hebrew prophecy, while the relations of God to
man, spirit, and the world at large are those of the
Old Testament. Not folk-lore, but the current ideas
of revelation in Israel are the basis of the presenta-
tion. So the creation of man and his expulsion
from Eden were the result of a heavenly council
(Gen. i. 26, iii. 22). But Job and Adam may be
regarded as counterparts. Job recognizes that God
has simply used the rights of a creator in depriving
him of the free gifts bestowed (i. 21); Adam yielded

to his wife's suggestion. Job refused

5. Satan the leading of his wife toward the same

in the end (ii. 10). The Fall was the work of

Prologue the serpent who w^ould persuade man

and in that the creator was a jealous tyrant

Other and would also destroy God's pleasure

Scripture, in his creation; in Job Satan b^rudges

Yahweh the joy he has in his pious
servant and seeks to produce in Job the same idea
of God as a tyrant; the purpose, however, is ex-
posed in the prologue in the part Satan takes in the
heavenly council. In any case the magnificent view
of the world, one which entirely lacks the qualities
of folk-lore presentations, which makes God's many-
sided wisdom crown the climax of creation in the
creation of man, which he justifies to the spirits who
watch the work in wonder, is rooted in Gen. i.-iii.
Inherent in the contest between Satan and God is
the assumption of partiality in deity in that he
sought by unearned gifts to win man for himself
(Adam), in that he guards from attacks of misfor-
tune by prosperity the man represented as pious
(Job), when man has fallen he saves him as a brand
from the burning (Joshua in Zcch. iii.), and that
now his impartiality must come out in the calami-
ties of Job that the enemy may be silenced. In-
deed, there is a reminiscence of the creation story
in the " enmity " between the seed of the woman
and of the serpent in the play upon the name of
Job (nVK) and n^lX, " enemy " of Job xiii. 24 (cf .
xix. 11); but the prologue shows that the enemy
is not God but Satan. The marks of derivation of
the prologue from folk-lore are wholly lacking.

Are the sorrows of Job a punishment, a chastise-
ment, or a trial? and what would the poet teach
by them ? Since the prologue ascribes to God
knowledge of Job's purity, to Satan doubt of it, it
might be held that the purpose is to use Job as a
witness to show the lying nature and impotence of
Satan (cf. Budde). It is a curiosity that some have
seen in the book of Job the question opened whether
there is an unrewarded piety. But men believe in
God because faith makes them blessed; blessedness

is not the wages of faith, but the living

6. The activity of the God set forth in faith,

Purpose, the very essence of which is that he is

the cause of blessedness in man. It is
the greatest folly to speak of an uninterested piety,
since piety is the prophecy of the highest interest of

191

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Job, Book of

the soul which is created by and for God. Job does
not regret his lost sheep and camels as if they were
the due of his piety; but he longs for a gracious
God. The poet has placed Job outside the region
where God's promises held and in a realm where in-
dividual faith was compelled to overcome the ob-
stacles of experience and a view beyond death was
not possible. Satan's plea is that if God cuts Job
loose from. ancestral rules of guidance, Job will cast
God under his feet. But Job's entire course of ac-
tion proves that his fear of God was rooted in his
inner life. The death of Job would have convicted
Satan of lying, but would have left a puzzle for Job's
contemporaries. But the poet has not introduced
a third scene in heaven corresponding to the two
first in which Satan might be represented as saying
that a living dog is better than a dead lion (Eccles.
ix. 4). The poem would have needed then to deal
with the world beyond the grave, which would have
been against poetic canons. The makers of the ca-
tense remarked that God had left room on this side
for the rehabilitation of his pious sufferer before the
resurrection.

The trial of Job is not in order that he may turn
away from his wife's suggestion of impiety and pa-
tiently depend upon the divine, nor that he may
disown his first outbreak of impatience. A severer
trial comes when authorities upon faith and relig-
ion, teachers of it as he had been a teacher (iv. 3),
decide that his sorrows are the result of his own
wrong-doing; the very faith in which he had lived
and of which he had been an exponent is turned
against himself as a proof of his own
7. Organic impiety. According to the conmion
Intercon- belief implied in the poem, the narrow
nection of part of the universe within the ken of
Dialogue mortals makes clear the righteousness
and of the world-ruler, while the result of
Narrative, man's life is the expression of man's
worth before God. Job could not deny
his own godly fear and fidelity; similarly God had
not changed without right reasons. If, as the
friends might maintain, God had formerly seemed
favorable, only to emphasize and intensify his real
disfavor to be manifested later. Job only sighed the
more for a gracious God whose image he cherished
in his heart, whose truth had been his guaranty in
Job's early blessedness. He can not dismiss the
idea of a right<^ous God who knows his innocence;
the sharper the argument of his adversaries, the
more necessary that idea became. It is incompre-
hensible how one can assert (with Laue) that in his
speeches Job has completed his apostasy in view of
the fact that when, at the end of the dialogue, the
friends are confounded, the poet has put into Job's
mouth a solemn oath that he will hold fast to that
virtue and righteousness in which he had felt him-
self blessed, even though he had not solved the
riddle of his suffering (xxvii. 2 sqq.).

The prophetic idea of a theophany or vision is
employed by the poet to exhibit the divine counsel
in intelligible form. Job lives in a region not of
revealed but of natural religion where man sees in
a glance the totality of natural phenomena in their
living eternal basis, and, uplifted by this intuition
of the movement of these phenomena, becomes

aware of the voice of God. But this could not ex-
plain Job's experience; the plot forbade this, since
Satan must not be permitted to call

8. Result " foul play." Job's sufferings must be
of the endured under the same conditions as

Divine Ad- those in which his aspersed piety had
monitions, existed. He experienced notUng which
might not have come in the natural
course of things; but the combination of events
brought before him God's all-power in the world
(xlii. 2 sqq.). Then God reestablished him in the
position of a servant and witness of the truth, with
which fact and with Job's intercession he boimd up
the exemption of the three friends from punishment,
a significant indication that their sin consisted in
their persecution of Job. Job acted as the intimate
friend of God when he prayed for the friends; as
such they recognized him whom they had previ-
ously regarded as a rebel from God. Job, too,
learned that God was far greater and mightier and
more an object of faith than he had supposed in
the exercise of his earlier faith.

In chap. vi. Job explains his wild outburst in
chap. iii. as due to the unendurable weight of his
visitation which robs his soul of peace because the
hope of coming alleviation which belongs to faith
is made impossible by the unchecked diminution
of his physical strength. He can not therefore re-
gard his sorrows as those of a short period which
will be superseded by a period of restoration, as
his piety had hitherto bidden him do. To the im-
possibility of restoration on this side the grave is
added the consideration that death withdraws
man from the eye and hand of God (vii. 6-10).
Yet the experience of faith teaches that God's wrath
exhausts itself and the mood of pity for the creature
finds place. Will not the approach of death wake
up thLs pity in God (vii. 8, 21) for the work of his
hand (x. 8-13)? Can God, who has created man
and who knows him thoroughly and

9. Job*8 his sin, refuse to exercise forgiveness
Attempt (vii. 21), and will he demand absolute

to Compre- responsibility (xiv. 3) of so poor a
hend His creature? What value for God must
Misfor- a being have for whose purification he
tunes. has so great concern? Shall not man
think that, when death has completed
his penance and God's wrath is exhausted (xiv. 13),
God's yearning for his creation will cause him to
awaken that creation to new life in conununion
with him (xiv. 7, 8, 13-15)? In that case Job's
hope would make him endure to the very end (xiv.
14). It may be thought that Job is on the way
here to extend his old faith to the point where
death itself is included in the region of suffering
after which God's help comes, and not merely in
his particular case, but as a general fact (cf. xiv.
10, 12 with 14a). But this idea must give way in
the face of his postulate that death is a final judg-
ment which excludes man from fellowship with
God (xiv. 20, cf. Gen. iii. 23). The poet has let
Job discover a better ground of hope for the con-
quest of death than the thought of the phUosophers
from Plato to Leibnitz, who found basis for such a
hope in the indestructibility of the indivisible and
I inmiaterial soul. Job's reason is the ethical yearning

Job. Book of
JoS,

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

192

of God for man, who is worthful to God as the
work of his hand.

The vexed soul of Job makes still other attempts
in the consciousness that he may not hope for res-
toration here, since he counts himself as already
belonging to the world of the dead whither his hopes
and his expectations may not accompany him
(xvii. 13-16). His friends charge him with de-
manding that the course of nature be changed for
his benefit (xviii. 4), but his thoughts, when allowed
full course, do change night into day. He protests
anew his innocence, while exhausting the category
of his sufferings in which nevertheless he seems to
have been treated as actually the sinner his friends
believe he must be (xvii. 7-17), in spite of the wit-
ness he has within the mystery of heaven (19-21).
God might, he thinks, at the end of
xc Job's life, halt the processes of decomposi-
Ulthnate tion and disintegration in order by
Pofitk>n. this unusual phenomenon to arouse
the thought that Job's case was spe-
cial and so an explanation of his lot be brought
about. But he remembers that he has already
become to mankind a sort of monstrosity which
confounds the pious (xvii. 6). His final appeal
must be to God, confidence in whom still remains
in his breast (xix. 23-27). A connection is con-
ceived between what God does here on earth in
order to purify the thought of the pious and the
state of the soul abiding in Hades (verses 28-29).
There is a living religious certainty of a righteous
God and of a personal relationship to him possessed
by the pious. Account must be taken of the criti-
cism which is exercised upon the dogma of a visible
justification of a righteous God on thiis side of death.
The apparent good fortune of the wicked is not
requited through the eventual misfortune of his
descendants; he himself ought to bear his punish-
ment, but he is snatched away before evil comes
upon his children (xxi. 7-21). When the same lot
of death befalls the lucky t3rrant and [the imfortu-
nate poor, how can man affirm that through their
hap God teaches men what is right (xxi. 22-34)?
By the question in xxiv. 1 and in the reflections
suggested Job intimates that he would be able to
understand the inactive watching by deity of the
raging of t3rrants and the suffering of the innocent
if human history ran in cycles in which exact re-
quital was discerned. But this the Israelite could
do, having the compensations of the " day of Yah-
weh " in view — a thought to which Job's heart in-
stinctively turns. And the poet attempted to
widen and deepen the old faith in God when he
allowed God to decide that Job, in contrast with
his friends, had spoken the thing that was right,
meaning by this not Job's affirmations of innocence,
but the considerations which led him to hold that
not even the world of the dead and the burial of
man therein could deprive man of the proof of that
God who is man's final blessedness.

IV. The Author and the Time of Composition:
The book neither names its author nor gives data
regarding its authorship, and there is no independ-
ent tradition respecting either. Its date has been
placed all the way along the ages from Moses to the
Fenian times. The apocryphal conception made |

Job and the Edomitic king Jobab the same person
and made Moses the author. The thought that the
book belonged to Solomonic times, entertained
from Chrysostom to Delitzsch, rests upon the state-
ment that the wisdom of the Israel of that time
exceeded the wisdom of the East with which Job
is connected (i. 3) and upon correspondences be-
tween Job's thought and that of Solomonic prov-
erbs; but such wisdom did not die with Solomon.
Attempts have been made to prove Job the personi-
fication of suffering Israel in Assyrian times or imder
Manasseh. Neither the orthography of the book
nor the linguistic features give sure indications of
the date, since emendations and changes have ap-
peared in so great numbers as to vitiate the aigu-
ment, and there is also no history of the Hebrew
language sufficiently minute to make the language
a criterion. And the relation of the religious ideas
of the book afford no better test, since the date
when certain notions became dominant does not
exclude the possibility that such ideas were held
at other times. The supposed datum, given by the
connection of the idea of Satan with the same idea
in two other passages of Scriptiu«, loses sight of the
fact that Biblical literature is the remains of a larger
literature which, if extant, might give a different
basis. The only means which might enable one to
fix the date of the book would be its literary rela-
tionship to other dated books. Undated Scriptures,
like the introduction to Proverbs or the Hexateuch
or its parts, must be left out of account. To the
dated books belong Jeremiah and Ezekiel. Between
the way in which Jeremiah curses his birth (xx. 14)
and the expressions in Job iii. there is an indispu-
table connection. But the decision as to priority
may lie in subjective considerations. Note, however,
that Ezekiel speaks of Job as being as well known to
his companions as Noah and Daniel. Here again
some say that not our book but a Job of folk-lore is
referred to. It is noticeable, however, that Eze-
kiel is concerned with the problem of the righteous
judgment of God, which is one of the problems of
Job. In any case it is not forbidden to assiune
that Malachi had this book in his eye (iii. 16), that
Ezekiel knew it, and that Jeremiah had the bitter
complaint of Job in his mind. Delitzsch has em-
phasized the touching wail of the leper of Ps.
Ixxxviii. (cf. Job vi. 8) ascribed to Heman of whom
I Ghron. xxv. 5 says that he was seer to the king and
that God gave him fourteen sons and five daughters.
It has seemed strange that those who aigue for an
old folk-book have not connected the two, espe-
cially since the doubling of Job's possessions implied
fourteen and not seven sons. But the Ghronicler
has made no such connection, and the fact that
Heman wrote a poem which strikes the same note as
the book of Job does not warrant the assiunption
that our book is the expansion of it. It may be
said, however, that the origin of the book of Job lies
on this side of Heman and in close relationship
with that which is said of him; nothing further can
be affirmed respecting the author nor can the time
of its origin be closely defined.

(August Klobtermann.)

Bibuoorapht: Texts of value are by A. Herx. Jena, 1871;
8. Baer, Leipeio, 1876; G. Bickell. in Canmna vettrU

198

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Job. Book of

JO€l

tettamenti, pp. 150-187, Innsbruck, 1882 d^oen into met-
rody and strophical structure); G. Hoffmann, Kiel, 1891 ;
C. Siegfried, in SBOT, 1893; G. Beer, 2 vols.. Marburg,
1895-97 (critical and of great value); B. Duhm, Gdttingen,
1897; Wiener Zeitachrift fOr die Kunde dee Morgenlande;
vols, vi.-vii. (critical unpointed text, with directions for
reading in Latin); and in the new Hiblia Hebraica of R.
Kittel, Leipsic, 1905-06. The Sahidic version was edited
by CJiasca in Scurorum bibliorum fragmenta Copto-Sahidica,
Rome, 1889 (has a rich introduction; cf. Am^lineau in
TSBA, ix. 2, 1893. 5 flqci.). A Greek edition is by P. de
Lagarde in his MiUheilungen, ii. 189 sqq.. GOttingen, 1887.
Earlier commentaries are by Brentius. Halle, 1546;
Johannes de Spineda, Madrid, 1597; A. Schultens, Leyden,
1737; C. F. Houbigant, Notae criticae in univeraoe veteria
teetamenti libroa, Frankfort. 1777; I. J. Reiske, Leipsic,
1779; M. H. Stuhhnann, Hamburg, 1804; J. W. G. Um-
breit, Heidelberg. 1824; E. B. Kdster, Schleswig, 1831.
More modem ones are by H. Ewald, Dickter dee aiien
Bundea, vol. iii., GOttingen, 1836. Eng. transl., London,
1897; B. Lee. London. 1837; J. G. Stickel, Leipsic, 1842;
K. Schlottmann, Berlin, 1851; L. Hirael. ed. Olshausen.
Leipsic 1852; J. G. Vaihinger. Stuttgart. 1856; T. J.
Conant, New York. 1857; £. Renan. Paris, 1859, Eng.
transl.. London, 1889; A. B. Davidson, vol. i., London,
1862 (never completed, philological, an excellent piece of
work); idem, in Cambridge Bible, 1884 (perhaps the best
in English); Frans Delitssch, Leipsic, 1876, Eng. transl.
of 1st ed.. Edinburgh, 1869 (the introduction is very valu-
able, gives a history of the exegesis of the book); F. C.
Ck>ok, in Bible Commentary, London, 1873; O. ZOckler, in
Lange's Commentary, Eng. transl.. New York, 1874;

E. W. Hengstenberg, Leipsic, 1875; C. P. Robinson,
London, 1876; D. Thomas, ib. 1879; S. Cox. ib. 1880;
G. H. B. Wright, ib. 1883; G. G. Bradley. Leeturea on the
Book of Job, Oxford. 1887; W. Volck, Munich, 1889;
A. Dillmann, Leipsic, 1891; R. A. Watson, in Expoaitor'a
Bible, London, 1892; K. Budde, Gfittingen. 1896; B.
Duhm, Freiburg, 1897; E. C. S. Gibson, London, 1889;
Friedrich DelitZ!*ch. leipsic, 1902; M. Pritrhard. London,
1903: D. Davies. vol. i.. Ix)ndon. 1909.

On the metrics consult: J. H. A. Ebrard, Ikta Bu€h
Hiob ala poetiachea Kunatwerk, Landau, 1858; P. Vetter,
Die Metrik dea Buchea Hioh, in Bardenhewer's Bibliache
Studien, ii. 4, Freiburg, 1897; J. Ley, Die metriache
BeaehaffenheU dea Buchea Hiob, in TSK, 1895, 1899; E.
Kautzsch, Die Poeaie und die poetiachen BUcherdea A. 7.,
TQbingen, 1902.

On critical and other questions related to the book
consult: G. Bickell, De indole ac raHone veraionia AU
exandrinae, Marbiu^, 1862; J. A. Froude. in Short
Studiea on Great Subjecta, London. 1867; W. H. Green.
Argument of the Book of Job, New York, 1874; K.
Budde, Beitrflge zur Kritik dea Buchea Hiob, Bonn. 1876;

F. Giesebrecht, Der Wendepunkt dea Buchea Hiob, Greifs-
wald, 1879; T. K. Cheyne. Job and Solomon, London, 1887;
E. Hatch, Eaaaya in Biblical Greek, ib. 1889 (on the Sep-
tuagint); J. F. Genung, The Epic of the Inner Life, the
Book of Job, Boston, 1891; W. T. Davison, in Wiadom
Literature of the O. T., London, 1893 (a luminous treat-
ment); L. Laue, Kompoaition dea Buchea Hiob, Halle,
1895; G. Beer, in ZATW, xvi (1896), 297 sqq., xvii (1897),
97 sqq., xviii (1898), 257 sqq. (deals with all the versions);
J. Owen, Fire Great Skeptical Dramaa, New York, 1896;

G. V. Garland. Problema of Job, London, 1898; R. G.
Moulton. in Literary Study of the Bible, Boaton, 1999; M.
Jastrow, Babylonian ParaUda to Job, in JBL, xxv. 2 (1906) ;
DB, ii. 660-671; EB, ii. 2464-2491; JE, vii. 193-200.

JOBSON, FREDERICK JAMES: English Wes-
leyan; b. at Northwich (17 m. e.n.e. of Chester),
Cheshire, July 6, 1812; d. in London Jan. 4, 1881.
He served an apprenticeship to an architect of Nor-
wich, but in 1834 entered the Wesleyan ministry.
He was located at Patrington, Yorkshire, in 1834,
and at Manchester 1835-37. In the latter year he
went to London as assistant at the City Road
Chapel. In 1856 he was sent by the British con-
ference to the Methodist Episcopal Conference at
Indianapolis, Ind., and in 1860 to the conference
at Sydney, Australia. As book steward of the
VI.— 13

Wesleyan Methodist organization 1864-79 he greatly
extended the publishing-business of his denom-
ination. For twelve years he superintended the
Methodist Magazine. In 1869 he was elected presi- .|
dent of the Wesleyan Methodist conference. His
principal works are. Chapel and School Architecture
(London, 1850); A Mother's Portrait (1855);
America and American Methodism (1857); Aushu-
lia; with Notes by the Way on Egypt, Ceylon, Bomr
bay, and the Holy Land (1862); Perfect Love for
Christian Believers (1864); Serious Truths /or Con-
sideration (1864); and Visible Union with the Church
of Christ (1864). A number of his sermons were
printed in B. Gregory's Life of F. J, Jobson (Lon-
don, 1884).

Bxblioorapht: Beades the Life by Gregory, ut sup., consult
the Wealetfan Methodiat Magazine, Sept. 1844, June 187l,
and 1881. pp. 150-157, 17&-185, 285-294, 397; DNB,
xxix. 396.

JOCELIN, jes^e-lin: A Cistercian monk of Fumess
Abbey (in northwestern Lancashire, west of More-
cambe Bay) and later of Down in North Ireland.
He flourished about 1200 and is noteworthy for his
lives of saints, especially his Life of St. Kentigem
(ed. A. P. Forbes, Edinburgh, 1874) and the Life
and Miracles of Si. Patrick (published by Colgan
in the Trias thaumaturga, Louvain, 1647, 64-116,
and in the ASB, Mar., ii. 540-580; Eng. transl. by
E. L. Swift, DubUn, 1809).

JOCH, yOH, JOHANN GEORG: German Protes-
tant theologian; b. at Rothenburg (31 m. s.s.e. of
Wttrzburg) Dec. 27, 1677; d. at Wittenberg Oct.
1, 1731. He is noted in the ecclesiastical history
of his time as an ardent champion of pietistic teach-
ings in the two strongholds of orthodox Lutheran
theology, Dortmund and Wittenberg. At Jena,
where he studied from 1697 to 1709, he became an
enthusiastic follower of Spener, and when he was
made superintendent and gymnasiarch at Dort-
mund in the latter year, he applied himself to the
performance of his duties in the spirit of pietism.
He found a demoralized and materialistic clergy,
devoted solely to dogmatism and polemics, and at
once began a struggle for regeneration by means
of pietistic assemblies and the institution of cate-
chism classes. This brought him into conflict with
his clerical colleagues, but he enjoyed the support
of the municipal authorities imtil he alienated them
by his attacks upon them. In 1722 he became head
preacher at Erfurt, and in 1726 was appointed pro-
fessor of theology at Wittenbei^g, where his advent
was the signal for the outbreak of a long contro-
versy in which the cause of Pietism made little
headway. Joch was a proUflc writer in various
fields, but his productions, almost without excep-
tion, were pamphlets of little permanent value.

(E. Idbler.)

Bibliography: C. W. F. Walch. Hiatorie der Kelaarmen,
vi. 236. 473 sqq.. 11 vols.. Leipsic. 1762-86; J. C. W.
Augusti. BeitrAo^ zur Oeachichte und Statiatik der evan-
geliachen Kirche, i. 164-231. Jena, 1837.

JOEL: The second of the Minor Prophets in the
arrangement of the English version. Little is
known of the prophet; he was the son of Pethuel,
probably a Judahite, and prophesied in Jerusalem;
but that he was a Levite does not follow from i. 9^

Joel
Johannes

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

194

13, ii. 17. By most scholars his date is placed in
the reign of Joash between 875 and 845 B.C. on the
ground that Amos used his book, that the descent
of the Edomites upon Judah under Joash was fresh
in his memory, and that his mention of temple,
priests, and ritual necessitates that early date.
Others place him in the times of Jeroboam II. and

Uzziah, others under Ahaz and Heze-
Date. kiah, stUl others in the last years of

Josiah, while several recent critics put
him in Persian or Greek times. Against a post-
exilic dating are the following considerations: The
position of the book in the Hebrew and Greek
canon is among the early prophets and before those
of the Chaldean period. Among the peoples named
in the book there appear neither Syrians, Greeks,
Persians, Babylonians, nor Assyrians, not even
Moabites or Ammonites, but only Philistines, Phe-
nicians, Egyptians, and Edomites. Nothing fol-
lows from silence respecting a king and the northern
kingdom. Against the assertion that iii. 2 and 6
imply the Babylonian or an Assyrian captivity, it
is to be noted that neither Babylonians nor Assyr-
ians are mentioned; Philistines and Phenidans
are the chief foes in iii. 4 (cf. II Chron. xxi. 16-17,
where Philistines and Arabians are said to have
aided Jerusalem in the time of Jehoram, and
U Kings viii. 22). Characteristic are the "part-
ing of the land " and the selling of Judean prison-
ers of war to foreign peoples, a practise of the
Phenicians (F. C. Movers, Die Phdnizier, ii. 3, 70
sqq., Bonn, 1845), who, by the ninth century, were
in conunercial contact with the Greeks. The men-
tion of Egypt in iii. 19 may be connected with the
expedition of Shishak of I Kings xiv. 25 imder Re-
hoboam. Against this the " bring again the cap-
tivity " of iii. 1 can not be urged, since in post-
exilic times this phrase means to restore and not
to return captives; and that Judah and Jerusalem
needed restoration when the northern tribes had
revolted, had assailed the capital, annexed Judean
territory, and sold captives into slavery no one will
deny. The conception of the book that Jerusalem
was the legitimate sanctuary is no proof of late
origin, since Isaiah and Micah have the same idea
(Isa. ii. 2; Mic. i. 2). Similarly, Joel's attitude to
the priesthood finds analogies in early prophetic
books. The linguistic test can not be employed,
since it gives no sure results. But more decisive
is the imquestionable dependence of Amos on Joel
(cf. Amos i. 2, 9, 13 with Joel iii. 16, 18), while the
ff€uam of Amos iv. 9 is repeated only in Joel i. 4,
ii. 25, and is not dependent in Joel upon Amos. If
Joel is placed in the early years of Joash when
Jehoiada was influential, the attitude toward the
priests is fully explained.

The occasion of the book was a dire plague of
locusts, accompanied by a severe drought, the re-
sults and course of which are described i. 2-ii. 17,
resulting in the prophet's call to fasting and re-
pentance. This fast must have been observed,

since in the second and remaining part
Contents, of the book promises of good abound,

relating to the immediate and the dis-
tant future. The immediate outlook is the defeat
pf the foe, healing and good fortune, so that Zion

rejoices in its God; in the distant future (ii. 28)
Yahweh's spirit is to come on all flesh, making all
prophecy superfluous, while Zion is to dwell in se-
curity. Its foes are to be gathered, a hostile army,
for judgment, and amid terrifying upheavals of
nature are to be reaped like a ripe harvest. The
book closes (iii. 18-21) w^ith blessing upon Judah
and Jerusalem and promise of destruction for their
foes. The articulation of the book is good and its
parts are well related. The Day of Yahweh, which
in the first part appears as one of terror unless re-
pentance supervenes, is in the second part a day
of grace because that repentance has come. Against
Merx, the hostile peoples are not all mankind, but
the immediate neighbors of Judah, those who, in
accordance with the law of prophecy, were in the
ken of the prophet, viz.. Tyre, Sidon, and Philistia.
This issues, however, in chap. iii. in the distinction
between Israel as God's people and the people of
the world who are foes of God, a representation
which is repeated in Zech. xiv. 2. The place of
judgment of the world is the Valley of Jehoshaphat,
made memorable by the event narrated in II Chron.
XX. 22-26, a place which recalled not only Jehosh-
aphat but a noted judgment upon Judah's foes.

The plague of locusts is to be taken Uterally, not
metaphorically. The metaphoric interpretation de-
pends largely upon the fact that one of the names
for locusts in the Masoretic pointing means " north-
em," and Judah's enemies were northern, while the
locusts usually came from the south. But swarms
are sometimes brought from the northern Syrian
desert by a northeast wind. Moreover, the predic-
tion in ii. 20 is applicable to a swarm of locusts
driveni nto the Dead Sea and the Mediterranean,
not to a himmn enemy. There is no ground for
denying to the prophet the composition of the book
as a whole; the unity becomes dear when it is seen
that the phenomena of the first part are the basis
of the rest (ii. 28-iii. 21). (W. VoLcxt.)

It is now no longer possible to say, with the late
writer of the above article, that most scholars place
the date of Joel " in the reign of Joash between
875 and 845 B.C." [Joash of Judah really reigned
from 836 to 797 B.C.] It has been well said that
" the book is either very early or very late," and
recent critics almost unanimously place it in the
fourth century B.C., though a few still regard it as the
earliest of the prophetical writings. In answer to the
arguments for the older view it may be said: (1) It
is more likely that Joel, e.g. in iii. 16, 18, borrowed
from Amos than that Amos, e.g., in i. 2, ix. 13,
borrowed from Joel, for the former passages are
brought close together as would naturally be done
in a reproduction of earUer thoughts. (2) The at-
tacks of the Edomites upon Judah (cf. iii. 19), dur-
ing the helplessness of the latter just before and
for centuries after the exile, finally resulted in their
actual annexation of the country even to the north
of Hebron; and it is these relations with Edom
which form the chief subject of prophetic references
(see Ob. i. 8; Jer. xlix. 7, 17, 20; Ezek. xxv.
12, 14, xxxii. 29; Mai. i. 4) to that inveterate
enemy of Judah. (3) There is no allusion to the
kingdom of northern Israel. (4) The detailed ref-
erences to the priesthood and the temple offering

196

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Joel
aohannee

and services (i. 9, 13, 14, ii. 14-17) suggest the
later period of Jewish church influence rather than
the days of prophetic independence. (5) The exile
and dispersion and foreign occupation seem to be
presupposed in iii. 2, 17. (6) The allusion to the
" Grecians " (iii. 6) is best accounted for by the
effects of the Macedonian regime in Asia. (7) The
strongest argument for a late date is the apocalyp-
tic character of the book from ii. 28 to the end,
the general indefiniteness of the historical back-
ground, and lack of specific allusion to contem-
porary events and situations which forms such a
striking feature of the earlier prophets.

J. F. McCuRDY.

Bibliography: The two beat commentaries are by S. R.
Driver, in Cambridge Bible, 1897, and G. A. Smith, TKe
Book of the Twelve, London, 1898. Other commentaries are
by: A. F. Holshausen, Hanover, 1829; C. A. Credner,
Halle. 1831; E. Meier. Tubingen, 1841; A. WOnsche,
Leipnic, 1872 (given bibliography of Joel to 1872); E.
Montet, Geneva, 1877; A. Merx, Halle, 1879 (gives history
of interpretation down to Calvin); F. Hitxig, ed. J. Steiner,
Leipaic, 1881; A. SchoU, WOraburg, 1885; C. F. Keil.
Leipsic, 1888; E. le Savoureux, Paris, 1888; G. Preuss,
Halle. 1889; J. Wellhausen, Die kleinen Propheten, pp. 56
sqq.. 207 Mqq.. Berlin, 1892; C. von Orelli, in KurzQtifaaaier
Kommentar, 3d ed., Munich. 1908, Eng. tranal. of earlier
ed., Tke Twelve Afinor Prophets, Edinburgh, 1893; W.
Nowack, Gdttingen, 1897; I. T. Beck, ed. J. Lindenmeyer,
Gatersloh. 1898; J. Hyde. Ix)n(ion, 1 898; E. B. Pusey, Minor
Prophets, reianue, London, 190(5; A. C. Gaeberlin, ib., 1909.
Questions of date, imity, genuineness, etc., are treated
in the works on Biblical Introduction, such as Driver's,
and in the commentaries. Special treatises are: H. Gr&ts,
Der einheilliche Charakter der Prophetie Joels, Breslau,
1873; W. L. Pearson, The Prophecy of Joel: its Unity,
its Aim, and the Affe cf its Composition, New York,
1885; G. Kessner. Das Zeitalter des Propheten Joel, Leipsic,
1888; H. Holwnger, in ZATW, 1889, pp. 89-131; F. W.
Farrar, The Minor PropheU, London, 1890; G. B. Gray,
in Expositor, Sept.. 1893; G. G. Findlay, Books of the
Prophets, I^ndon. 1896; DB, ii. 672-676; EB, ii 2492-
2497; JE, vii. 204-208.

JOHANN, ydOiOn, JOHAHNES, yOOKln-nds. See
John.

JOHANNES UL SCHOLASnCUS: Patriarch of
Constantinople; b. at Sirimis (near Antioch); d.
probably Aug. 31, 577.

The Patriarch Eutychius (q.v.) having been ban-
ished on account of his firm attitude against Aph-
thartodooetism (see Justinian), Justinian appointed
to succeed him, in Jan., 565, Johannes, deputy of
the Patriarch Anastasius of Antioch. Before be-
coming a cleric, Johannes had been a lawyer. Ac-
cording to John of Ephesus (Hist, Ecd., i. and ii.),
he was an unsparing oppressor of the Monophysites
of the capital. After severe illness, he died in the
twelfth year of the Emperor Justin II., whose favor
he had enjoyed. Johannes was the author of
(1) a *' collection of canons, '' and this while still a
presbyter of Antiooh; also (2) a legal canon (Jus-
tellus, Bibliotheca Juris carumici veteriSf 2 vols.,
Paris, 1661, ii. 499-^72). The former treatise con-
tains the canons of church councils down to Chal-
cedon; the latter, the ecclesiastical legislation of
the emperors; and both collections are treated
systematically. According to Photius (Bibliotheca^
cod. Ixxv., p. 52, od. Bekker, 2 vols., Berlin, 1824),
Johannes wrote a '* catechetical discourse " against
the tritheism of Johannes Philoponus (q.v.); ac-

cording to John of Nikiou (ed. by Zotenberg in J A
1878, ii. 344), also an *' initiation." G. KrOobb.
Bibuoorapht: ASB, Aug. 1, *67: DOB, Ui. 866-367;

Fabricius-Harlea, Bibliotheea Qraeoa, id. 101, xii. 146, 103,

201, 209, Hamburg, 1808-09.

JOHANNES IV. JEJUNATOR: Patriarch of Con-
stantinople; b. in Constantinople; d. Sept. 2, 595.
He was a deacon at St. Sophia under the Patriarch
Johannes III. Scholasticus (q.v.). While not a
learned man, he was distinguished for devout works
and for his extended fasts, whence his name Jejuna-
tor. On April 12, 582, he succeeded Eutychius
(q.v.) as patriarch of Constantinople, and stood in
high esteem with the Emperors Tiberius and Mauri-
tius. He IB commemorated as a saint by the Greek
Church on September 2.

He is known in ecclesiastical history for his con-
troversy with Popes Pelagius II. and Gregory I.
In the proceedings of a synod held at Constantinople
in 588, under his presidency, he is called archbishop
and ecumenical patriarch. The first protest against
this title was urged by Pelagius (cf. Gregory, Epist,
V. 41 and v. 44). Some years later Gregory took
occasion to rebuke the patriarch's insolence and
haughtiness because, by usurping that title, which
nobody, not even the Roman pontiff, had ever as-
sumed, he exalted himself above the other bishops.
The remonstrance passed unheeded, even when
Gregory also addressed the Emperor Mauritius in
the matter (Gregory, Episf., v. 37; cf. v. 39). At
all events, Gregory's strict decision continued bind-
ing for the Church of Rome, which denied to the
devout faster the veneration due to a saint.

Gregory was in error if he supposed that Johannes
undertook an innovation, for the title was used in
the time of Johannes II. the Cappadocian in 518.
Still again, Gregory erred in the assumption that
his own predecessors had refused the title of uni-
versal bishop or patriarch; for the contrary is true
in respect to Leo I., Hormisdas, Boniface II., and
Agapetus I. Gregory was also probably wrong in
construing the title to mean an exaltation of the
Byzantine patriarch over all other bishops, includ-
ing the bishop of Rome, for there are still good
reasons for the hypothesis that "ecumenical patri-
arch " meant " imperial patriarch."

The following writings are extant imder the name
of Johannes, although none of them date back to
him: (1) '* Rules and guide in the case of those
who make confession *' (MPO, Ixxxviii., 1889-
1918; cf. 1931-36); (2) ''On repentance, self-
control, and virginity" (MPO, baxvm. 1937-78),
also ascribed to Chrysostom; (3) " On false proph-
ets," (among Chrysostom's works, MPO, liv., 553-
568); (4) "Instruction for nuns and reproof of
every kind of sin " (J. B. Pitra, SpicUeffium ScHm-
mense, 4 vols., iv., 416-435, Paris, 1858). Accord-
ing to K. Holl (Enthtuiaamua und BuaagewaU beim
griech%8chen Mdnchtum, pp. 289 sqq., Leipsic, 1898)
the first one was composed by a Cappadocian monk,
Johannes, who lived in the Petra cloister at Con-
stantinople about 1100. G. KrOgeb.

Bibuoorapht: ASB, Aug. 1, *69-*74; Fabridus-Hftries,
Bibliotheea Oraeca, xi. 108-112, Hamburg, 1806; A. J.
Binterim, Denktvllrdigkeiten, v. 3, pp. 383-300, UuinM,
1829; A. Pichler. OesdtidUe der kirdUichsn Trennung
swiadien Orient und Occident, ii. 647-666^ Munich, 1866;

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

J. Herienrother, Pholiut. i. 178-190, R«semburK. ISST;
J. Lugia. Gtichidilt dir romiifJitn Kirdie, ii. 446 aqq..
Bonn. ISS&i F. Katteabugch. UAiinKh der nrralrirhcndcn
K(m/#tnotu*unrfir,i. 111-117, 282, Fraihutg, I8B2; K. Holl.
EnlhuaioBmua und BfMQeuHiU brim untrhiwhrn M drtthtum.
pp. 280-298. LeipBic. ISBS; DCB, ili. 367-368; and liters,
lure under Pelagiui II., nod Greooht I.

JOHANHES ASKUSHAGES, Qs-kDs'na-jIz; Greek
theologian oC the sbctb Century. He wba a pupil
of the Syrian Peter of Rhesina, whom he eueceeded
ns teacher of philosophy at Constaatinople during
the reign of Justinian I. In a conference held iii the
presenoe of the emperor, Johannes declared him-
eelf not only a monophysite, but a tritheist, and he
woa accordingly banished as a heretic. Abulfaraj
DiakeE Johannes Askusnages the founder of trithe-
iam, but the Greek sources, which ignore this the-
olc^ian, nasigii this place to Johannes Philoponos
(q.v.), the discrepancy being apparently due to the
tact that (he latter was the most distinguished
representative of the tritheist ic doctrine.

(Phiupp Mbybh.)

BlBUOGRAFlir: V. W. V. Wnlch. HiHant dtr KeUmntn. vUi.
68*. II vols., Leipwe, 1782-85; Nennder, Chriilian
Church, ii. 813.

JOHANMES BEKKOS: Patriarch of Constanti-
nople; b. at Constantinople in the early part of the
thirteenth century; d. in the castle of St. Gregory
in Bithynta 1293. He first became important in
the unionistic synod of 1274, when the Emperor
Michael Pal^ologus, a zealous advocate of union,
bought his aid as a scholar and orator. Johannes,
however, after some hesitation declared the Latins
heretics, and was accordingly imprisoned. During
his confinement he read the older Oreek literature
on the controverted points and became convinced of
the truth of what be had hitherto rejected. The
consequence was his elevation to the patriarchal
throne, but the change in ecclesiastical policy re-
sulted in his deposition in 1*282 and his banishment
in the following year. His final years were spent in
prison. The Greek Church has stricken the name
of Bekkos from Ihe li.st of the orthodox, but his
polemical writings were included in the Grarcia
orthodoxa of Leo Allatius (Rome, 1652-59). His
theological works were chiefly in defense of the
union, the most important being " On the t'nion
and Peace of the Old and New Churches of Rome."

(Phiwpp Mbybr.)
Bibuoor.ipht: Kriunbni-hfr, Oadiirhlr, pp. 68-07 (wbcra

the Ii1«niture in indicHtcd); Fabriditi^Hnrlei, Bibliolhnra

Onuca, x\. 344-349. Hsinburg, 1808.

JOHAHHHS CLlMACnS (SCHOLASTICDS, SI-
NAITA): Monk of Mount Sinai. From the "Nar-
ratives " of AnastasiuB, a monk of Mount Sinai (cf.
F. Nan, ira recils inidits du moine Anatttue, Paris,
1802; and Orient Christianus. ii., 1902, .58-89), it
appears th:it Johannes Climacus died about 640,
He was presumably born before 579, and became
a monk in the Sinai cloister about 600, being abbot
of the same before 639. If these data bo correct,
then this Johannes can not be identical n-ith Johan-
nCB, the abbot of Mount Siaai to whom Gregory
I. addressed a letter dated Sept, 1, 600 (Epiat. xi,
I: WPJVf , 3tiii. 52). Johannes was called Climacus
on account of his book, " The Ladder to Paradise."
so termed with reference to Jacob's ladder. In this

book the spiritual conditions by which men are
purified in preparation for the divine life are de-
scribed in tliirly .steps. The process begins with
renunciation of tlie world. The spirit turns to
penance. Salutary tribulation softens the heart,
and removes the dross. Presently the penitent
finds words only for prayer, song, and the manifes-
tation of love. Blessed humihty leads to the imi-
tation of Christ, and unlocks the gates of heaven.
The highest estate is tliat of a divinely patterned
apathy and rest where one beholds, in an undimmed
mirror, the excellences of Paradise. However,
only he who has first endured and overcome the
storms of this world, will attain to that stage of
bHssful calm. Among the Greek monks, this tract,
reinforced with notes, wns for centuries in use an a
guide to perfection (cf. the Scholia of Abbot John
of Ralthu; MPG, Isxxviii. 1211-48).

G, KrCuer.

Bibuoorafbt: TbB editio prinoep* of the " Ladder " wna
by M. Rader, Fu-is. 1633, reproduced in MFO. liuxYiii.
SS3-t24S; tbs fila by Danisl ia in the titller, oolumiu
ea6-«0S. A iKtfr cdilioQ ol the work is by S. Eremilea.
Conitanlinopie, (88,3. A very full bibiioffraphicb] ap-
pBTStw ig tn bo found in Kruuibaoher, Omehirhlc. pp. 1 43-
144. Consult further: J. Fes^ler, Imtilutionn patrolo^iae.
ed. B. Jungmann, ii. 800-807, Innsbrurk. 1808; DCB.
iii, 405; KL, vi. 1840-1641: P. Labbe in UPO, Ixiiviii.
370-682,

JOHAHNES ELEEHON : Patriarch of Alexandria;
b, at Amathus (on s. shore of Cyprus); d. there
probably Nov. II, 619. He was installed as pa-
triarch by the Emperor Heraciius, in deference to
the Alexandrians, at the close of GIO or beginning of
611. His administration meant a powerful rein-
forcement of the orthodox cause in Alexandria,
The policy of imiting the orthodox party with the
Monophysites, as fomentoi by Heraciius and liy
Sergiua of Constantinople, encountered in Johannes
an outspoken opponent. He was famed for his
great charity, whence liis name, Eleemon, and his
good deeds won for him the hearts of the people.
When the Persians approached Alexandria in 619(7),
Johannes Bed to Cyprus, where he died. His anni-
versary day is November 13. G. KatGER,
BiBuodHAFBT: Ths life by Leontiui ii in MPG. xciii. 1S13
gqq.. Id Lat. tratiel., with nalos in MPL. Indli. 337-3S4-
the Lat. tranal. of Lcontiua and of Ihe life by Simeon
Mataphraites. with comment, a in ASB, Jan,, ii. 405-S3S.
H. Oslur edilvd the life by Leonlius, Freiburg, 1903,
Consult; H. Gel»r. Bin gru!t/.iid<cr VolkaiduifliltUtr
da T. JaXrhunderlt. Munieh. IS80; F. POel, Die mne . . .
Licbr dargeiium in rfem Lrben del . . . Johanna del
AlnuitentKberi. ReKenabius. I8S2; A, fon (iulscbmid
KIrirw ScSriflim. ii. 471-475, Uipaic, 1880; H. T. F. Duck-
worlh, Sr. John the AlmigitiiT. Patriardi of Alezandria.
London, 1001; DCB. iii, 34S.

JOHAHWES PHILOPOBOS: Greek philosopher,
phUologist, and theologian of the sixth century. Of
his life few details are known, except that he wa'<
bom at Alexandria and was a pupil of the Aristn-
telian exegete Ammonius and the grammarian Ro-
manes. He woB a man of learning, versatility, and
restless energy, but, adhering fully neither to tradi-
tion nor to dogma, his fondness for a philosophical
treatment of Christian dogma, to which he BubNCribed
in general, frequently placed him in a dubious
position. He won disapproval, moreover, by his
interpretation of the Trinity in his " Arbitrator," a

REUGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

n trag-

-dialogue in ten books but now extant oaly i
meuts, sinoe he asaerted tbat hypostasis and
are the same, bo thai Christ could have but one
Dalure, unless two hypostosea were to be assumed.
In the Trinity he postulated three independcDt hy-
postases comprised under a unity, which was such
merely in virtue of being a generic concept. There
was, therefore, no unity in the Trinity except tliut
which presupposed the triad of hypostases and was
inferred from their common predicates. The teach-
ing here summarized brought upon Johannes the
charge of tritheism, and with some show of rea-
son, although he was not, as Leontius alleged, the
founder of tritheism. but merely one of its chief
rep resenta ti ves.

The chief work of this author still extant U his
De aetemitale mundi (ed. V. Trincavellus, Venice,
1535), assailing Proclus. Aristotle, and Plato, and
seeking to explain the creation rationally without
the aid of the Bible. In his " On the Resurrection,"

and Timotheus, he again made a concession to
philosophy by his distinction between a sensuous
and Bupcrsensuous creation. The second work
still preserved is his Commeniariorum in MotaUam
mundi crealionem libri aptem (ed. B. Corder, Vienna,
1630) , based on older writers on the hexameron, es-
pecially Basil, but enriched with a mass of theories
of nature and philosophy developed by the author.
Mention should also be made of his Ditputaiio de
pasckaU, printed together with the foregoing work,
in defense of the thesis that on the thirteenth day
of the month and on the day before the legal Pass-
over Christ celebrated a mystic meal with his dis-
ciples, but did not actually eat a Passover-l&mb.
(Phiupp Mbyeh.)

Dibuchbapht: FubrieiUB-HBrtu, BibliotKeta Onuca, I. 030
Hiq.. HuDbun;. IS07; F. TreelwE, in TSK. viii (1835),
as-1tS^ J. M. Schnnfelder. Dit KirdungaduMt det
Johanna von Ephaut, pp. ZS0-Z9T. Munich, 1SQ2; Bv-
lanltnucht Zeiltchrift. riii (ISSO), 44i sqq.; Knunbuhiir,
GathichU, p. I>3 et pusim; XL, vi 174H-1TS4.

JOHARHES SCHOLASTICnS OF SCYTHOPOLIS:
Bishop of Scythopolis. According to Photius iBib-
liotheea, cod. xcv., p. 78, ed. Bekker, 2 vols., Berlin,
1824), a certain Johannes Scholasticus of Scytho-
polis wrote twelve books against the separatists of
the Church; that is, the Eutychian party. Photius
(cod. cvii,, p. 187) doubtless correctly identified
him with that Johannes Scholasticus against whom
Basil the Cilician wrote an apoli^y in the titne of
the Emperor Anastasius (491--518). The same
author also wrote a commentary on the peeudo-
Dionysian writings, about S32. According to Loofs
{Leoniiia of Byzantium, pp. 269 sqq., Leipsic, 1887)
he is also identical with Bishop Johannes of Scy-
thopolis. who wa.^ in office about 540, and wrote
against Scverus of Antioch (cf. Dodrina palrvm,
ed. Diekamp, p. 85, HUnster, 1907; and Photius
cod. ccxxxi., p. 287). Possibly, too, the Johannes
Scholasticus whom St. Sabas encountered at Scy-
thopolis about 530 (Cotelerius, EeeUtiae Oraecae
Tnonumenia, iii. 327, 4 vols., Paris, 1677-02) is the
same man. G. EbOqbr.

IliBUoasAPHT; Krumb«>hcr. Getckirhli. p. 66; P. Loofih
/.ronhui von SiiiaTu. pp. 2t»-ZT2. LeiiMii^ 1887; DCB,
ill. 394. 427 (doi. 303. 56G, ASS).

JOHASNES scorns BRIGBRA. See Scoros
Ehioena, Joh*.vne9.

JOHANNES, ADOLF: Uermnn Roman Catholic;
b. at Breudlorenzen (a village near Neustadt-an-
der-Saale, 40 m. n.e. of WUrzburg), Bavaria, Nov.
21. 1855. He was educated at tlio imiversitiea of
Wilrzburg, Vienna, Innsbruck, and Munich, and
was ordaiaed to the priesthood in 18S1. After
being curate at Heidingsfeld and Uossfurt, as well
as prefect of the Julianum at WUrzburg, be was ap-
pointed profesaor in the Lyceum of Dillingen in
1886. Since 1900 he has been profe.isor of Old-
Testament exegesis, Biblical introduction, and
Oriental languages. He has written CommttOar
zu den Weisiagungen dea Propheten Obadja (WUrs-
burg, 1S85); Commentar zum ertten Brief dea Apoa-
UU Paulut an die Thetiolonteher (DiUingen, 1898);
and minor contributions.

JOHN: The name of twenty-two popes. The
inconsistency in the numbora of the later ones ia
due to the fact that after Boniface VIJ. a John XV.
is described in some lists as having occupied the see
for four months. According to some early writers
he was only elected, not consecrated, while others
say that he was put forward as a candidate by the
party of Boniface; but modem investigation shows
that he has no claim even to the name of antipope.

John L: Pope 523-526. He was consecrated
Aug. 16 (or 13), 523. When in that year the Em-
peror Justin I. ordered a general persecution of
heretics, the Arian Goths of the Danube province
appealed for help to Theodoric, who conceived the
idea of sending to Justin an embassy of prominent
Romans, and John was forced to take part in it.
Arriving in Constantinople at the end of 625, he
achieved the purpose of his mission, but was thrown
into prison on his return by Theodoric, who appar-
ently considered him a supporter of the Byzantine
party, and died there May 18, 528.

(H. BOEHMSB.)
BiBucMKArBT: Liber ponlifladit. «d. Hommna. In MOH;
Gtt. vonL Km., i <1S08), 133-137; T. Bodgkin. llalt
and Htrlntadtr; iii, SIO-SZO. Oztoni. 1SB5: P. Oncoro-
viuii. Hit. of lilt Citii of Rant. i. 322. 328-320, Loadon.
1804; G. PfsilKhifUr, in Kirtiientetckichaickt Stuilin,
iii. 166-202. UOnnsr. 1866; H. Qrisar. Oetdtidiii Ramt
und dtr PapHa. L 4BI-493. Freiburc. 1898; Bower. Ptp—.
i. 324-327: Ulmu, Latin ChritHanitu. i. 440-443; B.
Plklina. lAvt» of *» Pap—, i. 120-122, London, n.d.;
DCB. iii. 3Se-3W.

John n.: Pope 533-535. He was elected by the
inRuence of the Ostrogothio court, and conseo&ted
Jan. 2, 633. The most important event of his
pontificate was the settlement ef the Theopaschite
controversy (see Theopaschiteb). On June 0,
633, the Emperor Justinian laid before him a con-
fession containing the disputed formula for con-
firmation. He hesitated a long time, but finally,
on Mar. 24, 634, issued an approving document
which, with the emperor's letter, was included in
the Code of Justinian. He deposed the adulterous
Bishop Contumeliosus of Ries, and named OEesarius
of Arlea administrator of the diocese — the first act
of jurisdiction rf this kind recorded of a pope.

(H.

THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZ0G

I (18W), 141: (^i^odonu, Variai. ed. Hommnn. in MOH,
AvO. AnL. xii C18M), 27B «qq.. 331-332, ud pp. iitii.-
xxz.; T. Hodckin, /lolv a«d Hur Invadtri. iv. 87 aqq..
Ozfoid. 188S; J. Luisgn. 0«KAieU< (is- rAmlwhin JCtre'u.
U, 313-334, BoDo. IS8S: F. Qncoroniu, Hit. aj Itim City
ofRemt, ii. KM-IH. London, IBM; H. Oiiaar. OitMMe
Bom* uml Jtr PaptU, i. 407-198, Fnibun, 1898; Bonr.
Ptpa. i. 333-336: Hilmka, LaUn ChruliamOl, i. 4&B:
B. PUtloK, Lnwt af Hit Popa, i. 124-1Z6. London, n.d.

John nL; Pope S61-674. He wu the son of
AnaataBiua, & prominent Roman, and wm elected
After a long interregnum July 17, 561. He suo-
oeeded in bringing about the return to the Roman
otiedience of the revolting provinceB of Italy. Ra-
venna submitted Sept. IS, 568, and in 571 Arch-
biahop Laurence II. of Milan entered into negotia-
tiona with Rome. His influence was alao felt in
the Prankish kingdom in the restoration of the de-
posed bishop* of Embrun and Gap, who had ap-
pealed to him. (H. BoBHHXB.)

BDUOOUFai; Librr ponlifieatii, ed. Duohesw. L 306-306,
Pub, 188S. ed. Homnum, In MOH, QtL p<mL Rom., i
(IBOS). 16T-1S8: J>S4, Rtgtta, i. 130-137: J. Luwen.
OmdaMt dtr rAntMAM Kirdu. ii. 401-403, Bonn. 188E;
T. Hodckiii. Ilaty anJ lur Invadn, t. 08, Osfonl 18M;
DCB. iii. 801; Bower. Pojitt. i. 374-380: Hilman. Latin
6: B. Platine, Liwi i|^ M* Popu. 1. 132-

JohnlV.; Pope 640-642. The son of Venantius,
ft Dalmatian teacher, be was el«ct«d Aug. 2, 640,
and Mmncrated September 22. Soon after he held
ft qmod at which he condemned Monotbelitism;
and when I^rrhua, patriarch of Constantinople, de-
fended this heresy by appealing to the decisions of
Honoriua, John addressed a strong letter to the
•ons ot the Emperor Heracliiu in which he asserted
the complete orthodoxy of Honorius and demanded
the condemnation of Pyrrhus' teaching. He died
Oct. 12, 642. (H. BoEBHSB.)

Bulumwapbt: Lilur fonHJItaliM, ed. Duoheme. i. 330.
Pub. 1880. ed. Uamnuen. In MOH, OnL pont. Rom., i
(1808), 177; JmlM. Rtotla. i. 227-328; J. Luwen, Ce-
(dUdkto dtr r/smitdm Kirdu. Ii. 51T-63a Bonn. 188C;
R. BaxiDum. I>>* Politik dtr PSpeti, i. 171 aqq.. Elb«r(eld.
1808: T. Hodakiik, tialy and har /nnderi, n, 18. 17Z,
Oxfofd, 189S: Heiin. Popa. I, 361, 364. 307; Bower.
Pop—, i. 43S-441; HibJoan. Latiii CkritHamly, ii. 272:
B. FUtiu. LiHt a/ Uu Pop-, i. 160-163. London, n.d.:
DCB. iii. 301-393.

Constantbe VI., was consecrated immediately after
his election (July 23, 68S) without waiting for im-
perial confirmation. His only known official act
was the bringing of the Sardinian church once more
into subjection to RcHoe. He died Aug. 2, 686.

(H. BOEBMBB.)
BlBUooHArBi: lAbrr pontifltati*. Ml. Duchsgne, i. 306-307.
Pari*. 1880, ed. Honunw.n, in UOH, Cttl. pont. Ron.. I
(18M). 306-200: JtBt. Kapula. i. 242: Hun, Pop—, i.,
)L pp. 64-67: Bower. Pop-, l. 489-490: Hilmnn. Lahn
ChHoHanitii. il. 287: B. Ptatinn. lAatt of U« PopH, i. 106-
107. London, n.d.; DCB, iii. 3B2.

John VL: Pope 701-705. A Gr^ek by birth, he
waa consecrated October 30. The Emperor Apaimar-
l^berius, disapproving his election, sent the exarch
Tbeophylact to Rome to procure his depositioD;
but the militery force of all Italy is said to have
assembled around Rome in his defense. He waa
in greater danger from the Lombard Duke Gisulf of

Benevento, but by means of gifts warded off this
attack also. He died Jan. 11, 709.

(H. BOEHHER.)
BiBLitxiRAPIiT: Liter ponliflcalii. rd. Ducliesne. i. 383,
Puis. 1880. ed. MommHn, in JUG//. Octt. ponL Rom., i
(1S98). 217-218: Jtflt. Regtila. i. 242: Muut, Poprt.
I 2. pp. 105-108; Bower. Pnpa. ii. 9-12: B. Pinlipit.
Limt <^ lAe Pop—, i. 172-173, London, n.d.; DCB. iii.
3B2-393.

John VH: Pope 70S-707. He was a Greek, re-
nowned, according to the hiber pontifiealU, for his
eloquence, education, and taste for art. He showed
little firmness in his dealings with Justinian II. in
regard to the confirmation of the Quinisext Council.
He maintained friendly relations with the Lom-
bards. <H. BOBBUBR.)
BiBLioaRAFHT: Libtr pontifl<ntit. ed. Ductwine. i. 384. P&ria,
1806. ed. HammHn, in MOH, Gat. pont. Rom., i (189S),
319-320; JMt. Ree—ta. I. 340-247; Hum. Popei. i. 2.
pp. 100-123: J. Lvicen, aetchiclilt ia rdnii«A«n Kiri^,
u. 695-606. Bonn. 1S85; F. OreRorovliu, Hitt. of &e City
al Ramt, Ii. 104-100, London. 1804; Bower. Papa. ii.
13-13: B. Pletine. Ltt—ofOuPop—. i. 173-176, London.
D.d.: DCB. ui. 303.

John Vm. : Pope 872-882. He was a Roman by
birth. On being elected pope Dec. 14, 872, he
took up with alacrity the task of ruling in the spirit
of Nicholas I. He had many qualities necessary
for success, including a genius for financial and
military organization and for promptly turning to
advantage each change in the politi^ situation.
His whole force was devoted to two purely political
aims, the liberation of Italy from the Saracens and
its subjection, together with that of the empire, to
the over-lordship of the papacy. The first, a neces-
sary preliminary to the second, he pursued in alli-
ance with the Emperor Louis II., but on bis own
account he built a fleet, organized a standing mili-
tia and completed the fortification of Rome. The
greatest obstacle to the success of his plans was the
impossibility of detaching the prinres of Palermo,
Naples, and Capua, and the maritime power of
Amalfi, from their alliance with the Saracens, to
whom he was himself forced toward the end of his
reign to pay a yearly tribute. His natural unfriend-
liness to the Germans and the Carolingian dynasty
showed itself on the death of Louis (Oct. 12. 875),
when he invited not Louis the German but Charles
the Bald to Rome to receive the imperial crown,
which he placed on bis head at Christmas. When
Charles the Bald died in the next year, John had
to reckon with the claims to the empire of his
nephew Csrloman, whose adherents appeared in
Rome in the spring of 878, imprisoned John, and
took an oath of the leading citizens to support
Carloman as emperor. As soon as the pope waa
released, be went by sea to France and held a
council at Troyes, where he crowned Louia the
Stammerer (Sept. 7, 878); but as Louis showed
little inclination to be mixed up in the Italian
troubles, John had another candidate, Count Boso
of Provence, who followed him back to Italy and
was to have been crowned king in Rome. The plan
failed because the German Carolingiana had gained
too much groimd in northern Italy. In August,
879, John was forced to acknowledge Charles the
Fat at Ravenna as king of Italy, and some time
before Feb. 9, 881, to crown him as emperor, and

REUGI0U8 ENCYCLOPEDIA

John Ul-JOX

thus bid rarenell to any hope of realising his Italian
plans. In the controversy between Methodius and
the Bavarian episcopate, he took the side of the
former, although in 879 he BUmmoned him to Rome
to acHwer a charge of heres]'. But John's attempts
lo please both parties sowed the seeds of future dis-
cord in the young Moravian church. He carried
on his predecessors' policy more consiatently ia
the Bulgarian question, but gained nothing except
vague promises, while the Greek clergy and liturgy
remained in possession. This question had troubled
the relations of Rome with Igriatius, patriarch of
Constantinople. After his death in 877. Photius
{who had been deposed by the fourth council of
Constantinople in 869) was reinstated. In 879, in
order lo win the Emperor Basil's support against
the Saracens, John expressed his readiness to recog*
nize him on certain conditions, and though Photius
grossly falsified the terms when he recited them in
the council of 879, John disavowed the action of
his protesting legates and still sought for union.
The assertion of later historians that he reversed
this policy before his death (Dec. 15, 882) and once
more deposed Photius finds no support in his letters.
(H. BocHHEs.)

BiBLioQUiPBi^ Th* lalMm of this pope may be found in
Uaiu% Concilia, xvii 1 iqq.: S. LAocnhld. EpiUoUu
Romanarum pimHflinim intdiUu. pp. 24-34, Leipaic. 1S8S:
■uid JaS^, ffiWMla. i. 376-422. i.4iiuutt: BiuctiiBr, ^niuil«i.
ed, G. H. Pert!, in MQH, Saipl., i (1626). 496 k\h,; lAbir
jionlifinil\: ed. Ducbeuie, ii. 121-122. Pariii, 1892; Usnn,
Popa. in. 231-303: J. MerceorOUier, PAMiiu. 3 vob.. RvE-
eaibure, 1967-00; B. JuDCmanD, Di—trtationa mlictaM,
iii. 419-436. Rcftenabunt. 1BS2; A. Guquet. VEmpin
hi/iantin at la trunarMt Jranqut. pp. 432^482. Puis. ISSSi
J. Lanien. GachiehU itr rtmiidun KirtAt, lii. 170-276.
Bona, 1892; A. LiipAtte, L'EMropt it h Saijd-Sitgt i
fVpngud twotinffienne, voL 1.. FftriA. 1806 (LUtramoDt&De);
F. Gn-goroviue. HHk <4 Oa City of Rome. iii. 171-203,
London, 1S9S: Hauck, KD. ii. 56S aqq., 702 aqu.: Hefele.
ConrilitnattrkidvU. IV. 447 sqq.. 614 Kiq.: Bower. Pojtt.

John IX. ; Pope 898-900, He was a Benedictine,
and was elevated to the papacy after the expulsion
of Sergius III. At a synod tn St. Peter's he re-
versed the proceedings of the synod of Stephen VI.
(q.v.) which had condemned Formosua (q.v,), and
reaffiriaed the vahdiiyof the orders conferred by the
latter. He revised the provisions for pupal elec-
tions, recognized Lambert of Spoleto as emperor,
and declared the coronation of Arnulf null and void.
At first he confirmed the decrees of his predecessors
in regard to Photius. but just before his death he
seems to have succeeded in reaching some under-
standing with the Greeks at a synod.

(H.

Bibliooh*pht; Liber porUiJlcalit, ed. Duohe>nB. ii. 232. Psriii.
18B2; J. M. WstUrie)!, Romanorum pontiflrum vilat, i, 6fi6
■qq., Leipsie, 1S62; J^Bf. Rraala. i. 442-44S: J. Leniien,
OiKhidiU rfir romiteken Kirct^. iii. 307-311, Bonn. 1802;
y. Gregotoviu*. MiH. of Ou Cily of Romt. iiL 231-238,
London, IBfi6; Mann, Popet, iii, 246, 370. 3S4, 304: Bower,
PaptM. ii, 302-304; Uilmnn, Latin Chriilianitv, iii, 112;
B. Platinm, Lives of tU Popei. i. 240-241, London, D,d.

JohnX.: Pope914-928. He ia said to have been
born at Tofiignano in Romagna, to have been first
a deacon in Bologna, and then to have risen to the
bLihopric of that see, which he immediately ex-
changed in some uncanonical manner for that of
Ravenna, whence he was called, ag

cally, by the iprimales of Rome — meaning notably
Theodora, to whom he seems to have been related
—to the papacy about March, 914. He displayed

some zeal and ability in ecclesiastical affairs, main'
taining close relations with Germany and France;
the instructions sent to the archbishop of Reims
for dealing with the newly converted Normans tat
notable. He was, however, more important aa a
politician and military commander, succeeding in
uniting the principal Italian princes and the casterD
emperor against the Saracens, and personally win-
ning a brilliant victory over them on the lower
Garigli&no in August, 916. But the league soon fell
a prey to the spirit of faction, the Emperor BerengaT
was murdered at Ravenna to 924, and John had a
powerful foe in Rome in the person of the intrigu-
ing Marozia. In June, 928, his brother Peter, pre-
fect of the city, was murdered and he himself wal
thrown into prison, where he soon died.

(H. BOEHUEB.)

Biblidorapht: Sources ere: Liudprsod. Anbspod/iiie, ed.
E. Dflmmler, pp. 44-47, 61, 73, Hanover, 1877; Benodid-
tuB. Chroniam, ed. G. Waiti. in MGH, Script, liii (ISSl),
714-715. Oonault further: Liber pontifieatiM, ed. Dachfeaa,
ii. 240-241, Paria. 1992; JuB*, Ragala. i. 447-453: J. U.
WUlericb, Remanorum pOTiHflruin vHom, i. 35-36, 661 eqq.,

46-62, RsKensburg, 1884: J. Langen, GrediicUi' der
remiMclten KiriM. iii. 319-328, Bonn. 1862; F. OreflO-
roTiua. Hiif. of On City of «oim, iii. 24ft-27B. London,
1895: Bower, PnpM, ii. 308-311: Milmu, Latin Chrit-
tioHity. iu. 160-166; B. Platina, liva vf Ou Pope: i. 246-
247, London, n.d.

John XI.; Pope 931-B38. A natural son of
Sergius III. by Marozia, he was elevated to the
papacy about 931 by his mother's influence, and
was involved in her fall when his half-brother Al-
beric gained power a year later. It ia not known
whether he ever regained his freedom, but it waa
undoubtedly Alberic who decided all the more im-
portant acts of jurisdiction. John died in January,

936. (H. BOEBUER.)

BiBI.ioaRAPiiI: Liber potitiflcali; ed. Ducbeane, ii. 243, Porii,
1892: JaS#. Reoala. L 464-465; J. M. Wstterich. Roma-
nonim ptmtvflcum vilat, i, 38. 669 iqq,, I^ipiie. 1863;
J. Lengen, Gterhichte der rimtitchen Kirdie. iii. 320-331,
Etoim, 1892: GrxRoroviiu, HiMt. of Oie Cili, of Rome, iii
233-305, London, 1896: Bower, Papei. ii. 311-312: B.
Platina. Liivi of Iki Popet. i. 248-249. London, o.d.

John XII. (Octavian): Pope 955-964, He was
the illegitimate son of Alberic, and was elected
Dec, 16, 955. The most shocking moral scondala
were rife; but with all his vices he combined the
soaring ambition of his house. First be tried to
extend his power in the south, and then to deal
with King Berengar, both without success. Ber-
engar's son Adalbert was occupying Roman terri-
tory when John decided to appeal to Otto 1., pos-
sibly under pressure from the reforming party
among the Roman clergy. After exacting guar-
anties for his own position, he admitted Otto into
the city and crowned him emperor (Feb. 2, 962);
but hardly had Otto left Rome when John entered
into relations with Adalbert and attempted to do
BO with the Byzantine empire. Becoming aware
of his treachery. Otto marched back to Rome.
John and Adalbert fled to Tivoli. A synod met in
St. Peter's under the emperor's presidency, which
after nearly a month's debate declared John guilty

John Xm-XXTT

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

800

of perjury, murder, sacrilege, and incest, deposed
him, and elected the protoacriniariua Leo, who was
then only a layman, in his place. After the em-
peror had left Rome, John's friends rose and ex-
pelled Leo. John returned to the Lateran, and
held a council of his own (Feb. 26) at which he
annulled the acts of the previous one and declared
Leo deposed. Stem vengeance was taken upon the
reforming leaders, but before Otto could return
John was struck down either by a stroke of apo-
plexy or by an injured husband, and died May 14,

964. (H. BOEHMER.)

Biblxoobapht: The EpUtolae et privUegia are in MPL,
fflnnriH, Sources are: Liudprand, De r^buB f/et^ OUonit,
ed. E. DOmmler. pp. 124-136, Hanover, 1877; Liber
VontificalU, ed. Duchesne, ii. 246 sqq.. Paris, 1892. Con-
sult further: Jaff^. Regeutu, i. 463-467; J. M. Watterich*
Romanarwm porUifleum vitae, i. 41-63; F. Oregorovius,
HiML cf th4 Ciiy of Rome, iii. 328-^1. London, 1805; B.
Jungmann, DieurtationeM eeledae^ iv. 440 sqq., Regens-
burg. 1884; Hauck. KD, IL 222-236; Bower, Popes, u.
316-310; Milman. Laiin ChrtetianUu, iu. 175-184; B.
Platina, Livea of the Pope; i. 252-254, London, n.d.

John Zm.: Pope 965-972. Formerly bishop of
Nami, and apparently a son of the younger Theo-
dora, he was elected under the influence of Otto I.
and consecrated Oct. 1. In December the citizens
rose and imprisoned him. He escaped, but was
unable to reenter Rome except with the help of the
emperor, to whom he remained in absolute subjec-
tion. This relation, however, increased his con-
sideration in the West, and from coimtries as dis-
tant as Spain, England, and Scotland questions
were referred to him for decision. He died Sept.

6, 972. (H. BOEHMER.)

Bibuoobapht: The Epittolae et privUegia are in MPL,
cxxxv. Consult: Liber pontiflcaliB, ed. Duchesne, ii. 252,
Fhris, 1802; JafiF^ Regeata, i. 470-477; J. M. Watterich,
Ramanorum poniiflcum vitae, i. 44, 66, 685-686, Leipeic.
1862; B. Jungmann, DinerteUionee eeledae, iv. 403 sqq.,
Bogensburg, 1884; J. Langen, Oeachichte der rdmitdien
KinAe, iiL 354-363, Bonn, 1802; Hauck. KD, iii. passim;
F. Oregorovius, Hitt. of the City of Rome, iii. 357-377,
London, 1805; Bower, Popes, ii. 321-323; B. Platina,
LtMS of the Popee, I 255-256, London, n.d.

John ZIV.: Pope 983-984. Formerly known as
Peter, bishop of Pavia and chancellor of Italy,
he was elected in Nov. 983, by the influence of
Otto II. After Otto's death the rival claimant,
Boniface VII., returned from Constantinople and
imprisoned John in the Castle of Sant'Angelo, where
he died Aug. 20, 984. (H. Boehmer.)

Bibuoobapht: JafiF^ Regeeta, i. 484; J. M. Watterich,

Romanorum pontifleum vitae, i. 66, 686-^7. Leipsic, 1862;
^ Bower, Popee, ii. 325; B. Platina, Livee of the Popee, i. 260.
* London, n.d.; F. Oregorovius, Hist, of the City of Rome,

iiL 303, 397. London, 1805.

John ZV. : Pope 985-986. During his pontificate
the political power in Rome was in the hands of
John Crescentius II., and the papacy enjoyed little
consideration abroad, as is shown by the history
of the Reims contest (see Sylvester II.). His
relations with Germany, however, were relatively
dose, and he acted (through his legate Leo of
Trevi) as mediator between Ethelred of England
and Richard of Normandy, sanctioning the peace
of Rouen (Mar. 1, 991). He died early in April,

996. (H. BOEHMBB.)

Bibuoobapht: Liber pontifleaUe, ed. Duehesne, it 260,
PBris, 1802; J. M. Watterich, Romanorum potUifleum vitae,
i. 66-67, 687-688. Leipsc, 1862; J. Langen, OeedUdUe

der rUmiachen Kirche, iii. 369-380, Bonn, 1802; F. Orego-
rovius, Hiet. of the City of Rome, iii. 308-408, London,
1805; Bower. Pope; ii. 326-329.

John XVI.: Pope 997-998. A Greek of low ex-
traction from Rossano in Calabria, he was made
abbot of Nonantula by the favor of the Empress
Theophanu, who, as regent after Otto II. 's death,
procured his elevation to the bishopric of Piacenisa.
When John Crescentius expelled Gregory V. from
Rome, he assumed the papacy; but Otto III. re-
stored Gregory, and John was captured in March,
998, deposed, mutilated, and imprisoned in a Roman
monastery, where he lived apparently until April

2, 1013. (H. BOEHMER.)

Biblioobaphy: Jaff^, Regeeta, i. 405-496; J. M. Watterich,
Romanorum pontificum vitae, i. 68. 689 sqq., Leipsic, 1862;
J. Langen, Oeechichte der rdmischen Kirche, iii. 385-387,
Bonn, 1892; F. Oregorovius, Hist, of the City of Rome,
iii. 422-427, London, 1895; Bower, Popes, ii. 330; B.
Platina, Livee of the Popes, i. 263-264, London, n.d.

John ZVn.: Pope 1003. He was a Roman
named Sicco, who was elected June 13 by the will
of Crescentius, and died Dec. 7. The only thing
known of him is that he was married before his
elevation. (H. Boehmer.)

Bibuoobaphy: Liber pontificalia, ed. Duchesne, ii. 265, Paris,
1892; Jaff^, Regesta, i. 501: Bower, Popes, ii. 333; B.
Platina, Lives of the Popes, i. 265.

John XVIIL : Pope 1003-09. He was another
creature of Crescentius, named Fasanus or Phasi-
anus, son of a Roman presbyter Leo. That he was
not lacking in energy is shown by his vigorous
proceedings against the bishops of Sens and Orleans,
who had required Abbot Gauzlin of Fleury to burn
the papal privileges of exemption; and he seems
to have had some success against his Byzantine
opponents. He died in June, 1009.

(H. Boehmer.)

Biblxoobapht: Liber Pontificalis, ed. Duchesne, ii. 266.
Paris, 1892; Jaffd, Regesta, i. 501-503; J. M. Watterich,
Romanorum pontificum vitae, i. 69, 699-700. Leipsic, 1862;
Mary Bateson, in Historical Review, 1895, pp. 728-729;
F. Oregorovius. Hist, of the City of Rome, iv. 7-10, London.
1896; Bower. Popes, ii. 334; B. Platina. Lives of the Popes,
i. 266, London, n.d.

John XIX.: Pope 1024-32. He was the brother
of Benedict VHI., Romanus by name, and was
elected by the Tusculan party between April 12
and Biay 10. The eastern Emperor Basil II. re-
quested him to acknowledge the patriarch Eusta-
thius of Constantinople as ** ecumenical bishop,"
or practically as an eastern pope. John was dis-
posed to accede, but the monastic reformers raised
such a storm of protest that the negotiations were
broken off. After crowning Conrad II. (Mar. 26,
1027), John was completely under his power, and
his decrees were treated with contempt by the em-
peror in Germany. In France, however, his au-
thority seems to have been respected, and King
Canute of England paid him a visit in 1027. Ap-
parently without much protest, he conducted a
simoniacal traffic; the only objection raised by
Canute to the demand of money for conferring the
pallium was to the largeness of the amount. He
seems to have died Nov. 6, 1032.

(H. Boehmer.)

Bibliogbapht: Jaff^, Regesta, i. 514-519; J. M. Watterich.
Romanorum pontificum vitae, i. 70, 708-711. Leipsic, 1862:
J. Langen, Oeschi^le der rdmischen Kirche, iii. 418-128,

801

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Johnzm-

Bonn, 1892; F. Gregorovius, Hi$t. of ths City cf Rome,
It. 31-39, London. 1896; Bower. Popea, ii. 337-339; B.
Platina, Livee of the Pop**, i. 209-270. London, n.d.;
Hauok. KD, iii. 496, 655-556, 559. 561.

John XXL (Pedro Juliani): Pope 1276-77. A
native of Lisbon, he became cardinal-bishop of
Tusculum in 1273, and was elected pope at Viterbo
Sept. 15 or 16, 1276, taking the title of John XXI.,
though he was in reality the twentieth pope of this
name. He was a man of great learning, though
apparently of equal eccentricity; since the four-
teenth century it has been usually believed that he
was identical with "Petrus Hispanus," the author
of a number of medical works and a popular com-
pendium of logic. His pontificate was without in-
fluence on the development of the church. He was
injured by the fall of a ceiling in the papal palace at
Viterbo, and died May 20, 1277. (A. Hauck.)

Bibuoorapht: J. Oiurand and E. Cftdier. Let Regieiree de
Greooire X. et Jean XXI., Paris. 1898; R. Stapfer. Papet
Johannes XXL, Manster. 1898; Bower. Popee, iii. 25-26;
F. Orogoroviua. Hi$t. of the City of Rome, v. 475-^77. Lon-
don. 1897; B. Platina. Livee of the Popee, ii. 106-108. ib.
n.d.; Milman, Latin ChrieOan'Uy, vi. 134-135.

John XXn. (Jacques Dueza): Pope 1316-34.
He was bom at Cahors, France, about 1244, be-
came bishop of Avignon in 1310 and cardinal-
bishop of Porto in 1312, and was elected pope at
Lyons, after an interregnum of more than two
years, on Aug. 7, 1316, taking up his residence at
Avignon. The main object of his policy was to
get rid of the remains of imperial power in Italy,
in the interests of the papacy. He took advantage
of the contested election to the empire in 1314 to
declare on Mar. 31, 1317, that upon a vacancy in
the imperial office its jurisdictiOj regimen^ et dia-
positio passed to the pope; and on this groimd he
forbade the imperial vicars and other officials
named by Henry VII. to retain their offices, him-
self appointing Robert of Naples, as his predecessor
had done, imperial vicar for Italy. He maintained
a more or less neutral position between the rival
claimants in Germany. The case was altered when
Louis the Bavarian's victory over his competitor
at the battle of Miihldorf (Sept. 18, 1322) made it
possible for him to take hold of Italian affairs, and
his nomination of Berthold of Neiffen as imperial
vicar showed that he was disposed to do so. In a
public consistory (Oct. 8, 1323) he brought charges
against Louis (the so-called " first process 'Oi ^^
action being based on the claim first made by
Gregory VII. and renewed by Innocent III. that
to the pope belonged the right of examining and
approving or rejecting the candidate elected to the
imperial throne. Louis was accused of disregard-
ing papal rights by taking the title of emperor
without confirmation and assuming to administer
the empire before he had received it, as well as of
favoring and protecting the Visconti, who had been
condemned for heresy. He was summoned, on
pain of excommunication, to lay down the reins of
government and annul his previous acts, and his
subjects were released from their allegiance. John
probably did not expect Louis to yield obedience;
what he hoped to gain was a renewal of the conflict
in Germany. After a momentary hesitation (sec-
ond process, Jan. 7, 1324), the sentence of excom-

munication was pronounced against Louis Mar. 23,
and a like penalty threatened against all who should
continue to render obedience to him (third proo-
ess). On July 11 he was declared deprived of all
rights supposed to follow from his election, and
once more summoned to answer at the bar of Rome
before Oct. 1, while his adherents were excommu-
nicated (fourth process).

In reply to the first process, Louis had made a
declaration which asserted the validity of an elec-
tion independent of papal confirmation, raised the
charge of heresy against John himself, and appealed
to a general council. This declaration appears not
to have been published; but on May 22, 1324, he
came out publicly with a renewed appeal to a coun-
cil. The attempt to set up a rival emperor failed,
and the menace of excommunication and interdict
had but little effect in Germany. Early in 1327
Louis came down to Italy with imexpected success,
had himself crowned in Rome (Jan. 17, 1328) by
four syndics elected by the people, and brought
about the election (May 12) of an antipope, known
as Nicholas V. John met these proceedings by
declaring that Louis had forfeited all fiefs which he
held from either Church or empire, especially the
duchy of Bavaria (fifth process, Apr. 3, 1327); by
condemning him as a heretic (Oct. 23); by pro-
claiming a crusader's indulgence for all who should
bear arms against him for a year (Jan. 21, 1328);
and by ordering a new election to the empire later
in the spring. Louis was not strong enough to
keep the control of Italy, and was obliged to leave
it in the winter of 1329--30, after which his anti-
pope made his submission. In a sermon on All
Saints' Day, 1331, the pope declared that the bea*
tific vision of God was not granted to the saints un-
til after the resurrection. Doubts had already been
expressed as to his orthodoxy, and this statement
gave fresh offense, all the more that the Italian
cardinals were unfriendly to the Gascon pope.
Taking advantage of this situation Louis, in con-
cert with Cardinal Napoleone Orsini, addressed a
formal request to the sacred college in 1334 for the
summoning of a general coimcil; but before any
result could follow this new attack, John died on
December 3 of that year.

John is described as a small, thin, ugly, bald-
headed man. He was incessantly busy without
accomplishing anything worth while. Germany
was injured, Italy distracted, and the Church and
papacy lowered in the general esteem by his pon-
tificate, which earned a bad name also by the finan-
cial methods developed by him. He needed money
to enrich his relatives, and he delighted in amass-
ing it for its own sake. Giovanni Villani estimated
his fortune to be 25,000,000 florins (over 16,000,-
000); but about 800,000 florins is probably mudi
nearer the mark. As a means of money-getting
he made wide use of reservations (see Rssbbva-
TION8, Papal). Immediately after his election he
reserved all benefices whose previous holders had
received another position from the pope, and a
year later, by declaring that no one might hold
more than two benefices, he created a large num-
ber of other vacancies, which he likewise reserved
to himself. In 1322 he reserved all the benefices

John XXTTT
John the Apostle

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

dOd

in the patriarchate of Aquileia and the archbishop-
rics of Ravenna, Milan, and Genoa. The same
purpose was served by the foundation of a large
number of new dioceses by division of the older ones.
For John's relation to the Franciscans, sec Francis,
Saint, op Assisi, III., §§ 5-7; for his activity in
the field of canon law, see Canon Law, II., 6, § 3.
See also Beohards, Bequines, § 6. (A. Hauck.)

Bibuoorapht: The weightiest documents of John's reign
are published in the AnnaUa ecclesi<utici of O. Raynaldus
ed. A. Theiner, vol. xxiv.. Bar le Due, 1872; in AM A,
XT. 2, 61 sqq., xvi. 2. 156 sqq.. xvii. 1, 150 sqq., 1880-86;
in VatikaniM^ Studien, Innsbruck, 1800; W. H. Bliss,
Calendar . . . Papal Inters, ii. 123 sqq., in RoUa Seriea,
London, 1805; the bull Licet juxta doctrinam is quoted in
Mirbt, QueUen, pp. 152-153; important also are LeXtre*
du pape Jean XXII., 1316-34, relatives it la France, Athens,
1000 sqq. The earlier lives are collected in S. Balujse,
Vitae paparum Avenioneneium, i. 113 sqq., Paris, 1603,
and in G. Villani, Cronica, books ix.-xi.. Florence, 1823.
Consult: Pastor, Popes, i. 58-83; C. M filler, Der Kampf
Ludvfige . . . mit der rdmischen Kurie, vol. i., TQbingen,
1870; 8. Rieiler, Oeschichte Baiems, ii. 348 sqq., Gotha,
1880; W. Felten. Die Bulle Ne pretereai, 2 vols., Treves,
1885-87; B. Jungmann, Dxsseriaiiones eeUctae, vi. 156
sqq., Regensburg, 1886; M. Faucon, La lAbrairie dee papes
d*Avi0non, 2 vols., Paris, 1886-87; Regtdae cancellaritie
apoetoUcae, Innsbruck, 1888; L. K6nig, Die p&psUidu
Kammer unier . . . Johann XXII., Vienna, 1804; Nean-
der, Chriatian Church, iv. 358 et passim; Hefele, ConcUien^
geadiichte, vi. 575 sqq.; Bower, Popes, iii. 73-78; B.
Platina, Lives of the Popes, ii. 140-147, London, n.d.;
Mihnan, Latin Christianity, vii. 18-120.

John XXIIL (Baltasare Cossa): Pope 1410-15.
He came of a noble NeapoUtan famUy. At first

he took up the profession of arms, but later he
studied at the University of Bologna and became
cardinal in 1402 and legate of Bologna in 1403.
In this position he rendered distinguished services
for the restitution and protection of the Papal States
(q.v.) and for the increase of the papal finances.
He fell out with Gregory XII. and became the
leading spirit of the Council of Pisa (q.v.); the
newly elected pope, Alexander V., was only an in-
strument in his hands. After the death of Alex-
ander, John himself was elected pope May 17, 1410.
He carried on a successful war against Ladislaus of
Naples (battle of Roccasicca, Apr. 29, 1411), but
was forced to flee and throw himself into the arms
of the Roman King Siegmund. By his ignominious
flight from the Council of Constance (Mar. 20 to
21, 1415), John incurred the hatred of the whole
assembly. On May 29, 1415, the council deposed
him and delivered him into the hands of Count
Palatine Louis of Bavaria. He was then impris-
oned in Radolfszell, Gottlieben, Heidelberg, and
Mannheim till 1418, when he was released by Martin
V. and made cardinal bishop of Tusculum. He died
Dec. 22, 1419. (B. Bess.)

Biblioorapht: Pastor, Popes, i. 191-199: Creighton, Pap-
acy, i. 267-344; C. Hunger, Zur GeschirhU Papst Johan-
nes XXII I., Bonn. 1876; J. Schwerdfeger, Papst Johann
XXIII. und die Wahl Siegmunds, UIO, Vienna. 1895; H.
Blumenthal, in ZKO, xxi. 1900; Neander, Christian
Church, V. 90 sqq.; Bower, Popes, iii. 171-201; E. J.
Kitts, In the Days of the Councils; a Sketch of the Life and
Times of Baldassare Cossa, Edinburgh, 1909.

The Man.

Hifl Position Among the Apostles

(J 1).
His Family ($ 2).
His Character ({ 3).
The Writings Attributed to

John.
The Apocalypse.

JOHN THE APOSTLE.

Preliminary Considerations (S 1).
External Testimony (S 2).
John the Presbyter ({ 3).
The Date of Composition ({ 4).

2. The Epistles.

I John (S 1).

II and III John ({ 2).

3. The Gospel.

Its Character ($1).

Internal Testimony to Authorship
(5 2).

Objections to Johannine Author-
ship (S 3).

John's Residence at Ephesus

(M).
Conclusion ($ 5).

L The Man: The picture which the name of
John calls up in the mind of every educated Chris-
tian is a reflection of the traits apparent in the
writings transmitted under his name; but whether
he was the author of those w^ritings has been for a
hundred years a question to which diverse answers
have been given, many denying his authorship ab-
solutely, whUe others regard it as uncertain. The
attempt must be made to arrive at the historical
position of the apostle from these writings and
from the traditions as to his later life which are so
closely connected with them.

In nearly all the lists of the apostles, after the

names of Peter and Andrew come those of James

and John, the sons of Zebedee. That in Acts i. 13

John comes before James, and both

z. His before Andrew may be explained by

Position the fact that in this book John was to
Among the be frequently named as a prominent

Apostles, man in the apostolic circle, while James
appears only once, in the mention of
his martyrdom (xii. 2). On the other hand, it may
be concluded from the almost constant precedence
given to James in the Gospels that he was the elder
brother, for the greater historical importance of
John was well known by the time the Gospels were

written. According to an old and wide-spread tra-
dition, John was the youngest of all the apostles.
If this is accepted, it adds to the probability of the
assertion that he died a very old man after the
accession of Trajan, 98 a.d.

The father of James and John pursued with them
and with several hired men (Mark i. 20) the trade

of a fisherman at Capernaum. More

3. His IB known of the mother; she accom-

Family. panied Christ on his last journey to

Jerusalem, and by her request for
places of honor in the Messianic kingdom for her
sons showed not only her own ambition but her
firm belief in the coming of that kingdom; she was
seen again at the cross, and appears as one of the
women who had helped to support the Savior in
Galilee and on this last journey, and cared for the
proper burial of his body after the crucifixion.
Her name, Salome, is preserved by Mark (xv. 40,
xvi. 1; cf. Matt, xxvii. 56). The comparison of
John xix. 25 with this last passage and Mark xv. 40
leads to a tempting hypothesis that she was the sis-
ter of Mary, the mother of Jesus, which would tend
to explain more than one traditional statement
about the boldness of her demand for her sons.
Their call, as well as that of Peter and Andrew, is

808

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

John TtTrm
John the Apostlo

placed by the Evangelists among the first acts of
the ministry of Jesus in Galilee after the imprison-
ment of John the Baptist, whose disciples they had
apparently been, therefore being fully acquainted
with the personality and teaching of Jesus.

With Peter the two brothers formed the inner
circle of his associates, whom he took with him to
the house of Jalrus, to the mount of the transfig-
uration, and to Gethsemane. A comparison of
Mark z. 35 with Matt. xx. 20 shows that they
shared their mother's ambitions for
3. His their future; though it must not be
Character, forgotten that in reply to the search-
ing question of Jesus, they declared
their readiness to go through all the triab and suf-
ferings which must precede his glorification. It is
they, with Peter, who come to the mind in reading
of strife as to precedence among the apostles (Matt,
xviii. 1; Mark ix. 33; Luke xxii. 24). In connec-
tion with one of the admonitions of Jesus on these
occasions occurs the account of John's complaint
of the man who worked wonders in his name with-
out being his avowed disciple (Luke ix. 49). It
was not their own honor, however, that they wished
to see avenged by a divine judgment upon the
Samaritan village in the following passage (ib.
verses 51-56). It can scarcely be doubted that it
was such expressions of an unchastened spirit that
caused Christ to give them the name of Boanerges
(Mark iii. 17). That both the brothers afterward
learned to master their impetuous wrath and their
jealous ambition is amply attested. A story of
James preserved by Eusebius (Hist, ecd., II., ix.
2, 3) gives a touching evidence of it; and the whole
history of John speaks for it, though his natural
disposition appears not extirpated but purified and
regulated in the words and actions of his old age.
It must have been his natural gifts and fiery zeal
which procured for him, even in the lifetime of his
elder brother, so conmianding a position among the
apostles and in the church of Palestine (Acts iii.
1-11, iv. 13, 19, viii. 14). In Acts xv., indeed, he
does not appear so prominently as Peter and James
in the discussions of the council at Jerusalem; but
Paul names him with them as a pillar of the Church
(Gal. ii. 9). Paul refutes the assertions of his Gala-
tian opponents by facts which he could not have
invented and would not have adduced if they were
not demonstrable; all that those assertions prove
is that John, like Peter and James, continued to
live, with the churches inunediately subject to their
guidance in Palestine, according to the forms of the
Jewish law, while they solemnly declared them-
selves satisfied with the missionary vocation of
Paul and the independence of his non-Jewish con-
verts. The position of John in regard to these
burning questions of the middle of the first century
is the last historical notice of him in the New Tes-
tament, outside of the Johannine writings them-
selves.

n. The Writings Attributed to John: The works
to be discussed under this heading are five books
of the New Testament, viz., the Fourth Gospel,
three Epistles, and the Book of Revelation or
Apocalypse.

1. The Apocalirpse: This comes first in order

because it is the only one which bears John's name
upon its face. If the author of such a pastoral
letter to the seven churches of Asia
1. Prelim- did not think it necessary to identify
inary Oon- himself any further than by the bare
■iderationa. mention of his name and his designa-
tion as a servant of God, it follows that
his personality must have been well known to all
these churches, somewhat widely scattered through-
out Asia Minor, and that at the time of its composi-
tion there was no other John in those parts with
whom he could be confused. It follows, again,
from the addresses to the individual churches that
the writer was as well acquainted with the circum-
stances of these churches as the churches were with
him. A third fact to be borne in mind is that the
book was not only destined originally to be read
in their gatherings, but that in these very churches
it was actually received from the beginning of the
second century as a divine revelation.

Papias, bishop of Hierapolis near Laodicea, at-
tests its credibility about 125; Justin includes in his
''Dialogue with Trypho" (written about 155 a.d.)
a report of a discussion held at Ephesus
2. External to prove that the gift of prophecy had
Teatimony. passed over from the synagogue to the
Church; the ** presbyters in Asia,"
whom Irenaeus reveres as disciples of John, taught
by his own lips, occupied themselves with a dis-
cussion of the number of the beast (Rev. xiii. 18);
the '' Acts of John," composed in the same prov-
ince hardly later than 16(>-170 by one " Leucius "
of the school of Valentinus, attributes the order of
the seven churches to the successive migrations of
the apostle. About the same time the Alogi (q.v.),
who, in their opposition to Montanism, wished to
see all prophecy, and thus the Apocalypse with the
other Johannine writings, banished from the Church,
could press this demand only by the assertion that
the heretic Cerinthus, Jolm's contemporary at
Ephesus, had foisted the Apocalypse on the Church
imder John's name. Baur and his school held to
Johannine authorship, and, in fact, considered the
Apocalypse the only authentic work of the apostle.
Those who could not accept the book as written
by the brother of James, and yet shrank from the
pseudonymous theory, at least in the
8. John the startling form in which it was held by
Fresbirter. the Alogi and Caius of Rome, cast
about to find another John who would
serve the purpose. Thus Dionysius of Alexandria
(c. 260) attempted to support the possibility of
there having been such a man, at the time and place,
by the fact of the existence of a twofold tradition
as to the burial-place of John at Ephesus. Euse-
bius followed him, and discovered the other John
in the prologue of Papias (Hist, eccl.. III., xxxix.
5, 6), calling him "John the Presbyter." This
view has been taken by LUcke, Bleek, Ewald, and
others in modem times; and recently a strong
tendency has shown itself to make this ** John the
Presbyter" responsible for all that bears the name
of John (Meyer-Bousset, Hamack). Even John
Mark, who was set aside by Dionysius as out of the
question, has been taken up by Hitzig as the author
of the whole Apocalypse, and by Spitta as the

John the Apostle

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

204

author of what he considers the original nucleus
(i. 4-vii. 17, xxii. 8-21).

Space forbids going into the long history of the

hypotheses which have been set forth as to the

growth of the book, which is frequently held to

have been a lengthy process. The fol-

4 The Date lowing conclusions, however, seem safe.

of Oom- The assertion of Irenaeus {Haer.y V.,

positiozi. XXX. 3) that the visions were seen and
the book written toward the end of
the reign of Domitian, or about 95, finds support
in the numerous historical data of the opening
chapters. The designed and immediately accom-
plished introduction of the book into public litur-
gical use precludes the possibility of any notable
alterations in it between 100 and 150. The author,
as his name and idiom show, is of Hebrew birth,
and about 95 had a recognized position of authority
over the church of the province, without having any
contemporary rival of the same name. He is the
only John of Ephesus of whom anything is known
from a tradition reaching back into his lifetime and
in decisive points independent of his own writings.
That he does not caU himself an apostle is no proof
that he was not one; his apostleship had no imme-
diate connection with his apocalyptic purpose, and
he does not describe himself at all.

2. The Epistles: Of the Epistles, the first, which
Papias cites and Polycarp obviously imitates, is
not in form a letter. Not only is the introduction
(i. 1-4) unlike the ordinary beginning
1. I John, of a letter, but it lacks at its close, too,
what would be expected. There is
almost no allusion to any local conditions of the
readers. From v. 21 it may be inferred that the
readers lived amid pagan surroundings; the re-
peated '' I write unto you " shows that it was not
a homily delivered before an assembled conmiunity,
but rather a treatise addressed from a distance to
a number of local churches of non-Jewish origin.
The tone is that of an aged man who enjoyed high
consideration as a teacher, and who spoke not only
in his own name but in that of others who have
likewise seen and heard Christ on earth, and stood
as witnesses to a great fact (i. 1 sqq., iv. 14). A
personal follower of Christ (named John, accord-
ing to all tradition except that of the Alogi), who,
with his colleagues of similar qualifications, had
been occupied in other fields, in his old age ad-
dressed himself to some communities of Gentile
converts as a teacher possessing great authority,
presumably superior to that of others laboring
among them. History knows of no one who ful-
fils all these conditions except the John who at the
end of the first century ruled the Church of Asia
Minor from Ephesus. That the writer was an apos-
tle, as in the second century not only his disciples
but (in their way) his opponents admitted, is ren-
dered extremely probable by the strong expres-
sions of the opening verses.

The second and third Epistles are intimately
connected with the first by their language and line
of thought, by the combating of the same errors
(I John ii. 18-26, iv. 1-3, v. 5-12; II John 7-11),
and by the position of the writer, which stands out
even more clearly from them than it does from the

first Epistle and the Apocalypse. That this position
was not unquestioned appears from I Jolm iv. 6;
and in II John 8-11 the author
• 2. H and charges the churches to have nothing
mJobn. to do with those who refused to re-
ceive his teaching. P>om III John 9,
10 it appears that a leader of the Church has not
only employed " malicious words " against John
but has renounced conununion with John's asso-
ciates and attempted to cut off thase who received
them. Asserting his authority, John writes not
to the insubordinate Diotrephes, but to one Gaius
who is in close relation with himself, sending a
letter at the same time to the whole Church of the
region — for there should be no doubt that the refer-
ence in III John 7 is to II John. In II John 12
and III John 13, 14, the intention is expressed of
coming to call Diotrephes to account. John's con-
fidence in his own position is noteworthy, especially
in connection with the question why and in what
sense he designates himself (II John 1; III John
1) as " the elder." Since in the province there
were certainly far more than the seven churches
of Rev. i., each with its own local presbyter, he
could hardly, writing to another church (II John
13) as one of the elders of his own conununity, have
called himself simply " the elder," even if (as
III John and Rev. i.-iii. seem to show) the monar-
chical episcopate had already developed in that
region. It is more probably a title of honor, not
chosen by himself but open to him to use after it
had become customary in the churches to call him
by it in the sense of the venerable teacher of the
whole region, the father who calls all the Christians
in it his children. That there was such a vener-
able old man in Asia Minor at that time, who
would be designated with quite sufficient clearness
by the title ** the elder," and that his name was
John, is known from Papias, who was a disciple of
his (Eusebius, HisU eccl.y III., xxxix. 15), and so
return is made to John of Ephesus as the assumed
or actual author of the two short letters. That
elsewhere, in places where tins designation was not
familiar, doubts were raised as to the identity of
authorship with I John precisely on the ground of
this peculiar designation, can be readily understood,
as also that after the discovery of a '' John the
Presbyter " these epistles were ascribed to him, as
by Jerome (De vir. ill,, ix., xviii.) after the sug-
gestion of Eusebius {Hist, ecd., III., xxv. 3).

8. The G-ospel: This resembles the works al-
ready discussed in being directed not to a general
public, but to a definite circle of read-
1. Its ers, whom the author twice addresses
Oharaoter. (xix. 35, xx. 31) as a preacher might
his hearers. By this fact and by tra-
dition the view is supported that the author of the
Apocalypse and the Epistles is here addressing the
same churches; and it is confirmed by the undeni-
able likeness of both language and religious views,
to say nothing of the obvious fact that the Gospel
is destined for readers unfamiliar with the speech
and customs of the Jews. In i. 14, 16, as well as in
xix. 35, he reckons himself, precisely as in the
Epistles, among the eye-witnesses of the facts which
he relates.

805

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

John th« Apostl*

Note must be taken, however^ of the theory of

Weizs&cker, that the book is a product of the

school of John the apoetle, written in

2. Internal the spirit and the name of the master,

Testimony and that of Renan (from the thirteenth

to An- edition of his Vie de J^8U8 on; fol-
thorship. lowed, though a little less definitely, by
Hamack) that ''John the Presbyter/'
a disciple of the apostle and depending on his narrar
tive, wrote it. If it be noticed that throughout the
whole Gospel the two apostles who with Peter stood
next to Jesus are never once named, it appears
that this is too constant an attitude to be fortui-
tous, and that it can be explained only by the
author's feeling that it was unfitting to introduce
into the sacred history his own and his parents'
names. The " disciple whom Jesus loved " of the
last supper (xiii. 21-25) must have been an apos-
tle, and one of the inner circle even among the
apostles. That he was the author of the book is
expressly stated in the supplementary chapter
xxi. The solemn close of chapter xx., looking back
upon a completed work, shows that this was not
written at the same time with the rest; but the
fact that neither in the Fathers nor in the oldest
versions and the extant Greek manuscrip.ts is there
any trace of an existence of the book without this
chapter shows that it must have been added before
the Gospel had been widely circulated, or soon
after the composition of the first twenty chapters.
Whoever, then, wrote xxi. 24 testified in the apos-
tle's lifetime that he was the author of the book;
and the internal evidence for its authenticity is
supported by a unanimous tradition which appar-
ently can be traced up to his very friends and dis-
ciples. If the relation between the writer and the
first readers was as close as it appears to have been,
there is no room for deliberate deceit on the part
of the former or for unconscious error of the latter.
Those who have upheld the opposite theory have
depended far too little on positive study of the
text and positive information to assert that the
book was written by Cerinthus, or by a second-cen-
tury Gentile Christian with Gnostic tendencies, or
by a Jewish Christian who had never been outside
of Syria, or by a disciple or disciples of John at
Ephesus, or by a *' Presbyter John."

The upholders of these various views have agreed

only in the negative judgment that an immediate

disciple of Christ can not have written the book,

for the reason that its contents are

8. OhJeo- incredible on historical, psychological,

tions to or philosophico-dogmatic grounds. Of
Johannine these grounds the following brief

Author- sketch ^ill suffice: (1) On accoimt of
■hip. the great difference in language and
manner of thought it seems impossi-
ble, they say, that the same man (even at different
periods of his life) could have written the Gospel
and the letters on one side and the Apocalypse on
the other. (2) If the synoptic Gospels are older
than the fourth, as both tradition and criticism
show, and are a trustworthy reproduction of the
general tradition of the years 60-100, then the in-
compatibility of their narrative with John's in the
whole plan of the story and in certain important

details (for example the chronology of the Passion)
will render impossible a belief in the composition
of the Fourth Gospel by an eye-witness. (3) Still
more, the picture given in it of the person of Jesus,
his relation to his disciples, and the tone of his re-
puted speeches differ fundamentally from those
given by the synoptics; and this difference leads
to the belief that the Fourth Gospel was written
by a man of the second or third generation, under
the influence of speculative and churchly ideas.
(4) One of these ideas is the doctrine of the Logos,
which comes from Plulo or the Alexandrian phi-
losophy and can not have been known by the Gali-
lean fisherman. (5) The way in which the writer
introduces himself with apparent unconsciousness,
at the same time putting himself forward as the
favorite disciple, is morally more conceivable in a
later writer who more or less assumed the charac-
ter of the apostle than in the latter himself. (6)
Evidences of ignorance of the historical and geo-
graphical conditions of Palestine in the time of
Christ are adduced, though less confidently in
modem times than was formerly the case. (7) The
tradition as to the residence of the apostle John at
Ephesus is partly uncertain, because depending
on the testimony of writings bearing his name;
partly equivocal in that the apostolic character of
the John who lived there between 70 and 100 is
not clearly shown; and partly imfavorable to the
composition of the Fourth Gospel by this John, of
whom words and acts are reported (e.g., in connec-
tion with the Quartodeciman controversy) which
do not harmonize with the thought of the evangel-
ist. While a discussion of the first six points is
impossible here, the last must be dealt with at
some length, because it relates to the last period
of the apostle's life and because the whole histor-
ical foundation for his literary activity is involved
in it.

Even if the Apocalypse is pseudonymous, which

few nowadays maintain, it still teaches that at the

date of its composition (about 95 a.d.) there was a

well-known and revered Christian of

4. John's Jewish birth named John, whose per-

Besidenca manent home was on the mainland
at and his enforced habitation at that

Ephesus. time the island of Patmos. As far as
tradition speaks clearly, it constantly
designates him as an apostle, whether it mentions
him as the author of the Johannine writings, or as
a teacher in the province of Asia, or as an author-
ity for the ecclesiastical usages prevalent there.
There has been much discussion of the passage in
Eusebius where he cites Papias, and apparently in
part at least misunderstands him. Without dis-
cussing this at length, it is safe to say that the
*^ Presbyter John " is a product of the critical and
exegeti^ weakness of Eusebius; and the question
becomes merely who was the John who (according
to the testimony of the Apocalypse and of his dis-
ciples Polycarp, Papias, and the other " presby-
ters " mentioned by Irenseus) lived at Ephesus in
the closing years of the first century, exercised a
predominant influence on the Church of the prov-
ince, died after the accession of Trajan or about
100, and (by the testimony of Polycrates, bishop

John th« Apostl«
John the Baptiiit

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

206

of Ephesus, who was baptized about 125-130) was
buried there. All clearly intelligible tradition says
that he was the son of Zebedee chosen by Christ as
an apostle. There is not a counter-statement to
be found in the first eight centuries; an apparent
assertion of Papias that the apostle John was put
to death by the Jews in Palestine is seen when in-
vestigated to refer to John the Baptist.

It is safe, then, to say that the apostle John,
with other disciples of Christ, came from Palestine
to Asia Minor. If Polycarp, on the day of his death
(Feb. 23, 155), was looking back on
5. Cton- eighty-six years of life as a Christian,
elusion, not as a man, and was thus baptized
in 69, and if his conversion (according
to Iremeus, Haer., III., iii. 4) was the work of an
apostle, this migration to Asia Minor must have
occurred before that date, possibly as a result of
the outbreak of the Jewish war. John, then per-
haps not more than sixty or sixty-five, would thus
have been able to devote some thirty years to the
fostering of Christian life in the province. His
image as a priest in pontifical garments long lived
in the memory of the Christians of Ephesus (Euse-
bius, HisU eccl., V., xxiv. 3). The whilom "Son
of Thunder " was not in his old age a subtle phil-
osophical disputant nor the soft-hearted preacher
of a weak tolerance, but stands out a sharply de-
fined character, his own position firmly taken and
earnestly pressing others to decide between light
and darkness, Christ and Antichrist. The John of
the years between 27 and 52 pictured in the older
New-Testament writings, stands out less clearly in
the Apocalypse, in which his task was merely to
reproduce what had been given him, than in the
Epistles, in which he exercised his office as teacher
and head of the Church of Asia Minor with imex-
hausted power. He is recognized again in the story
left by his disciple Polycarp (Irenseus, Haer,, III.,
iii. 4) of his encounter with the heretic Cerinthus
in the public bath at Ephesus, and in the account
(Eusebius, Hist, ecd., V., xxiv. 3, 16) of his cele-
bration of the Christian Passover in the form bor-
rowed from the old covenant and familiar to him
in Palestine. (T. Zahn.)

Bibuoorapht: VariouB phases of the subject are discussed
in the treatises on the Church history of the period, e.g.
Schaff. Chriatian Church, i. 406-481; in works on the
theology of the Bible and the N. T. (so particularly Bey-
schlag); and in works on introduction to the Bible and
the N. T. Some of the most elaborate introductions are
prefixed to the commentaries, e.g., to Westoott's treatment
in the Bible Commentary.

On the life of St. John consult, besides Schaff, ut sup.,
and McGiffert, as below: F. Trench, The lAfe and Charac-
ter of St. John, London, 1850; M. Krenkel, Der Apoetel
Johannes, Leipsic, 1871; J. M. Macdonald, 7A« Life and
Writinge of St. John, New York. 1880; P. J. Gloag, Life
of St. John, London, 1892.

General commentaries on the Johannine writings are
H. Ewald. Die johannischen Schriften, 2 vols., Qdttingen,
1861; J. T. Harris. The Writinge of the Apoetle John, 2 vols.,
London. 1889; H. J. Holtimann, Evanodium, Briefe, und
Offenbaruno dee Johannes, TQbingen, 1908. An excellent
review of recent Johannean literature is furnished in the
Theologieche Rundschau, Sept.-Oct., 1906, Apr.-May, 1907
(all of these very valuable to the close student).

Questions of introduction to the Apocalypse are dis-
cussed in: F, Lflcke, Einleituno in die Offenbaruno Jo-
hannes, Bonn, 1852; H. Gebhardt. Der Lehrbegriff der
Apokalypse und sein VerhAliniss zum Lehrbegriff dee Evan-
gtUums und der Epistel des Johannes, Gotha, 1873, Eng.

transl., Edinburgh, 1878; D. V5lter. Die Entstehung der
Apokalypse, Freiburg, 1885; idem. Das Problem der
Apokalj/pse, ib. 1893; E. Vischer, Offenbarung Johannis,
in TU, U.3 (1886); H. Schdn, L'Origine de VApocalypse,
Paris. 1887; P. Schmidt, Ueber die Composition der Offen-
barung, Freiburg, 1891; W. Bousset, Der Antichrist in
der Ueberlieferung des Judentums, des N. T., und der alten
Kirche, Gdttingen, 1895; H. Gunkel, SchOpfung und Chaos
in Uneit und Endzeit, ib. 1895; J. Wellhausen, Analyse der
Offenbarung Johannis, Berlin, 1907.

The exegetical literature on the Johannine writings is
exceedingly voluminous; the following is a selection of
that on the Apocalypse: H. B. Swete, London. 1909 (best);
A. Ewald, Leipsic, 1828; M. Stuart, 2 vols., Andover,
1845; E. W. Hengstenberg, 2 vols., Leipsic. 1861-62.
Eng. transl., Edinburgh, 1851-52; J. H. A. Ebrard,
Kdnigsberg, 1853; F. Bleek, Berlin, 1862. Eng. transl.
London, 1876; E. B. Elliott, 4 vols., ib. 1862; G. Yolk-
mar, Zurich, 1862; H. Kienlen, Paris, 1870; E. Renan.
VAntechrist, Paris, 1873, Eng. transl., London. 1897;
T. Kliefoth, Leipsic, 1874; F. DOsterdieck, Gottingem
1877; W. Lee. in BibU Commentary, London. 1881; C. J.
Vaughan, ib. 1882; J. T. Beck, Gatersloh. 1884; J. Waller.
Freiburg, 1885; E. Vischer. Leipsic. 1886; A. Chauffard,
2 vols.. Pans, 1888; G. Spitta, Halle, 1889; W. H. Sim-
cox, in Cambridge Bible, Cambridge, 1890; D. Brown,
London, 1891; B. Weiss, Leipsic, 1891; W. Milligan,
London, 1892; W. Bousset, Gdttingen, 1895; J. M. Gib-
son. Apocalyptic Sketches, London, 1901; E. Huntingford,,^
ib. 1901; J. A. Petit, Paris, 1901; L. Pragen, 2 vols..
Leipsic, 1901; A. Keymond, Lausanne, 1903; J. B. Knap-
penberger, Syracuse, N. Y., 1908; J. J. L. Ruttow, Essays
on the Apocalypse, London. 1908; J. L. Scott, ib. 1909.

Commentaries on the Epistles are: B. F. Westcott.
London. 1892; W. Augusti, Die kcUholisd^en Briefe, 2 vols..
Lemgo. 1801; J. W. Grashof. Essen. 1830; J. H. A.
Ebrard. Kdnigsberg. 1859. Eng. transl.. Edinburgh. 1860;
W. Alexander, in Bible Commentary, London. 1881 ; idem,
in Expositor's Bible, ib. 1889; A. Plummer. ib. 1886; J. J.
Lias. The First EpisOe of St. John, ib. 1887; E. Dryander.
The First Epistle of St. John, ib. 1899; J. E. Belser. Frei-
burg. 1906; R. Law, The Tests of Life. A Study of I John,
Edinburgh, 1909; G. G. Findlay. London. 1909.

Critical discussions concerning the Grospel may be found
in: F. C. Baur, Kritische UntersiuJiungen Uber die kanon-
isehen Evangelien, Tabingen, 1847; A. Hilgenfeld, Die
Evangelien wuh ihrer Entstehung, Leipsic. 1854; A.
Sabatier. Essai sur les sources delaviede Jisus, Paris. 1866;
O. Volkmar, Der Ursprung unserer Evangelien, Zurich,
1866; G. Mailer. Die Entstehung der vier Evangelien,
Berlin, 1877; C. Tischendorf. Wann vmrden unsere Evan-
gelien verfasst t Leipsic, 1880; B. F. Westcott, Introduc-
tion to the Study of the Gospels, London. 1895; C. Weis-
s&oker, Untersuchungen Qber die evangelische Geschichte,
ihire Quetten und den Gang ihrer Enlvoicklung, TQbingen.
1901. Consult also the special discussions: B. Bauer,
Kritik der evangelischen Geschichte des Johannes, Bremen.
1840; C. Wittiehen, Der peschichtliche Charakter des Evan-
geliums Johannes, Elberfeld, 1868; J. Orr, Authenticity of
St. John's Gospel, London. 1870; C. E. Luthardt, Der
johannisi^ Ursprung des 4. Evangeliums, Leipsic, 1874,
Eng. transl.. Edinburgh, 1885; W. Beyschlag, Zur jo-
hannisdien Frage, Gotha, 1876; W. Sanday, AtUhorship
and Historical Character of the Fourth Gospel, London,
1876; idem, Critieism of the Fourth Gospel, ib. 1905; E.
Abbot, Authorship of the Fourth Gospel, Boston. 1880;
A. Thoma. Die Genesis des johannischen Evangeliums
Berlin, 1882; F. Godet. Authorship of the Fourth Gospel,
London, 1884; H. H. Evans. St. John the Author of the
Fourth Gospel, ib. 1888; H. W. Watkins. Modern Criticism
in its Relation to the Fourth Gospel, ib. 1890; P. J. Gloag.
Introduction to the Jofuinnine WrUings, Edinburgh. 1891;
G. W. Gilmore. The Johannean Problem, Philadelphia.
1895; A. C. McGiffert. Hist, of Christianity in the Apostolic
Age, pp. 606-635. New York. 1897; J. Revillc, Le Quat-
riime Evangile, Paris. 1900; H. T. Purchas, Johannine
Problem, London. 1901; J. Grill. Die Entstehung des 4.
Evangeliums, Tdbingen. 1902; W. Wrede, Charakter und
Tendenz des Johannisevangeliums, ib. 1903; J. Drummond,
The Character and Authorship of (he Fourth Gospel, London.
1904; H. L. Jackson, 7%« Fourth Gospel and Some Recent
German Criticism, New York. 1906; K. Meyer, Der
Zeugnisxweck des Evangelisten Johannes, GQter9loh. 1906;
W. Richmond, The Gospel of the Rejection: a Study of the

207

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

John the Av>oi^tl6
John the Baptist

Relation of the Fourth Goepel to the Three, London, 1006;

E. F. Scott, The Fourth Goepel, iU Purpoee and Theology,
Edinburgh. 1907; E. A. Abbott, Johannine Vocabulary,
London, 1005; idem, Johannine Grammar, ib. 1006; J.
d'Alma, La Controveree du Quatrikme £vangile, Paris, 1007;
H. P. Forbes, The Johannine Literature and the Acte of
the Apoatlee, New York. 1007; J. A. Robinson. The Hie-
torieal Character of St. John's Goepel, Jx>ndon, 1008; J.
Wellhansen, Dae Erangelium Johannie, Berlin, 1008; F.
W. Worsley, Edinburgh. 1909.

Commentaries on the Gospel are: H. Klee, Mains, 1829;

F. LQcke, 4 vols., Bonn, 1843; A. Maier, 2 vols., Freiburg.
1843-45; A. Tholuck, Hamburg. 1857, Eng. transl.,
Edinburgh. 1870; 8. J. A9ti<«, Geneva, 1864; E. W.
Henfti*t4>nberg, Berlin, 1867. Eng. transl.. Eklinburgh. 1865;
E. H. Soars. Boston, 1874; C. E. Luthardt, Nuremberg,
1875. Eng. tran.«a., 3 vols.. Edinburgh, 1876-79; D. B.
von Hanoburg, 2 vols., Munich, 1880; A. Plimimer, in
Cambridge Bible, Cambridge, 1881; F. Godet, 3 vols.,
Paris, 1881-85, Eng. transl.. 2 vols.. New York, 1885;
B. F. Westcott, new ed., London. 1908; P. Schans, Ttt-
bingen, 1885; A. Hovey, Philadelphia, 1886; R. Govett.
London, 1887; O. Holtzmann, Darmstadt, 1887; G. F.
Wahle, Gotha, 188H; T. Whitelaw, Glasgow, 1888; W.
Bruce. London, 1891; M. Dods, 2 vols.. London. 1890-92;
W. Milligan and W. F. Moulton, Edinburgh, 1898; J. C.
Ceulcmans, Molines, 1901; A. E. Hillard, London, 1901;
E. W. Rice, New York, 1902; A. Loisy, Paris, 1903: A.
Plummer, in Canibridge Greek Teetameni; J. E. Belser,
Freiburg, 1905; W. Kelly, London, 1908; T. Zahn. Leip-
sic, 1908.

JOHN OF AVILA. See Avila, Juan de. ^

JOHN THE BAPTIST: The forerunner of Christ.
The date and place of his birth are uncertain, pos-
sibly at Hebron, six months before Christ (cf.
Luke i. 36); d. c. 29 or 30 a.d. He was the son
of the priest Zacharias and of his wife Elizabeth,
of Aaronic descent, bom in their old age. His birth

was announced by an angel (Luke i.

Life and 13). The angelic injunction that he

Preaching, should drink neither wine nor strong

drink points to his taking the vows of
a Nazarite. Luke i. 80 does not definitely indicate
a priestly education, but his familiarity with the
prophets, especially with Isaiah, must have had
some basis in instruction. His early retirement
into the desert of Judah may be connected with
the death of his aged parents and also indicates a
break with Pharisaic conceptions. His appearance
was that of an ascetic: his clothing consisted of a
garment of camel's hair bound by a leathern girdle;
his food, locusts and wild honey (Matt. iii. 4; Mark
i. 6); indeed, John shared with the Essenes and
related spirits the ascetic tendency which had its
basis in the earnestness of the time. The ideab of
the independent tendency of his spirit were the
prophets of Israel, Elijah, the man of actions, and
Isaiah, the man of words. The central theme of
his preaching was, in opposition to the righteous-
ness of works, repentance because of the near ap-
proach of the kingdom of God; but God's kingdom
and God's judgment were in the eyes of this great-
est of prophets, as well as in those of his pre-
decessors, inseparably connected. In the coming
judgment God's wrath will reveal itself; whoever
intends to escape it must make mighty efforts
(Matt. iii. 7, 8); the announcement of the kingdom
and of the judgment involves the Baptist's Messianic
preaching. The Messianic salvation is for him so
near that he considers himself the herald who pre-
cedes the appearance of the king. He was in reality
the second Elijah, although in his humility he re-

jected this claim. There is an important distino-
tion between John's Messianic preaching of judg«
ment (as compared with the earlier prophets) and
the expectation of the people. According to the
latter, the judgment spares the people of Israel;
according to John, Israel is affected first by it.
Here is that break with narrow nationalism which
was developed more fully in Paul. The preaching by
John of the kingdom, the judgment, and repentance
created a sensation in the land. His fame extended
far and wide and among all classes, publicans and
soldiers, Pharisees and Sadducees (Matt. iii. 7, xi.
7); but these representatives of official and pious
Judaism he greeted as a " generation of vipers "
(Matt. iii. 7) of whom the first requirement was re-
newal of the heart. John represented himself, in
accordance with Isa. xl. 3, as a " voice crying in
the wilderness " (John i. 23).

In accordance with the words of Isa. i. 16, " Wash
ye, make you clean; put away the evil of your
doings," he introduced baptism as an action sym-
bolic of his spoken word. He bap-
His tized all who came receptively to bear

Baptism, him at Bethabara, of the Jordan (Matt.

Teaching, iii. 6; Mark i. 5), connecting with the
and Death, rite a confession of sins, and the pur-
poee was forgiveness of sins. John
gathered his disciples from all sides, and, accord-
ing to Luke xi. 1 and Mark ii. 18, taught a definite
form of prayer, inducing them not only to adopt
an ascetic mode of life, but also to engage in regu-
lar fasts. It was at Bethabara that the meeting
of Jesus with John and lus baptism took place.
Josephus mentions John the Baptist in connection
with the war between Aretas, king of Petra, and
Herod. The Jewish people, according to Josephus
{Ard.y XVIII., V. 2), saw in the defeat of Herod a
just divine punishment for having unjustly killed
John ^' called the Baptist." Herod, he continues,
killed him because of fear that his powerful influ-
ence upon the people might lead to rebellion. John
was cast into the prison of Machaerus and then be-
headed. Josephus describes John as an excellent
man, who admonished the Jews to come to baptism,
practising virtue and justice toward each other and
piety toward God. To Josephus John was only a
preacher of morab; the political historian could
not do justice to John's religious and Messianic
importance. The accounts of Josephus and of the
Gospels, Matt, xiv.; Mark vi.; Luke ix., differ in re-
gard to the motive for the execution of John; Jo-
sephus considers it merely political, while the Gospels
positively connect it with Herod's marriage with his
sister-in-law contrary to Levitical law (Lev. xviii. 16).

The time of the death of John can not be defi-
nitely decided. Herod's journey to Rome with the
following marriage of Herodias must have taken
place before the overthrow of Sejanus, 31 a.d. If
John appeared publicly in the fifteenth
Chronology year of Tiberius and labored about six

and Sig- months, and if there followed an im-

nificance prisonment of several months, his exe-

of John, cution may have occurred in the fall
of 29 or in 30. Jesus praised John for
his indomitable firmness (Matt. xi. 7 sqq.) and con-
ceded to him the highest rank in the economy of

John of Basel
John of Damasous

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

808

the old covenant (Matt. xi. 11). But at the same
time he did not fail to define his limitations in that
the trend of his teaching was Pharisaical, concerned
with the covenant of the law and with a legal jus-
tice that could not dispense with fasting (Mark ii.
18 sqq.) and therefore did not lead further than to
the baptism of water. Yet a large number of pas-
sages in the Gospels make clear John's importance
in relation to the Messianic kingdom, the inunediate
coming of which he was able to announce.

(A. RUEQG.)

Bibuoobapht: The gubjeot is discussed with fuhiess in
many of the works on the life of Christ — this literature is
often especially rich — and in the works on the Apostolic
ace of Christianity. Special treatment is to be found in:
R. Holmes, On Ihe ProphedeM and Te9Hmony cf John ths
BapUtt, London. 1783; W. C. Duncan. The life, CharacUr,
oftd Ada <^ John the Baptist, New York. 1863; E. Haupt,
Johannet der T&ufer, Gfltorsloh. 1874; E. Breesh. Jchannen
der Tituftr, Leipsic, 1881; A. M. Rymington, Vox damanHM;
ZAfe and MinUbry <^ John Of Baptial, London, 1882; H.
Kdhler. Johanne* der TAufer, Halle. 1884; A. McCullagh.
Th§ Peerleee Prophet; or, The Life and THmet of John the
BapUet, New York, 1888; R. C. Houffhton. John the Bap-
Uet, , , . hie Life and Work, ib. 1889; R. H. Reynolds.
John the Baptist, London. 1800; E. Barde. Jean-BapHete,
Paris. 1892; A. C. MoGiffert. HiMt, of Chrietianity in (h«
Apoetolie Age, passim. New York. 1897; P. A.E. Sillevis
&xuth. Johannes de Dooper, de Wef^tereider dee Heeren, Am-
sterdam, 1908; T. Innitser, Johannes der TAvfer, Vienna,
1908; SchOrer. OesehidUe, i. 436 sqq.. Eng. transl.. I., ii.
28-29; DB.iL 677-680; SB, U. 2498-2604; JE, vii. 218-
219.

JOHN OF BASEL. See Hii^ALiNGaR, Johann.

JOHN OF CAPISTRANO. See Capistrano,
Qioyanni di.

JOHN OF CHUR (COIRS), sumained RUET-
BER6. See Friends of God.

JOHN OF THE CROSS. See Carmslitbs, § 3.

JOHN OF DAMASCUS (called Chrysorrhoas,
"streaming with gold/' i.e., the golden speaker):
The last of the Greek Fathers and the most author-
itative theologian for the whole Ektstern Church; b.
presumably in Damascus and before 700; d., in
all probability at the monastery of Mar Saba (8 m.
8.e. of Jerusalem), shortly before 754 (cf. acts vi. and
vii. of the Second Coimcil of Nicsa, 787, in Mansi,
Conciliay xiii. 356, 400). His family.
Life. though Christian, held a high heredi-
tary public office under the Moslem
rulers of Damascus, apparently that of head of the
tax department for Syria. John's father filled this
position, as did John himself for a time. The Arabs
gave to the family the surname Mansur, which was
also borne by John. Shortly after 730 he became
a monk and went to Mar Saba, whither his brother
by adoption, the poet Cosmas, and his teacher
had preceded him. The latter was an Italian monk
who had been brought to Damascus a prisoner of
war and was freed by John's father. To him John
owed his introduction into theology and philosophy
and his comprehensive knowledge of secular science.
He was ordained priest by Patriarch John V. of
Jerusalem shortly aiter entering the monastery, but
declined further advancement in hierarchical rank.
When called to Jerusalem as priest of the Chiu'ch
there he soon returned to Max Saba. There he

wrote his chief works. Toward the end of his life
he gave his writings a careful revision. His grave
was shown at Mar Saba in the twelfth century, but
in the fourteenth his body is said to have been
transferred to Constantinople. He is honored as a
saint by the Greek Church on Dec. 4, by the Latin
on May 6.

Probably the earliest of John's writings, at any
rate those which made his reputation, are the three
'' Apologetic Treatises against those Decrjring the
Holy Images " (Eng. transl. by Mary H. Allies, St.
John Damascene on Holy Images^ Followed by Three
Sermons on the Assumption^ London, 1899), called
forth by the vigorous measures of the
Writings Emperor I^eo III. (see Images and
in Defense Image- worship, II.). The first (MPG,
of Images, xciv. 1232 sqq.), written while John
was still in public life in Damascus, is
complete, learned, and skilful, and straightway put
a good literary defense in the hands of the friends
of images. Since John was out of his power, Leo
attempted to bring him under suspicion of treason
to the caliph (cf. " Life," ut inf., chaps, xv.-xvi.).
Addressing himself to the people and patriarch of
Constantinople, John professes to write reluctantly,
from a sense of duty, wishing only ** to reach a
helping hand to truth when attacked." His man-
ner is definite and incisive, yet restrained and dig-
nified, that of a man of good breeding, inflexible
energy, and knowledge of ecclesiastical matters.
Images are justified on the groimd that God, who
is " not to be attained unto, without body, invis-
ible, not circumscribed in space, and without form,"
yet has become visible in the Logos, which was
made flesh. Therefore an image of ** the flesh of
God which has been seen " can be made, and in
making it there is nothing forbidden or unchristian.
The Mosaic prohibition was directed against some-
thing quite different. "Worship" (proskunSsis) is
a symbol of dependence and reverence; it has many
forms, the highest being latreiaf which is due to
God alone; elsewhere for Christians it is merely an
expression of reverence {sebeia)^ and is properly
accorded to everything connected with salvation
— the cross, the Gospels, the altar, etc. " I wor-
ship not the material [hyli]/* he declares, " but I
worship the fabricator [dSmiourgon] of the material,
the one who . . . through the material has wrought
my salvation." The image becomes for him one of
the means of salvation, and it and the God-man
approach so close together that there is little prac-
tice difference between them. Refined specula-
tions, like the attempt to measure the extent of
the consonance, belong to a later stage of the con-
troversy. Furthermore, John does not attempt to
brand the Christology of the iconoclasts as heretical.
Images of the *^ mother of God " are to be tolerated
beside those of Christ, and also of the saints.
Finally, he cites passages from the Fathers ^^ith
conunents to show that the entire doing away with
images would be a sad departure from tradition.
The second and third treatises (MPO, xciv. 1284
sqq.) contain nothing essential which is not also
in the first. The second is the most popular and
vehement, the third the most formal and theolog-
ical. The second presupposes the situation of 730

209

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

John of Baaal
John of Damaaons

when Leo had deposed the Patriarch Germanus,
the third may have been written or revised after
John became a monk; it is to some extent a com-
pilation of the other two. The ** Demonstrative
Treatise about the Images " {MPG, xcv. 309 sqq.),
the " Letter to Theophilus " (MPG, xcv. 345 sqq.),
and the tract in MPG, xcvi. 1348 sqq., are not
genuine.

John was no mystic, and he hardly touched the
problems which later agitated the mystagogic the-
ology (see Mtstaoogic Theology); but nearly all

fruitful and instructive theological

Chief questions were treated by him, and his

Dogmatic treatment is definitive for the East.

Work. In the West, too, his influence has been

considerable, but here men like Peter
Lombard and Thomas Aquinas surpassed and dis-
placed him. For the East his great work, the
"Fount of Knowledge" (MPG, xciv. 521 sqq.)
became the standard. It is commended by sub-
stantial merits in the author. He is pious and
scientific, deferential to authority but learned and
acute, able to accept the current body of dogmas
and yet give it new significance and spiritual vi-
tality. If he never rises above the level of a good
average excellence, he never falls below it. He
had no ideas of his own and so never disturbed the
peace of the Church or fell under suspicion as an
unsafe leader. For modem times he presents a
convenient and instructive summary of what the
ancient Greek Church accomplished in the field of
dogma — a sum total of holy concepts enigmatical
in character and supematurally perceived. The
work is dedicated to John's brother by adoption,
Cosmas, at one time a monk of Mar Saba, later
(743 ?) bishop of Majumas (the port of Gaza). John
explains this plan as threefold. First, he will pre-
sent ** the best things of the wise among the Greeks "
and, like a bee, " will gather salvation from the
enemy " (i.e., the philosophers, especially Aris-
totle). Then he will set forth *' the vaporings of
heresies hated by God." Thirdly, he will exhibit
the truth in the words of " the God-inspired proph-
ets and the God-taught fishermen and the God-fiUed
[theophoros] shepherds and teachers "; that is, by
quotations from the Bible and the Fathers, the
latter receiving much the greater consideration.
The ''Philosophical Chapters" (part i.; 68 chapters
in Le Quien and Migne; a shorter edition in 15
may be earlier) comprise a comprehensive treatise
on dialectics and are cited under this title. In the
second part John follows Epiphanius for the older
time (the first 80 heresies), then Theodoret and
others, and finally makes some independent re-
marks, especially concerning Mohammedanism.
Some codices give 100 heresies, others a few more.
The third part ('' Elxposition of the Orthodox
Faith "; Eng. transl. in NPNF, 2d ser., ix.) was
divided by John himself into 100 chapters. Later
and in the West it was made up in four books, of
which the first treats of the God-head (the Trinity),
the second of the created universe (heaven and
earth, angels, devils, mankind, freedom of the will,
providence), the third chiefly of the person of Christ,
then the mysteries, images, church festivals and
customs, and the like, finally of Antichrist and the
' VI.- 14

resurrection. Manuscripts often contain only parts
i. and iii., part ii. being less important and copied
separately.

John writes clearly and concisely, speaking for
the most part in the words of his sources, but sel-
dom names his authorities, the chief
His of whom are Gregory Nazianzen, Basil,
Teaching. Dionysius the Areopagite, and Leon-
tius. As philosopher he is an Aris-
totelian of the fifth and sixth centuries, that is, with
a strong infusion of Neoplatonism. Philosophy
furnishes the first principles, but it is unable to ap-
prehend and develop them aright especially as con-
cerns the true knowledge of God, being but the
handmaiden of faith, which is the queen. In final
analysis, philosophy for John is merely the teacher
of the right terminology, theology is nothing more
than a working over of the opinions of ** the holy
fathers," who have first been able to understand
the terms correctly. It is the juristic method ap-
plied to dogmatics — in fact, scholasticism in gen-
eral is the incursion of jurisprudence into the field
of theology. John's conception of God stops short
of making him a person. It is true he ascribes
personal attributes to the supreme being and here-
in influenced appreciably the Eastern Church; but,
notwithstanding, he attained to no other idea of
fellowship and communion with God than a phys-
ical blending through theCria, " vision." Herein
is the religiously significant motive of the image
question. More extended analysis of John's idea
of God will be found in F. Kattenbusch, Vergleich-
ende Konfeasionakunde, i. 310 sqq., Freiburg, 1892.
For his doctrine of the Trinity and Christology the
histories of dogma mentioned in the bibliography
must be consulted; that by Bach (i. 49 sqq.) is
particularly instructive. John does not allegorize
the Scriptures, and he propoimds no doctrine of the
Church or the hierarchy. He refrains from discus-
sion of the creed and characterizes the formula of
faith C' Orthodox Faith," iv. 11) as a simple and
inartistic composition, i^owing that he had the
creed before him. His section on the creation (" Or-
thodox Faith," ii.) is a whole treatise on astronomy
and geography with the science of water, air, and
fire. His doctrine of the Eucharist deserves men-
tion because it is one of the few vital questions on
which he did not speak the final word for his
Church, although he gave the direction to later
thought (cf. Steitz, Die AbendmahlaUhre der griechr
ischen Kirche in Jahrbucher fur deutsche Theologie,
xii. 275 sqq., Gotha, 1867; Kattenbusch, Kon^tB-
sionskundej ut sup., i. 415 sqq.). The chief points
are three: (1) that there is a real change {meiabM)
and remaking (metapaUgis) ; (2) that the eucharis-
tic body which results from the change is that bom
of the Virgin Mary; (3) that the change is analogous
to that by which food is assimilated and changed
into our fiesh. He disclaims the doctrine that
Christ's body comes again to earth in any manner
in the eucharistic form, and teaches not transub-
stantiation, but " transformation " through " as-
sumption." The " Foimt of Knowledge " was
brought to the. West in the twelfth century and
was translated into Latin by Burgundio of Pisa in
the time of Pope Eugenius III. (1144-53). Neither

John of DamasouB
John Frederick

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

210

Burgundio's translation nor another by Panetius,
a Carmelite, has been printed.

A counterpart to the " Fount of Knowledge " is
furnished in the " Sacred Parallels " (MPG, xcv.
1040-xcvi. 544), ascribed to John of Damascus, but
not universally accepted as his work. As printed
in Le Quien and Migne it has two prefaces, of which

the second outlines a collection of

The ethical and hortatory maxims from the

" Sacred Bible and the Fathers arranged alpha-

Paxallels." betically imder titles. There are to

be three books treating respectively
of God, himian things, and virtue and vice. The
title is given simply as " the Holy Things " (to
hiera)j and, indeed, it is hard to see how the matter
of books i. and ii. could be arranged in paralleb.
The first preface, however, which is much shorter,
gives a description for the entire work applicable
only to the third book of the second preface, and
promises to set '' the virtues and the correspond-
ing vices " as '^ parallels." Quotations from Philo
and Josephus are to be added to those from the
Fathers. The work which follows in Le Quien and
Migne is not in three parts, but is a single book,
although it contains material which fits the plan
of the second preface and is alphabetically arranged.
It is very evidently a revision of another and more
extensive writing, made, presumably, by combi-
ning and compressing the three books into one and
arranging the matter alphabetically. The manu-
scripts differ widely. Loofs showed that the two
manuscripts known to Le Quien are both based
upon an original work in three parts, two of which
are preserved independently and separately and
the third in a revision by the so-called Antonius
Melissa (more correctly in the Melissa of the monk
Antonius) of the eleventh century. The conclu-
sions of Holl are to be accepted in the main as cor-
rect. He says: '* The Htera comprised originaUy
three books. ... In each the matter was arranged
in a long list of chapters (tiUot), some more com-
prehensive, some more concise. . . . The chapters
of the first and second books were arranged alpha-
betically according to the catch-words; in the third
book the author abandoned this arrangement and,
following a favorite method, chose to set a virtue
and a vice one against the other, whence he named
this book * the Parallels.' ... In richness and
copiousness the work surpassed all similar collec-
tions; the citations reached to the thousands and
included parts of sermons of Basil and Chrysostom.
To this great extent of the work is it due that it
has not been preserved entire. . . . Neither of the
two extant codices of books i. and ii. is a faithful
copy, but each is an abridgment of the correspond-
ing book of the original work." Concerning the
author, Holl pronounces decidedly for John of
Damascus, ai^guing from the very good tradition
which ascribes the work to him and a comparison
of the "Sacred Parallels" with the " Foimt of
Knowledge." Loofs, relying on a scholium to the
manuscript of the second part, suggested Leontius
of Byzantium (d. 543). Holl finds that John was
largely dependent on Maximus Confessor, from
whom he borrowed the idea of an edifying book
made up of sentences from the Bible and the Fa-

thers, even incorporating a work of Maximus in
his own. However, in the number of themes treated
and authorities cited, as well as in the length of the
passages quoted, he greatly surpassed Maximus;
and he attempted to give an orderly arrangement
to his work as Maximus did not. " It is surprising,"
Holl continues (p. 392), " what antitheses are set
side by side — motives of the most paltry worldly
wisdom by the side of ideas of the highest moral
import; and there is as great lack of connection
between the individual ethical problems as of effort
to solve them by any principle." The explana-
tion is not far to seek. " There is no close connec-
tion between dogma and moral duty. Only two
dogmas enter at all — the doctrines of the Trinity
and of the last judgment form the framework in
which the whole is enclosed." The ** Parallels "
are a true picture of the type of moral thought
which remains peculiarly that of the Greek Church.
John is not only the most renowned theologian
of the Eastern Church, but, with his brother Cos-
mas, he is also its most esteemed hymn-writer. He
was formerly thought to be the originator of the
oktoichos (the hymn-book for the daily
Hjrmns service), but more probably he only
and Minor revised and improved it. Like East-
Writings, em hymn-writers in general he com-
posed both words and music. His
" canons " (compositions of highly complicated
structure consisting of eight or nine hymns, each of
three or four strophes and each having its own form
and melody) reached the highest point of art and
skill. Those in iambic meter for Christmas, Epiph-
any, and Pentecost are pecuUar in that they are
both quantitative and rhythmical; they are also
very diflicult acrostics and two have each 130 lines
and the same number of letters in the distichs.
Of minor writings ascribed to John, the early " Tract
on Right Thinking" (MPG, xciv. 1421 sqq.) is
genuine. It is a reverent and submissive apology
for everybody under the metropolitan of Damas-
cus, treating first of the creed, then naming all
heresies which were to be rejected. A dislike, even
contempt, for Origen, is evident (vi.). Theolog-
ically the tract has little significance. But it shows
the regard felt for John in Damascus. Perhaps
the same may be said of the ** book " which im-
mediately follows in Migne (xciv. 1436 sqq.), said
to have been written at the request of Peter, met-
ropolitan of Damascus, for an exposition of the
faith. Other tracts are interesting because of their
form (some of them dialogues) or because they are
designated as '* dictated " by John and so present
him answering questions propounded by disciples
(e.g., the ** Dialogue against Manicheans," AfPG,
xciv. 1505 sqq.; the '' Conversation between a
Saracen and a Christian," MPO, xciv. 1585 sqq.;
the ** Introduction to Elementary Dogmatics,"
MPG, xcv. 99). For other dogmatic tracts, con-
sult Langen, 161 sqq., 173 sqq. The contents of
John's ascetic writings are important for the Greek
Church. Langen gives summaries of them, as of all
of John's writings (for " On the Fasts," MPG, xcv.
64 sqq., cf. Langen, 166 sqq.; for ** On the Eight
Spirits of Vice," MPG, xcv., 80 sqq., cf. Langen,
169 sqq.. and O. Zdckler, Das Lehrstuck von den

REUGI0U8 ENCYCLOPEDIA

jSidien Hauptaumten, pp. 53 sqq., Munich, 1893).
The "On Dragons " and "On Witches" {MPG,
xciv. 1600 sqq.) are only (ragmenta of a larger work.
The two short ejcpositions of the Eucharist {MPG,
xcv. 401 Eqq.) and the tract " On the Unieavened
Bread " {MPO, xcv. 3S8 sqq.) are of doubtful au-
thenticity. The great commentary (on all the
Pauline epistles and the Hebrews) ascribed to John
{MPGt xcv. 441 sqq.) needs further investigation.
For the many homiUes which go under bis name
(.WPG, jtcvi. 545-814; Eng. transl. of three on the
Aasumption iu Allies, St. John Damascene, ut sup.),
consult Longen, 213 sqq. For the " Barloam and
Josaphat," see the article under that title. The
" Letter on Confeasion and on Binding and Loob-
iiig " {MPG, xcv. 284 «iq.) belongs to Symeon the
New Theologian (cf. K. HoU, Enthutiamnu und
Busegewaltim grieckischen M trru^hlum, Leipsic, 1898).

(F. Kattenbdsch.)
BiBuoGRAPin: The indispenmble edition of ibe work, ol
John is by U. Le Quien. 2 voli.. Puis, 1712. Venise. 174B,
pf»rtic«Jly reproiluoed io MPO. lav.-nM. The prole-
Romens to La Quien mra eswllenl. Them u an Eng. tnini>!.
ol the De/Ueanhodoiain NPNF.2aeT..vo].a. Higvork

[ion " an tnnflatfd by Mary H. AlJie*. in 51. Jehn Dam4u-
anr. ut nip. The early life, by " John, Patriarch o[ Jeru-
aatem " (poasibly the one who dieil c. 970. cf. Le Qoien,
Orient C/triitianut, iii. 4*16 Hiq.. Paria, 1740) aDtl bawd
upon an aider loot Arabic work, is in MPO. xciv. 439-lSe.
It ii hacioEraphic in style Kud aeleclion of facl*. The beet
modem trealiae ia J. Langeih, Johannea von Damaakut.
Goiha, 1S79. in wliich sununaries of the writing! of John are
given. Other monogtsphu are: F. A. Perrier. Btraiburg.
ISHl; J. D, Grundtehnei. Utrecht. lS77i J. H. Lupton,
l.,Dndon. 1 SS.^. On Ihe theology of John conBult the worki
on Ihe history of doctrine IDonmcngrtiJiirhU) of F. A. B.
NitiKih. Rerlin, 1S70; J. Bach. Vienna. IST3; G. Thomu-
KiUE, ed. BonvetBch. Leipaic. I88fl; F. Loofa. Halle, 1S03^
R, Seeberg. vol. i., ErUnnen, 1896: A. Domer. Berlin.
lS9e. and HaniBck, Dogma, vols, iii.-vii.. pauim. Further
releteneeii an P. N«ve. in KeciK brlae tl tiranalrt. xii
llSei), i. sqq.. 117 aqq.: DCB. iii. 400-423 (an eUborute
discuHion): Krumbaoher. CcKAicUc, pp. OSnqq.. 674«iq.:
O. Bardenhewer. PatraUiaii. Freiburg, 1894: snd espeHaily
F. Kattenbiuch. VtraUUiimde Kanfetti/mik^ivdi. vol. i..
Freiburg. 1892. On (ha " Sacred Parallels " consult
Krumhacher. ut sup., pp. 210 sqq.. HOO eqq.; F. Loofs.
Studien bber dig dent Johannea von Damaakua tu^Baehrittt-
entH ParaUelen. Halle. 1892; K. HoU. in TU. xvi. 1 (IBe7),
n. 2 (ISeei. On John w a hymnologiit and for speci.
mem of his hymnii consult: MPO, xcvi. S1T-SS6, 1364-
I40B (the cwions at 1372-1408 are for the most part
erroneouity aJicribed to John); Art&etitffia Oraera, ed. W.
Christ and M, Parmaiku, pp. xliv.-xlv., 117 sqq., ZOfi
sqq., Leipsic, 1871; Kattenbuieh, ut sup., i. 484 sqq,;
Krumbocher. ut sup., pp. 074 eqq.. 090 sqq.; J. Jakobi.
in ZKO. V (1882). 177 sqq.; A. Nanck, Mflaneta grtea-
rfmain. vi. 2 (1894): Julian. //j^ndlDf|f.pp.603..O04: Eng.
traniil. of nineteen pieces in B. Pick. Ilyinnt and PaOrt oj
«c Eaam CfturcA, pp. Ill sqq.. New Vork. 1908, Con-
sult also W. F. .4deoey. The Gntk and Eatttrn Churehra.
pp. 211. 284. New York. 1908.

JOHN OF DARA: Jacobite bishop of Dara, in
Mesopotamia, in the first half of the ninth century.
He was a contemporary of Dionysius ot Telmera
(d. 845), who dedicated to him his great chronicle.
Four of his works are known: (1) " On the Resur-
rection ot the BodicH." in four books: (2) " On the
Heavenly and Ecclesiastical Hierarchy," two books,
based on the pseiido-Dionysius Areopagita (cf.
FrothEngham. Stephen Itar Swlaili. Leyden, 1866,
p. 66); (3) ■' On thi- Priesthood," four books (fraR-
Tnenta in Overbeck. Opera Kphraemi Syri, Oxford,
1865, pp. 40!t-413, and Monummta Syriaca, i., Inns-

bruck, 1869, pp. 105-110; ct. notice by Zingerle in

TQ. 1867-68); (4) a book on the soul (extracts in

Codex Valicantu Syiiacui 147). There is also an

anaphora. E. Nbstlb.

BlBUOOBAPIlt: J. 8. Aaeemanl, Bibliolheca aritnlaiia, U.

IIS, 3IB. 347. Rome, 1719-28; 0. Bickell, Contpietua rri

Svranm liUrariat. p. 42, UOnster, 1871: W. Wright,

Short Hial. a/ Si/riac Ularatari, London, 1894; R. Duvi),

LitUratun tyria-rue. Paris, 1899; DCB. iii. 399.

JOHH OF EPHESnS (JOHM OF ASIA): Mono-
phyaite church historian of the sixth century; b.
at Amida in Mesopotamia early in the sixth cen-
tury; place and date of death unknown. He be-
came deacon in Amida in 529, was in Palestine at
the outbreak of the plague in 534, and from 536
was in Constantinople, where the Monophysilea
had a moQastery near the Golden Horn. For thirty
years he was a favorite of the Emperor Justinian,
who from 548 employed him to combat heathenism
in Asia Minor and the capital. He styles hiinaeK
" the teacher " or " overseer of the heathen " and
" the destroyer of idols." He is said to have con-
verted 70,0(K) and to have built ninety-six churches.
He was interested in the missions to the Nubians
and Alodes and reconunended not to trouble them
with the Christological controversies. After the
deathof Justinian, John suffered in the persecution
of the Monophysites and excused the confused state
of his church history by the incidents of his life,
which forced him to write it in single leaves and to
keep it concealed for several years. The first two
parts, each in six books, extend from Ctesar to the
sixth year of Justin (571); part i. ia entirely lost;
a good portion of piart ii. is preserved in the so-
called " Chronicle " ot Dionysius of Telmera. The
third part, containing biographies of men personally
known to the writer— Jacobus Baradsus, Severtis,
Theodoaius, Anthimua, and others — collected about
569, is a source of firat^rate importance for the time.
E. Nestle.

Biblioohjifbt: The third part ol the " Eeclesiaitical Hia-
lorv " waA edited by W. Cureton. Oxford, ISS3. Eng. transL
by P. Smith, jb. ISSO: the rest of bis writings were edited
hy J. P. N. Land, in Anefdata Syriara, vol. ii., 4 vol^,
Leyden. lSfl3-75, and translated into Latin by W. J. van
Dowen and J. P. N. Land. Amsterdam, 1689. An uiaJyabi
of the second Part of tbe " History " by F. Nau is in Rerua
di I'orianl thritien, ii (1897), 4 sqq. Consult; J. S. A««e-
mani. BMioUieca orimtalia. 1. 3S9, ii. 48, 84. Rome, 1719-
1728: Gregory bar Hebraeus, Chranican ecclerioiCicUM,
i. 198: J. P. N. Land. Jahaanea von Ephttua. Leyden. tSAS;
idem, in Verataoen en Madedaetinffen dcr Koninitijka
Atadrmia. LtlUrhindt. vol. iii.. part v., Amsletdam, IS88:
W. Wright, Short Mial. of Si/riae LiUraturt. London. 1894;
R. Duval, L>U<^(ure lyruique, Paris, 1899: DCB. lli,
370-373.

JOHH FREDERICK, THE HAGHAHIUOUS: Son
of John the Steadfast and elector of Saxony, 1632-
1547; b. at Torgau June 30, 1503; d. at Weimar
Mar. 3, 1554. He received his education from Spal»-
tin, whom he highly esteemed during his whole life.
His knowledge of history was comprehensive, and
his library, which extended over all sciences, waa
one ot the largest in Germany. He came early into
personal relations with Luther, beginning to cor-
respond with him in the days when the bull of ex-
communication was hurled against the Reformer,
and showing himself even then a convinced adher-
ent ot the (lospel. With vivid interest he observed

John Frederiok
John of Nepomuk

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

212

the development of the reformatory movement.
He eagerly read Luther's writings, urged the print-
ing of the first complete (Wittenberg) edition of his
works, and in the latter years of his life promoted
the compilation of the Jena edition. His father
introduced him into the political and diplomatic
affairs of the time, and he conducted the first nego-
tiations of a treaty with Hesse in Kreuzbuig and
Friedewald. He took an active part in the dis-
turbances caused by the Pack affair (see John the
Steadfast), and Luther was grateful to him for his
exertions, in spite of his youth, for the mainte-
nance of peace. During the second diet of Speyer
(1529) he temporarily assumed the reins of govern-
ment in place of his father. The intrigues of Arch-
duke Ferdinand induced him after the diet to draw
up a federal statute for the Evangelical estates, which
shows that he was more decidedly convinced of the
right and duty of defense than his father. He accom-
panied the latter to the diet of Augsbuig in 1530,
signed with him the Augsburg Confession and was ac-
tive in the proceedings. His attitude did not remain
unnoticed, and won him the emperor's dislike.

At the age of twenty-one John Frederick suc-
ceeded his father. In the beginning he reigned
with his stepbrother, John Ernest, but in 1542
became sole ruler. Chancellor Brtlck, who for
years had guided the foreign relations of the coun-
try with ability and prudence, remained also his
councilor, but his open and impulsive nature often
led him to disregard the propositions of his more
experienced adviser, so that the country was in
frequent danger, especially as John Frederick was
not a far-sighted politician. He consolidated the
State Church by the institution of an electoral con-
sistory (1542) and renewed the church visitation.
He took a firmer and more decided stand than his
father in favor of the Evangelical league, but on ao-
coimt of his strictly Lutheran convictions was in-
volved in difficulties with the Landgrave of Hesse,
who favored a union with the Swiss and Strasburg
Evangelicals. He was averse to all propositions of
Popes Clement VII. and Paul III. to win him for a
coimcil, because he was convinced that it would
only serve " for the preservation of the papal and
anti-Christian rule "; but to be prepared for any
event, he requested Luther to siunmarize all arti-
cles to which he would adhere before a coimcil, and
Luther wrote the Schmalkald articles. At the diet
of Schmalkald in 1537 the council was refused, and
the elector treated the papal legate with open dis-
regard and rejected the propositions of Dr. Held,
the imperial legate.

He followed the efforts at agreement at Regens-
buig in 1541 with suspicion and refused to accept
the article on justification which had been drawn
up under the supervision of Contarini to suit both
parties, and Luther, his steady adviser, confirmed
him in his aversion. The efforts at agreement
failed, and the elector contributed not a little to
broaden the gulf by his interference in the ecclesi-
astical affairs of Halle and by aiding the Reformation
which had been introduced there by Justus Jonas.
His attitude became more and more stubborn and
regardless of consequences, not to the advantage
of the Protestant cause. In spite of the warnings

of the emperor, of BrOck, and of Luther, he arbi-
trarily set aside in 1541 the election of Julius von
Pflug to the episcopal see of Naumburg, instituted
Nicolaus von Amsdorf as bishop, and introduced
the Reformation. In 1542 he expelled Duke Henry
of Bnmswick-Wolfenbtittel from his country to
protect the Evangelical cities Goslar and Bruns-
wick and introduced the Reformation there. New
war-like entanglements hindered Charles V. from
interfering and by apparently yielding he succeeded
in concealing his true intentions. The elector ap-
peared personally at the diet of Speyer in 1544.
The harmony of the emperor with the Evangelicals
appeared never greater than at that time. He
permitted the Regensburg declaration of 1541 to
be embodied in the new recess and acknowledged
all innovations which the Evangelicals had made
between 1532 and 1541 because he needed the aid
of the Protestants against France (see Speter,
Diets of). John Frederick actually thought that
peace had come and continued the ecclesiastical re-
forms in his country. Even the growing discord
among the allies did not disturb him.

When the Schmalkald War broke out (1546) he
marched to the south at the head of his troops, but
the unexpected invasion of his country by Duke
Maurice compelled him to return. He succeeded
in reconquering the larger part of lus possessions
and repelling Maurice, but suddenly the emperor
hastened north and surprised the elector. The
battle of Miihlberg, Apr. 24, 1547, went against
him and dispersed his army; being wounded, he
fell into the hands of the conqueror. The emperor
condemned him to death as a convicted rebel; but,
not to lose time in the siege of Wittenberg, which
was defended by Sibylla, the wife of the elector,
he did not execute the sentence and entered into
negotiations. To save his life, John Frederick con-
ceded the capitulation of Wittenberg, and, after
having been compelled to resign the government
of his country in favor of Maurice, his condemnation
was changed into imprisonment for life. He was
never greater and more magnanimous than in the
days of his captivity, as is evident from the cor-
respondence with his children, his wife, and his
councilors. Friends and foes were compelled to
acknowledge his calm behavior, his unwavering
faith, and his greatness imder misfortune. lie
steadfastly refused to renounce the Protestant faith
or to aclmowledge the Interim, declaring that by
its acceptance he would commit a sin against the
Holy Ghost, because in many articles it was against
the Word of God. The sudden attack upon the
emperor by Elector Maurice made an end of his
imprisonment, and he was released on Sept. 1, 1552.
He firmly refused to bind himself to comply in mat-
ters of religion with the decisions of a future coun-
cil or diet, declaring that he was resolved to adhere
until his grave to the doctrine contained in the
Augsburg Confession. His homeward journey was
a triumphal march. He removed the seat of gov-
ernment to Weimar and reformed the conditions of
his country, but died within two years. A special
object of his care was the University of Jena, which
he planned while a prisoner in place of Wittenberg,
which he had lost (1547). (T. Kolde.)

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

John of Hapamiik

Bibuooh.pht; A. Beck. JoAonn FrUdrirh dtr MHUtre,
2 vuls.. Wvlmar. 1B58; F. van Beiald. OudkicUa dtr
dtuUchm Reformation, Berlin. 1880; uid litenlun under

LcTHBB; RErDHMATlON.

JOHH OF GOD. See Chabity, Brotrkbs of.
JOHN OF GORZE: A monastic reforraer of tbo

tenth oentury; b. at VendiSre (near Pont-Ji-MouB-
90n, 18 m, s.a.w. of Heti); d. at Gorze (9 m. w.a.w.
nf Metz) Mar. 7, 974. Hk tastes early led him in
the direction of theological atudy and asceticism.
]>Mt when he wished to retire from the world he
could find no monastery near him in which strict
<liBcipline was maintained. After a visit to Rome
and Monte Cassino, he drew still closer the relations
which had bound him to several men of like aims,
especially Einalil, formerly archdeacon of Toui;
and in 933 they were charged by Bishop Adelbero
of Metx with the restoration of the decayed monas-
tery of GorM, of which Einald became abbot, with
John as his principal assistant. The number of
monks soon became considerable, and the influence
of the movement wide-spread, Gorze became a
model for the reform of alt the monasteries of the
diocese, and in 950 Pope Agapetus II. sent thither
for monks to restore discipline in Ihc monastery oE
Rt. Paul in Rome. After many years of zealous
activity at Gorze, John was sent to Cordova by
Otho III. on a mission to (he Ca\\( .4bdalrabman
III., and spent several years in Spain. Returning
to CJorze. he was elected abbot on Einald's death in
9G(). The life of Gorze by his friend John, abbot of
.■^1. Amulph at Metz (AfGH, Scn'pt., iv (1841), 335-
3T7) takes a high rank among historical documents
of the tenth century.
HmunoUAi-KV: The V'iCa by John, ut sup., with conunen-

lan', i» b1»o in ASB. Feb.. iii, 688-715. Consult: W.

Glrsebrecht, GttOiiriite dtr dcuteeken Kaiteneit. i. 74G,

785. nrunrwick. 1856; Wsttcnbach. DGQ. i (18BG). 344.

i aSSSl, .170.

JOHH, GRIFFITH: Welsh Congregational mia-
sionarj-; b. at Swansea, Wales, Dec. 14, 1831. At
the age of fourteen he began to preach in Welsh,
and from 1850 to 1854 studied at Brecon Collie,
after wliich he spent a few months at the Mission-
ary College at Bedford, EnglaJid. In 1S55 be was as-
signed by the London Missionary Society io China.
Tiitil 1861 he lived in or near Shanghai. Then he
removed to Hankow, being the first Protestant
missionary in Central China, and made that city
his headquarters until 1906. As at Shanghai, be
nmde numerous journej-s into the surrounding
country, and eatabliahed many churches and mis-
sions in neighboring provinces. He was in Great
Britain on furlough in 1870-73 and again in 1881-
1.SS2. the latl«r time visiting the United States, where
he has resided since 1900, when failing health ob-
liged him to retire from active missionary life. He
is the author of a large number of tracts in Chi-
nese, and also translated the New Testimient and
a portion of the Old into both easy Wen-li and
Mundarin colloquial.
Ribliikiraphy: R. W. ThompBOn, arifflOi John, tha Sbrry

nf Fiflu Ytart in China. New York, IBOS.

JOHH OF LEYDEN: The common designation
of Jan Beukelszoon, the leader of the Anabaptista
in MUnster. See Anabaptibtb; MDnstbh, Ama-

JOHH THE LITTLE (Johannes Parvus, Jean
Petit): French theologian; b. in Normandy; d.
1411. He became known in 1394 by the publica-
tion of Complainle de I'fglise, a French poem dis-
cussing I lie ecclesiastical schism and the remedies
recommended in 1394 by the University of Paris.
He represented the Norman people at the univer-
sity and was professor of theology there 1400. He
treated of the church politics of Burgundy at the
national council of 1406 with unusual rigor, and
on Mar. 8, 1408, defended the murder of Duke
Louis of Orleans, committed at the instigation of
John the Fearless of Burgundy. In this he ap-
pealed \a the scholastic doctrine of tyrannicide
regnant since Johci of Salisbury; but a council of
Paris condemned the doctrine (Feb. 23, 1414). A
commission of cardmals instituted by John XXIII.
reversed the decision on Jan. 15, 141S; moreover,
after the death of John, the rising power of Bur-
gundy so tied the hands of Martin V. that then
followed a vindication of the theologian.

(B. B&ae.)

Hibliocibapbt: J. B. Bchw»b, Johanna Gtrian. pp. 4»
-(|q., eOS aqq.. WUnburg. 1S58; P. Techukfrt. Peler vim
Mlli.GolhM, 1877; U. D. Chapotin, La O-urredt cent a-a.
Paris. ISSBl B. Beu, Shiilim lur GadiidtU da KonttaTuer ■
KoHiili. Unbuif. ISB\; K. Loaeen, Die Lthre vom Ti/rart-
ntnmBTd in dtr <Ari(Ui(A(n Zal. Munich. 1894; H. Denille
Aiid E. ChAtelAin. CAartuIarium univerfilatit PariaignMia,
vols. iii.. iv., Piris, 1894-07; KL. vi. 174B-I748.

JOHH OF MOHTECORVHIO; Franciscan mis-
sionary in China; b. at Montecorvino, Rovella (14
m- e. of Sakimo), Italy. 1247; d. at Ehanbaligh
(now Peking). China, 1330. In 1272 he was sent
by the Byzantine Emperor Michael Palsologus to
Gregory X. in the matter of the union of the Greek
with the Roman Church. Subsequently he viait«d
Mongolia. On his return in 1288 he reported to
Nicholas IV. the willingness of the Tatar princM
to receive Christian teachers, and in 1280 he was
sent by Nicholas as a missionary to the Mongolian
empire. After laboring for a time in Persia and
India he settled at Peking about 1292. Until 1303
he carried on his work alone. He won the friend-
ship of the Great Klian, enlisted his interest, and,
despite the determined opposition of the Nestorians,
by 1305 he had built two churches and baptiied
6,000 heathen adults, besides 150 boys, whom he
had bought of heathen parents and collected into
a school. He taught them Gteek and Latin, and
wrote for them psalteries, hymnaries, and brev-
iaries. He ulso translated the Psaltery and the
whole of the New Testament into Tatar. On hear-
ing of the great work accomplished by him Clement
v.. in 1307, made him archbishop of Khanbaligh
(Peking) and gave him a number of suffragans.
His work was continued by his successors tSl
1368. His two letters are in Wadding, Annul.
frat. min., for year 1303, one in Eng. transl. in
Yule's ed. of Marco Polo (London, 1875).
BlBUOOBiPHT; KL. vi, 1719-1721, a. 20^

JOHN OF nEPOHUK; The moat popular na-
tional saint of Bohemia, considered the protomar-
tyr of the seal of confession and a patron against
<^umnies and floods. The historical starting-
point of the Nepomuk-legend is the person of JohD
of Pomuk or Nepomuk, a city of Bohemia (55 m.

John of Nepomnk
John of Salislmry

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

214

8.W. of Prague). He was born probably about
1340 and studied at the new university in Prague.
In 1393 he was made vicar-general of Archbishop
John of Jenstein. In the same year, March 20, he
became a martyr to the cause of clerical immunity,
being thrown into the River Moldau at the behest
of King Wenceslaus IV., who was at variance with
the clergy, as a penalty for his confirmation, against
the king's will, of a new abbot for the Benedictine
monastery at Kladrau. Dr. Johanek, as he was
called because of his small stature, enjoyed no
special reputation; he was rich, possessed houses,
and lent money to noblemen and priests. The de-
velopment and transformation of the legend can
be traced through successive stages. The arch-
bishop, who hastened to Rome soon after the crime,
in his charge against Wenceslaus, called the victim
a martyr; in the biography written a few years
later miracles are already recorded by which the
drowned man was discovered. The uncritical Bo-
hemian annalists from the fourteenth to the six-
teenth century fostered the fable. About the mid-
dle of the fifteenth century the statement appears
for the first time that the refusal to violate the seal
of confession was the cause of John's death. Two
decades later (1471), the dean of Prague, Paul
Zidek, makes Johanek the queen's confessor. The
unscrupulous chronicler Wenceslaus Hayek, the
" Bohemian Livy," speaks in 1541 (probably owing
to carelessness in the use of his sources) of two
Johns of Nepomuk being drowned; the first as con-
fessor, the second for his confirmation of the ab-
bot. The legend is especially indebted for its
growth to the Jesuit Balbinus, the '' Bohemian
Pliny," whose services to the history of his coun-
try were so conspicuous that he was persecuted by
tlMB govenmient, which preferred oblivion and
silence. He was, however, as credulous as he was
patriotic, and even became a forger to honor his
saint. Although the Prague metropolitan chapter
did not accept the biography dedicated to it, " as
being frequently destitute of historical foundation
and erroneous, a bungling work of mythological
rhetoric," Balbinus stuck to it. In 1683 the Prague
bridge was adorned with a statue of the saint, which
has had numerous successors; in 1708 the first
church was dedicated to him at K5niggr&tz.
Meanwhile, in spite of the objection of the Jesuits,
the process was inaugurated which ended with his
canonization. On June 25, 1721, he was beatified,
and on March 19, 1729, he was canonized imder
Benedict XIII. The acts of the process, comprising
500 pages, which cost more than 180,000 crowns,
distinguish two Johns of Nepomuk and sanction
the cultus of the one who was drowned in 1383 as
a martyr of the sacrament of penance.

The ingenious suggestion has been made that
the historical kernel of St. John Nepomuk is really
Huss, who was metamorphosed from a Bohemian
Reformer into a Roman-Catholic saint; and that
the Nepomuk-legend is a Jesuit blending of the
John who was drowned and the John who was
burned. The resemblances are certainly striking,
extending to the maimer of celebrating their com-
memorations. But when the Jesuits came to
Prague, the Nepomuk-worship had long been wide-

spread; and the idea of canonization originated in
opposition not to the Hussites, but to Protestant-
ism, as a weapon of the CJounter-Reformation —
though his cultus was also intended to supplant
Huss in the hearts of the Bohemian people. In
the image of the saint which gradually arose the
religious history of Bohemia is reflected. This
much is historically certain, that the Vicar-general
John of Pomuk was drowned in 1393 because of
the choice of the abbot, and that Rome, making
use of a forged biography, has canonized a man
whose very existence can not be demonstrated.

Georq Loesche.

Bibuoorapht: The Vita by Bohuslav Balbinus is in ASB,
May, iii, 668-680. The Acta leading up to the canonisation
were published at Verona, 1725, and the Acta canoniza-
tionis at Rome, 1727. Naturally a large part of the litera-
ture on the subject is in Bohemian — for a list consult
Potthast, Weoioeiter, pp. 1400-1401. Consult O. Abel,
Die Legende vom heilioen Johann von Nepomuk, Berlin,
1865; A. W Qrfel, Legende dee heiligen Johann von Nepomuk,
Prague, 1862; A. Frind, Der geachichUiche . . . Johannea
von Nepomuk, Prague, 1871; A. H. Wratislaw, Life,
Legend and Canonization qf St. John Nepomucen, London,
1873; Die Frage Qber . . . Johann von Nepomuk, in Der
Katholik, i (1882). 273-300, 390-414; T. Schmude. in
ZKT, vU (1883), 62-123; KL, vi. 1725-1742.

JOHN OF SALISBURY: English ecclesiastic, and
bishop of Chartres; b. at Salisbury between 1110
and 1120; d. at Chartres (54 m. s.w. of Paris) Oct.
25, 1180. He was of humble Saxon origin, but
in 1136 left his native land to study in France, es-
pecially in Paris. Among his teachers there were
the famous Abelard, Robert of Melun, and Alberic
of Reims. After studying dialectics at Paris for

two years, he went to Chartres, where
Life. for three years he heard the lectures of

William of Conches, and later studied
under Richard I'ifevdque, Hardewin the German,
Theodoric, Peter Elias, and others. He returned
to Paris and began the study of theology, his teach-
ers being Gilbert de la Porr^e, Robert Pulleyne, and
Simon of Poissy. Despite bitter poverty, he spent
twelve years in France, passing the latter portion
of the time with his intimate friend Peter, abbot of
the Cistercian monastery of Moutier la Ollc near
Troyes, through whom he became acquainted with
Bernard of Clairvaux. This powerful head of the
Cistercians brought John to the attention of Theo-
bald, archbishop of Canterbury, who had fled from
England to escape Stephen. When the archbishop
was able to return to his see, John was invited, in
1148 or the beginning of 1149, to act as his chan-
cellor or secretary. He was a firm defender of the
spiritual and secular supremacy of the pope and
of the independence of the clergy, r^arding these
principles as the means of protecting mankind
against the injustice of the secular arm and the con-
sequences of sin. He sought to carry out his doc-
trine in practical ecclesiastical life, even though
his views that only the Roman Catholic hierarchy
could unfold the blessings of Christianity aroused
the opposition of the court and of the bishops, the
latter regarding themselves as peers of the realm
rather than as subject to a distant pope. The in-
creasing age and infirmity of the archbishop brought
additional ecclesiastical responsibilities upon Joim,
while he was able to render many important polit-

215

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

John of Nqpomnk
John of Saliflbary

ical services to Henry II. after the death of Stephen
in 1154. Sent on repeated missions for both prel-
ate and king, he crossed the Alps, according to his
own statement, ten times, visiting the Curia dur-
ing the reign of Pope Eugenius III. and living for
three months at Benevento with Adrian IV., with
whom he was on terms of personal friendship. His
position became difficult, however, after the death
of Adrian in 1159, when he took sides with Alexan-
der III. against the antipope Victor IV. He se-
cured the recognition of Alexander in England, but
came in conflict with the king and the royalist
bishops as the exponent of the Roman Catholic
hierarchy. He was deprived of his preferments
and emoluments, and was even in peril of his life,
so that he contemplated flight from England,
but was rehabilitated at the petition of the pope,
the archbishop, and Thomas Becket. His power
reached its climax when the latter, his close per-
sonal friend, succeeded Theobald as archbishop of
Canterbury in 1162. Throughout the struggle be-
tween the archbishop and the king, John remained
the faithful friend of the former, whom he pre-
ceded into exile in 1163. When a nominal peace
was patched up between the archbishop and Henry
in 1170, John returned to England, and, though he
was not present at the actual scene of the arch-
bishop's murder, he hastened there soon enough
to receive some of the martyr's blood as a relic. A
time of peril followed until the papal influence and
popular opinion forced the king to change his
course. John, who had fled from Canterbury, again
received his preferments, and cooperated zealously
with Richard of Dover, the successor of Thomas.
He was likewise active in the canonization of the
murdered prelate. In 1176 he was unanimously
chosen bishop of Chartres, and was consecrated in
August of the same year. There, however, he was
obliged to struggle against all manner of opposi-
tion, although he enjoyed the support of the pope,
and in 1179 attended the third Lateran Council,
where he uttered a solemn warning against unjusti-
fiable innovations and urged the clergy to conform
to the Gospel.

The most important and comprehensive work of
John of Salisbury was his Policraticua sive de nugia
curalium et vestigiis philosophorumf written in 1159
and dedicated to Thomas Becket. It is a system

of ecclesiastical and political econom-
Writings. ics and ethics based on Christianity

and the wisdom of the ancients, and
designed to lead from the triviality of secular and
court life to a true knowledge and government of
the world. In his book the author wove from his
wealth of experience both a picture of actual life
and the ideal of true Christian living, in which the
Church should rule and lead all mankind as the
guardian and representative of divine law and
true human justice. The Policraticua , the first
great theory of the State in the Middle Ages, exei^
cised an influence on Thomas Aquinas and Vin-
cent of Beauvais. It was first edited, apparently
by the Brethren of the Common Life, at Brussels
about 1480. Immediately after the PoUcroHcua
John w^rote the Meialogicua^ which may be regarded
as its continuation; this was also dedicated to

Thomas Becket. This work, which is in four books
and which was first edited at Paris in 1610, is a
presentment of true and false science, in which
the author castigates not only contempt of science,
especially of logic, but also false and sophistic
scholasticism. These aberrations of his contem-
poraries were compared with the sound views of
Plato and the academic school, and especially with
Aristotle, whose Organon John of Salisbury was the
first in western Europe to know and use. His
earliest work was his Entheticus {EuiheticuSj Nii-
theticua), aive de dogmate philoaophorum, written
about 1155, and consisting of a philosophical and
satirical poem in 926 distichs, dedicated to Thomas
Becket. The first part contains a critical presen-
tation of the basal concepts of the Greek and Ro-
man philosophers, who are unfavorably contrasted
with the higher truth of Christianity. The second
part exhorts Thomas to consider the plight of the
threatened and afflicted Church, and describes the
lamentable condition of England. The poem is
extant in only two manuscripts, and was first edited
by C. Petersen at Hamburg in 1843. John was
likewise the author of a Histaria pontificdUs^ em-
bracing the years 1148-52 and written about 1165
as a supplement to the chronicle of Sigibert and his
immediate successors. The fragment begins with
the Council of Reims, which John attended, and
breaks off abruptly in the middle of a sentence dis-
cussing the events of 1152. The only edition is
that by W. Amdt in MQH, Script., xx (1868), 515-
545.

The minor works of John of Salisbury were his
Vita Sancti Anaelmi, written in 1163 as a supple-
ment to Eadmer's larger biography of Anselm and
designed as an aid in the projected canonization of
the saint at the Council of Tours, and his Vita et
paasio Sancti Thomae, composed shortly after 1170
as an argument for the canonization of Thomas
Becket. His letters, collected by him in four books,
although the present collection of 327 is contained
in two parts, are of great importance both for his
biography and for the ecclesiastical history of his
time, since they are addressed to popes (Adrian
and Alexander III.), to princes, and to many eccle-
siastical and secular potentates. The first edition
of J. Masson (Paris, 1611) contained only 302
letters, but others have since been discovered. A
number of additioiud works have been ascribed to
this author. Some titles may refer to treatises
now lost, while certain others may represent indi-
vidual chapters of the Policraticua. A complete
edition of the works of John of Salisbury (not with-
out flaws) was published by J. A. Giles (5 vols.
PEA, Oxford, 1848) and reprinted in MPL, xcix.

(E. SCHAABSCHMIDT.)

Bibuoorapht: The best sources of knowledge are his own
works, particularly his letters in vol. i. of Giles' edition,
ut sup. Two lives are those by H. Reuter, JohanneM mm
Saluburyt Berlin, 1842; K. Schaarschmidt, Johanne$
Sare^MrientU naeh Ltben und Siudien, Schriften vnd
PhiloMphie, Leipsio, 1862. Consult further: K. PauU,
in Zeitiehrift /Or Kirchenreeht, 1881. pp. 266 sqq.; R. L.
Poole, lUwiiraHoru of the Hutory of Mediaeval Though^
chape, iv.-vii., London, 1884; W. Stubbs. Seventeen
Leeturee on the Study of . . . Hietory, lects. vi.-vii., ib.
1886; P. Qennrich, in ZKG, xiu (1803), 644-551; J. H.
Overton, The Church in England, I 207, 217, 218, London,

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

iv 89-161; Ceillier,

r. Clirvaian rftarcA.

; D>fB. UJJL. 438-446.

JOHB, SAIHT, FIRE OF (SADIT JOHH'S FIRE):
A fire lighted in accord with ancient ciiatom in va-
rious coiintricH, especially in Bouthern Germany,
on the evening or eve of the dny of St. John the
Baptist (June 24) in the open air on hills and moun-
tains, or in the streets and villages. It miiat be
needfire, and tbe ceremonies attending it are the
dancing of the young around it. the throwing of all
sorts of f]ouer5, herbs, and garlands into it, the
priestly blessing of the fire, the kindling and rolling
of a wheel wrapped with strais' (" St. John's wheel ")
the erection of a tree, the driving of cattle through
the fire, the carrying of torches and fire-brands, and
the like. All manner of healing and lienefieent
properties are ascribed to the fire, such as protection
against sickness, cure of all diseases (especially
epilepsy), fertility, exemption from fire and storm,
and safety against witchcraft. Although the origin,
extension, and significance of these customs are un-
certain, it is at least clear that they are survivals
of a primitive cult of the light, fire, and sun, cur-
rent throughout the Indo-Germanic peoples. Par-
allels are accordingly found not only in the Greco-
Soman world, as in the Vcsta-cult and the Palilia,
but also among the Celts, Germans, and Slavs,
though there is no evidence that one people bor-
rowed from another. The festival was obviously a
celebration of the summer solstice. The garlands,
liki" the rolling of the wheel and the dancing round
the fire, symbolize the sun, hut the so-called " sol-
Bt ice-girdle," as the ironwort and wormwood hal-
lowed in ancient custom are called, represent the
girdle bound about his loins by the Apostle John
lest he should become weary in bis wanderings. The
£re of St. John celebrates the solstice, the time
■when tbe <Iays are longest, and also the time when
the bloom of spring passes over to the harvest.
At that period the heat of summer threatens sick-
ness, so that the blessings of fertility miut be as-
eured, and all impending danger be averted. It is
tbe time when lost treasures rise and are exposed
to the light of the sun, and spirits seeking release
■wander about. All plants then develop especially
beating properties, and water is then particularly
good both for bathing and drinking. This is ex-
plained by the ancient Germanic belief in Baldur,
the god of light, whose place is here taken by John
the Baptist. The fire of St. John thus represents
victory of light over darkness, the shortest night
cf the year, on which in the far north the sun docs
not set, being transformed into day by the fires.
The Church was fully conscious of the relation of
the feast of St. John to the summer solstice, and
endeavored to suppress the custom of kindling
fires; but it was forced to yield to popular usage, so
that finally tbe fire was not only tolerated, but the
clergy and the nobility took part in the celebration.
Attempts were made at an early time, however, to
give the fire of St. John a Christian interpretation,
and medieval theologians of the twelfth and thli^

teenth centuries interpreted it with reference to
John i. 8. Others sought to explain the fire from
the legend of the burning of the Baptist's bones at
Sebaste, while the dance was supposed to be a rem-
iniscence of the dance of the daughter of Herodias,
all efforts being made to avoid any allusion to pa-
ganism. In many places, especially in Evangelical
countries, the fires of St. John have been forbidden
in modem times, or have become obsolescent of
themselves, (A. Fretbe.)

': P.U.PaaiiD<li.DecaUuS.JoanniiBaptiilai
CAriHionu*. Rome, 17S8; C. F. de Khauti.

J in natali S. Jahannit aaxnn. Vienna. 1750;
Eracb and Gfubtr. AUoemrifit Encyctop^ie. pection IT..
vol. ixii.. p. aeS: F. Work. FHIkaltndfT. pp. 406 iqq..
aimtgsrt. 1847: J. Oritom. DtuIwAf AfylAoJoflM;. p. 57B
■qq.. aattiagen, 1854; R. Chanibers. Book of Dayl, under
June 24. 2 vols., Loadon. 1862-64.

JOHH, SAIHT, OF BEVERLEY: Bishop of Hei-
liam and of York; d. at Beverley (27 m. e.s.e. of
York) May 7, 721. He was born in Northumbria
of noble parentage, studied at Canterbury under
Archbishop Theodore, and was an inmate of Hilda's
monastery at Streanieshalch (Whitby). In 687 he
became bishop of Hexham, and on the death of
Bosa in 705 was transferred to York. He estab-
lished a convent at Beverley, and in 718 gave llji
his bishopric and retired thither. He was elo-
quent, learned, and holy, a founder of schools, and
a famous teacher. Bede was ordained by him and
may have been his scholar. After St. Cuthbert, he
was the greatest of the North English saints and
the miracles related of him rival those of Cuthbert
and Aidan. Henry V. attributed the victory at
Agincourt to his intercession, the battle l^eing
fought on his day.
HlBUCHiiuPHTi Ths fuudAmeiits] soutcf is Beds. HM. tetL,

W. H. Daon and J. Ruine. i. 84-93, London. 1883; J.
Raino, Thr: HUlariani of Ute Chureh of York, i., pp. lii.-li.,
230-348, fill-Ml (no. 71 ot Roll, Sena. ib. 1878); W.
Brifht, Barlu Snolw* CKarch nut, pp. M8-3M, Oifotd,
1897; DNB, xxix. 435-13B; DCB. iii. 377-378.

JOHH, SAIRT, ORDER OF HOSPITALERS OF:

One of the most famous of the so-called military

orders of the Middle Ages (see Military Religious

Ohdbbb). They are known by various names; the

Knights Hospitalers of St. John of Jerusalem, Mil-

iU» hosfnlttlis S. Joannia HieToaolymiCani, Johan-

nitar, etc.; later, from their chief seats. Knights of

Rhodes and Knights of Malta. The origin of the

order is obscure, but it was evidently based on nn

older foundation, a "hospital of Jeru-

Origin salem," which seems to have been an

and Devel- independent establishment of the citi-

opment zcns of Amalfi. Previous to the capture

into a of Jerusalem by the Crusaders (1099)

Military the rector of the hospital was a Brother

Order. Gerhard (or Gerald; in later time the

name Tunc or Tonque was added), who

enlarged the institution after the city was taken

and reorganized it. With the cooperation of the

Crusaders the hospital increased in importance, and

Gerhard may thus be regarded as the founder of

the Hospitalers of St. John. He was succeeded by

Raymund du Puy, who gave the brothers a rule

which was approved by Innocent 11., Eugene 111.,

REUOIOUS ENCYCLOPEOU

aod Lucius III., and in 1287-90 WUliam of Stefano
made the first collection of atatui^a; a second waa
made in 1303 and these two collections formed the
basis of all eubseqiient ones. At first all members
vore a black robe with a cross of eight points of
white linen affixed to it, worn on the left breast.
In 1259 Alexander IV. granted to membera of the
first cliL93 a red mantle with a white cross.

In hospital service the order was most active;
its institutions were models for the age, and its
rules and regulations formed the patterns for the
other orders of Hospitalers (q.v.). The chief hos-
pital at Jerusalem was built opposite the Holy
Sepulcher and was a large structure with wide
colonnades, in which hundreds of pilgrims and in-
vahds found welcome and assistance. This institu-
tion continued its activity even after the capture
of Jenosalem by Saladin, while the order sup-
ported hospitals in numerous other places, particu-
larly in Acre, Cyprus, Rhodes, and Malta, Skilled
physicians were soon found in the hospitale, and
all clothii^. food, wine, and other necessities for
the sick were furnished by the various houses.
Gradually, however, as the struggle against the in-
fidels cbimed every energy, the knights were re-
leased from the care of the sick, and complaints
were soon heard, especially in the East, that in-
valids were neglected by many boiisea. The order
became more and more knightly, and steadily lost
its monastic character, whereas originally the
monks had almost outnumbered the knights in the
membership of the order. With surprising rapid-
ity valuable possessions and privileges were ac-
quired both in the Orient and in the Occident, In
Palestine the castles of the knights stretched from
north to iKiutb, especially along the threatened
frontier from Hebron lo Ascalon, on the eastern
shore of Lake Tiberias, and in the vicinity of Trip-
olia and Antioch. The seat of the grand master,
after the fall of JeruHaleo). was the citadel of Mar-
gat, which was supposed to be impregnable, until
it was taken by .Sultan Kalaun in 1285, Acre, the
last possession of the knights in Palestine, being
captured six years later.

A scanty remnant of the order fled to Cyprus,
where the king provided them a refuge in the city
of Limisso. In 1309, so speedy was its revival.

the Grand Master Foulques de Vil-

The laret captured the island of Rhodes

Knights and founded a kingdom which lasted

in Rhodes for two centuries, was a bulwark of

and Malta. Europe against the Turk-s, and only

fell through treachery in 1522. This
was the period of the order's gn;at prosperity. Its
wealth was increased by the greater portion of the
estates of the Knights Templars (q.v.) after their
suppression in 1311, and the income of the Knights
of St. John waa at least 3fi,000,000 francs annually,
eighteen or twenty times that of the king of France.
The order was divided into eight '' languages,"
Provence (always considered the first), Auvergne,
France, Italy, Aragon, England, Germany, and Cas-
tile. Each "language" was subdivided into grand
priories and these into coromanderies, the latter
vLsited periodically by the grand prior. At the
head of the entire order stood the grand master,

aided by the chapter-general which convened at
stated intervals and had legislative power.

After the loss of Rhodes the knights had no
home until 1630, when Charles V. gave them the
island of Malta (whence the name " Knightu of
Malta"), which they defended courageously a^itut
the Turks. With the grand-mastership of Jean de
la Valette (1557-68) the order reached its climax,
but the Reformation brought them one disaster
after another, while internal dissension added to
the calamities, and the knights became mere pro-
tectors of merchantmen agamst pirates. Under the
Grand Master Ferdinand von Hompcsch, the island
was betrayed to Bonaparte and on Sept. 4, 1800,
it was seized by the Ikiglish. The order was sup-
pressed in Bavaria and Spain, while Paul 1. of
Russia, who had been elected grand master in place
of Von Hompesch. was not recognized by the pope.
The Roman (^tholic remnants were collected under
the administration of a grand master who is ap-
pointed by the pope and who haa resided in Rome
since 1834.

In Prussia the commandery of Brandenbui);
preserved its existence as the Protestant part of
the order, although ita property was confiscated

in 1810 and it became
Hodem Af- decoration. In 1852, however, i
filiations, reorganized by Frederick William IV.,
and has since been extremely active as
a hospital order. It has founded some fifty hos-
pitals, including one esteblished at Beirut during
the persecutions of the Christians by the Druses of
Lebanon in 1860, In the wars of 1864, 1860, and
1870 the Hospitalers gave invaluable aid to the
sick and wounded. In like manner the Roman-
Catholic Hospitalers, called distinctively Knighte of
Malta, have revived the original functions of the
order, at least in Germany. (G. UHUlaltNt-)

iiiBLioaBAPRt: A very oompllW miew □( the lilermlure o(
subiKt in given by F. de Hallwnld, BiblvvraphU
} de I'ordre ...(£« St Jean de Jeruealeim,
name. isdS. The murcas an collected in Codict dipUm-
det mm mililore online Ccrotolimieano, Lucch, 1733, and
ID the grat work besun by J. D«lmville de Raulx. Corfu'
lainsiniTaU deVatdredeehofpiiidiirt S. Jean de JenuoUn^
of whjeh 2 vols, h&ve so f&r appejued, PariH, IS94 ffiq.,

pHatiarum HicroeolumUanim. Poiia, 1885. and hit £j*
Slatull dt rnrdre . . . . ia BibliolUip'e de t'iaiU del
(Wf«. Eviii.. pp. 341-35S. Contiult: R. Aubert de Verto;
d'Aubeuf, UUL det chevatiera hotpUaliere. Paria, 1726;
A. von Winterfeld. (ladtichU da rillerlichea Ordent Si.
Jahannie vom Spilal lu Jtruealan. Berlin, ISGO: U. J. J.
G. Sugg. Os I'anrifnniU de I'Adpilnf SI. Jean de JeruMolem,
ia BMutOUifiie de I'lrali da diartei. 1863. p. bA2-. H. vod
Ortenbur^ Der RiUerfrrden dee heilioen Johannee tvn
Jmeatait. Regensbuis, lSe«; J. Wilson. CanoM /ccouni
</ St. John'M Gale, Clrrhenipdt. and of Uie KnighU of St.
John ^ Jtnaalem. London, 1809: F. C. Woodbouse, Th*
Uililary RetiBvme Ordere of Uie Middle Ana, Now YorV,
187S: A. T. Dranc, The KnghU efSI. John. London, 1881:
W. K. R. Bedlord, Tht RtvTlatume of the Old HoipUal ij
ISe KnioAto of SL John at ValtUa. ib. IBBZ: Q. Uhlbom,
in ZKG. Ti (1882), 46: B. Prutt, KatttirgeediittM dir
Krenaage, pp. 23S aqq.. Berlin. 1883; F. von Pinek,
UeberiichI Obtr die OeechiclUe da nOerlicAAi Ordtm 81.
Johannit. Berlin. 1800; C. Herrlich, Dit BalUv Arondm-
ImrahdaiJohannilrroTdtm.ib.iafU: J. von Paug-Hartunc
Die Anfanna da Johanmltrordent in DeuUchland. ib. 189B;
Hilyol. Ordni mmaMfUM, iii. 73 aqq.: Heimbuoher,
Orden tt-^l Konffrrealanen; KL, vi. 1781-1803^ 8. ¥. A.
Cnulfielci, UniTTi u/ Cimtlianitv in Modem Europe , . ,
KnuihU of Hit HoepUal .... Loadoo, 1009.

John the Steadfast
Johns, John

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

218

JOHN THE STEADFAST: Elector of Saxony
1625-32, brother of Frederick the Wise (q.v.); b.
at Meissen (15 m. n.w. of Dresden) June 30, 1468;
d. at Schweinitz (54 m. n.e. of Merseburg) Aug.
16, 1532. He received a scholarly education, was
trained in the arts of knighthood, and is said to
have distinguished himself in the struggle against
the Turks. Luther's writings soon won his heart,
and he followed the development of the reforma-
tory movement with ever increasing interest. It
was he who, in the absence of the elector, omitted
to publish the bull directed against Luther. In his
letters to his brother he warmly recommended
Luther and admonished the cautious elector to
adopt more decidedly the reformer's cause and to
influence other princes in the same direction. His
influence decided Frederick to protect Luther in
the Wartbui*g. During the printing of his New
Testament, Luther sent John the single sheets, and
thenceforth he read the Bible daily. In October,
1522, Luther came for the first time, as it seems,
on hjs journey to Erfurt to the court of Weimar
and preached several times. His sermons on the
limitations of secular authority caused John to de-
sire further discussion of the subject, and Luther
published his treatise Von weULitker Obrigkeitj the
principles of which John conscientiously tried to
carry out throughout his life. Too one-sided em-
phasis of these principles and his anxiety not to
interfere improperly in spiritual matters, seem to
have been the reason why he tolerated for a long
time the agitation of MOnzer and Carlstadt. Sim-
ilarly he did not interfere with the abolition of the
Corpus Christi procession, and allowed the reading
of the mass and the celebration of the Lord's Sup-
per after the Protestant fashion.

When he became sole riiler, after the death of
Frederick (May 5, 1525), he announced to the clergy
that in future the pure word of God should be
preached without hmnan addition, and that all
useless ceremonies should be abolished. He reso-
lutely refused an agreement with his cousin, Geoi^ge
of Saxony, and with the landgrave of Hesse openly
confessed the Evangelical doctrine. To be pre-
pared against machinations of his opponents, a
treaty was ratified Feb. 27, 1526, between him and
Philip of Hesse, which was soon joined by other
Evangelical estates, so that John became the leader
of the Evangelical party. As such he appeared at
the Diet of Speyer in 1526 (see Speyer, Diets op).
Difficult problems awaited him at home. Before
he had become elector, Nicolaus Hausman, preacher
of Zwickau, had called his attention to the miser-
able condition of the Church and advised him to
undertake a general visitation, pointing to Luther
as the most suitable man for that purpose. Luther
now proposed to institute four or five conmiissions
of visitation for the whole country, and there fol-
lowed a demand of the visitators that the privilege
to install or depose clergymen should belong ex-
clusively to the sovereign. It was a step in the
development of the State Church, and the acknowl-
edgment of the secular ruler as the protector of the
Church.

Owing to the influence of Luther, John reorgan-
ized the University of Wittenberg and checked the

greed of the nobility in appropriating the pos-
sessions of the Church, which had become a real
danger for the coimtry. During this constructive
activity of the elector the rumor spread of the
formation of a league of Roman Catholic princes
at Breslau (1528) for the annihilation of the Evan-
gelical estates and the extirpation of the new her-
esy. Otto von Pack reported to Landgrave Philip
of Hesse that he and the elector were required to
reestablish the Roman religion in their countries.
Both were convinced of the genuineness of the re-
port and prepared for defense by trying to gain
new allies in the north and south. At the advice
of Luther and contrary to the wish of PhiHp, John
desisted from assmning the offensive. In full con-
fidence of the justice of his cause he went again to
the Diet of Speyer in 1529, and, by openly avowing
his Evangelical convictions, incurred the enmity
of the majority. He defended the Evangelical in-
terpretation of the Recess of Speyer of 1526, ac-
cording to which the privilege of ecclesiastical ren-
ovation had been granted, and protested against
the resolution of the majority, which threatened
the further existence of the new Church. At first
he was inclined to meet the efforts of the Stras-
bui^g Evangelicals who tried to imite the Protes-
tants on the question of the Lord's Supper, but
Luther dissuaded him. His acceptance of the
Schwabach Article (q.v.), drawn up by Luther,
showed his determination to renounce even his league
with the landgrave, if the latter would not separate
himself from the union efforts of Switzerland and
Upper Germany. Although he had sustained many
an insult from the emperor, he acknowledged obe-
dience to him, except where it conflicted with the
honor of God and his soul's welfare. At the Diet
of Augsburg, in 1530, his conduct was heroic. He
firmly maintained his Evangelical position, and
refused to forbid Evangelical preaching at the de-
mand of the emperor. The great services he ren-
dered to the final success of the Augsburg Confes-
sion are well known. On his homeward journey
he learned of the warlike preparations of his ene-
mies, but his interpretation of the Word of God
withheld him from opposing an attack of his em-
peror. After some weeks, however, he, as well as
Luther, was convinced by jurists that the relation
of the emperor to the estates was not strictly mo-
narchical, both parties being bound by law and
right, and that the emperor, in attacking the Evan^
gelicals, acted not only against God, but against
his own imperial rights; therefore a defense of the
Evangelicals would be justified, and in 1531 the
Protestants formed a defensive league under the
leadership of John. On the question of the elec-
tion of Ferdinand as Roman king, he took a much
firmer stand. At the beginning of the Diet of
Augsburg he had been determine to oppose it for
legal reasons, and what he heard later of the prac-
tises of the emperor and Ferdinand confirmed him
in his opposition. Luther advised him, though
hesitatingly, to concede the election, but in this
point John followed his chancellor, BrQck, who
asked him to protest against it. The elector was
declared dbobedient because he did not appear
personally at the election, and thus the rupture

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

between him and the puiperor was decided. Polit-
ical conditions, however, forced the emperor again
lo approach the Evangelical estates, and on July
23, 1532, the religious peace of Nuremberg (see
Ndreubebo, Relioioub Peace of) was ratified.
John had not the gifts of statesmanship which his
brother Frederick possessed, but be was a man of
fearless courage, deep Evangelical convictions, and
unHullied life. (T. Kolde.)

BiHUCHiBAPBT: Bouroea Are: SphIaiui'h BioQraphie. in J. B,

1728; C. E. Forstemann. CrtundtniujA lur Oadiithli: da
ReidiMlagi lu Autftburff. 2 vols., HkUb. 1S33-3G: idem.
Mchiv /Br du CurAicAte dtr kirchlicken RcformaiUin, i,.
D*M I, ib. 1833: idaia. JVn» (/ntundenbucA lur GachidUe
der . . . Kirchfi^RtftTrmnUan^ vol. L, HBinbur;if. 1S4S;
C. O. Ncudeckcr. A kltTUttieke au* dtm ZeilalUr dtr Rtfonntt-
lim. NunmbcrB, IS.19-40: uiil tbe v&rioiu wlitioua ol
Lulhir's corresponilena. C. A. H. Burckhardt, OiKhirhte
dtr tArhaUrhen Kifchen- und SFhutciMbUionxn, Lcipaic,
1879: H. Bcbvui, Landoraf Philipp non Hemcn tind die

270, Nb*

JOHN OF THESSALOHICA : ArchbLihop of
Thesaalonica. He was delegate of the pope at the
sixth ecumenical council (Constantinople, 680). In
the proceeilingB of the second synod held at Nicaja
(Mansi, xiii. IM) occurs a fragment of his dialogue
between a Christian and a pagan, in which image-
worship m justified. Imnge-worship, he says, re^
lates to the saints and not to the pictures, to God
as he used to walk among men; even the angels
have a certain corporeality. There has also been
handed down a apeech of John entitled " On the
death of the roost holy . . , mother of God and
ever virgin Mary." It is complete only in an old
Slavonic translation (in Popov, BibliografCfakija
maUrialy, pp. 40-65, Moscow, 1870); fragments of
the original are in Tischendorf, Apocnlypses apocnj-
phae (Leipsic, 1866). The speech follows closely
the De dormitione Mariae of Pseudo-John and has
been ascribed to him. There is also extant a wri-
ting entitled " On the glorious, victorious Deme-
trius" (.4Sfi., Oct., iv. 104-160) which bears the
name of John of Thessalonica.

(N, BONWBTBCH.)

: LwA

i.DtS}

>. 105.

110, J-nns, 1664. M. U QuiaO-Orwru Cftri.lioniu. u. 42,
3 vdIj*., ParLi, 1740; W. Cmve, Seripbrrum ealeti^Mtieontm
hUloria iiUrana. i. SB7. Onford. 1740: Pabriciiu-Harlcg,
BiblialloKa Orarra. x. 219, 350, 28S. HambUTE. 1S07:
KrumbarheT, GachieKU. p, 192; ItCB. va. 306.

JOHH-BOHITES: An order of hermits, founded
by Giovanni Buono (b. at Mantua 1168; d. Oct.
23, 1249). who, after long years as a strolling jon-
gleur, was converted in 1208. Retiring to a lonely
spot near the church of Santa Maria di Budriolo,
not far from Ccsena, he is said lo have lived first
as an absolute hermit, but about 1217 b^an to
gather companions around him. Although he
never took orders, and could neither read not write,
the fame of his extraordinary mortifications wrought
marvellous conversions, both among his immediate
followers and among the heretical Lombard Pata-
rcnes, many of whom he restored to the Church.
Without formulating a written rule, or even a defi-

nite mode of lite, for his spiritual children, com-
munities of hermits are said to liave originated in
his own Ufetiinc, located at Bertinoro (near Forli),
Mantua, Venice, Bologna, Parma, Ferrara, Pog-
giolo, Faenza, Poncelia. and Rimini. A few yeara
before Buono's death, the John-Bonites (/oAann-
humtae,Jambonilae), whom their founder had vested
with a gray habit, were bound by Innocent IV. lo
the Augustinian rule. Alexander IV., by bull of
Aug. 13, 1256, forced them to enter hL4 newly
founded order of Augustinian hermits, thus ter-
minating their independent existence. The efforta
to canonize Giovanni Buono, originating chieSy
from Mantua and begun as early as the middle of
the thirteenth century, resulted only in his beatifi-
cation by SixtUB IV. in 1483; nevertheless, he ia
the chief patron of Mantua, where his remains have
rfposed in the church of Santa Agnese Nuova since
1451. (O. ZttcKUSHf.)

niBtii

) Vila o

n ASB, Ocl,

3elyot.

JOHMS, CLADBE HEHMANM WALTER: Church

ot England; b. at Banwell (22 m. s.w. of Bath),
Somersetshire, Feb. 20, 1857. He was educated at
Queen's College, Cambridge (B,A., 1880). and was
second master successively at Horton College, Tas-
mania, in IS80-84 and Paston Grammar School,
North Walsham, Norfolk, in 1884-88. He waj
ordered deacon in 1887 and ordained priest in the
following year, and from 1887 until 1892 wastutor
in St. Peter's Training College for Schoolmasters,
Peterborough, as well as curate ot St. Botolph's,
Helpston (1887-88). and ot St. John's, Peterbor-
ough (1888-91). Since 1892 he has been rector ot
St. Botolph's, Cambridge. He was also chaplain
of Queen's College from 1893 to 1901, and since 1897
has been lecturer in Assyriology in Cambridge Uni-
versity, as well as in King's College, London, eince
1902. He has likewise been Edwards fellow in
the former university since 1900, and was honor-
ary secretary ot the Cambridge Pupil Teachers'
Centre in 1894-1900. In theoli^y he is a moderate
Anglican. He has written Asii/rian Detdaand Doe-
umfnts (3 vols., Cambridge, 1898-1902); An Aa-
wijrian Doomsdait-Book , or L^n-r Cenmalis of tht Dia-
trict round Harran (Leipsic, 1901); The Oldest Code
of Laws in the World, Promulgated by Hammurabi
(FMinburgh, 1903); and Babylonian and ABsyrian
Laws, Contracts, and LHleri (New York, 1904).

JOHIfS, JOHN: Protestant Episcopal bishop of
Virginia; b, at New Cattle, Del., July 10, 1796; A.
at Alexandria, Va., Apr. 5, 1876. He studied at
Princeton (B.A., 1315), and subsequently spent
two years in the theological seminary there. In
both college and seminary he was a classmate of
Charles Hodge, with whom he formed a lifelong
intimacy. He was ordained deacon in 1819, and
priest in 1820. His first parish was All Saints,
Frederick, Md., where he remained till 1829, when
he became rector ot Christ Church, Baltimore,
This charge he held till he was elected assistant
bishop of Viiginia in 1842. He became bishop in
1863. He was for a number of years the head of
the Protestant Episcopal Theological Seminary of

Johnson

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

220

Virginia. He wrote A Memoir of the ^Life of the

Right Rev. WiUiam Meade (Baltimore, 1867).

Bxbuogbapht: W. S. Perry, The EpUeopaU in Ammica^
p. 87. New York, 1805.

JOHNSON, ELIAS HENRY: Baptist; b. at Troy,
N. Y., Oct. 15, 1841; d. at Chester, Pa., Mar. 10,
1906. He was educated at the University of
Rochester (A.B., 1862), and from 1862 to 1864 con-
tinued his studies, a part of the time at Rochester
Theological Seminary. After being acting assist-
ant paymaster in the United States Navy in 1864-
1866, he entered the Baptist ministry in the latter
year, holding a pastorate at Le Sueur, Minn., in
1866-^. He then reentered Rochester Theolog-
ical Seminary, from which he was graduated in
1871, spent two years in travel in Europe, the Holy
Land, and Egypt, after which he was pastor at
Ballston, N. Y., from 1873 to 1876 and at Provi-
dence, R. I., from 1875 to 1883. From the latter
year until his death he was professor of systematic
theology at Crozer Theological Seminary, Chester,
Pa. He edited Songs of Praise for Sunday Schools
(Philadelphia, 1882); Our Sunday School Songs
(1885); and the hymnal Sureum Corda (1898); be-
sides being associate editor of The Baptist Hymnal
(Philadelphia, 1883). He also wrote Uses and
Abuses of Ordinances (Philadelphia, 1890); Outline of
Systematic Theology (1892); Review of Ethical Mon-
ism (New York, 1895); Ezekiel GUman Robinson
(1896); Religious Use of ImaginaHon (1900); The
Highest Life (1901) ; The Holy SpirU Then and Now
(Philadelphia, 1904) ; and the posthumous Christian
Agnosticism as Related to Christian Knowledgej ed.
with Biograj^Ucal Sketch, H. C. Vedder (1907).

JOHNSON, FRANCIS: English Separatist; b. at
Richmond (42 m. n.w. of York), Yorkshire, 1562;
d. at Amsterdam Jan. 10, 1618. He studied at
Christ's College, Cambridge (B. A., 1581), and be-
came fellow. In 1589 he was expelled from the
university for preaching in favor of Presbyterian
polity, went to Zealand, and became minister of
the English Church at Middelburg. In 1591 he
was instnunental in destroying the entire edition
of a book by Barrow and Greenwood (A Plain
Refutation of M. Giffard's Book Entitled *' A Short
Treatise against the Donatists of England ": wherein
is discovered: (1) the forgery qf the whole ministry;
(£) the confusion; (3) false worship; and (4) anti-
christian disorder of those parish assemblies called
the Church of England; reprinted Amsterdam,
1605), saving, however, two copies for his own use,
and by reading them was converted. In 1592,
with Greenwood, he oiganized a congregation in
London and was imprisoned in consequence ; in
1597 he settled in Amsterdam and became minister
of the Separatists living there; because of disagree-
ment with Henry Ainsworth concerning the au-
thority of elders he went to Emdcn about 1612,
but later returned to Amsterdam. He wrote sev-
eral controversial treatises.

Biblxoorapht: D. Neal, Hist, of the Ptaiiane, ii. 40-41,
London, 1822; B. Brooke, Livee of the Puritane, I 396-
397. ii. 89-90, ib. 1813; H. M. Dexter, ConifreoaHonaUem
of the Laet Three Hundred Yeara, New York, 1880; W.
Walker, Creede and PUUforme of CongreotUionaliem, p. 41,
n. 4. New York, 1893; DNB, xxx. 9-11.

JOHNSON, FRANKLIN: Baptist; b. at Frank-
fort, O., Nov. 2, 1836. He was educated at Col-
gate University, but left before taking his degree,
and at Colgate Theological Seminary, from which
he was graduated in 1861. He held successive
pastorates at the First Baptbt Chureh, Bay City,
Mich. (1862-64), LambertviUe, N. J. (1864-66),
Passaic, N. J. (1866-72), and the Old Cambridge
Baptist Church, Cambridge, Mass. (1872-88), in-
terrupted only by a year of study in Germany and
travel in Egypt and Palestine in 1868-69. He was
president of Ottawa University in 1890-92, and
since the latter year has been professor of church
hbtory and homiletics in the University of Chi-
cago. In addition to being associate editor of The
Watchman in 1876, his writings include: The Gos-
pel According to MattheWy with Notes (New York,
1873); Moses and Israel (1874); Heroes and Judges
from the Law-Givers to the King (1875); The Dies
Irae (Cambridge, Mass., 1880); The Stabat Mater
Dolorosa and the Stabat Mater Speciosa (Boston,
1886) ; The New Psychic Studies in their Relation
to Christian Thought (New York, 1886); The Quo-
tations of the New Testament from the Old Considered
in the Light of General Literature (Philadelphia,
1896); The Home Missionaries (Chicago, 1889);
Have We the Likeness of Christ? (1902); and The
Christian's Relation to Evolution (1904).

JOHNSON, FREDERICK FOOTE: Protestant
Episcopal bishop coadjutor of South Dakota; b.
at Newtown, Conn., Apr. 23, 1866. He was grad-
uated at Trinity College, Hartford, Conn., in 1894,
and at Berkeley Divinity School, Middletown,
Conn., in 1897. After being minister at Glenwood
Springs, Col., 1896-97, and curate of St. Stephen's,
Colorado Springs, 1897-99, he was rector of Trinity,
Redlands, Cal., 1899-1904. He was then diocesan
missionary in Western Massachusetts for a year,
and in 1905 was consecrated bishop coadjutor of
South Dakota.

JOHNSON, GISLE CHRISTIAN: Norwegian the-
ologian; b. at Fredrikshald (58 m. s.s.e. of ChrLs-
tiania) Sept. 10, 1822; d. at Christiania July 17,
1894. He was educated at the cathedral school
of Christiansand and at the University of Chris-
tiania, after which a scholarship enabled him to
travel and study in Berlin, Leipsic, Erlangen,
Heidelberg, Ttlbingen, and Paris. He returned to
Norway in the fall of 1847, and was appointed lec-
turer in theology at the university two years later,
becoming professor in 1860. He lectured on sys-
tematic theology, history of doctrine, theological
encyclopedia, and, after 1877, on church history.

Johnson exercised an important influence on
Christian life in general as well as on his students
by his devotional lectures in Christiania and else-
where. He spent many of his vacations in travel-
ing through the country in search of health, and in
these travels, which were generally on foot, he
visited awakened Christian laymen. His theo-
logical standpoint was strict orthodoxy of the old
Lutheran type, and he worked for the home mis-
sions in Christiania, the Norwegian Luther-founda-
tion, the students' home, and similar institutions.
Despite his thorough learning, he was not a pro-

221

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Johxiflon

lific author, for his rigid self-criticiBm made him
too timid, but when, in 1857, the pietistic preacher
G. A. Lammers, of Skien, left the established Church
and undertook to found a ** free apostolic and Chris-
tian congregation/' abolishing, among other things,
infant baptism, Johnson published his Nogle Chrd
om Bamedaaben. He also collaborated with C. P.
Caspar! in translating the Old Testament until
1890, and with F. W. Bugge in making a version of
the New Testament. With Caspar!, furthermore,
he edited Tidaskri/t for den evangeliMiUherake kirke
% Norge. In 1863 he founded the Luthersk Kirke-
tidende, which he edited tiU 1875, and to which he
contributed many articles. In 1878-79 he pub-
lished his Grundride af den eystematieke Theologie,
while his FordcBsntnger aver den christeUge Ethik and
ForeUesninger aver DogmehisUmen appeared pos-
thumously in 1896. J. BELSHBiiit-

JOHNSON, HERRICK : Presbyterian; b. at
Kaughnewaga, N. Y., Sept. 22, 1832. He was
graduated at Hamilton College in 1857 and at
Auburn Theological Seminary in 1860. After be-
ing associate pastor of the First Presbyterian
Church, Troy, N. Y., in 1860-62, he was pastor of
the Third Presbyterian Church, Pittsburg, Pa., in
1862-67 and the First Presbyterian Church, Phila-
delphia, in 1868-73. He was then professor of
homiletics and pastoral theology in Auburn Theo-
logical Seminary from 1874 to 1880, after which he
was pastor of the Fourth Presbyterian Church,
Chicago, imtil 1883. He taught sacred rhetoric and
pastoral theology in McCormick Theological Semi-
nary, Chicago, 1880-1906. He was president of the
Presbyterian Board of Ministerial Education in
1869-73 and of the Presbyterian Board of Aid for
Colleges and Academies in 1883-1903, moderator
of the General Assembly at Springfield, 111., in 1882,
and a member of the Presbyterian Board of Pub-
lication in 1868-73, and of two committees of the
Presbyterian Church for the revision of the Con-
fession of Faith in 1890 and 1900. In theology he
is a liberal conservative, describing himself as '' a
thorough believer in both the doctrines and polity
of the Presbyterian Church, as warranted by the
Word of God and represented in the Presbyterian
Confession of Faith and form of government." He
has written: Christianity's Challenge (Chicago, 1880) ;
Plain Talks about the Theatre (1882); Revivals, their
Place and Power (1883); Presbyterian Bvlwarks
(New York, 1887); Pretbyierian Book of Forms
(Philadelphia, 1889); From Love to Praise (1903);
and Ideal Ministry (1908).

JOHNSON, JOSEPH HORSFALL: Protestant
Episcopal bishop of Los Angeles; b. at Schenec-
taidy, N. Y., June 7, 1847. He was educated at
Williams College (A.B., 1870) and General Theo-
logical Seminary, from which he was graduated in
1873. He was ordered deacon in the same year
and advanced to the priesthood in 1874. He was
minister, curate, and rector of Holy Trinity, High-
land, N. Y., in 1873-79, and rector of Trinity, Bris-
tol, R. I., in 1879-81, St. Peter's, Westchester, N. Y.,
in 1881^, and Christ Church, Detroit, Mich., in
1886-96. In the latter year he was consecrated
bishop of Los Angeles.

JOHNSON, SAMUEL: 1. First president of
King's Coll^, now Columbia University; b. at
Guilford, Conn., Oct. 14, 1696; d. at Stratford,
Conn., Jan. 6, 1772. He studied at Yale College
(M.A., 1714), and became a tutor there in 1716, on
the removal of the college from Saybrook to New
Haven. He was ordained pastor of a Congrega-
tional church at West Haven in 1720, but became
a convert to episcopacy in 1722, and was reordained
in England in 1723. On his return to Connecti-
cut he was assigned to the mission at Stratford,
where he remained till 1754. Thereupon he was
president of King's College, New York, till 1763,
when he resigned this position and returned to
Stratford. In 1764 he was reappointed to his old
charge, which he retained till his death. He formed
a close friendship with Bishop George Berkeley (q.v.)
during the latter's visit to America, and accepted
his teaching. For many years his pen was pai>
ticularly active in the defense of episcopacy, an
impopular cause in the colonies, and his adoption
of it created a profoimd sensation. He engaged in
long controversies with Jonathan Dickinson, Thomas
Foxcroft, and John Graham. His principal works
are : A Letter from a Minister of the Church of Eng-
land to his Dissenting Parishioners (New York, 1733) ;
A Second Letter (Boston, 1734); A Third Letter
(1737); A System of Morality (1746; 3d ed., London,
1754), which was published by Benjamin Franklin
under the title Elemenla PhUosophica (Philadel-
phia, 1752); and An English and Htbrew Grammar
(London, 1767).

Bibuoorapht: T. B. Chandler, The Life of S. JohnMon . . .
Firet PreaiderU of Kino'a ColUge, New York. 1805; W. B.
Sprague, AnnaU of the American Pulpit, v. 52-61, ib. 1850;

1. W. Riley. American Phttoaophy; the Early SchooU, pp.
63-126. New York, 1907.

2. Independent clergyman and reformer; b. at
Salem, Mass., Oct. 10, 1822; d. at North Andover,
Mass., Feb. 19, 1882. He was graduated from
Harvard in 1842 and from the Harvard Divinity
School in 1846. He entered the minbtry without
ordination and never associated himself with any
denomination, though in his views he was closely
related to the Unitarians. His first chaige was the
Unitarian Church at Dorchester, where he re-
mained one year. From 1851 till 1870 he was paa-
tor of the Free Church at Lynn. He took a prom-
inent part in the antislavery agitation. His prin-
cipal publications are: A Book of Hymns (Boston,
1846), in collaboration with Samuel Longfellow;
The Worship of Jesus (1868); and Oriental Rdig-
ionSf and their Relation to Universal Religion : In-
dia (1872), China (1877), Persia (1885). Samuel
Longfellow collected his LedureSf Essays^ and iSer-
mons (1883), to which he prefixed a Memoir,

JOHNSON, THOMAS GARY: Presbyterian; b.
at Fishbok Hill, Va., July 19, 1859. He was edu-
cated at Hampden-Sidney College (B.A., 1881), the
University of Virginia (1883-84), Union Theolog-
ical Seminary, Richmond, Va. (graduated in 1887),
and the Yale Divinity School (1887-88). After
being professor of Old- and New-Testament exe-
gesis in Austin Theological School, Austin, Tex.,
in 1888-90, and pastor elect of the Third Presby-
terian Churdi, Louisville, Ky., in 1890-91, he was

Johnson

Jonaa of Orleans

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

222

appointed professor of the English Bible and pas-
toral theology «n Union Theological Seminary,
Richmond. In the following year (1892) he was ap-
pointed to his present position of professor of eccle-
siastical history and polity in the same institution.
Besides editing the collected writings of Rev. Prof.
T. E. Peck (Richmond, Va., 1885-87), he has written:
The Life and Letters of RiA)ert Lewie Dabney (Rich-
mond, 1893); History of the Southern Presbyterian
Church (New York, 1894); John Calvin and the
Genevan Reformation (Richmond, 1900); Life and
Letters of Benjamin Morgan Palmer (1906); and
Virginia Presbyterianism and Religious Liberty in
Colonial and Revolutionary Times (1907).

JOHNSON, WILLIAM ALLEN: Protestant Epis-
copalian; b. at Hyde Park, N. Y., Aug. 4, 1833.
He was educated at Oolumbia (A.B., 1853) and at
the General Theological Seminary, from which he
was graduated in 1857. He was ordered deacon
in 1857 and ordained priest in 1858. He was min-
ister and rector of St. Peter's, Bainbridge, N. Y.,
and of Christ Church, Guilford, N. Y., from 1857
to 1862, after which he was a missionary in upper
Michigan for two years (1862-64). From 1864 to
1870 he was rector of St. Mary's, Burlington, N. J.,
and from 1871 to 1883 of St. John's, Salisbury,
Conn. From the latter year until his retirement
as professor emeritus in 1900 he was connected with
the Berkeley Divinity School, Middletown, Conn.,
where he was successively professor of homiletics
and Christian evidences from 1883 to 1886 and of
ecclesiastical history from 1887 to 1900.

JOHNSTON, HOWARD A6NBW: Presbyterian;
b. near Xenia, O., June 29, 1860. He was educated
at the University of Cincinnati (B.A., 1882) and
Lane Theological Seminary, Cincinnati, from which
he was graduated in 1885. He was pastor succes-
sively of the Seventh Presbyterian Church, Cincin-
nati, in 1884-90, Central Church, Des Moines, la.,
in 1890-93; Forty-First Street Presbyterian Church,
Chicago, in 1893-99; and Madison Avenue Pres-
byterian Church, New York City, in 1899-1905.
In the latter year he resigned to be for a couple of
years special representative of his denomination to
its Asiatic missions, and in 1908 became pastor of
the First Presbyterian Church, Colorado Springs,
Col. He has written Moses and the Pentateuch (Cin-
cinnati, 1893) ; Studies in God*s Methods of Training
Workers (New York, 1900); Bible Criticism and the
iloeroj^e A/an (Chicago, 1902); Studies for Personal
Workers (New York, 1903); Scientific Faith (Chi-
cago, 1904); The Beatitudes of Christ (1905); Brief
Studies through the Bible (New York, 1905) ; and
Famine and (he Bread (1908).

JOHNSTON, JAMES STEPTOE: Protestant Epis-
copal bishop of Western Texas; b. at Church Hill,
Miss., June 9, 1843. He was educated at Oakland
College, Miss., and the University of Virginia, but
left in 1861, before graduation, to enter the Con-
federate Army. He served throughout the Civil
War, first as a private in the Eleventh Mississippi
Regiment, and later as a second lieutenant in
Stuart's cavalry. After the end of the war, he
studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1868.

He soon turned, however, from the law to the
Church, and, after pursuing his theological studies
privately, was ordered deacon in 1869 and priested
two years later. He was successively minister and
curate at St. James', Port Gibson, Miss., in 1870-
1876, and rector of the Church of the Ascension,
Mount Sterling, Ky., in 1866-80, and of Trinity,
Mobile, Ala., in 1880-88. In the latter year he was
consecrated missionary bishop of Western Texas.
Within his diocese he lias enlarged St. Mary's Hall,
a girls' college, and has founded the West Texas
Military Academy, both at San Antonio.

JOKTAN, jek'tan: According to Gen. x. 25 sqq.
a son of Eber, the grandson of Shem, brother of
Peleg, and father of thirteen sons (twelve accord-
ing to the LXX). According to this chapter the
Semitic stock divided into two branches, a northern
and a southern, long before the migrations of the
Abrahamic family; and the names of the thirteen
sons of Joktan point to southern Arabia, while
Genesis is right in dbtinguishing between the
Joktan peoples and the later Ishmaelites. The Ara-
bic ethnographers make the same distinction be-
tween the sons of Kahfan (pure Arabs) and Ishmael-
ites. The location of the Joktan peoples as given
in Gen. x. 30 is disputed. Mesha is placed by De-
litzsch on the northwestern comer of the Persian
Gulf, and by Knobel about fifty miles southeast of
Mecca. In the first case Sephar is placed in the
Himyaritic Zaphar in Yemen and the ** mountain
of the east " is the range in the east of Hadramaut.
In the other case, Joktan's possessions were a tri-
angle in southwest Arabia. But neither situation
fumishes good locations for Ophir (q.v.) and Havilah
(verse 29). See Table of the Nations.

(E. Kautzsch.)

Bibuoorapht: The oommentaries on Genesia and the
literature under Table or Nations; E. C. A. Riehm«
Handw&rterbuch dea biblisehen AUertums, pp. 763-764,
Leipsic 1893; DB, ii. 743-744; EB, ii. 2564; JE, vii. 225.

JONAH: Fifth of the Mmor Prophets in the ar-
rangement of the English version. He is called
the son of Amittai, and, according to II Kings xiv.
25, uttered a prophecy concerning Jeroboam II.
The book is distinguished from other prophetical
books by the fact that it is not the prophecy, but
the personal experiences of the man, in which the
interest seems to center. To escape the divine
sununons to preach repentance to Nineveh, Jonah
embarked from Joppa for Tarshish, but during a
storm was, at his own advice and by the issue of a
lot, thrown overboard, and swallowed by a great
fish (i. 17). Three days afterward he was thrown
up upon the land, and, after a second summons,
began preaching to the Ninevites. When both king
and people began to repent, Jonah became indig-
nant at the divine compassion, but was convinced
by God of his foolishness through a gourd (iv.).
Many have regarded the book as an allegory or a
poetic myth, while others hold that it was a national
prophetic tradition designed to serve a didactic
aim, and contained some elements of historic truth.
Those who regard the book as history appeal to the
geographical and historical notices in the prophecy;
for example, the accuracy of the description of
Nineveh and the fitness of Jonah's mission at that

928

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDU

Johnson

Jonaa of Orleans

particular period, when Israel was coming into con-
tact with Assyria. Those who deny the credibility
make much of the abundance of the miraculous,
especially of the story of the great fish ; but this in-
cident is consistent with our Lord's use of it (Matt,
xii. 39 sqq.) to illustrate his own resurrection by
the use of material gathered from folk-lore. The
central purpose of the book is to teach that the
heathen world is called to the knowledge of Yahweh
to take its place in his kingdom (iv. 10-11).

That the Jonah of II Kings xiv. 25 has set down
in this book his experiences is nowhere indicated.
The narrative at beginning and end is so abrupt
that it has probably come out of a cycle of narra-
tives like those which center about Elisha; indeed,
an old Haggadah calls Jonah a prophet of Elisha's
school. There is much difference about the date.
Because of the use of the perfect tense in iii. 3b,
the book must postdate the fall of Nineveh (606
B.C.); and linguistic indications agree with this,
though it should not be brought below the fifth
pre-Christian century. Attempts to find Jahvistic
and Elohistic sources in the book are not a success.

(W. VOLCKf.)

Biblioorapbt: Commentaries are: Ephraem Synu, The
Repentance qf Nineveh, Eng. transl., London. 1853; S.
MitcheU. Philadelphia. 1875; M. Kalisch. in BibU Studiee,
part ii., London. 1878 (gives conspectus of earlier litera-
ture); A. E. O'Connor. Geneva. 1883; C. H. H. Wright,
Biblical Studiee, Edinburgh. 1886; H. Martin. Edinburgh.
1891; C. von Orelli. Munich. 1896, Eng. transl.. New York.
1893; J. Kennedy, London. 1895; W. Nowack. Gdttingen,
1897; G. A. Smith. Book of the Twelve, vol. ii., London,
1898 (best); F. Hitxig. ed. H. Steiner. Leipric. 1904;
E. B. Pusey, Minor Prophete, new issue. London. 1907.
Special treatises are: J. Friedrichsen. UAereicht fiber die
. . . Aneichten Qber Jona, Leipsio, 1841; W. Drake. Notea
on Jonah and Hoeea, London, 1853; T. K. Cheyne, Theo-
logical Review, 1877. pp. 211-219; K. Vollers. in ZATW^
iu (1883). 219 sqq., iv (1884). 1 sqq.; W. Bdhme, in
ZATW, vii (1887). 224 sqq. (on the literary composition);
A. Merx. Chreetomathia Targumica, pp. 132-139. Berlin.
1897 (gives the Targum on Jonah); H. Schmidt, Jona.
Eine Unlerauchung zttr vergleichenden ReHgionageechiele,
G6ttingen. 1907; DB, u. 744-753; EB, ii. 2565-2571; JE,
vii 225-230.

JONAS OF BOBBIO : Hagiographer of the seventh
century; d. after 659. He was a native of Susa
(the Roman Segusio), at the foot of Mt. Genls
(about 28 m. w. of Turin). In 618, still quite
young, he entered the monastery at Bobbio, and
was educated there. He accompanied Bertulf, the
third abbot, to Rome in 627. Since he had a pei^
sonal acquaintance with Eustasius, abbot of Lux-
euil, who died in the spring of 629, he may have
gone to Gaul (where he remained permanently) as
early as 628. While temporarily visiting Bobbio
at a later time he promised to write the life of Co-
lumban and his successors and disciples, and com-
pleted the work between 640 and 643. About this
time he was engaged with St. Amandus in trying
to convert the heathen Franks on the Scheldt and
Scarpe. While staying in Arras he was induced
to write the life of St. Vedastes, the first Prank-
ish bishop of Arras, and in Nov., 659, having
meanwhile obtained the dignity of abbot, he com-
posed the life of St. John of Reomans. Of the last
events of Jonas' life and of his death nothing is
known. The Vita Columbani^ Jonas' principal work,
including also, in its second part, Eustasius, Attala,

Bertulf, and Biugundofara (in AfPL, Ixxxvii.
l(X)9-46; cf. Enisoh in MiUheilungen deB IrutUtUs
fUr o9terreichi9che QeschichJtsfoTKhung, xiv. 385 sqq.,
Innsbruck, 1893; Eng. transl. by D. C. Munro in
Tranalaiians and Reprints published by the depart-
ment of history of the University of Pennsylvania,
ii. 7, Philadelphia, 1895) has established his literaiy
fame. In spite of its silence on important matters
— like the Easter controversy and the first applica-
tion of the rule of St. Benedict in Gaul — notwith-
standing the preference for marvelous stories in
accordance with the spirit of the times, it rises by
a certain historical sense above many like works.
The language, too, is peculiar and novel (cf . Krusch,
435), and proves identity of authorship for the Vita
Cohmibani and the Vitcie of Vedastes and St. John
of Reomans. O. Seebabb.

Bibuoorapht: Hittoire littiraire de la France, iii. 604 eqq.;
Hertel, in ZHT, joadx, 397 sqq.; Stdber, in Sittunge-
berichte der Wiener Akademie, 1885, pp. 319 sqq.; Knisoh,
in Mittheilungen dee Inetitute fUr daterreidhieche OeadUchta'
forechung, xiv. 385 sqq., and in MOH, Script, rtr, Merov.,
iv (1902). 30 sqq.; Wattenbaoh, DQQ, i (1893), 116, 118-
119, ii. 503.

JONAS OF ORLEANS: Bishop of Orleans from
821 till his death in 844. He was a native of
Aquitania and succeeded Theodulf (d. Sept. 18,
821) as bishop of Orl^ns. He attended a synod
called at Paris by Louis the Pious in Nov., 825,
to consider the question of image-worship, and
was sent to Rome to lay the resolutions adopted
before Pope Eugenius II. He was also prominent
in the synod at Paris in 829, called by the em-
peror to find remedies for abuses of the time. In
825 Jonas had written on the subject in his />e tV
stituHone laicali, which gives in three books valuable
descriptions of the prevalent moral corruption and
urges renovation of the churchly spirit. Another
topic of the synod's discussion, the duties of secu-
lar rulers, had also been anticipated by Jonas in
828 in a little work De institutione regia, which now
was embodied in the resolutions of the synod.
Jonas' remarks on the relation between the spiritual
and secular authorities are interesting. The latter
are dependent upon the former. The power of the
keys has been entrusted to the spiritual office by
the Lord so that even kings have to submit to it.
Man can not judge God; and therefore he can not
judge the representatives of God (ecclesiastics).
Louis again addressed himself to Jonas when the
energetic measures of Claudius of Turin (q.v.)
against image-worship became known in the Prank-
ish realm; and sent him an excerpt from the doc-
trinal works of Claudius with the request to refute
them. The death of Claudius induced Jonas to
withhold his refutation at the time. But about
842 he laid his work before Charles the Bald, the
son of Louis. Jonas still labored under the super-
stition of his time. He distinguishes a double ad-
oration— one that b due to God alone, and one that
is addressed to the holy images; he advocates the
worship of martyrs and relics, believes in an effect-
ive intercession of the saints and the mother of
God, and demands worship of the cross.

(Albert FRETSTBDTt.)

Bibuoorapht: Hia works are in MPL, evi,; also partly in
L. d'Achery, SfnciUgiMm, i. 268-828, 824-888^ Fteis, 1886.

Jonas
Jones

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

224

Consult HiMtoire litUrairt d« la France, iv. 5Q4-605, v. 20-
31; A. EHMrt, AUgemeine OMchidUe der LUenUur dec
MiUelaUer», ii. 224-230. Leipuc, 1880; PotthMt. Weg-
totUer, p. 682.

JONAS, JUSTUS: German Reformer, close friend
and associate of Luther; b. at Nordhausen (38 m.
w.n.w. of Erfurt), Saxony, June 5, 1493; d. in EiB-
feld (40 m. s. of Erfurt), Saxe-Meiningen, Oct. 9,
1555. His real name was Jodocus Koch, but he
adopted his father's Christian name as a surname
during his university career. In 1506 he matricu-
lated at Erfurt, where he entered into close friend-
ship with Eobanus Hess, whom he emulated in his
devotion to humanistic studies and the practise
of verse-writing. Having chosen jurisprudence as
his special field, he followed the celebrated teacher
Henning G6de to Wittenberg in 1511, but returned
about three years later to Erfurt, received ordina-
tion, and became prebend in the Church of St.
Severus and professor in law at the university. A
member of the circle of enthusiastic humanists who
acknowledged Eobanus as their *' king " and wor-
shiped Erasmus as their idol, Jonas took advan-
tage of a pilgrimage made by Eobanus in 1518 to
enter into communication with the great scholar.
In the following year he made his personal acquaint-
ance, and Erasmus conceived a liking for his young
admirer, and subsequently exerted himself to pre-
vent his conversion to the party of Luther. Jonas
in return spoke of Erasmus as his '' father in
Christ," his instructor and guide in the way of
right living.

In 1519, while absent in the Netherlands, Jonas
was chosen rector of the university, and at the
same time comprehensive reforms were enacted
whereby the study of Hebrew and Greek together
with the " true *' philosophy and theology was
made a part of the curriculum. On his return
Jonas began a series of Bible-readings, in the spirit
still of Erasmus and not of Luther. His adhesion
to the cause of the great Reformer dates from about
the time of the Leipsic Disputation, shortly before
which event Luther, through Johann Lang, offered
his friendship to Jonas; the latter's first letter
bears the date of June, 1520. Upon the death
of Henning G6de at Wittenberg in Jan., 1521,
Spalatin recommended Jonas as his successor. The
elector offered the vacant professorship to Mutianus,
who declined, and likewise recommended Jonas.
The latter received the appointment at Worms,
whither he had accompanied Luther. In June of
the same year he removed to Wittenberg, and,
embracing with enthusiasm the doctrines of the the-
ologians there, devoted himself to an active cham-
pionship of the Protestant cause. With some dif-
ficulty he succeeded in obtaining his transfer to
the theological faculty, in order more freely to de-
vote himself to the religious propaganda.

In the controversies concerning the reform of
worship at the court church during Luther's so-
journ at the Wartburg, Jonas was one of the most
earnest advocates of Protestant innovations. From
1523 to 1533 he was dean of the theological faculty
and delivered lectures on the Old and New Testar
ments, but gradually his professional duties were
abandoned for literary labors in the great cause

For Luther he carried on a polemic against Johan-
nes Faber over the celibacy of the clergy (1523) and
later came into conflict with his fellow student at
Erfurt, Geoi^g Witzel. His gifts revealed them-
selves, especially, however, in his translations from
the works of Luther and Melanchthon, from Ger-
man into Latin and vice versa, gifts of which the
two men gladly availed themselves, allowing him
full liberty in the handling of their writings; among
such translations were the German versions of
Luther's De servo arbitrio and Melanchthon's Loci.
At the same time Jonas played an active part in
the great events of the Reformation, such as the
Marburg Conference and the Diet of Augsburg. In
1532 he became adviser to the three Aiihalt prin-
cipalities and in 1538 drew up a set of church
ordinances for the city of Zerbst. Preeminent, how-
ever, were his services as visitator during the in-
troduction of the Protestant faith into the duchy
of Saxony, and as author of the new church ordi-
nances there enacted. In the establishment of the
Reformation in Halle he also played a leading part.
In 1541, while passing through that city, he was
invited by some of the councilors to remain with
them for some time and to instruct them in the
Gospel. Jonas began bis work under the protec-
tion of the elector of Saxony who made use of his
long neglected power as burgrave of Halle to
further the establishment of the Reformed faith in
that town. In 1541-42 the new ritual was intro-
duced into the various churches, and in the summer
of the latter year Jonas was made superintendent.
In 1543 he drew up the church ordinances for the
town. With the aid of the Wittenberg jurist
Kilian Goldstein, who had been siunmoned to Halle
as syndic, Jonas carried on the organization of the
Protestant Church with a resolute energy that left
him little time for literary labors. In 1546 he ac-
companied Luther on his last journey to Eisleben,
stood beside his death-bed, and delivered his fu-
neral oration. Their friendiship had never known
any interruption and the " Table Talk " and cor-
respondence of the Reformer testify to the intimate
relations that prevailed between the two.

Upon the outbreak of the Schmalkald War, Jonas
vigorously assailed the emperor and Maurice of
Saxony, and on the capture of Halle by the latter
in November, 1546, he was compelled to fiee. He
returned in January, 1547, and made use of the
situation to drive the monks and nuns from the
city and to wipe out all traces of Roman practise
in the church system. But Halle fell a second
time into the hands of Maurice, and Jonas was once
more a fugitive. His exile seems to have aged him
rapidly and to have weakened his powers, but
he longed nevertheless for active employment.
Through petitions and the intercession of others he
sought to appease the anger of Maurice, but it was
not until 1548 and after a humiliating submission
that he was permitted to return to Halle. There,
however, disappointment awaited him; the town
council, reluctant to place at the head of affairs a
weak old man who numbered among his opponents
the powerful elector and the new archbishop of
Magdeburg, declined to restore him to his pulpit
and restricted him to a lectureship in Latin. In

226

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jonas
Jones

1550 he became court preacher at Coburg. His
friendship with Melanchthon had cooled and on
the subject of the Interim Jonas appears as his op-
ponent. Melanchthon, in return, spoke of him as
an old man unfit for the performance of active pas-
toral duties. After a short activity in Regensburg,
in 1553 Jonas became superintendent at Eisfeld,
where he remained till his death, occupied partially
with his old labors as a translator. The picture of
a aealous champion of the Reformation, devoting
his great gifts and capacity for effort to the cause
of the faith, is somewhat tarnished by the unspar-
ing wrath of his polemic and an avarice that was
notorious. (G. Kawerau.)

Bibuographt: His letters were published by G. Kawerau,
2 vols., Halle, 1884-85; additions have been made, e.g.,
by C. A. H. Burkhardt, in Zeitackrift fUr Hrchlu^ WUten-
aduift und Leben, 1889, pp. 430 sqq. His life has been
written by L. Reinhard, Altenburg, 1731; G. C. Knapp,
HaUe, 1817; H. G. Hasse, Leipsic. 1862; T. Pressel,
Elberfeld, 1862; while the FenUchrift of his four hundredth
anniversary was edited by K. Meyer, Nordhausen, 1893.
Different phases of his life are treated in: W. Beste,
Karuelredner der lutherischen Kirche de% RefarmaHont-
ZeUaUera, i. 149 sqq., Leipsic, 1856; K. Krause, H. E.
Heaaua, vol. i., Gotha, 1879; F. Kropatschek. J. Dolach
auB FeldkircK Greifswald, 1898; G. Bauch. Die EinfQhrung
der melanchihoniachen Deklamaiionen, Breslau, 1900. Con-
sult also the literature on Luther and on the Reformation.

JONCOURT, jan^cOr', PIERRE DE: French
Protestant; b. at Clermont-en-Beauvoisis (16 m.
s.s.e. of Beauvais) c. 1650 ; d. at The Hague 1715.
In 1678 he went from France to Holland and be-
came pastor at Middelburg. In 1686 he was elected
secretary of the Walloon Synod of Rotterdam. He
was pastor at The Hague from 1699 till his death.
His most important work is Entreiiens but lea dif-
firentea nUthodes d*expliquer V^crUure (Amsterdam,
1707), in which he violently attacked the allegor-
ical interpretation, which (3oceeius had carried to
its extreme limits. In the heat of the ensuing con-
troversy Joncourt said certain things about Coc-
ceius which the Synod of Nimeguen compelled him
to retract in 1708.

Bibuographt: E. Haag. Hiat. dea dogmea, Paris, 1862;
Lichtenberger. ESR, vii. 427-428.

JONES, JENKINS LLOYD: Independent; b. at
LlandyssU (44 m. n.w. of Swansea), Cardiganshire,
Wales, Nov. 14, 1843. He emigrated to the United
States in childhood and was a farm hand until the
age of nineteen. He served in the Union Army for
three years, and soon after the close of the Civil
War entered Meadville Theological School, from
which he was graduated in 1870. He then entered
the Unitarian ministry and was pastor of All Souls'
Unitarian Church, Jaynesville, Wis., until 1879,
being at the same time secretary of the Western
Unitarian Conference. He also organized the
Western Unitarian Sunday School Society, of which
he was secretary for fourteen years. After leaving
Jaynesville for Chicago he organized All Souls'
Church, of which he has been pastor since 1882.
In 1894 this society formally withdrew from all de-
nominational afHliations to emphasize its inde-
pendency. In 1894 he was one of the founders of
the World's Parliament of Religions held in con-
nection with the Chicago Exposition, and was sec-
retary of the meetings of that congress, while as
VI.— 15

early as 1878 he had been one of the founders of
Unity, which he has edited since 1879 and which
is now the organ of the Congress of Religion move-
ment. He likewise established the Abraham Lin-
coln Center, of which he is now superintendent, as
well as the Chicago Browning Society, and has been
first president of the Illinois State Conference of
Charities, lecturer in English in the university ex-
tension course of the University of Chicago, and
president of the Tower Hill Sunmier School of Lit-
erature and Religion. He was one of the organ-
izers of the Municipal Voters' League of Chicago,
and takes an active interest in all movements for
the advancement of civil service, independency in
politics, and similar aims. In theology he was a
member of the radical wing of the Unitarians and
sympathized and cooperated with the Free Re-
ligious Association and kindred organizations. He
has now, however, renounced all vestiges of de-
nominationalism. He has written: The Faith that
makes Faithful (Chicago, 1886; in collaboration
with W. C. Gannett); Practical Piety (1890); Ward
of the Spirit (1897) ; Bits of Wayside Gospel (2 vols.,
New York, 1899-1901); and Nuggets from a Welsh
Mine (Chicago, 1902).

JONES, JEREMIAH: Welsh BibUcal critic and
Independent minister; b. in Wales 1693; d. there
1724. He was a grandson of Samuel Jones (1628-
1697, see Jones, Samuel, 1) and was educated by his
uncle, Samuel Jones (1680-1719; see Jones, Sam-
uel, 2), at Gloucester and Tewkesbury. Among
his colleagues in his uncle's academy were Joseph
Butler and Thomas Seeker, afterward archbishop
of Canterbury. After serving Independent con-
gregations at Market Harborough, Leicestershire,
and Cold Ashby, Northamptonshire, he became
pastor of the Independent church at Nailsworth, in
the parbh of Avening, Gloucestershire, in 1719, and
in the same year took charge of his deceased uncle's
pupils. Jones is remembered for his admirable
New and FxtU Method of Settling the Canonical Au-
thority of the New Testament (3 vols., London, 1726-
1727; reprinted, 3 vols., Oxford, 1798, again 1827).
He also published A Vindication of the Former Part
of St. Matthew's Gospel from Mr, Whiston*s Charge
of Dislocations (London, 1719; reprinted, Salop,
1721, Oxford, 1803).

Bibuogbapht: J. J[o\iIiniii], in GenUeman*» Maoasine, Jane,
1803; DNB, zxx. 121-122.

JONES, RUFUS MATTHEW: Friend; b. at
South China, Me., Jan. 25, 1863. He was educated
at Haverford College, Haverford, Pa. (A.B., 1886).
Heidelberg University (1887), and the University
of Pennsylvania (1893-95), and was principal of
Oak Grove Seminary, Vassalboro, Me., from 1889-
1893. Since the latter year he has been professor of
philosophy in Haverford College, and has also been
editor of The American Friend since the same year.
He has been a trustee of Bryn Mawr College since
1896 and is a member of the American Philosoph-
ical Society. In addition to editing George Fox:
An Autobiography (Philadelphia, 1903) and Social
Law in the Spirittud World (1904), he has written
Life of Eli and SybU Jones (Philadelphia. 1889);
Practical Christianity (1899); A Dynamic Faith

THE NEW SCHAFP-HERZOG

(London, 1900); and A Boy's Reliffum from
Memory (Philadelphia, 1902).

JOireS, SAMDEL: 1. One of the founders of
Welsh noaconformity: b. near Chirk Castle, Den-
bighshire, Wales, 162S; d. at Llangynwyd (15 tn.
w.n.w. of Cardiff), Glamorganshire, Sept. 7. 1697.
He studied at Oxford (B.A., 1652; M.A„ 1654),
first at Merton College, from which he was expelled
in 1G48 for refusing to submit to the parliamentnry
board of visitors, and afterward at Jeeus College,
where he was elected fellow in 1652 and bursar in
1655. In 1857 he was given Presbyterian ordina-
tion and inducted to the living of Llangynwyd.
On the passing of the Act of Uniformity in 1662
he was ejected from his living and subsequently
imprlBoned, but in 1672 he wae licensed to preaoli
in four private houses besides his own. About this
time he established in his farmhouse the first non-
conforming theological academy in Wales. In 1689
Jones' school was selected as one of the places for
the education of the exhibitioners of the Presbyte-
rian board. To this institution the present Car-
marthen Presbyterian College traces its or^n.
Jonee is described by Calamy as " a great philoso-
pher, a considerable master of the Latin and Greek
tongues, and a pretty good Orientalist." He was
fllso a poet of some reputation.

BlBUoaaiFfrr: Samuel Palmer. NanconformiiW lUtmorial,
U. 624, Landon. 1778: T. Reea, HM. a/ ProtiHant JVonmn-
formiiU in Walti. pp. 163. 177, 230-342, ib., ISR3: Df/B.
xix. 160-181.

2. Non-conformist tutor in England; b., probably
in Pennsylvania, c. 1680; d. in England 1719. He
was the son of one Malachl Jones, a Welsh preacher
who had emigrated to America. He studied under
private tutors in England and in 1706 entered the
University of Leyden, where he became the pupil
of Herman Witsius and Jacob Perizonius. A few
3«ars later he opened an academy at Gloucester,
which in 1712 he removed to Tewkesbury. By
this time his school bad attained considerable re-
pute and numbered among its pupils Joseph But-
ler, Samuel Chandler, and Thomas Seeker. It was
from here that Btiller carried on his anonymous
correspondence with Samuel Clarke (1675-1729).
In 1714 the Presbyterian board began to send pupils
to Jones. With the exception of two Latin dispu-
tations (Leyden, 1708) Jones published nothing.
A manuscript copy of hb Latin lectures on Jewish
Antiquities has been preserved. Samuel Clarke
gave various transcripts of Jones' lectures to Philip
Doddridge, for use in hie academy.

SiHLioatuPHi: Waller Wilson, in MonAlu Repoiilaru. I80S,
pp. 851-052; O.Vfi, la. 181 (whore other noticsa are
indiratedl.

JONES, SAUDEL POSTER: Methodist Epis-
copal Church, South; b. in Chambers County, Ala.,
Oct. 16, 1847; d. near Memphis, Tenn., Oct. 15,
1900. He was educated by private tutors and in
boarding-sthooU. and, after serving in the Con-
federate .\riny in the Civil War. was admitted to
. the Georgia bar in 1869. He became addicted to
liquor, however, and his career as a lawyer was se-
riously affected. He was converted in 1872 and
"was admitted to the ministry of the Methodist
Episcopal Church, South, in the same year. He

held various pastorates from 1872 to 1880, after
which he was agent of the North Georgia Orphan-
age (1880-92). From that time until his death he
was extremely active as a revivalist and advooati?
of total abstinence, and became one of the best-
known Evangelists in the United States, attracting
popular attention by his unconventional addresses,
which abounded with witty and pregnant sayings.
He wrote; Sermons and Saifings (Nashville, Tenn..
1883); Music HaHSertea (Cincinnati, O., 1886); Quit
yourMeamie»s[lSm); Sam Jones' Own Book {1887);
St. [Louis Series (1890) ; and Thunderbolts (1895).

JOHES, WILLIAM, OF HAYLAHD: English theo-
logian; b. at Lowick (19 m. n.c. of Northampton),
Northamptonshire. July ;J0, 1726; d. at Nayland
(14 m. B.B.W. of Ipswich), Suffolk, Jan. 6, 1800. He
studied at the Charterhouse and at University Col-
lege, Oxford (B,A.. 1749), Here, largely through
the influence of his friend, George Home, he adopted
the views of John Hutchinson (q.v.). After hi.*
graduation he wns curate for a number of years, firsl
at Finedon, afterward at Wadenhoe, Northamp-
tonshire. In 1764 he was presented to the vicar-
age of Bethorsden, and in 1765 to the rectory of
Ptuckley, both in Kent. On June 22, 1776, be was
elected a fellow of the Royal Society. In 1777 he
obtained the perpetual curacy of Nayland, Suf-
folk, and exchanged Pluckley for Paston, North-
amptonshire. Thenceforth he resided at Nayland
and came to be known as Jones of Nayland. In
1788 he became chaplain to George Home (bishoji
of Norwich). He was the originator, though not
the editor, of the Briiish Critic, a. theoli^ical quar-
terly, of which the first number appeared In Lon-
don in May, 17S3. In 1798 he was presented by
Archbishop Moore to the sinecure rectory of
HolUngboume, Kent. Jones was a man of vast
learning and sound piety, and one of the most
prominent churchmen of his time. The school repre-
sented by him is regarded as forming a link between
the non-jurors and the Oxford school. His works,
some forty in number, are written from the Hulcb-
insonian point of view. The best-known are; The
Catholic Doctrine of the Trinity (Oxford, 17.56; ed.
J. L. F. Russell, London, 1866; published by
S.P.C.K., 1899); ,4n Ettoy on the First PrincipUs
nf Natural Philosophy (Oxford. 1762); Phyatotog-
ieal Disquisitions (London. 1781); Lectures on the
Fiquraiive Language of the Hoty Scripture (17811;
new ed., 1863); An Essay on Ike Church (1787; new
ed., 1863); and Memoirs of . . . George Home
(1795). William Stevens collected and edited his
Works (12 vols., 1801; reprinted in 6 vols., 1810).
Some of his tracts were reprinted under the title,
Traels on the Church (Oxford and London, 1850).
BiBLiooHAPHTt W, Slsvens, A Short ArmunI nf Ihc Life and
WriUngi if Wmian Jona. Londan, 1801: .tuhii Hunt,
HiM. of Religiout Thought in Bngland, iij. 30(1-319. ib.
1S73; L. Stephen. HitL of E«llli^ Thrmi/kt in Ihr imli
Ctnturi/. Tiii. 18-20, lil. HB, 3vd1«., New Vcirk. LS81: J. H.
Overlon. Tht Church in Envland. ii. 2A8. 200-201. Londnn,
1897: J. H. Overton anrt F. Helton. Thr Englinh Churth
U7H-iaOO). pp. 206-207 et pawiai. ib. 1906; DNB. ix.x.
177-178.

JOMES, WILLIAM BASIL: Bishop of St. Duvids;
b. at Cheltenham Jan. 2, 1822; d. at Abergwili (2
m. n.e. of Carmarthen), Wales, Jan. 14, 1897. From

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDU

the Shrewsbury School, where he spent seven years,
he passed to the University ot Ostord (B.A., 1844;
M.A., 1847). He was a scholar of Tfioity College.
184(M5. fellow of Queeo'a College. 1848-51, fellow
of Umveraity College 1851-57, tuWr 1864-58, lec-
turer on modem history 1858-66, and select preacher
18flO-62, 186fi-67. 1876-78, as alao select preacher
at Cambridge in 1881. He took a promioent part
in the formation of the Cambrian Archeological
Association in 1846-47, was one of its general sec-
retaries, 1S4S-~51 , and joint editor for the association
in 1851. At Oxford ho formed an intimate friend-
ship with William Thompson, afterward archbishop
ot York, through whom he received many prefer-
ments. He was exAminiiii; chaplain to Thompson
1861-74, prebendary of York Minster 1863-74,
perpetual curate of Haxby 1863-65, vicar of Biab-
opthorpe 1865-74, archdeacon ot York 1867-74,
rural dean of Bishopthorpe 1869-74, chancellor of
York 1871-74 and canon residentiary of York
1873-74. He nas elevated to the see of St. David's
in 1874. He was remarkably succesEtul in advan-
cing the work of education and missions in his
diocese.

His more important works are: Veiligei of the
Gael in Gwynedd (London, 1851); The History and
Antiquities of St. David'a {4 parts, 1862-67), in
collaboration with E. A. Freeman; The New
Tenlament Illustrated tvilh a Plain Eiplanalory
ComToentary for Privaie Reading (2 vols., 1865),
in collaboration with Archdeacon Churton; The
Peace of God: Sermons on Ihe Reconciliation of God
onrfMon (1869); and OrditMiftonAdrfresses (Oxford,
1900), with a preface by GrE^ory Smith.
BiBLinaHAFHt: I. O. Smith. Hatvl>aii>. p. 67. London. IBOO;

D.VJI, supplement, Lii. 47-40. who« refersnre lo iCRttered

JORAH (JEHORAH; the two fonna an used

interchangeably in the sources):

1. Fifth king of Judah, son and suecettor of Je-
hoshaphat. His dates according to the old chron-
oloRy are 862-885 B.C.; according to Kamphausen,
851-844 B.C.; according to Duncker, 848-844 B.c;
according to Curtis {DB, i. 401), 861-843 B.C. The
Chronicler (II Chron. xxl 2-4) reports that on
Joram's accession he put his brothers to death.
No notice of this occurs in Kings, but the fact is
not improbable dince he had married Athaliah,
daughter ot Ahab and Jezebel of Israel, where as-
sasaiimtion was not imcommon. Moreover, Atha-
liah's usurpation of the kingdom through assassina-
tion (see Joash). together with her knonn influence
over her husband, increases the probability. The
notable event of Jonun's reign whs the revolt of
Edom and ha narrow escape from capture when he
wiis trying to reduce the Edomites to Hubjection.
The revolt of Edom is but the reflex of the prior
revolt of the Moabites from the northern kingdom
(see 2. below). The indications of a general revolt
are increAsed by the Chronicler's narrative concern-
ing a body of Arabs and Philistines who sacked
Joram's palace and carried oft all his sons but one,
The Chronicler attributes his death to a loathsome
di-^ease (probably the same as that described in
Acts xii. 23), and asserts that his burial was dis-
honorable (but of. U Kings viii. 24).

2. Ninlfa king ot Israel, second son of Ahab and
successor to his brother Ahaziah. His dates, ac-
cording to the old chronology are 896-884 B.C.;
according to Karophausen, 854-843 b.c.; accord-
ing to Duncker, 851-843 B.C.; according to Curtis,
852-842 B.C. One of the events ot his reign was an
unsuccessful attempt, in company with Jehosha-
phat of Judah, to reduce to subjection the Moabites
who, according to the Hoabile atone (q.v.), had re-
volted from his brother. The army arrived before
the fortress of Klr-bareseth and besieged it; and
in the straits of the siege the " king of Moab " sac-
rificed his son on the wall in sight ot the besiq;ers.
This act dismayed the allies and they withdrew.
It is not impossible that the "great wrath" ot
II Kings iii. 24 (R. V., margin) indicates a pestilence
which attacked Israel and was attributed to the
offended deity. A second event was the attempt
to recover Ramoth-gilead from the Arameans, in
which Joram was assisted by Ahaiiab of Judab. He
was wounded and obliged to retire to Jezreel, neax
which be fell at the hands of Jebu, It is an open
question whether the events ot II Kings iv.-viii.
16 belong to Joram's reign, as the king of Israel of
that narrative is not named. It is clear from
II Kings ix. 22 and x. 18-27 that the Baal cult
had flourished in Joram's reign, while IT Kings iii.
13-14 is emphatic as to the continuuig influence of
Jezebel.

Bibuoobapht; The nurDesfar 1 aro: I Kings ndi. fiO; 11
Kiniii viu. 16-24. 29; II Chron. Kti.; und tor 2 me: II
Kiogn i. 17. iii.. viii. 3S'ii. 20. The Ittentum ii Kinn
under Ahjib. Coiii>ult bIho: C. F. Bumey, Nairn <m Ma
Httirac Tea of . . . Kiinn. Oxfoni. 1D03; DB, ii. SS9-
SaO; EB, ii. 2350-2352.
JORDAH. See Palebtine.
JORDAn, HERUASH SIEGFRIED ARIfOLD:
German Lutheran; b. at Sandau-an-der-Elbe (35
m. n.w. of Brandenburg) July 30, 1878. He was
educated at the universities of Erlangen (1896-97)
and Greifswald (1867-99; lie. theol., 1902), and
after being a private tutor in Deyelsdort, Pomer-
ania, from 1899 to 1903, was connected with the
cathedral-chapter of Berlin in 1903-04. Since the
latter year he has been prival-docent tor New-Tea-
tament exegesis and chureh history in the Univer-
sity ot Greifswald. He has written; Die Theologia
der neuenidecktejt Predigten Novaiiana (Leipsic,
1902); Rhylhmiache Prosa in der allchriatlichen
lateiniichen Literatur (1905); and Rhylhmieche Pto-
Sdfeite auB der sUetUn Ckrietenheit (1905).

JORDAHIS (originally perhaps Jomandes): The
first and only Gothic historian whose works are
extant; d. c. 560. He descended from a noble
family related to the royal family of the Amali.
His grandfather had been notary of the Alanic King
Candac in Moesia. Jordiinis was also notary until
his conversion, which probably implies that ho aa-
Bumed an ecclesiastical position. He was probably
bishop of Croton, in any case not an Arian, but a
Catholic, Vigilius, to whom be dedicated one of
his works, seems to have been the pope of that
name (538-<656), and they were both in C^snstanti-
nople about 551. Jordanis left two works, a his-
tory of the Goths or rather of Moesia, which seems
to have had the title £>e origine el aci^usque Gel-

i#^«9>n \nr urn

^ t

M« MU Mvl ir«^^4 M I* /X'ilr, m. «l^t «M C

wm //f M$ A/lv#rritiifr/fM dkpAnHiM), flikd After kmt;
mn/hiUtSuip^ ttffftmfi m^lM in fMlft Md oimtM.
An MlfcfA^^mihiMiiMt, h^ tM^f^y Mnbimeod the RH-
f^mmlUm, ftirAukiMl hymmi *nd irfteU, uid rio-
iMriUX immIM th#( prkmihaail *nd th« nuM. In
IA2M (fM fitiMli;!/ iruviilM ft i^liKkmn proeeMion, for
irfiMi fm WM imprlMmerl, pilloried, floisged, and
iumt h\M Umi^tm hurttttd through, in iiddiiion to being
IimiUIimI ftrr ihrMt jttt^rn. He then Joined the An*-
lM|itl«M, unimiK whtrtn )m Npeedilj beoame promi-
tmui, n.\i\umnh he rilMpproved the Anabaptiit in-
mirmeilf in «t Morinter ('(.v.) i^nd o\mn\j oppoied
lUiieribiirK, (In* If-firier of the extreme radiealn.
After Mm* fnll f>f MOriM^^r, JoHn Motight to reunite
ilie AniihfiptlMt fnetiohN, but bin nuocefM wm only
(4immirMry, nnd lie wim nttfieked by NectAriee of all
iihiiilitN Off tlie fitlii«r hnnd, enthuNiaMtii called him
" llie hiillfiwml nf Ihn Lonl," and proclaimed him a

iiriiiihi*! ittid brIfiKer of Jiidicmeiit, no tlwt in 1/^36
Mt filitiMiir lioi«itiiiii nohvlnrefl of hiii divine miaeion.
At ilie Niiiiie lltnti hn lN*Kan to have vinioniiy and
KrntluHlly KitlhtiriHl nhoiil. hini a circle of followeni
(IIhi " linviilldU ") who IruMiHl him implicitly,
evi«ii foniiliiK n «llNHnrt Aimlmptliit Nect with a
ithlllnNllo biinU. 'V\w rhif>r otMitrm of \\n activity
were OldiMiburn, eaiiterii FHtniland, and the Nether-
llUMlN.but nfter 1A%IN the author it lea ehar ply opposed

he ALigd to

Om the
of

pieadiu^ for i3eifgiui ia an aaaajwam pecmoa of
lioSi, wntia^ to Schwcnckfieid >ibau^ be oppoeed
liii drifiration of tfae hmnanitT of Chiisi). and being
acqaaiiited with ratrffio Tbe idenoty of ^ Jobn
of Bn^B "^ with the Datch Aoabapdrt Jan Darid
Jocii wae not dkcuieied vntfl Lhree yean after hk
detMh and buriaL In Apr^ 1559. the Unhenxty
of Baael condemned Jorie as a heretic and on May
13 hm body wae rxhomed and burned, together
with hm books and portrait. His Basel adherents
were obliged to do penanee in the cathedral on
June 6, Ixit in Holstein and HoUand the sect lin-
gned, heresy-triak of the Davidists occurring as
late as the end of the sixteenth century.

(A. HCGUUt) K. HOLL.

BrnjoGBATwr: A fsTorBbl7 pwtisaa fteeount is siren by
O. Arnold, KireUn- umd Ktimr-Hiahrim, 4 Tolft.. Frank-
fort, 1700-16, eometad by the critical diacuaaon of
Nippold, in ZHT, 1863. 1894, 1808. Jaria* biography
was written by A. van der Linda, The Hacoe, 1807. cf.
BiblioplHU Beioe, 1865, pp. 137. 1£3, 18M. pp. 129 sqq.
On hie tuarhing oonsolt A. Jnndt, Hiaioin du pantKHtme^
pp. 184 eqq.. Straabuii, 1875.

JORTINy JOHN: Archdeacon of London; b. in
London Oct. 23, 1698; d. there Sept. 5, 1770. He
was the son of a Huguenot exile from Brittany,
who in 1691 became a gentleman of the privy
chamber. He received his education at the Char-
terhouse School, and at Jesus College, Cambridge
(B.A., 1719; M.A., 1721), where he held a fellow-
ship 1721-28. He was ordained in 1724, and pre^
sented to the college living of Swavesey, Cambridge-
shire, in Jan., 1727, wMch he resigned in Feb.,
1731, to become preacher at a chapel in New
Street, London. In 1731 he started a magaiine
entitled, AfisosUaneous Obaervatuma upon Authors,

dd9

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jozls
Joseph

Ancient and Modern^ which continued for two years.
In 1737 he was presented to the vicarage of East-
well, Kent, which he soon resigned. In 1747 he
resigned his position in New Street to aooept an
appointment to a chapel in Oxenden Street, where
he preached till 1760. He was assistant to War-
burton at Lincoln's Inn, 1747-50, and Boyle lec-
turer in 1749. In 1751 he was presented to the
rectory of St. Dunstan's-in-the-Eiast by Thomas
Herring, archbishop of Canterbury, who gave him
the Lambeth degree of D.D. in 1755. In 1762 he
became chaplain to Thomas Osbaldeston, bishop
of London, who gave him a prebend in St. Paul's
and presented him to the vicarage of Kensington,
which he held with St. Dunstan's. He was made
archdeacon of London in 1764. Jortin was a scholar
of liberal views, and wrote with an engaging light-
ness of style. His more important works are: Dis-
courses on the Truth of the Christian Religion (Lon-
don, 1746); Remarks upon Ecclesiastical History
(5 vob., 1751-73); Six Dissertations (1755); The
Life of Erasmus (2 vols., 1758-60); Sermons (7
vols., 1771-72); and Tracts, Philological, Critical,
and Miscellaneous (2 vob., 1790).

Biblioorapht: J. Disney, MemoirM qf the Life and Writino*
of John Jortin, London, 1792; A Memoir by R. Heathoote
to the 3d ed. of Jortin's Sermons^ ed. R. Jortin, ib. 1787;
another to the edition of the Traete, ut sup.; while a Life
is prefixed by W. TroUope to an edition of the Remarke,
2 vols., ib. 1846. Consult DNB, xxx. 201-203.

JOSEPH OF ARIMATHEA: A wealthy and pious
member of the Sanhedrin who begged the body of
Jesus and laid it in his own tomb, which had not
hitherto been used — a fact in which the Evangel-
ists evidently see symbolic significance. The story
is told in all four Gospeb (Matt, xxvii. 57-60; Mark
XV. 42^i6; Luke zxiii. 50-54; John xix. 3S-42),
and the manner of telling betrays a warm interest
in Joseph's personality, hb courage, and hb piety.
Arimathea b probably to be identified with Ramah
or Ramathaim (Josh, xviii. 25; I Sam. i. 1; I Mace,
xi. 34), five miles north of Jerusalem. Won by the
preaching of Jesus concerning the kingdom of God,
Joseph openly joined himself to the disciples of
Jesus, and he did not consent to the judgment of
the Sanhedrin. The di£ferences of the reports in
the Gospeb are probably to be solved as follows;
Mark and Luke have in mind simply the fact that
Joseph had prepared a worthy grave; how he had
come to do it was not a question with which they
concerned themselves. Matthew took thb into
account and explained that it had been prepared
for Joseph himself. John, who appears to have
had the other accounts before him, seems to have
raised the question why Jesus was not laid in a
grave of hb own instead of in a stranger's, and
answers it by reference to the nearness of the Sab-
bat h, the consequent lack of time for preparations,
and the handiness of the grave already prepared.

(K. Schmidt.)

Bibuoorapht: The subject is discussed in the seotions
devoted to the burial of Jesus in the principal hrem cited
under Jnus Chbist, and in the Bible Dictionaries. Per-
tinent matter will be found in the discussions of the Qospel
of Peter and the Acts of Pilate mentioned under Apoc-
rypha. B, 7.

JOSEPH AND ASEIIATH, STORY OF. See
PsbuiSepigrapha, Old Tk8taiibnt, II., 36.

JOSEPH BRYEIIIIIOS: Bysantine theologian of
the fifteenth century; b., probably in Lacedaemon,
about 1350; d. apparently in Crete about 1436.
Brjrennios, whose original name was Bladynteros,
entered a Oetan monastery about 1375, but some
twenty years later was obliged to leave the island
on account of a conflict with the clergy. He then
went to Constantinople, joined the Studites, and
soon became the court chaplain of the Emperor
Manuel Pal»ologus, thus gaining an important in-
fluence in ecclesiastical polity. In 1416 and 1418
he was imperial ambassador to the West, and at
first enjoyed the favor of John Palsologus, but
when the emperor, for reasons of state, favored
union with the Latin Church, Joseph, a rigid an-
tagonist of this measure, retired from public life,
and apparently spent the last years of his life in
Crete. He was primarily a theologian, although
his writings (first edited by Eugenius Bulgaris, 3
vob., Leipsio, 1768-84) contain a mass of material
on all branches of Byzantine learning, especially
rhetoric, dialectics, geometry, astronomy, physics,
and philosophy. He was the author of twenty-one
addresses and three dialogues on the Trinity, while
other sermons are devoted to the Virgin, redemp-
tion, eschatology, faith, the plan of salvation,
Easter, the Transfiguration, and the Tabor-light.
His attitude toward union is given in his " Speech
of Counsel " and " On the Union of the Cretans,"
while his twenty-six letters contain many theo-
logical allusions. Bryennios was rigidly orthodox
and had no sympathy with humanism or with
western thought. The prime source of authority,
in his opinion, was the Bible, which was supple-
mented by the Church Fathers, who had estab-
lished the truth of the dogmas contained in the
Scriptures, so that these principles required no
further proof and were superior to human reason.
God can be defined only negatively, and man was
created as the end of creation. Seeking to gain his
apotheosis by his own powers, however, he lost the
fellowship of God, though he retained the freedom
of the will. The mission of Christ was to enable
man to attain the end for which he was created,
the special agency being the manifestation of the
person of the Lord. (Phiupp Mbtbr.)

Bibuoorapht: Fabridua-Harles, BiUiotheca OraeeOt xi. W^
660, Hambuii, 1808; Knimbaoher, OeechidUe, p. 114; P.
Meyer, in T8K, box (1806). 282-310; idem, in BymnHn-
iaehe Zeitedurifi, 1806. pp. 74-111; J. Drftaecke, in NKZ,
1806. pp. 206-228.

JOSEPH THB CARPEIITER, HISTORT OF. See
Apocrypha, B, I., 4.

JOSEPH, THE HUSBAND OF MART: In the

primitive Church there are no historic records of a
special cult in honor of Joseph, and the earliest
monuments of Christian art represent him only in
groups with Mary and the Christ-child. In this
period he appears as a young man, and it is not
until the fifth or sixth century that he is repre-
sented as aged, a concept borrowed
The Ven- from the apocryphal Gospels of the
exation of Infancy. According to the legend in-
Joteph. corporated in these documents, Joseph,
when he married Mary, was an aged
widower, having as sons by his first marriage James,
Joaes, Judas, ajod Simon (of. Matt. xiii. 55; Mark

Joseph

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

230

vi. 1 sqq.). This tradition persisted throughout
the Middle Ages, but is now disregarded by occi-
dental Roman Catholicism, which regards Joseph,
if not as a young man, at least in the prime of man-
hood. It is very possible that he died early, as
mention of him disappears from the Gospels; and
since the days of Ambrose and Jerome it has been
a Roman dogma that his marriage with Mary was
merely nominal, although this view receives no
certain confirmation from the New Testament.
Legend, followed by later medieval art, holds that
Joseph died in 18 or 27 a^d., with Mary and Jesus
by his side, and, according to some accounts, John
the Evangelist. This tradition, combined with the
fact that older legends occasionally speak of his
grave, but never mention his remains, forms the
kernel of the medieval legends and regulations for
the Joseph cult. Jean Gerson, Bernardino of Siena,
and Francis of Sales declared that he had been
translated bodily to heaven. The cult of Joseph
flourished in the West after the seventeenth cen-
tury, and relics b^an to appear, although these
were never corporal, but such objects as his ring of
betrothal, or pieces of his garments.

In the early Church Joseph possessed no special
day, and until the medieval period the traditions
on this subject were divergent. The Copts cele-
brated July 20, while among the Greeks his day
was the Fourth Sunday in Advent, which was also
dedicated to Mary, David, and James the Just.
Another day, however. Mar. 19, said to have been
brought to the West by a Syrian Carmelite of the
fourteenth century, gradually found acceptation,
and was finally confirmed by Gregory XV. in 1621.
Pius IX., in 1870, made this feast one of the first
class, and declared St. Joseph the patron saint of
the entire Roman Catholic Church, and Leo XIII.,
in 1889, ordered a series of rosary prayers to St.
Joseph for the whole of October.

All orders foimded in honor of St. Joseph and
called by his name are modem in origin. The fol-
lowing orders of men, established under his protec-
tion as the Biblical ideal of obedience, may be
mentioned: (1) The Secular Priests of St. Joseph
were founded at Rome in 1620 by Paolo Motta,
and their rule, partly based on that
Joseph of the Oratory of St. Philip Neri, was
Orders, confirmed by Innocent XI. in 1684.
(2) The Cr^tenists, or Missionaries of
St. Joseph (Josephites), were established about the
middle of the seventeenth century by Jacques Cr^
tenet, a surgeon of Lyons. They were chiefly mis-
sion-preachers and spread through many dioceses
of France, but were overwhelmed by the Revolu-
tion, although they were later revived as heads of
educational institutes in various places. (3) The
Brethren of St. Joseph were founded at St. Suscien,
near Amiens, by Bishop J. P. de Chabons in 1823,
imitating an elder body of the eighteenth century,
to conduct primary schools, assist the clergy in
catechizing, promote singing, and similar purposes.
(4) The Josephites, or Sons of St. Joseph, were es-
tablished at Granmiont, Belgium, by Canon Van
Combrugghe in 1817 for the education of young
men of the better classes. Besides the mother
house at Grammont, they have daughter houses at

Melle, Jouvain, Tillemont, and Brunelle, in Bel-
gium, and St. George's College, at Weybridge, Eng-
land; they are assisted by the Josephite nuns of
Bruges. (5) The Josephite Brothers of the Holy
Cross were founded in 1821 in the diocese of Le
Mans by the priest Dujarrie. Until recently they
possessed some forty houses in France, the French
colonies, and North America, and devote them-
selves primarily to the training of artisans, although
some conduct secondary schools. (6) The Brothers
of St. Joseph, founded at Quillins (department of
Rhdne) by Abbd Rey in 1835 for the education of
destitute children, had their chief center at Citeaux
from 1848 to 1888, but are now suppressed.

The majority of female orders of St. Joseph are
French. The oldest and most widely extended is
(1) the Congregation of St. Joseph at Bordeaux,
founded in 1638 by Marie Delpech de I'Estang; it
extended rapidly to other cities of northern and
western France, forming at La Rochelle in 1672 a
new branch called Religieuses de la Congr^ation de
Saint Joseph, dite de la Trinity (or, de Jesus, Marie,
et Joseph). (2) The Hospital Sisters of St. Joseph
of La Fldche (in Anjou) were established in 1642,
while about 1650 the Jesuit Medaille founded (3)
the Daughters of St. Joseph at Le Puy. These
three orders in twenty years had over 9,000 mem-
bers and 1,200 houses throughout all France. The
order last named established at Clermont in 1666,
through the advice of Canon Laborieux, (4) the
Nuns of St. Joseph of the Good Shepherd to con-
duct refuges for fallen women. It survived the
Revolution and still has its mother house at Cler-
mont, with some sixty daughter houses. About
1800 Mother Javouhey founded (5) the Sisters of
St. Joseph at Cluny, whence they spread to Sene-
gambia, French Guiana, and other colonies of
France, excepting Algiers and Cochin-China. (6)
The Sisters of St. Joseph of the Visitation were
founded at Marseilles about 1840 by Emilie Vialard,
who, in 1834, had established a similar sisterhood
at Alby for the instruction of the young and the
care of the sick. Daughter houses of these two
sisterhoods have spread to Algiers and Tunis (from
Alby), as well as to Jerusalem (from Marseilles).
(7) A North American order of Sisters of St. Joseph
was founded at Emmitsburg, Md., in 1809 by Eliza
Ann Seton, which in 1850 was united with the
American Sisters of Mercy and as early as 1868
had ninety-one houses with some 1,100 sisters.

(O. ZttCKLERf.)

Bibugobaphy: On the cult: ASB, 19 Mar., vol. ill.; Bene-
dict XIV., De aervorum Dei beatiflcatione, iv. 2, chap. 20,
7-68, BoDona, 1738: PrimauU de S. Joseph d'aprha I'^pU-
copal catholique et la thSoloffie, Paris, 1897; J. Seitz, Die
Verehrung des heUigen Joseph in ihren geschichUichen Ent-
urieklung, Freiburg, 1908; KL, vi. 1878-1879. On the
orders: Helyot, Ordres monastiques, iv. 405, 411 sqq., viii.
25 sqq., 186 sqq.: Heimbuoher, Orden und Kongregationen,
vol. iii. passim; KL, vi. 1874-1878.

JOSEPH QF METHONE: Greek theologian of the
fifteenth century. Of his life little is known, ex-
cept that he lived in Crete and was a zealous advo-
cate of the union between the Greek and Latin
Churches, the majority of his writings, which are
collected in MPO, clix., being devoted to this ob-
ject. His most noteworthy work was his defense

281

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

JoB«ph

of the five chief theses of the Council of Florence,
discussing at length the procession of the Holy
Ghost, unleavened bread, purgatory, eternal life,
and the supremacy of the pope. This treatise was
at first erroneously ascribed to Gennadius Scholarius.
Joseph also discussed the same coimcil in the long
dialogue first edited by Leo Allatius in his Oraecia
orlhodoxa, i. 583-654 (Rome, 1652).

(Phiupp Metbb.)

Bibuogbapht: Fabridus-HarleB, Biblioiheea Oraeca, zi 458,
Hamburg, 1808; Krumbacher, Cfttchichte, pp. 11^119.

JOSEPH THE PATRIARCH: Oldest son of Jacob
and Rachel. The name " Joseph " (Hebr. Yoseph)
was probably originally Joseph-el, " may God add "
(Gen.zxx.24; see Jacob). The relation of the sources
of the story of the patriarch as given in the Book
of Genesis (xxx. 22-24, xxxvii., xxxix. 1) is similar
to that in the history of Jacob (q.v.). E and J pre-
dominate, P being used more exten-
The sively only toward the end (Gen. xlvi.
Sources. 1). The attempt to distinguish be-
tween E and J is without convincing
success. It is asserted that J calls the traveling
Arabian merchants Ishmaelites, while E calls them
Midianites; that E (Gen. xxxvii. 28) makes them
take Joseph out of the pit without the complicity
of his brothers and so ''steal" him (Gen. xl. 15)
while, according to J, he was sold by his brothers
(also according to Gen. xlv. 4); that for J Joseph's
Egyptian master was a wealthy private citizen,
for E, the captain of the guard and keeper of the
prison. In all essential points, however, the story
must have been told in the same way by both £
and J. Joseph's character justifies Jacob's especial
love. Its fundamental quality was his earnest fear
of God (Gen. xxxvii. 2, xxxix. 9, xli. 16, xUi. 18,
xlv. 8, 1. 19-20), who showed him grace both in his
own sight and before men, making him appear the
purest and the noblest of the sons of Jacob.

In considering the historical value of the tradi-
tion of Joseph, the references to Ejgypt, its cus-
toms, manners, etc., are of especial importance.
Modem investigation of the monu-
Historicity ments has explained and justified the
of the recital. While formerly many schol-
Narrative, ars thought to find in Joseph's story
erroneous statements of Egyptian
conditions, Hengstenberg and the Egyptologists
Ebers and Brugsch have shown that the story is
almost entirely concordant with the monuments
of Egypt. Caravan trade was carried on by
the Arabs from the most remote times between
Syria, Palestine, and the country of the Nile; pre-
cisely the three spices mentioned in Gen. xxxvii. 25
(cf. xliii. 11) were always staple articles of com-
merce between Gilead and £^ypt; the caravan
route, after crossing the Jordan at Beth-shan, passed
by Dothan; there was a good market for young
slaves in Egypt; Potiphar bears a genuine IJgyp-
tian name (" devoted to Ra "); such stewardships
tis that with which Joseph was entrusted by Poti-
phar appear frequently in the Egyptian inscriptions
and on the monuments; the scene between Joseph
and Potiphar's wife is practically duplicated in a
story preserved in the D'Orbiney Papyrus (" The
Tale of Two Brothers "), written down for Seti II.

when he was crown prince (cf. H. Brugsch, Au8
dem Orient, Berlin, 1864, pp. 7 sqq.; Eng. transl. in
W. M. F. Petrie, Egyptian Tales, London, 1894-95;
cf . A. H. Sayoe, Higher Criticism and the Monuments,
London, 1894); dreams were matters of intense
interest in Eg^t; the two court officials of Gen.
xl. 1 appear as representatives of the court butlers
and the court bakers, even the title " chief of the
bakers " has been foimd; an illustration of the
dream of the court baker is given in a representa-
tion of the court bakery of Rameses III. (J. G.
Wilkinson, Manners and Customs of the Ancient
Egyptians, ii. 385, London, 1837), wherein a
Icmd of freshly baked bread on a board or mat
(elsewhere a basket, Wilkinson, ii. 393) is borne
away on the head; according to the Rosetta stone
and the Decree of Canopus, Egyptian kings on
their birthdays were accustomed to issue amnes-
ties; the double dream of the Pharaoh (Gen. xli.) is
thoroughly Egyptian; the very words ye'or, "stream"
(—Nile) and ahu, " reed-grass," are Egyptian; the
number seven was significant in the land; the kine,
that is, the good and the lean years, quite properly
come up out of the stream which was the object of
divine honors as the fructifier of the entire country;
the cow is symbolical of Isis-Hathor, the femflJe
principle of fertility, and therefore especially ap-
propriate for the representation of the productivity
of the land; the " magicians " of chap. xli. 8 cor-
respond to the sacred scribes who, besides devoting
themselves to the arts of writing, mensuration, and
astronomy, were also entrusted with the task of
explaining portents; the shaving of the hair and
the changing of clothing on the occasion of an ap-
pearance before the Pharaoh (Gen. xli. 14) was re-
quired by ancient Egyptian custom, while among
the Israelites baldness was regarded as an infir-
mity; the ceremonies accompanying the conferral of
his new dignities upon Joseph (Gen. xli. 42) are all
faithfully represented on the monuments; the cry
abrech (Gen. xli. 43, E. V. mai^gin) which was
shouted by a runner appears, indeed, to have been
an Assyrio-Babylonian title, but the names given
in xli. 45 are clearly Egyptian. As master of the
granaries, Joseph really held the place in the king-
dom next after that of the Pharaoh; hence he
properly calls himself (xlv. 8) Pharaoh's father,
lord over his whole house, ruler of all the land of
Egypt; in chap. xUi. 6 he is called " governor "
over the land; the designation adhon, " lord," has
even found its way into Egyptian and the title
ab-en-pira'o in the sense of " counselor of the Ph^
raoh " occurs often in the papyri. The econonode
regulations promulgated by Joseph must be judged
according to the standard of Egyptian conditiona.
The tax imposed (xli. 34) was, in the rich land of
Egypt, neither hard to bear nor imusual, and the
fact that the State assumed possession of all landed
property, with the exception of that belonging to
the priests, was a result of the centralizing tendency,
more necessary and therefore more justifiable in
that land than elsewhere. Two cases of this kind
are given in H. Brugsch, Geschichte Aegyptens,
Leipsic, 1877, pp. 130, 244 sqq., Eng. transl., Lon-
don, 1879. The fact that Canaan suffered from a
drought at the same time is also in accord with

Joseph

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

d8d

natural conditions, and the Amarna Tablets re-
cord that Canaan imported com from E^ypt (cf . H.
BrugBch, Die bibliachen si^>€n Jahre der Hungera-
not, Leipsic, 1891; Sayce, ut sup., pp. 217-218).
Since E^ypt was the great producer of wheat, the
Semitic tribes in times of scarcity naturally mi-
grated thither, where they were not seldom received
with justifiable suspicion (xlii. 9). The settlement
of the Hebrews in the land of Goshen (q.v.) is in
accord with the conditions, since this territory had
for a long time been the resort of invading Semites
and was adapted to the nomadic manner of life.
Finally, the embalming of Joseph and the seventy
days mourning for him (1. 1 sqq.) are thoroughly
E^rptian. Talcing all these facts together, it is
impossible to escape the conviction which Ebers
expresses: ** The whole of Joseph's history, even
in its smallest details, must be regarded as in ac-
cord with the actual conditions in Eg3rpt." To be
sure, this general agreement with Egyptian condi-
tions and manners does not of itself positively es-
tablish the historic character of the recital; but the
assertion that the author or compiler was not familiar
with Egyptian conditions is equally pure assump-
tion. It is true that several things, especially the
mention of the " Land of Rameses " (Gen. xlvii.
11), a name which could scarcely have been used
before the nineteenth dynasty, make it unlikely
that Joseph's story is from a nearly contempora-
neous source. It seems probable that the account
was written about the time of the Exodus (A. H.
Sayoe, ut sup., pp. 212-213).

The determination of the period of Egyptian
history to which the Hebrew immigration belongs
depends upon the relations of the He-
The brews with the Hyksos. Josephus'
Date of supposition (Apioriy i. 14) that this
Joseph, noinadic people of Semitic race was
identical with the Hebrews does not
agree with the modest position the Hebrews occu-
pied in the land according to the Biblical narrative.
But Joseph's activity must have fallen in the Hyk-
sos period. The 430 (or 400) years of the Egyp-
tian bondage (Ex. xii. 40; Gen. xv. 13), even if the
Exodus took place under Memeptah and certainly
if it took place earlier, point to that period. Geor-
gius Syncellus gives Aphophis as the name of the
Pharaoh of the Exodus, that is, the Apepi of the
monuments, who, according to Brugsch, reigned
shortly before the beginning of the eighteenth dy-
nasty. To this time belongs also, in the opinion of
Brugsch, the famine of many years mentioned in
his QeschichU AegyptenSy pp. 243 sqq. The Hyksos
kings may have bc«n as anxious to attract Semitic
settlers as the first rulers of the New Empire (eight-
eenth dynasty) were to hold them aloof or to op-
press them. The darkness, however, which en-
shrouds the period of the Hyksos, especially the
ruthless destruction of their monuments by a later
dynasty, may have obliterated all definite informa-
tion of Josoph and his family. In general, in the
memory of the Egyptians, this tribe was confused
with the other Semitic inhabitants of the Delta,
and consequently separate features of the history
of Joseph and Moses appear confusedly interwoven
with other events in Egyptian tradition. Among |

Jews and Mohammedans the tale of Joseph's fate
was especially fancied, and it has been embellished
with much legendary matter, especially by the
Mohammedans (cf. Korarit surah xii.).

C. voN Orelli.

Bibuoorapht: The sources are: Gen. xxx. 22-24, xxxvii..
xxxix. 1. The best condensed treatment of the subject
is either the article by Driver in DB, ii. 767-775, or the
article in EB, ii. 2583-2594. There is a monoKraph by
H. G. Tomkins, Life and Times of Joseph in the Light
of Egyptian Lore, London, 1891. Consult further, besides
the literature mentioned in the text: E. W. Hengstenbergf
Die Bilcher Moses uni die Aegypter, Berlin, 1841; C. von
Lengerke, Kanaan, pp. 331 sqq.. Kdnigsberg, 1844; G.
Elbers, Die Aegypter und die BQcher Moses, vol. i., Leipsic,
1868; A. H. Sayce, Patriarchal Palestine, pp. 200 sqq.,
London, 1895; W. Staerk, Studien xur Religions- und
Sprachgeschichte, ii. 21 sqq., Berlin, 1899. For the bearing
of research in Egypt on the Joseph story see the literature
cited under Egypt. Some parallels to the story and to
that of the " Two Brothers " are given in A. Lang, Myth,
Ritual and Religion, ii. 303-308, London. 1887. On the
general relations of archeology cf. the article by Driver
in D. G. Hogarth, Authority and Archaeology, London, 1899.

JOSEPH n.

The Enlightenment. Political Reforms ((1).
Governmental Control of the Church (( 2).
Position of the Clergy in the State ((3).
Reforms Affecting the Cure of Souls (} 4).
Religious Toleration Established (} 5).
Successes and Failures of the Reforms ((6).

Joseph II., Holy Roman Emperor 1765-90, son
of Francis I. (grand duke of Tuscany, emperor,
1745-65) and Maria Theresa (queen of Bohemia
and Hungary, archduchess of Austria, 1740-48),
was bom at Vienna Mar. 13, 1741, and died there
Feb. 20, 1790. Austria stands in the front rank
of strictly Roman Catholic countries which in the
second half of the eighteenth century found them-
selves compelled to break with their antiquated

system to find the way for a new ex-

I. The En- istenoe. The defeats of Austria, espe-

lightenment cially in the Seven Years' War (1756-

Political 1763), had shown Maria Theresa the

Reforms, lack of centralization, of financial,

intellectual, and moral power in her
country and the necessity of reforms. Although a
good Catholic and personally antagonistic to the
Enlightenment, she permitted the leaders of this
intellectual movement to expand the new views of
Territorialism (q.v.) and Febronianism (see Hont^
HEiM, JoHANN NiKOLAUs von). Archdukc Joseph
became one of the most prominent and fervent
advocates of the new ideas, and when he became
coregent after the death of Emperor Francis (Aug.
18, 1765), ecclesiastical reforms were carried out in a
more thorough and independent manner, especiallv
as popes like Clement XIV. (1769-74) and Pius VI.
(1775^1799) tried to save the hierarchy by the most
far-reaching concessions. On the death of the em-
press in 1780 Joseph became sole ruler, and now
began an entirely new system, which was carried
out within a few years. The old feudal order was
to make room for the monarchical state of the En-
lightenment, in which no privileged classes and
estates existed. In the political sphere Joseph con-
tinued the centralization of the old Hapsburg coun-
tries; in the social sphere he attempted to raise the
state of the peasants and of industry. Serfdom
was abolished, taxes on landed property were equal-

288

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

JoB«ph

ized, and the industrial life was freed from its para-
lyzing fetters.

Joseph was a pronounced territorialist. All ex-
ternal relations of the Church (i.e., everything out-
side of the dogmas in the proper sense), the ad-
ministration of the sacraments, and

3. Govern- inner discipline over the clergy, were

mental to be placed under the regulating and

Control supervising power of the State. He

of the thought of the relation of the churches

Church, of his coimtries to Rome entirely in
the Febronian sense. The peculiarity
of his system of church polity has been styled
Joeephinism, a term which implies the union of
Febronianism, Episcopalianism, and territorialism,
Yfith the political viewpoint dominating. He was
in no way hostile to the Church; Roman Catholi-
cism appeared to him the historically developed and
therefore the natural form of churchdom in his
countries; but he did not subject his government to
merely ecclesiastical points of view. The Church
appeared to him only as the oiganization of one of
the spheres in which the life of the people develops,
and which is therefore subordinated to the whole,
the State. The ultimate aim of all his reforms was
the supremacy of the State. The means was the
introduction of the enlightenment to raise up new
ethical and intellectual power. Accordingly, the
churches of the Hapsbuig countries were to be de-
tached, as far as possible, from their legal connection
with the papacy and consolidated into a uniform
organization under the church government of the
sovereign. Consequently the Placet (q.v.) for all
kinds of papal bulls and briefs was renewed and
strictly carried out. The bull Unigeniius was never
to be mentioned, and the bull In coena Domini torn
out of the books of liturgy. In 1781 all relations
were broken off between the religious orders and
their superiors and brethren in foreign countries.
At the same time, the orders were subordinated to
the disciplinary power of the bishops and arch-
bishops. Similar ordinances were applied to the
whole clergy. Conmiunication with Rome was to
be through Austrian ambassadors. Nobody was
allowed to ask for papal titles in Rome, or to send
money there. The bishops received the right to
absolve and dispense, especially in matrimonial mat-
ters, and to institute new festivals, devotions, etc.
Every appeal to Rome was forbidden. As at many
points along the boundaries, Austrian dominions
were under the authority of foreign bishops, a
new circumscription of the dioceses was necessary.
Moreover, the connection of the bishops with the
secular ruler was made closer, closer even than that
with the pope. There was demanded of them a
new oath of subjection to the temporal ruler which
preceded that to the pope. Nevertheless, there
remained for the pope a certain privilege over the
internal and external relations of the Austrian
Church; and, when possible, the emperor tried to
gain his consent to the ecclesiastical reforms.

The special jurisdiction of the clergy was abol-
ished, the clergy was subjected to the legislative
and judicial powers, bishops were to wait for the
placet for their consecration and the State assumed
matrimonial legislation (1783). As it waa the aim

of Joseph to bring the clergy into closer connection
with the Austrian State and make its representar
tives more efficient in their profession
3. Position than had been possible under the old
of the system, he placed their education in the
Clergy in hands of the central authority of civil
the State, instruction, the imperial commission of
schools. The theological students were
forbidden to visit the Collegium Germanicum et
Hungaricum in Rome (Nov. 18, 1781), which insti-
tution was replaced by a Collegium Germanicum et
Hungaricum in Pavia. In 1783 the theological
schools in the monasteries were closed, and " general
seminaries " were opened as State institutions under
the superintendence of the imperial commission.
As the monasteries were regarded as the chief seats
of all sentiments inimical to the State, and as they
deprived the State of a great number of efficient
men that were urgently needed for the multitude
of new parishes, a law of Jan. 12, 1782, ordered the
dissolution of all religious orders not engaged in
preaching, teaching, or nursing the sick. In this
way the number of monasteries in Austria and
Hungary was reduced from 2,163 to 1,425.

No less comprehensive, and evincing the same
character, were the reforms relating to the internal
life of the Church. The emperor made
4. Re- the greatest efforts to elevate the cure
forms of souls and to adapt its oiganization
Affecting to the needs of the changed conditions,
the Cure Many of the monastic churches were
of Souls, transformed into parish churches. The
emoluments of a religious State fund
were used for the foundation of churches, pastor-
ates, and chaplaincies; former monks were em-
ployed in pastoral work. At the same time Joseph
deeply influenced the order of the church service.
His aim was to do away with the merely external
and mechanical practise of religion and further the
ideal of the Enlightenment, the worship of God in
spirit and in truth, and the practical love of fellow
men. He paid special attention to preaching, to
the instruction of youth, and to congregational
singing. On Apr. 21, 1783, there was issued a new
church order for Vienna, which served as a pattern
for the whole country. All orders of service which
went beyond the Roman ritual were done away.
The Latin language was abolished, and the German
introduced into the services. Rules were given
with respect to the luxurious ornamentation of the
churches, the magnificent processions, the brilliant
illuminations, exhibition of relics, pilgrimages, etc.
A rational and systematic care of the poor and sick
was substituted for begging and the arbitrary giv-
ing of alms.

An edict of Oct. 13, 1781, established religious

toleration for the whole Hapsburg monarchy, for

the German and Bohemian countries, Hungary and

her dependencies, Italy, and the Neth-

5. Relig- erlands. The adherents of the Augs-

ious Tolera- buig and Helvetic confessions, as well

tion Es- as members of the Greek Church, ob-

tablished. tained a limited freedom of worship.

Each group of a hundred families was

permitted to build a meeting-house, but without

bells, steeples, or street entrances, and a school

7oB«ph
Joaephua

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

234

and employ their own teachers and subordinate
pastors, who were to be confirmed by the emperor.
Civil disqualifications arising from denominational
dififerenoes were abolished. In German countries,
Bohemia, and Moravia the number of non-Catholics
in 1782 was 73,722. By 1788 this number had in-
creased to 156,865. The number of tolerated con-
gregations in Hungary and Transylvania in 1783
was 272; in 1784 it was 758. By collections in
Austria and Hungary, in the empire, in the Evan-
gelical Netherlands, in Switzerlimd, Denmark, and
Russia, considerable sums were raised for the or-
ganization of Evangelical congregations. The gov-
ernment itself made efiforts to establish order and
develop the inner conditions of the Protestant
churches. A special consistory was formed for the
Protestants in Germany, Bohemia, and Moravia.

It is self-evident that such an enormous revolu-
tion in all spheres met with the strongest opposition,
especially from the Curia. On Mar. 22, 1782, Pius
VI. paid a visit to Vienna to expostu-
6. Successes late with the emperor; but he was
and Fail- received with cold politeness and re-
ures of the turned without having accomplished
Reforms, his purpose. In the old countries of
the Hapsburg crown the sentiment was
very different. Among the bishops Joseph had friends
and foes. The Febronian views of the Enlighten-
ment (q.v.) were represented by the archbishop
of Sakbui^, as well as by the bishops of Kdnig-
gr&tz, Wiener Neustadt, I^aibach, Seckau, etc., while
the old ecclesiastical views were adhered to by the
archbishop of Vienna and the Hungarian episcopate
under the leadership of its primate. In the German
and Bohemian countries the ecclesiastical reforms
as a whole went through peacefully, though the
changes in the cultus and in ecclesiastical ethics
caused some bitterness. The political-social reforms
pleased peasants and citizens, but aroused the op-
position of the privileged classes. In Hungary the
ecclesiastical reforms were carried out without op-
position, but the political and social revolutions
necessitated by the centralizing tendency of the
emperor, as, for instance, the attempts to break the
old constitution of Hungary and Transylvania, to
govern the country in a despotic manner by State
officers, to introduce German as the official language,
and to abolish serfdom with the privil^es of the
nobility and the clergy, enraged the Magyar nobility
in such a way that on Jan. 30, 1790, all political
and social reforms had to be repealed. In the
Netherlands the edict of toleration was promulgated
November, 1781, and was carried out without diffi-
culty, in spite of the opposition of the estates and
the clergy. The other ecclesiastical provisions were
opposed only by the clergy and the monastic orders.
But here, too, the attempt to break the old feudal
constitution, the self-government of the estates and
the privileged position of the clergy and nobility in
city and country, met in 1787 with the most violent
opposition in all prominent circles. On Jan. 7,
1790, the pro\'inces declared themselves independ-
ent, and the general political condition deprived the
emperor of all hope of victory. Disappointed and
defeated he died the following month. There is no
doubt that the impatience and haste of his reforms

greatly injured his work, and yet his reign became
the starting-point for a new and higher develop-
ment of Austria. The system of ecclesiastical
legislation continued after his death, except that in
the Netherlands his brother and successor Leopold
was compelled to sacrifice all ecclesiastical innova-
tions, even the edict of toleration, in order to re-
gain his provinces. In Himgary and Transylvania
the main bulk of the ecclesiastical reforms, and es-
pecially the edict of toleration, remained in force.
In Austria most of the estates required the restitu-
tion of the old feudal conditions and the old dom-
ination of the Roman Catholic Church; but Leo-
pold refused both. Of the ecclesiastical legislation
only the " general seminaries " were discontinued.
The bishops were allowed to erect their own insti-
tutions and to dispose of the order of church serv-
ice. The great mass of reforms within the Church
remained imtil 1848. At the time of Napoleon I.
Josephinism extended over all the South German
states, Bavaria, Wilrttemberg, Baden, and Hesse.
It was only in 1848 that it was entirely broken in
Austria, as well as in the South German states.
Only the edict of toleration remained in force in
Austria, and was embodied in the constitution.

(Kabl MClleb.)

BiBLXOORAPnT: Sources are: A. von Arneth, Maria Thereaia
und Joaeph II., ihra Korreapondem, 3 vols., Vienna, 1867;
J. Kropatschek, Handbtuh . . . Verordnungen und Ge-
aetae, 10 vols., Vienna, 1785-01; Codex juria eccUaiaatici
Joaaphini, 2 vols., Presburg, 1788; Sammlung der Verord-
nungen und Qeaetxe Kaiaera Joaeph II., 10 vols., Vienna,
1788. Consult: K. Ritter, Kaiaer Joaeph und aeine kirch-
Udien Reformen, 2 vols., Regensburg, 1867; S. Bninner,
Die iheologiacKe Dienerachaft am Hofe Joaepha II„ Vienna,
1868; idem. Die Myaterien der AufklQrung in Oeaterreich
1770-1800, ib. 1860; T. von Kem, Die Reformen der
Kaiaerin Maria Thereaia, Leipsic. 1860; A. Wolf, Die
Aujhtijuna der Kldater in Innerdaterreich, Vienna, 1871;
idem, Oeaterreidi unter Maria Thereaia, Joaeph II., und
Leopold II., Berlin, 1883; E. Friedberg, Die Orenzen
Kwiachen Stoat und Kirche, Ttibingen, 1872; A. von Arneth,
Geaehiehte Maria Thereaia, ix. 1-260, Vienna, 1870; C. von
Hoek, Der daterreichiache Staatarath 1760-1848, ib., 1870;
E. Hubert, La Condition dea proteatanta en Belgique depuia
Charlea V. juaquh Joaeph II., Brussels, 1882; G. Frank,
Daa Toleranzpatent Kaiaera Joaeph II., Vienna, 1882; L.
Leger, Hiat. of Auatro-IIungary, London, 1880; H. Schlit-
ter, Die Regierung Joaefa II., vol. i., Vienna, 1000; F.
Frishc, Kaiaer Joaeph II., ib. 1003; J. Bryoe, The Holy
Roman Empire, New York, 1004; F. Geier. Die DurchfUhr-
ung der kirchlichen Reformen Joaepha II., Stuttgart, 1005;
E. Qothein, Der Brei^fau unter Maria Thereaia und Joaeph
11 „ Heidelberg. 1007; H. Franx, Studien zur kirchlichen
R^orm Joaepha II., 1008.

JOSEPHUS, FLAVIUS.

I. Life.
^ n. Works.

" Jewish War " and " Antiquities " (S 1).
Remaining Works (S 2).
Editions (( 3).

L Life: Flavins Josephus, the Jewish historian,
was bom in the first year of the reign of Caligula,
37-38 A.D.; d. at Rome after 100 a.d. His father
Matthias belonged to a respected family of priests
in Jerusalem. Josephus reports proudly that at
the age of sixteen he went through the three " phil-
osophical schools " of the Jews, those of the Phari-
sees, Sadducees, and Essenes, and that for the next
three years he lived with a hermit named Banus.
At the age of nineteen he publicly joined the Phari-
sees (Vita, i.-ii.). In 64 a.d, he undertook a journey

235

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Joseph
Joflaphiui

to Rome to obtain the release of certain imprisoned
priests. He had hardly returned to Palestine when
the great insurrection against the Romans broke
out (66 A.D.). In the beginning Josephus was
without doubt opposed to the rebellion, but after
the first victories of the Jews, he, too, joined it,
more by force than by free will; he even became
commander in Galilee. As such he organized in
the winter of 66-67 the military forces of Galilee
and made preparations for the campaign which
began in the spring of 67. Activities centered
around the fortress of Jotapata, which was for six
weeks bravely and cleverly defended by Josephus
against the army of Vespasian. After the capture
of Jotapata he became a prisoner of the Romans;
after the second year of his imprisonment he was
released by Vespasian, who in 69 had become em-
peror. He then adopted the name of Flavins
Josephus and devoted the remainder of his life to
the interest of the Flavian emperors. He accom-
panied Vespasian to Alexandria, returned thence
in the suite of Titus to Palestine and was in the
army of the latter during the whole siege of Jeru-
salem in the year 70. After the capture of Jerusa-
lem Titus took him to Rome, where he seems to
have settled down to literary work. Vespasian
gave him a dwelling-place in his own former resi-
dence, made him a Roman citizen, and presented
him with an annual salary and a considerable tract
of land in Judea. With the following emperors,
Titus (79-81 A.D.) and Domitian (81-96 a.d.), Jo-
sephus enjoyed the same favor. It is not Imown
how long he lived and in what relation he stood
to the later emperors. He must have been living
in the time of Trajan, since in his Vita he mentions
King Agrippa II. as having already died (100 a.d.).
n . Works : The works of Josephus were all com-
posed in the Greek language, with the exception of
his first draft of the ** Jewish War," which was in
Aramaic. His principal purpose was
I. " Jewish to communicate to the Greco-Roman
War " and world the knowledge of the history of
" Antiq- his people, whom he defends and glori-
uities.** fies in every possible way. The " His-
tory of the Jewish War," in seven
books, is his earliest and most carefully written
work. The first and second books gave a survey
of Jewish history from the time of the Biaccabees
to the outbreak of the insurrection against the
Romans. The rest of the work is a detailed ac-
count of the war from the beginning in 66 to the
complete suppression in 73. It was written late in
the reign of Vespasian (69 to 79 a.d.; cf. War, pref-
ace, chap, i.; Ani., preface, chap. i.). It was pre-
sented to Vespasian, Titus, and Agrippa II., and
the author received commendation for the accu-
racy of his account. The " Antiquities " (" Jew-
ish Archeology ") is a comprehensive history of the
Jewish people from the beginnings of Biblical his-
tory to the outbreak of the war in 66 a.d., in twenty
books, after the model of the Ramaiki archaiologia
of Dionysius of Halicamassus. It was completed
in the thirteenth year of Domitian, 93-94 a.d. For
the Biblical period (books I.-XI.) Josephus draws
almost exclusively from the Bible in the Septuagint
version, but he modifies the Biblical story and sup-

plements it by legends, following current traditions.
Here and there he seems to have employed also
Hellenistic compilations of Biblical history, «spe-
cially those of Demetrius and Artapanus. Finally,
he inserted notices from Greek writers of profane
history when he dealt, for instance, with the flood,
with primitive man, with Phenidan history, and
the like. The post-Biblical period of Jewish his-
tory is treated by Josephus without any due sense
of proportion according to the condition of his
sources. He has little to say on the period from
Alexander the Great to the time of the Maccabees,
filling the gap with an extensive extract from
Pseudo-Aristeas (see Aristeas) on the origin of the
Greek translation of the Bible. For the history of
the Maccabees (175-135 b.c.) he had an excellent
source in I Biaccabees (see Apocbtpha, A, IV., 9),
which he supplemented from the works of Polyb-
ius. The later history of the Hasmoneans seems
to depend upon the more general works of Strabo
and Nicolas of Damascus. The main source for
the history of Herod (books XV.-XVII.) was Nioo-
laus Damasoenus, who, as an intimate coimdlor of
Herod, was acquainted with the internal history of
the court and described in great detail the history
of his land. The history from the death of Herod
to the outbreak of the war (books XVIII.-XX.) k
treated quite meagerly. For the last decades Jo-
sephus was able to draw from oral information or
from his own experience. He inserted a number
of documents — decrees of the Roman senate, let-
ters of Roman magistrates, decrees of cities of Asia
Minor under Roman influence, and the like — the
majority of these dating from the time of Caesar
and Augustus and having high value. The genu-
ineness of the passage on Jesus Christ (XVIII., iii.
3) is generally given up.

The title affixed to the autobiography (Vita) of
Josephus is misleading, since it recounts and justi-
fies his activity in Galilee in the winter of 66-67
A.D. In this work Josephus attacks
2. Re- especially Justus of Tiberias, who, be-
maining ing a man of conservative tendencies.
Works, had, like Josephus, joined the insur-
rection more by force than by free
will and had subsequently tried to exonerate him-
self for participation in the rebellion and to place
the responsibility upon Josephus. The latter re-
taliated in his Vita by representing Justus as the
chief agitator and himself as the real friend of the
Romans. The work was written after the death of
Agrippa II., therefore after 100 a.d. The Contra
Apionem presents a weU-written systematic apology
for Judaism in reply to various attacks, especially
in the literary world. The usual title Contra Ap-
ionem is misleading, since only a part of the work
is occupied with the polemic against Apion. Por-
phyry {De absHnentia, iv. 11) quotes it imder the
title Pros toiia HelUnaSf the oldest Church Fathers
imder the title Peri Us tGn JoudaiOn archaiotitos,
Jerome was the first to use the title Contra Apion-
em. Since Josephus quotes in this work the " An-
tiquities " it must have been written later than
93 A.D. That IV Maccabees was wrongly ascribed
by the Fathers to Josephus is now universally rec-
ognized. Similarly the work discussed in Photius,

Joaaphua
JoahuA

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

286

Bibliatheca, cod. 48, under the title Peri Urn pantos
or Peri Ub Urn pantos aitias or Peri Us tou pantos
ounaSf is of Christian origin and is quoted by the
author of the PhUosophumena as his own. The
author of both is most probably Hippolytus, among
whose works there is mentioned one entitled Peri
tou pantos. A work projected by Josephus on the-
ology seems never to have been written.

The first edition of the Greek text of the works
of Josephus was published by Frobenius and Epis-
copius (Basel, 1544). It was followed by the Ge-
neva editions of 1611 and 1634, and by the edition
of Ittig (Leipsic, 1691). A text of the complete
works, revised after manuscripts, was furnished
by Hudson (2 vols., Oxford, 1720). Then came

the editions of Havercamp (2 vols.,

3. Edi- Amsterdam, Leyden, Utrecht, 1726),

tions. of Oberthar (3 vols., Leipic, 1782-

1785), and of Richter (6 vols., Leip-
sic, 1826-27). On the basis of Havercamp 's ma-
terial the text was revised by Dindorf yZ vols.,
Paris, 1845-47). This was followed by the pocket
edition of Bekker (6 vols., Leipsic, 1855-56). A
comprehensive collation of all good manuscripts
was made only in recent times by Niese; his efiforts
resulted in a critical edition which by the richness
of the apparatus far excels all former editions
(Flavii Josephi opera edidit et apparahi critico in-
ttruxU Benedictus Niese, 6 vob., Berlin, 1887-94;
vol. vii. is a carefully compiled index, 1895). On
the basis of Niese's apparatus appeared an edition
by Naber (6 vols., I^eipsic, 1888-96). There exists
an early Latin translation of the complete works of
Josephus, with the exception of the Vita, Cassio-
dorus seems to be the author of the Latin transla-
tion of the " Antiquities " and of the Contra Apionem.
The first printed edition of the Latin Josephus was
published by Johann Schtissler in Augsbuig, 1470.
Since then until the appearance of the first Greek
edition it has been printed frequently, and the later
editions were frequently corrected after the Greek.
A critical edition of the Latin version, resting upon a
comprehensive use of the sources, was begun by Boy-
sen as vol. xxxvii. of the Vienna C8EL (Vienna, 1898) .
With the Latin translation of the BMum Judaicum
is not to be confounded a Latin condensation which
is known under the name of Egesippus or H^esip-
pus. The name Egesippus is onlj*^ a corruption
from Josippus, a Latin form of ** Josephus." The
work has some original additions, dates from the
second half of the fourth century a..d., and has been
doubtfully ascribed to Ambrose. The first edition
appeared in Paris, 1510; a critically revised text
appeared imder the title Hegesippus qui dicitvr sive
Egeeippus de hello Judaico ope codicis Casetiani
recognituSf ed. Wd>er, opus marte Weberi interrup-
turn absolvit Caesar (Marburg, 1864). Under the
name Josippon or Joseph, son of Gorion, there
exists a history of the Jewish people to the destruc-
tion bf Jerusalem, in the form of a compendium
written in Hebrew, which is in the main excerpted
from Josephus, but in many respects differs widely
from him. There appeared an edition of it with
a Latin translation, by J F. Breithaupt (Gotha,
1707, 1710). Since the sixteenth century the
works of Josephus have been translated into almost

all modem European languages. Among the Eng-
lish translations Tra ill's, giving the Vita and the
War, are especially esteemed (London, 1862). [The
standard English translation has long been that of
W. Whiston (London, 1737, often reproduced, la-
test ed. by D. S. Margoliouth, 1906). Others were
by T. Lodge (1602, and often); Sir R. L. I'Estrange
(1702 and often); J. Court (1733, and often); E.
Thompson and W. C. Price (2 vols., 1777-78); and
T. Bradshaw (1792)1. (E. ScHtJRER.)

Biblioobapht: The best discussion is in Schtirer, GeschichU,
i. 74-106, 607-613. iii. 370, Eng. transl. I., i. 77^2. ii.
214-223. II. iii. 221-222; Schttrer furnishes very abundant
material in the original article in Hauck-Hersog, RE,
ix« 377 sqq. A very full discussion is to be found in DCB,
iii. 441-460. The older material is suggested in Fabridus-
Harles, Bibliotheca Oraeca, v. 49-56. Consult further:
V. E. P. Chasles, De VautoriU hiatorique de Flavius Joatph^,
Paris, 1841; Creuser, in TSK, xxvi (1853), 45-86. 906-028;
Reuss, in Revue de thSologie, 1859. pp. 253-319; W. A.
Terwogt, Het Leven van . . . Flaviue Jaaephue, Utrecht,
1863; R. Nicolai, Chieehiache Literaturgeechichte, ii. 2, pp.
553-559, Magdeburg, 1877; A. von Gutschmid, Kleine
Schriften, iv. 336-384. I^ipsic. 1893; C. Wachsmuth,
Einleitung in doe Studium der alien OeeehichU, pp. 438~
449, ib. 1895; Niese, in Hietoriache ZeiUchrift, Ixxvi (1896),
193-237; Unger, in SMA, philosophisch-philologische
Klasse, 1895, pp. 551-604, 1896. pp. 357-397. 1897. pp. 189-
244; H. Peter. Die geachiehUiche Literatur Uber die rdmiache
Kaiaerteii, i. 394-101. Leipsic, 1897; P. Krtlger, Philo
und Joaephita ala Apolooeten dea Judentuma, ib. 1906;
Ceillier. Auteura aacrAa, i. 314-327.

JOSHUA, josh'yu-a: An Ephraimite, son of
Nmi, servant and helper of Moses (Ex. xxiv. 13),
and his successor in the leadership of Israel (Nmn.
xxvii. 18-23). On assuming the leadership, Joshua
sent spies who were entertained by Rahab in Jeri-
cho, and on their return reported the situation in
Canaan (Josh. i. 10-ii. 24). He then ordered prep-
arations to be made for the invasion, which took
place on the tenth day of the first month of the
forty-first year after the exodus from Egypt. It
has been said that Joshua used the fords of the
Jordan; but the place and the season of the year
are unfavorable to this supposition, since at that
time the Jordan overflows its banks (Josh. iii. 15;
I Chron. xii. 15). According to the narrative the
upper waters of the river stayed as if dammed up,
while the lower waters flowed off into the Dead
Sea. The suggestion of Klostermann that the phe-
nomenon may have been caused by a severe earth-
quake which raised the bed of the river or pro-
duced a landslide across the river bed, which was
afterward carried away by the flood, offers a nat-
ural explanation of the way in which the river was
crossed dry-footed. To preserve the memory of
this crossing, the leader had twelve stones carried
from the bed of the river and set up at Gilgal, mid-
way between the river and Jericho (Josh. iv. IS,
20-24). The people were then circumcised and
the feast of the Passover was celebrated. The
promise made to Joshua that Yahweh, the leader
of the host of the people which had become Yah-
weh's, would be his helper was fulfilled in the ta-
king of Jericho, the walls of which were thrown
down in an earthquake (Josh. v. 13-xxx. vi.), while
of the inhabitants only Rahab and her family were
saved alive. The pimishment of Achan and the
treaty secured by the Gibeonites' device followed.
According to Deut. xxvii., after the capture of Ai

287

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

JoB«phiia
Jomhum

Joshua led the people in a northerly tlirection to
Ebal and Gerizim, and overcame a combination of
Canaanites gathered to punish Gibeon for its treaty
with Israel, on which occasion occurred what has
been read as a miracle in the staying of the sim
and the moon in their courses, to be interpreted
probably as a subjective effect of the quickness and
completeness of the victory (Josh. x. 1-14). This
was followed by the conquest of the southern part
of the land as far as Kadesh-bamea and westward
to Gaza (Josh. x. 29 sqq.), succeeded by a third
campaign in which the kings of the northern cities
were subdued near Merom. While by these wars
the country was won, with the exception of the
Philistine and Phenician coast, not ail was actu-
ally in the possession of the Hebrews; and several
years after the ending of the campaigns Joshua's
seat of government was still at Gilgal (Josh. xiv. 6).
It was at this place that Joshua's second task
was begun — the division of the land among the
tribes. Judah, Ephraim, and Manasseh first re-
ceived their allotments, and the ark was carried
from Gilgal to Shiloh in Benjamin (Josh, xv.-
xviii. 1). This was followed by the allotment of
the portions to the other tribes, and the permission
to the East-Jordan tribes to return to their own
district, having fulfilled their duty to the tribes
west of the river (Josh, xviii.-xxii.). In anticipa-
tion of his death Joshua gathered first the elders
and then the people at Shechem to receive his last
instructions, which he commemorated by a pillar
or stone under the terebinth at Shechem (Josh,
xxiv. 26-27). He died at the age of one hundred
and ten. (W. VoLCKf.)

Bibuoorapht: J. H. St&helin. in TSK, xxiv (1840). 304
sqq.; J. Socket, Die Eroberung des heiligen Landea dureh
Josna, Gleiwitx, 1870; J. B. Meyer, Joshua and the Land af
PronUae, London, 1893; and the literature under Joshua,
Book op.

JOSHUA, BOOK OF: The sixth of the books
of the Old Testament in the arrangement of the
English Bible. According to the Hebrew canon,
it is the first book of the second part, containing
the prophetical-historical books. It was originally
the conclusion of the Pentateuch. The

Contents conception of the Talmud (Baba bathraf
and 14b) that Joshua was the author of

Sources, the book is no longer tenable; nor is
that of Keil, who regarded it as a uni-
fied book drawn up by an eye-witness of the events
(cf. Josh. V. 1, R.V., margin). For contents see
Hexateuch, § 2. The part which deals with the
conquest bears the impress of those sections of the
Pentateuch derived from JE (hardly to be distin-
guished in this book); the second part resembles
more the style of the priestly writer, but with in-
sertions of JE (xviii. 3-10). But throughout, these
elements are more or less interwoven, with Deuter^
onomic portions also thrown in (especially in viii.;
cf. viii. 30 sqq., with Deut. iv. 41-43, and note the
Deuteronomic expressions in Josh, xxiii. 5, 11, 14).
There are also expressions which linguistically
belong neither to JE nor P, indicating that the
redactor has employed other material: such are the
combinations " the Lord, the God of Israel" (foui>
teen times, only elsewhere in the Hexateuch in Ex.

v. 1, xxxii. 27), and the term "mighty men of
valor" (Josh. i. 14, etc.). Thus the work of several
hands is distinguishable in the composition of the
book. It appears from analysis that the parts
belonging to P are later than those which are as-
signed to JE; and that JE and P lay before the
Deuteronomist who composed the book found in the
times of Josiah. It was he who closed the Penta-
teuch and made Joshua the beginning of the his-
torical narrative, reediting it and working it over,
but bestowing upon it no such care as he exercised
upon the Pentateuch. There are indications that
its text has had an independent history.

In the book data are found which tend to fix
the date of the sources out of which it was com-
piled or from which it was derived. Thus chap,
viii. 28 must have been written long prior to Isa.
X. 28; xvi. 10 must be earlier than the beginning of
Solomon's reign (I Kings ix. 16); xv. 63 must pre-
cede the incident told in II Sam. v. 6; x. 13 can
not be earlier than the time of David, since the
book of Jasher contained David's elegy on Saul
and Jonathan; vi. 25 and xiv. 14 do not imply that
the source was contemporary with Rahab and
Joshua, since the reference is to the descendants
of Rahab and Caleb. That the part dealing with
the division of the land rests on documents is in
itself probable (cf. xviii. 9); and the absence of
reports of strife over tribal boimdaries implies that
the boundaries were based on an old decision. The
list of kings, xii. 9 sqq., is regarded by Ewakl as an
old docvunent. But variations in, e.g., the count
of cities shows that the text has not remained im-
altered (xv. 32, xix. 15, 38). This book with the
first four books of the Pentateuch and parts of
Deuteronomy was known to the prophets Hosea,
Amos, and Micah. Thus the general scheme of
history regarded by Mioah as known to his con-
temporaries under Hesekiah agrees with that pre-
sented in Numbers and Joshua (Micah vi. 1 sqq.,
which recalls the narrative of JE). So in Amos
there are reminisoences of the narrative of P (as
in ii. 10, V. 25, vii. 4; cf. particularly ii. 7 with
Lev. XX. 3, xxii. 2, 32). So Hos. xii. 4 may be
compared with Gen. xxxv. 9 sqq., in which minu-
tiffi of agreement suggest that Hosea had the re-
port of P before him.

The credibility of the narrative of the book haB
been assailed on the ground that it contains not
history but legend. The chief occasion for this is
comparison with Judges i. It is said that while
Joshua implies the conquest of Canaan by the
tribes in unison, Judges i. records the
His- piecemeal occupation by individual

toricity. tribes or aggregations. But Judges
i. 1 professes to deal with what oc-
curred after the death of Joshua, not with the
events of his life. Moreover, while the general im-
pression which the book of Joshua gives is that of
a complete conquest, its individual expressions
limit this (xxiii. 7, 12). Thus at Joshua's death no
tribe had fully completed the conquest of the por-
tion allotted to it, and especially the fortresses and
plains remained in Canaanitic possession. Thus
Judges i. appears as the story of the continuation
of the subjugation of the land, and there is no

Joshua
JoTiaBua

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

888

contradiction between that chapter and the ac-
count in Joshua. The credibility is also attacked
on the ground that the narrative concerning the
East-Jordan tribes is unnatural. Similarly the
narrative of the division is assaUed, needlessly,
since the prospective nature of the division is im-
plied in the allotment of the Philistine and Pheni-
cian coastland, which was not conquered. The
objection urged because of the miracles stands
upon the same ground as objections to the super-
natural in other books of Scripture. As Israel's
origin is to be dLBtinguished from that of other
peoples, so is the shaping of its subsequent history.

The relation of the book of Joshua to Judges is
such that the latter appears in several cases to have
borrowed from the former. The Septuagint has
at the close of Joshua an addition, partly apocry-
phal and partly derived from the book of Judges,
to the effect that the Israelites of that time changed
the location of the ark, that Phinehas succeeded
his father Eleazar in the priesthood and was buried
in his father's grave, and that Israel worshiped the
gods of the people who siuroimded them and were
under the dominion of Eglon, king of Moab,
eighteen years. (W. VoLCKt.)

For the Samaritan book of Joshua see Samaria,
Samaritans.

Bibuoobaphy: Commentaiiefl are: C. Steuemagel, GAt-
tiDgen. 1900; F. J. B. Maurer. Stuttgart, 1831; C. F.
Keil. Erlangen, 1847. 1874. Eng. transl., Edinbuigh. 1857;
A. Knobel, Leipsic, 1861; T. £. Espin, in Bible Comment
tary, London, 1872; H. Crosby, New York, 1876; G. A.
MoLeod, Cambridge, 1878; J. J. Lias, in PtUpU Commen-
tary, London, 1881; C. F. A. Dillmann. Leipsic. 1886;
J. Lloyd, London. 1886; J. S. Black, Cambridge, 1891;
S. Oettli. Munich. 1893; W. H. Bennett, in SBOT, Balti-
more, 1895; F. W. Spurling, London. 1901. Questions
of criticism are discussed in: J. E. Carpenter and G. Har-
ford-Battersby, The Pentateuch, London, 1900; L. K6nig,
AUteetamentliche Studien, vol. L, Meurs, 1836 (decides the
book a unit and Joshua its author); J. W. Colenso, The
Pentateuch and the Book of Joehua critically Examined,
London. 1862-71; Himpel, in TQS, 1864-65; J. Hollen-
berg. in TSK, xlvii (1874), 462-506; idem. Die alexan-
drinieche Utbereetzung dee Buchee Joeua, Meurs. 1876; K.
Budde, in ZATW, vii (1887). pp. 93 sqq.; E. Albers. Die
QuellenberichU in Joeua x.-xii., Bonn, 1890; DB, ii. 779-
788; EB, u. 260O-2609; JE, vii. 284-288: and the vari-
ous works cited under Bibucal Introduction, and the
pertinent sections in works on the history of Israel given
under Ahab.

JOSIAH, jo-soi'a: Fifteenth king of Judah, son
and successor of Amon. His dates, according to
the old chronology, are 641-610 b.c, according to
Kautzsch, 640-609 B.C., and he became king at the
age of eight years. The detailed accounts of his
reign (II Kings xxii-xxiii; II Chron. xxxiv.-
XXXV.) begin with his eighteenth year; the Chron-
icler's remark in II., xxxiv. 3 probably depends
upon II Kings xxiii. 4 sqq. According to II Kings
xxii. 3 sqq., Josiah ordered the temple to be re-
paired, which had probably not been done since
the reign of Joash (II Kings xii. 11 sqq.) and Hil-
kiah the priest then reported that he had found in
the temple the book of the law. Its contents so
overwhelmed the king with apprehensions of evil
that he rent his clothes, and an oracle was sought
from Huldah the prophetess, who reported that the
threateninga were to be realized, since the book
was true. The king then summoned to Jerusalem

the elders of the people, the priests, and the proph-
ets (" priests and Levites," II Chron. xxxiv. 30),
and to them the book was read. There followed
a thorough cleansing of the temple and city of the
accessories to idolatrous worship, and to this was
added abolition of the worship on the high places,
while the priests of that service were brought to
the capital, where, though excluded from service
at the sanctuary, they received the emoluments of
their order. Josiah then turned his attention to
high places in what had been the northern king-
dom, especially to that at Bethel, and they were
defiled with the bones of the dead. The work was
concluded by a notable observance of the Passover
rendered memorable apparently by the numbers
and unity of those celebrating.

The historic value of the reports about the re-
form of the cultus IB bound up with the question
as to what the law book was which was discovered,
and can be solved only in connection with criticism
of the Pentateuch (see Hexateuch). In case this
book was not one which had been lost to sight, but
was an unknown and new codification having for
its purpose the abolition of worship at the high
places and concentration of worship at Jerusalem,
the conclusion is forced that it was practically
identical with Deuteronomy; but it does not fol-
low that the transaction was due to Hilkiah and
the prophets of that time, while priestly interests
were not served by the publication of the book.
The noteworthy fact is the forcible impression it
made upon Josiah and his contemporaries and its
bearing upon the Josianic reformation. The re-
sults were important for the history of Israel, since
the unity of cult had symbolic relation to the mon-
otheistic conception of deity. Josiah's reform
created a new basis for the activity of the proph-
ets, it affected worship in the second temple, and
set forth the imity of God as the center of thought
in the religion of Israel. The questions arise, with
what right did Josiah extend his efforts in behalf
of a pure cultus into the northern kingdom, and
why did he throw himself across the path of Pha-
raoh Necho when the latter was on his way to the
Euphrates. While the northern region was nom-
inally under the rule of Assyria, that power was
about to fall. The time would seem ripe for what
had been foretold by the prophets, the unification
of Israel and Judah, and religious unification was
the first step toward poUtical reimion. Such a
plan he might hope to carry through as a loyal vas-
sal of Babylonia, especially in withstanding the at-
tempts of Egypt to gain new position as a world
power. But the issue did not correspond to his
hopes, and Josiah was defeated and killed, and
brought back for burial to Jerusalem. Some de-
bate has arisen over the place of the battle, since
Herodotus (ii. 159) names instead of the Biblical
Megiddo Magdolus, which corresponds to the mod-
em al-Majdal, two miles west of Carmel or (Winck-
ler, in Benzinger, Die Biicher der Kdnige^ p. 207,
Tubingen, 1899) Strato's Tower. Possibly Megiddo
appears in the Biblical narrative because it was
the place to which the wounded king was carried
and where he died. Yet it hardly seems as though
the Jews could have completely lost the correct

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

tradition. Another and somewhat variant report
appears in IT Chron. xxxv. 22 sqq., aecording to
which the leroonBtrance of Necho takes tbe form
of an oracle from God, makes Josiah put on a dis-
guise, and when wounded has him carried to Jeru-
salem with the implication that he died there (on
holjr ground?) ; the Chronicler tells also of a lament
of Jeremiah for Joeiab and a collection of dirges in
bia memory, with which Jer. xxii. 10 and Zech.
xii. 11 may be brought into connection, perhaps as
indicating a yearly memorial celebration.

(E. Kautzsch.)

BmuooKAFBi: Tha pertinant neliana in the Ituntun
nwDtloned under Abab: the Mticlsg ia (he Bibla diation-
■riea; the litenture under HsXATtDcu. dnoe tiie discui-

eusnoiu of Joaikb'e reloim sad ite legal bs^e.

JOST, yost, ISAAK MAKCOS: German Jew-
ish historian; b. at Bemburg (23 m. s. of Magde-
burg) Feb, 22, 1793; d. at Frankfort Nov. 22, 1860.
He studied at the Samson school at Wolfenbfltte!,
at the gynuiBsium at Brunswick, and at the uni-
versities of Gdttingen and Berlin (Ph.D., 1810),
became principal of the Bock school in Berlin in
1826, and in 1835 was called to the Jewish S«al-
Bchule (Philanthropin) at Frankfort, His princi-
pal works are, Getckichte der Israelites »eit der Zeit
der Maccabder bit auf uruere Tage (10 vols,, Berlin,
1820-47); AUgemetT^ GeichichU dea itraditiKhtn
VMes (2 vols,, 1831-32); a German translation of
the Mishnah, with Hebrew commentary (6 vols.,
1832-34): and Getehichle dee JwUnthwne und
sn'Tur Seldcn (3 vols., Leipaie, 1867-69). He also
prepared school text-books, wn>t« political tracts
in the interest of Judaism, made many contribu-
tions to the Jewish press, and to almanacs and
yeai^books, edited the laraelitiiche Annalen, 183B~
1841, and, in collaboration with Michael Creizenaoh,
edited Zion, 1841-42. He holds high rank as his-
torian, though he has been criticized for his ration-
alistic attitude toward the narratives in the Tal-

Biblioghapht: JE, ™. W6-2B7. whe» further lituktun

JOTHAH, jS'thom: 1. The youngest son of
Gideon (Jerubbaal), who alone escaped the mas-
sacre of the Gideon family by his half-brother
Abimelech, uttered his famous parable of the trees
which sought a king, and then fled t« Beer (Judges
in. 5-21).

3. Tenth king of Judah, son and sucoeasor of
I'zziah, His dates, according to the old chronol-
c^y, are 756-740 b,c., according to Feake
(DB, ii- 789) 751-735 b.c. Confusion in the
chronology of Israel is marked about this period,
since II Kings xv. 30 assigns to Jotham at
least twenty years, while data from the Assyrian
annals allow only twelve years for his reign and
that of Ahaz. It is supposed that the regnal yean
accredited to Jotham Include those of his r^ency
during his father's disability. Of his reign little is
reported in the Book of Kings except that he " built
the higher gate of the house of the Lord." The
Chronicler adds that he built much of the wall of
Opbet, also cities and fartresses; and that he sub-

dued the AmmonitMi and imposed a heavy tribute
upon them. The Book of Kings notes also that in
his days the coalition between Syria and Israel
against Judah began to be effective, the object be-
ing apparently to force Judah into the combina-
tion against the Assyrians, who were begiiming to
press heavily upon the Mediterranean r^on. The
time seemed ripe for such plans, since Tiglath-Pi-
leser was at the time engaged in the East. The
great prophet of the times was Isaiah, and the pic-
ture in Isa. ii. 5 indicatea that, b spite of apparent
prosperity in the land, the internal conditions were
not favorable. (E. Kadtibch.)

larLy thon by Moore ud Budda

2. Sou™. «e: II Kince it. S

32-38; 11 Chron.

CoDault Che pertinent HctioDe in

le liteiBtun siren

Ahab, ud the BTtielea in the Bib

JOVIAHUS, ja'M-a'noe, FLAVTOS CLAUDIDS;
Roman emperor; b. at Singidunum (the modem
Belgrade, Servia) about 331; d. at Dadaatona,
Bithynia (125 m, e,s,e. of Constantinople) in the
night between Feb. 10 and 17, 364. Taking part,
in the campaign against the Persians, as ranking
officer of the palace troops, in the crisis following
the death of Julian he was hastily elected emperor
by the army in sight of the enemy, June 27, 363.
The fact that Jovian was a Christian and had with-
stood attempts during the reign of Julian to render
him apostate seems to have played no part in his
election. The newly elected emperor, in view of
the military and political situation of the time, wm
induced to conclude an inglorious peace with the
Peraians, giving up to them the eastern outskirts
of the empire, including the important city of Nisi-
bis. On his return from the East at Antiocb Jo-
vian publicly stated his attitude in regard to the
controversies in the Church. He took the side of
the Nieene partly and their leader Athanasius, urg-
ing the latter in a written appeal to resume Us
episcopal see at Alexandria and asking to be re-
membered in his prayeie. He commanded Atha-
nasius, who visited him at Antiocb, to issue a new
statement of the orthodox creed, and thus his au-
thority certainly influenced the controversies re-
garding the nature of Christ, although he tried to
hold aloof from them officially. His aim was to
restore matters as they were before the reign of
Julian, and so he replaced on the army standards
and on the coins the monogram of Christ, recalled
the bishops from exile, renewed the privileges of
the (Thurdi and of the clergy, widows, and viigina,
and restored the donations of corn. He in^>oeed
the death penalty on whosoever married a virgin
or a widow who hod taken the vows, even with the
woman's consent, and forbade the inheritance of
their parents' property by the children of euch an
union. Yet he also showed much tolerance towaid
pagans. Victor Schui;izb.

BiBidoaKAPST: V. Sohultie. OaehichU da t/nJavangH dt
irriacUick-rMiitdh«n HtidtnlumM, i. 176 eqq., Jena. 1SS7;
H. Rishtw, Dai u>—lrSmi*df Rtieh, pp, IBS MQ.. Berlin,
ises; H. BohlUer. OttchicMe dtr riHBUcAm KauB-uU, U.
3M M|q.. 1887: aibbon, Dtiiini and FaU. ii. 504, SIT aqq.;
Neuidcr, Okriflun Ch^trd^, ii. S7-8B et puaim; Behaff,
ChrUKan CkurA. iii. SO: the litentun under Joviniahcb,
De ]■ Bleterie. Hit. da fempmv Jarien, 2 vok..

THE NEW SCHAFFHERZOG

940

JOVrniAH: A "heretic" who became conspic-
uous in Rome after 3S5 as a polemical writer against
undue valuation of the celibate and ascetic life.
Prior to this time he had lived in celibacy as a
strict ascetic, but coincidently with his appearance
in public he modified his ascetic living, allowing
himself indulgence in flesh food, wearing better
clothing, visiting the baths, and by no means shun-
ning association with youths and women. Never-
theless he stayed single, deeming this estate the
one divinely enjoined for him. He lived quite
after the manner of the pre-monastic, Western as-
cetics, and may be considered an advocate of the
ancient ascetic regime, which waged a desperate
battle in Rome against the new and intensified
forms of Oriental monasticism. In this process he
came to certain fundamental conclusions that stood
opposed to theories which had long been shared by
the Church. As a consequence of his agitation
against monasticism, many men and women gave
up the celibate life. That frivolous natures also
attached themselves to Jovinian, considering him
an advocate of relaxed Christian morality, may
easily be believed on the testimony of Jerome. The
Roman Bishop Siricius, in deference to denimciation
by the monastic circle at Rome, exconunimicated
Jovinian and his followers in 390, and forwarded
the decision to foreign bishops, in particular to
Ambrose of Milan. Jovinian having betaken him-
self with his most loyal adherents to Milan, Am-
brose made haste to excommunicate him in 391;
and Jerome, about 392, by instigation of his Roman
friends, wrote two books against him. Since these,
however, were considered somewhat too polemical,
Jerome sought to soften their tone without really
yielding (E;^.,xlviii.-li). The strife revived again
at Milan, and Ambrose wrote a warning against
Jovinian 's heretical doctrines (Eput., Ixxxiii.).
Augustine wrote the tract De bono conjugali against
the Jovinian heresy, but without expressly naming
Jovinian. He was dead in 406 (Jerome, Adv, Vigi-
lanHum, i.).

Jovinian's doctrinal views are known only through
the writings of his opponents, who have transmitted
some of his theses verbatim, but as regards the inner
connection of thought, we are limited to hypothet-
ical constructions. He wrote a work which Jerome
calls eommentariofi, seeking to adduce Scriptural
evidences for his theses, but by no means exclud-
ing support from profane literature. His doctrines
all converge upon opposition to monasticism. In
the letters of Siricius two erroneous teachings of
Jovinian are named. According to the first, vir-
gins, widows, and married people, baptized in
Christ, have equal merit, save in so far as othei^
wise they differ in respect to their works; and, sec-
ondly, fasting is nowise better, more meritorious
and pleasing to Ood than the enjoyment of food,
observed with thanksgiving. In the synodal de-
cision of Ambrose at Milan, two other erroneous
teachings are attributed to Jovinian; viz., that he
denied the inviolate virginity of Mary, and a differ-
ence in the celestial rewani of the righteous. In
combating the growing dogma of the unimpaired
virginity of Mary, wherein the monks were espe-
cially interested for the glorification of celibacy.

Jovinian desired to deal a stinging blow on the fc^
lowers of monasticism. He adhered to the virgin
birth of Jesus, but affirmed that by bringing to
birth, Mary ceased to be virgin. As a deduction
from the parity of marriage and virginity, Jovinian
appears to have advanced another proposition
transmitted by Jerome; viz., that all the regener-
ate who have preserved their baptismal grace re-
ceive the same recompense in the kingdom of heaven,
irrespectively of their ha\ing lived in the married
estate or as virgins. In the light of these thoughts,
the last and most difficult proposition of Jovinian
becomes intelligible. He affirmed the essential
sinlessness of the regenerate. How he expanded
this proposition in detail is not known. On the
strength of this tenet, Jerome related him theo-
logically to Pelagius; Julian of Eclanum classed
him with Augustine; and Augiistine, in turn, asso-
ciated him with Pelagianism. G. GbCtzmacher.
Bibuoorapht: Soutom are: Jerome, Advermu Jovinianumt
and EpUt., xlviii.-!., En«. transl. in NPNF, 2d ser., vi.
66-82, 334-345; Augustine, Haer., chap. Ixxxii.; Siri-
cius, Epiai. n. ad diver»o» epUcopoa, in Mansi, ConeUia,
iii. 663 sqq.; Ambrose, EpUt., viii., Ixxxiii.. in Bian^
Concilia, i. 669 sqq., v. 554 sqq. Consult: G. B. Lindner,
De Joviniano et VigilanHo, Leipsic, 1839; J. H. Blunt,
Dictionary of SecU and Heretiea, pp. 242-244, Philadel-
phia, 1874; W. Haller, Jovinianiu, Leipsic, 1897; G.
GrQtsmaeher. HieronymuM^ ii. 145-172, Berlin, 1906;
DCB, iu. 465-466.

JOWETT, jau'et, BEIIJAMni: English educa-
tor and author; b. in the parish of Camberwell,
London, Apr. 15, 1817; d. at Headley Park, Lip-
hook (22 m. e. of Winchester), Hampshire, Oct. 1,
1893. He studied at St. Paul's School, London, and
at Balliol College, Oxford (B.A., 1839; M.A., 1842),
where he was elected fellow in 1838. In 1837 he
won the Hertford university scholarship for Latin,
and in 1841 the chancellor's prize for the Latin
essay. He was ordained deacon in 1842, priest in
1845. In 1842 he was appointed to a tutorship at
Balliol, which he held till he became master of the
college in 1870. He was public examiner in classics
1849-51, and 1853. At Oxford he had fallen into
the very midst of the Tractarian movement, and his
Evangelical views were shaken by daily intercourse
with his friend William Geoige Ward (q.v.). In
after years he said, " But for the providence of God,
I might have become a Roman Catholic." A more
lasting influence, however, was that of A. P. Stan-
ley, t£^ leader of the Broad Church school, with
whom Jowett traveled and studied in Germany in
the summers of 1845 and 1846. On being defeated
for the mastership of Balliol in 1854, Jowett, in his
disappointment, took up with renewed energy a
work that he and Stanley had projected on St. Paul,
and published The EjnkUs of St. Paul to the Thes-
salomanSf GalatianSt and Romans: with Critical
Notes and Dissertations (2 vols., London, 1855).
This work brought forth a storm of protest from
conservative quarters; and when, in the same year,
Jowett was appointed regius professor of Greek at
Oxford, those who condenmed his views at once
began to oppose him. He was denounced to the
vice-chancellor, who required him to sign the Arti-
cles anew in his presence. Jowett's opponents
kept up the agitation against him for ten years,
preventing him from receiving the full emoluments

841

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

JoTinian
Jubilee

of his chair till 1865. Meanwhile he had reiterated
his objectionable views in a second edition of the
Epistles (2 vols., 1859) and confirmed the suspi-
cions of his heresy by his essay On the Interpreta-
tion of Scripture^ published in 1860 in the famous
Essays and Reviews. A prosecution begun against
him in the vice-chancellor's court at Oxford, Feb.
20, 1863, was soon dropped (see Essays and Re-
views). Henceforth Jowett refrained from pub-
lishing anything of a theological nature. Though
he preached frequently in the college chapel and
in the imiversity pulpit, and preached annually in
Westminster Abbey from 1866 till the year of his
death, he would not allow any of his sermons to be
printed; nor would he permit a third edition of
the Epistles to be issued during his lifetime (pub-
lished after his death, condens^ by Lewis Camp-
bell, 2 vols., 1894). He was waiting to attain to
greater clearness and certainty, hoping that these
would come with time; but the exhausting labors
which he took upon himself as master of Balliol
after 1870, and as vice-chancellor of the university
1882-86, left him no leisure for elaborating his
views.

Jowett was an indefatigable worker. For years
he made it a rule to see every imdergraduate in the
college once a week. He spared himself no efiforts
in tuition. Even as master of Balliol he continued
the custom, begun in 1848, of taking a few pupils
with him on the sunmier vacation. After 1866 his
authority at Oxford was predominant in matters
of university organization. He effected many
needed reforms at Oxford, and exerted a large in-
fluence over the life and thought of his time. If he
formed no school of philosophy or theology, by
launching T. H. Green upon the study of Hegel he
affected indirectly the whole development of recent
speculation in England and America. As early as
1839 he had joined Stanley and Tait in the move-
ment for university reform which led to the Com-
mission of 1850 and the Act of 1854. He also took
part in the educational reform which threw open
the Indian civil service to competition and was a
member of Lord Macaulay's conmiittee, which re-
ported in 1854. He was largely responsible for the
University Tests Act of 1871, abolishing the theo-
logical test, which had been required for the vari-
ous degrees, and for college and university offices.

The literary achievement that made Jowett
famous was his translation of Plato's Dialogues (4
vols., London, 1871; 2d ed., 5 vols., 1875), which
has become an English classic, and, with the intro-
ductory essay to the several dialogues, secures
Jowett a permanent place in the history of English
literature. He also translated Thucydides (2 vols.,
1881), and Aristotle's PolUics (2 vols., 1885), and
spent many years on an edition of the Greek text
of the '* Republic " (completed by L. Campbell, 3
vols., Oxford, 1894). Though his work in theology
was important, it was rather of a transitional na-
ture. Three volumes of his sermons have been
edited by W. H. Fremantle, viz., CoUege Sermons
(London, 1895), Sermons^ Biographical and Mis-
cellaneous (1899), and Sermons on Faith and Doc-
trine (1901). Evelyn Abbott and Lewis Campbell
have edited his Letters (1899), and the latter a vol-
VL— 16

ume of Theological Essays (1906). The famous
essay of Essays and Reviews, with the Dissertations
from The Epistles of St, Paul and a sketch of Jow-
ett's life by Sir Leslie Stephen from the National
Review, 1897, is reprinted in The Interpretation qf
Scripture and Other Essays (1906) and also in Scrip-
ture and Truth, Dissertations, ed. Lewis Campbell
(1907). Note also Select Passages from the Theologi-
cal Writings of B. JoweU, ed. L. Campbell (1909).

Bibuoobapht: E. Abbott and L. Campbell, Benjamin
Jotoett: Life and LeUere of the Master of Balliol CoUege
Oxford, 3 vols., London. 1807-00; L. A. Tollemache, Ben-
jamin JoweU, Master of Balliol College, ib. 1805; DNB,
Supplement, iii. 40-56.

JOWETT, JOHN HENRY: English Congrega-
tionalist; b. at Halifax, Yorkshire, Aug. 25, 1864.
He was educated in Hipperholme grammar-school
and in the universities of Edinburgh (1883-87)
and Oxford (1888-89). His first ministerial charge
was as minister of St. James' Congregational Church
in Newcastle-on-Tyne, where he was settled from
1889 till 1895, when he was caUed to succeed
Robert William Dale (q.v.) as minister of Carr's
Lane Congregational Church in Birmingham, and
has ever since ministered to that people. In the
summer of 1909 he visited the United States and
was a prominent speaker in the Northfield Con-
ference. His publications embrace: From Strength
to Strength (London, 1898); Meditations for Quiet
Moments (1899); Brooks by the Traveller's Way:
26 Week-night Addresses (1902); Thirsting for
Souls: B6 Week-night Meditations (1902); Yet
Another Day: a Prayer for Every Day in the Year
(1904); The Passion for Souls (1905); The EpisUes
of Peter (1905); The Silver Lining {1907); The High
Calling: Meditations on St, Paul's Letter to the Phi-
lippians (1909).

JUAIf D£ TORQUEMADA See Tobquemada,
Juan de.

JUBILEE, YEAR OF: An institution of the
Roman Catholic Church the origin of which is very
closely connected with the tendency increasingly
prevalent throughout the Middle Ages to make pil-
grimages to the tombs of the apostles in Rome.
Toward the end of the thirteenth century this tend-
ency was stronger than ever, and the throng of
pilgrims was increased by the rumor that on the
first day of the new century a plenary indulgence
might be obtained, and throughout the remainder
of that 3rear one valid for a hundred years. It was
found impossible to trace the rumor to any authori-
tative source; but an aged peasant professed to
remember that his father had gone to Rome a hun-
dred years before to win a great indulgence, and
had admonished him to look, if he were alive, for
the recurrence of the opportunity a century later.
Finally, Feb. 22, 1300, by the bull Antiquorum habei
fidem, Boniface VIII. officially proclaimed a ple-
nary indulgence that might be gained from Christ-
mas throughout the next year, on condition of
visits paid during thirty days by Romans, fifteen
by strangers, to the basilicas of Saints Peter and
Paul. Such indulgences had never previously
been granted for more than seven years, and this
liberal extension caused immense crowds to throng
to Rome. If there had been no other cause for

Jubilee, Tear of
Judaa of Galilee

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

942

the maintenance of the institution, the large rev-
enues which flowed from it into not only the papal
coffers but the pockets of the townspeople would
have been a reason to await eagerly the time of its
recurrence. In 1342 the Romans sent a deputa-
tion to Clement VI. at Avignon to ask him to
shorten the interval to fifty years. The request
was supported by St. Bridget of Sweden and by
Petrarch, and in response to it the pope proclaimed
a similar indulgence for 1350. In spite of the
Black Death and the obstacles offered by the Him-
dred Years' War, a greater multitude visited Rome
than on the first occasion. The pilgrimage was
rendered more desirable by the suspension for the
year of all the ordinary indulgences, and easier by
the permission given to all conditions of men to
make it without obtaining the leave of their inune-
diate superiors; while those who were lawfully
hindered from taking the journey might gain the
indulgence by proxy. An innovation to be later
of great importance was the granting of the indul-
gence to certain royalties without pilgrimage; the
same privilege was conceded to the Augustinians
assembled in chapter at Basel, and to the arch-
bishop of Brindisi for thirty persons, these latter
paying a sum equivalent to the cost of the visit to
Rome. Urban VI. in the bull Salvator nogter (Apr.
8, 1389) altered the period to thirty-three years, in
honor of the earthly life of Christ. The third jubi-
lee was thus held in 1390, and the fourth in 1423
under Martin V., this time with diminished num-
bers and not without protests such as had been
heard at the councils of Pisa and Constance against
the impoverishment of the nations by the avarice
of the Curia. Nicholas V., returning to the older
period, proclaimed the fifth jubilee for 1450.

Through the bull IneffahUis (Apr. 19, 1470), hav-
ing regard to the shortness of human life, Paul II.
established the interval at twenty-five years. The
sixth jubilee imder Sixtus IV. in 1475 was com-
paratively poorly attended. The seventh, under
Alexander VI. (1500), was more important, and in
connection with it the ritual since in the main ob-
served for the opening and closing of the '^ golden
door " in the vestibule of St. Peter's was settled.
The eighth, under Clement VII. (1525), was only
notable for the sharp criticisms of Luther on the
" bull of indiction.'' The ninth, proclaimed by
Paul III. in 1549, shortly before his death, could not
be inaugurated until the coronation of his successor
Julius III., Feb. 22, 1550. The tenth, under Greg-
ory XIII. (1575), was rendered notable by the lav-
ish hospitality offered to the pilgrims by the Ro-
man sodalities, and by the fact that the influence
of the Reformation is seen in there being no men-
tion of money payments. The succeeding jubilees,
at regular intervals of twenty-five years from 1600
to 1775, present no special features. The troublous
situation did not allow one to be held in 1800, and
the nineteenth, proclaimed by Leo XII. in 1825,
found few participants from outside of Italy. After
a break of seventy-five years, the twentieth was
held with all the traditional ceremonies under Leo
XIII. in 1900. For the Year of Jubilee among the
Hebrews, see Sabbatical Year and Year of
Jubilee. (T. Kolde.)

Biblioorapht: H. C. Lea, Hiatory of Aurievlar Confettion
and IndtUgenceM, vol. iii., Philadelphia, 1806; F. Beringer,
Die AbUuae, ihr Wesen und Oehrauch, Paderbom, 1805;
Creighton. Papacy, i. 30, 103. 113, 166-167, ii. 115. iv. 70.
y. 8-0. vi. 68-75; V. Prinxivalli. OH anni »anH, Rome,
1800; A. de Waal, Dob heilige Jahr in Rom, Frankfort.
1800; J. C. Hedley. The Holy Year, London. 1000; H.
Thurston, The Holy Year of Jubilee, ib. 1000.

JUBILEES, BOOK OF: See Pseudepiorafha,
Old Testament, IV., 33.

JUD, LEO: The most prominent associate of
Zwingli and after him of Bullinger; b. at Ciemar
(30 m. s.w. of Strasburg), Alsace, 1482; d. at Zurich
June 19, 1542. He received excellent humanistic
instruction at Schlettstadt, and in 1499 entered the
University of Basel where he first studied medicine.
Influenced by the lectures of Thomas Wyttenbach
on the Epistle to the Romans, he devoted himself
to theology, together with Zwingli, whose intimate
friend he became. In the second decade of the
sixteenth century he was preacher at St. Pilt in
Alsace. In 1518 he succeeded Zwingli in Einsiedeln,
where he worked for the Reformation in the spirit of
Zwingli. In 1523 he became pastor of St. Peter's
in Zurich. On the occasion of Zwingli 's first dis-
putation with the papists, Jud openly expressed his
determination to preach the pure Gospel, and in the
autumn of 1523 he married a nun. He assisted
Zwingli much as Melanchthon did Luther, support-
ing him in his struggle against the Anabaptists, in
the controversy on the Lord's Supper, and in his
literary labors by editing his expositions of Scrip-
ture and translating his published works into Gei^
man or Latin. On the death of Zwingli after the
battle of Cappel he stood temporarily at the head
of the Ziuich Church, but the opposition party
turned against him as one of the chief instigators
of the war. Heinrich Bullinger, the successor of
Zwingli, was assisted by him in the same imselfish
and successful manner as was Zwingli.

Leo demanded the mutual independence of
Church and State. The Church, he maintained,
should not be hindered in the execution of its pe-
culiar tasks, especially of discipline, to which, like
Calvin, he attached great value. At the same time
all compulsion in matters of faith should be abol-
ished. In the efforts for union of the Lutherans
and Reformed he defended Zwingli and Oecolam-
padius against Luther and warned the Strasburg
theologians of the " new pope.*' He took a prom-
inent part in the discussions on the formulation of
the first Helvetic Confession, in Aarau and Basel,
and his German translation of the Latin original
was declared the authentic text. He laid the foun-
dation of the Zurich liturgy by his compilation of
a formula of baptism (1523) and other parts of the
church service. He possessed extraordinary gifts
as a translator and was the leading spirit in the
translation of the Zurich Bible, which, beginning
in 1538, he compared word by word with the orig-
inal text, being assisted by Michael Adam, a con-
verted Jew (see Bible Versions, B, VII., § 5).
Besides this German translation of the Bible Leo
rendered great services by his famous and careful
Latin translation of the Old Testament which may
be considered the principal work of his life. He
published also a larger (1534) and a smaller cate-

REUGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDU

chism (1534) in German and a Latin catechism
Oo38). He tranfilated the " Imitation oF Christ,"
Augustine's De spiritu el liltera, and works of con-
temporaneous authors. (Eull. EoLlt.)

pTintod in JIf uocZIanat rwun'iu. Zurich. 1724; the l»l«r
me u by C. PeatalDiii, Elbsifeld. 1860. CoDB'jIt bIm;
KL, tL ieil-14; J, J. Heiser. QaehiiMt der dmtidan
[7c6erHCniTiirtn, pp. 87 tqq.. Bsnl. 1878; B. M. J&cksoli.
AuUnruA Z-cineli. New York. 1903.

JTOAH (Hebr. Yehudkak; LXX, loudaa,
"praise," originally combined with the name of a
deity, later a very common name among the Jews) :
Fourth son of Jacob and Leah, coming, however, to
occupy the place of the first-born: also the leading
tribe of the Hebrews, tracing descent from him.
His character, in the combined narratives of J and
£, while not without its faults, is on the whole
noble, energetic and trustworthy, in spite of Gen.
XKxviii., which is regarded as Ephraimitic in
origin and consequently written with a bias. Later
writerm incline to the view that the name is not
that of an individual but of a clan, and explain the
Hirah of xxxviii. 1 as also that of a clan, extend-
ing the same notion to the names Er, Oniui, Shelah,
Pliarex, and Zarah. But the narratives suggest
rather the traits of an individual from whom the
tribe inherited ita energy and faithful adherence
to law. Jacob's blessing (Gen. xlix. 8-12) trans-
fers the birthright of Reuben to Judah, passing
over Simeon and Levi, and deacriljes the lion-
hearted tribe of the future in its land of wine and
milk. In Egypt the tribe became the largest in
numbers, including three principal clans and two
lesser clana (Num. xxvi. 20-21 ; ct. I Chron. iv. 1),
while in Caleb (q.v.) there is seen a non-Israelitic
tribe which coalesced with Judah. The genealogy
in I Chron. ii. 3 sqq., is given with especial refer-
ence to the descent of David through Nahshon
(verse 10, cf. Num. i. 7). The two censuses in the
wandering give respectively 74, GOO and 76,500 men
(Num. i. 27, xxvi. 22), and the arrangement of the
camp gives the primacy to Judah (Num. ii. 3),
which the energetic Caleb led (Num. xiii, 6). After
Joshua's death, the tribe took the leadership in the
conflict with the Canaaoites (Judges i., cf. xx. 18),
though confining its operations to its own territory
and that of Simeon, in the south.

The tribal possessions, described in Josh. xv. 1-
12, were divided into four parts; the mountains of
Judah, the eastern declivity down to the Dead Sea,
the southern slope toward Edom, and the plain
toward the Mediterranean, which last, however, re-
mained in the hand of the Philistines (see JtiDBA).
During the period of the Judges, the tribe took
little part in the conflicts of its northern neighbors
(Judges iii, 9, xii. 8, cf. x. 9, xv. 9 sqq.). It had
no share in the campaign against Sisera or in Gid-
eon's struggle with Midian; in the former case
because it was politically isolated from the Joseph
Iribcs, though not to the extent asserted by Stade.
Even in Saul's time it tfas not prominent in the
army (I Sam. id. 8, xv. 4), but with the accession
of David its eminence began (II Sam. ii. 4). The
capture of Jenmalem gave it increased prestige
through its posspssion of a center of strength. Its
Gdelity was constant, and even in the return the

greater number of the returning exiles belonged to
this tribe. Its greatest honor, however, consisted
in its giving to the world the Messiah who, as the
"lion of the tribe of Juda" (Rev. v. 5), overcams
the world and established an eternal kingdom.

For the history of the kingdom of Judah, see
Ihrabi., Hibtdrt of. (C. von Oreu.!.)

BlBLIOoRiiPHT: In addilion to the literature givpn undBr

Ahab; lasAEL. HiaroBT or: »nri Jube*. ransull: L. B.

PktoD. Barlu HialBTi/ a/ Sjffia owl Palatine. New York.

1001; a. K. Banoa, Brnihr OrigiTit. pp. 271-28S. ib. 1903;

DB. iL 7Ba-7»4: EB. ii. 2617-2823; JE, vii. 326-330.

JUDAS, ja'dos: One of the twelve Apostle*.
The name occurs in the New Testament only in
the lists of the Apostles, yet, including the matter
of the reading of the text, it raises several knotty
problems. This Judas is to be dbtinguished from
Judas Iscariot on the basis of John xiv. 22; and
from Jude (Juda.'t, Juda), the brother of our Lord
(Matt. xiii. 55; Mark vi. 3), on the basis of Luke
vi. 16 and Acts i. 13 (" the brother [better, We son]
of James "). The chief difficulty is raised by the
fact that in two of the lists of Apostles the name
of this Judas is omitted and apparently in its place
is found either " Lebbeus, whoso surname was
Thaddeus " (Matt. x. 3 A. V., a conflate reading,
cf. R. v., which, following the leading textual crit^

"Thaddeus" (Mark iii. IS). Accordingly most
scholars accept the identification of this Judas with
Lebbeus and Thaddeus, though some have sup-
posed that James Iiad died and that his place was
taken by Lebbeus-Thaddeus. Of the career of
Judas nothing is known except that he asked tbe
question recorded in John xiv. 22. Yet a consid-
erable mass of legend grew up (cf. Acta Thaddaei;
see Apocrypha, B, II,, 12) in connection with his
mission (as Thaddeus) to Abgar (q.v.), in which
confusion is apparent as to his relation to Jesus
or perhaps as to his identity. Eusebius (Hist,
ecd., I., xii., NPNF, 1 ser., i. 99) makes him one
of the Seventy (not of the Twelve), white Jerome
(on Matt. I. 4, MPL, xxvi. 61) calls him an apos-
tle. The later accounts professing to tell the story
of his life and work have no historical value.

Geo. W. GiLMOBB.
JUDAS: A chronographer mentioned by Eusebius
(,Hut. ecd., vi. 7,NPSF,2Ber., i.254). In thispas-
sage Eusebius spieaks of a certain Judas, otherwise
unknown, who, in a tract on the " Seventy Weeks
of Daniel." put forth some chronological reckon-
ings on tbe ba.ais of Daniel's prophecies, coming
down to the tenth year of Scptimius Severua (202),
and predicting the speedy return of the Lord.
Closer identification of the author is impossible.
G. KhCger.

BiBLiooniPBT: A. 8chUtier. in TU. »■. 1 (18B4): K. Erb*«,
in TLZ. 1S05, pp. 4I5-4IB.

JUDAS OF GALILEE: The leader of a Jewish
insurrection against the Romans, mentioned in
Acts V. 37. According to Josephus (Ant., XVIII.,
i 6; War. IL, viii. 1; cf. ArU.. XX., v. 2; War,
II. , xvii. 8), when the taxing of the Jewish people
in the governorship of Quirinius (q.v.) under Augus-
tus aroused strong opposition, a certain Judos, born
in Gamala but generally called " the Galilean,"

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Off, H. 7fM «rK|.: iP0, li. 2^129-2028. The okirr lit«rmturp

845

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Judas laoariot
JiuU, Bxdfltle of

18 given in O. B. Winer. BMtMdtet RMlwMerbut^, I 635.
Leipsio. 1847-48. Consult further: Abraham a Sancta
Clara. Juda$ der Ertschdm, in his Werks, Paeeau. 1835-
1837; Zandt, CommetUatio deJydaprodiiore, Leipsio. 170Q;
E. Daub. JudoB Itchariot, Heidelberg, 181&-18: JB, vii
371; and the literature on the life and panion of Jesua
and oommentaries on the Goepeli and Acts.

JUDAS MACCABEUS. See Hasmonbams.

JUDE, EPISTLE OF: One of the seven Gen-
eral Epistles. The title ascribes it to Jude the
brother of James, and nowhere does the epistle
claim to be by an apostle; on the contrary, verse
17 gives the impression that the author was not of
the Twelve. The James who is mentioned can
hardly be any other than James the brother of the
Lord, one of the three pillars of the Jewish-Chris-
tian Church, while the Jude must be the Judas
(Juda) of Biatt. xiii. 55; Mark vi. 3, a son of Mary
and therefore not an apostle. It is noticeable that
neither Jude nor his brother James in their epistles
claims other than a spiritual relationship to Christ
(" servant of Jesus Christ " — and in a subordinate
sense solely the mark of a becoming modesty).
Between the epistles of James and of Jude there are
many points of contact. The titles are so similar
that the first verse of Jude seems a reminiscence
of Jas. i. 1; both lack personal greetings and neither
is directed to a local conmiunity, but rather each
is meant for a wide circle of the Church and has
the character of an encyclical, though of the two
the epistle of Jude seems to have the larger scope,
not being directed to '' the twelve tribes " (Jas.
i. 1). With this laige circle of readers (** them that
are sanctified by God the Father, and preserved
in Jesus Christ ") everything in the epistle agrees.
The matters discussed are those in which the whole
Church has interest; while the occasion might be
local, the theme is general — salvation (verse 3).
The epistle, like that of James, is directed against
a form of worldliness which might arise either from
Jewish or heathen surroundings, and may have in
mind a developed form of antinomianism. Jude
has also in mind actual moral depravity against
which he gives warning. The persons addressed
live in carnal impurity, perhaps in unnatural sin,
are sensual, behave unseemly at the love feasts,
and are guided by their own lusts (verses 8, 10, 12,
16). While these are practical irregularities of life,
false teaching is in view, and the hearers are ex-
horted to hold the faith (verses 3-4), against those
who turn grace into lasciviousness and deny God
and Jesus Christ. The evils are also of a specula-
tive nature (" dreamers," verse 8), out of which
ethical evils arise. The teaching here guarded
against is neither the Gnosticism of the second cen-
tury nor Carpocratianism, though a sort of dual-
ism is evidently put forward (verse 19), but evi-
dently of the same sort as that in Paul's mind in
the distinction between spiritual and carnal ex-
pressed in I Cor. ii. 14-15. It is to be noted that
the errors against which the writer speaks appear
in the conmiunities; they do not constitute a sep-
arate movement. They may be regarded as the
incipient stages of what be^me tjrpes of Gnosti-
cism. The reports of Hegesippus of error which
arose in the Christian communities of Palestine,

the heresy of the Epistle to the Colossians, of the
pastoral letters, and the teaching of Cerinthus,
having a tinge of libertinism with its spiritualistio-
dualistic Jewish Christianity, all suggest a relation-
ship with the errant teaching against which Jude
speEJcs. While, then, error of a Jewish origin is
suggested, there is also a reminder of a character-
istically heathen form of sin as shown in the Cor-
inthian libertinism denounced by Paul. And, once
more, the error of the Nicolaitans (q.v.) is recalled
by the deeds of the people against whom Jude gives
warning. Such numifestations were a danger to
the whole Church, and the epistle directs itself to
this peril.

After the greeting (1-2) and the preface (3-4),
follows the argument, which condemns teachers of
error (5-19); three examples of gross sin are dted
from history and the punishment recalled (5-7),
the similarity of these historic cases with the pres-
ent error is asserted (8), an example of moderation
is given (9), and with it a description of the errant
course (10-13); punishment was predicted as long
ago as Enoch's period and later by the Apostles
(14-19). An exhortation follows and then a mag-
nificent doxology (20-25). For the date of the epis-
tle the employment of the Assumption of Moses
(44 A.D.) and acquaintance with the Epistle to
the Romans (cf. 24-25 with Rom. xvi. 25-27) set
the higher limit. The iermimia ad quern is not so
easily fixed, but the time just prior to Domitian
is the latest date to which it can be postponed,
since according to Hegesippus Jude was not alive
during Domitian's reign (Eusebius, Hist, ecd,, III.,
XX.)* This assumes the genuineness of the letter,
which is not strongly attested. The Muratorian
Canon names the epistle, but not as written by
Jude; Origen knows that it has been questioned;
the early Peschito did not receive it and Eusebius
reckons it among the AntQegamena; Jerome notes
that it was rejected by most on account of its
citation of apocryphal books. Vet it is diffi-
cult to account for an ungenuine letter being
put forth in the name of a man whose repute
was so small as that of Jude, the brother of
our Lord, and it is noteworthy that the writer
makes no pretension of being an apostle.

(F. SlEFFBBT.)
Bxbuoobapht: Pbeeibly the beet oommentaries are by
J. B. Mayor (with II Peter), London, 1907; and H. von
Soden, OOttingen, 1899. Othen are by: W. Jenkyn
(1612-85), ed. J. Sherman, London, 1839; R. Stier, Ber-
Un, 1850; H. F. Rampf. Sulibaoh, 1854; F. Clardiner.
Botton, 1856; J. T. Demarest (on the Catholic Epietlee),
New York, 1879; E. H. Plumptre (on Peter and Jude),
in Cambridge BibU, CSambridge. 1879; K. F. KeU (Ftoter
and Jude). Leipoio. 1883; F. Spitta (on Fteter and Jude),
Halle. 1885; A. F. Manoury (on the Catholic Epifltlee).
Bar-Ie-Due, 1888; A. Plummer, in Bxpotitor'9 BiMe, Lon*
don, 1891; C. Bigg (on Peter and Jude), Edinburgh, 1901.
Questions of introduction are treated in the works on
Biblical Introduction (q.v.) and on N. T. theology (e.g.,
W. Beysohlag. Edinburgh, 1896). Consult further: F.
Haier, Der Judaebrief, eeine Behthnt, AbfaeeungngU und
Leeer, Freiburg, 1906; E. Amaud. Recherchee eritiquee
eur PepUre de Jude, Strasburg, 1851; P. J. Qloag, Iniro-
dueUoH to the Caiholie BpieOee, Edinburgh, 1887; A. C.
HeCmrert, HieL cf CkriaHanity in the Apoetolie Age, pp.
685-688, New York, 1897; Hamaok, LHUratwr, U. 1, pp.
465-469; DB, ii. 799-806 (minute and searching); EB,
112680-32.

Jndea

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

946

I. The Name And the Territory.

History (§ 1).

Boimdariei of Judea Proper (§ 2).
IL Detailed Deacription.
1. The Territory of Judah.

LimitB, Population and Diviaions

(»1).
The Shephelah (§ 2).

JUDEA, ju-dl'a.

The HUl Country (§ 3).
Hebron (ft 4).
Mamre (ft 5).

Other aties of Josh. xv. (ft 6).
Places Named in Later Records (ft 7).
2. The Territory of Benjamin.
General Description; Jericho (ft 1).
The First Group of Benjamite Cities (ft2).

The Second Group (ft 3).
Other Places of Note (ft 4).

3. The Judean Territory of Dan.

4. The Judean Territory of Eph^

raim.
6. Cities on the Western Plain.
6. The Eleven Toparchies of Judea

According to Josephus.

L The Name and the Territory: Judea is the
term applied from about 300 b.c. by Greeks and
Romans to the land inhabited by the Jews. The
limits of the country are to be gathered from pas-
sages in Nehemiah (iii. and vii.) and in I and
II Maccabees. These reports, while not entirely
accordant, yet supplement each other, and start
from the point of view either of governmental rule,
of tribal possession, or of relationship to the relig-
ious community. The boundaries are
I. History, fairly well indicated in Neh. iii.; on
the south Bethzur marked the border,
in the north Bethhoron, and on the west Emmaus,
and these are approximately the limits implied in
the Books of Maccabees (cf. the list of fortresses
" in Judea " in I Mace. ix. 50 sqq.). Under the Per-
sians, as under the Greeks, this region shared the
fate of southern Syria. After the death of Alexander
the Great it fell into the hand of the Ptolemies (q.v.),
who held control of it almost continuously till 198
B.C. It was a part of the province of " Celesyria "
(I Mace. X. 69) or of " Celesyria and Phenice "
(II Mace. iii. 5). The inhabitants, on account of
their religion, were granted many privileges until
the time of Antiochus Epiphanes, but the payment
of tribute was enforced, if necessary, by the pres-
ence of garrisons, a situation which the Maccabean
revolution brought to an end (I Mace. x. 25-45).
The Greek name for this territory, loudaia, as well
as the adjective Ioudaio8, is not to be derived from
the Hebrew Yehudhi but from the Aramaic Ye-
hudhay (Ezra iv. 12; Dan. iii. 8). The earliest sure
traces of the use of this name are found at the end
of the fourth century B.C., contemporaneously with
the beginning of Greek control of the Orient. In
I Maccabees the usage is divided between the nor-
mal Greek form and a Hebraizing form louda,
with a preference for the latter. As a result of the
Hasmonean uprising (see Hasmoneans) the territory
was enlarged and the name had both a narrow and a
wider content. The extension of territory was be-
gun by Jonathan, when in 147 B.C. Alexander
Balas gave to him the city of Ekron with its sur-
rounding territory. In 145 B.C. Demetrius II.
added three districts in the north and west which
had belonged to Samaria (I Mace. xi. 28, 34, 57),
named " Apherema, Lydda, and Ramathem '' after
the names of their chief cities. Apherema is prob-
ably the Ephraeim or Efraea of the OnomasHcon
(ccUv. 118, cclvii. 121), about twenty Roman miles
north of Jerusalem; Lydda corresponds to the Lod
of the Old Testament (Ezra ii. 33) ; and Ramathem
was about nine miles northeast of Lydda and six
west of Thanma. The probable reason for this
grant was that the population was largely Jewish.
Boon after, Bethzur was taken away from the Sel-
eucidsB (I Biacc. xi. 66), and in 142 B.C. Joppa was

taken and then Judaized (I Mace. xii. 33), and the
same happened to Gezer (I Mace. xiii. 43 sqq.).
John Hyrcanus took Medaba and Samega across
the Jordan, also Samaria and Scythopolis, and in
the south the territory of the Idumeans. Aristo-
bulus conquered from the Itureans a part of their
territory. Alexander Jannseus annexed consider-
able territory across the Jordan and Raphia, An-
thedon, and Gaza on the Mediterranean. In 63
B.C. Pompey restricted Judea to strictly Jewish
territory. Herod came into possession of Samaria,
Batanea, Auranitis, Trachonitis, and the region of
the Jordan sources. During the first century of
the Christian era the changes in apportionment of
the territory were numerous. In the second cen-
tury Judea came to be called Syria Palestina, and
after the fourth century simply Paleatina. Jose-
phus distinguishes Judea from Samaria, makes Ju-
dea stand for the region under Hyrcanus or Herod,
or for the district ruled by procurators after 6 a.d.,
or for the region granted to Vespasian. When he
extends the use of the word, he uses the phrase
" all Judea," equivalent to the " Canaan " of the
Old Testament.

Judea as treated in this article is the smaller re-
gion as distinguished from Samaria, Galilee, and
Perea, defined partly in Josephus and in the Tal-
mud. Josephus (Ant, XIV., iii. 4) makes Korese,
the modem Karawa, the most northern city, and in-
cludes the regions of Thamna, Gophna,

2. Boon- and Akrabattine (that is, the Akrab-

daries of bein of the Onomasticon ccxiv.), while
Judea Josephus draws the line of the northern

Proper, boundary through Anuath Borkaios^
possibly the ^Othnay of the Talmud.
The Talmud also locates Antipatris as a boundary
city, possibly the modem Kalat Ras al-Ain north-
west of Jaffa and north of Lydda. Whether Judea
at the beginning of the Christian era included a
part of the coast is doubtful. Joppa had been in
the possession of the Jews and Jamnia had a large
Jewish population, but the way in which Josephus
mentions these places (TFar, III., iii. 5) implies that
they were not regarded as strictly Judean. The
fact that the seat of Roman government was at
Csesarea does not involve that any portion of the
seacoast was properly within the territory of Ju-
dea. The western boundary was not stable, vary-
ing in different periods. Only at times was any
part of the Philistine territory under the Jews, as
when Gaza or Ekron or Ashdod was imder Jona-
than or Herod. On the south, Judea was bounded
by the toparchies of Idumea and Engedi, but the
exact limita fluctuated. The eastem boundary
was the Dead Sea and the Jordan.

XL Detailed Description. — 1. The Territory of
Judah: According to the Old Testament this re-

247

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

JudeA

gion was inhabited by the tribes of Judah, Benjamin,
Dan, and a part of Ephraim. In spite of the exact
details given in Josh. xv. 1-12, the limits assigned
to the tribe of Judah can not be determined for
lack of identification of many places named in the
passage. It is probable also that the bowidary

there given was not one which re-

1. liimits, mained constant as separating the

^^^a^**^''* tribes, and the limits assigned to the

Divisions, tribe and those of the kingdom of

Judah may not be taken as equiva-
lents. Still further, it must be remembered that in
Joshua the limits are rather ideal than actual, as
when the Mediterranean is given as the western
boimdary, a condition which was realized only in
small part and not tiU the time of Alexander Jan-
nsus and of Herod the Great, though the Philis-
tines were at times tributary. The northeast comer,
according to the passage, was where the Jordan
enters the Dead Sea, and the boundary passed by
Beth-hoglah (Kasr Hajla) to Adummim (Talat al-
Damm), then by En-rogel through the Hinnom
valley on the west down to Kirjath-jearim, and
thence westward to the seacoast. In this Old-
Testament territory of Judah dwelt others than the
members of the tribe, the chief city of which was
Bethlehem. The three great families of the tribe,
Shelah, Perez, and Zerah (Gen. xlvi. 12) are in part
connected with the Canaanitic Shua and partly
with Tamar (Gen. xxxviii.), which is perhaps
identical with the city (or region) of Tamar
on the border of the Negeb, inhabited by
Kenizzite or Jerahmeelite affiliations — the stock
which furnished new life to the waning tribe
of Judah. A part of the Danites which re-
mained in the south became incorporated into
the tribe of Judah (Josh. xv. 33, xix. 41).
Farther south dwelt the numerous families of the
Calebites and Kenizzites in the region of Hebron,
and still to the south the Kenites and Jerahmeelites.
While the Calebites appear in early times to have
been a dominant family, this dominance was lost
imder David and the whole territory received its
name from the principal element of the population
at that time, though still later the Calebites came
to the front again, until in the Exile the inroads of
the Edomites pressed them northward and com-
pelled them to seek homes in the neighborhood of
the depopulated Jerusalem, where they became
fully identified with the Judaic element. From
the Edomitic intruders into the southern region
that part received the new name of Idumea, and
in Maccabean times Bethzur was on the boundary
between the two regions.

The passage in Joshua divides the whole region
into four parts: the Negeb (q.v.), the Shephelah,
the hill country, and the desert (see Palestine).
According to the original text of Josh, xv., the
Shephelah had three groups of cities, according to
the extended text, four groups, and a distinction is
made between towns (protected by a wall), forty-

four in number, and villages. The

Shephelah ^"^ g^^^P (Josh. xv. 33-36) includes

' fifteen towns, of which the following

are known: Eshtaol, identified by Gu4rin with

Ashu'a on the basis of its earlier name Ashtu'al;

Zorah, possibly the Zarha of the Amama Tablets;
Zanoah, the modem Zanu'a; Adullam, identified
by Clermont-Ganneau with Khirbat 'Id al-lliya;
Socoh is Shuwaika, on the south bank of the Wadi
al-Sant. The second group, of sixteen towns, is
located to the west and southwest of the first,
toward Gaza (verses 37-41). Mizpeh is placed at
the foot of the hills near the Wadi al-Sant, west-
ward from Shuwaika. Laclush is identified with
Tell el-Hesy, recently excavated, mentioned in the
Amama Tablets as an important Canaanitic cen-
ter, and appearing in the Assyrian records and in
the Books of Kings. Eglon is the modem Ajlan,
and Lahmas or Lahmam is the modem Lahm. The
third group (verses 42--44) of nine (Septuagint, ten)
cities includes Libnah (known to Eusebius as Lobna
in the neighborhood of Eleutheropofis); Keilah,
located by the Onomasticon seven Roman miles east
of Eleutheropolis on the Wadi al-Sur (but this is
in the highland, not in the Shephelah); Achzib,
placed by the same authority near Eleutheropolis
and possibly the modem Ain el-Kazba; and Mar-
esha, located two Roman miles from Eleutheropolis,
possibly at Merash. On the fourth group, includ-
ing Ekron, Ashdod, and Gaza, see Philistines.

The towns of the hill country of Judah are in the
Hebrew text (verses 48-60) divided into five groups,
to which the Septuagint adds a sixth. The first
group of eleven cities lay south from Hebron, south-
east of Jibrin. Shamir is placed by Gu(§rin at

Somara southwest of Hebron. The

^^m* Onomasticon locates Jattir twenty Ro-

Oountrv. "^'^ miles from Eleutheropolis, the

modem Attir; Socoh is Shuwaika
north of Attir; Debir (Kirjath-sannah or Kiijath-
sepher) was a royal Canaanitic city of some import-
ance, possibly the modem al-Dahariya; Anab is
the present Anab, about three miles southwest of
Debir; Eshtemoah may be al-Samua east of Shu-
waika; Anim is put by the Onomatiicon nine Roman
miles south of Hebron. The second group of nine
cities lay north of the first group and includes
Hebron (verses 52-54). Arab appears in the Septu-
agint as Airem, but its location is doubtful; Du-
mah is represented by the modem al-Doma north
of al-Dahariya, and is placed by Eusebius and
Jerome seventeen Roman miles from Eleutherop-
olis; Beth-tappuah is the elevated village Taffuh,
six miles west of Hebron in a wine-growing country.
It was in early times a fortress and was fortified in
the Maccabean war (I Mace. ix. 50). The Onomas-
ticon makes it a boundary city between Palestine
and Egypt.

Hebron was regarded as of considerable antiq-
uity, built seven years earlier than Zoan (Tanis) in
Egypt (Num. xiii. 22), and with this corresponds
the notable part Hebron takes in the narratives

concerning the patriarchs. It appears

as a city of the Anakites, who were of
the race of the giants (Num. xiii. 33), and its old
name was Kirjath-arba, '' fourfold city,'' explained
in Jewish legend as the place of settlement of Abrar
ham, Isaac, Jacob, and Adam or Caleb. P in sev-
eral passages locates the Hittites there. The Idu-
mean inhabitants of the time of Josephus said that
the city was older than Memphis in £!gypt. The

4. Hebron.

Jad<

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

248

ooncurrenoe of tradition makes it possible that
Hebron was the oldest of the southern cities of
Judah. Its situation in a defensible location and
in a comparatively fruitful region makes the tra-
dition of its age still more probable, and to this is
added that its site was on the principal roads which
traverse the region, making it a center of conmierce
also. Honmiel would connect the name Hebron
with the Habiri of the Amama Tablets (q.v.) as
originally Habiran^ i.e., town of the Habiri. Ac-
cording to Josh. X. 36 it was conquered by Joshua
when at the head of all the people after the cam-
paign against the five kings, but Judges i. 10
ascribes its conquest to the tribe of Judah alone.
It was the home of the Calebites, and the narrative
in Josh. zv. 13-19 attributes to Joshua the gift of
the region to them. The later history of Hebron
is little known. It became the home of David and
his company, where he was sought by the Judah-
ites, and was his capital until the capture of Jeru-
salem, after which it lost its importance. The
rebellion of Absalom began there, Rehoboam forti-
fied it, in the time of the exile the Edomites re-
duced it and held possession of it till Judas Macca-
beus took it in 164 B.C. The priest code made it
one of the cities of refuge and the Chronicler re-
gards it as Jewish at the time of Zerubbabel. The
place on the site now identified as that of Hebron
is called al-Halil or Halil al-Rahman, '^ Friend of
the Merciful," in memory of Abraham, whose tomb
is still pointed out in the neighborhood. Accord-
ing to Gen. xxiii. 9 sqq., the tomb was in a cave
in Machpelah '' before Mamre," and Mamre is iden-
tified with Hebron in Gen. xxiii. 19; consequently
the cave was to the east of the city. But this does
not correspond with the present situation, since
the greater part of the city is to the east of the
tomb. But there are clear evidences that a hill
to the west of the present city was in early times
thickly populated, and that would correspond with
the old Mamre. The tomb is said to have received
the bodies of Sarah, Abraham, Isaac, Rebecca, Leah
and Jacob. Josephus speaks of a monument of the
Abrahamic family in Hebron, of marble and beau-
tifully worked, while the tomb was hewn out of
the rock — a description which agrees well with the
Genesis account of the cave. The Pilgrim of Bor-
deaux (c. 333 A.D.) mentions a monument there,
Antoninus Martyr (570 a.d.) notes a basilica with
a court in the middle, which in the seventh century
passed into the possession of the Mohammedans,
the haram of the present city, the lower walls of
which are old and built of large stones. The en-
trance is on the east, and between the inner and
outer walls are two octagonal chapels in which
stand the cenotaphs of Abraham and Sarah. The
mosque itself measures some ninety feet by sixty-
eight, and is divided into three aisles with nine
vaults, the middle one containing the moniunent
of Isaac and Rebecca. The cave in which were the
graves of the patriarchs is asserted to be under the
mosque, and it is r^arded as double in form and
has two entrances. The northern part of the
haram area contains a number of modem grave
monuments, and one of them contains the ceno-
taph of Jacob and Leah. What is called the tomb

of Joseph is in an addition built against the encir-
cling wall at some time later than the crusades.
The description of the interior is gathered from the
observations of notables to whom the privilege of
entrance has in recent years been granted through
the special favor of the sultan, since admission to
^* unbelievers ** is refused by the fanatical Moslems
of Hebron. This favor was granted to the Prince
of Wales (1862), the Marquis of Bute (1866), the
Crown Prince of Prussia (1869), and Prince Albert
Victor and Prince George of Wales (1882). The
report based on examination next preceding that
of these later observations was made by monks of
the Latin Church in 1119 a.d., and stated that there
were chambers under the mosque. The oldest part
of the entire structure is the splendid encircling
wall, and De Vogii^ remarks upon the resemblance
of the stones which compose it to those of the south
wall of the haram in Jerusalem, rightly attributed
to Herod the Great; the Pilgrim of Bordeaux knew
such a wall, though Josephus says nothing about
it. Some of the capitals of the columns have a
Byzantine character and the inclusion of old parts
in what is evidently more modem agrees with the
statement of Samuel bar Simson (c. 1210 a.d.) to
the effect that the sanctuary at Hebron was built
600 years before his time. The present Hebron,
divided into seven quarters, has a population of
some 19,000, of whom 1,500 are Jews having three
synagogues, and the rest Moslems who display a
specially fanatical spirit against all foreigners. The
immediate region is fruitful, and some industries
and considerable commerce are conducted there.

In connection with the Mamre of Abraham are
mentioned oaks or terebinths where the patriarch
built an altar (Gen. xiii. 18); if Mamre is a location
opposite the tombs of the patriarchs (Gen. xxiii. 19,
XXXV. 27), there is a connection with a holy place.
Gen. xiv. 13 speaks of Mamre as a man, an Amorite
and brother of Eshcol and Aner. Esh-
col is mentioned as a place (Num. xiii.
23 and elsewhere), possibly the modem Iskahal six
miles northwest of Hebron. This representation
in Gen. xiv. is now regarded as that of a later and
special source, and is taken as less reliable than
those which make these names apply to places and
not individuals, especially as Aner is identified with
the hill Na*ir in West Hebron and Mamre with
Nimra in the northern part of the city. Yet it
must be said that these identifications are uncer-
tain and do not fit the data of the Old Testament.
The Septuagint of Gen. xiii. 18 uses the singular
in speaking of the oak, and this agrees with Jose-
phus, Ant. I., X. 4, though the latter suggests the
weaving of a myth about the place, and in Josephus,
TTar, IV., ix. 7, mention is made of a large tere-
binth as old as the world situated six stadia from
Hebron. Echoes of this sacred tree with its sanc-
tuary come from the times of Hadrian and of Con-
stantine; possibly the tree was destroyed under
the latter emperor, as Jerome says that it was in
existence while he was still a youth. A place which
corresponds well is mentioned in itineraries, and
this agrees with the present Ramat al-Halil (" Ra-
mah of Abraham ") two miles north of Hebron
east of the road to Jerusalem, where ruins suggest

6. Mamre.

849

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Judea

an old sanctuary. Farther to the east are the re-
mains of a lai^ge church, possibly those of the basil-
ica built by Constantine. Traces of recollection of
the tree in this locality were found as late as 1856.
Since the thirteenth century there have been traces
of a tradition of an Abraham's oak to the south,
on a site possessed by the Russians. The differ-
ences in the traditions and locations assigned
may be due to the fact that a grove or groves
existed in the earlier times, which dwindled to a
single tree perhaps as early as the time of the
Septuagint.

The third group of cities of the hill country in-
cludes ten cities (Septuagint, nine), located east of
the second and north of the first group. Maon, the
modem Bia'in, appears as the home of the Calebite

Nabal (I Sam. xxv. 2), and on the site
ni*?*^*5 are remains of walls, caves, and cis-
^^^, terns. The "wilderness of Maon"

(I Sam. xxiii. 24) was probably the
region to the southeast. Carmel, a possession of
Nabal, is the modem al-Karmal, about seven miles
south of Hebron. Ziph (I Chron. ii. 42; I Sam.
xxiii. 19) corresponds with the present Tell Zif
southeast of Hebron, while Josh. xv. 24 refers to an-
other place in the Negeb. Juttah (Josh. xxi. 16)
retains its name and lies south of Hebron, a large
village whose inhabitants possess great herds of
sheep. Jezreel is treated in a sfiecial article. Of
the Gibea of this region no traces remain, though
the Onomcuticon names it. The fourth group (Josh.
XV. 58-59) includes six cities situated north of Heb-
ron. Halhul retains its old name, an important
village five and a half miles distant from Hebron.
Beth-zur is regarded (I Chron. ii. 45) as (}alebite,
and in Neh. iii. 16 as a double district. It was an
important fortress in the Maccabean wars, lying a
little west of the road to Jerusalem, near a good
spring where ruins attest the situation. Gedor, the
modem Jedur, north of Beth-zur, is mentioned in

I Chron. xii. 7 and after the exile was inhabited by
Calebites. Beth-anoth (probably meaning " sanc-
tuary of the goddess Anath **) is possibly the mod-
era Bat Ainun, southeast of Halhul, where ruins
still exist. The other places are unidentified. The
fifth group is known only through the text of the
Septuagint, and includes eleven places of which
eight can be placed. Tekoa appears in Amos i. 1;

II Sam. xiv. 2 sqq., xxiii. 26, and was often men-
tioned in the regal and post-exilic periods. The
present Tekua, nearly ten miles south of Jerusa-
lem, contains ruins of a Christian church and cis-
terns and tombs. Ephrathah is in the Greek text
equated with Bethlehem (cf. Gen. xxxv. 19), though
there is doubt whether Ephrathah was not the name
of a district. Peor, in the neighborhood of Bethle-
hem, corresponds with the present Faghur. Etam
appears in I Chron. iv. 3 and II C^hron. xi. 6, and
corresponds with the modem 'Ain Atan. Kulon
may be the present Kaluniyeh, northwest of Jerusa-
lem, on the road to Jaffa. Sores may be the present
Saris, west of Jerusalem, south of the same road.
Karem is possibly 'Ain Karim, four and a half miles
west of Jerusalem. Bether is regarded as the tme
name for the Gibeon of Neh. vii. 25, the modera
Bittir, six miles southwest of Jerusalem. The sixth

group (Josh. XV. 60) includes only two cities, Kir-
jath-baal (Kirjath-jearim) and Rabbah, clearly west
of Jerusalem. The name of the first varies in dif-
erent passages. It was one of the cities of the
Gibeonites, the ark remained there a long time, it
was the home of the prophet Uriah, and after the
exile was reckoned among the possessions of the Jew-
ish community. While its direction from various
places is in different passages given with apparent
exactness upon the boundary between Judah and
Benjamin, and according to the Onomasticon some
nine or ten Roman miles from Jerusalem along the
old road to Diospolis (Lydda), the exact location is
still disputed. The last portion of the Judaic ter-
ritory (Josh. XV. 61-62) takes in " the wilderaess,"
i.e., the eastem slope of the hills toward the Dead
Sea. The Hebrew text mentions six cities, the Sep-
tuagint seven with very different names. Two of
these are identified. The City of Salt lay probably
in the Valley of Salt (II Sam. viii. 13), therefore to
the south corresponding to Tell al-Milh, about fif-
teen miles east of Beersheba. En-gedi lay on the
Dead Sea (Ezek. xlvii. 10), and, according to the
Onomasticon, was a laige village. The name cor-
responds with that of the present Ain Jidi on a
terrace above the sea, near which are the remains
of an old wall. It is identified with Hazazon-tamar
in II Chron. xx. 2, and was one of the places of
refuge of David (I Sam. xxiv. 1).

This list of places belonging to Judah includes
ninety-four ** cities," apart from those in the Ne-
geb, but can not be supposed to be exhaustive.
Thus the Adoraim of II Chron. xi. 9 does not ap-
pear, though it receives frequent mention in the

later records. It is the modem Dura,

v ^!!^* about six miles southwest of Hebron.

^tf Another is the Cozeba of I Chron. iv.

Baoords. ^^' Later in the history other cities

appear, like the Herodia of Herod the
Great, sixty stadia south of Jerusalem, with its
splendid buildings and its Herodiiun or tower. Im-
mediately above the coast of the Dead Sea and not
quite ten miles south of En-gedi was the fortress
Masada, of great importance in Herodian times and
in the first century, the site of which is placed at
al-Sabba, the ruins of which indicate partly He-
rodian origins and partly Roman. The northern
part of the wilderness of Judea was from the fourth
till the seventh century inhabited by thousands of
recluses and monks, but to-day has only the single
monastery of Mar Saba (founded by Sabas c. 478
A.D.), where are some fifty Greek monks. The
names of fifty or sixty establishments for recluses
or ascetics have been preserved which were located
between the Dead Sea and the watershed to the
west. On the west slope of the hill country the city
of Eleutheropolis, very often mentioned in the (huh
masticon^ becomes known under its earlier name of
Bethgubrin, known still as Bet-Jibrin. This city
became somewhat celebrated under Christian rule,
and the names of many of its bishops are on rec-
ord. Its position was at the crossing of several
roads between Gaza and Jerusalem, west of Heb-
ron, near the ancient Marasha. After the Arabian
conquest it lost its significancCi though it is men-
tioned several times afterward.

THE NEW 9CHAFF-HERZ0G

250

S. Thm Ttarritorj of iJiinMwtii : Tbe put of
itxkft wfaidk btloDgtd to tbe tribe of Benjamio b
dcseribed in Josh. xriiL 11 iqq. lu soutbera
bouDcUiy ooineided with tbe nortbern boundary of
iodftb from tbe Jordan in tbe east to Kirjatb-
jearim in tbe west, ita western boundary ran from
^__ Kirjatb-jearim to Betb-boron, its
^iS^aUt'^ nortbern boundary from Betb-boron

^Sm!^ ^ ^^ Jordan by Bctbel and Jericbo,

Jsirfcho. ^lule tbe Jordan limited it on tbe east,
tbuft including a territory not quite
twehre miles by thirty-one. Tbe region about
Jerkho wan very fruitful, tbe eastern slope unpro-
ductive, the upland poor in water and infertile ex-
cept the Htrip between Bethel and Betb-boron.
From the west and the north tbe country is not
eamty reached, and naturally its population was
regarded as warlike and inclined to brigandage
(Gen. xlix. 27). Tbe account in Josh, xviii. em-
ploys earlier sources, but, when considered his-
torically, raises many difficulties, especially in con-
nection with political relations. The boundary
between tbe two kingdoms fluctuated with tbe for-
tunes of the kingdoms themselves; probably the
picture in Joshua registers the conditions after
tbe time when the northern kingdom felL Jerusa-
lem seems to have been connected with the terri-
tory of Benjamin, not that of Judah. The cities
as described in the Joshua passage fall into two
groups, one to the east of twelve cities (verses 21-
24) and one to the west of fourteen (verses 25-28).
The chief city of the first group is Jericho, called
also in some passages ** the city of palm-trees "
(Deut. xxxiv. 3). The book of Joshua tells of the
miraculous capture of the city and of its complete
destruction by Joshua, as well as of his imprecar
tion upon the man that should rebuild it. This
last item does not agree with statements in Judges
iii. 13; II Sam. x. 5; but I Kings xvi. 34 tells of
its rebuilding and the realization of the ciu-se by
Hiel. A company of prophets made it their home
in the time of Elijah and Elisha. It was inhabited
after the return (Neh. iii. 2), Bacchides fortified it
against Jonathan (I Mace. ix. 50), and in a fortress
near by Simon the Maccabee was treacherously
murdered. Herod secured possession of the city
and beautified it, placing there one of his palaces,
though his buildings seem to have been south of
the ancient city site. In the time of Josephus the
region was a very garden for fertility, watered as it
was by the streams of the wady which debouched
upon its plain. It was Herod's city at which Jesus
rested on his last journey to Jerusalem (Matt. xx.
20), and the Ononuuticon implies that it was des-
troyed at the fall of Jerusalem. A new city arose
near by, where Justinian built a church, and this
was destroyed either by the Persians or the Arabs.
Tho Crusaders erected a city which soon fell into
disrepair. In recent times a new era has come to
it. Tho Jordan valley from the Sea of Tiberias to
the Dciid Sea belongs to the sultan personally, and
one of his representatives resides at Jericho. The
Russians have a church and a hospice there.

A second city in this group was Beth-hoglah, on
the boundary lino, three Roman miles from Jericho
and two from the Jordan, according to the Onamas- ,

tianu Betharab* laj on tbe plain of the Jordan,
but its she is not recovered. Zemaraim is prob-
ably to be sought on tbe highland south of Bethel
(11 Chroo. xiii 4). Bethel is the weU-known

Betin, and the outlook corresponds

2. The entirely with the requirements of Gen.

qJ^^ J^ S, xiiL ^10. xx^iii. IS. 22, though

-n^^j^w^i^^ ^^ ^^7 of the name was necessarily

Oitiea. ^P^^ from the sanctuary situated there

from which the city took its name.
It appears as on the boundary between Joseph and
Judidi, and near it was the oak of weeping by
the grave of Deborah (Gen. xxxv. 8). This may
have been one of the oldest Yahweh sanctuaries in
the highland, and it was selected by Jeroboam as
one of the two great sacred places of his realm.
There or near by a company of the prophets had
its settlement (II Kings ii. 3 sqq.). and the priests
sent by the Assyrians to teach the people religion
dwelt there (II Kings x\'ii. 24 sqq.); Josiah des-
trojred the sanctuary (II Kings xxiii. 15). and Bac-
chides fortified the place in the Maccabean wars.
North of it is a singular group of stones which is
recognized by some scholars as a cromlech (Hebr.
GUgat). Awim is sometimes identified with Ai,
but without certainty. Para is identified with Fara,
a little over nine miles west of Jericho in Wadi Fara.
Ophra, probably the same as the place mentioned
I Sam. xiii. 17, the Ephron of II Chron. xiii. 19,
and the Ephraim of II Sam. xiii. 23, is mentioned in
John xi. 54 and Josephus, War^ IV., ix. 9. Geba is
the Gibeah of I Sam. xiii. 16, the present Jeba, to
be distinguished from the Gibeath of Josh. x\iii. 28.
The second group of Benjamite cities includes,
according to the Hebrew, fourteen places, accord-
ing to the Septuagint, thirteen (not aU the same
as the Hebrew). Gibeon comes very often into
notice in the history of the people. It formed one
of a league of cities at the time of the conquest,

and its inhabitants are called Hivites
J^^^^ (Josh. ix. 7). It had a notable sanc-
Otoup. *^^^ (I Kings iii. 4 sqq.), became one

of the priestly cities, and by indications
from the Onomaaticon is placed at al-Jib about five
and a half miles north of Jerusalem, occupying the
northern peak of a twin hill. Ramah lay north of
Jerusalem and Gibeath, on the road that leads
northward, a border town between Israel and
Judah in the time of Asa. The tomb of Rachel
seems to have been in the vicinity (Jer. xxxi. 15).
The Onomasticon places it six Roman miles north
of Jerusalem, opposite Bethel, the modern al-Ram,
the site of old ruins. Beeroth (" wells ") was one
of the places which joined in the league with Gibeon
(Josh. ix. 17), but was evacuated before the Bcn-
jamit:3 (II Sam. iv. 3). The Onomasticon locates
it sevcii Roman miles from Jerusalem on the road
to Nicopolis which leads from Jerusalem by Gibeon
and Beth-horon to the western plain. This suits bet-
ter than the location of al-Bira, eleven Roman miles
north of Jerusalem near Bethel. Mizpeh was forti-
fied by Asa against the northern kingdom, and was
the residence of Gedaliah after 586 b.c. (I Kings
XV. 22; II Kings xxv. 23). It is frequently men-
tioned in both the earlier and the later annals of
the people, and lay on the road from Jerusalem to

261

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jtidaa

Shechem, and, according to the Onamasticon, near
Kirjath-jearim. Robinson places it at the lofty
Xabi Samwil, two miles south of Gibeon, where is
:i village and a mosque said to contain the tomb
of Samuel. In Byzantine times this was the site
assigned to Rama or Ramathaim, and the Crusaders
built here a church of St. Samuel, changed into a
mosque by the Mohanmiedans. Chephirah is the
modern Kafira, north of Kirjath-jearim. Mozah
is placed by the Talmud at the modem Kaloniye,
near which is a Bet Mizza, which, however, does
not fit the situation. Zelah is given (II Sam. xxi.
14) as the place of SauPs burial, but is unidentified.
The Gibeath of Josh, xviii. 28 is not to be confused
with the Geba of verse 24, but is to be placed near
Ilamah (ut sup.). The Kirjath of Josh, xviii. 28
is probably shortened from Kirjathjearim.

This list does not include all the cities which be-
longed to Benjamin. In the plain of the Jordan
lay the sanctuary of Gilgal, often mentioned in
l)oth early and late annals. The Hebrew gener-
ally uses the article with the word, hence it is not
a proper name, but signifies merely a " circle ** (of
stones). It was a locus of significant historical
events at the conquest (Josh, iv.-v.), and, accord-
ing to the Onomasticon, lay two Roman miles from
Jericho, between it and the Jordan.

4. Other ipj^^ n^nae lingers in the vicinity as

N<Se° Jaljul or Jiljuliye. Dok (Docus), a
fortress of Maccabean times (I Mace,
xvi. 15) seems to be Ain Duk at the northeast foot
of Jebel Karantal, preserved also in the accounts of
the early Christian monasteries and as a Templar's
fortress. I Sam. xiii.-xiv. brings into prominence a
Michmash which reappears in post-exilic times
(Ezra ii. 27; I Mace. ix. 73); the name is preserved
in the present Mahmas. North of this is the mod-
em Makrun, which recalls the Migron of Isa. x. 28.
Near the large village of Der Diwan is the site of
Ai (Josh, vii.-viii.), which reappears in history as
Aiath or Ai (Isa. x. 28; Ezra ii. 28); the exact
location is disputed. Northeast of Der Diwan is
a rocky height called Rammon, which recalls the
old Rimmon (Judges xx. 45). South of Jeba (ut
sup.) is a village, Hizma, the name of which re-
minds of Azmaveth (Ezra ii. 24; Neh. xii. 29, cf.
vii. 28, Beth-azmaveth). Anata, an hoiu* north-
east of Jerusalem, suggests Anathoth (Jer. i. 1).
Other place-names are Laishah (Isa. x. 30), Almon
(Josh. xxi. 18), and Bahurim (II Sam. xvi. 5).
Two places on the Mount of Olives are often men-
tioned in the history of Jesus. Bethany was two
and a half miles from Jerusalem, on the road to
Jericho, on the eastern slope of the mountain, the
modem al-Azariya (" Place of Lazarus "), where
the grave of Lazarus and the house of Martha and
Mary are still shown. Not far from Bethany lay
Hethphage (Matt. xxi. 1), the site of which was
shown in the time of the Crusades between Beth-
any and the sununit of the mountain. To the west
or northwest must have lain Enunaus, the scene of
tfie events told in Luke xxiv. 13 sqq., which the
tritus receptua places sixty furlongs from Jerusalem
but Codex Sinaitxcus 160 furlongs. Josephus (War^
VII., vi. 6) mentions a place of the name thirty
furlongs from the city, while the Crusaders in 1099

knew of a Castle of Emmaiu which is identified
with the modem al-Kubaba, about sixty-three fui^
longs from Jerusalem. Hitzig and Sepp located
Enunaus at Kaluniyeh, called in the Talmud Mosa,
thirty-four furlongs from the capital. Somewhere
within the territory of Benjamin should be placed
the grave of Rachel. Gen. xxxv. 16, 21 reports
that Rachel died between Bethel and the tower of
Eder (Jerusalem) on the road to Bethel, north of
Jerusalem, with which agrees Jer. xxxi. 15. On
the other hand. Gen. xxxv. 19, xlviii. 7 connect the
grave with Ephrath or Bethlehem, where the tomb
is still shown. But Schick has shown that the
Mohanunedan sanctuary Kubbat Abd al-Aziz, north-
west of Jersualem, is also caUed Kubbat Raliil and
corresponds better with the earlier data.

8. The Jadean Territory of Dan (Josh. xix. 40-
46): Though the boundaries are not given, it is
known that the eastern boundary coincided with
the western boundary of Benjamin, its southern
border with the westem part of the north boundary
of Judah, and its northem limits extended to the
southern boundary of Ephraim from Beth-horon
by Gezer to the sea, reckoning Joppa as part of the
territory of Dan. Judges v. 17 places Dan on the
coast, i. 34 states that the Amorites forced them
back, and chap, xviii. tells of a migration of 600
men to near the sources of the Jordan, while else-
where places are assigned to Dan which some other
parts of Scripture give to Judah or Ephraim. This
is the case with the first two towns on the list,
Zorah and Eshtaol. Ir-shemesh is the same as
Beth-shemesh, a place which is often named in the
history, is put by the Onomasticon east of the tenth
milestone on the road to Eleutheropolis, and agrees
with the modem uninhabited Ain Shams, where
ruins are still to be found, on the south side of the
Wadi al-Surar. Shaalabin (Shaalbim, Judges i.
35) has been located, probably wrongly, at Selbit,
southwest of Beth-horon. Aijalon appears in the his-
tory often as a fortress, also as a city of refuge and
Levitical city, and as belonging either to Ephraim
or Benjamin. The Oncmasticon locates it two Ro-
man miles east of Enunaus-Nicopolis, the mod-
em Jalu two miles east of Amwas. The plain of
Aijalon lies to the north of the village. Timnah is
probably the same as the Tinmah of Josh. xv. 10,
west of Beth-shemesh, and in the history is con-
nected with the Philistines and with the campaign
of Sennacherib in 701 B.C. Ekron is the well-
known city of the Philistines, which in Josh. xv.
45 is reckoned to Judah. Eltekeh, a Levitical city
(Josh. xxi. 23), corresponds to the Altaku, where
Sennacherib overthrew a hostile army, but its site
is not known. Gibbethon, also a Levitical city, is
not identified. Jehud is located at al-Yehudiya,
north of Lydda and east of Jaffa, while Bene-berak
is Ibn Ibrak near Jaffa. Westward of Jalu is the
little village Amwas, the name of which corresponds
to Emmaus, a place often in question in the Mac-
cabean wars, situated on the westem edge of the
highland, known as Nicopolis about 250, often men-
tioned in the OnomoBticon, Gezer (q.v.) is named
Josh. X. 33; Judges i. 29; I Kings ix. 15-17, and
often elsewhere, is called one of the border cities
of Joseph, and appears as belonging to Ephraim,

Jndea
JudffM

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

262

as a Levitical city, of importance during the Da-
vidic and Maccabean wars, and is located by
Clermont-Ganneau four miles west of Amwas at
Tell al-Jezar.

4. The Jndean Territory of Ephraim: The most
northern part of Judea as already defined took in
a part of the territory of Ephraim, the rest of which
was reckoned to Samaria. There is no list of the
places in this region, but of many cities there is in-
cidental mention. Joeephus mentions Phasaelis, a
town in the Jordan valley built by Herod in honor
of his brother Phasael, the name of which survives
in that of the village Fazail, south of the hill Kam
Sartaba. The fortress Alezandrium crowned the
summit of this hill and was of importance in the
war of Pompey. Akrabatta is mentioned by Jo-
sephus (War, HI., iii. 5) and in the Onomaaticon: it
is the modem Akraba. Janoah of Josh. xvi. 6 cor-
responds to the present Janun, north of Akraba.
Borkaios, mentioned by Joeephus (War, III., iii.
5) as on the boundary between Judea and Galilee,
is possibly the heap of ruins at Barkit, in Wadi Ishar.
To the southwest of this is al-Lubban, correspond-
ing to the Lebonah of Judges xzi. 19. Farther
southeast is Sailun, which points to the old sanc-
tuary of Shiloh, apparently destroyed in the Philis-
tine war, since the descendants of Eli (II Sam.
xzL) went to Nob; yet the priestly document re-
gards Shiloh as the place of the Tabernacle. The
OnomasHcon locates Shiloh ten Roman miles from
Nei4>olis: it was north of Bethel and east of the
road to Shechem. To the west of the road and
southwest from al-Lubban lies Jiljilya, recalling
another of the places called in the history Gilgal.
Farther to the south lies Ain Sinya, the Jeshanah
of II Chron. xiii. 19, and near by is Jifna, which
suggests the Gophna of Joeephus, War, I., xi. 2.
To the northwest is the heap of ruins called Tibna,
perhaps the Thanmatha of I Mace. ix. 50, known
also from the Onomasticon, which locates there the
tomb of Joshua (the Tinmath-heres of Judges ii.
9). Not far to the north of this is Rima, possibly
the Ramah of I Sam. xvi. 13, the Ramathaim of
I Sam. i. 1, the Ramathem of I Mace. xi. 34, and
the Arimathea of Mark xv. 43. But the Onomasti-
eon locates it toward the modem Rentis (6 m. w.
of Tibnah). The two Beth-horons of the Old Tes-
tament (Josh. xvi. 3, 5) are located farther to the
south at Bait Ur al-Fuka and Bait Ur al-Tahta.
The upper Beth-horon, by reason of its conunand-
ing the road from Jerusalem to Gesarea and the
coast, was of high importance in all periods and is
mentioned prominently in the accounts of the wars
from the time of Joshua to the Roman period. At
al-Midya, on the plain northwest of Beth-horon, is
ordinarily located the home of the Maccabees, the
Modin of I Mace. ii. 1, xiii. 25, with its seven
pyramids to the memory of the members of that
family.

6. Cities on the Western Plain : There were other
places in the plain west of the highland which in
later times were reckoned to Judah, but do not ap-
pear in the lists of places given in Joshua. Indeed,
the assignment of the places named in the Joshua
lists is not entirely concordant with that of other
passages. Doubtless the possession of these places

on the plain was often contested with the Philis-
tines. So was it with Gimzo (II Ghron. xxviii.
18), the modern Jimzu north of Gezer. TheHadid
of Ezra ii. 33 may be the Aditha of the Oruomasti-
con, east of Diospolis, the present al-Hadithe, and
perhaps the Adida of I Mace. xii. 38. Lod, men-
tioned with Hadid in the Ezra passage, is the Greek
Lydda, is often assigned in the Old Testament to
the Benjamites, was ceded with its outlying re-
gion to Jonathan the Maccabee by Demetrius
(I Mace. xi. 34), and was an object of strife between
the Jews and the Romans. It is mentioned in
Acts ix. 32 sqq., and after the destruction of Jeru-
salem became the residence of Jewish scholars, for
example, of Rabbi Eliezer. In the third centiuy
it took the name of Diospolis and became there-
after the seat of a bishopric. The legend of St.
George was localized here. The present Ludd is a
town inhabited by Mohanmiedans and Greeks, not
far from the road from Jerusalem to Jaffa. Ono,
also mentioned in the Ezra passage, may be the
modem Kafr Ana, five and a half miles northwest
of Ludd. On the northern boundary of the later
Judea lay Antipatris, a city built and named by
Herod in honor of his father: it is mentioned Acts
xxiii. 31. The pilgrim of Bordeaux locates it ten
Roman miles north of Lydda, the OnomasHcon six
miles south of Galgulis, the modem Jiljuliya in the
plain northeast of Jaffa. A passage in Josephus
would suggest Kalat Ras al-Ain as the site. Ten
miles north of this is Kafr Saba, recalling the Cha-
berzaba of Josephus {Ant. XIII., xv. 1).

6. The Eleven Toparohies of Judea Aooordin^ to
Joeephus: In War, III., iii. 5 Josephus names as
the first district of Judea Jerusalem with its vicin-
ity. The others are (2) Gophna, (3) Akrabatta,
(4) Thamna, (5) Lydda, (6) Emmaus, (7) Pella,
(8) Idumea, (9) Engedi, (10) Herodium, and (11)
Jericho. Pliny {Hist, naturalis, V., xiv. 70) names
ten, including 2-6 and 10-11 above, and gives in
addition to these Jopica (JafTa), Betholcthephene,
and Orine. The last includes the district of the
capital. Josephus mentions a Betholcthepha (TTar,
IV., viii. 1), which is probably the present Bait Nat-
tif west of Bethlehem on the edge of the highland
and the Netophah of Ezra ii. 22 and other Old-
Testament passages. Therefore Pella above seems
to be replaced by Betholethepha. Pliny was in
error in assigning the region of Joppa to Judea,
since it was independent. For the coast region
which abutted on Judean territory see Philistines;
and Phbnicia, Phenicians. (H. Guthe.)

Bibuogbapht: Literature on the history is given under
Arab; Ibbael, History op; to which add: H. Kosters.
H€t Her8tel van Israel, Leyden. 1893; H. Willrich, Juden
und Oriechen vor der makkcA&iachen Erhthung, Gdttingen,
1895; E. Meyer. Die Entatehung dee JudetUuma, Halle.
1896. For the geography much of the literatiue given
under Jerusalem is available. Of peculiar value are the
works of Rdhricht. Tobler, G. A. Smith, E. Robinson,
W. M. Thomson, and Reland. &» well as the publications
of the Palestine Pilgrims' Text Society, described in vol.
i., p. 13 of this work, and the publications of the Soci^t^
de I'orient Latin, ed. T. Tobler and A. Molinier. Geneva,
1877-80. The following publications of the PEF are of
importance: The Survey of Weetem Palestine; Memoire,
vols. ii.-iii., 1882-83; Thirty Years' Work, 1896; C. Cler-
mont-Ganneau, ArduBological Researches, 1896-99; G.
Armstrong, Names and Places in the Old and New Teslor

858

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

JvdMl

menu and Apocrypha; the Quarterly Siatement$: And, of
their maps, the Oreat Map of Weetem PaUatine, the PhotO'
Relief Map of PaleeHne, and the Raieed Map of PalseHne.
Indispensable are: Onomaetica eaera^ ed. P. de Lacardet
Gdttingen, 1887; A. Neubauer, La Oiographie du Talmud,
Paris. 1868; V. Qu^n, DeecripHon de la PaleeHne, l-ii.,
Paris, 1868^75. A very convenient check-list of place-
names is given in P. Thomsen, Loca eancta. Verteiehnie
der im 1,-6. Jahrhundert erw^nten Ortechaften Pal&etinae,
vol. i., Halle, 1007; cf . idem, Syetematieche Btbliographie
der PalAelina-LiUratur, Leipsic, 1908. A considerable lit-
erature of travel may be found in J. F. Hurst, LUeraiure of
Theology, pp. 119-130, New York. 1896. Consult further:
C. Ritter. Comparative Geography of PaleeHne and the Sinai-
He Penineula, iu.. 174-350, Edinburgh, 1866; Q. Ebersand
H. Quthe. Paldetina in Bild und Wort, 2 vols., Stuttgart,
1881-83; F. Buhl, Oeographie dee alien PalAeHna, TQbin-
gen, 1896; F. J. Bliss, Development of PaleeHne Bxptoro'
Hon, New York, 1906: DB, ii. 791-792; SB, ii. 261<^
2623; K. Baedeker, Paleetine and Syria, Leipsic. 1906.

On Hebron consult: M. de Vog06, Maepila ou tombeau
dee patriardtee h Htbron, Lausanne, 1869; E. Pierotti,
Maepila ou tombeau dee patriarehee h Hebron, ib. 1869;
E. Rosen, in Berliner Zeitechrift fQr aUgemeine Erdku-de,
xiv (1863), 369-429, zv (1864), 160-162; idem, in ZDMO,
xii (1858), 477-613; H. Quthe. in ZDPV, xvii (1894),
238 sqq. On Gilgal: H. Zsohokke. Beitrdge eur Topo-
graphie der weetlichen Jordaneau, Jerusalem, 1866. On
Bethphage: C. Clermont-Ganneau. in Revue arehio-
logique, December. 1877. On Emmaus: H. Zschokke,
Dae neuteetamentliehe Emmatte, Schaffhausen, 1865; M. J.
Schiffers. Amwae, doe Emmaue dee heUigen Lucae, Frei-
burg. 1890; H. Guthe. in ZDPV, xvi (1893), 298 sqq.
On Mispeh: P. A. Raboisson. Lee Maepeh. 6iude de
giographie exfgStique touchant lee diffirentee localUSe de ce
nom, Paris, 1897. Also see Gezer.

JUDGES.

I. The Office. 1. Conservative View.

General Concept (( 1). Divisions; the Narrative

Character of the Period (S 1).

(( 2). Critical View Rejected (ft 2).

History of the Period (ft 3). 2. Critical View.
Chronology of the Judges Analysis (ft 1).
(ft 4). Idealising (ft 2).

II. The Book. The History (ft 3).

I. The Office: Judges (Hcbr. ahophepim) was
the name applied to the rulers of Israel at the time
described in the book of Judges (see II. below).
They find their analogues in the *' judges " of the
Tyrians (Josephus, Apion, i. 21) and in the Cartha-
ginian aufetes (Livy, xxviii. 37, xxx.
I. General 7); they must not be regarded, how-
Concept ever, as heads of regularly oi^ganized
states, but rather as dictators who,
having first evidenced their capabilities by their
prowess, naturally became the leaders of a tribe
or group of tribes. In time of peace their function
was primarily the decision of cases which could not
be settled by the ** elders "; and some of them,
such as Deborah (Judges iv. 4) and Samuel (I Sam.
vii. 6), were judges by virtue of their prophetic gifts
even before they became the liberators of their
countrymen; wldle others, as Samson, seem never
to have delivered judgment. The name, however,
was borne by the rulers of the Israelites from the
conquest of Canaan by Joshua to the establish-
ment of the kingdom, with the exception of Abime-
lech, the son of Gideon, who seems to have had the
title of king (Judges ix.).

The character of the period of the Judges is out-
lined in the introduction to the book of Judges,
especially ii. 10 sqq. After the subjection of the
chief Canaanitic peoples, the Israelites had relaxed
their energies, and had entered into friendly rela-

tions in many cases with their former foes. The
result was an oppressive subjugation of the Israel-
ites, until they remembered God, who

2. Charac- raised up judges to deliver them,
ter of the Nevertheless, as soon as a judge passed

Period, away, his iniSuenoe vanished, and the
people returned to their coquetry with
the surrounding nations, again falling into political
and spiritual bondage. The period was also char-
acterized by a centrifugal tendency both in national
and religious life. It was the time when the tribes
enjoyed the greatest freedom, and only when mu-
tual perils united them did they recollect their com-
mon origin and invoke their common God. The
tendencies of the time thus powerfully favored the
confusion of the worship of Yahweh and Baal, as
well as of other gods whose symbols, oracles, and
cult were openly adopted; but, on the other hand,
the horrors resulting from gentile immorality were
washed out in blood (Judges xix.-xx.), and faith
prompted the vows of mighty sacrifices (Judges
xi. 31; I Sam. i. 11). In like manner, low though
the culture of the Israelites sank during this period
of storm and stress, the power of the nation was
still strong and unbroken. It was an age of heroes,
not only physical but moral, finding exemplificar
tion in the Song of Deborah, the fable of Jotham,
and the humor of Samson. Nor was the disunion
of the Israelites at this period, as some maintain, a
preliminary to their development as a nation, for
the Song of Deborah itself clearly shows a strong
consciousness of the religious and national homo-
geneity of the tribes.

The period of the Judges was (^ned by an eight
years' subjugation of Israel by Chushan-rishathaim
of Aram-naharaim (Judges iii. 8), apparently a king
of the Mitanni (A. H. Sayce, The Higher CrUicism
and the Monuments, pp. 297, 304, London, 1894)
who repeatedly sought to establish themselves in
Canaan against Elgypt. The Israel-

3. History ites were delivered from this yoke by
of the Othniel, the son of Kenas, who dwelt
Period, in the south (Judges i. 12-13), after

which there followed forty years of
peace (Judges iii. 9-11). During this period of re-
pose, two events happened which, although related
at the end of the book of Judges, can not have
taken place long after Joshua's death: the migra-
tion of a portion of the tribe of Dan, prevented by
the hostile Amorites from occupying their territory
along the sea (Judges i. 34), to the north, where
they founded the city of Laish, or Dan (the mod-
em Tell al-Kadi, west of Banias), and introduced
an idolatrous cult (Judges xviii.); and the war of
revenge on Benjamin for the outrage committed
in Gibeah (Judges xix.-xx.). Others, however,
place both these events before the Mesopotamian
invasion (cf. Josephus, Ant. V., ii. 8 sqq., iii. 1);
but there is no ground for the view that these epi-
sodes are later interpolations. After the death of
Othniel at the expiration of the forty years' peace,
the Israelites were again subjugated for eighteen
years by the combined Moabites, Ammonites, and
Amalekites, until the Benjamite Ehud killed the
Moabite King Eglon (Judges iii. 12 sqq.). Eighty
years of peace followed, aiter which the Israelites

Judffas

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

d54

were subject for twenty years to the Canaanitic
Jabin and Sisera, to which period belongs the heroic
deed of Shamgar, which freed a portion of the land
from the oppression of the Philistines (Judges iii.
31; cf. V. 6). Relief from their bondage, which by
some is held to be Hittite, was brought to Israel,
especially in the north, by the prophetess and
judge Deborah, who roused Barak to war against
Jabin and Sisera (Judges iv. 2 sqq.); though the
tribes east of the Jordan, as well as Dan and some
on the sea, took no part in the struggle for free-
dom (Judges V. 15 sqq.); while Judah seems to
have been prevented from cooperating by its own
war with the Philistines. Another forty years of
peace ensued; but then the Midianites and other
nomadic tribes invaded the plain of Jezreel, op-
pressing the Israelites for seven years, until they
were driven out by Gideon (Judges vi.-vii.). Gid-
eon piously declined the proffered kingship (Judges
viii. 22 sqq. ; but after his death his unworthy son
Abimelech brought misfortune on his house (Judges
ix.). Abimelech was followed by Tola, of the tribe
of Issachar, who ruled twenty-three years (Judges
X. 1 sqq.), and by Jair, a Gileadite, who was judge
twenty-two years (x. 3-6). With the death of
Jair, Israel was oppressed on the east by the Am-
monites and on the west by the Philistines. The
former, after oppressing Israel eighteen years, were
conquered by Jephthah (Judges x.-xi.), who was
also later involved in a civil war with the tribe of
Ephraim (Judges xii. 1 sqq.). He ruled in peace
only seven years, and was succeeded by Izban of
Bethlehem (seven years), Elon, a Zebulonite (ten
years), and Abdon, an Ephraimite (eight years;
Judges xii. 8 sqq.). After their rule, the Philis-
tines oppressed Israel forty years (Judges xiii. 1),
their deliverer being the hero Samson (Judges xiii.-
xvi.). The power of the Philistines revived, how-
ever, in the latter part of the judgeship of Eli, who
ruled forty years (I Sam. iv. 18), and they were
crushed only by Samuel and the kings anointed by
him. The thread of the book of Judges breaks off
with the death of Samson, and, although Eli is said
to have " judged " Israel, and the same is stated
concerning Samuel (I Sam. vii. 6, viii. 1 sqq., xii.
1 sqq.), they form the transition from the judges
to the kings.

The chronology of this period is difficult. The
period given by the book of Judges from the sub-
jugation by Chushan-rishathaim (Judges iii. 8) to

the death of Samson (xvi. 31) is 410

4. Chronol- years; but this is far too long when

ogyofthe compared with I Kings vi. 1, which

Judges. gives only 480 years for the time from

the Exodus to the commencement of
the Temple in the fourth year of the reign of Solo-
mon, including the forty 3rears in the wilderness,
the equal length of David's reign, and the unknown
duration of the rule of Samuel, Saul, etc. The best
explanation of these conflicting data seems to be the
synchronization of Judges x. 8 sqq. with xiii. 1 sqq.,
thus placing the oppression by the Philistines at the
same time as that by the Ammonites, and regarding
Samson as the contemporary of Jephthah, Ibzan,
Elon, and Abdon; with a resultant reduction of
the 140 years to about 360 (cf. Judges x. 6 sqq.;

the figures in Judges xi. 26 would then be round
numbers). It is also tempting to assume a further
synchronism between the forty years' oppression
by the Philistines (Judges xiii. 1) and the rule of
Eli and the early part of Samuel's judgeship, thus
reducing the period to about 340 3rears. See Tiios,
Biblical Reckoninq of.

n. The Book: 1. OonBervative View: In its pres-
ent form this book is relatively late, although its
oldest sources date from the events they describe.
It falls into three parts: an introduction (i.-iii. 6);

the main portion, a unified narrative (iii.

1. Divi- 7-xvi.); and two additions (xvii.-xxi.).

■ions; the The introduction treats of the general

Narrative, condition of Israel after the death of

Joshua and gives the underlying re-
lation of the stormy events of the period, together
with the occupation of the land by the tribes (i.)
and their impious toleration of the former inhabi-
tants (ii. 1-5). In ii. 6 the thread of the narrative
is taken up, with a preliminary prophetic descrip-
tion of the period (ii. 6-23). A list of the peoples
still unsubdued is given in iii. 1-6, this passage be-
ing by another hand. Nevertheless, it is clear that
the redactor deliberately planned the introduction
in its present form, and that he interwove fragments
of other historical writings wherever he thought
best, doubtless drawing from some source common
to Judges and Joshua (cf. Judges i. 10-15 with
Josh. XV. 14-19; Judges i. 20 with Josh. xv. 13;
Judges i. 21 with Josh. xv. 63; Judges i. 27-28 with
Josh. xvil. 11 sqq.; Judges i. 29 with Josh. xvi.
10). The main portion narrates six great events,
the heroes of which are Othniel, the conqueror of
the Arameans (iii. 7 sqq.); Ehud, the liberator
from the Moabites (iii. 12 sqq.); the victory of
Deborah and Barak over Jabin and Sisera (iv.-v.) ;
Gideon and his sons (vi.-ix.); Jephthah 's victory
over the Anunonites (x. 6 sqq., xi.-xii.); and Sam-
son, the hero against the Philistines (xiii.-xvi.).
Six other judges are also briefly mentioned. The
two additions on the sanctuary at Dan (xvii.-
xviii.) and the war against Benjamin (xix.-xxi.)
seem to have been written by one who lived in the
flourishing period of the kings (cf. xviii. 1, xix. 1,
xxi. 25).

It is assumed by the majority of modem scholars
that the redactor of the book of Judges had two
systems of chronology before him: one of genera-
tions of forty years each; and the other of smaller,

but more accurate, figures. These

2. Oritioal two systems were then interwoven.

View the smaller being assumed to refer to

R^eoted. the periods of subjugation, and the

larger to the rules of the judges. But
the problem is still imsolved, although it would
seem that the apparently over-long period arose
from the addition of contemporaneous periods, and
that the number forty is only approximate. The
critical school has assailed not only the chronology,
but also the historicity of the book of Judges.
Thus Othniel, Ehud, Tola, Jair, and Elon are re-
solved into " eponymous heroes "; but in no case
is the evidence favorable to the theories of this
school. On the contrary, the book gives an im-
pression of relative unity and independence; nor

265

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jjidg^m

is it to be regarded as an extract from some larger
work, extending from Joshua's death (or from the
Creation) to the Exile. Equally untenable is a
derivation of the book from J and E, and their
combination into JE. Since, on the other hand,
the Deuteronomic redactor was not the first to
combine the accounts given in the book, the ques-
tion of its date admits of no single answer. The
redactor doubtless lived in the period of the later
kings; but there is no evidence to show that the
book belongs to the exihc or post-exilic period.
Textually the book of Judges is one of the best
preserved of all the historical writings. Never-
theless, a comparison with the versions, especially
the Septuagint, shows noteworthy variants, espe-
cially in proper names. So ancient a fragment as
the Song of Deborah naturally gives more scope
to textual criticism, although here also great cau-
tion is necessary. C. von Orelu.

2. Critical View: A cursory reading of the book
of Judges shows that it consists of two main ele-
ments, one of these containing stories and histor-
. . ical notices without comment, and the
^^^ other comprising detailed narratives

with an explicit or imphcit commen-
tary on the events described. The latter, com-
prising most of the book, extends from iii. 7 to
xvi. 31, and has a prefatory note containing the
moral of the history (ii. 6-iii. 6). It is this main
portion which not only gives character to the book
as a whole but also explains its aim and motive.
It is written to show, in the Deuteronomic spirit,
the course of Israel's history before the movement
began which ended in the founding of the king-
dom— how fidelity to Yahweh and his command-
ments was invariably attended by prosperity, and
how calamity, especially by the inroads and op-
pressions of national enemies, surely followed false
worship and impiety, according to the principles
laid down in Deut. xxviii. All the lives of the
'' Judges " are narrated in this principal section.
The introduction (i. 1-ii. 5) is quite different in
character and style, not only running parallel to
portions of the book of Joshua (see Joshua, Book
of) but actually giving a divergent account of the
conquest of the Canaanites. Quite different also,
and falling as clearly without the sphere of the
Deuteronomistic compiler, are the last five chap-
ters (xvii.-xxi.) which narrate important events
belonging to the early period of the occupation of
Canaan, and therefore out of the chronological
order followed by the author of the main part of
the book. Both the introduction and the conclu-
sion are lacking in the religious and homiletic com-
ments which dominate chaps, iii. 7-xvi. 31.

The most important question for the Bible stu-
dent is the amount and degree of the idealizing of
history which are employed in the book in its pres-
ent form. The introduction (i. 1-ii.
2. Ideal- 5) contains a plain narrative of facts
idnff. of the highest value; only the fact
must be noted that the words in i. 1
" after the death of Joshua " are a late gloss due
to a misunderstanding of the historical situation,
for, as ii. 6-9 shows, the events described here took
place during the life of Joshua. Chaps, xvii.-xviii.

are also of great importance for the early political
and religious condition of Israel and contain merely
a statement of facts, which set forth the causes
and incidents connected with the migration north-
ward of the tribe of Dan and the founding of the
city of that name at the point which be<^me the
northerly limit of Israel and the seat of a famous
sanctuary. Chaps. xix.-xzi. are a highly embel-
lished account of some incidents which occurred in
the early days of the settlement, an outrage per-
petrated by some members of the tribe of Benja-
min (chap, xix.) and avenged by the other tribes
(xx., xxi.). Chap. xix. would appear to rest on a
considerable basis of fact, but the last two chap-
ters are full of numerical exaggerations; they rep-
resent Israel as forming a political and religious unit
at a very early date, and they give other evidences
of a priestly authorship. Thus it must be assumed
that certain old traditions were worked over in
them at a late date in conformity with the spirit of
the priest code.

The stories which make the main part of the
book so readable are at the same time the source
of nearly all direct knowledge of the period between

the settlement and the founding of

8. The the kingdom. They belong in their

History, original form to some of the earliest

collections of prose compositions in
the literature of Israel. Beginning with the de-
liverances effected by Othniel (iii. 7-11) and Ehud
(iii. 12-30), the motive of the collection comes out
more clearly in the story of the final suppression
of the Canaanites under Deborah and Barak. This
is given in its original form in the oldest long poem
of the Bible (chap, v.), the prose version which
was of course later being found in chap. iv. The
poem is our best authority for the condition and
activity of the tribes of Israel about 1130 b.c. Of
equal importance is the great story of Gideon and
his dehverance of his tribesmen from the oppres-
sion of the Midianites (chaps, vi.-viii.). The se-
quel of their expulsion is specially instructive since
it shows how the tribes felt themselves helpless in
their disimion and were conscious of their need of
hereditary '' judges " or kings. The fact that here
as elsewhere in the book more than one version of
the original tradition was drawn upon is illustrated
by the variations of vii. 24-viii. 3 and viii. 4-21,
the latter being the briefer or earlier account. The
history of Samson (xiii.-xvi.) dealing as it does
with the period of Philistine domination over west-
em Judah brings the account one step nearer to
the epoch of the monarchy; but the subject lent
itself so much to romance and legend that it is more
difficult to learn the real facts behind this story
than elsewhere in the book. In any case the Sam-
son episodes form, from the historical point of view,
merely a preparation to the history of Eli and
Samuel, who carried on the contest with the Philis-
tines till the crowning of King Saul. Thus the
closing of the original book of Judges was really
the beginning of a history which began with Sam-
son (cf. xiii. 5) and ended with I Sam. xii. It was
then a Deuteronomistic editor who compiled the
first edition of the book, beginning with ii. 6 and
unifying the whole by his '' pragmatic " treatment

JadffMi
Jndflon

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

256

of the stories and his assumption of the solidarity
of " Israel " under the regime of the successive
judges, each of whom actually '' judged " only a
portion of the coimtry occupied by the disunited
tribes. The post-exilic priestly redactor prefixed
chaps, i. 1-ii. 5, added chaps, xvii.-xxi., and the
allusions to the minor judges, six in number (iii. 31,
X. 1-6, xii. 8-15). These with the six judges of the
original work (Othniel, Ehud, Barak, Gideon, Sam-
son, Jephthah) make up the ideal number twelve.
The story of Abimelech (chap, ix.), which is an
episode in the history of the old Ganaanitic city of
Shechem, lies without the general scheme of the
book and is probably a later addition. It is valuable
as showing how readily the idea of kingship was
embraced by the conmion people, and still more
valuable for the parable of Jotham (verses 8-15)
which shows that despotic rule was estimated at
its real worth even in those early times.

As to the chronology of the book it is hopeless
to attempt to reduce the given numbers of 3rears
to any reasonable scheme (see Time, Bibucal
Rbckonino of). The best that can be done is to
take the probable date of the eastern invasion
(about 1170 B.C.) and the accession of David (about
1000 B.C.) as two working extremes, within which
approximation to the facts may be reached by
placing Deborah and Barak about 1130, Gideon
about 1100, Jephthah about 1080, Samuel about
1050, Saul about 1030 B.C. J. F. McGurdt.

Bibuoorapht: On the history of the Judges consult the
literature under Ahab: the commentaries named below;
C. Piepenbring, HUt. du peupU d'imxiel, Paris, 1898. The
three indispensable commentaries are: O. F. Moore, New
York, 1895 (high-water mark in critical exegesis); K.
Budde, TQbingen, 1897 (thorough); and W. Nowack, Gdt-
tingen,19(X) (also excellent). Other commentaries are: Q.
L. Studer. Bern. 1842; C. F. Keil and F. Delitssch. Edin-
burgh, 1865; J. Bachmann, Berlin, 1868-69; Hervey, in
BibU Commentary, London, 1872; P. Cassel, in Lange,
New York, 1875; E. Reuss, Paris, 1877; J. J. Lias, in
Cambridoe Bible, Cambridge, 1882; E. Bertheau, Leipsic,
1883; A. R. Fausset. London, 1885; S. Oettli, Munich.
1893; O. H. 8. Walpole, London, 1901; M. J. Lagrange,
Paris, 1903.

On questions of introduction consult the works men-
tioned in and under Biblical Intrgductign; T. NOldeke,
UnUreuthungen Mur KHtik dee A. T., pp. 173-198, Kiel,
1869; E. Meyer, in ZATW, i (1881), 117-146; J. C. A.
Kessler, Chronologia jtidieum et primorum regum, Leipsic,
1885; 8. R. Driver, in JQR, i (1889), pp. 258-270; Q. A.
Cooke, Hiet. and Song of Deborah, London. 1892; R. Kit-
tel, in TSK, Ixv (1892), 44-71; P. de Lagarde. Sephux-
ginioBtudien, pp. 1-72, Odttingen, 1892; W. Franken-
berg. Die Compoeition dee . . . Richterbuche, Marburg,
1895; F. Perles, Analekten zur Texthritik dee A. T., Mu-
nidi, 1895; C. Bruston, Le Cantigue de Deborah. Parin.
1901; DB, U.807-S20; £B, ii. 2633-42; JB. vii. 375-381.

JUDGMENT, DIVINE: The final expression
of God's will respecting man's future destiny. The
idea of judgment in the Old Testament presupposes
a transcendent God and a divine interest in the
moral order of the world, and was drawn from the
analogy of human justice. The divine judgment
which precedes the Messianic kingdom
Scriptural is concerned with guilty angels, with
Idea. Gentiles to be destroyed or to become
subject to Israel, with Israel and Judah
as nations for which their enemies were to be em-
ployed as instruments of retribution, and with in-
dividuals of whom a remnant would be saved.

The scene is the earthly life. To this judgment
evils of various kinds were referred (cf. Job; also
Luke xiii. 1 sqq.). Later the judgment was con-
ceived of as following the Messianic kingdom (cf.
Psalms of Solomon, i.-xviii., Eng. transl. in Pres-
byterian Review, iv. 1883, 775 sqq.). In Alexan-
drian Judaism no distant final judgment is taught
— each soul goes at death to its true place. In the
New Testament the final judgment is connected
with the parousia of Christ, yet the judgment is
there both present and future. The judge is rep-
resented as either God or Christ, and judgment is
according to works as expressive of character. In
the teachings of Jesus this note is repeatedly struck
especially in the parables, and apostolic preaching
resounds with it. All men appear to be the sub-
jects of it, and not those only who have known
Christ (II Cor v. 10; Matt. xxv. 31 sqq.). One
aspect of the judgment is that it creates nothing,
but only discloses what already exists, i.e., the re-
lation of the person and his deeds to the divine
moral order. There are particular judgments
which, however overwhelming in themselves — ^the
flood, the downfall of Sodom and of Jerusalem —
are not final but only prefigurations of the last
judgment. The New Testament knows of no gra-
dation through imperceptible stages of judgment
from highest to lowest; all men arc either within
or without the kingdom of God. One is warned
against self-deception and against hasty judgment
respecting others (Matt, vii.; Rom. xiv. 7-12). A
person may be unconscious of his real actions or
character, but these will come to light and receive
retribution. The full realization may be long de-
layed, but no stage of the process is indifferent and
the end will surely come. There is no evidence of
a private judgment at death.

The central idea embodied in the various pic-
tures of judgment is that of human responsibility
and of infallible retribution. This rests upon the
conviction of an indestructible moral order, of laws
as expressive of a personal divine will, and of Christ
in such essential relation to mankind that God will
have no one reach his final destiny
The apart from Christ. Yet according to
Nature of the Scriptures the judgment is not
Judgment final in the sense that ethical develop-
ment has reached its limit, but only
so far as this is conceived as related to the consum-
mation of the kingdom of God. This is a teleo-
logical view of man's life in which he is lifted above
the necessitated causal order, offered a divine goal,
albeit a flying one, as the aim of ethical endeavor,
and bidden to rely only upon an all-seeing, right-
eous God for recompense. The process is essen-
tially teleological, so that, as Schiller declared, the
history of the world is the judgment of the world.
Two general theories of judgment have been
proposed: (1) The common view, which is set
forth in the following positions, (a) It takes place
at a definite moment — immediately
Theories of after the general resurrection (see Res-
Judgment urrection of the Dead), (b) It will
be universal; the whole human race is
to appear, each one in the completeness of per-
sonal life, " body, soul, and spirit." (c) It will

257

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Judges
jQcUon

be public — ^the grounds of it open and evident to
all; whether sins of the saints will be disclosed may
be left in question, (d) The decision will be based
on the deeds done in the body; probation has ended
at death, (e) The law of judgment will be the
will of God as it has been severally revealed to all
men: to those under the written law, by that law;
to those without that law, by the law in their
hearts; to those under the Christian revelation, by
what they have known of it. (0 It will be final
and thus fix the changeless state of all — the good
in felicity, the wicked in wo. (g) The hour when
this is to occur is unknown, but is purposely
retained within the secret counsel of God. A modi-
fication of this view, while conceiving of the par-
ousia of Christ as a spiritual process and the resur-
rection as the rising of each man to life after death,
holds that there is no other judgment than that
which occurs at death. (2) The other idea of
judgment presents it as a process which endures as
long as law and moral being endure. It involves
experience of good and evil results of choice, and
the revelation of the nature of these within the
moral consciousness. The conscience is the seat of
this solemn process. By means of it all that op-
poses the will of God is gradually disclosed, con-
demned, and separated from the good, so that the
good progressively triumphs. The results of this
process of judging abide in the blessed or baleful
conditions and character of personal and social life.

C. A. Beckwith.

Biblioobapht: For the idea in the Bible the reader will
consult works on Biblical theology, such as those by
Schults and Beyschlag (see Biblical Theolo«t); for
the theological content, the appropriate sections of trea-
tises on systematic theology such as the works by Hodge,
Shedd. and others (see Dogma, Dogmatics); also the
literature under Eschatologt. Special treatment is
given by: J. B. Moxley. Univeraity Sermons, pp. 72-96,
London. 1883; T. T. Hunger, The Freedom of Faith, pp.
337-356, Edinburgh, 1884; J. M. Whiton, Beyond ths
Shadow, pp. 141-192. ib. 1885; W. N. Clarke, OuUine of
Chriatian Theology, pp. 459-466, New York, 1898; C. A.
Beckwith. RealiUes of Chriatian Theology, pp. 361-366,
Boston, 1906. Consult also A. Jukes, The Second Death
and ReetUuHon of All Things, London. 1878.

JUDITH. See Apocrypha, A, IV., 8.

JUDSOn, ADOniRAM: The Apostle of Burma
and one of the first and most devoted of the for-
eign missionaries of the American churches; b. at
Maiden, Mass., Aug. 9, 1788; d. on board of a
vessel off the coast of Burma Apr. 12, 1850. He
graduated first in his class at Brown University in
1807. After teaching school for a 3rear at Plym-
outh, he entered Andover Seminary in the autumn
of 1808, although " not a professor of religion, or a
candidate for the ministry, but as a person deeply
in earnest on the subject, and desirous
Early of arriving at the truth " (Wayland).
Life and The following May he made a profes-
Work. sion of his faith in the Third Congrega-
tional Church at Plymouth, of which
his father was then pastor. His attention was first
drawn to the subject of missionary effort in heathen
lands by the perusal, in 1809, of Buchanan's Star
in the East; and in Feb., 1810, he devoted himself
to that work. About this time he entered into in-
timate relations with that illustrious band of young
VI.— 17

men — MiUs, Nott, Newell, and Richards, and joined
the first three in submitting a statement to the
General Association of Ministers at Bradford, Biass.,
which led to the organization of the American Board
of Conmiissioners for Foreign Missions. In Jan.,

1811, he was sent to England, by the American
Board, to promote measures of affiliation and co-
operation between it and the London Missionary
Society. He returned unsuccessful in the imme-
diate design of his journey, but was appointed, with
Nott, Newell, Hall, and Rice, a missionary to India.
He was ordained, with these four men, on Feb. 6,

1812, at Salem, Mass. Judson sailed on the 19th,
from New York, with Mrs. Judson and Mr. and Mrs.
Newell, for Calcutta, where he arrived June 17.
On the voyage his views on the mode of baptism
imderwent a change; and, after his arrival in India,
he and Mrs. Judson were baptized by immersion in
the Baptist Church of Calcutta. In consequence
of this change of views, he passed under the care of
the American Baptist Missionary Union at its for-
mation in 1814. The £^t India Company forbade
his prosecution of missionary labors in India; and,
after various vicissitudes, he landed in July, 1813, at
Rangoon, Burma, taking up his residence at the
Mission House of Felix Carey. Judson devoted
himself to the acquisition of the language, in which
he afterward became a proficient scholar. After
six years of labor, the first convert, Moung Nau,
was baptized at Rangoon, June 27, 1819. He was
the first Burman accession to the Church of Christ.
From 1824 to 1826, during the war of England with
Burma, Judson sufifered almost incredible hardships.
He was imprisoned for seventeen months in the
jails of Ava and Chmg-pen-la, being bound during
nine months of this period, with three, and during
two months with no less than five, pairs of fetters.
His sufferings from fever, excruciating heat, hun-
ger, repeated disappointments, and the cruelty of
his keepers, form one of the most thrilling narra-
tives in the annals of modem missionary trial.

Mrs. Ann Hasseltine Judson sufifered no less than
her husband, though she was not subjected to im-
prisonment. Her heroic efiforts to relieve the suf-
ferings of the English prisoners re-
Mrs, ceived the tributes of warmest grati-

Judson. tude and praise at the time. She was
bom in Bradford, Mass., Dec. 22, 1789,
and had been married on Feb. 5, 1812. She en-
tered with great enthusiasm into missionary efifort,
and established a school at Rangoon for girls. In
1821 she paid a visit to America. Her health was
never robust; but she combined with strong intel-
lectual powers a remarkable heroism and fortitude.
During the imprisonment of her husband she was
unremitting in her self-sacrifice, and walked fear-
less and respected from palace to prison among the
excited Burman population. She died Oct. 24,
1826. Hers is one of the immortal names in mis-
sionary biography.

In 1826 Judson transferred the headquarters of
his mission to Amherst, in Tenasserim, Lower
Burma; and in 1830 he began preaching to the
Karens. In 1835 he completed the revision of the
Old Testament in the Burmese language, and in
1837 that of the New Testament. In the latter

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOO

year there were 1,144 baptised converts in Burma.
After ao absence of more than thirty years, he
returned, in 1845. for a, visit to his native land.
On the voyage his second wife (Sarah
Later HaU Boardman) died (Sept. 1) at St.
Work. Helena. She was the widow of the mis-
Visit to sionary, Dr. Boardman, and was mar-
America, ried to Judson in 1834. Judson's arrival
in the United States was the signal
for an enthusiastic outburst of admiration for the
miusionary, and interest in the cau.se he represented.
Everywhere crowded aasembties gathered to sec
and hear him. He, however, shunned the public
gate, and was diffident as a speaker. In 1823
Brown Universily had honored him with the degree
of D.D. On July 11, 184G, he again set sail for
Burma, having married, a few days before, Miss
B^ily Chubbuck of Eaton, N. V., who was already
well known under the name of " Fanny Forester."
He arrived safely at Rangoon, and spent much of
the remaining period of his life in revising his Eng-
lish-Burmese dictionary (ed. E. A. Stevens, Maul-
inain, 1852). His health, however, was shattered;
and be died while on a voyage to the Isle of Bour-
bon. His body was buried in the ocean.

Judson was a nuin of medium height and slender
person. He was endowed with strong intellectual
powers, and sought in his Christian life, by the
perusal of the works of Mme. Guyon and others, a
fervent type of piety. His confidence in the suc-
cess of missionary effort never wavered. Being
Etsked, on his visit to America, whether the pros-
pects were bright for the conversion of the world,
be immediately replied, " As bright. Sir, as the
promises of God." Adoniram Judson's name will
always have a place in the very first rank of Amer-
ican missionaries to heathen lands. He belongs
to the first band of those missionaries, and his hero-
ism, wise judgment, and diligent labor have not
been excelled if equaled by any who have followed
him, D. S. ScHAFF.

BiBLiooRAPHT: BiogTspbieB of Ad<

n by F

VDla., Bosi

Tbe Uvea of
voli., Ni

WU»

Mid E. JudBOB IhJB bod). New York, lgS3.

three wives were wrillen by W. Wyeth. 3
[w York, 1892; A. W. Stuart. Auburn, 1851 ; A. W.
New York. 1863; and by G. B, Hsrtley. ib. d. d.

JtTDSOn, EDWARD: Baptist; b. st Maul-
tnain (95 m. a.e. of Rangoon), Burma, Dec. 27,
1844. He was brought to the United States while
Btill an infant, and was educated at Madison (now
Colgate) University and Brown University (A.B.,
1865), after which he was principal of the academy
St Townshend. Vt.. for two years (1865-67), He
was then professor of Latin in Madison University
from 1867-74, and, aft«r a year of travel and study
in Europe in 1874-75, accepted a call to the pas-
torate of the Baptist church at Orange, N. J., where
be remained until 1881. In the latter year he be-
came pastor of the Berean Baptist Church, New
York City, where he engaged actively in educa-
tional and philanthropic work among the poorer
classes. The church becoming too small for the
congregation which he gathered, lie rained funds
for the erection of the Judson Memorial Church,
New York Cily, which is one of the leading " in-
stitutional " churches of the eily. He has since

been pastor of this church, which is named in honor
of his father, Adoniram Judson (q.v.). He was
president of the American Baptist Missionary
Union in 1SS5-87 and has been a trustee of Brown
Universily, Vassar College, and Colgate Univer-
sity, He has written; Li/e of Adoniram Judson
(Xew York, 1S83); and The Institutu/nal Church:
Primer in Pastoral Theology (1899),

JUELICHER, yii'liH-er, GHSTAV ADOLF: Ger-
man Protestant; b. at Fallienberg (a .luburb of
Berhn) Jan. 26, 1857. He was educntcl at the
University of Berlin (Ph.D,, 1880), and was chap-
lain of the orphan asylum at RummoUbcrg, a
suburb of Berlin, from 1882 to 1888, In 1887 he
became privBt--docent at the university of the same
city for New-Testament history and church history,
and in the following year was appointed associate
professor of the same subjects at Marburg, where
he has been full professor since I8S9. He is a
member of the committee on Church Fathers of the
Royal Prussian Academy of Berlin and in this ca-
pacity is engaged in the preparation of a Prosopo-
grapkia imperii Romani from the reign of Diocletian
to Justinian. In theology his position is that of
a rigid limitation to strict historical investigation.
He has written: Die Gkichniereden Jesv (2 vols.,
Freiburg, 1888-99), EitUeitung in das Neue Testa-
ment (1894; Eng. transl., Introdtictiim to the New
Testament, London, 1904); and Poufus und Jcaus
(Tilbingen, 1907).

JULIAB: The Emperor Julian (Flavins Clau-
dius Julianus), frequently known as " the Apos-
tate," was bom at Constantinople in 331, some
time after June 26, the son of Jidius Constantius,
a younger stepbrother of Constantlne the Great,
by Basilina, his second wife; d, in Persia June 26,
363. Among the authorities for his
Authorities life and policy, his own works take the
for his first place, although their history is
Life. obscure and their teit defective.
They include eight orations; a long
treatise addressed to Themietius and another to the
Athenians; the "Symposium "; the '' Beard-
hater " (Gk. Misopogon); more than eighty letters,
some decrees, and some fragments contained al-
most wholly in CjTil's ten books against Julian.
In the " Symposium " (also called Kaisara) he
criticizes his predecessors in the empire, assembled
at a feast on Olympus, chastises their vice!<, and
ends with a panegyric of Marcus Aureliu.s, The
"Beard-hater" is a satirical treatise written at
Antioch in the beginning of 363, containing a witty
characteriwition of himself and of the Christian
population of Antioch. The letters, of which a
few are spurious or doubtful, were almost all writ-
ten during his reign, and are the best source for bis
philosophic and political standpoint. Unfortu-
nately the work " Against the Christians," with the
composition of which he was busy in the last months
of his life, is only partially extant.

Next in importance come the pagan historians,
especially Ammianus Marcellinus, Eutropius, and
Zosimus, The first-named is the main authority
for the external events of Jidian's reign; he was a
writer of great impartiality, and, like Eutropius, a

960

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Judson
Jnliaa

contemporary if not an eye-witness. Zosimus
writes with unconcealed sympathy for the restorer
of Hellenism. Aurelius Victor tells little. Among
the orators and men of letters, Libanins is the most
important; seven of his orations refer directly to
Julian and offer valuable material. The statements
of Eunapius in his lives of the sophists and of the
panegyrist Mamertinus are to be received with
caution.

As to the Christian writers, their hatred of the
emperor led them sometimes into distortions of
fact or malicious lies, or at least made them willing
to lend an ear to calumny, except during the short
period when Julian's recall of the orthodox bishops
won a favorable judgment from some, such as
Hilary. The two orations in which Gregory Nazi-
anzen denounced the emperor, his contemporary
and acquaintance, form a strong contrast to Euse-
bins' life of Constantine. Among the historians,
even Socrates here lays aside his usual impartiality.
Rufinus, as a contemporary, deserves most atten-
tion; then follow Socrates, Sozomen, Theodoret,
with some fragments of Philostorgius. Isolated
notices occur in most of the Fathers, and there
are four poems against Julian by Ephraem Syrus
written in 363 and containing legendary material
mingled with valuable notes. In spite of their
prejudice, the ecclesiastical writers are not to be
undervalued, as they complete the material of the
pagan historians in some important particulars, and
demonstrably rest in not a few places upon docu-
mentary evidence. Modem historians have learned
only in the last two centuries to take a broad and
abstract view of Julian's career, and to see with in-
creasing clearness that his admirable qualities were
his own, while his obvious and by no means insig-
nificant defects were the product of his education
and environment.

When the sons of Constantine secured the em-
pire in 337 by the slaughter of their male relations
(see Constantine the Great and his Sons),
Julian was spared on account of his

Sketch of tender age, and remained in Constan-

His Life, tinople under the charge of his distant
kinsman, Bishop Eusebius of Nico-
media, and of the eunuch Mardonius, who was a
professing Christian, though his ideals seem to have
been Hellenistic. It is possible that he laid the
foundation for Julian's later attitude; but he also
awakened in him the enthusiasm for what was noble
and good that distinguished his manhood. In 342
Eusebius died, and the suspicious Constantius con-
fined Julian and his sickly half-brother Gallus in
the fortress of Macellum in Cappadocia for the next
six years, surrounded by Christian clerics. The
lad read the Bible, copied religious books, built a
chapel to St. Mamas, and is said to have officiated
as a lector in public worship, which presupposes
(unless there was some departure from the ordinary
practise) that he had been baptized, as indeed
Cyril positively asserts, though neither Julian nor
any of his contemporaries speak of his baptism.
At any rate, there is no reason to suppose that
Julian's religious views were at this time hostile to
the Christian Church. About 350 the brothers
were aUowed to leave Macellum, and Julian, re-

turning to Constantinople, devoted himself to study.
The emperor objected, however, to his presence in
the capital, and he went to Nicomedia, promising
not to attend the lectures which Libanius was then
delivering there. But he read them; and here at
this time, later in Pergamum, and finally in Epbe-
sus he was introduced by the foremost Hellenistic
teachers of the day to the Neoplatonic philosophy
and mysticism. In 351 he formally, though imob-
trusively, became a convert to paganism. The
dreams of poets and the speculations of philoso-
phers were to him the living truth; in Neoplato-
nism he found the revelation of all the wealth of the
highest ideals of antiquity and of Greek civih'za-
tion. His feelings, principles, and aims were, how-
ever, not those of the ancient masters whom he
thought to follow, but modem, and such as might
nearly all have been justified from the teachings of
Christian leaders of his day. The fortunes of his
life, his imagination and his education inclined him
to Greek mythology and learning, as similar ele-
ments had brought thousands of others to Chris-
tianity. The great task of reforming Hellenism
and abolishing the system of his predecessor seems
to have been put before him by his philosophic
friends in Nicomedia and Ephesus. Whether he
was already longing for the throne is not definitely
known, but it is likely that he was; and the teach-
ers, who never lost their hold over him, seem to have
exacted promises as to his conduct in the event of
his accession. In 354 Constantius put Gallus to
death, and kept Julian practically in confinement
at Milan for six months. Then he was allowed to
return to Bithynia, and in the summer of 355 to
go to Athens, where he associated with the most
prominent Hellenic leaders and was initiated
into the Eleusinian mysteries. In October he was
recalled to northern Italy, where the emperor
needed an heir-apparent and a leader against the
Germanic inroads in Gaul. He played a valiant
part for four years of military activity amid great
difficulties, carrying the war into the enemy's own
country and winning the respect and confidence of
the army. He was in Paris in the winter of 350-
360. There he received the command to send his
best soldiers to the E^t to Constantius. They an-
swered by hailing Julian as Augustus, apparently
without any suggestion from him, if not against his
will. After some hesitation he allowed them to
crown him, and notified Constantius of what had
happened, without assuming the imperial title.
Constantius answered with the sword; but Julian
was ready to meet him. During the winter of 360-
361 he was making his preparations at Vienne.
He celebrated the feast of the Epiphany with Chris-
tian rites; then he threw off the mask, and went
south by forced marches, opening the closed pagan
temples wherever he passed. Constantius came
from Syria to meet him, but died Nov. 3 in Cilicia;
and on Dec. 11, 361, Julian entered Constantinople
as undisputed emperor. He remained there the
rest of that winter, occupied with plans for far-
reaching reforms, but at the same time making
preparations for a campaign against the Persians.
In the summer of 362 he went through Asia Minor,
receiving discouraging reports of the results of his

Julian

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

860

policy, to Antioch, where the excitable and viva-
cious populace received him with open scorn of his
views and plans, and the Christian portion indulged
in ominous demonstrations. On Mar. 4, 363, he
started out for his campaign, pressing forward
boldly to meet his Persian enemies, sharing all the
fatigues and privations of his soldiers, and busily
occupied at the same time with his studies and his
great reform plans. After several successful skir-
mishes, he received a speaivwound in the battle of
Jime 26, and died a few hours afterward. The
famous narrative of Theodoret, according to which
he cried out just before he died, '' Thou hast con-
quered, O Galilean!'' is apparently an outgrowth
of the account \\Titten by Ephraem Syrus in the
same year, which relates how ** he turned aside,
groaning, and thought of the threats which at his
departure he had made by letter against the Church.''
It is significant that the Persians, according to
Anunianus (XXV., vi. 6), on the following day
mocked the Romans as traitors to their own em-
peror, since it was a Roman spear that had pierced
his side. The rumor soon spread in the empire,
and Libanius in his funeral oration put into words
the suspicion that a Christian had been responsible
for his death. Gregory Nazianzen, Rufinus, and
Socrates treat the question as indifferent, and So-
zomen shows that the Christians were capable of
the deed by claiming it for one of them and laud-
ing it. But Libanius did not offer the slightest
evidence in support of his accusation, and several
considerations may be urged against it. Similar
rumors have often arisen in the case of a sudden
death; Julian was a bold and reckless soldier, who
had often exposed himself to great danger; he him-
self gave utterance to no suspicion — according to
Ammianus he thanked the gods that he had fallen
by ''no clandestine ambush"; Eutropius says ex-
pressly that he was wounded by one of the enemy,
and Ephraem knows nothing different; and Am-
mianus says that no offers of reward produced the
Persian who had given the wound — he may have
been dead — which gave rise to their reproach of
the Romans, and thus to the growth of the legend.
Julian was buried at Tarsus, leaving no heir; and
his wife, Helena, the sister of Constantius, had
died at Vienne in the winter of 360-^1.

'I^ restoration of Hellenism was the great aim
of Julian's reign. On his arrival in Constantinople
he made a clean sweep of the old court, and the
Neoplatonic philosophers, with Maximus at their
head, hastened to appear there in support of one
who was an emperor after their own
His heart. The worship of the ancient
Policy and gods in its traditional form was de-
Character, clared the privileged religion; the
temples were ordered to be opened or
rebuilt, and their property restored. Julian was
especially anxious to restore the complete sacri-
ficial system; and the way in which he went to
work shows that the ideas imderlying the old pub-
lic worship were not his, but that he designed to
bring about the restoration of the old. paganism
under the forms of certaia mystic cults, and to
unite all the older religions into a SQrt of pagan
imperial church. It is from the mysteries that all

the determining lines of his policy are taken. If
the whole of public life was to be ordered accord-
ing to the piety prescribed in the mysteries, the
plan would nothave Hbeen a reaction but a reform
in the highest sense. The retmn to the ancient
gods Ls the only reactionary feature of it; the as-
cetl^pietistic and mystic-hierarchical ordering of
the worship, with its organized associations and
priesthood, would have been an unheard-of inno-
vation. To change paganism into a State religion,
and thus to modify the whole relation between re-
ligion and the State as it had been understood in
antiquity, was a thing which could be done only
by force. The remnant of the pagan population
showed itself indifferent or actually hostile to the
plans which Julian promulgated in a series of edicts
which combined, so to speak, imperial and papal
characteristics. The reforming tendencies of his
plans were displayed especially in his provisions for
the ceremonial reception of converts to paganism,
who were to be admitted to draw near to the gods
only after spiritual and bodily purification, and for
the creation of a definitely graduated and strictly
organized hierarchy, with the^mperor as ponttfex
maxim^JtSf and high priests (answering to mptimpaU
itaoflXJor the provinces. In yet other particulars
the imitation of the Church's discipline is obvious.
It is nidst'direcr in regard to the care of the {>0Dr,
as to which Julian made no secret of his admiration
for the Christian model; other resemblances are
indirect, coming through the influence which the
mysteries had already exercised upon the Christian
system.

In discussing the question of Julian's actual re-
lations to the Christian Church, it is necessary to
distinguish between what was in his mind and
what he actually did, and even between the differ-
ent parts of his short reign — since, though his pol-
icy did not essentially change, there are traces of
increasing irritation in his mind, which influenced
his edicts. In principle, however, he rejected the
use of force as an aid to conversion. Christianity,
which he regarded as a pitiable superstition of
weak-minded people, a distorted form of worship
suited to barbarians with no knowledge of history,
an assemblage of discordant elements held together
only by an ambitious clergy, was to be allowed to
fall to decay of itself. In the army the cross was
to be replaced by pagan emblems, and the pre-
torian guard was to be purged of Christians. Chris-
tian officials were to be removed from the govern-
ment. All privileges were withdrawn from the
deigy and the Church, including support from
State funds and such rights of jurisdiction as had
been conceded. The restoration of pagan temples
at the cost of those who had destroyed them im-
posed this burden upon the Christians. All Chris-
tian factions were to be treated alike, including the
Donatists, and this involved the recall of the ban-
ished orthodox bishops. The old idea that he did
this with the purpose of fostering discord among
his antagonists, while in view of the short-sighted-
ness of his policy it is possible, is not probable;
and the result was actually beneficial to the Church.
His school law of June 17, 362, which required
candidates for teachers' positions to obtain the

261

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

JoUaa

license of the local authorities or of the emperor,
while apparently not affecting religious questions,
reaUy excluded the Christians from such positions.
The assertion that he forbade them to attend the
schools is apparently based on a misimderstanding.
Another weapon in his religious campaign was his
treatise " Against the Christians," which he cir-
culated not long before his death. The whole first
book is extant, some fragments of the second, and
scarcely any of the third. For knowledge and
acuteness it is not to be compared with the works
of Celsus and Porphyry. It tells much of the re-
ligious and historical attitude of Julian and his
partizans, but little of his relations with the Church,
whose real weak points are seldom touched upon.
If it were possible positively to decide as to the
truth of the statements that he threatened severe
repressive measures against his return from the
Persian campaign, it would be easier to arrive at
a final judgment of the man; but sober history will
at least regard him most truly as a belated son of
a great bygone age, deceived in his ideals but noble
in nature, and deserving of honor as a man who
attempted to do justice to his fellows at a time
when this was a rare virtue. (A. Harnack.)

Biblioorapht: The best edition of the works of Julian in
the original Greek is by F. C. Hertlein, 2 vols., Leipsic,
1875-76; the fragments of his Books against the Chris-
tians were edited by K. J. Neumann (ib. 1880), who also
translated them into German, Kai9er JtUiant BUcher
gegen die Chriaien, ib. 1880. In English translation are
Gregory Naziansen's two invectives against, and Liba-
nius' funeral oration upon Julian; and Julian's essays
" Upon the Sovereign Sun." and " Upon the Mother of
the Gods " (transl. by C. W. King. Julian the Emperor,
London, 1888). In French there is a complete transla-
tion of Julian's works and letters, by Eugene Talbot,
(Euvrea complHea de Vempereur JuHht, Paris, 1863. The
most elaborate biography of Julian is by Gstano Negri,
transl. from the 2d ed. of the original Italian. 2 vols.,
London and New York, 1905; other noteworthy biog-
raphies are by Neander, Eng. transl., London, 1850;
F. J. Holgwarth. Freiburg, 1874; A. Naville, Neuch&tel,
1877; G. H. Rendall. Cambridge, 1877; AUoe Gardner.
London and New York, 1895; W. Koch, Leipsic, 1899;
E. Mailer, Hanover, 1901; P. AUard, 3 vols., Paris, 1902.
Special treatises are: F. Rode, Oeechichte der Reaction
Kaieer Juliana otG^n die chriatliche Kirche, Jena, 1877;
E. J. Chinnock, A Few Notea on Julian and a Tranalaiion
of hia Public LeUera, London. 1901. Consult also Tille-
mont, Mimoirea, vi.; Ceillier, Auteura aacria, iii. 398-412;
Gibbon. Decline and Fall, chaps. xxiL-xxiv.; Schaff,
Chriatian Church, ui. 41-59; DCB, iii. 484-525.

JULIAN CESARINI, CARDINAL. See Cesarini,

GlULlANO.

JULIAN OF ECLANUM: The most g^ted and
consistent champion of Pelagianism; b. in Apulia
between 380 and 390; d., according to Gennadius,
under Valentinian III . (425-455) . Well educated in
classical literature, he learned from Aristotle the
art of dialectics which he used so cleverly in later
times. While still a youth, he became bishop of
Eclanum near Beneventum and seems to have been
greatly respected. It is not known how he was
won over to Pelagianism, but this doctrine corre-
sponded to his whole disposition, which was not
religious, but intellectual. By an edict of the
Emperor Honorius and the Epistola tradataria of
the Roman Bishop Zosimus (see Pelaoiub), Julian
with seventeen other bishops was crowded out of
his episcopal position in 418 and expelled from his

native coimtry. Entrusted with the defense of his
associates, he assumed the leadership in the strug-
gle against Augustinianism, and attacked it first
in a letter to Bishop Rufus of Thessalonica, wherein
he laid down his views concerning the divine crea-
tion of each individual man, concerning marriage,
law, the freedom of the wiU, and baptism against
Augustine and his adherents, whom he regarded as
Manicheans. In connection with this letter there
was issued a circular letter to the adherents of
Pelagius in Italy, which, however, was probably
not written by Julian himself. Against Augus-
tine's De nuptiia et concuptscentia he directed the
four books of his work Ad Twrbantium (419); its
main thought is the natural goodness of man vouch-
safed by God's creation. Augustine wrote a sec-
ond treatise De nuptxis et concupiscerUia and Julian
answered by addressing eight books to Florus (lAbri
viii ad riorum contra Augustine Itbrum aecundum de
nuptiis). This is Julian's most important writing,
full of personal, passionate, and spiteful polemics
against Augustine, but also fraught with dialectical
acuteness and logical sequence of thoughts; it
forms the proper source for the knowledge of Ju-
lian's theology. The efforts of himself and his as-
sociates at the court of the Byzantine Emperor
Theodosius II. (d. 450) to be restored to their posi-
tions were without success, and Marius Mercator
especially caused his expulsion from Constantinople.
At the Council of Ephesus in 431 he was expressly
condemned.

The fundamental presupposition of Julian's doc-
trines is that sin is a matter of the wiU and not of
nature. Will again presupposes the freedom of
choice, and this consists in the possibUity of ad-
mitting or rejecting sin. In virtue of this liberty
of wiU man bears the image of God within himself
and Is akin to him just as according to his sensual
nature he is related to the animal. In free will
man possesses such a perpetual possibility of will-
ing and not willing that Julian denies even the force
of motives. From this conception of free will it
follows that it is a possession which can not be lost
and can not be restrained or limited by sin. The
conception of sin as a work of the will implies that
it can arise only under an entirely free choice.
Therefore Julian found himself in entire opposition
to Augustine's doctrine of hereditary sin. It is a
contradictio in adjedo since sin and guilt can exist
only where there is freedom of decision. Children
can not sin because they have no will. It is per-
fect nonsense to deny the virtue of pagans. Augus-
tine's doctrine is altogether Manichean since only
the devil can be the creator and lord of an evil
nature. Augustine is even worse than Mani, since
he makes God the author and multiplier of sin.
Since God creates the nature of each individual
man, it must be good. If man were evil by nature
he would not be capable of redemption; disgrace
of nature would therefore imply the denial of grace.
The doctrine of original sin contradicts also the
justice of God, since according to it he recom-
penses and pimishes that which is not a matter of
liberty and not due to one's own fault. Justice,
however, is a generally acknowledged and funda-
mental law, and a contradiction to this law suffices

Julian
Julius

THE NEW SCHAPF-HERZOG

for the refutation of the doctrine of hereditary sin.
Death is not evil; it is natural for a creature to die.
The doctrine of hereditary sin destroys also the
sanctity of marriage. Marriage is pleasing to God
as the sexual impulse is his work. Even Christ
possessed concupiscence, and if there was no ruU-
tarale peccatum in him, it lb also not in our nature.
At the same time Julian does not deny the impor-
tance of God's grace. Our bodily and especially
our spiritual endowments are works of divine grace.
He does not deny the loss of the meritum innocen-
Hae. In baptism we receive forgiveness of sin and
incitement to good works. Thus the good will of
man is aided by God. The increase of divine bene-
factions is useful and necessary although virtue
and sin remain always a matter of free will. Julian
alwa3rB tried to prove his position from Scripture,
but he did not consider this his last and highest
authority; for him reason was higher than Scrip-
ture and tradition. Scripture can never contra^
diet what reason teaches. No one ever understood
how to use the art of dialectics more cleverly than
Julian, and he tried to decide all questions by log-
ical conclusions. (N. Bonwetbch.)

Bibuoorapht: The chief aouroes are: Notices in Augustine
(who had known Julian's pazents and took an interest
in him), vols. ii. and z. of the Benedictine edition of his
works and MPL, zxxiii., xliv., xlv.; cf. xlv. 1736 sqq.
For further notices: Marius Mercator, MPL, xlviii.; Vin-
oent of Lerins; Prosper; and Gennadius. Consult A.
Bruckner. Julian von Eklanum, aein Leben und Beine
lAkrt, in TU, xv. 3. Leipsic, 1897; C. T. G. SchOnemann,
BiJbtioihMa . . . paJbrum Latinorum, ii., f 18, ib. 1794 (con-
densed account, but valuable); W. Smith, DieHonary of
Oroek and Roman Biography and MytholooVt ii. 643-644,
London, 1890; Hamack, Dogma, v. 171 sqq., 186 sqq.,
203, 235, 236. vi. 303; Ceillier, AuUurM 9acri; ix. 483-
638, consult Index; Neander, Cktittian ChurO^ ii. 660-
665 et passim; Sohaff, ChrigHan Church, iii. 800. 837-
838, 937; DCS, iii. 469-473; Von Schubert, in TU, xxiv.
4 (1903).

JULIAN OF HAUCARNASSUS: Bishop of Hali-
camassus. Little is known of Julian's life and
personality. As bishop of Halicamassus in Caria,
he took part with the later patriarch of Antioch,
Severus, (q.v.) in the intrigue which led to the down-
fall of the Patriarch Macedonius of Oonstantinople
in 511. After his banishment at the beginning of
the reign of Justin I. in 518 (see Monophybites),
he took up his abode in the cloister of Enaton, be-
fore the gates of Alexandria. Here he became in-
volved with Severus, likewise in exile, in a dispute
over the question whether Christ's body during his
life on earth was incorruptible or corruptible
(see below). At Alexandria the dispute led to a
division of the Monophysite party which continued
till the seventh century. Julian's later destinies
are unknown; at all events, he did not return to
Halicamassus. His doctrine circulated as far as
Arabia, and also found acceptance in the Armenian
Church.

There are extant the following works of Julian:
his correspondence with Severus, in the Syriac
translation of Bishop Paul of Callinicus; ten anath-
emas; and a commentary on Job printed among
Origen's works, and only lately recognized by Use-
ner as a work of Julian's.

The expressions " incorruptible," '' corruptible,"
or " imperishable," " perishable," do not correctly

reproduce the debated meaning of aphlhartos,
p?itharto8j as understood by Julian and Severus.
The controversy hinges not upon phthora, as indi-
cating total dissolution of the body into so many
atoms, but on the phthora existing in the natural
infirmities of the body; such as hunger, thirst,
weariness, sweat, tears, bleeding, etc. So, as
Julian conceived it, the body of Christ was not
subject to this manner of " corruption," which is
a characteristic of human nature in consequence of
Adam's sin. When Christ hungered and thirsted,
he did so because he willed it, not of necessity; and
he willed so, because only in that way could he
free us from corruption. But Julian did not ad-
mit that, in order to redeem us, Christ must have
possessed a body subjected to corruption through-
out. He could not believe that one and the same
being was both " corruptible " and " incorruptible."
With singular inconsistency, however, he did not
believe himself compelled to deny the doctrine of
the like nature of Christ's body to that of ours;
on the contrary, he expressly rejected the opposite
doctrine, that of Eutyches. The Julian party re-
proached their opponents for being " corruption
worshipers "; whereas these retorted with the re-
proach of docetism, insomuch that the epithets
'\-aphthartodocetics " and '* phantasiasts," or illu-
sionists, ever afterward stayed attached to the
Julianists. In this matter, the orthodox and the
Severians made common cause, although there were
some '' aphthartodocetics " among the orthodox
themselves. For the fact that Emperor Justinian
himself was open to this line of argument see Jus-
tinian; and for the significance of the contro-
verted question generally, as a phase of Monophy-
sitism, see Monophysites. G. KrCger.

Bibuoobapht: C. W. F. Walch, Hiatorie der Ketzertien,
viii 660 sqq., 886 sqq.. Leipsic, 1778; J. C. L. Gieseler.
CommtrUaiiOt qua Monophynlarum . . . variae de Chriati
persona opinionea . . . illustrantur, 2 parts. Gftttinfi^n,
1836; J. P. N. I^nd. Anecdota Syriaca. iii. 263-271. Ley-
den, 1870; H. Usener, in H. Lietzmann, Catenen, pp. 28-
34, Freiburg, 1897; idem, in Rheinische* Museum, Iv
(1900), 321-340; E. Ter-Minassiantz. in TU, xxvi. 4
(1904), passim; Knimbacber, Geachichte, pp. 62-53;
Ceillier, Auieure 8acri% viii. 364, xi. 109, 344; DCB, iii
476-476.

JULIAN OF TOLEDO. See Pomerius, Juu-

ANUS.

JULIUS: The name of three popes.

Julius I: Pope 337-352. According to tradi-
tion he was the son of Rusticus, a Roman, and
elected after a long interregnum Feb. 6, 337. Little
is known of his pontificate, except in regard to his
spiritual care for the rapidly growing Roman com-
munity— he built no less than five new churches —
and to his position in the Arian controversy, which
had scarcely affected Rome before his time. He
took part in it only when both parties sought a de-
cision from him. The request came first from the
Eusebians, who sent three Eastern clerics in 338 to
ask his approval of their deposition of Athanasius
and putting Pistus in his place. Soon afterward
an embassy appeared from Athanasius, who so suc-
cessfully presented their case that the Eusebians
themselves, so Athanasius asserts, proposed the
reference of the matter to a new council. Pres-

d68

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Julian
Jnlius

ently, however, the Ensebians got the ear of the
Emperor Constantiiis, and by Easter, 339, Athana-
sills himself was seeking refuge in Rome, to be fol-
lowed by other banished orthodox prelates. The
friendly reception which they received in Rome
gave the Eusebians an excuse for rudely refusing
Julius' invitation to the proposed council. It met
at Rome in 340, and absolved Athanasius and Mar-
ceUus of Ancyra from the charges brought against
them. Julius conmiunicated the result to the
Orientals in his famous epistle to Flacillus, a mas-
terpiece of diplomacy. He considers the question
from the standpoint of ecclesiastical law, asserting
that the Council of Nicsea had permitted the revi-
sion of the acts of one synod by another, though no
foimdation is known for this statement, and justi-
fies his reopening of the case of Athanasius by the
assertion that the custom of the Church requires
the bishop of Rome to be notified of charges against
bishops (or against the bishop of Alexandria) and
to lay down the law. This does not apparently
cover the later claim to a supreme judicial func-
tion; and it did not even attain the result which
Julius hoped. The relations between Rome and
the East were more strained than ever, and it was
not Julius but Hosius of Cordova that determined
Constans to summon the Council of Sardica in 343.
This coimcil recognized the pope as the strongest
support of the Nicene party, and passed canons
which really allowed him a more limited authority
than the Coimcil of Chaloedon gave in similar cases
to the exarchs and the patriarchs of Constantinople,
although their importance lies in the use which
later popes made of them, interpolating them
among those of Nicsea and deducing from them a
final judicial authority over the whole Church.
Julius seems to have had no opportunity to act on
these provisions, since the change in the emperor's
attitude toward the Nicene party left him no longer
the central figure in the strife. He welcomed
Athanasius in Rome on his homeward journey in
346, and shortly after, at the request of a synod
in Milan, he investigated the orthodoxy of Ursa-
cius and Valens, and received them both again into
communion. He died Apr. 12, 352, and was early
honored in Rome as a saint, while the number of
forgeries passing under his name shows the impres-
sion which his clever policy made on succeeding
generations and the extent to which it was held to
have strengthened the papal authority.

(H. B6HMER.)
Bibuoqrapht: Soiiroes are: Liber ponHflealia, ed. Duchesne,
i. 205, Parid, 1886, ed. Mommsen in MOH, OeH. pant.
Rom., i (1898), 75-76; Cataioou* Liberianua, ed. Momm-
sen in MOH, Anct. ant., ix (1892). 76; Epiat. in MPL,
viii. Consult: B. Jimgmann, Du9ertaHone9 aeleciae, ii.
7-31, Regensburg, 1881; L. Rivington. Primitive Church
and the See of St. Peter, pp. 173 sqq., 467 sqq., London,
1894; W. Bright. Roman See and the Early Church, pp. 81
sqq.. ib. 1896; MUm&n, LaHn Chriatianity, I 100-101;
Bower. Popes, i. 54-69; KL, vi. 1997-98.

Julius IL (Giuliano Rovere — he was not con-
nected with the highly aristocratic Delia Rovere
family): Pope 1503-13. He was bom at Albiz-
zola, near Savona (25 m. s.w. of Genoa), 1443.
When his uncle, Francesco (later Pope Sixtus IV.),
became cardinal, he turned to the spiritual career,
likewise becoming cardinal by 1471; and in 1480-

1481, he was legate to the French King Louis XI.
He exerted only a moderate influence over bis
uncle, Sixtus IV. (d. 1484), who stood under the
sway of another nephew. Cardinal Riario; but he
determined the policy of his successor, Innocent
VIII. (q.v.). However, when Borgia (Alexander
VI.) ascended the papal throne, Julius was com-
pelled to secure his life by flight to France (1494).
It was not until 1498, when the growing power of
the pope drew the second successor of Louis XI.
to his side, that Julius became ostensibly recon-
ciled with Alexander, and now wrought for the con-
clusion of a compact between the two rulers which
occasioned fresh war over Italy. He did not ven-
ture back to Rome till after the death of Alexander
VI. (Aug. 18, 1503). On Oct. 31, 1503, after the
sudden end of the pontificate of Pius III., lasting
less than a month, he was chosen pope. He had
gained the Spanish cardinals by the degrading
promise not to contest the Romagna against Bor-
gia's son Cesare. Nevertheless, in the first year
of his pontificate, he demanded the delivery of the
fortresses in that region and made Cesare captive.
Then the Venetians interposed, and occupied the
Romagna; but, owing to a league of the pope with
France and Germany in 1504, they were compelled
to surrender aU the occupied points except Rimini
and Faenza. Julius then at the head of an army
wrested these cities from the Venetians and united
the entire district with the Papal States. The en-
mity toward Venice continued, and in 1508 Julius
again contrived, in the League of Cambrai, to com-
bine the mightiest sovereigns of the West — Spain,
France, and Germany — against the republic. The
Curia now began a system of deceitful and oppor-
tunist seesaw statecraft whereby it maintained its
position among the nations. Hardly were the dis-
tricts that had been occupied by Venice won back
by the help of France, when Julius arrayed himself
against France on the side of Venice. The French
king's resentment went so far that in 1510 he as-
sembled a national synod against the pope at
Tours, and sought an alliance with Emperor Maxi-
milian, with a view to depose the pope from his
dignity. Maximilian actually thought of crown-
ing his own head with the tiara. Meanwhile, Julius
in person waged war on the duke of Ferrara, who
had remained on the side of France, hoping to
unite his city and territory with the States of the
Church; and he succeeded, in the winter of 1511;
but France retaliated by occupying Bologna, and
an antipapal council was convened at Pisa. In
opposition, Julius convened the Fifth Lateran
Council in 1512, and, by founding the *' Holy
League," he secured the retreat of the French across
the Alps in the same year. He still managed to
add Parma and Piacenza to the States of the
Church; but aU the results of his war-lust and of
his statecraft continued insecure, since the States
of the Church, being subject to a policy of constant
vacillation, lacked the conditions of independent
existence. He died Feb. 21, 1513.

K. Benrath.

Biblioobapht: For souroes oonsult his bulls in A. M.
Cherubini, M<tonum buUarium Romanum, i. All sqq.,
Lyons, 1665, and in Turin ed., y. 399 sqq.; R. Brown,

THE NEW SCHaFT'RERZOG

964

rwin4w 4/ A^tlt /"tiMn, inafa. L-xL. Intwina. 1)144 «n,:
/ta« /'mi Himrm mm IfrnfuriM. BmmL 1517: O. R«7'
mMm, ^<wlm trirfiWifcfi. G»ln<iw. 14M-1727. Coor.
mK fortlMr: A. r*» fUamoAt. ^^cadUdUr d^ Siadi Amk.
iii 10 «v).. Kwfia, 1«70; O. B^Ibi. ^Wnt* //^ Bcrloi,
I4r77; i. ffvekiuiMt OitCMitm 4tr Brnmitmrnm in iitlin.
I IIZ 2Sn «n.. Lopw. 14r77; kkm. OtaekidUe 4^ B*-
nmmwut m Hmham. pp. 11 Myi,. ib. 1977; M, Broaefe.
/*•!«( y«<M« /A wiitf 4i« Or^mdumg 4m KvtktMWtmg^n.
OtMk^ \fa%; f. On«r«r««riiM. GmekidUe d^ Siadi Amk.
inil. viii,. Ttcixtccwt. IMl: Crrighton. Papacy, ▼. eft-202;
ft«aw. Z'^^**. i. 30 «)q.. m. 11-14; Bower. Popw, m.

JoliM HL rOiovanni Maria del Monte;: Pope
1560-55. He waa born of a distinji^hed Roman
UttoSkjt beinf^ nephew of Cardinal Antonio del
Mtmte, in Rome in 1-187, By favor of Julius II.
he mieoeeded bis uncle as archbiahop of Siponto,
aod in 1536 became cardinal under Paul III. As
papal Iqsate at the openini; of the Council of Trent
in 1545, be manai^ to thwart all the plans of the
emperor. In spite of the opposition of the car-
dinab with imperial sympathies, he was elected
pope after the death of Paul III. in 1550. Hence-
forth he thoroughly reversed his policy toward the
emperor, inviting him to reopen the council after
lU suspension, and turned away from Henry II. of
France, whereupon the latter sided with the Far-
nese nephews and tried to constitute them proprie-
tors of the contested possessions in southern Italy
which heretofore they had held from the Church as
letoineri. The pope was again obliged to suspend
the council when Maurice of Saxony, in 1552,
turned unexpectedly against the emperor, and al-
moat c^tured him at Innsbruck. The most mo-
mentous event during the pontificate of Julius III.
was the death of Edward VI. of England, and the
return of England to the Roman obedienoe. Ju-
lius despatched Cardinal Pole (see Pole, Reginald)
as plenipotentiary legate to Cjueen Mary Tudor,
and he brought it to pass that Parliament again
recognised the papal supremacy, though subject
to acceptance of the consummated transfer of
church property to state or private possession.
He then achieved the bloody realization of the
Counter-Reformation in England. The pontificate
of Julius III. occurred at a time when in Italy, too,
the nullification of the reforming movement was
prosecuted with every instrument of force and
cunning. He assured free play and advancement
to the Inquisition, even though his indolent nature
did not so energetically and personally interest him
In this matter as proved true of his successors.
That his moral life before and after his elevation to
the papal throne bears no strict scrutiny, is at-
tested by the utterances of many contemporaries.
The avowed favorite Innocent, originally a street
urchin of Parma, was not the only unworthy re-
cipient on whom he bestowed church dignities and
goods. Ho likewise endowed his relatives in this
way; but the full time of political nepotism was
past. Julius (lied May 23, 1555, shortly after send-
ing Cardinal Morone to Germany, with the purpose
of giving such a turn to the religious peace at the
impending Diet of Augsburg, that Germany should
be led back to the bosom of the Roman Church after
the precedent of England. The same aim was to
be promoted also by the Collegium Germanioum in

Rome, fooTf-ief! bj Izs^ci-^ Loyola, azid formally
opened in L55J. wcere '.be ^iite of the Jesuit order
were to be educated for the battle against German
Procestantism. K. BEintATH.

B€MXJVAL*jwr: Tht bml§ of Jofio* mre m A. X. Clienibiiu,
Jf4ir«»M ^mHviuan g.i—iiw> L 778 fqq.. Turin edu, ri.
401 Kn. OyaaoK: Dta f^xuz et ^ai" du pape Jidm Hi,
Geneva ? . ISSl: O Ra>-=A^lnau Anjtala nrfwuiirtri. Co-
locne. 14M-I7jrr: FWio sarpL Tkt HiMonM d lAe ComkcB
4/ Trmt. pp. 29eS^303. 371. 376. 382-380. Loodon, 1629:
C. Weifli. Fapuen dt C-iiat du cardima: de GramreUe. toL iiL,
Fkrw, 1»4I: W G. So^dao. OtaekidiU dm Proimianimmua
t« FmJeneiek. i. 226 «CKI-. Leipac 1855: PetniceUi deUa
GfttdnA. Hiii. dipCymathipae dm eomeiatm. u. 23 sqq.,
FmriM. 1^44: A. too Reumoat. Gmekidiie der Stadt Rem,
in. Z pp. 503 xn.. Beriin. 1870; L. Maynier. 6hade Am-
foriQiMr tfMT le eomciU de TmUt, pp. 5S6 aqq.. PhriA. 1874;
M. Broach. GmekidU* dm KirekenaiaaU. L 180 aqq.. Gotha.
1%80: De Ijfw%. in Ririsia tiariea ikUiana, 1884. pp. 632
wiq.: RAnke. Pcpm, L 206-210 et paasm: Bower. Popcc
iii 317: KL. tL 2002-05: and litcrmtore under Tuext,
Couvcix. or.

JULIUS AFRICAHUS, SEXTUS: One of the
most learned ecclesiastical writers of the third cen-
tury; b. probably about 160 in .\frica, perhaps in
Libya; d. probably soon after 240. In early life
he may ha^-e been an officer, but after the expedi-
tion of Septimius Se\'enis against Osrhoene (195)
he settled at Ejnmaus (Xicopolis) in Palestine.
.\bout 215 he spent some time in Alexandria study-
ing under Heraclas. and later, in the reign of EIU-
gabalus or Alexander Sevenis, went to Rome on
behalf of his fellow citizens. He published his
'* Chronography " in the fourth year of ElUgab-
alus, and his heterogeneous work entitled Kestai
(" Eimbroiderings '') under Alexander, to whom it
was dedicated. His extant letter to Origen, w^hom
he calls ** son/' was written in his old age. That
he was ordained in later life is doubtful. He is one
of the few ancient Greek Fathers who were in rela-
tion with Rome, and this was an advantage to his
" Chronography." Divided into five books, and
beginning with an apologetic purpose, it develops
a scientific aim and shows a good knowledge of
earlier pagan and Jewish sources. The w^hole work
was practically incorporated into the chronogra-
phies of later writer^, especially Eusebius, and de-
serves to be considered not only as the basis of
Christian chronography, but as relatively better
executed than the attempts of Julius' successors.
Critical study of the Kestai has made so little prog-
ress that it is scarcely worth while to sununarize its
conclusions. It appears to have been intended as
a sort of encyclopedia of the material sciences with
the cognate mathematical and technical branches,
but to have contained a large proportion of merely
curious, trifling, or miraculous matters, on which
account the authorship of Julius has been ques-
tioned. Among the parts published are sections
on agriculture, liturgiology, tactics, and medicine
(including veterinary practise). The two letters,
that to Aristides on the genealogies of Christ, of
which only fragments are preserved, and that to
Origen on the story of Susanna, are admirable bits
of critical historical work. (A. Harnack.)

Biblioobaphy: Incomplete collections of the fragments are
in A. Qallandi, Bibliotheca veterum palrum^ ii. 337-376.
14 vols., Venice, 1765-81, and in M. J. Routh. Reliquiae
eacrae, vol. ii., 6 vols., Oxford. 1846-48. The best ed. of
the " Chronography " is in Gelier, see below; for the

266

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDU

Julius in
JaUus Bohter

Keatoi oonsult Veierum mathemoHeorum opera, ed. M.
Thevenot and J. Boivin, Paris. 1603; and for the Letter
to Aristides, F. Spitta, Der Brief dee Juliue AJrieanue an
Arietidee, Halle, 1877. An Eng. transl. of the fragments
is in ANF, vi. 123 sqq.; and a list of literature is given
in ANF, Bibliography, pp. 68-60. Consult: Jerome, De
vir. ilL, bdiL; H. Gelser, Sextue Juiiue AJrieanue und die
bywantiniedte Chronoffraj^ie, 2 vols., Leipsie, 1880-W;
Schaff, ChrieHan Church, iii. 803-^805; Krflger. Hietory,
pp. 248-253; Hamack, Litteratur, I 507-613. ii. 1, pp.
124 sqq.. ii« part ii., passim; DCB, t 53-57.

JULIUS ECHTER: Bishop of Wanburg 1573-
1617; b. at the castle of Mespelbrunn in the Spes-
sart (northwestern Bavaria) Mar. 18, 1545; d. at
Warzburg Sept. 13, 1617. The circumstances
under which his work was begun were as follows:
Not till after 1540, after the death of Bishop Con-
rad II., did the Reformation prosper in the diocese
of WUrzburg. Then almost all citi-
Early zens and noblemen separated from the

Activity, old church and inaugurated Lutheran
preachers. Roman Catholic institu-
tions decayed and the secular clei^ was without
means and protection, so that many of its members
adopted the new doctrine. Bishop Friedrich of
Wirsberg (1558-73) did not possess the necessary
energy to stem the tide of the new movement, al-
though he sought a very close political union with
Bavaria and in 1567, against the opposition of the
cathedral chapter, realized the foundation of a
Jesuit college in WQrzburg. On Dec. 1, 1573, Julius
Echter was elected bishop. He had been educated
in the Roman Catholic spirit from 1560 to 1569 at
Mainz, Louvain, Douai, Paris, Angers, Pavia and
Rome. As a licentiate of law and with a fund of
knowledge often praised in later times he came in
1569 to Wilrzburg where he was received as an
active member of the cathedral chapter. In 1570
he became dean of the cathedral and in his twenty-
eighth year was elected bishop, to the great satis-
faction of Rome. In spite of contrary statements,
it has been proved that he never had Protestant
inclinations. He represented the interests of the
Roman Catholic estates of the realm at the diet of
Regensburg in 1576 and of Augsburg in 1582. Con-
tinuing the policy of his predecessor, he kept in the
closest touch with Bavaria. He was thought to be
secretly inclined toward Protestantism because of
his cooperation in the deposition of Balthasar of
Dembach, abbot of Fulda, in 1576 at Hanmielburg,
but this action was due to a youthful ambition to
incorporate the abbacy of Fulda and to become the
successor of Balthasar. His act caused general in-
dignation among Roman Catholics, and the abbot
was reinstituted in 1602.

It was only with great hesitancy that Julius im-
dertook the work of counteracting the Reformation
in his diocese. Although he had been urged by
Rome in 1575 and 1577, he did not convoke a di-
ocesan synod because he dreaded the
His hatred of the Protestant princes.

Timidity. Moreover, he feared to proceed against
heretical ecclesiastics lest whole re-
gions should be deprived of ecclesiastics for whom
there were no substitutes. From the noble fam-
ilies he did not dare to demand the oath of adher-
ence to the Roman confession of faith because he
suspected that none of them had remained faithful.

In 1582 he still asked for a papal brief that should
censure him on accoimt of the conditions in his
diocese and impose upon him a visitation and ex-
amination of all ecclesiastics, and a second similar
brief to be directed to the chapter. The Curia
granted both of them. His implication in the
affair of Fulda also hampered his attempts against
the Reformation, but, on the other hand, it required
him to give clear proof of his fidelity to Iloman
Catholicism. But the weakness of the Protestant
princes became so evident at the diets of 1576 and
1582 and on other occasions that Julius lost his fear.
Nevertheless, even in the early years of his ad-
ministration he had made some important changes.
In 1575 all concubines, even those of the canons,
were forced to leave the city of Wtirzburg; in 1577
fourteen preachers were expelled from the chapter;
in 1581 Julius rejected the interference of the no-
bility with religious affairs. In 1578 the seminary
of priests was newly organized, and in
1582 there was established again the
Achieve- University of WUrzburg as an institu-
ments in tion of the Coimter-Reformation, under
Counter- the dominating influence of the Jes-
Reform. uits. A new church order (1584 in
Latin, 1589 in a remodeled form in
German) impressively reminded the clergy of their
duties in the spirit of the Coimcil of Trent and en-
forced a stricter ecclesiastical organization. AU
Lutheran preachers (about 170) were deprived of
their offices; Protestant officers were dismissed.
A visitation of the whole diocese (1585 to 1587)
was directed against all Protestant members of the
population. In 1587 all who did not become Cath-
olic were compelled to emigrate; in the course of
three years about 100,000 had been converted.
Only a few hundred remained true to their convic-
tions and preferred to emigrate in spite of the fact
that they had to leave one-third of their posses-
sions to the bishop. Julius preserved an attitude
of calm amid the resentment of the Protestants.
Pamphlets were published against him, and the
electors of Saxony, Palatinate and Brandenbuig,
the landgrave of Hesse, the margraves of Branden-
burg and Baden, the prince of Anhalt protested,
some addressing themselves to the emperor with
complaints about the violation of the religious peace;
but Julius no longer overestimated the importance
of these Protestant admonitions, feeling himself
secure under the protection of Duke Wilhelm of
Bavaria and of the pope and assured of the favor
of the emperor. The reform of ecclesiastical insti-
tutions went hand in hand with the suppression of
Protestantism. The new church order contained,
beside regulations for the conduct of the clergy,
instructions concerning the church service, claimed
possession of the churches, and ordered observance
of the decrees of councils. There appeared re-
vised editions of books for the church service, of
breviaries, psalters, and missals. The book-trade
was so controlled that only unobjectionable books
were circulated. The monasteries, too, felt the re-
forming influence of the bishop — the possessions of
those that were hopelessly ruined were used for
other purposes (university, hospital), the others
were restored and subjected to rigorous visitations;

THE KEW 8CHAPF-HERZ0G

in the same way the chapter was reformed. A few
ot the nobility opposed the new state of aflaira, and
renmanta oF the ReforniBtiOD were still found at the
beginning of the nineteenth century; but on the
whole WQrzburg had become thoroughly Cathohc,
and the generation following that of Julitia was de-
voted to the church and the Jesuits. See Bai,tha-

SAR OP DeRNBACB and THE CoUNTKB-REFORMATItlN
IN FOLDA. (W. GOBTZ.)

BiauoQBAFHT: J. N. Buchlngfr. Juliu BehUr pen Mtlpul-
trunn, Wllciburg. 1S43: H. L. J. Heppe. Ralaaration da
KaOiolieitTntii in . . . Truriburp, Marburg. ISfiO: F. X.
Wegele. OtKhithU drr UrnvrrnUl Wttrtburg, 2 vuLb,.
W&rabUTff, IB82; Lonaeti. in Fartckun^n der dtutKhen
a—diidili. vol. xxiii.: M. Rilter, Dauttht GnchUhU im
Ztilalltr der Gtoeta^annatinn, i. 624 sqq., Stutt«Bn, IBST^
J. Juiuen, Hilt, of Uu German Ftopli. vUi. 335, SSe.
London, 1906: KL. vi. 2009-16.

JUMPERS: A name applied in derision to the
Welsh Calvinistic Methodists (see Prbbbvterianb)
.since they not only expressed their emotion in the
outcries frequent in Methodist meetings, but also
" leaped and sprang for joy." These ecstatic niani-
featations firgt appeared about 1760 in circles of
Welsh Methodists, and spread with such contagion
that Ihey were for a time regarded as a, character-
istic of the sect. Justification for the practise was
sought from I Sam. vi. 16; Lube vi. 23; and Acts
iii. S. The custom later became obsolete.

(C. ScHOBLLt.)

jnnCKER, yunk'er, ALFRED: German Protes-
tant; b. at Ida- und Marienhtltt«, Silesia, July 4,
1865, He was educated at the universities of
Breslau, BerUn, Leipsic, and Halle from 1884 to
1888 (lie. theol., Halle, 1891). From 1892 lo 1895
he was pastor at Bunzlau, after which he was ap-
pointed inspector of (he Sedlnitzkysches Johan-
neiim, Breslati. In 1893 he became privat-docent
at the University of Breslau, where he was ap-
pointed to his present position of associate profes-
sor of New-Teatament exegesis in 1904. He ban
written Dos lek und die Moliivlion dea TTtitens im
Ckriidentiim, tin Beiirag zur L6sung des eiid&mo-
nittiachen pTotiemi (Halle, 1891); Die Elbik dea
A-potteU Poiiiua, vol. i. (Halle. 1004); andDoaGefrei
bei Pavliis (Grosa-Lichlerfelde. 1905).

JUNILIDS; Ecclesiastical writer; b. in Africa;
d, about 550. He was a contemporary of Cofi-
siodonis and lived at Constantinople under Jus-
tinian, where he held some high civil oflicc (accord-
ing to Procopius, Hisloria arcana, xx., that of
Quaestor sacri palalii). According to his own
statement, his work entitled: Inslilvta regularia
diviaa legis, which he dedicated to Bishop Prima-
siuB of Hadrumetum at the time of the Three
Chapter Controversy (q.v.), is based on the com-
munications ot a Persian Paulus, In the form of
question and answer, this work, in two books, eon-
tains a methodical introduction into the sacred
Scriptures. The first part (book i. 1-10) treats of
the various rhetorical styles, of the varied author-
ity and authorship of the Scriptures, distinction
between poetry and prose, of the proper sequence
between the two Testaments. The books of Chron-
icles, Job, Eira with Nehemiah and Esther, and
also Canticles, James, II Peter, Jude, II and III

John, and Revelation are not reckoned among the
canonical Scriptures. The second part (book i.
ll-ii. 27) presents a synopsis of the doctrinal con-
tent of Scripture: of God, his being, the persons of
the Trinity, God's modes of operation, and his rela-
tion to his creatures; of the present world, creation,
divine government, nature, free will; anil ot the
world to come, the story ot salvation, election and
calling; ot ty|jes and prophecies, and their fulfil-
ment both in time and in eternity. In conclusion,
there are some hermeneutical rules (ii. 28), grounds
for the credibility of Scripture (ii, 29), and an ex-
planation of the relation between reason and faith.
G. KrCger.

nietiocBAfnT: The work of Juniliiu wu edited by J. Gut.
Biuel, l!tiB. reprndu«d Paris, IS44, and npriolcd in
MPL. \xvm. 15^2: alio by H. Kihn, Freiburg. 1880.
ami in pp. 4H5-52S oF Kihn's Tktndar von Moptuatia unrf
JunUiui Afrieatiut. ib. 1880. CoDsuJt: A. Rablfs. in
JVocAnr-*(tB der OeKlinhafl drr Wiucniduiftai . . . ai
a„ainaen. ISOO, pp. 242-24S: DCB. iii, S31-535.

jmiTDS, FHAITCISCDS (FRAnfOIS DO JOB):

Reformed theologian; b. at Bourgcs May 1, 1545;
d. at Leyden Oct! 13, 1602. At the age of thirteen
he began the study of law, but soon gave it up in
order to repair the deficiencies of his earlier educa-
tion at the school of Lyons, where he succumbed
for a time to the temptations of atheism, but soon
was converted and then studied theology at Ge-
neva. In 1565 he was called as preacher to the
Walloon congregation ot Antwerp, whence he had
to flee in 1567, owing lo intrigues of Roman Catho-
lic and Anabaptist opponents. He accompanied
Prince William ot Orange on his campaign to Cham-
pagne, (hen he became pastor of the Walloon con-
gregation at SchOnau in the Palatinate. In 1573
Elector Frederick III. called him to Heidelberg to
assist in a Latin translation of the Old Testament.
After the death of the elector, Count Palatine John
Casimir called him to the newly established Casi-
mirianum at Neustad(-on-lhe-Haardt. Soon after-
ward he became preacher ot the Walloon congrega-
tion in Otterberg. In 1582 ho returned to his
professorship at Neusladt and in 1584 removed to
the University ot Heidelberg. In 1592 lie followed
a call to Leyden. In his theological convictions he
was always a genuine pupil of Calvin. His Ecrle-
aiattici gii-e de natura el adminiatratione eccleaiae
Dei librC trea (Heidelberg, 1581) had great influence
upon the development ot synods and presbyteries.
His PataUcla sacra (1588), a treatise on Old-Teata-
ment quotations in the New, was epoch-making
for Biblical exegesis. In his A nimadvermanea
(1602), against Bellarmine, he defended Protestant-
ism against Romanism, and in De/ensio cathoticae
dodriTiae (1692) he attacked the Antitrinitarians.
Le Piainible Chreelien ou de la patx de Vtgliat
eatholique. written a tew months before the renun-
ciation of Protestantism by Henry IV., is a defense
of an independent Gallico-Catholic Church. He
also made several translations, and wrote works ot
philological and historical interest. His contem-
poraries esteemed liira very highly.

(F. W. CuNot.)

Btnuomi^rat: The earlv Vila by P, Merula appeared Ley-
den, IGSS, and Biolingen. 1706. bI» reprinted in thi
Optra of Juiiiiu, GeoBva. 1607, 1013. The beat modam

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

J^r*

life ii by F. W. Cuno. Amsterdun, ISSI; others ufl by
J. Rfitou. Gronioseti, ISei. ud A. Davsiue, Puis.
IBS2. Coiuult alM Niwron, Mtmrnrit. vol. xvi.: P.
BmI«, Didio'un-ii Hiilariail and CnliaxI, iii. 623-628.
London, 1736.

jrUBKIH, jun'kin, GEORGE: Presbyterian; b.
near Cariisle, Pa., Nov. 1, 1790; d. in Philadel-
phia May '20, 1863. He was graduated at Jeffer-
lion College, Pa., in 1813, studied theology under
John M. Mason in New York, and in 1819 became
pastor of the Associate Reformed Church at MiltOD,
Penn. In 1822 he went over to the Presbyterian
Church. He waa principal of the Pennsylvania,
Manual Labor Academy, Oercoantown, Pa., 1830-
1832, president o{ Lafayette College, Easton,
Pa., 1832-^1 and again 1844-18, and president
of Miami Univeraity, Ohio, 184H4. In 1848 he
became president of Washington College (now
Washington and Lee University), Lexington, Va,
On the secession of Virginia in 1861, which he had
strongly opposed, he removed to Philadelphift. He
was one of the leailers of the Old School Preaby-
teriacis, and was moderator of the General Assem-
bly in 1844. The more important of his publica-
tions are: The Vindication; A Reply to the Defence
of RobeH Bamet (Philadelphia, lS3fi); A Treatxte
on JiatiJUalwn (1839); Lectures an the Propheciea
(1844); Poiaical Falladet (New York, 1863); A
Trralise on SarKtiJUation (Philadelphia, 1864);
The Two Missions, the Apostolical and the Evan-
gelxcol (1864); The Tabernacle (1865); and A Com-
menlary upon the Epistle to the Hdirews (1873),
BiBLioflHtPRi: His Life wu writUo by his brother, D. X.

Juakin, Philidelpbis, 1S7I. Connill: E, H. Gillett, Hit-

IBTU of Oie PreMbuUrian ChuriA, u. 473-475 e( psuim.

Philsdelphk, 1884; R. E. Thompwn,

J. H. PmltoD

, loe-iii

. Seo Vorir. ISM:
B PnabultriOfi Ckurclt.

JURIED, zha"ri-0', PIERRE: With the possi-
ble exception of Pierre Bayle (q.v.), the moat im-
portant theologian and strongest controversialist
of the French Calvinista at the close of the seven-
teenth century; b. at Mer (11 m. n.e. of Blois),
where his father was pastor, Dec. 24, 1637; d. at
Rotterdam Jan. 11. 1713. He studied philosophy
at the Academy of Saumur and divinity at Sedan
1656-58, then traveled through the Netherlands
and England. In 1671 he succeeded to his father's
curacy at Mer, was ordained, and remained there
till 1674. when the Academy of Sedan elected him
lecturer in Hebrew and soon after preacher. He
Riled both oflicea with such ability thkt Dayle, who
had obtained through him a lectureship in philoso-
phy in 1675, designated him " one of the first men
of this century, the first of our communion." Dur-
ing the ten years spent at Sedan, Jurieu zealously
defended the Reformation against the attacks of
Bossuet and others. In July, 1681, when the
Academy of Se<lan was dissolved by Louia XIV.,
as his stay in Prance had become dangerous, he
went to Rotterdam, where, besides a pastorship,
he received a lectureship founded specially for him.
There he worked hard to promote the cause of the
French Reformed Church by his writings, and

caring for the exiled French pastors. Like Come-
nius and others he had to pass through sad ex-
periences, having become too sanguine of the im-
mediate restoration of the French Church through
his interpretation of the prophecies in the Apoca-
lypse, and later on by expecting too much from the
fanatical prophets of Dauphin^. Meanwhile ad-
vancing age warned him to bring to completion a
work on which he had long been busy, his Histoire
critique dcs dogmes et des cultes, published in two
parts at .Amsterdam, 1704-05 (Eng. tranal, 2 vols,,
Loudon, 1705). Thenceforth ill health kept him
from work,

Jurieu, like Calvin, held that the true Church b
known by two signs: the preaching of the pure
word of God and the right dispensation of the
sacraments. It should be governed by the repre-
sentatives of the Christian congregation, and has
the right to exclude all those who do not accept the
confession of faith. However, later on, to refut«
Bossuet and to satisfy new conceptions of his own
minii, he came to a broader view of the Church. In
his Histoire du calvinismt ei dti papisms (2 vols.,
Rotterdam, 1683) he makes a distinction between
the temporal and the spiritual power. In the name
of the latter, he demands full liberty of conscience.
But the church service must be approved by the
majority of the nation because the so ve reign is
only the representative of the nation. When, in
1685, the Edict of Nantes waa revoked by Louis
XIV,, many Protestants besides Jurieu began
to doubt the divine right of kings and stood for
the righla of the people. As in Bayle'a writings
many of Voltaire's ideas are to be found, so in
Jurieu'» works is the germ of Rousseau's Control

Since many of the controversial works of the
time were published anonymously, it ia not always
possible to determine their authorship with cer-
tainty. The principal worka undoubtedly by
Jurieu are: on dogma and controversy, against the
Ronoan Catholics, La Politique du dergi de Fromx
(Amsterdam, 1680); Reflexions sur la cnielle per^
locution que souffre I'iglise riformfe en Fratux
(16S5); Prixugie Uplimei centre k papiame (1686);
Le Vrai Sysli^ de I'fglise et la vfrilabie analyse de
la foi (Dort, 1686) ; Lettres pastorales addressie* aux
fidiles de France (Rotterdam, 1686; Eng. transl.,
London, 1689); concerning the Lutherans or the
Reformed, Des droits des deux souverains en malitre
de religion (1687); Vniti de I'fglise et points fonda-
meniaux (168S); on history and politics, Hixloire
du caleinisme et du papisme uni's en parattele (2 vols.,
16S3); edifying and apocalyptic. i'/lwompJisMment
des prophHies ou la ddivrance de I'fglise (2 vols.,
1686; Eng, tmnal,, London, 1687); TraUi de
I'anwurdmn (1700). G. Bonb't-Maubt,

6iBt.iooB>PBr; The bioEnipliics by C, v&n Oonll. Geneva.
1870 (best): and C. E. Mtfgnin. Str«sburg. 1S64. Con-
sult bIso; J. C. F. Hoefer, Noarrtlt biograjihit afn^alt,
xivii. 267 sqq., 48 vols., Purin, 1852-68; F. Pimui. Ltt
Prf/VTtmrt francoiM dr la latfrana. DOle. ISSO: J. B. Kui,
ia BullrHii dt la commimon de fhiMmTe del ^lum ITal-
lenee. Paris. ISQO: H. M. Burd. HttQumots and IKt Rrt-
oonliDn of Shu Edicl of tfantet, 2 vdU., Nsw York, 18SG;

Jnriadiotlon, BoolafllastioAi

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

d68

JURISDICTION, ECCLESIASTICAL.

The Early and Roman Catholic
Churches.

Penal and Dieciplinary Juriediction.

The First Thx«e Centuries (S 1).

The Christian Roman Empire (S 2).

The Merovingian Period (f 3).

The Carolingian and Later Periods
(I 4).

Deposition, Degradation, and Sus-
pension (S 5).

Matters Calling for Penalty (i 6).

The Organ of Eocleeiastical Jurisdic-
tion (i 7).

Competence of Ecclesiastical Juris-
diction (i 8).

Secular Jurisdiction over the Clergy
(5 9).

Method of Procedure (f 10).

Administrative and Civil Jurisdic-
tion.

II. The Protestant Churches.
Modem Trend (f 1).
Fundamental Law in the United

Stotes (S 2).
Elementary Principles (| 3).
limits of Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction

(I 4).
Legal Aspects of Discipline (f 5).
Relations of Churches and Officers

(§6).

L The Early and Roman Catholic Churches. —
1. Penal and Disciplinary Juriadiotion: In the
apostolic period, the Church exercised such disci-
plinary jurisdiction as any organization naturally
has over its members, expressed in the case of
grave faults by exclusion from the
1. The First Church, with a possibility of restora-
Three tion to membership on proof of re-
Oenturies. pentance and amendment (I Cor. v.
11; II Cor. ii. 5 sqq.). In the sub-
apostolic era this exclusion is not only from the
local conmiunity but from the whole Church; and
the bishop, who now, with the other clergy and the
whole body of believers, exercises this jurisdiction,
appears as a divinely appointed organ of it, acting
in the place of Christ. With the second century
appears a stricter principle, denying the possibility
of more than one restoration to conmiimion, and of
even one in the case of such grievous sins as idola-
try, imchastity, and murder. Where restoration was
allowed, it followed upon public Penance (q.v.); but
this was of the nature of a preliminary voluntarily
assumed, not of a penal measure. In the third century
deposition and deprivation of income are employed
against clerics, in addition to excommunication.

With the recognition of Christianity by the State
and the increasing conciliar activity, the system
developed in more detail. Against laymen differ-
ent forms of Excommunication (q.v.) were em-
ployed; against clerics, deposition, degradation, or
suspension, sometimes with depriva-
2. The tion of clerical income or (in the case
Christian Qf young clerics and those in minor

Boman Q^ders) corporal punishment. At first,
mp re. ^^ course, there was no definite code
for these proceedings, but the conmiimity (or later
the bishop) had to decide the individual case. By
degrees, however, legal principles were developed
to regulate the life of the Church. Thus the Fa-
thers distinguish between peccatum and delictum or
crimen^ and it is expressly recognized that a sin of
thought alone b not subject to external or legal
penalties. By the fourth century a definite basis
is reached for the infliction of ecclesiastical penal-
ties; for the severer, certain forms of apostasy, im-
morality and homicide; for the lighter, some cases
of contact with paganism or neglect of Christian
duties (e.g., of attendance at public worship). A
distinction is drawn between poena vindicativa and
poena medicinalie or cenaura, the latter having the
amendment of the offender for its chief purpose
and terminating with the removal of the offense.
These latter are employed mainly against the clergy;
those imposed on laymen, including excommunica-
tion, are all practically vindioaHvae. The exercise

of jurisdiction over laymen and clergy below the
rank of bishop belonged to the bishop, who was
bound to consult his priests and deacons before
pronoimcing sentence. A court of appeal (and for
bishops of first instance) existed in the provincial
sjmod. The Sjmod of Sardica (343) provides, in
case of the condemnation of a bishop, for an appeal
from either party to the Bishop of Rome, who may
either confirm the sentence or order a new investi-
gation by neighboring bishops, together with priests
delegated by him as assessors. On the basis of this
decree, which never obtained ecumenical recogni-
tion, the popes based the claim to supreme juris-
diction, and to a right of judging in the first in-
stance all metropolitans, primates, and patriarchs;
and such a claim was carried into practical effect
throughout a large part of the West, under the sanc-
tion of the imperial power.

A similar sanction was given to the competence
of other ecclesiastical tribunals; and certain of-
fenses against ecclesiastical law, especially the
abandonment of the Catholic faith, were made
crimes under secular law; secular penalties were
also imposed upon some offenses against discipline
on the part of the clergy (such as gambling, illegal
marriage, wilful abandonment of the clerical state).
By Roman law, however, the clergy were not ex-
empted from secular jurisdiction, except that bish-
ops accused of a breach of secular law were to be
tried first by a synod of their peers, who were never-
theless obliged to hand over a convicted offender to
the State after the imposition of their own penalty,
until Justinian reserved the right to sanction secular
proceedings against a bishop to the emperor alone.

During the Merovingian period, the character of

excommunication was changed by the acceptance

of the doctrine of the indelibility of baptism, which

rendered a complete and absolute sep-

8. The Ker- aration from the Church impossible,

oTinffian while desertion of the Church's faith

Period. was unlawful and punishable. Besides
the earlier penalties there were now
added flogging for slaves and inferior persons, im-
prisonment in a monastery, and in the Visigothic
kingdom banishment, decalvation (scalping), con-
fiscation of property, money fines, the loss of secu-
lar dignities, and reduction to slavery. In this
period corporal punishment was applied to clerics
in major orders as well as minor. The performance
of works of penance was now enforced as a penalty,
either alone or with others, for life, for a fixed pe-
riod, or until amendment or removal by ecclesias-
tical superiors. The judicial system remained much
as before, except that the policy of the Visigothic
and Prankish kingdoms left little room for appeals

260

REUGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Juriwliotlon, Boolesiastloftl

to the pope. In regard to the judgment of clerical
offenders, the Prankish law was that crimes pim-
ishable by death or exile (treason, homicide, rob-
bery) were referred, in the case of bishops, to a
provincial or national synod, and when this had
pronounced sentence of deposition the offender
came under royal jurisdiction for death, banish-
ment, or confiscation. As to the lower cleigy, the
Church as early as the sixth century demanded a
change in the old Roman law, requiring the secular
courts to abstain from all action imtil the bishop
had proceeded against the accused in the way of
ecclesiastical discipline. The edict of Clothair II.
(614) conceded this in regard to priests and dea-
cons, and forbade the execution of capital punish-
ment upon them until they had first been deposed
by ecclesiastical authority.

From the ninth to the sixteenth century, the
system of jurisdiction received its further develop-
ment, and has remained practically unchanged in
the Roman Catholic Church since the latter date.

Partly through the Carolingian capit-
-i*L?!^* ularies, and then through a long series

of papal enactments, a number of

Oarolin-
glanand

j^^^ further secular penalties were imposed
Periods, upoi^ offenders, of the most varied
kind, including the deposition of kings
and princes, the absolution of their subjects from
allegiance, the piercing of the tongue for blas-
phemy, death for sodomy and abortion, withdrawal
of all conmiunication with Christians for Jews, etc.,
etc. The Roman Catholic Church has not yet
abandoned the medieval view that it is entitled to
inflict secular penalties, though in consequence of
the changed relations between Church and State
these have fallen into disuse against laymen, ex-
cept infamy regarded as a ground of irregularity;
and the Church is empowered by modem legislation
to inflict them upon the clergy only in the forms of
money fines and confinement in a house of correc-
tion. In the line of purely spiritual penalties, there
were added the local Interdict (q.v.), the refusal of
Christian burial as a separate penalty, suspension
from particular churchly rights, incapacity to hold
ecclesiastical offices, and the indignatio of the pope
(loss of papal favor and breaking off of conmiunica-
tion). Apart from the limitation of the prohibi-
tion of intercourse with excommunicated persons
(see Excommunication), a distinction was made
in the eighteenth century between suspension from
the privileges of church membership (for which in
this period the terms interdictum peraonale, inter-
dictum ingres8U8 ecdesiae came into use) and the
minor excommunication.

By the end of the twelfth century, in connection
with the development of the doctrine of the indeli-
bility of holy oriders and the struggle of the Church
to maintain the prirnlegium fori for its clergy, the
earlier penalty of deposition was distinguished into
two classes — what was now caUed deposition, and
degradation. The former deprived the offender of
his office and benefice, of the right to exercise his
orders, and of the capacity to be again employed in
the service of the Church; the latter, in addition,
took away from him all the privileges of the clerical
state, and delivered him over to the jurisdiction of

secular tribunals. This was employed only in defi-
nitely fixed grave crimes, especially heresy. Depri-
vation, which does not render the
*• -^j***^ offender incapable of holding another
J™^^ benefice, was seldom used before the
tion and ^^®^^^ century, but has been frequent
8iiq>en- ^^^' A modem variation of it is the
■ion. removal of a cleric from one benefice to
another less desirable one. Suspension
has also been developed in detail, and may be ab
officio, ab ordine, a beneficio, or toUUiSj from ail three.
The Council of Trent gave the right to bishops to
inflict suspension ab officio or ab ordine for a sin
not publicly known without any preliminary hear-
ing; the only recourse lies to the pope.

A distinction, first occurring in the Visigothic
kingdom at the end of the sixth century, has since
been made between poenae ferendae 8ententiae and
poenae latae aenteniiae. The latter class take effect
inmiediately upon the commission of the act with
which they are connected, without requiring any
judicial process. Excommimication and suspension
when they are penalties ferendae eenterdiaej require
a threefold or at least a single peremptory admoni-
tion before they can be imposed, thus giving the
offender an opportunity to avert the penalty by
the performance of due penance. From the twelfth
century on, both the popes and general and local
councils established an inordinate number of pen-
alties latae senlerUiae; but Pius IX., in the consti-
tution Apoetolicae aedie of 1869, abolished all those
which rested on the common law, the later general
coimcils, and the papal constitutions, with the ex-
ception of such as were established by the Council
of Trent, had to do with papal elections and the in-
ternal management of orders, congregations, col-
legiate bodies, and church institutions, or were ex-
pressly named in this decree.

In regard to the development of the matter cov-
ered by ecclesiastical penalties, in the Carolingian
period the offenses legislated against were in lai^
measure those of a grave moral nature,

^'rJmi**'* ^^^ ** sexual immorality, perjury,
^4^' and robbery. After the eleventh cen-
Panalty. ^^^* *^ papal legislation is deter-
mined predominantly by the hierarch-
ical interests of the Church, and directed against
heresy, the invasion of ecclesiastical liberties, the
subjection of clerics to secular tribunals, the ap-
propriation by laymen of ecclesiastical property,
lay investiture, and the like. It is true, however,
that a large number of penalties provided against
the neglect of spiritual duties (the keeping of Sun-
day, the Easter duty, fasting), and agahist robbery,
false coinage, desertion of children, tournaments,
false accusation, abuse of power, and so on; and
that the Church, by the erection of the " Truce of
God " (q.v.) into a general institution, did much to
put down a large class of crimes against person and
property. But in spite of all these undeniable
services to civilization, it still remains true that
where the criminal legislation of the medieval pope
is determined by any clear and consistent policy, it
is in cases affecting the position of the Church as a
hierarchical power.
If the earlier penal legislation of the Church is of

Jnrisdiotion, Boolesiastioal

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

270

a purely occasional character, with no attempt to
bidld up a thorough-going system, the same is true
to a large extent of the period from the fifteenth to
the eighteenth century, including the Tridentine
alone among general councils. And again, although
the council deals with such ethical crimes as duel-
ing, adultery, seduction and forced marriage, and
the papal constitutions with such others as big-
amy, sodomy, the slave-trade, piracy, wrecking,
and the bearing of false witness, they still impose
the majority of their penalties upon what may be
called hierarchical offenses. It is for these that
the latest constitution of the kind, the Apostolicae
sedis, maintains the penalties latae aentenliae, which
it keeps up for dueling and abortion alone among
offenses of a general ethical nature.

The principal organ for the exercise of ecclesias-
tical jurisdiction on this system is the pope, who
since the twelfth century has succeeded in main-
taining his claim to be the judex ordinarius singti-
lorum. The Council of Trent, however, following
the precedents of the Concordat of
7. The Basel and the Council of Constance,
k'^**! decreed that controverted questions
tioal Juris'- ^^^^^^ come in the first instance before

diotion. ^^® bishops. The direct jurisdiction
of the pope finds its greatest practical
significance in regard to the ecclesiastical dig-
nitaries whose immediate superior he is, the car-
dinals and metropolitans, and outside of these to
the bishops. The Council of Trent, in subjecting
the latter to his jurisdiction, did but confirm the
established medieval law from the end of the
eleventh century, that in all cases of serious of-
fenses, for which degradation, deposition or de-
privation were the penalties, they should be wholly
subject to papal decision, while less grave matters
might be dealt with by the provincial councils.

The Council of Trent, again following the two
earlier reforming councils, attempted to exclude
as far as possible the final decision of cases in Rome,
and so provided for the nomination by provincial
or diocesan synods of certain clerics to be known
as judices synodales to whom the pope might dele-
gate the decision of certain cases brought before
him. This arrangement never had much practical
significance, as the popes preferred to place appeals
in the hands of their nuncios or of archbishops and
bishops, or in some cases to give the nimcios the
appointment of those who should hear them. At
the present time many cases are finally disposed of
by the Roman congregations, especially the Con-
gregatio concUii and the Congregatio epiacoporum
et regularium (see Curia).

In regard to the competence of ecclesiastical ju-
risdiction, the Church has always claimed the right
to punish any violation of its ordinances either by
clergy or by laity, independently of the question
whether the offense was also against
8. Compe- secular law. As long as it employed

tenceof purely ecclesiastical penalties, there
tioal Juris- ^^^^^ ^ ^^ conflict tfetween the two

diotion. jurisdictions. This was the case not

only under the Roman empire but also

in the Merovingian and Carolingian periods — all

the more because the Germanic penal code con-

tained but few crimes on which public punishment
was inflicted. Up to the twelfth century the Church
was thus able to fill up a serious gap in penal legis-
lation by taking cognizance of a number of grave
crimes for which the secular law provided no pub-
lic penalty. When, from the twelfth centiuy on,
the latter began to increase the number of crimes
which it punished, conflicts could no longer be
avoided, and the secular tribunals protested against
the invasion of their rights by the Church courts.
In practise, then, there developed out of these con-
ditions a distinction of offenses into delida mere
aecularia, delida mere ecdesiasiica, and delida mixta
or mixti fori. No general agreement could be or
has been reached as to what constitutes the third
class, in which both secular and ecclesiastical au-
thorities have competence. Usually it has been
held to include the principal offenses against chas-
tity, usury, sorcery, magic, perjury, blasphemy,
and the forgery of papal briefs. For modem prac-
tice see below, II. The action of the Church against
secular offenses is thus confined nowadays almost
whoUy to the forum internum, i.e., to the imposition
of penance in the confessional; and the established
ecclesiastical courts only take part in the process in
so far as it is a question of cases reserved to the
pope or bishop for decision (see Casus Reservati).
The question of seciilar jurisdiction over the
clergy was raised early in the ninth century by
ecclesiastical reformers, with the help of the foi^-
genes of Benedictus Levita and the pseudo-Isidore;
and they succeeded to a large extent
9. Secular ^n enforcing their claim of Exemption
JuriBdiotion(q.v.). Throughout the Middle Ages,
over the indeed, secular rulers maintained their
Clergry. right to punish even bishops for a
breach of their obligations as vassals,
ofl&cials, or subjects, with imprisonment or exile;
but they made no attempt, except in rare instances,
to exercise a power of deposition, which by the
eleventh century was recognized as a right reserved
to the pope. In respect to the other clergy, the
Church's claim was never acknowledged for clerics
who were not recognizable as such by the tonsure
and clerical garb, and with the fourteenth centiuy
a strong reaction began against such exemption,
which finally led to its complete abolition in most
countries. The Church, however, still held to it
in theory, even in the Syllabus of 1864.

The opening of ecclesiastical proceedings was
conditioned from the earliest times by the notori-
ety of the offense, or by self-denunciation on the
offender's part, or by the accusation of another;
lo M thod °^ *^ might follow ex officio when the
of Fro- au^'horities had suflficient cause, as in
oedure. well-grounded suspicion. In all these
cases, the bishop might proceed first
by a brotherly admonition, on the basis of Matt,
xviii. 15-17 (the so-called denunciatio evangelica);
if the offender remained obstinate, formal trial and
punishment might follow, or in the opposite case he
might take upon himself the canonical penance
without being shut out of the conunimion of the
Church. From the fourth century the Church
adopted the Roman regulations in regard to accu-
sations: the formal charge to be signed by the ao-

271

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jnrifldiotion, BoolasUatioal

cuser, the obligation to prove the charge, and the
lex talioniSy instead of which excommunication was
frequently the penalty for accusers who failed to
follow up or to prove their charges. Under the in-
fluence of Germanic ideas, the Church further
adopted the oath of purgation, especiaUy in the
case of clergy who had been tried and not con-
victed, when some suspicion still remained. The
compurgators were dropped, and the process was
regarded less as a privilege of the accused than as
his duty, to clear himself from suspicion. In the
Carolingian period the Prankish Church employed
still more of the Germanic procedure; the accused
had the right to clear himself by an oath, and if it
was made with compurgators he went free of either
the charge or the suspicion (in case of ex officio
proceedings). Under the joint influence of the
Roman and Germanic systems, by the end of the
eleventh century this had become the conunon law
of the Church, except that the accuser in the case
of clerics was always required to prove his charge.
The purgatw canonica was opposed to the purgatio
vulgaris or Wager of Battle (q.v.), which the popes
were endeavoring to suppress. The objection to the
use of this method in ex officio proceedings, that it
allowed no objective investigation of the offenses
suspected to have been committed, and the need of
stricter discipline for the clergy, especially in view
of the increasing accusations brought against them
by the heretical sects, caused Innocent III. to re-
form the procedure in ex officio cases, distinguish-
ing two courses, per inquisUionem and per denun-
ciationem. The former was rather a disciplinary
than a criminal process, and permitted purgation
by oath when no positive result had been reached
by the investigation, or when the preliminary pro-
ceedings had raised a strong presumption in favor
of innocence. The other process required the de-
nundaiio evangelica to precede further action, which
followed the course of criminal procedure in case of
recalcitrancy. But this method gradually disap-
peared from the practise of the Church in conse-
quence of the limitation of its power over the laity
in criminal cases. There was the less need for it
when, as was frequently the case from the fifteenth
century, special officials (called promotores or pro-
curatores fiscales) were appointed as assessors to
the ecclesiastical courts, to investigate suspected
crimes or disciplinary offenses, bring them before
the courts, and represent the public interests at the
trial. By the seventeenth century, when the de-
nunciatio evangelica had ceased to be practical in
view of the office of these promotores^ and when the
requirement of an insinuatio clamosa or infamia for
the opening of a process per inquisUionem had lost
its significance, the place of both methods was
taken by a modified form of the latter, the purpose
of which was to establish the facts, whether they
pointed to the guilt or the innocence of the accused.
The purgatio canonica, for which in any case it was
increasingly difficult to find compurgators, was out
of place in this form of procedure, and disappeared
with the seventeenth century. Since papal legis-
lation had made no attempt at a universal recon-
struction of the penal and disciplinary procedure
from the pontificate of Innocent III. until the be-

ginning of the nineteenth century, the newer sys-
tem developed variously in different places; but
there was a general tendency, caused by the limi-
tation of ecclesiastical jurisdiction and by the di-
minution of the revenues which had formerly sup-
ported the courts, to dispense with all but the
essential forms. A similar tendency is displayed in
the instructions of the Congregation of Bishops and
Regulars issued in 1880, which sets forth an im-
proved and simplified form of procedure, to take
place privately and in writing, and allows the bish-
ops to use it when the older form is impossible or
inexpedient.

2. Administrative and OivU Jurisdiction: The
development of the civil jurisdiction of the Church
is described under Audientia £b>iscoPALi8. Be-
sides this, the imperial legislation expressly recog-
nized the competence of the bishops de religione,
i.e., in controversies to be decided according to
ecclesiastical rules, concerning, for example, the
right to the incumbency of Church offices. In Gaul
also such matters were under the jurisdiction of the
bishops and synods; but since there was a differ-
ence of law between Church and State, and the State
did not undertake to execute the ecclesiastical de-
cisions, those matters which required state action
(matrimonial causes, questions of church property,
etc.) came before the secular courts. In 614 the
Church succeeded in getting all cases de possessions
(questions of property, to be settled by award, not
by public penalty) in which the clergy were con-
cerned before its courts. In the Carolingian period
the claims of the Church were recognized by the
ordinance that disputes between clerics should be
settled by the bishop, and that the bishop should
sit with the court in any question de possessione
between clerics and laymen. In the Middle Ages
the Church succeeded to a great extent in enforcing
its contention that the laity had no competence in
ecclesiastical matters, helped by the contrast be-
tween the confusion or weakness of secular courts
and its own prompt and thorough execution of its
decisions, with the power of excommunication to
back them. According to the canon law, the spir-
itual courts took cognizance of all causae incidenteB
spirituales (those which touched the sacraments or
offices of the Church, especially marriage); the
caitsae spiritudlibus annexae (such as the right of
patronage, tithes, betrothals, wiUs, and agreements
ratified by oath); catisae civUes ecdestasiicis acces-
soriae (questions of dowry, legitimacy, etc.). Fur-
ther, all civil proceedings, in so far as the injustice
of one party could be construed as sin, might be
brought into the church courts; and so might the
cases of personae miserabiles (widows, orphans,
paupers, pilgrims), as well as those in which secu-
lar judges denied justice. Clergy, monks and nuns,
all ecclesiastical institutions, crusaders belonged in
any case to the ecclesiastical jurisdiction, except in
cases of feudal rights. Here also the Roman Cath-
olic Church still clings to these claims in theory,
although they have long ceased to be practical in
most countries. (P. HiNSCHrost.)

IL The Protestant Churches: The jurisdiction
exercised at the present time by the churches
of western Europe and the United States difFere

Jwifldtotion, Booleal— tloal

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

879

bolh in nature and extent from the jurisdiction
of the ancient and medieval Church. The
changes have been brought about very largely
by the changed relations of political
z. Modem and ecclesiastical institutions. These
Tkend. modifications have been developing
since the sixteenth century and
have paralleled the changes in doctrine and forms
of worship. They have at times originated with
the churches themselves, but more frequently have
resulted from the action of the civil power. While
the jurisdiction of the medieval Church covered to
a varying extent the institution of marriage, the
execution and probate of wills, and the descent of
property, and included also a considerable minor
criminal jurisdiction over the cleigy, the modem
churches are by the State deprived of such juris-
diction and confined to matters defined by the
civil power as purely spiritual in their objects.
Where an ecclesiastical body is by law established,
as is the case with the Church of England (see
England, Church of), the civU power fixes for
the Church its organization and jurisdiction. The
modifications since the Reformation have been
gradual. The changes in jurisdiction have been
most radical where, as in the United States,* the
Church has ceased to be a governmental institution.
The sphere of ecclesiastical jiuisdiction exer-
cised by the American churches has been outlined
by the supreme court of the United
3. Funda- States in the case of Watson vs. Jones
mental Law (13 Wallace, U. S. Reporto 679, as
in the follows:

United " ^ ^^ country the full and free right to

Of^tes. entertain any religious belief, to practise
any religious principle, and to teach any re-
ligious doctrine which does not violate the laws
of morality and property, and which does not infringe per-
sonal rights, is conceded to all. The law knows no heresy,
is committed to the support of no dogma, the establishment
of no sect. The right to organise voluntary religious asso-
ciations to assbt in the expression of any religious doctrine
and to create tribunals for the decision of controverted
questions of faith within the association, and for the eccle-
siastical government of all the individual members, congre-
gations and officers within the general association is un-
questioned. All who unite themselves to such a body do
so with an implied consent to this government and are
bound to submit to it. But it would be a vain consent and
would IcAd to the total suppression of such religious bodies,
if any one aggrieved by one of their decisions could appeal
to the secular ootirts and have them reversed. It is of the
essence of these religious unions, and of their right to es-
tablish tribunals for the decisions arising among themselves,
that those decisions should be binding in all cases of ecclesi-
astical cognisance, subject only to such appeals as the or-
ganism itself provides for."

This sphere of liberty for the purpose of religion
has been defined in detail by principles laid down
by the civil power. While modem states have in
some cases relinquished the power to legislate in
ecclesiastical matters, they have everywhere re-
served the power to define the sphere of ecclesias-
tical jurisdiction; and no matter what may be the
desires of a church body for added powers over its
members, the rule of the State is absolute. Mod-
em states, in defining the powers of bodies organ-
ized for the purposes of religion, have not enacted
formal codes stating the jurisdiction of such bodies
in detail; but they have laid down general princi-
ples in the civil courts in the adjudication of cases

brought about through church controvenies. The
civil courts of the United States have in the cen-
tury past developed some fimdamental principles
applicable to all the religious oiganizations of the
land which have become law wherever American
sovereignty has been extended. Similar principles
have been worked out by the civil courts in all
parts of the British empire.

The basic principle of modem ecclesiastical juris-
diction is that all ecclesiastical relations must be

voluntary both in their inception and

3. Elemen- in their duration. This rute applies

tary Prin- as well to church membership as to the

ciples. holding of ecclesiastical office. No

ecclesiastical relations are of the na-
ture of a civil contract in law. The closest juridical
analogy is to an obligation in equity. Such rela-
tions can be severed at any time without incurring
civil disabilities. The polity of the denomination
and the obligations laid down in a discipline as as-
sumed by a member do not, from the standpoint
of the State, change the voluntary character of the
relationship. Another elementary principle limit-
ing ecclesiastical jurisdiction is that the law of the
land is law for the churches. So much of the civil
law as applies must be read into the internal or
canon law of all religious organizations. So also
the internal law of religious bodies can validly con-
tain nothing that contradicts the principles of the
common and statute law of the land. The churches,
therefore, may enact no rule overriding, restrain-
ing, or ciutailing the civil rights of their members.
Nor can the churches make a valid attempt to ex-
empt their members from their civil and political
obligations. Thus a church body may not validly
discipline its members for exercising the elective
franchise or serving upon juries or taking up amos
in defense of the State. A further limitation of
ecclesiastical jurisdiction is found in the principle
that church courts can not with legal sanction ad-
judicate civil controversies among their members,
although the parties may have voluntarily sub-
mitted their cases to such courts. No decision can
be rendered that will bar the parties from their
right of appeal to the civil courts.

With these as fundamental principles of limita-
tion found in the polity of all the states of western

civilization, modem ecclesiastical ju-

4. Limits risdiction and discipline are definitely

of Ecclesi- limited to the conduct of moral and

astical Ju- spiritual operations, cooperation for

risdiction. the purposes of religion, propaganda

of faith, charity, and education. The
churches are at liberty to define their faith and to
regulate their own affairs. They may lay down
mles of conduct for their members and prescribe
what manner of life they shall live. Such a life,
however, must be in accord with the prevailing
standards of public morality, and such standards
are in the last analysis fixed by the exercise of the
police power of the State by the civil authorities.
In many instances modem religious organizations
have endeavored to prescribe for their members
modes of fife not in accordance with the prevailing
standards of public morality. There have been
attempts to institute abnormal relations of the

278

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jnriidiotioa, Boolasiaskioal

sexes, the infliction of physical suffering, cruel
penance, exhausting tests of phj^cal endurance,
and lewd assemblies, and acts which constitute a
disturbance of the public peace. All such acts on
the part of religious bodies bring about the inter-
vention of the civil power. No argument based
upon any assumed sanction of revealed religion
will validate such acts. Within these well-defined
limits the churches may exercise a complete and
detailed jurisdiction over their members. They
can bring members to trial for violations of disci-
pline and for acts and modes of life contrary to the
principles of their faith. They are at liberty to
prescribe the rules by which their courts shall be
organized and the procedure of trials. Such courts
eae under legal obligation to proceed according to
the law of the body that created them, and should
they not live up to their own law, their decisions
can be set aside by the civil coiuts.

The discipline that can be meted out to church

members upon the findings of church coiuts may

extend only (1) to admonition, (2) sus-

5. Legal pension of privileges, (3) penance,
Aspects of (4) exconununication, and (5) expul-
Discipline. sion from membership. If the church

law provides for an appeal to a higher
judicatory, such an appeal may not be refused by
the trial court. If an appeal be refused, the higher
judicatories may be compelled by the civil courts
to entertain it. If the decision of a church court
affects the civil rights as well as the ecclesiastical
relations of a church member, so much of the de-
cision as relates to the civil rights will be regarded
by the civil courts tia null and void, whUe due
effect will be given to so much of the decision as
affects purely ecclesiastical relations. Where mem-
bership in a particular congregation carries with it
the right of sepulture in a certain ground, the loss
of membership will result in the loss of that right,
as the civil courts have held that such a right is a
privilege that can be lost with membership. Mar-
riage, the annulment of marriage, and divorce are
now matters within the exclusive jurisdiction of
the civil courts, so that church discipline in rela-
tion to these matters is entirely without legal
effect and can affect only the ecclesiastical stand-
ings of the parties.

In general the same principles govern the jiu-i^-
diction that the churches exercise over their minis-
ters and other officials. Here the

6. Rela- modem jurisdiction is in deepest con-
tions of trast with that of the medieval Church.

Churches From the standpoint of civil law the
and holding of ecclesiastical office is en-
Officen. tirely a voluntary matter, no perpet-
ual tenure or obligation being possi-
ble. Any ecclesiastical office may be renounced at
any time without incurring civil disabilities. One
who accepts office in a religious body voluntarily
assumes the obligation to obey the rules of that
body not only in all matters pertaining to his
office but also as to the mode of life required of
him. Under the principles of modem ecclesias-
tical jurisdiction church office is not a civil right,
but is in the nature of a vested interest to be en-
joyed upon a certain tenure. In several ways the
VI.— 18

State recognizes the ministry of the churches. Or-
dained ministers and priests are among those au-
thorized by the State to perform the marriage cere-
mony, and such church officials are exempt from
jiuy duty and from enforced military service. The
civil courts will entertain the case of a church offi-
cial when deprived of his office in any other Tnmnnfti'
than according to the law of the organization to
which he belongs. The deposed official can ap-
peal to the civil courts for restitution and can
compel the church authorities to grant him a trial
according to the law of the body. If, however, he
has been duly tried and properly deprived of his
office, he has no redress in the civil courts, as he has
not been deprived of a civil right and his relation
to his churdi was not contractual Although the
discipline of a church body may require that its
ordained ministers refrain from seclilar employ-
ment as means of livelihood, an ordained minister or
priest has no claim on his church or superior offi-
cials for support imless such a daim is spedfically
recognized by the law of the church. The penal-
ties which may be prescribed by the judgment of
an ecclesiastical court rendered against an official
are: (1) censure, (2) the temporary suspension of
the right to exercise the functions of his office,
(3) deprivation of his office, and (4) expulsion from
church membership. No financial penalties can
be infficted nor can the defendant be compelled to
share the costs of trial. The church courts have
no power to compel the attendance of witnesses,
but they can compel, with the aid of the dvil
coiu-ts, the production of books and papers in the
custody of those over whom they, have jiuisdio-
tion. The proceedings of ecclesiastical courts
need not be made public, but in the event of testi-
mony being given in public or such testimony be-
ing subsequently published and proved false on
material points, such testimony may constitute
libel and an action will lie for damages for defama-
tion of character.

When there is controversy as to the person en-
titled to a church office, the dvil courts will not
take the initiative, but if a proper action can be
planned involving the title to property, especially
in the case of church trustees, the dvU courts will
take cognizance of the matter collaterally. Sudi
matters come within the equity jurisdiction of
the civil courts. The methods employed by the
dvil coiuts when they intervene in ^Ddesiastical
matters are usually the issue of writs of mandamus
directed to the ecclesiastical authorities compel-
ling certain action, or the issue of writs of injunction
restraining certain proposed action. In case a de-
posed church official has had in his possession
funds belonging to the organization, an action for
an accounting will lie in the same manner as against
any civil treasurer or trustee.

Gborgb Jambs Batlbs.

Biblxoorapht: For the early Church consult: Bingham,
OrigineM, II., iv.-viL; J. Fulton, Index eanonum; Qntk
text and Eng. iranaL and Comply Digeet of the , . , Code
of Canon Law of the . , , primitive Churd^, New Y<»k«
1883.

For the Ronum Catholic Church consult: Carpue jvrie
canonici^ ed. A. L. Richter and A. Friedberg, Leipde,
1879 (best edition); E. Friedberg, De fhnum inter eeeU-
eiam el civitatem regunderum ivdieio, Leipeie, 1861; W.

THE NEW aCHAFF-HERZOG

974

km. Sffains, 1864; P. Kober, Dim Sugpemaian tUr
^UNir. T>lbiB«Bii. 1862; idem, Dtpentian. mmd
Am, fiaefc icn OundMUam tUt ktrekliehtn BadUa, ib.

D. Booiz. Traeiatua dt jvdiciiB aedmiawhnM, 2 vola.,
1M6: N. SffOnefaeB. iXu kananiaekt Gmidkimmfaknn
Strafrwehi, 2 toIs., Colocne. 18M: J. F. too adinte,
C7i6<T Kvrdt0yinf€n, Berlin, 1872; F. Droate. Kinkn
Mekta DiaaipHnar nmd Kriminalvarfakrwn
VmAtrborn, 1881; C Kats. GnmdHM dm
Stmfnekia, Berlin, 1881; yum meardcttim vindiemta, St
York. 1883; P. PteyftatoneUi, iVoxu /ori arrfawflihn.
Room. 1883; P. HmKhiua, XirdUnrwAi ... in Dmteft-
tenil. ▼olii. ir.-Ti.. Beriizi, 1886-97; A. Niai. Dor Ga-
ridktwaiitmd daa KUrua im frikmkiaekan.
1888: A. L. Rieht«r. LtkHmdk daa .
If 208-210. 212-226. Leipoc. 1886; R. Sohm. GaiatUeha
GariekiabarkaU im frAmkiaekaH RaitK in Zaiiadarift far
KirehanradU, ix (1889). 193 aqq.; S. B. Smith. Elamamta
af Erriaakiatieal Law, 3 Toto.. Ncfw York, 1883; C. Gram.
LakrhwA daa kaAoiiadkan KinkanradUa, Vienna. 1894;

E. Friedberi. Lakrbvek daa . . . Kirdiamadkia, lOa 101.
103-107. Leiiwie, 1895; A. T. Wlrgman. Camaiiimiianal
AvOupritM af tka Biduypa in ika CaAolU: Ckwrdk. Sew York.
1899; J. B. SMcmOller. LakHmdi daa kathoHtd^an Kinian-
radUa, Freibuii. 1900-04; W. Ton BrOnneek. Baitrdaa xur
Oaaekiekia daa KirdtanradUa in dan dauiadkan Kaiamta -
ii&maiandan, 2 parts. Berlin. 1902-04.

For the German ETancelieaJ Chnrehee eoasnlt: O.
Mejer, KtrdtanaudU und KonaiaioriairKaaapatana, Roe-
toek, 1861; G. Galli, Dia Iwihariadian mmd catriniatiadkan
Kvrdianalntfan oagan Laian im BaformaHimaaaikiltfr, Bres-
iMi, 1879; A. L. Riehter. ut rap., if 211. 227-231; R.
Frank, XKc nauaran DiaaipUnargaaaiaa dar dauiaeh-aaatn-
§aHaehan Landaakirdun, Marburg. 1890; E. Friedbers.
nt rap., ii 102, 108-109; K. Kdhler. LdurhuA daa . . .
KirdianradUa, pp. 194, 258. Berlin. 1895.

For Protestant Chnrehee in Great Britain eonsolt: J.
Brownbill, Frineiplaa af Englidi Caiman Lam^ London;
1883; CanatUution and Lam cf (ka Ckurdk cf SeoOand,
Edinburih, 1884; Campanditan ef (ka Ada ef Ganaral Aa-
aambly BaiaHng to Proeadwa in Ckwrdk Courta, ib. 1886;
H. W. Grippe. TraaHaa on ika Law Baiahng to tka Ckurdk
and CUrgy, London, 1886; W. Mair, Dioaai of Lawa Ba-
JcrfiiV io tka Ckurdi of Scotland, Edinboxifa, 1887; F. H.
L. Errincton, Clargy LHaeipUna Ad, 18M, London, 1892;
T. B. Hardem, Cimrdi DiaeipUna, Cambridce. 1892;
J. Chitty, Staiutaa Balating to Ckurdk and CUrgy, London.
1894; R. J. Phillimoie. Eedaaiaatieal Law af tka CKank of
Sn^land. 2 Tob.. ib. 1895; F. W. If aitland. Boman Canon
Law in tka Ckurdi of England, Cambridce. 1896; H.
Hardy, Eeelaaiaatieal Proeaadinga undar tka CUrgy Disci-
pUna Ada, London, 1899; H. Miller. A Ovida to Eedaaiaa-
tieal Law, London. 1899; J. H. Blmit. Tka Book cf Ckurtk
Law, ib. 1901; T. E. Smith, atnmnary of tka Law and
Praetiea in tka Eedaaiaatieal Courta, ib. 1902; J. M. Dun-
ean. Tka Paroekial Eedaaiaatieal Law of Scotland, Edin-
buriih. 1903; W. H. Frere. Tka Belation cf Ckurek and
Parliamant in Btgard to EecUaiaatical DiaeipUna, Oxford,
1903; P. V. Smith. Tka Law of Ckwrdiwardana and Sidaa-
man, London. 1908; idem. Legal Poaition of tka Clergy, ib.
1906. For the United Stotes: E. Buck, EcelaaiaaHcal
Law, Boston, n.d.; R. H. Tyler, American Eedaaiaatieal
Law, Albany. 1866: M. Hoffman, Eecleaiaatical Law in
New York, New York, 1868; L. T. Townsend. Handbook
upon Ckurek TriaU. ib. 1885; C. B. Howell, Tka Ckurtk
and Civil Law, Detroit. 1886; S. B. Smith, ut sup.; also.
New Procedure in CrimitHil and Diaeiplinary Cauaea of
Eedeeiaetica, New York, 1887; W. D. Wilson, American
Ckurek Law, ib. 1889; H. J. Desmond, Tke Churdi and
tka Law, Chioago, 1898; and the literature imder Chxtbch
DiaapUNK.

JUSTICE, ETHICAL, AND EQUITY: Justioe
(in the ethical senBe) in itself is the maintenance of
positive legal order, assuring the peaceful and
thriving existence of human society, the supreme
political virtue — justitia regnorum fundamerUum,
Aristotle distinguishes jusHtia distribiUiva et car-
redxva. The first distributes riches, power, and
honor according to desert; the other compensates

for inequalhiefl and balances the loss and gain in
the tranaactioos of life. Justice provides the ex-
act proportion of duties and rights, and pimiahes
eveiy violation of positive legal order. Justice
establishes general lines of direction by laws, which
prove themselves emanations of justice whenever
they eorrespond to the original conception of right
and reveal it in the decisions and ordinances based
upon them.

Equity (Lat. aequitaSf Gk. xmUs) is to be asso-
ciated with justice. What the latter establishes in
a general way. sometimes appears insiifficient when
applied to the individual case — mimmum jua, gumma
injuria. What is just in general and what is in-
dividually just may diverge considerably. In such
a case equity regards and vindicates rationality of
natural right and corrects positive law in its too
wide or too narrow comprehension.

Justice as a personal quality is the demeanor of
man in accordance with the legal order, his recti-
tude. Its principle is exact compensation — tuutn
cuique. Boievolence can not stand in its place.
Rectitude obliges us to conscientious practising of
the law, even when thereby evil may arise to our
neighbor. It is wrong and contrary to our duty
to spare him out of fear or weakness. In actual
practise rectitude becomes probity or honesty.

Here also equity forms the morally indispensable
eon^lement of rectitude (CoL iv. 1). In our con-
duct toward our neighbor equity consists in yield-
ing up and desisting from our just claims, where,
relentlessly pursuing them, we should damage the
neighbor in a degree detrimental to charity; and,
on the other hand, in acknowledging and fulfilling
claims of our nei|^ibor on us which are not founded
on strict legality, if they are of true profit to him
and if we do not ne^ect other duties by complying
with them. In the union of rectitude and equity
alone true justice of moral conduct is achieved.

(Karl BuRGBRf.)

In theology justice has been given many signifi-
cations. In the doctrine of the divine attributes it
has been regarded as an inviolable characteristic of
holiness, and as such has been set over against love
as its opposite (see Holiness). It has, however,
been most important in relation to theories of the
atonement. On the one hand, justice has been de-
fined as " general " or " rectoral *' and " distribu-
tive," where " general " justice refers to the well-
being and " distributive " to what is due the indi-
vidual In the atonement the latter was conceived
as suspended in favor of the former (cf. E. A. Park,
The Atonement, DisoouneSf etc., Boston, 1859).
On the other hand, it has been maintained that jus-
tice (righteousness) must be satisfied before love
could ofifer pardon to the sinner (see Satisfa-ction).
The word has been employed also to designate the
original state of man as one of integrity, obedience
to God, and harmony of all personal powers. More-
over, it represents that renewed condition in which
man as forgiven stands toward God and his law —
a putative position to the unmerited favor of God.
In its deepest sense justice and love in God are
identical, while in man justice pertains to character
and voluntary actions.

d7ff

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jurisdlotion, Boclesiastioal
JusUfloatlon

I. New Testament Dootrine.

Paul's Doctrine of Righteousness

(ID.

Relations of Faith and Righteous-
ness (i 2).

Johannean Doctrine (I 3).

Other New - Testament Writers
(*4).
n. History of the Doctrine.

JUSTIFICATION.

Fbtristio Doctrine till Augustine

(ID.
Augustine's Teaohing (| 2).
Scholastic and Roman Catholic

Teaching (I 3).
The Lutheran Position (| 4).
Later Views (i 6).
Ritschl and Domer (I 6).
III. Doctrinal Discussion.

The Fundamental Position (11).

Justification Establishes New Rela-
tions with (3od (i 2).

Conditions of Justification (| 3).

Relations of Faith and Justifica-
tion (I 4).

Justification and Baptism (| 6).

Conclusion (| 6).

Additional Note (| 7).

L New-Testament Doctrine: In the Scriptural pres-
entation one starts naturally with Paul. He alone of
the first witnesses of the Gospel had the inner expe-
rience of the sharp opposition between Old-Testa-
ment piety and the new thing in Christ out of which
as an inevitable interpretation the doctrine of
justification arose. After his conver-

1. Paul's sion he was completely occupied with
Doctrine of the contrast between his own right-
Righteous- eousness and God's righteousness, be-

ness. tween the works of the law and faith,
between Law and Gospel. Any mis-
take alleged against Paul's earlier life could not be
attributed to the law; nor may one adduce a- rad-
ical distinction between Galatians and Romans.
Both affirm that the law was given " because of
transgressions " (Gal. iii. 19), " that sin . . . might
become exceeding sinful'' (Rom. vii. 13); in the
redemptive history, however, both see in the law
a divine ordinance, and in faith in Christ a fulfil-
ment of this law (Rom. xiii. 8, 10; Gal. v. 14).
For his failure to fulfil the law Paul blames neither
the law nor his own zeal (Phil. iii. 6). A bitter
experience had convinced him of the impossibility
of a perfect righteousness under the law. One who
with such sincerity and energy seeks to unify his
action, can hardly have failed before his conversion
to struggle with the doubt (cf. Rom. vii. 7 sqq.)
whether he could really fulfil the law of God. As
a Pharisee he could not resolve this doubt by a re-
newed effort after a righteousness of his own, and
therefore a righteousness proceeding from the law.
The appearance of the exalted Lord convinced
him that the one he was persecuting in the name
of God was the Messiah. This experience was in-
deed individual, but it was an instance of the uni-
versal weakness of man's fleshly nature (Rom. viii.
3) which no law could quicken (Gal. iii. 21). In
the Epistle to the Romans Paul showed that with
reference to justification by faith the Jew has no
advantage over the Gentile. The law which pro-
nounces a curse upon all men can not, however, be
given for this purpose, but for a '' schoolmaster, to
bring us to Christ " (Gal. iii. 24).

The righteousness of God with which the Gospel
is concerned can mean only either an attribute or
a relation of God (Rom. i. 17, 19), or else a right-
eousness created by God (II Cor. v. 20 ;

2. Rela- Rom. x. 3). In any case, it is directly
tions of opposed to Pharisaic self-righteouA-

Faith and ness under the law; having its sole
Righteous- source in God, man is only a recipient
ness. of it. The significance of faith ap-
pears in two characteristic passages
of Paul (Rom. iii. 26 and II Cor. v, 21). Thus
righteousness or communion with God is possible

in Christ, since only in him in virtue of his atone-
ment is there righteousness. This divine arrange-
ment for salvation must be realized by the subordi-
nation of man in the form of faith (Rom. x. 3 sqq.).
Legal justification being impossible, faith in Christ
alone remains. The distinction between law-works
and faith was for Paul the fundamental question of
religion, viz., whether communion with God is from
man or from God; if the latter, it can be experi-
enced by faith alone. Faith includes an intellec-
tual element — related to historical facts, as the
death and resurrection of Jesus, yet only so far as
by means of these facts Christ has become what he
b for man. According to its peculiar nature, how-
ever, faith is essentially trust in the person of the
Lord in its historical and present meaning. Where-
ever faith is there is also a condition of justification
as God's act. This signifies not a m^tlcing but a
declaring righteous (cf. Luke xviii. 14; Matt,
xii. 37; Gal. iii. 11; Rom. iii. 20, iv. 4; also the
notion of forgiveness of sin, Rom. iv. 7). Fur-
ther, this meaning accords with the entire under-
standing of Paulinism. Moreover, justification is
both a result and a completion of the historical
redemptive work of Christ. This has its continuity
in the Word, and aims at the justification of the in-
dividual. Paul does not teach empirical sinlessness.
He refers to a conflict of the flesh with the spirit
and does not underestimate the danger of a Chris-
tian's falling into sin. He even applied this warn-
ing to himself and toward the end of his life knew
of remaining imperfection; but this does not des-
troy the Christian position. One's safety lies in a
constant renewal of that which the Christian has
essentially, i.e., Christ and his righteousness.
Joined with this in Paul's thought was the cer-
tainty of future perfection and blessedness. He
urges the Christian to self-examination, but at the
same time to a looking wholly away to Christ in
faith. But faith is derived from the Holy Spirit,
in it is given the possession of the Spirit — a witness
of sonship, and even pledge and seal of salvation.
According to the Synoptics Jesus' preaching seems
at first opposed to Paul's message; over against
his doctrine of justification, Jesus emphasized the
permanent demand of the law, the judgment of
works and even reward for the same. One asks
only whether Paul's doctrine is a necessary infer-
ence from Jesus' self-witness. Jesus connects the
kingdom, salvation, and the judgment with his own
person, a fact which the disciples first understood
after his suffering and death. Two remarks of
Jesus concerning the meaning of his death (Matt.
XX. 28, xxvi. 28) coincide with the ideas of Paul.
With Jesus, forgiveness of sin occupies a central
place, likewise dikaiotyni, ** righteousness," al-

Jufltiflcation

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOO

276

though this both agrees with and diverges from
Paul's view. Paul's presentation of the kingdom
of God as a gift corresponds with that of Jesus.
Jesus distinctly emphasizes the mutual relations be-
tween the religious and the ethical aspect of son-
ship. On the ethical side as a condition of entering
that kingdom there is repentance. Faith is con-
ceived as the right relation to Christ — ^trust not
merely in his wonderful power to help, but in his
person. Faith affirms that in him the kingdom of
God has come and that he is the Messiah. Jesus
complains of lack of faith, prays for increase of his
disciples' faith, and he designates those as his fol-
lowers who have faith in him. Of this the Pauline
teaching is only a continuation.

The self-witness of Jesus, according to John,
stands in close relation to the Pauline circle of
thought, yet with its own characteristic features.
Paul's secret of religion recalls John's living com-
munion with God. The Synoptics

3. Johan- designate this as divine sonship, which
nean in John is mediated through Jesus.

Doctrine. Here both the person of Jesus and
faith in him are far more strongly ac-
centuated; also the saving significance of his death.
The central good is the "life," which includes the
forgiveness of sins — a present salvation and a future
perfection. In sonship the ethical and religious
elements are inseparable and conditioned through
faith in Jesus and a new birth, wherein one discerns
a leaning toward the Pauline view of the new birth
as mediated by faith. In faith the aspect of trust
is not lacking, but the intellectual element is con-
spicuous. There is an approach to Paul's idea of
faith — ^the mystic fellowship with Christ. Nor is
the ethical element wanting: " he that is bom of
God doeth no sin" is an ideal judgment and is to
be understood empirically, as is Paul's statement
that the Christian is dead to sin. More strongly
than Paul, John affirms that the Christian is de-
ceived who declares that he does not sin. Divine
sonship is traced wholly to God's love, and the
Christian is led to ground his salvation not on his
love to God but on God's love to him, guaranteed
in the sending of his Son and the atonement for sin.
In the rest of the New-Testament writings, James'
ESpistle mainly demands attention. The author's
interest is wholly practical. The Christian com-
munity is presupposed, but the content of faith is
never developed and no warning to the Christian
community rests on it. Owing to un-

4. Other certainty in the date of this epistle,
New-Testa- no intentional polemic against Paul

ment can be affirmed. One must, however,
Writers, reckon with the possibility that James'
presentation was directed against a
practical abuse of Pauline preaching. James holds
that a separation of faith and works is impossible ;
rather does faith prove itself alive through works.
With reference to other passages in the New Testa-
ment: at Pentecost, salvation is connected with the
person of the crucified and risen Christ, and forgive-
ness of sins with faith in him. With this agrees I
Peter, where, however, faith appears rather as trust
in the redemptive activity of Jesus, and the ethical
element and fear before God are strongly accentu-

ated. The Epistle to the Hebrews accords with
Paul's view in emphasizing perfection (vii. 11) in
Christ's work, and forgiveness of sins in baptism,
as well as the enduring high priesthood of Cluist.

n. History of the Doctrine: Outside of the
canonical Scriptures one seeks in vain for a full con-
ception of the Pauline doctrine of justification.
Christianity is imperfectly imderstood. Men were
aware of something completely new in Christian-
ity, but could not specifically distinguish this from
the law; thus Christianity was in

I. Patristic danger of becoming a new law, and
Doctrine faith an obedient acceptance of re-
till vealed doctrine, to be completed by

Augustine, works. Of the Apostolic Fathers,
Clement did not gain complete under-
standing of the Pauline faith. For salvation faith
and works are combined, and even forgiveness of
sins is mediated through love. Ethical action is
based on the conunand of God. For Barnabas the
content of the Gospel was the forgiveness of sins, yet
he teaches that the way of light is the fulfilling of
the law. In the Ignatian Epistles the thought not
of faith but of the indwelling of God and Christ is
prominent. Ignatius relates faith to the historical
person of Christ and especially to his death — a
trust which rescues from death. From him comes
the formula, " first faith, then love." The Shep-
herd of Hermas and the second Clementine Epistle
are the classic representatives of a Christianity
which is profoundly convinced of the essential
significance of faith as the foimdation and power
of the entire Christian position, but for the prac-
tise of the Christian life lays all weight on obe-
dience to the divine requirements. Faith and
works are the saving formula, and the doctrine of
merit is adumbrated: fasting is better than prayer,
alms better than both. In Hermas appears the
thought of a supererogatory action which may
hope for recompense from God. By Tertullian and
Cyprian the notion of merit was made at home in
the Church. Tertullian also marked out the path
by which the Roman Church has sought to adjust
merit to the religious character of Christianity.
He knows of a supernatural endowment by which
one is qualified for meritorious action. On the
other hand, he does not know of a grace through
which one becomes pleasing to God. Thus the en-
tire Christian life is under the stamp of fear. The
understanding prepares for a distinction between
naiura and gratia, but uses it only to obliterate the
opposition of graJtia and merit. It was more fatal
still that the doctrine of Tertullian was made
effective by the authority of Cyprian. Almsgiv-
ing is paraUeled with the forgiveness of sins through
baptism. No longer is justification by faith held
in the Pauline sense; faith is acknowl^gment of
the truth; it is trust only as an expectation that
God will not withhold reward for meritorious deeds.
Yet one must not conclude that for actual piety
the Evangelical thoughts of the Scriptures had
wholly disappeared. These were still influential
for personal piety. Augustine reminds those who
cavil at his notion of grace of the prayers and in-
stitutions of the Church. Even tl^ Didache had
required confession of sins before the sacrifice of

d77

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jmtiflofttlon

the Lord's day. And Tertullian's piety was not
simply self-righteousness, as one may see from his
tractate on baptism and his writing oonoeming
repentance. Jovinian, as opposed to the idea of
a special reward for supererogatory action, such as
that of virginity, admits only a Christian position
which rests on Christ and is established by faith
and baptism, in which the Father and Son dwell in
the believer.

More clearly than Augustine, Ambrose rests sal-
vation and the certainty of it on the historical work
of Christ. Yet he advances the doctrine of merit,
ulm8gi\nng, and especially virginity. To Augus-
tine more than to any one the Roman Church owes
its doctrine of justification. For him

2. Augus- Christianity is a present rest in God
tine's — a conception, shaped, although not

Teaching, immediately, by his experience, first,
of distance from God, and then by the
inward commotion of a finding of God. His earlier,
differing from his later, teaching on sin and grace is
drawn not directly from his conflict with Pelagius
but from his study of Paul and from Neoplatonic
sources. His personal experience is for him the
key, and as with Paul and later with Luther sin
and grace are the two poles of all Christian knowl-
edge. Outside of grace mankind is a ''mass of
lost souls " which may through God's grace be re-
united to God. According to Augustine the Law
said: " Do what thou orderesti " the Gospel: "Give
what thou orderesti " That is, grace is preeminently
a power of religious and ethical renewal. Concern-
ing forgiveness of sins Augustine holds that (1)
baptism as foundation of Christianity confers for-
giveness of sins; (2) forgiveness is bound to justi-
fication; (3) there exists a continual foiigiveness
even for the baptized Christian. Fruitful for piety
is the personality of Christ — his inner life, his
humility, his entire manifestation the highest proof
of love, his death the ground of forgiveness of sins.
But grace through Christ ^ present by means of
''word and sacrament,'' not clearly connected with
Christ's historical work but in the strict sense crea-
tive. As operating or prevenient it establishes, as
cooperating it alone sustains, the Christian position.
r>om it comes justification, i.e., renewal, which
makes one actually righteous; instead of evil con-
cupiscence comes good concupiscence. The entire
Christian life becomes a process of sanctification
wherein is merit which the Christian must gain for
himself. He teaches a justification by a faith that
work.s through love. In De fide et operibtu, along
with faith, works arc so emphasized as to make this
writing valuable to Roman Catholic histories of
dogma to-day. lie approaches the Reformation
doctrine when he gives a more mystical turn to
faith — such a union with Christ that all that is
Christ's becomes ours. In love to God a present
life from and in God is attained. But here is no
personal certainty of salvation.

Scholastic theology adhered to Augustine's di-
dactic definitions, at the same time it was influ-
enced by the religious impulse originating in him.
Yet here Semipelagianism and Augustinianism ap-
peared in many shades of conflicting differences.
According to tho Trident ine confession, justification

is not simply, but includes, forgiveness of sins.
According to Thomas Aquinas, it is a consequence
of forgiveness of sins — a physical infu-
3. Scholar- sion of grace. Other church teachers
tic and regard the connection as ethical, thus
Roman its elation to the historical redemptive
Catholic work is uncertain. The infusion of
Teaching, grace is variously interpreted: the
substance of the Holy Spirit is planted
in men (Peter the Lombard); sanctifying grace is
identified with love (Duns Scotus); the Tridentine
seeks to combine both views. Later dogmatics
side with Thomas. According to the Roman teach-
ing, justifying grace is a pure gift of grace — a heri-
tage from Augustine. Merit {meritum de condigno)
is first groimded on sanctifying grace, while the
corresponding action of man is rewarded by infu-
sion of justifying grace (meritum de congruo). Con-
cerning this the 'j^dentine was silent. Later the-
ology teaches that grace is not given for merit.
Yet if one does what he can he may humbly hope
that God will lend his grace. Others do not admit
a psychological necessity of a preparation for re-
ception of grace. In the Roman (Catholic Church
the increase of grace received, eternal life, and the
winning of a higher glory in that life are subjects
of himian merit. According to Thomas the three
signs of a state of grace are: joy in God, scorn of
worldly things, consciousness that one is not guilty
of mortal sin.

For Luther the fundamental question was con-
cerning the gracious God, and how one might be
justified in the judgment of God. Through a pain-
ful experience in the complete renunciation of his
own righteousness, he understood the Pauline word
— ^by grace alone through faith in ClJhrist. Justifi-
cation includes not merely forgiveness,
4. The which has precedence, but inner justi-
Lutheran fication. Grace is pardoning mercy,
Position, and faith is trust. Christ himself in
his person and his historical work is
man's righteousness. The law can only increase sin
and it demands God's righteous judgment against
the sinner. The law must indeed be preached; yet
God's proper work begins when he comforts the
alarmed conscience by the gospel of forgiveness in
Christ. Wherever faith lays hold on Christ and
becomes one with him, Christ's righteousness be-
comes our righteousness; God declares man right-
eous and forgives his sin. Thus CJhrist becomes the
power of a new life. Later, Luther speaks of a be-
ginning, an advancing, and a completed justification
yet to be hoped for. Never coidd faith by reason
of an inner quality be regarded as justifying. The
Christian position is grounded in God's grsdous
judgment. Luther warns against confusing the
certainty of salvation with the feeling of it. He
combines baptism and justification but without
precise theological treatment. Through Melanoh-
thon the doctrine of justification received its fiirst
symbolic form (The Augsburg Confession, q.v.).
We are righteous before God, not "by our own
strength, merits or works," but by faith alone.
Justification is grounded in Christ and is mediated
by faith alone. In the " Apology " the impelling
interest of the Reformation against the Roman

^'ttfltifloAtion

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

978

dootrine first came to dear expression. In the
Formula of Concord all himian action is excluded
as a condition of the certainty of salvation; justi-
fication as distinguished from regeneration is in-
terpreted as forensic, the righteousness of Christ
is imputed so that sins are forgiven, and the doc-
trine of justification is so formulated that nothing
whatever in man but simply the historical work of
Christ is the true ground of salvation.

The later dogmatists distinguished not merely

between the hiunan and the divine aspect of the

appropriation of Christ's righteousness (Baier), but

within faith itself a certainty before,

5* Later in, and after regeneration (Quenstedt).
Views. The certainty of salvation was to be
experienced by looking wholly away
from self to Christ as the promise. Thus the proc-
ess of justification was conceived as purely trans-
cendental for which faith is only an essential pre-
supposition. According to Burk, who presents this
view, justification is withdrawn from all vacillation
of the inner life so that assurance becomes possible
to those whose peace has been disturbed. But the
question arises as to the criteria of faith. The
Lutherans presupposed the universality and prom-
ise of Christ's redeeming work; to the Reformed
who restricted this to the elect, personal assurance
of salvation must be gathered from the works of
faith as supematiually caused. Schleiermacher co-
ordinated justification with conversion; to be taken
up into living commimion with Christ is, as a
changed form of life, conversion, as a changed
relation to God, justification. He, however, con-
ceives this as purely general and progressively real-
. Some theologians resolve the objective proo-
of justification into subjective consciousness,
others emphasise the ethical aspect. Hengsten-
beig toward the end of his life distinguished stages
of justification; according to Beck, in justification
mediated through Christ one enters on a condition
of life where on the one hand all earlier sins are
wiped out, on the other hand a new ethical condi-
tion is awakened which must express itself in right-
eousness of conduct; with Martensen the justify-
ing power of faith lay in God beholding in it the
seed-corn of future blessedness, and in the pure will
the already realised ideal of freedom. In the so-
called Bornholmer movement (see Bornholmers),
since the world is justified in CSirist, justification is
identified with his redemptive work and faith is
simply a becoming aware of what one has in Christ.

Ritschl combines justification with the historical
woric of Christ. In Christ the community is so far
justified as God reckons to the community belong-
ing to Christ the position which Christ himself
maintained toward God, and for his sake admits the
oommunity to fellowship with himself. The indi-
vidual is justified on the groimd that

6. Ritschl through faith in the Gospel he is a
and member of the community. Justifi-

Dorner. cation and reconciliation have the same
content. Reconciliation is the result of
justification. Ritschl's entire treatment has en-
during significance on account of the many problems
involved, especially the relation of justification to
the historical work of Christ and to faith. Dorner

characteristically emphasized the historical deed of
reconciliation in relation to the Christian's present
position: faith is thus simply '' the assiinilating
organ " of forgiveness already complete so far as
the divine aspect is concerned. Justification is
identified with reconciliation: the central signifi-
cance, the express founding, and the certainty of
justification on the basis of the historical work of
Christ is a peculiar characteristic of Cremer's the-
ology.

nL Doctrinal Discussion: A comprehensive dis-
cussion of this subject must be limited to the clear
presentation of the controlling interest and the
simplest possible designation of the points on which
it depends. Communion with God and personal
assurance of this stand or fall together. If Chris-
tianity is a present personal communion with God,

a necessary and radical implication is

I. The that it can only be a conscious expe-

Fttnda- rience. This being established, one

mental has further to ascertain whether the

Position. Christian can be certain of it. There

is finally only the alternative, the initi-
ative of communion with God is wholly from God
or wholly from man. Whenever the question con-
cerning commimion with God wakens in a man, it
always occurs at first in his desire to make himself
pious, and so to work in fellowship with God. This
has its source in the painful consciousness of sepa-
ration from God in sin; if one recognizes his re-
sponsibility for this, it is quite natural for him to
establish his own righteousness before God. Yet
in all such attempts, on account of their abiding
imperfection, one does not escape from inward un-
certainty. This has, however, its objective ground:
only from God himself can men be admitted to
communion with him. It is therefore a more cor-
rect understanding when the Catholic view refers
the initiative in the entire process of justification
definitely to God, and sees the final ground of justi-
fication in a justifjring act which proceeds from God;
this, resulting from suitable preparation and made
fruitful in congruous activity, assures one of eternal
life. In reality, however, what is here under dis-
cussion is such a kind of mediation as brings vividly
to consciousness how every attempt to effect recon-
ciliation actually points man after all to his own
self-doing, and thrusts him into inner imcertainty.
But one can arrive at an actual assurance of a gra-
cious state only when he is clear that this rests
solely on God's offer, and that nothing remains for
him except in faith to appropriate this divine gift,
or rather to let trust in it be begotten in him. God
has completed this offer of himself in the work of
Christ in which, through an atonement for sin, he
has reconciled the world to himself. In so far, then,
certainty of salvation is based wholly upon a jus-
tice outside ourselves: the righteousness which has
been created by Christ's undertaking in man's be-
half is the real groimd, or, on the ground of his suf-
ferings and death, he now represents man before
God. So far, however, as that historical work of
Christ reaches man only in the Word and the sacra-
ment therein contained, the Word and the sacra-
ment are the ground of assurance. Later on, these
positions will require completion and confirmation.

270

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDU

JustiiLoatloil

But they designate the central interest which can
not be surrendered; that form of the doctrine of
justification can alone be adequate which satisfies
this interest.

It is now plain in what sense justification as a
forensic act is to be understood. If communion
with God is established only by him,
a. Justifica- and if, on the other hand, both on ac-
tion Estab- count of the personal nature of this
lishes New relation of communion and because of
Relations the remaining imperfection of the jus-
with God. tified, the thought of a magic trans-
formation is excluded, then the justi-
fying act of God on which the Christian position is
based can be thought of only in the form of a gra-
cious judgment of God which is not analytic but
synthetic. In a word, since the justifying act of
God does not first of all contemplate the establish-
ing of a new ethical quality in man, but the found-
ing of a new relation to God, it must be understood
not as the confirmation of an ethical quality exist-
ing in man, but simply as a judgment of God's gra-
cious will which passes over the sinner and in and
with forgiveness of sins justifies and takes him up
into communion with God. Even faith, without
which there can be no justification, may not, as a
meritorious attainment, be made the real groimd
of justification, nor may the continuance of the
state of justification be grounded in part on the
life-work of the Christian as a completing of God's
act of justification. On the contrary, from begin-
ning to end, the Christian position rests exclusively
on God's gracious judgment, so that this, in spite
of remaining imperfection, depends solely on aflOirm-
ing the judgment of faith. As a matter of terms,
one may question whether God's relation to the
sins of the justified person is to be interpreted as
daily forgiveness or with older dogmaticians as a
continuous justification. According to the former
phraseology, the fundamental character of God's
justifying act comes indeed to the clearest possible
expression, but one may doubt whether the believer
can avoid thinking of the daily forgiveness of sins
as a constant and radical renewal of his relation to
God. In any case, by the acceptance of the notion
of a justification continually renewed one is not
warranted in supposing that the Christian position
is composed of ever new additions. On the con-
trary, a continuous state of grace is grounded in the
original divine act of justification.

If, however, the continuity of this gracious state
is due to the historical work of Christ, but origi-
nates and is sustained by the gracious judgment of
justification, it follows at once that under all cir-
cumstances justification and the historical work of
Christ must be brought into the closest connection.
But the limits within which this con-
3. Condi- nection is to be sought are designated
tions of Jus- by the following propositions: (1) jus-
tification, tification may not be identified with
the historical work of Christ — the Bib-
lical connection between justification and faith
would be obscured and the reality of a reciprocal
communion of God and man lost. (2) It would be
a relapse into the Roman Catholic way of think-
ing to see in the historical work of Christ only the

general ground of possible justification — manifestly
the final decisive ground of the divine justifying
act of God must then be somehow sought in man
himself. If one carries through the combination
already suggested in the Biblical presentation, then
an adjustment between the apparently divergent
interests is possible only when justification is un-
derstood as an actual fulfilment of God's offer of
himself as completed in the historical work of
Christ. Paul does not conceive that the reconcilia-
tion in Christ renders the demand " be ye reconciled
to God " (II Cor. V. 20) superfluous; rather he
sees in the word of reconciliation the necessary ac-
complishment of reconciliation. On the other
hand, he believes that in the Gospel righteousness
is disclosed and made efficacious. A combination
of these two lines of thought compels one to see
that God's historical offer of himself in the work of
Christ endures in his Word and so reaches the in-
dividual. It is not the fact that God has reopened
the way of access to himself in his historical rev-
elation, while man must work his way through
to God in reliance on the divine deed; on the con-
trary, self-disclosure of God in the Word efifectively
reaches the individual, and wherever through God's
offer of grace one lets himself be won to trust in
this, the judgment of justification is passed upon
him, and this both objectively and subjectively
establishes the condition of justification.

The same conclusion follows from the answer to
the other question — What position and meaning
belong to faith in the act of justification? That
faith alone can be regarded as justifjring is clear
from the foregoing (III., § 1); there it was re-
marked that the justifying power of faith may not
be found in its ethical quality. If fellowship with
God rests solely on Christ's redemptive
4. Rela- work and the righteousness procured
tions of by it, then faith can be regarded simr
Faith and ply as the assimilating organ and as
Justifica- justifying only on account of the ob-
tion. ject apprehended by it. The peculiar
difficidty first emerges in the question,
how this understanding of faith which is to be
maintained under all circimistances is consistent
with the other proposition which must be as firmly
emphasized, that only where faith exist is there jus-
tification. Does not the latter position indeed in-
volve that somehow on man's part faith appears as
an efficient condition of justification? In reality
this consequence would be unavoidable if one had
to suppose that man — always of course under the
influence of the Word — first himself ripens faith in
Christ, and then God completes the judgment of
justification on the groimd of confirming this faith
as if it were a finished achievement. The element
of truth in such a view is that in fact faith in the
strict sense is an offering of Christ to the wrath of
God, and precisely for this reason justification comes
to pass by means of it. Evidently these proposi-
tions which aim to complete the doctrine of justifi-
cation really point to such a method as will not
allow faith to appear in any way as real groimd of
justification. If, on the other hand, the conclusions
just indicated are to be drawn, this means nothing
less than that the original interest of the Reforma-

eimi doetiiiw wouid Im ffirnadend. For tiie Cbrb-
wMbl then t^n be direetcfi :o gnxmd hn
of Mivtcioii bynsdeeCHM upon hinuelf.
lA, on the lauiMaiett of fsith in hianelf. Tlien
woM be ao pUuK for a simpie aad ndieal ground-
'mt^tjieiirrMntf on Chrwt aimI the Word to whidi he
vitiMmed. Hktiifexilj that kind of jijdgment of jiis-
titfaation, whieh amoonSA to a eonfimiatioa of fftith
^ktmAf ezMtinif^ in man, can not be thoogfat of at
mediate by the Gonpel; and a<s*in a nj^seitioa of
mefe a judipment of justifieation eould not be pre^
«mC«d by meaiM of the Gospel. For the Word.
aiwther it in apiplied to the individual aa a saera-
mental word w an abnohitioo, can nerer <ntabliih
the exifitenee in nuui of a qualifieatioo of justifiea-
tiOA, btjt remainn jiimply an aetive offer of the ixn>-
vwmI promine. If, therefore, one believes that the
fisafity of the proeem of justifieation can be de-
ImmM only when it is interpreted as eonfinnation
of €atmtfn$^ faith, then one must not deceive himself
bf sopposinK that a eorroboration of audi a justify-
ta^ jad|(inent must be soui^ht in an immediate
wttttess of the .Spirit, or won by reflection on the
criteria of faith. The Reformed way, on the con-
trary, which allows the assurance of salvation to be
experienced only in the trust springing from the
promise, points in another direction — ^justification
iB mediaterl by the Gospel, so that the word of
promise becomes itself a justifying judgment
whererer it is able to awaken acceptance in man.
Thus the position is fully warranted that only where
faith exists is there justification, and faith justifies
only because it makes Christ avail before God : Christ
Is indeed the central content of the Word and he
it Is who is apprehended in the Word. Accordingly
Justification takes place before God and not in
the heart of man — in the strict sense an act of
Qod, an/J not a conscious process in man. Only in
Mm way is it seriously maintained that every action
of God necessarily aims at establishing a present
communifin with himself. But this is manifestly
not attainerj by a purely transcendent process.
Where justification is mediated by the Gospel, the
meaning is that this rightly demands trust for and
in itself; where man trustfully accepts this, he has
what he Ijelieves; justification and a state of com-
munion with Grxl is subjectively and objectively
realiserj. (>no can make this plain to himself in
the simplest possible way with reference to abso-
lution. Aljsoliition is not confirmation of a faith
existing in man, nor an ineffective announcement
of a forgiveness bound to conditions; just as little
does it bring forgiveness to all who hear it irre-
spective of their faith; but being an efficacious
nfter of forgiverieHs, it is really forgiveness wher-
ever it is received in faith. Thus understood, jus-
tification and certainty concerning it are grounded
in faith. This excludes neither a possible nor an
actual M'rioN of degrees in faith and in certainty;
the completion of the divine justification is of sig-
nificance for faith. Here then the Biblical writers
have their place, acconling to whom, where faith
and jtistification an*, there the Holy Spirit who was
alnNMly active in man for this end becomes for the
liellevor a imrsonal possession in such a way that
ho witnoNHos to the existing kinship with God and

sppean le its «al and pledge. Qenee it m
bie CO apprehend the #i*tn*«g of troth in the dis-
*'inetion of £suxii before and after juatifieatian, ^^wH
in the disdnccion of JTiscineacian and eoufummtion.

The last intimasians. if they are to
cme form, 'iepend on. the answer to
qT^escion which eui not be solved in thk article.
The foregoing dacnasian suflen from an unavoid-
able abstncdoa in that it can not
S- Jwsf ifi* a- show whether the original justification
and is mediated by the Word or by bap-
tiflm. in the can of children or adults.
In fact, manifold difficulties mi^ ob-
scurities beset the treatment of the subject when one
does not jeriousiy consider how the general proposi-
ciood cGneemxng justification are neceaaarily modi-
fied according as they are put to the test in a ccm-
munity of those who were baptised in infancy, or
are maintained in the nuasioQ field. It is, e.^., plain
how the question of the relation of confirmation to
jijstification gains a wholly different m^^niiig when
it is put on the basis of child-baptism. Yet these
questions can not be settled here because they pre-
suppose the understanding of baptism (see Bap-
tism, I.-II.). Only this, however, may be directly
inferred from the treatment of the doctrine of the
Scripture, that justification and h^ii^ are to be
combined. If this is true in the first instance of
baptism itself, then it must of necessity apply to
child-baptism, if only this is regarded as a real bap-
tism. Here the question concerning the relation
of justification and faith takes on a new imHtniwg
and raises serious difficulties. For a solution of
these a path has already been so far prepared as it
was expressly emphasized how faith springs from
the divine o^er. In any case, one must believe
that in the baptism of adults there is a completion
both of the divine offer of salvation and, under its
influence, of faith, and just in this way the Chris-
tian position is both objectively and subjectively
established. With reference to the baptism of
children, it is to be maintained imder all circum-
stances that even in such cases faith, which affirms
baptism, must somehow grow out of baptism. But
the question, whether and in what sense one is to
connect the origin of faith with baptism, con not
here be settled.

The discussion concerning the nature of Chris-
tian assurance begun in III., § 1, may now be
completed so far as need be in accordance with
what bos been established in III., §§ 2-5. First
then one may formulate the signifi-
6. Condu- canoe of Rom. viii. 16 for the assurance
sion. of salvation. If faith in the historical
divine revelation, by which the Chris-
tian position is created, takes place only by the Holy
Spirit, the inunanent certainty of the Christian there-
in given could not maintain itself without the con-
tinuous witness of the Spirit. This repudiates the
Methodistic view which will experience this witness
of the Spirit in an immediate feeling of peace; pref-
erable is the Lutheran view which has the entire
economy of salvation on its side as it relates the
continuous witness of the Spirit to the historical
process of salvation, mediating this by the Word
and the sacrament. Yet the strictly supernatural

REUGI0C8 ENCYCLOPEDIA

jMtIa

character ot that witness may not be lost sight of;
in this, as well as in the possession of the Spirit, the
Christian lias the pledge of hia salvation. lu the
same way may be defined the significance of self-ex-
amination for Christian assuraoce. If the Christian
position is connected with faith, the serious Chris'
lian can not avoid testing faith and salvation by the
criterion of the whole life. On the other hand, it can
be of service to one in trouble when faitb is hidden
from him to become certain of it by means of its
criteria. In both of these ways this self-examina-
tion is to be conceived as a point of departure.
One recognizes the normality of the Christian as-
surance in its unreflecting appeal to the divioe deed
wliich produces the Christian position. All finally
comes to this, that the pledge of faith is also the
pledge of certainty. If the existing Christian posi-
tion is assured to faith by historical divine revela-
tion, apparently there is no occasion to go behind
tiiat historical revelation to an eternal counsel of
God. Yet in reality not merely the Reformed view
but also tlie Formula of Concord makes predestina-
tion fruitful for Christian assurance. In fact, re-
course to this can not be dispensed with by one
who seeks an assurance not simply for the present
but also for the future. Only one must add im-
mediately, certainty concerning one's election is to
be sought in Christ alone. But wherever the be-
lieving Christian, so long as he believes, is certain
of the divine election, he knows that his entire sal-
vation, present and future, is in the hand of the
eternal God, Two points yet require mention, the
brevity of which bears no relation to their signiB-
cance^ (I> in the neoeasarily personal nature of
faith and assurance of salvation one may not for-
get that these will be experienced in the community
of believers in which the Word and the sacrament
are in use; and (2) this is in precise analogy to the
first — the energy with which, in the matter of the
certainty of salvation, the entire life is related to
God and to God alone, may not obscure the other
truth, that after all man meets God only in the
concrete reality of an individual life, and he there-
fore experiences and maintains the certainty of sal-
vation in the limitless riches of the concrete situa-
tions ot thb life. Only where this is understood
does one avoid isolating the witness of the Spirit
from the actual life. And now it is possible to
make fruitful the profound thought of James, that
the Christian is blessed, and that too not by means
of his deed but in hb deed. (L. H. Ihmei«.)

While a majority of critical authorities favor the

forensic interpretation of dikaioun, " pronouncing

righteous," as the only meaning in Paul's writings,

there is a not inconsiderable number of scholars

who defend the view that it also sig-

7. Addi- nilies " making or becoming actually
tional Note, righteous." Among the passages dted
to substantiate the latter claim are
Kom, iii. 24, 26, 28, 30, vi. 7; Gal. ii. 16, 20, v. 6.
That this word is there and in other places iLsed in a
real sense is evident from a variety of considerations,
such as, the forensic view is inconsistent with an in-
telligible interpretation of Paul's words referred to
above; the real interpretation alone meets tha exe-
geticalaQdratioaaldemanda; and inallthepuwges

(fi^ioiM/n£, " righteousness," is used in the proper
sense as the basis of the judgment. Two further
argiunents for this position are adduced: the prin-
ciple of character running through the whole of life
is one and the some, being that on which the final
judgment is based; faith which works by love is
the essential principle of righteousness and is ao-
cordingly an inward quality of ethical excellence.
Even when a forensic judgment is signified by di-
kaioun, this is grounded not in an outside condi-
tion but in an actual inner virtue. It does not, tike
works, make a demand on God, but it constitutes
a ground on which one is forgiven who forsakes hia
sin and identifies himself with Christ. Some of
those who hold this general view of dikaioun restrict
its main reference to the initial moment of conver-
sion, while others extend it to cover the entire period
of Christian experience^ — one is justified according
OS he is sanctified. Justification may relate to that
aspect ot the new hfe in which the person freely
and progressively accepts the grace of God in
Christ, white sanctification refers to the gradual
inner purification ot the sources of desire, thought,
and will. C. A. B.

Biblioqbafht: Od the N, T. >ide eoiuult the oorki 00
N. T. theology. eipeciBily thsL ol BeyKhlag; (he litsn-
(uie on the Apaitts Paul^ R. A. Lipaiiu. Dit pouIini*(A«
RechifertiiPingtUhre. LeTpnc. 1853^ E, Itiffgflnb&ch. Dim
AedU/crhtruniiiMir da ApatUU Paalut, Btuttsv*. 1867;
H. Cremer. fii( paulinitduRechlferliiiunalUllrt.aatenlob.
1900; K. F. Ntacen, Dcr SeiiriflbniitU fUr di» nangilucha
RtdaltTligaagtlehrt. HiJLe. 1601; C. aemen. Poului, Min
UUn and Wirkin. 2 vols., Giowen, lOM; C. B. Wood.,
The Orvpil of Riahttiaa. A SIvdu >n Ptuliw) PhOtMipliv.
LoDdoD. lODU.

On the dosmatiD and bislorical sidei oonault; O. 8.
Fiber, Tht Primitiva Doclrim (/ JuaO/Uatum, LondoD,
1S3S; 0. BuU, Uannony af St. Paul and St. Jamn m
JtuUfiration. 3 vols., in Librorv nf Anolo-Catliolu Thiol-
on, Oxfor<l. 1S41 eqq.: C. A. Hsurtley. JuMtifltaiiim. lb.
1846; G. Juakln, A TrBaUtt an Jattiflcalion, rhiladelphia.
I8S0: P. D. Buric, RtiMfertiguttQ uttd Vtrtirlttrvnt. aiutl-
gut, 1S64; C. OiDlinandely. Tin Ptolalant Doctrine of J tit-
liSUation . . . Canfulid. London. ISM; 1. Bucliuiui. Th*
Doetrint of jualiflcation. Edinbumb, 1867; A, RitachI,
Critital Hitl. of Ua CArulian Dac^nti of JiHtiflcaUm
and Ruconeaiation. ib. tSTZ; C. Hodge. BuHmatie Tll*-

.. Ne*

., 1873; R, >

Trtatite cm Jiutifttatum, New York. 1878; I. A. Donwr.
Sgilim of Chriilian OocfriM. pauim. ■> vols.. EdinbUTBh.
1880-82; J. H. Newman. Lectura on tlu Docbin* <^ Jm*-
tifka^BH. London. 1886; J. T. B«ck, Variau>\«tii tttm
rkriiaieht Gioubtndfkrt:. a to1«., Gdlersloh. 1886-87: T.
R. Birlu, Jutliflralion and Imjtulnd Riehlrmitniu. ib. 188T;
J T.O'BritB. An Attnmptlo BijiUii'i and Btlabliih Oh Doo-
Irint afJuttiflealion bv Faith onl;,, Dublin, 1887; W. O. T.
ahedd. Dogmalic Tlua/ogs/. a. MS «qq., New York. 1888; H.
B amilb. Sj/ilmi of Chriitian TKeolooii' ed. W. 8. Kan. pp.
522-562; ib, 1890; H. Biuhnell, Vimriouj Baerifla, u.
177 aqq,, ib. 1891; E. V, Gerharl. /nal>lul» of Iht Chrit-
lian Rtlioion, ii. 7I7-7B9. ib. 1894; J. Miley, avtataUt
Theolom, ii. 308 eqi.. ib. ISBl; K. V. FoaUr. SinUmatic
Tluclcini. PP. 678 Bqq.. Naahville. Teon., IS08; J. Um-
phenHiD. CKrittian DoamaHci, PP. 370-387. Edinburxh.
IseS; J. WUhelm and T. B. a»anell. Manual af CoOo-
lic Tlw^u. ii. 24B sqq.. London. 1901; H. W. BoldeD.
Juikflealvni bv Failh, ib. 1902; A. R. SUong. Syilrmalie
Tlteolon. PP. 47)^483. New York, 1902; H. C. G. MoulB.
JutHflcation bv Failh, London, 1903: Ihe literature on
Luther, and in general Ibe worka on the hiatary of doo-

TUSTIN: A Gnostic writer refuted by Hippol-
ytus (//OCT., V. 18-22, X. 11; ANF. v. 69-73, 145).
According to him there are three principles in the
universe, two male — the Good and the Fotlier of

Justin Martirr

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

all things, abo called Elohim — and one female,
called Eden and Israel, who had the form of a
snake from her waist downward. From the inter-
course of Elohim and Eden arose twelve paternal
and twelve maternal angels; through whose medi-
ation men were formed from the noble parts of Eden,
and from the ignoble parts animals. Men were
provided with a soul by Eden and with a spirit by
Elohim. Eden was deserted by Elohim, who went
aloft to sit at the right hand of the Good. Eden
now filled the world with sin and evil, and fought
with Elohim, having the maternal angels on her
side. Elohim sent Baruch, the third paternal
angel, to aid the spirit of man which had been
overcome by Naas, ** the serpent," the third ma-
ternal angel. Baruch found Hercules who per-
formed his twelve labors against Eden, but at last
was overcome by Eden by means of Omphale.
Finally Baruch found Jesus who withstood the ser-
pent, which brought about his crucifixion, when
his spirit returned to Elohim, but his body and
soul to Eklen. The initiated, who faithfully keep
the oath of Elohim to keep the mysteries and not
to turn from the Good to the creature, enter into
the Good and drink of the water of life. To under-
stand more fully the relation of Justin to the other
Gnostics see Ophites. (G. KRt^oER.)

Bxbuoorapht: W. MdUer, Ouchichte der Ko^mologie in der
gneehi9cKen Kirche, pp. 241-248, Halle. I860; A. Hilgen-
feld, in ZWT, v (1862). 446-152; idem. Die KetMerge-
aehiehte dee UrchriuUrUume, pp. 64, 67, 270, 277. Leipsic,
1884; G. Salmon, in DCB, iii. 587-589; idem, in Herma-
thmta, ad (1885), 380-402; H. St&helin, in TC^, vi. 3 (1801).

JUSTIN MARTYR.

Life and Writings (11).

The " Apology " (| 2).

The " Dialogue " and " Reatirreotion " (| 3).

Justin '8 Theology (I 4).

His Conversion and Teachings (i 5).

His Doctrine of the Logos (| 6).

[The facts of the life of Justin Martyr, the famous
Christian apologist of the second century, so far as
they are known, are gathered chiefly from his own
writings. He was bom at Flavia Neapolis (the
ancient Shechem and modem Nablus) in Pales-
tine probably about 114. He suffered
I. Life martyrdom at Rome under Marcus
and Aurelius when Rusticus was prefect of
Writings, the city (i.e., between 162 and 168).
He calls himself a Samaritan, but his
father and grandfather were doubtless Greek or
Roman, and he was brought up in heathen customs.
It seems that he had property, studied philoso-
phy diligently, became converted to Christianity
(see below, § 5), and thenceforth devoted his life
to teaching what he considered the tme philosophy,
still wearing his philosopher's gown to indicate
that he had attained to the truth. He probably
traveled widely and ultimately settled in Rome as
a Christian teacher.] The earliest mention of Justin
is found in Tatian {Qratio ad GraecoSf xviii., xix.),
who calls him " the most admirable Justin,'' quotes
a saying of his, and says that the Cynic Cresoens
laid snares for him. Irenaeus (Haer. I., xxviii. 1)
speaks of his martyrdom, and of Tatian as his dis-
ciple; he quotes Mm twice (IV., vi. 2, V., xxvi. 2),

and shows his influence in other places. Tertul-
lian {Adversus ValerUinianos, v.) caIIs him a phi-
losopher and martyr, and the earliest antagonist of
heretics. Hippoljrtus and Methodius also mention
or quote him. Eusebius deals with him at some
length (Hist, eccL, iv. 18), and names the following
works: (1) The " Apology " addressed to Antoni-
nus Pius, his sons, and the senate; (2) a second
" Apology " addressed to Marcus Aurelius and
Verus; (3) the " Discourse to the Greeks," a dis-
cussion with Greek philosophers on the character
of their gods; (4) a ** Hortatory Address to the
Greeks "; (5) a treatise " On the Sovereignty of
God," in which he makes use of pagan authorities
as well as Christian; (6) a work entitled " The
Psalmist "; (7) a treatise in scholastic form " On
the Soul "; (8) the " Dialogue with Trypho." He
implies that a number of other works were in or-
cuLation; from Irenaeus he knows of the apology
" Against Marcion," and from Justin's " Apology "
(i. 26) of a " Refutation of aU Heresies " (Hia.
ecd.f IV., xi. 10). Epiphanius (Haer.f xlvi. 1) and
Jerome (De vir. iU.^ ix.) mention Justin. Rufinus
borrows from him the Latin original of Hadrian's
letter. After Rufinus Justin was not known in the
West for a long time, and the Eafitem writers got
their knowledge of him mainly from Irenaeus and
Eusebius, or from spurious works. The Ckromcon
Paschale is possibly independent in assigning his
martyrdom to the year 165. A considerable niun-
ber of other works are given as Justin's by Arethas,
Photius, and other writers; but their spuriousness
is now generally admitted. The ExposUio rectae
fdei has been assigned by Dr&seke to Apollinaris
of Laodicea, but it is probably a work of as late as
the sixth century. The CohorUUio ad Graecos has
been attributed to Apollinaris of Laodicea, Apol-
linaris of Hierapolis, and others. The Epiatola ad
Zenam et Serenumy an exhortation to Christian liv-
ing, is dependent upon Clement of Alexandria, and
is assigned by BatifTol to the Novatian Bishop Si-
sinnius (c. 400). The extant work under the title
" On the Sovereignty of God " does not correspond
with Eusebius' description of it, though Hamack
regards it as still possibly Justin's, and at least of
the second century. The author of the smaller
treatise " To the Greeks " can not be Justin, be-
cause he is dependent on Tatian; Hamack places
it between 180 and 240. For another work wrongly
attributed to Justin, see Diognetus, Epistle to.

On the other hand, the authenticity of the two
" Apologies " and the " Dialogue with Trypho " is
universally admitted. They are preserved only in
the Sacra parallda; but, besides that they were
known by Tatian, Methodius, and Eusebius, their
influence is traceable in Athenagoras, Theophilus,
the pseudo-Melito, and especially Tertullian. Euse-
bius speaks of two ** Apologies," but he quotes them
both as one, which indeed they are in substance.
The identity of authorship is shown not only by
the reference in the '' Dialogue," cxx., to the
** Apology," but by the unity of treatment. Zahn
has shown that the ** Dialogue " was originally
divided into two books, that there is a consider-
able lacuna at chap. Ixxiv., as well as at the be-
ginning, and that it is probably based on an actual

888

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDU

J'listin Xftrtyr

occurrence at Ephesiis, the personality of the Rabbi
Tarphon being employed, though in a Hellenized
form. The treatise " On the Resurrection," of
which extensive fragments are preserved in the
Sacra parallela, is not so generaUy accepted. Even
earlier than this collection, it is referred to by Pro-
copius of Gaza (c. 465-528), and Methodius ap-
peals to Justin in support of his interpretation of
I Cor. XV. 50 in a way which makes it natural to
assume the existence of a treatise on the subject,
to say nothing of other traces of a connection in
thought both here, in Irenaeus (V., ii.-xiii. 5), and
also in Tertullian, where it is too close to be any-
thing but a conscious following of the Greek. The
" Against Marcion " is lost, as is the ** Refutation
of all Heresies " to which Justin himself refers in
'' Apology,'' i. 26; Hegesippus, besides perhaps
Irenaeus and Tertullian, seems to have used it.

Of the date of the '' Dialogue " it can only be

said that it was later than the " Apology "; the

time of composition of the latter, however, can be

determined with comparative closeness. From

the fact that it was addressed to Antoninus Pius,

Marcus Aurelius, and Verus, its composition must

fall between 147 and 161. The refer-

2. The enoe to Felix as governor of Egypt,

'' Apology." since this can only be the Lucius

Munatius Felix whom the Oxyrhyn-

chus papyri give as prefect Sept. 13, 151, fixes the

date still more exactly. Its occasion is evidently

a recent occurrence, and the Chromcan of Euse-

bius gives 152-153 as the date of the attacks of

Cresoens. What is designated as the ^* Second

Apology '' was written as a supplement to the first,

on account of certain proceedings which had in the

mean time taken place in Rome before Lollius

Urbicus as prefect of the city, which must have

been between 150 and 157.

The purpose of the " Apology " is to prove to
the emperors, renowned as upright and philosoph-
ical men, the injustice of the persecution of the
Christians, who are really the representatives of
true philosophy. Chaps. i.~xii. give the prelimi-
nary negative proof; chap. xiii. begins a positive
exposition of what Christianity really is. Chris-
tians are the true worshipers of God, the Creator of
all things; they offer him the only sacrifices worthy
of him, those of prayer and thanksgiving, and are
taught by his Son, to whom they assign a place
next in honor to him. This teaching leads them
to perfect morality, as shown in their teacher's
words and their own lives, and founded on their
belief in the resurrection. The doctrine of the
Logos made flesh is specially emphasized in xxi.,
xxii. What interferes with belief in this fact is the
deceitful work of demons (xxiii.-xxvi.), in contrast
with which Christian righteousness is still further
described (xxvii.-xxix.). Then follows the proof
that Christ is the Son of God from Old-Testament
prophecy, fulfilled in every detail (xxx.-l.), no
matter what evil spirits may pretend (liv.-lvii.);
even Plato learned from Moses (Iviii.-lx.). The re-
maining chapters (Ixi.-lxvii.) give a glimpse of the
daily life of Christians at the time — baptism, com-
munion, and Sunday worship. The supplemen-
tary or " Second Apology " depicts the behavior

of the Christians under persecution, of which the
demons are again set forth as the instigators.

In the " Dialogue," after an introductory seo-
tion (i.-ix.), Justin imdertakes to show that Chria-
tianity is the new law for all men (x.-xxx.), and to
prove from Scripture that Jesus is the Christ (xxzi.-
cviii.). The concluding section (cix.-cxlii.) dem-
onstrates that the Christians are the
3. The true people of God. The fragments of
" Dialogue" the work ** On the Resiu-rection " be-
and gin with the assertion that the truth,
'' Resur- and God the author of truth, need no
rectk>n." witness, but that as a concession to
the weakness of men it is necessary
to give arguments to convince those who gain-
say it. It is then shown, after a denial of un-
founded deductions, that the resiurection of the
body is neither impossible nor unworthy of God,
and that the evidence of prophecy is not lacking
for it. Another fragment takes up the positive
proof of the resurrection, adducing that of Christ
and of those whom he recalled to life. In another
the resurrection is shown to be that of what has
gone down, i.e., the body; the knowledge concern-
ing it is the new doctrine in contrast with that of
the old philosophers; the doctrine follows from the
command to keep the body in moral purity.

Flacius discovered " blemishes " in Justin's the-
ology, which he attributed to the influence of pagan
philosophers; and in modem times Semler and S.
G. Lange have made him out a thorough Hellene,
while Semisch and Otto defend him from this
charge. In opposition to the school of Baur, who
considered him a Jewish Christian, A. Ritschl has
pointed out that it was precisely because he was a
Gentile Christian that he did not fully
4. Justin's understand the Old-Testament f ounda-
Theology. tion of Paul's teaching, and explained in
this way the modified character of his
Paulinism and his l^al mode of thought. M. von
Engelhardt has attempted to extend this line of
treatment to Justin's entire theology, and to show
that his conceptions of God, of free will and right-
eousness, of redemption, grace, and merit prove the
influence of the cultivated Greek pagan world of
the second centiuy, dominated by the Platonic
and Stoic philosophy. But he admits that Justin
is a Christian in his unquestioning adherence to the
Church and its faith, his unqualified recognition of
the Old Testament, and his faith in Christ as the
Son of God the Creator, made manifest in the flesh,
crucified, and risen, through which belief he suc-
ceeds in getting away from the dualism of pagan
and also of Gnostic philosophy.

In the opening of the '' Dialogue," Justin relates
his vain search among the Stoics, Peripatetics, and
Pythagoreans for a satisfying knowledge of God;
his finding in the ideas of Plato wings for his soul,
by the aid of which he hoped to at-
5. His tain the contemplation of the God-
Conversion head; and his meeting on the sea-
and shore with an aged man who told him
Teachings, that by no human endeavor but only
by divine revelation could this blessed-
ness be attained, that the prophets had conveyed
this revelation to man, and that their words had

Justin Xartyr
Justinian I

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

d84

been fulfilled. Of the truth of this he assured him-
self by his own investigation; and the daily life of
the Christians and the courage of the martyrs con-
vinced him that the charges against them were un-
founded. So he sought to spread the knowledge
of Christianity as the true philosophy. He had,
like others, the idea that the Greek philosophers
had derived, if not borrowed, the most essential
elements of truth found in their teaching from the
Old Testament. But at the same time he adopted
the Stoic doctrine of the *' seminal word," and so
philosophy was to him an operation of the Word
— in fact, through his identification of the Word
with Christ, it was brought into immediate connec-
tion with him. Thus he does not scruple to de-
clare that Socrates and Heraclitus were Christians
(Apol,, i. 46, ii. 10). His aim, of course, is to em-
phasize the absolute significance of Christ, so that
all that ever existed of virtue and truth may be
referred to him. The old philosophers and law-
givers had only a part of the Logos, while the whole
appears in Christ. While the heathen, seduced by
demons, had deserted the true God for idols, the
Jews and Samaritans possessed the revelation given
through the prophets and awaited the Messiah.
The law, however, while containing conunand-
ments intended to promote the true fear of God,
had other prescriptions of a purely pedagogic na-
ture, which necessarily ceased when Christ, their
end, appeared; of such temporary and merely rela-
tive regulations were circumcision, animal sacri-
fices, the Sabbath, and the laws as to food. Through
Christ the abiding law of God has been fully pro-
claimed. In his character as the teacher of the
new doctrine and promulgator of the new law lies
the essential nature of his redeeming work. The
idea of an economy of grace, of a restoration of the
union with God which had been destroyed by sin,
is not foreign to him. It is noteworthy that in the
" Dialogue " he no longer speaks of a '' seed of the
Word " in every man, and in his non-apologetic
works the emphasis is Laid upon the redeeming acts
of the life of Christ rather than upon the demon-
stration of the reasonableness and moral value of
Christianity, though the fragmentary character of
the latter works makes it difficult to determine
exactly to what extent this is true and how far the
teaching of Irenaeus on redemption is derived from
him. Still, it is safe to say that Justin's theology
is characterized throughout by an ethical strain.
Faith does not justify but is a preliminary to jus-
tification, which is accomplished by repentance,
change of heart, and a sinless life according to God's
commandments. Baptism confers the remission
only of previous sins; the Christian must there-
after show himself worthy of union with God by a
life without sin. In the Eucharist he shows his
devotion by offering bread and wine and by prayer,
receiving in return the food consecrated by a for-
mula of Christ's institution, which is the flesh and
blood of the incarnate Jesue, and by which our
flesh and blood are nourished through a kind of
transformation (kata metaboUn).

Justin is confident that his teaching is that of the
Church at large. He knows of a division among
the orthodox only on the question of the millen-

nium and on the attitude toward the milder Jew-
ish Christianity, which he personally is willing to
tolerate as long as its professors in their turn do
not interfere with the liberty of the Gentile con-
verts; his millenariamsm seems to have no con-
nection with Judaism, but he believes firmly in a
millennium, and generaUy in the primitive Chris-
tian eschatology.

His use of the idea of the Logos has always at-
tracted attention. It is probably too much to as-
simie a direct connection with PhUo in this particu-
lar. The idea of the Logos was widely
6. His familiar to educated men, and the

Doctrine designation of the Son of God as the
of the Logos was not new to Christian the-

Logos. ology. The significance is clear, how-
ever, of the manner in which Justin
identifies the historical Christ with the rational
force operative in the universe, which leads up to
the claim of all truth and virtue for the Christians
and to the demonstration of the adoration of Christ,
which aroused so much opposition, as the only
reasonable attitude. It is mainly for this justifi-
cation of the worship of Christ that Justin emplojrs
the Logos-idea, though where he explicitly deals
with the divinity of the Redeemer and his relation
to the Father, he makes use of the Old Testament,
not of the Logos-idea, which thus can not be said
to form an essential part of his Christology.

The importance which he attaches to the evi-
dence of prophecy shows his estimate of the Old-
Testament Scriptures, which are to Christians ab-
solutely the word of God, spoken by the Holy
Ghost, and confirmed by the fulfilment of the
prophecies. Not less divine, however, is the teach-
ing of the apostles, which is read in the assembly
every Lord's Day — ^though he can not use this in
his " Dialogue " as he uses the Old Testament. The
word of the apostles is the teaching of the Divine
Logos, and reproduces the sayings of Christ au-
thentically. As a rule he uses the synoptic Gos-
pels, but has a few immistakable references to John.
He quotes the Apocalypse as inspired because pro-
phetic, naming its author. The opposition of Mar-
cion prepares us for an attitude toward the Pauline
epistles corresponding to that of the later Church.
Distinct references are found to Romans, I Cor-
inthians, Galatians, Ephesians, Colossians, and
II Thessalonians, and possible ones to Philippians,
Titus, and I Timothy. It seems likely that he
also knew Hebrews and I John. The apologetic char-
acter of Justin's habit of thought appears again in
the Acts of his martyrdom (ASB, Apr., ii. 108 sqq.;
Ruinart, Acta martyrum^ Regensbuig, 1859, 105
sqq.), the genuineness of which is attested by in-
ternal evidence. (N. Bonwetsch.)

Biblioorapht: Lists of literature are given in ANF, Bib-
liography, pp. 21-26, and in J. M. Baldwin, Dictionary of
PhUoaophy and P»ydu>logy, iii. 1, pp. 285-286. The best
edition of the Opera is by J. C. T. Otto, 2 vols., Jena.
1843, reproduced by W. Trollope, 3 vols.. London, 1845-
1847, and in Corpua apologetfirum CkriBtianarum, 3 vols.,
Jena, 1876-81, and in MPO, vi. 227-^00. 1571-1600, cf.
1181-1564. The adifioTynnceps was by R.Stephanus. Paris,
1551 (Greek), followed by one by F Sylburg, Heidelberg,
1593 and often (Qreek and Latin); and that by P. Maranus,
Paris, 1742 (the best before Otto, critical). There have
been many editions of the single works. The best Eng.

885

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Justin ICartyr
Justinian I

tranfllations Are in the Dtbrary <4 ^ F<alA«rf» ed. E. B.
Pusey, J. KebTe, and J. H. Newman, Oxford, 1861, and
in AJVF, i. 163-302.

On the life and worlu of Justin consult: K. Semisch,
JutUn der MOriyrer, 2 vols.. Breslau, 1840-42, Eng. trans!.,
Edinburgh. 1844; idem. Die apoitolitchen Denkuritrdia-
keiten dee MOrtyrere Juetinue, Hamburg. 1848; J. C. T.
von Otto, De Juetini Martyrie eeripHe et doetrina^ Jena,
1841; A. Hilgenfeld. Kriiieche Untereuekunoen Hber die
Evangelien Jtuiine, Halle, 1850; J. Kaye, Same Account cf
the Life and Writinge of Juetin Martyr, Cambridge, 1863;
G. Volkmar, Uri>er Juetin . . . und eein VerhdUniee su
uneem Evanijelien, Zurich. 1863; C. G. Seibert, Juetinue
der Vertheidiger dee ChrietenOiume vor dem Thron der
Caeearen, Elberfeld, 1869; C. E. Freppel. Lee Apolooietee
chritiene au 11. ei^le; 8. Juetin, Paris. 1860; W. M6Uer,
Die Koemologie in der grieehiecKen Kirehe bie auf Origenee,
pp. 112-188. HaUe. 1860; D. H. de Puiseau. De Chrie-
tologie van Juetin Martyr, Leyden, 1864; J. Donaldson,
Critical Hiet. of Chrietian Literature and Doctrine, ii. 62-
344. London. 1866; L. Aub<$, S. Juetin, philo^opke et
martyr, Paris, 1875; J. Drummond. in Theological Re-
view, xii (1875). 471 sqq.. xiv (1877). 155 sqq.. xvi (1879),
360 sqq.; [W. R. Casael.] Supernatural Religion, i. 288-
428. ii. 271-316. iii. 15-17, London. 1875 (brilliant but
criticised as rationalistic); B. F. Westoott, Hiet of the
Canon of the N. T., pp. 59-177. ib. 1875; M. von Engel-
hardt, Dae Chrietentum Juetine dee MOrtyrere, Erlangen,
1878 (reviews previous discussions); A. St&hlin, Juetin
der MOrtyrer und eein neueeter Beurtheiler, Leipsie, 1880
(opposes Engelhardt); T. Zahn in ZKG, viu (1885). 1-
84; F. W. Farrar. Livee of the Fathere, i. 93-117, New
York, 1889; O. T. Purves. The Teetimony of Juetin Mar-
tyr to Early Chrietianity, ib. 1889; Mre. M. E. Martin. Life
of Jtutin Martyr, London, 1890; W. Smith. Dictionary
of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, ii. 682-
687. ib. 1890; C. Qemen. Die religionephiloeophiedte Be-
deutung dee etoiech-chrietlichen Eiulamoniemue in Juetin'e
Apologie, Leipsie, 1891; E. Huth, J%utin Martyr, P&ris,
1894; L. Waterman. The Poel-Apoetolie Age, pp. 141-156
et passim. New York. 1898; S. Juetin et lee apologietee du
t. elide. Pahs, 1907; A. L. Feder. Juetin dee Mdrtyrere
LehrevonJeeueChrietue, Freiburg, 1908; W. Walker, Great-
eet Men of the Chrietian Church, Chicago, 1908; KrOger,
History, pp. 105-117; Hamack, Litteratur, passim, consult
Index; idem. Dogma, vols, i.-iv., passim; idem in TU, i.
130-195. Leipsie. 1882; Ceillier. Auteure eacrie, I 408-448;
Neander. Chrietian Church, i. 661-771 et passim; Sehaflf,
Chrietian Church, ii. 710-726 et passim; Moeller. Chrietian
Church, i. 172-175; DCB, iii. 560-587 (should not be
overlooked). The subject is treated at greater or less
length in the works on the church history of the period,
one phase appears in the discussions on the Fourth Gos-
pel, another in the treatises on the History of Doctrine,
while the works on the Introduction to the N. T. are also
to be consulted.

JUSTINIAN I., EMPEROR OF THE BAST.

Life (I 1). Ecclesiastical PoUey (| 3).

Religious Policy (I 2). Relations with Rome (I 4).

Writings (i 5).

Flavius Anicius Julianus Justinianus was bom,
probably May 11, 483, at Tauresium (120 m. n.w.
of Saloniki); d. at Constantinople Nov. 13 [14],
565. dooming to Constantinople during his youth,

he completed the usual course of edu-
I. Life, cation, busying himself mainly with

jurisprudence and philosophy. His
mother being a sister to the highly esteemed Gen-
eral Justin, Justinian's military career was one of
rapid advancement, and a great future was opened
up for him when, in 518, Justin assumed the gov-
ernment. Consul in 521, later in command of the
army of the e.ast, he was virtual regent a long time
before Justin made him associate emperor, on Apr.
1, 527. Four months later he became the sole sov-
ereign. His administration was of world-wide
moment, constituting a distinct epoch in the his-

tory of the Byzantine Empire and the Eastern
Church. He was a man of unusual capacity for
work, temperate, affable, lively; but also unscrupu-
lous, and crafty. He was the last of the emperors
who attempted to restore the Roman Empire to
its former glory. For this end were his great wars
and his colossal activity in building directed.
Starting from the premise that the existence of a
conunonwealth rested upon arms and laws, he paid
particular attention to legislation, and wrought a
lasting memorial for himself by codifying the Ro-
man law {Codex Jtutinianiia, NaveUae Constitur-
tiones). In this article, however, there will be con-
sidered only his participation in religious and eccle-
siastical movements, by means of statecraft and
legislation.

Justinian's religious policy was upheld by the
imperial conviction that the unity of the empire
unconditionally presupposed unity of faith; and

with him it was a matter of course

2. Religioasthat this faith could be only the or^

Policy, thodox. Those of a different belief

had to recognise that the process
which had been b^un by imperial legislation from
Constantius down was now to be vigorously con-
tinued. The Codex contained two statutes (Cod.,
I., xi. 9 and 10) which decreed the total destruc-
tion of Hellenism, even in the civil life; nor were
the appertaining provisions to stand merely on
paper. The sources (Malalas, Theophanes, John
of Ephesus) tell of severe persecutions, even of men
in high positions. But what proved of universal
historic account, was the ruling whereby the em-
peror, in 529, abrogated philosophical and juridical
instruction at the University of Athens, thus put-
ting an end to this training-school for Hellenism.
And the Christian propaganda went hand in hand
with the suppression of paganism. In Asia Minor
alone, John of Ephesus claimed to have converted
70,(X)0 pagans (cf . F. Nau, in Revue de Vorient chri-
tten, ii., 1897, 482). Christianity was also accepted
by the Heruli (Procopius, BeUum Oothieum, ii. 14;
Evagrius, Hiet. eed., iv. 20), the Huns dwelling near
the Don (Procopius, iv. 4; Evagrius, iv. 23), the
Abasgi (Procopius, iv. 3; Evagrius, iv. 22) and the
Tzani (Procopius, BeUum Pereicum, i. 15) in Cau-
casia. The worship of Ammon at Augila in the
Libyan desert (Prc^opius, De AedifieUe, vi. 2) was
abolished; and so were the remnants of the wor-
ship of Isis on the island of Philae, at the first cata-
ract of the Nile (Procopius, BeUum Pereicum, i.
19). The Presbyter Julian (DCB, iii. 482) and the
Bishop Longinus (John of Ephesus, Hiet. ecd., iv.
5 sqq.) conducted a mission among the Nabataians,
and Justinian attempted to strengthen Christian-
ity in Yeman by despatching thither an ecclesiastic
of Egypt (Procopius, BeUum Pereicum, i. 20; Mali^
las, ed. Niebuhr, Bonn, 1831, pp. 433 sqq.). The
Jews, too, had to suffer; for not only were their
civil rights restricted (Cod., I., v. 12), and their re-
ligious privileges threatened (Procopius, Hietoria
Arcana, 28); but the emperor interfered too in the
internal affairs of the synagogue (Nov., cxlvi., Feb.
8, 553), and forbade, for instance, the use of the
Hebrew language in divine worship. The recal-
citrant were menaced with corporal penalties, exile

JuBttnian I
Jnveiud

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

286

and I088 of property. The Jews at Boriiim, not
far from Syrtis Major, who resisted Belisarius in
his Vandal campaign, had to embrace Christianity;
and their synagogue was changed into a church
(Procopius, De Aedificiis, vi. 2). The emperor had
much trouble with the Samaritans; refractory to
Christianity, as they were, and repeatedly in in-
surrection. He opposed them with rigorous edicts,
but yet could not prevent a fresh outbreak against
the Christians from taking place in Samaria toward
the close of his reign. It was no less consistent
with his policy, that the Manicheans, too, were per-
secuted severely, both with exile and threat of
capital punishment (Cod., I., v. 12). At Constan-
tinople, on one occasion, not a few Manicheans, after
strict inquisition, were executed in the emperor's
very presence: some by burning, others by drown-
ing (F. Nau, in Revue de Vorient, ii., 1897, p. 481).

The like despotism was also shown in the empe-
ror's ecclesiastical policy. He regulated everything,
both in religion and in law. At the very begin-
ning of his reign, he deemed it proper to promul-
gate by law his belief in the Trinity and the incar-
nation; and to threaten all heretics
3. Ecclesi- with the becoming penalties (Cod., I.,

astical i. 5); whereas he subsequently de-

Policy. clared that he designed to deprive all
disturbers of orthodoxy of the oppor-
timity for such ofifense by due process of law (MPG,
Ixxxvi. 1, p. 993). He made the Nicsno-Constan-
tinopolitan creed the sole symbol of the Church
(Cod,, I., i. 7), and accorded legal force to the
canons of the four ecumenical councils (NoveUae,
cxxxi.). The bishops in attendance at the Synod
of Constantinople in 536 recognized that nothing
could be done in the Church contrary to the em-
peror's will and conmiand (Mansi, Concilia, viii.
970B); while, on his side, the emperor, in the case
of the Patriarch Anthimus, reinforced the ban of
the Church with temporal proscription (NoveUae,
zlii.). Bishops without number had to feel the
tjrrant's wrath. On the other hand, it is true, he
neglected no opportunity for securing the rights of
the Church and clergy, for protecting and extend-
ing monasticism. Indeed, were not the despotic
character of his measures so glaring, one might be
tempted to call him a father of the Church. Both
the Codex and the NoveUae contain many enact-
ments regarding donations, foundations, and ad-
ministration of ecclesiastical property; election
and rights of bishops, priests and abbots; monastic
life, residential obligations of the clergy, conduct of
divine service, episcopal jurisdiction, etc.

From the middle of the fifth century onward in-
creasingly arduous tasks confronted the emperors
of the East in the province of ecclesiastical polity.
For one thing, the radicals on all sides

4. Rela- felt themselves constantly repelled by
tions with the creed which had been adopted by
Rome, the Council of Chaloedon with the de-
sign of mediating between the dog-
matic parties. The letter of Leo I. to Flavian of
Constantinople passed far and wide, in the East,
for a document of Satan; so that, where such was
the case, nobody cared to hear aught of the Church
of Rome. The emperors, however, had to wrestle

with a twofold problem. In the first place, the
imity between East and West, between Byzantium
and Rome, was to be preserved; and this was pos-
sible only if they swerved not from the line defined
at Chalcedon. In the next place, the factions in
the East which had been stirred up and disaffected
on account of Chaloedon must be restrained and
pacified. This problem was the more difficult be-
cause the dissenting groups in the East excelled the
party for Chalcedon in the East both in niunerical
strength and in intellectual ability; and so the
course of events showed the two aims to be incom-
patible: whoever chose Rome and the West must
renounce the East, and vice versa. For the prog-
ress of affairs under Zeno and Anastasius see Mono-
PHT8ITEB. Justinian entered the arena of ecclesi-
astical statecraft shortly after his uncle's accession
in 518, and put an end to the schism that had pre-
vailed between Rome and Byzantium since 483.
The recognition of the Roman see as the highest
ecclesiastical authority (cf. NoveUae, cxxxi.) re-
mained the cornerstone of his policy in relation to
the West, although he thus grievously offended
those of the East, and though he felt himself en-
tirely free to show a despotic front toward the pope
(witness his behavior toward Silverius and Vigilius).
But the controversies in the East were alone suffi-
cient to keep the emperor busy all through his reign;
and he plainly paid much more attention to them
than to the external affairs of the realm. Yet his
policy bore marks of greatness, and strove with
large understanding to satisfy the religious instincts
of the devout in the East, a signal proof of which
was his attitude in the Theopaschite controversy
(see Theopaschites). At the outset he was of
the opinion that the question turned on a quibble of
words. By degrees, however, he came to under-
stand that the formula at issue was not only ortho-
dox, but might abo be used as a conciliatory meas-
ure toward the Monophysites, and made a vain
attempt to do this in the religious conference with
the Severians, in 533. Again, he reviewed the same
approviz^ly in the religious edict of Mar. 15, 533
(Cod,, I., i. 6), and congratulated himself that Pope
John ILp. admitted the orthodoxy of the imperial
confession (Cod,, I., i. 8). The serious blunder that
he had made at the beginning by abetting after
Justin's accession a severe persecution of the Mono-
physite bishops and monks and thereby embittering
the population of vast regions and provinces, he rem-
edied eventually. His constant aim now was to
win the Monophysites, yet not to surrender the
Chalcedonian faith. For many at court, he did
not go far enough: the Empress Theodora espe-
cially would have been glad to see the Monophysites
favored unreservedly. Justinian, however, was re-
strained in that policy by the complications that
would have ensued with the West. Neither, for that
matter, could he escape these issues; for instance,
the Three Chapter Controversy (q.v.; see also Vig-
iLrus). In the condemnation of the Three Chap-
ters Justinian tried to satisfy both the East and the
West, but succeeded in satisfying neither. Although
the pope assented to the condemnation, the West
believed that the emperor was acting contrary to
the decrees of Chaloedon; and though many dele-

887

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Justinian I
Juvenal

gates were found in the East subservient to Justin-
ian, yet there were many, especially the Monophy-
sites, left unsatisfied. So the emperor's efiforts were
wasted on an impossible task; the more bitter for
him because during his last years he took greater
interest in theological matters.

It can not be doubted that Justinian also took an
actual, personal hand in the theological manifes-
toes which he put forth as emperor; although, in

view of the author's exalted position,
5. Writings, it is a difficult matter to ascertain

whether the documents current under
his name are the direct product of his pen. Apart
from letters to the Popes Hormisdas, John II.,
Agapetus I., and Vigilius, and sundry other composi-
tions (collected in MPL, Ixiii., Ixvi. and Ixix.), the
following documents may be noted (all to be found
in MPG, kxxvi. 1, pp. 945-1152): (1) the edict on
Origen's heterodoxies, in 543 or 544; (2) siunmons
to the bishops assembled at Constantinople on oc-
casion of the council of 553, with reference to their
sitting in judgment on errors in circulation among
the monastic followers of Origen at Jerusalem;
(3) an edict on the Three Chapters, probably
framed in 551; (4) an address to the council of
553, concerning the Antiochian theology; (5) a
document probably antedating 550, addressed to
some unnamed defenders (perhaps Scythians) of
the Three Chapters; (6) writ of excommunication
against Anthimus, Severus and companions; (7) an
address to some Eg3rptian monks, with a refutation
of Monophysite errors; (8) fragment of a docu-
ment, mentioned in (7), to the Patriarch Zoilus of
Alexandria. The theology upheld in these wri-
tings agreed, in general, with that of Leontius of
Byzantiimi (q.v.); that is, it aims at the final solu-
tion of the problem by interpreting the Chalce-
donian symbol in terms of the theology of Cyril of
Alexandria. Two points are worth noting in this
connection. First, the clever way in which the
emperor, or his representative, contrives to defend
the reputation and the theology of Cyril; secondly,
his antagonism to Origen : a clear sign of the char-
acteristic disinclination of that age for independent
thinking; at least among personages of weight and
influence. A word or two should be subjoined on
the subject of Aphthartodocetism; a doctrine pro-
fessed by the emperor toward the close of his life.
Evagrius reports {Hist, eccl., iv. 39), and other
sources confirm the point, that Justinian promul-
gated an edict in which he declared Christ's body
to be incorruptible and not susceptible to natural
suffering, and commanded bishops everywhere to
accept this doctrine. The fall of the Patriarch
Eutychius (q.v.) is associated with this final phase
of the imperial policy. The sources saw a lament-
able decline from the right faith in Justinian's latter
conduct. The train of thought imderlying Aph-
thartodocetism, however, is not necessarily unortho-
dox (see Julian of Halicarn assus) ; because it
need not be opposed to the acceptance of the essen-
tial identity of Christ's nature with human nature.
Hence it is not necessary to regard Justinian's final
theological views as those of an old man, to be dis-
regarded in surveying the aims of his full-bodied
activity. G. KrOgbb.

Bibuoorapht: Gibbon, Dtditic and FaU, ohaps. zl.-xliT.;
C. W. F. Waloh. HUtoriederKeUereierK vols. vi.-viii., Leip-
dc. 1773-78; J. B. Bury. Hiat. of the Later Roman Empire,
2 vols., London, 1880; A. Knecht, Die Reliffionepolitik
Kaieer Juatiniane /., Warzburg. 1806; idem. Sj/etem
dee juetinianiechen Kirchenverm&Qenerechtee, Stuttgart,
1005; W. H. Button, The Church <4 the Sixth Century,
London, 1807; C. Diehl, Juetinien et la ciUture byxan^
tine, Paris, 1001; G. PfannmQUer, Die kirehliche Qe-
aettgebung Juetiniane, Berlin, 1002; W. Norden. Dae
Papettum und Byeam, ib. 1003; J. Pargoire, L'tgliee
hyzanHne, 627-847, Paris, 1006; W. G. Holmes, The Age
of Juetinian and Theodora, 2 vols., London, 1005-07;
Hefele, Conciliengeechichte, vol. ii., Eng. transl., vol. iv.;
DCB, iii. 538-550 (elaborate discussion): Neander. Chrie-
tian Church, vol. iii. passim; Scha£F, Christian Church,
iii. 768 sqq. et passim; the literature under the articles
referred to in the text. Consult further: F. A. Biener,
Oeeehichte der NoveUen Juetiniane, Berlin, 1824; J. Gau-
TBt, L*Empereur JueHnien el eon oeuvre ligielaiive, Gaen,
1880.

JUSTUS: First bishop of Rochester and fourth
archbishop of Canterbury; d. at Canterbury Nov.
10, 627. He was sent to England with Mellitus
(q.v.) and others in 601. Augustine (q.v.) conse-
crated him bishop for West Kent in 604 and Ethel-
bert, king of Kent, built him a church at Rochester.
In 617 during the heathen reaction under Eadbald,
with Mellitus he fled into Gaul, but was recalled
after a year and restored to his bishopric (see Lau-
rence OF Canterbury; Mellitus). He succeeded
Mellitus as archbishop in 624, consecrated Romanus
as his successor at Rochester, and sent Paulinus
(q.v.) to Northumbria. He received the palliuiv
from Boniface V.

Biblioorapht: Bede, Hiet. ecd., I 29, ii. 3, 4, 8. 18; Had-
dan and Stubbs. CouneiU, iii. 72-81; W. F. Hook, Livee
of the Archbiehope of Canterbury, i. 90-100, London, 1860;
W. Bright. Chapters of Early English Church Hiet., pas-
sim. Oxford, 1807; DCB, in. 502-503.

JUVENAL, ju've-nol: First patriarch of Jeru-
salem; d. c. 458. Of his life little is known, and
the date and place of his birth, consecration, and
death are also uncertain. The aim of his life was to
make Jerusalem one of the important sees of Chris-
tendom, and the Council of Nicea had, as a matter
of fact, accorded the bishop of Jerusalem special
rank and honor, though it placed him under the
jurisdiction of the metropolitan of Csesarea. Ju-
venal endeavored to realize the concession, and took
the first step in this direction by transcending his
authority in consecrating in the neighborhood a
certain Peter bishop of a newly converted tribe of
Saracens, and attaching him as so-called bishop ''of
Tarembolae " (i.e., " of the camp ") to the see
of Jerusalem, most probably in 425. This was con-
sidered a distinct breach of canon law by the met-
ropolitan of Csesarea. The resulting difficulties
came to a head at the Council of Ephesus in 431.
The conditions of the time favored Juvenal. Neft-
torius, patriarch of Constantinople, was accused of
heresy; Cyril of Alexandria was temporarily im-
prisoned; John of Antioch held a separate council;
and the see of Rome was represented only by
legates. To Juvenal, therefore, in Cyril's absence
fell the right of precedence in signing the resolu-
tions; or, in case Cyril was present, Juvenal's name
came second. Juvenal did not hesitate to make
the most of these conditions. He summoned John
of Antioch to proceed at once to Ephesus, ranked

Javanal

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

S88

the see of Jerusalem as on a par with that of Rome
and gave it the title " apostolic/' which he denied
to Antioch. These indications show plainly that
Juvenal aspired not only after an independent see
within the archbishopric of Csesarea, but after su-
periority over, or at least, equality with, that of
Antioch. He aimed to have the three bishoprics
of Palestine attached to Jerusalem, and also, if pos-
sible, those of Phenicia and Arabia. The result
would be to make the holy city the principal see in
the Orient.

Several bishops who had been ordained by Ju-
venal and were present at Ephesus, supported his
daims; this fact, and the absence of the above-
mentioned bishops from the principal sees were ex-
tremely favorable to his ambitions. Cyril of Alex-
andria appeared, however, at the fourth session of
the council, and at once took charge of the pro-
ceedings. He saw the danger not only for the see
of Antioch but for that of Alexandria in the exist-
ence of a masterful bishop of Jerusalem. He
therefore opposed every plan of Juvenal. Neither
did the idea of a new competitor for supremacy in
Christendom please the fancy of the legates of the
Roman see. It could not be foreseen what compli-
cations might arise in favor of Jerusalem, particu-
larly since pilgrimages to the holy city were be-
coming more frequent every year. But Juvenal
had gained an advantage of which he made the
most. He ordained several new bishops in Pales-
tine without having any stipulated right by canon
law. His influence was growing constantly, and
Maximus of Antioch at the Council of Chalcedon
in 451 acknowledged Juvenal's claims to the three
sees of Palestine on condition that the latter aban-
don his claims to the sees of Phenicia and Arabia.
The council confirmed the agreement.

Juvenal had niunerous difficulties with the mon-
ophysitic monks of Palestine; and even his life was
thntfitened. He introduced the celebration of
Christmas on Dec. 25, possibly to win the favor of
Rome. See Jehubalem, Patriarchate of; and

BIONOPHTBITBS, § 2. (F. EaTTENBUBCH.)

BiBuooaAPHT: Sources are: The acts of the councils of
Ephesus and Chalcedon, given in Hefele, ConeUitnge'
BdUdUe, vol. ii. passim, Eng. transl., vol. iii. passim; the
letters of Leo the Great, Eng. transl. in NPNF, 2 ser.,
vol. xii., cf. pp. 66, 82, 86. 07; Evacrius, HUt eed., ii.,
in MPG, Ixxxvi. 2. Consult: M. Le Quien, OrUna Chrit-
tianua, iiL 110 sqq., 164 sqq., Paris, 1740; Vailhe. in Revue
cfe rorierU, iv (1890), 44 sqq.; DCB, iii. 606 sqq.; Neander,
Chriatian Church, vol. ii. passim.

JUVEKCUS, ju-ven'cus, CAIUS VETTIUS AQUI-
LDfUS (or AQUILIUS): Spanish presbyter and
religious poet, in the reign of Constantine the Great,
(o whom he refers at the close of his principal poem.
This is a rendering of the Gospels into Latin dac-
tylic hexameters, with a close adherence to the
original text, and contains 3,210 lines. The pro-
logue speaks of earlier poets such as Homer and
Vergil, whose names are well-nigh immortal though
their subjects were only the deeds of men, and their
narratives fictitious; places on a much higher plane
the acts of Christ; and hopes, under the guidance
of the Holy Spirit, to create a work that shall worth-
fjj set them forth, last beyond the conflagration of
the world, and save the author himself from the
fire. The events of the life of Christ are narrated

now from one Evangelist and now from another,
in what seemed to the author chronological order.
Matthew is throughout his main source, and Mark
does not seem to be used at all. The division into
four books seems to have been an afterthought,
intended to correspond with the number of the
Evangelists. Juvencus adheres closely to the
scriptural account, and is apparently withheld by
reverence from any attempt to enlarge upon it.
He was evidently at home in classical literature,
and his diction is full of Vergilian echoes; the verse
is flowing and for its period strikingly correct. This
first Christian epic, although it made no pretense
to be a complete narrative or a scientific harmony
of the Gospels, and although it does not offer much
help in the way of exegesis, of the history of dogma,
or of textual criticism (it is based on the Itala as a
text), was yet highly regarded in the early Church
and continued to be prized throughout the Middle
Ages, being frequently used as a text-book in schools.
Its popularity is attested by the laige number of
manuscripts in which it is preserved. A work by
Juvencus on the sacraments mentioned by Jerome
has been lost. Some of the later manuscripts give
under the name of Juvencus two other poems, De
laudtbus Domini and Triumphus ChrisH, of 148 and
108 verses. The former is probably older than
Juvencus and the work of a rhetorician from Augus-
todunum (Autun). The 6,000 verses on the Old-
Testament history which Cardinal Pitra discovered
and attributed to Juvencus are now thought to have
been written by a fifth-century Gallic Cyprian (not
the famous Carthaginian bishop). The style is dry
and jejune, and the poetical execution far inferior
to that of Juvencus. Nor is it possible now to at-
tribute to him the Liber in Genesim (1441 verses)
which Mart^ne published in 1723 from a Codex
Corbeiensis, and which Galland, Arevolo, Gebser,
Bfthr, Teuffel and others believed to be his.

(K. LEIMBACHf.)
Bibuoorapht: The poem has often been edited and printed
since the editio prinoeps of Paris, 1440. is in MPL, adx.;
ed. C. Harold, Leipsic, 1886; and, ed. J. Huemer, in C8EL,
xxiv., Vienna, 1801. Consult: J. Huemer. in Wiener
Studien, il 81-112, Vienna. 1880; A. R. Gebser. Die-
aertatio de . . . Juvenci vita et Bcriptia, Jena, 1827; A.
Ebert, AUoemeine Oeechichte der lAteratur dee MiUelaUere,
I 100 sqq., Leipsic, 1880; J. T. Hatfield, A Study of
Juvencus, Bonn, 1800; Geillier, AtUeure eaerfe, iii. 116-
118; DCB, iii 508-600.

JUXOR, WILLIAM: Archbishop of Canter-
bury; b. at Chichester (57 m. s.w. of London), bap-
tised in Oct., 1582; d. in London June 4, 1663.
He received his education at St. John's CoUe^,
Oxford; became vicar of St. Giles, Oxford, 1609;
rector of Somerton, Oxfordshire, 1615; head of St.
John's, 1622, and vice-chancellor 1626-27, and in
1626, dean of Worcester; became bishop of Lon-
don in 1633; on Mar. 6, 1635-36, he became lord
high treasurer, a difficult post; he attended Charles
I. to the scaffold as hiB most faithful servant;
was deprived of his see in 1649 ; and in 1660 was
recognized as the only eligible candidate for the
primacy, and was elected. He left a well-deserved
reputation for strict honesty, loyalty to Church and
king, and great charity to the poor.

Biblxoorapbt: W. H. Marah, Memoirs cf Archbishop Juxon,
London, 1860; DNB,xxx. 283-237.

280

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Juvenal

KAABA, ka'a-ba: The pre-Mohammedan sanc-
tuary at Mecca, adopted by the Mohammedans as
the chief sanctuary of their faith. It is situated
in the heart of Mecca, the sacred city of Islam (see
MoHAMBiED, Mohammedanism), in a court approxi-
mately 535 feet by 355 feet which forms an irregu-
lar oblong, the long axis of which is approximately
n.e.-s.w., while its sides are only approximately
parallel. The wall which bounds the enclosure
does not preserve its direction throughout on any
one of the four sides, while on the northeastern and
southwestern sides are projections forming two
large halls. The wall is pierced by nineteen un-
gated entrances. On the inside and next to the
bounding wall a triple or, in some places, a quad-
ruple, colonnade a little over twenty feet in height
limits the open area, while each group of four col-
umns supports a small dome as a part of the roof
of the colonnade. The groimd level of the area
inside the walls is lower than that outside. The
Kaaba itself is near the center of the enclosure, a
structure in the form of a trapezium, no two sides
exactly parallel, with its long axis transverse to
that of the court, the diagonals being nearly in the
direction of the cardinal points, one comer of the
building being said by the Arabs to face the North
Star. The structure is about fifty-five feet by
forty-five, and between thirty-five and forty feet
in height, built of the common gray stone of the
district, the courses of which are irregular. Its
roof is nearly flat, yet sufficiently inclined to shed
the rainfall easily. The main structure rises from
a sloping base two feet in height. It has no win-
dows and but one door, placed on the eastern side
about six feet from the southeast comer and seven
feet from the ground. At the southeast comer is
the Black Stone, an irregular oval about seven
inches in diameter, the pieces of which it is com-
posed being joined by cement. It has an uneven
surface, though it is worn smooth by the constant
kissing and rubbing to which it has for ages been
subjected by the faithful. It is described now as
being a deep reddish brown, but whether it is bar
saltic or a meteorite is undetermined, with probar
bilities in favor of the latter. It is set in the wall
about fifty inches from the pavement, and is sur-
rounded by a border of composite cement so set
as to form a boss, and this is supported by a circle
of gold or silver or gilt. In the northeast comer
is another stone of the material common about
Mecca, eighteen inches by two in size, set horizon-
tally in the wall, which receives a secondary ven-
eration, being rubbed by pilgrims with the right
hand but never kissed. A slight hollow in the
northeastern side in the pavement is lined with
marble and is hallowed as the place where Abra-
ham and Ishmael mixed the material with which
they built the Kaaba. The roof is sustained by
three cross beams, each supported in the center by
a column covered with decorated aloe wood. In
the northern comer is a small door leading to a
staircase and the roof, used only by the attend-
VI.— 19

ants for purposes of work. The roof of the Kaaba
is covered by a robe or mantle which hangs over
the sides. This is made at Cairo by a family in
which the monopoly is hereditary, and is made of
coarse silk and cotton. The interior of the court
about the Kaaba has three levels: (1) a pavement
of marble inunediately siu-rounding the Kaaba in
an irregular oval, about which is an oval of small
columns between which lamps are suspended;

(2) a second pavement about twenty feet broad
and slightly higher than the interior pavement;

(3) a pavement six inches higher and about forty
feet in width, surrounding the two inner pavements.
Between the outer edge of this last and the colon-
nade the ground is graveled except where the stone
walks lead to several of the gates. There are a
number of smaller structures at different points of
the outer pavement which serve various purposes,
one of them covering the sacred well Zem Zem.
The lowest pavement next the Kaaba ia that upon
which the sevenfold circuit of the building is made
by the pilgrims.

Arabic legend asserts that the present structure
is the tenth in historical order. The first was built
by the angels before the creation; the second by
Adam; the third by Seth, and was destroyed in tb^
deluge; the fourth by Abraham; the fifth by the
Amalikah, descendants of Shem; the sixth by the
Beni Jurham, about the Christian era; the seventh
by Kusay bin-Kilab, fifth in order of ascent among
Mohammed's paternal ancestors; the eight in Mo-
hanmied's twenty-fifth (thirty-fifth) year; the
ninth in 686 a.d. (64 a.h.) by Abdullah bin-Zubaye,
nephew of Ayesha, after the Black Stone had been
split by fire or by the weapons of an enemy; the
tenth between 1652 and 1662 a.d., after the partial
destmction of the house by flood in 1652. The
ceremony of circumambulation was perfonned
about all of these, according to Arab tradition.
That the Kaaba has a high antiquity is made cer-
tain by Diodorus Siculus who asserts that " there
is in this country (Arabia) a temple greatly revered
by all the Arabs." The very universality of rever-
ence asserted here and supported by Arab tradition
guarantees an early origin for the structure.

Geo. W. Gilmobb.

Bibuoorapbt: The foregoing dMcription of the Kaaba is
taken bom a careful compariBon of the aoeounts of R. F.
Burton, Narrative cf a PUgrimaoe to Meeoah and Mmiinah,
chape. xxTi.-xxx., and Appendix, London, 1879; A.
Sprenger, Daa Leben und die Lehre dee Mohammed, ii.
340-347, 3 vols., Berlin, 1861-65; and J. L. Burekhardt,
Traveie in Arabia, pp. 136 sqq., London, 1829. The hie-
tory ia taken from W. Muir, Life of Mahomet, vol. t, pp.
ccx. sqq., London, 1861; and A. P. Gauaain de Perceval,
Eemii evtr Vhutoire dee Arabee avatU Vielamieme, L 170-
175, Paris, 1847.

SIABASILAS, ka-ba'si-las: Two metropolitans
of Thessalonica during the fourteenth century.
Rilos, the elder, lived about 1340 under John Gan-
tacuzenus, and belonged to the strict anti-Roman
party, so that his writings were first noticed among
the Protestants (e.g., De primaiu papaCt ed. M.
Flacius Illyricus, Frankfort, 1563). Far more im-

Kahnis

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

280

portant was his nephew Rikolaos (d. 1371). Of his
life the only details known are that he was origi-
nally bursar at Constantinople and sided with the
Palaeologi, but afterward became a friend of John
Gantacuzenus, who used him on political missions.
In the Hesychastic controversy (see Hestchasts)
he sided with the monks of Athos, and was later
appointed metropolitan of Thessalonica. Nikolaos
is known as a philosopher, but more especially as
a theologian. Among his philosophicsJ writings
special mention may be made of one directed against
skepticism (ed. Elter and Radermacher in Analeda
Qraecaj Bonn, 1899.) The most important of his
theological writings was his " Seven Books con-
cerning the Life in Christ ** (ed. W. Gass, Greifs-
wald, 1849). The line of thought is briefly this.
True to the development of Greek theology, Ka-
basilas regards the summum honum as exaltation
above the sensual, the introduction into life and
inmiortality, as given through Christ. Man is to
be transplanted from the present world to the fu-
ture. This transfer is made by Christ himself.
The life in Christ which transfers man to the other
world is perfected through the sacraments and the
hmnan will. Baptism means to man the begin-
ning of a new existence. The second sacrament,
that of unction, is unction of the spirit, and initi-
ates man into the true Christian calling. The
Eucharist adds the third degree of perfection, and
produces an inward change, causing a mystic kin-
ship with Christ. By the side of this physiological
mysticism stands a non-monastic system of ethics.
Kabasilas teaches that the will must conform un-
reservedly to the sacramental influences, being
thereby supplied with a train of pious thoughts.
Through joy and sadness it becomes purified.
Finally the climax of love is reached, and with it
perfect altruism. Kabasilas indulges in lofty ex-
pressions when he describes the power of love, de-
claring that as once it had caused God to descend
to man, so now it breaks the bonds of selfish isola-
tion and constrains man to live for God, and not
for self. This power of love rises to complete self-
renunciation and self-forgetfulness, and this is the
state of him in whom sacrament and will work to-
gether in perfect harmony. Philipp Meter.
Bibliographt: The Works are in MPO, cl. Consult:
Fabricixis-Harles, Bibliotheca Oraeca, x. 20-30; Demetra-
kopulos, Oraecia orthodoxia, pp. 76 sqq., 83 sqq., Leipsic,
1872; Knimbacher. OeKhichU, pp. 109-110, 158-159;
W. Gass. Bit MyaUk dea Nikolaoa Kabanlaa, Leipsic, 1899.

KABIR: Hindu religious leader. See India,
I., 3, § 3; Sikhs, Sikhism.

KADESH. See Negeb.

KAEHLER, kS'ler, CARL MARTIN AUGUST:

German Protestant; b. at Neuhausen (7 m. n.e. of
Kftnigsberg), Jan. 6, 1835. He studied law at
Kdnigsberg (1853-54), and theology at Heidel-
berg (1854-55), HaUe (1855-58), and Tiibingen
(1858-59); became privat-docent at Halle, 1860;
associate professor of theology at Bonn, 1864;
went in a similar capacity to Halle, 1867, and has
been full professor of systematic theology and New-
Testament exegesis in Halle since 1879. His wri-
tings include: Avgiut Thohickj ein LdtensabHss
(Halle, 1877); JuUua MOUer, der haUtsche Dog-

matiker (1878); NeutestamenUiche Schnften in
genauer Wiedergabe ihres Gedankenganges darge-
stelU (3 vols., comprising Hebrews, Galatians, and
Ephesians, 1880-94); Die Wissenschaft der chrisl-
lichen Lehre (3 parts, Erlangen, 1883-87); Der so-
genannte historische Jesus und der geschichtliche
Christus (1896); Jesus und das AUe Testament
(Leipsic, 1896); Dogmatische Streilfragen (2 vols.,
(1898); Wiedergeboren durch die Auferstehung Jesu
Christi (1901); and Die Sakramenle als Gnadenmit-
iel (1903).

K ASHLER, LUDWIG AUGUST: German Prot-
estant; b. at Sommerfeld (44 m. s.s.e. of Frank-
fort-on-the-Oder), Prussia, Mar. 6, 1775; d. at
K6nigsberg Nov. 7, 1855. He attended the Royal
School at Meissen, the Gymnasium at Gorau, and
the University of Erlangen, and, after spending
two and a half years as private tutor, became
assistant pastor at Kanig, near Guben, in 1798.
Here he found leisure to writ* a number of ro-
mances, some of which won even Goethe's approval.
He declined a call to the ofRce of general superin-
tendent of Lower Lusatia, but in 1809 entered
upon the diaconate at Guben. Ten years later he
was called to Kdnigsberg as consistorial counselor,
professor of theology, and superintendent of the
Lobenicht parish. He took an important part in
the direction of the provincial Church, and after
Borowski's death officiated four years as acting
general superintendent. In 1841 he resigned all
his offices on account of a paralytic stroke. Kah-
ler was one of the chief representatives of a ra-
tionalistic-idealistic school, which, like tliat of
Schleiermacher, rejected both supematiu^lism and
the older rationalism of the Enlightenment. He
was lai:gely under the influence of the philosophy
of Kant and Jacobi. His principal works are:
Geschichte von CoUbuSy uxihrend der Jahre 1813-14
(Cottbus, 1814); Supematuralismus uml Rational'
ismus in ihrem gemeinschaftlichen Ursprunge, ihrer
Zwietracht tind hohern Einheit (Leipsic, 1818);
Philagaihos: Andeutungen iiber das Reich des Guten
(Kdnigsberg, 1823); the unfinished Christliche Sit-
tenlehre (Ist section of part 1, 1833); and Wissen-
achaftlicher Abriss der chrisUichen Sitterdehre (2
parts, 1835-37). Hermann Hering.

Bibliography: S. A. K&hler, Ludwig August Kdhler, . . .
MUtheilungen fiber sein Leben und seine Schriften, Kdnigs-
berg, 1856 (by his son).

KAFTAN, kaftan, JULIUS WILHELM MAR-
TIN: German Protestant; b. at Loit (a village
near Apenrade, 35 m. n. of Schleswig), Schleswig-
Holstein, Sept. 30, 1848. He was educated at the
universities of Erlangen, Berlin, and Kiel from
1866 to 1871, and in 1873 was appointed associate
professor of systematic theology at Basel, where
he was promoted to a full professorship in the same
subject in 1881. Since 18183 he has been professor
of apologetics and the philosophy of religion at
Berlin. He has written Sollen und Sein in ihrem
Verhdltnis zu einander (Leipsic, 1872); Die Predigl
des Evangdiums im modernen Geistesleben (Basel,
1879); Das Evangdium des Apostds Paulus in Prc-
digten der Gemeinde dargdegt (1879); Das Wesen der
chrisUichen Rdigion (1881); Das Leben in Christo

201

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

KahnU

(sermons, 1883); Die WahrheU der chrisUichen Re-
ligion (1888); and Dogmatik (TQbingen, 1897).

KAHNIS, ha'nis, KARL FRIEDRICH AUGUST:

German Lutheran theologian; b. at Greiz (49 m.

s.s.w. of Leipsic) Dec. 22, 1814; d. at Leipsic June

20, 1888. Despite the poverty of his parents, he

was educated at the gynmasiimi of his native town,

and after acting as private tutor for several years

began the study of theology at Halle. He was at

first an ardent Hegelian, but becom-

Earlier ing conscious that Hegelianism failed

Life. to recognize the value of individual

Professor effort, personality, and the influence
atBreslao. of the Christian faith, he passed to
orthodox Lutheranism. The transi-
tion may be dated from the publication of his Dr.
Huge und Hegd: Ein BeOrag zur Wurdigung Hegel-
scher Tendemen (Quedlinberg, 1838). At the in-
vitation of Hengstenberg, Kahnis went in 1840 to
Berlin, where he studied under Neander, Marhein-
eke, Twesten, and others. To Tholuck's Litter-
arischer Ameigerfur chrisUiche Theologie he contrib-
uted a criticism of Strauss, which appeared in
expanded form under the title Die modeme Wieaen-
achaft dee Dr. Straues und der Glavhe unserer Kirche
(Berlin, 1842). In 1842 he became privat-docent
and then spent two happy years in close relation-
ship with Neander, Steffens, and the circle of ro-
manticists who gathered about Ludwig von Ger-
lach. In 1844 he was called to Breslau as professor
extraordinary to represent the orthodox party in a
rationalistic faculty, but in his inaugural speech
De Spiritus Sancti persona he departed from the
accepted doctrine of Trinitarianism, ranking the
Son as subordinate to the Father, and assigning the
last place to the Holy Spirit, which he described
as the impersonal principle of life, binding together
the other two. This first venture of Kahnis into
the field of theology is important for his subse-
quent development. Hampered to a large extent
in his academic work by the lack of harmony be-
tween himself and his colleagues, he devoted him-
self to scientific investigation in theology, the first
results being his Lehre vom heiligen Geiete (Halle,
1847), which marked no departure from the doc-
trines enunciated in his earlier work, yet voiced his
protest against the liberalism of the times.

After the revolution of 1848, in which Kahnis

supported the king and the established order, he

came to believe that the safest defense against irre-

ligion was in rigid orthodoxy, and

Professor gradually drifted into an attitude of

at Leipsic. opposition to the Union (the consoli-
dation of the Lutheran and Reformed
churches in Prussia effected by a royal decree in
1817). He strove to preserve the integrity of the
Lutheran creed. Convinced at last that the Lu-
theran confession possessed neither a logical nor a
legal basis under the Union, he joined the old Lu-
theran party in Nov., 1848, a step by which his
academic activity at Breslau became still more dif-
ficult. In 1850, therefore, he gladly accepted a
call to Leipsic, where he succeeded Harless in the
chair of dogmatics, to which he later united that
of church history. In the following year the Uni-

versity of Erlangen gave him the degree of D.D.,
and he acknowledged this honor by his Lehre vom
Abendmahle (Leipsic, 1851), one of the best formu-
lations of the type of Lutheranism taught at Er-
langen. His professorial work at Leipsic was at-
tended with success, but, feeling himself out of
sympathy with the prevailing tone in the faculty,
he would have accepted a call to Erlangen in 1856
had not the authorities promised to fill the first
vacancy in the faculty by a theologian entirely in
agreement with his own views. In the same year,
Luthardt was called from Marburg, and he and
Kahnis, together with Delitzsch, who came to Leip-
sic from Erlangen in 1867, constituted a triimivi-
rate which raised the university to an unrivaled
eminence in the realm of theology. In addition to
his academic duties, Kahnis found time for much
useful labor in the field of practical Christianity.
From 1851 to 1857 he was a member of the board
of missions, from 1853 to 1857 edited the Sdchsische
Kirchenr und SchulblaU, and from 1866 to 1875 was
one of the editors of the Niednersche Zeitechrift fUr
historische Theologie. At Leipsic in 1854 he pub-
lished Der innere Gang dee deutechen Proteetantia'
mue eeit Mitte dee vorigen Jahrhunderts (Eng. transl.
by T. Meyer, Internal History of German Protestanl-
ism since the Middle of Last Century, Edinburgh,
1856), expanded in the second edition (1860) so as
to include the entire period from the Reformation.
These same years witnessed a literary controversy
with Nitzsch over the question of the Union and
confessional latitudinarianism, a controversy in
which Kahnis sought to demonstrate the lade of
doctrinal unity prevailing among the supporters of
the movement.

In 1860 KfthniB became canon of the cathedral
at Meissen and in 1864-65 he was rector of Leipsic
University. Before that time, however, his relig-
ious views had undergone the change which foimd

expression in his Luihcrische Dog-

Later maHk (3 vols., Leipsic, 1861-68). The

Views and character of the work was foreshad-

Works. owed in the second edition of Der Irir

nere Gang, which revealed an approxi-
mation to rationalism, the abandonment of his old
belief in inspiration, a readiness to admit the ne-
cessity of progress in doctrine, and an insistence
upon the importance of recognizing the facts of
human nature and natural morality. The five di-
visions of the Dogmatik deal with the history of
Lutheran dogmatics, religion, revelation, creed,
and system. The problem which Kahnis set him-
self was the derivation of the doctrines of the
Lutheran Church from the basic principle of justi-
fication by faith, and the proof of their verity by
the sole authority of the Scriptures. He found the
nature of Christianity in the community of salvar
tion between man and God through dirist in the
Holy Spirit, seeking his proof in history, philosophy,
and the conmion facts of life. It was not the sys-
tem he advanced that aroused opposition, but the
liberal attitude assumed by him toward the higher
critics of the New Testament, his readiness to
adopt the most of their theories, and his conse-
quent modification of the doctrine of inspiration,
as well as his dissent from the dogma of the Church

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

999

in respect to the Trinity and the Lord's Supper.
Hengstenbei^ was the most prominent among those
who now accused Kahnis of apostasy. In 1864 he
published the second volume of his Dogmatik, where-
in he traced the history of the development of dogma
in connection with the history of the Church, so as to
prove the Lutheran doctrines of the present day
the logical result of this twofold development. The
third volume, Das Systentj which appeared in 1868,
was disappointing, partly because its contents re-
peated the matter contained in the first two vol-
umes, and partly because it contradicted the basic
principle of investigation laid down in the first part.
In 1871 he published at Leipsic a condensation of
the historical portion of the work under the title
Ckristentum und Luthertunif a treatise written in
a masterly fashion and constituting, together with
the third edition of Der innere Oang, the best of his
literary productions. After the completion of his
Dogmattkf Kahnis devoted himself especially to his
historical studies, wherein his work may be charac-
terized as marked less by the modem spirit of pain-
ful research, than by a strong sympathy with his
subject and an exceptional charm of style. To
this period belong his Deutsche Reformation (Leip-
sic, 1872) and his Gang der Kirche in Lebentbildem
(1887). His success as a teacher was due both to
the graciousness of his personality and his lofty
conception of his duties. (Johannes Kunzb).

Bibuoorapht: F. J. Winter, Karl Friedridi Augutt KahnU,
Leipsic 1896; C. Sohwars, Zur OeBchidUe der neuuUn
ThBologie, pp. 311-317, Leipsic, 1804.

KAIRES, ka'i-rdz (KAIRIS), THEOPHILnS:
Modem Greek liberal; b. on the island of Andros
Oct. 19, 1784; d. on the island of Syra Jan. 12,
1853. After attending the academy at Cydonia,
he studied for eight years in Pisa and in Paris,
coming under the influence of Count Frayssinous
(q.v.) and imbibing the political doctrines of the
French Revolution. Returning to his fatherland
in 1810. he taught in Smyrna and in Cydonia.
After the successful termination of the War of
Liberation, in which he took an active part, he was
admitted to the priesthood and formed the plan
of founding an orphan asylum on Andros espe-
cially for the sons of those who had fallen in the
war. He collected funds for the project by a
journey to westem Europe and in 1835 opened an
institution which soon became the resort of all
Greeks who would learn modem culture in their
native land. Then rumors were spread that the
fasts were not observed on Andros, that the cus-
tomary prayers were not offered in the school, and
that scientific doctrines were taught which were at
variance with those of the Church. Writings were
disseminated, treating of the '' Fear of God,"
asserting the purely human character of the Scrip-
tures and attacking ecclesiastical dogmas and mys-
teries. The national synod felt called upon to in-
terfere and by an official ordinance of July 10,
1839, demanded from Kalres a statement of his be-
lief. He attempted to evade the issue, claiming
that he was no theologian and had not taught dog-
matic theology; in philosophy, however, he had
taught the existence of God and immortality as
well as a final judgment. When the synod re-

newed its demand he asked for a few months more
time and offered to close his orphan asylum and go
wherever the authorities might require. The
synod, influenced by the narrowly orthodox patri-
arch Gregory VI. (q.v.), had him brought to Athens
and put him on trial Oct. 21, 1833. He repeated
his former declarations, adding that he had taught
nothing contrary to Christianity, refused to give a
more detailed exposition of his faith, and offered
to leave the country. By intervention of the gov-
ernment he was sent for further reflection, first to
a monastery on the island of Sciathus, then at his
own request to a more healthful and agreeable
place of confinement in a monastery on Thera.
Persisting in his course, in Oct., 1841, he was
deposed and excommimicated. He then lived
abroad, most of the time in London, imtil 1844,
when he was permitted to return to Andros. Pro-
tected by an old school friend, the minister Koletti,
he resumed his former activity more boldly than
ever. Koletti died in 1847, however, and when
Kalres published (Athens, 1849) his most impor-
tant book, TvuoTuc^^ the best exposition of his re-
ligious system, his opponents made formal charge
against him under a section of the criminal law,
declaring that all adherents of religious sects not
recognized by the government should be treated
as members of forbidden societies. On Dec. 21,

1852, Kalres was condemned to two years and one
month imprisonment in Syra; two of his friends
were sentenced for shorter terms. The judgment
was set aside by the Areopagus on appeal Jan. 26,

1853, but in the mean time Kalres had died in
prison at Syra. (Philipp Meter.)

Bibuoorapht: C. A. Brandis, Miiteilungen Hber Orieehen'
land, I 299-304, iii. 3&-38. Leipsic, 1842; J. Wenger, Bein
tr6Q9 sur KenninU dea ifegentDdrtigen OtiaUM und Zuaiandea
der grieehiachen Kird^ pp. 11-13. BerUn. 1839; A. D.
Ksniakos-Rausoh, CfeaehidUe der orientaliedien Kirdten,
pp. 191-194, Leipaio, 1902; E. Curtius. Ein Lebenainld in
Briefen, ed. F. Curtius. pp. 165, 215, Berlin, 1903; Fur-
ther literature in Greek is given in Hauck-Hersog, RE,
xix. 669-670.

KAISER, koi'ser (KAESER), LEORHARD: Ger-
man reformer; b. at Rab (a market-town near
Sch&rding, 8 m. s.s.w. of Passau) about 1480; exe-
cuted at Sch&rding Aug. 16, 1527. He was edu-
cated at Leipsic, and about 1517 became vicar of
Waitzenkirchen, but in accordance with the Re-
gensburg Ekiict of 1524 was cited before the
consistory of Passau for preaching Evangelical doc-
trines. After a brief imprisonment, he was per-
mitted to return to his congregation, whereupon,
in defiance of the duke's prohibition forbidding his
subjects to attend the University of Wittenberg, he
matriculated there June 7, 1525, and for a year
and a half enjoyed the teaching of Luther and his
colleagues. Despite personal danger, he returned
to Rab in the early part of 1527 on accoimt of his
father's mortal illness, and himself fell sick. De-
noimced by the parish priest of Rab, Kaiser was
arrested and imprisoned at Passau on Mar. 11,
1527. He refused to retract his views, and his
trial, because of the prominence of his family, at-
tracted wide attention. Luther sent him a letter
of consolation {Luthers Briefwechsdf ed. E. L. En-
ders, vi. 54-55, Frankfort, 1895), but all petitions,

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDU

including those of the count of Schaumberg, the
margrave of Brandenburg, and even the elector of
Sitxony, were ia vain. On July 18, be was con-
demned to be unfrocked and executed and the sen-
tence was carried out on Aug. 16, when he waa
delivered to the secular arm and burned at the
stake. (T. KoUJE.)

BTBLioQRAi-ifT: F. Roth, Ein evanffttiKAer MArtyrer avM

dtm InnnerUi. HiJIf, 1000; V. A. WinMr. OwAidtte drr

SchicktaU drr rvanBtlitchin Lehrt. i. 237 sqq,. Munich.

1B09: A. Siihmid, in ZeiUchrifl far aUacnnrui OtMchiiAU,

ivOSe?). SOBtqq.

KALDI, kol'dl, GYORGY: Hungarian Jesuit; b.
at Tymau {60 m. e. of Vienna), Hungary, 1570;
d, at Presburg (35 m. e. of Vienna) Oct. 30, 1634.
He held various positions in his order, preached in
Vieuna, laught theology at OhnQtz, and finally be-
came head of the college at Presburg. He translated
the Bible into Hungarian (Vienna, 1626), and pub-
lished a part of his serniona (2 vols., Presburg, 1631).
His translation of the Bible (see Bible Versions,
B, ix., 2) has been frequently reprinted.
Biblioosapht; a. and A. de Backer. La Scritmnt dc la

compoen^ cb y/iu, s.v.. 7 voli.. LiiSgc, ISGS-ei; KL.

vii, 60, ii. 770-771.

KALISCH, ka'lish, (HORTTZ) MARCUS: Bib-
lical scholar; b. of Jewish parentage at Treptow,
Pomerania, Prussia, May 16, 1828; d. at Rowsley
{18 m. n.n.w. of Derby), DerbyHhire, England, Aug.
2.1, 18S5. He studied classical and Semitic lan-
guages at the universitica of Berlin and Halle
(Ph.D., 184S). and Talmudic literature at the rab-
binical collie in Berlin, On the subsidence of the
revolutionary movement of 1848, in which he had
been actively Interested, he settled in London.
From 1849 till 1853 he was secretary to the chief
rabbi, N. M. Adler, through whom he obtained a
tutorship in the family of Baron Lionel Rothschild.
Throughout the remainder of his life he was inti-
mate with the Rothschilds and tlieir munificence
enabled him to devote himself to scholarly work.
He planned a Hi*Urricat and Critiad Commentary
on ijie Obi Tetlametii mUh a Nem Trumlalion, and
published Eiodus {London, 1855), Genesis (1858),
and Lemticua (2 vols., 1867-72). which at the time
of publication were the best commentaries on the
respective books in the English language and are
not yet wholly superseded, having especial value
as the work of a learned Jew. Ill health prevented
the continuation of the work and also interrupted
a projected series of Bible Studies after the appear-
ance of The Prophecies of Balaam (1877) and The
Book of Jonah (1878). Kalisch also published a
Hebrew grammar (2 parts, 1862-63; 2d ed. of part
i., 1875): a book of poems in German (LeipsJc,
1868); Life and Writings of Oliver Goldsmith (Lon-
don. I860): and Path and Goat; a Dimussion on
the Elementa of Civiiitatum and the Conditions of
Happiness (1880).
BlBuoaniPBY: H, B. Mci»i*, Sminml IwmtlUts of iKe

NintUmA Cmturv. pp. 17&-173, Pbilsdclpbin. IBSO:

DNB. xxx. 237; JB. vii. 420,

KALKAR, kol'kar. CHRISTUn ANDREAS
HERHAHH: Danish theologian; b. in Stock-
holm Nov. 27. 1803; d. at Copenhagen Feb. 2.

18S6. He waa tlie son of a Jewish rabbi, spent his
childhood at Cassol, Germany, where his father
held a high position in the Jewish community, and
upon the latter's death went to Copenhagen (1812),
being later admitted to the university of that city.
From 1819 to 1823 he devoted himself to the study
of law, but on being baptized chose a theological
career, and was graduated in theology in 1826. In
the foQowing year he waa appointed adjunct at the
Latin school of Odense, and in 1834 became rector.
During his stay in Odense he published a commen-
tary on the Old Testament (1836-38), a history of
the Bible (2 vols., 1837-1839; German transl.,Kiel,
1839), and lectures on the apostolic history (1840).
In 1842 he received a royal stipend enabling him to
travel through European countries to collect mate-
rial for a history of Denmark during the Reforma-
tion, and on his return was appointed minister at
Gladaaxe, near Ckipenhagen. In 1845 he published
as the result of his travels "Documents relating to
tiie History of Denmark in the Time of the Refoi^
mation," which was intended as an introduction to
a cont«mplated Corpus reformalorum Danicorum,
but he was prevented from accomplishing his task
by a fire which destroyed his collected material. In
1847 he published, with other theologians, a new
Danish version of the Bible, with maps and illus-
trations. During the following years Kalkar de-
voted himself more to the history of [aissiona, and
published numerous works on Protestant and Ro-
man Catholic missions in general as well as mis-
sions among Jews and Mohammedans, As a his-
torian in this field, however, he displayed a lack of
critical and thorough investigation, which detracts
from the value of his works. In 1868 he retired
from active life, and spent the remainder of his days
in Copenhagen, engaged in literary pursuits.

(F. NlBIMMtO

KALTEISEN, kalt-oi'cen, HEIHRICH: Domin-
ican; b. at Ehrenbreitatein (2 m. e. of Coblemi),
Rhenish Prussia, c. 1390; d. at Coblenz Oct. 3,
1465. He early entered the Dominican convent at
Cobleni, and studied subsequently at Vienna and
at Cologne, where he became professor of theology
and also a preacher of note. Later he was sta-
tioned at Mainz as inquisitor-general for Germany.
He attended the Council of Basel, and. in 1433,
made himself famous by a three days' speech
against the demand ot the Hussites for the free
preaching of the word of God (printed by Canisius,
in Thesaurun monumentorum ecdeaiaetieorum et kit-
toricorum, ed. J. Basnage. iv. 628-708, Antwerp,
1725). During his residence at Basel he seems to
have been prior of the Dominican convent there.
In 1443 he was made magieter sacri palatii by
Eugenius IV., and in 1452 Nicholas V. made him
titular archbishop of Trondhjem. In 1463 he re-
tired to the cloister of his order at Cobleni. Fried-
rich Steill edited a fen of Kalteisen's writings in
Ephemerides dominitano-eacra: (Dillingen, 1692),
but most of his works remained in manuscript.

BiBLiooBAPBi: J. Quetil and J. Eoturd. Scn'pforH ordMt

irratdiaUorurn. i. 82S. Pulh 1719: KL, viL 68.

CAM, kOm. JOSEPH: Dutch missionary to the
Moluccas or Spice Islands; b. at Bois-le-Duc (28
m. e.s.e. of Utrecht) 1770; d. on the island of Am-

K>minln

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

994

boyna, Malay Archipelago, 1833. He early de-
sired to be a missionary, but yielded to his father's
wishes and became a business man. At the age of
forty he resigned his position as court messenger
at Amsterdam, and entered the missionary sem-
inary at Berkel, where his elder brother was edu-
cating candidates for the Netherlands Missionary
Society. The Indian colonies being at that time
in the hands of the English, he entered the service
of the London Missionary Society, in whose sem-
inary at Gosport he spent a year. In 1813 he was
sent to the Moluccas. The heathen population
there had been forcibly Romanized by the Portu-
guese in the sixteenth century, and in like manner
transferred to the Reformed Church by the Dutch
at the beginning of the seventeenth century.
When Kam appeared on the scene, everything was in
a sad state of decline. At rare intervals a preacher
would make a hasty visit to the islands to baptize
children by throngs, and to solenmize marriages.
Kam took up his abode on Amboyna, where in
1817 he was appointed government preacher. He
now developed a wonderful activity in reviving
the defunct Christian congregations. The twenty
thousand or more baptized members were organ-
ized under his charge, into eighty congregations,
the remotest of them being 300 miles away. For
his journeys he had a vessel built, which he him-
self commanded as captain. Thanks to his exer-
tions seventeen missionaries were sent out during
the years 1819-32, including Schwarz and Riedel,
who became distinguished for their success in
Celebes. Honored as " apostle of the Moluccas,"
Kam labored on indefatigably till his end.

R. Ghundbmann.

BiBLiOaRAPHT: L. J. van Rhijn, ReU door den indiadien
Ardiipel, pp. 443 sqq., Rotterdam, 1851; £. F. Kruijf,
Chtdiiedeni* van h^ Nederlandsdie Zendelinooenootaehap,
Groningen, 1894; P. Wurm, in AUgemeine Mianona-
Zeiiadtrift, 1897. pp. 365 sqq.

KAMMIN, kOm'min, BISHOPRIC OF: A bish-
opric named from the town of Kammin (Cammin)
in Pomerania, near the Baltic (38 m. n.n.e. of Stet-
tin). Among the companions of Otto of Bamberg
(q.v.) in his missionary work in Pomerania was a
priest named Adalbert, who, when Otto's plan for
the erection of a bishopric at Julin, the present
Wollin, was carried out, became its first bishop.
At Adalbert's request, Innocent II. took it in 1140
under papal protection, and assigned to its juris-
diction, besides the town of Wollin, ten other cos-
tra. Nothing was said about its inclusion in any
ecclesiastical province, though in 1160 the imperial
pope, Victor IV., placed it under Magdeburg. A
little later Wollin was destroyed in the war between
the Danes and Saxons, and the see was conse-
quently transferred to Kammin in 1175, appar-
ently once more as an exempt bishopric. This
status it managed to retain, except between 1216
and 1244, when it was again subject to Magdeburg.
Three attempts were made in the fourteenth cen-
tury to assert over it the metropolitan rights of
Gnesen, but the Curia decided against them in
1371. The Reformation found the diocese in a
state which facilitated its introduction. Its spread
began from the Premonstratensian monastery of

Belbuck, of which Bugenhagen was an inmate.
The Dukes Bogislas X. and George were hostile to it;
Bamim, however, forwarded it, and after the death
of the last Roman Catholic Bishop Erasmus von
Manteufel (1544) a Protestant was appointed in his
place, and the estates of the bishopric and the
monasteries secularized.
Bibliography: K. F. W. Haaaelbach, J. G. L. Koaegarten

and F. von Medem, Codex diplonuUicue Pomeraniaet vol.

l, Greifswald. 1843; L. Giesebrecht. Wendiaeke GewAtcfc-

ten, 3 vols., Berlin, 1843; Pommerachea Urkunienbuch, ed.

R. KJempin and R. PrOmere. 3 vols.. Stettin, 1868-01.

KAMPHAUSEN, kamp-hau'zen, ADOLF HER-
MANN HEINRICH: German Protestant; b. at
Solingen (18 m. n.n.e. of Cologne) Sept. 10, 1829;
d. at Bonn Aug. 13, 1909. He studied at the
University of Bonn (Ph.D., 1855), where he was
privat-docent for a few months before he went to
Heidelbei^ as private secretary of C. K. J. Bunsen.
Still in the service of Bunsen, he was privat-dooent
at the University of Heidelberg from 1856 to 1859,
when he returned with his employer to Bonn ; there
he was associate professor of Old-Testament exege-
sis 1863-68, full professor 1868-1901. From 1871
to 1890 he was a member of the conmiittee for the re-
vision of Luther's translation of the Old Testament.
He regarded Christ as the bodily son of Joseph and
Mary, and held that the Resurrection was an ob-
jective or real vision. He contributed the transla-
tion of the Books of Kings, Proverbs, and II Mac-
cabees to E. F. Kautzsch's Heilige Schrift des Alien
TeatamerUa (Freiburg, 1894), and wrote inde-
pendently among other works Die Hagiographen
des Allen Bundee nach den iiberlieferten Grundiexten
uberaetzt und mil erkldrenden Anmerkungen versehen
(Leipsic, 1868); Die Chronologie der hebrdischen
Kdnige (Bonn, 1883); Das Buck Daniel und die
neuere Geschichtsforschung (Leipsic, 1892); Book of
Daniel in The Polychrome Bible (New York, 1896);
and Das VerhdUnis des Menschenopfers zur israeH-
tischen Religion (Bonn, 1896).

E:ANT, kflnt, IMMANUEL: German philoso-
pher; b. at K6nigsberg, Prussia, Apr. 22, 1724; d.
there Feb. 12, 1804. His father, of Scotch descent,
was a saddler in humble circumstances, his mother
a woman of great natural force and fervent piety.
His entire life with exception of a few
Life and years as tutor in a country family was
WorkB. spent in his birthplace. After grad-
uating from the University of Kdnigs-
berg and teaching for several years, in 1755 he be-
came privat-docent, in 1770 full professor at the
university. Here his chief subjects were logic,
metaphysics, physical geography, anthropology,
moral philosophy, and mathematics; other sub-
jects were natural law, encyclopedia of philosophy,
natural theology, pedagogics, theoretical physics,
mechanics, and mineralogy. His philosophical
writings fall into two groups — the dogmatic or
pre-critical, influenced by Leibnitz and Christian
Wolff, imtil 1770; the critical, due in part to
Hume's influence (1770-1804), wherein his prin-
cipal works appeared, combating both the dog-
matism of Leibnitz and Wolff and the empiricism
of Hume. The writings of the earlier period may
be passed over here, for it is upon the great sy»-

d95

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

yg^wnwilw

tematic works of the second period that Kant's
fame rests. His new point of view is first seen in
the Latin dissertation De mundi aennbilis aique
irUelligibilia forma et principiU (Kdnigsberg, 1770);
but more important for the critical philosophy
were the epoch-making Kritik der reinen Vemunfi
(Riga, 1783; revised ed., 1787; best £ng. transl.
by F. Max Muller, Critique of Pure Reason, 2 vols.,
London, 1881, 1 vol., 1897) and the briefer and
more popular Prolegomena zu einer jeden kunjtigen
Metaphy8ik die ale Wieeenechafi wird auftreten
konnen (Riga, 1785; £ng. transl., Prolegomena to
Every Future Metaphysic which can appear as a Sci-
ence, London, 1819). These works are concerned
with epistemology and metaphysics. Of fundamen-
tal importance for Kant's ethics and religious phi-
losophy are: GrundUgung zur Metaphysik der Sitten
( Riga, 1785) ; Kritik der praktischen Vemunft (1788) ;
Die Religion innerhaJb der Gremen der bloeeen Ver-
nunft (Kdnigsberg, 1793; Eng. transl.. Theory of
Religion, Edinburgh, 1838); and Die Metaphysik
der Sitten (2 parts, Kftnigsbei^, 1797; Eng. transl..
Metaphysics of Ethics, 3d ed., with introduction by
H. Calderwood, Edinburgh, 1871). Other works
belonging to this period are: Metaphysische An-
fangsgrunde der Naturwissenschaft (Riga, 1786) ; and
Kritik der Urtheilskraft (Berlin and Libau, 1790;
Eng. transl., Kritik of Judgment, London, 1892).
Kant's works were edited by G. Hartenstein (10
vols., Leipsic, 1838-39; another ed., in chronologi-
cal order, 8 vols., 1867-69), by K. Rosenkranz and
F. W. Schubert (12 vols., 1838-40), and by J. H.
von Kirchmann (8 vols, and supplement, Berlin,
1868-73). Other translations from Kant are: PrO"
legomena and Metaphysical Foundations of Natural
Science, Translated . . . with a Biography and In-
troduction, by E. B. Bax (London, 1883); Critique
of Practical Reason, and Other Works on the Theory of
Ethics, Translated by T. K. Abbott (4th ed., 1889);
and Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysics of
Ethics . . . , translated by T. K. Abbott (1895).

Kant characterized his metaphysical standpoint
as transcendental idealism (see Ideaubm). In his
epistemology he taught that there are two sources
of knowledge: sensation — given through the senses,
and thought — intuitions of space and time and
categories of the understanding. This
Philosophy knowledge is restricted to phenomena,
in Outline. By pure reason a priori we are, how-
ever, compelled to affirm the reality of
a noimienal world, not as this is in itself, but as it
appears to us, and then only as to its form. A
basis is here laid for the later divorce of theoretical
knowledge and religious faith, as in Mansel's Limits
of Religious Thought (London, 1858), and in the
theology of Albrccht Ritschl (q.v.). Religion is the
recognition of one's duty as divine conmiands.
Commands are proved to be divine through our
sense of them as duties (natural religion); whereas
those which we know as divine commands become
our duty (revealed religion). Religion is essen-
tially belief in God as a good will realizing itself
in nature and history, evinced by neither proph-
ecy nor miracle, but by the same good will in our-
selves— its object to develop and confirm the will
of good in us. The sovereign test of the Bible is

our own moraUty. Sin, which presupposes free
causality, is an extra-temporal, voluntary adop-
tion by the reason of an evil motive, but incapable
of further explication. R^;eneration takes place
through one's becoming aware of the ideal of moral
perfection, and forgiveness through the ethical re-
production of the same ideal as that which the
Church attributes to Christ. The Church is the in-
visible body of the redeemed. Kant subjected the
traditional theistic arguments to a searching scru-
tiny, with the result that these lost most of their
cogency. His criticism reached the following con-
clusions: (1) concerning the ontological argiunent —
the idea does not prove the objective existence of
its content; (2) as to the cosmological argument,
an infinite series of finite causes is thinkable, the
cause which this argument postulates is not a nec-
essary cause, and even if the necessary cause were
thus reached, this would not be the God of theol-
ogy; (3) the teleological proof — mentioned with
respect — rests on the unproved assertion of uni-
versal adaptation and teleology, and leads to an
artificer not to a Creator; (4) the moral proof,
drawn from conscience and feeling of responsibil-
ity, the universality and teleology of the moral
order, is invalid in the light of pure reason, al-
though it holds good for the practical reason.
Kant's denial of the worth of the theistic argu-
ments, to which must be added freedom and im-
mortality, means not that these are finally to be
rejected, but, incapable of proof by reasoning, are
removed to the jurisdiction of the practical reason.
In the moral consciousness are given those ideas
of God, freedom, and immortality. The reason
had not denied freedom, but conceived it as an
intelligible, not as an empirical, reaUty; and since
freedom was the absolute condition of moral re-
sponsibility, the practical reason postulated im-
mortality as the sphere within which this moral
problem was to be solved, and God as the guaran-
tor both of the moral order and the ultimate real-
ization of the good will. The only good without
qualification is a good will. The categorical im-
perative as addressed to the will compels a teleo*
logical interpretation of reality and a recognition
of the autonomy of the practical reason. In the
summum bonum virtue and happiness must be
thought of as combined, but virtue is supreme and
is alone worthy of happiness. Owing to the su-
premacy of the practical reason, man is to act as
if the postulates of the moral consciousness were
proved. Kant's ethical teaching is marked by
'* vigor and rigor." Duty stands in no relation to
feeling. Duty is for duty's sake alone. The moral
law admits of no exceptions. His categorical im-
perative enjoins, *^ Act only on that maxim which
thou canst at the same time will to become a uni-
versal law."

Kant's philosophy as a whole may now be char-
acterized: (1) We know phenomena, not things
in themselves. (2) Objects are scientifically known,

i.e., by the reason, a priori, since they
Summary, are created by the understanding.

(3) Our knowledge is objectively valid
for phenomena or for possible experience, but not
outside of these. (4) Things-in-themselveB are

THE NEW SCHAFP-HERZOQ

intelligible ideal realities, belonging to the unity
ot the All-Real Being, teleolc^ieally related to the
highest good. (5) Philosophy culminates not in
the theoretical but in the practical reason, giving
rise to a rational working faith (cf. F. Paulsen, Im-
manuel KanI, Eng. tranal., pp. 115-116, New York,
1902. The philosophy of Kant has been profoundly
influential in religious thought. First, in the fur-
ther working out of the dualism involved in his
epistemology (neo-Kautian theology); secondly,
in the transcendence of that dualism in the asser-
tion of the ultimate unity of thought and being
(idealistic theology); thirdly, in the aupremacy of
the practical reason as related on the one hand to
theological construction and on the other to per-
Bonaliam as the solution of the conflict between
naturalism and religion (cf. R. Otto, Naturalism
and Rdigiim (London, 1906). See Pantbeibm, | 5.
C. A. Belkwith.

cf. the lilt oi worlu in J. M. B»ldiriD. Dictuniarv of Plii-
ItHopAii and PsychalaBj/. iii. 1, pp. 280-3^. New York,
1005. On thB life tha beat nogle book ta F. Paulaen, /m-
maniwl Kant, *nn Lthen und leine Lehrr, tilal%g»n, ISQS,
£iig. Inns!., /mmanurj Kara, Au Life and Dottrint. New
York. 1002; L. E. Borowaki. Dartlellung dtt LiUns v«d
CharakUr Kanti, Kenigaberg, IBM (reviBod by Kant him-
nlf); H. Bclimidt, Immanual Kanfa Liben. H&llo. ISSS; K.
Fisober, KaniM Leben unl dit Gnindloom aniwr LdiTt,
Hvinheim. 1860: J. H. W. Stuckenbeig. Lift of /nHunuel
Kant, LoDdoa, 1882; M. KniiuDberE. KarU, Kin Ltben
und HIM Lrhrt, Munich, ISBl.

On hifl philoBophy eouiult: J. BAmi, Phihtophie da
KanI. Pitris. IBfil: H. B. W. BoEtoo. KanI and Hamilton,
London. ISM; K. Fiactaer, Conmenlarn on Kant'i -Cri-
Uek<ittlui Pun RdUoTi." ib. IBee; C. DQwell, Kanfa Ra-

iphie, FUtaUnnalda, 1873: J. Knftui. Dit

HopAucAe Antdiauung Kanta, Bnsel. 1874;
.... Varaiujt einer EnlicicktlvngaaaachichU der
I Erkanntniaatheuria, Leipaic. 187fi: E. Caird,
nU Phitoa/yphu "f Kant Exptaimd and Eiamintd. Lon-
don, 1877; idem. The CrUiad Phiiaaoplty of Emaafiuel
Kant. 2 vola., Clusow. 1889; C. Rilter. KanI und Huma,
Halle, tSTS: J. G. Sehumuui, Kantian Ethica and tha
Slkia of Bvoluticn, Loulan. ISSI; J. U. BCirling, Text-
book to XonJ, ib. 1881; O. 8. MorriB. KanCi Critique of
Pva Raaaon, Cliiia«o, 1SS2; G. Thiela, Die PhiloaojiMe
Immanuil Kama. 2 vola.. Ua[le, IS83-87; W. W&il&ce.
Xonl, Orford, 18S2: J. McCOah, A Critidam of 0\e CriC-
icsl Philoaophy. New York. 18S4; 1. P. UkbaSy. Kanl'a
CrifuoJ PhilotofiAn far Engliah Sradari, 2 vols.. London.
1880; J. Royoe, Tha Spirit of Modem Philoaaphv. Bos-
ton. 1892; T. H. Green. Worka. ed. R. L. Nettleabip, ii,
a-IS6, London, 1883: C. W, Hodge. Kantian EpiaUmol-
cn 'w' Theiam. Phitsdelphin, 1391; V, Buicb. Eaaai . , ,
mr Vflhitiqae da Kant, Puia. 189fl; A. CreaaoD. La Mo-
rel* de KanI, ib. ISST; W. M. Waahington. The Fmnat
and Malarial Elanmta af Kanfa Elhia. New York. 18DS;
T. Royasen, Kant, Paria, IflOO; H. B, Chamberlain, /m-
moHuel KanI. die PerHinliMseit all Einfuhrune in doa
Wark. Huniofa. 190S: G. Qerland, Immanatl Kant, aaine
geographiaehenund anthropotoffi*chen Arbailan, Berlin, 1900;
J. GuttmaDD, Kanla OoUtabaonff in inner poaitivan Eni-
UJeUHRS, ib., 1900; H. Apat. Kommenlar n KanI, "Pro-
leeomena," ib., 1908; O. Ewald, Kanla kritiadur ideoltimu
ate Omndlaoe von Erkenntnietheorie und Elkik. ib., 1908; J.
Wmlaoa. Tha Philoaophy of Kant Bipiained.Otaagow, ISD8.

KASTZ, EASPAR: Reformer of NOrdUngen;
b. at NOrdlingen (38 m. n.n.w. of Augsburg) in the
last quarter of the fifteenth century; d. there Dec.
6, 1644. Some time before 1501 he appears to
have entered the monastery of the Carmelites in
Nardlingen and in 1501 went to the University of
Leipsic. In 150^ he became bachelor, 1505 master,
IflU biblicua, and J615 sententiariua. He returned
to faia native city and become prior of the monas-

tery, but was deposed in 1518. although be was
allowed to remain in the monastery. Whatever
may have been the reason for his deposition, it is
certain that at a very early time he advocated the
ideas of the Reformation. After the church of the
Carmehtes had opened its doors to the Gospel,
there followed the church of St. George, where Bil-
lican preached from Nov., 1522. Although the
city council considered public sentiment, it was
averse to all decisive measures, and when Kants
openly announced from the pulpit that he had
taken a wife, he was expelled from the city on June
26, 1523. From one of his sennons, printed in
1524, he appears to have been recalled. In 1530
he applied in vain for the position of " Latin school-
master " in Nttrdlingen, In the list of preachers
be appears as diaconiis first in 1 535, but before that
time he held the position of German schooltnaster.
On June 21, 1535, he was phiced as preacher at the
head of the churches in NOrdlingen in place of the
wavering Billican. The first church order of N6rd-
lingen of 1538 was his work. He also promoted
catechetical instruction, which had been neglected
by Billican, and succeeded in bettering the moral
conditions.

Kantz was the real reformer of Nardlingen. Re
enriched Evangelical devotional literature by wri-
tings which bear comparison with those of the
more famous men of the sixteenth century. He
deserves an honorary place in the history of the
Evangelical church service because he drew up and
put in practise a German Evangelical mass tour
years before Luther's German mass, under the title,
Von der Euajigelitcken Measz. Mil ChrisUvJien
G^teUen vor vnd tuuJi der cmpfahung des Sacramerdt
(1522). It was the first attempt to arrange a Gei^
man celebration of the Lord's Supper according to
Evangelical principles in close relation to the Ro-
man formulary. Kantu also wrote an excellent
book for the sick, Wie man den, krancken vnnd SUr-
benden meiachen ermanen, trOelen, vntid Gott be-
fethen soil, das er von diger Weli, adigklich abschaidt
(Augsburg, 1539; Straabui^, 1556; Nuremberg,
1568, and 1580; Tubingen, 1577), which was read
also by the Roman Catholics. He published also
Die Hietoria de» leydes Jesu Chritti nach den wier
EvJigtliaUn. Vnd ouch von der Juden OaUrlam;
Tnit trostlicher auanlegung (Augsburg, 153S; en-
larged 1539; Nuremberg, 1555), a book distin-
guished by \U religious depth, and left a cate-
chism (NOrdlingen, 1542), besides composing some
hymns. (C. Gbykh.)

Biblioorafht: C Oeyer. Kaapar Kanti. in Beilrliae nr
baueriaehen KinhenDeachiehle, ed, T. Kolde. V. 101-127.
Erlangen. 1898; idem, jDia Jf urdfinoer rvanaeliaiiien Kir-
(htnordnungan dea IB. Jakrhunderta. pp. 1-23, Munich,
1898; J. D. Haokh. in V. L. von Scekendorf, Hial. Z.u-
Iheraninni. iii. 183 aqq., Leipsie, 1002; A, Steichele. Dae
Bialum Aupabur;. iii. 964-695. 1024 sqq.. Augsburg. 1872;
H. Beok, Die EriavunBtlitleratur der rvaneeliiJien Kirche
DealicklaHda, i, 168 aqf),. Erlangen, 1883: idem. Die
ralitiioae VaUiIilterafur der evanaeliaiien Kirdie Dautiek-
landa. p. 40. Qetiin, 1891; J. Smend, Die evangeliaiAen
deutachan Sleaaan, paaaim. G^ittiugen. 1896.

KAPFF, SIZT KARL: German Protestant; b.
at GUglingen (20 m. n.w. of Stuttgart), Wtlrttem-
berg, Oct. 22, 1805; d. in Stuttgart Sept. 1. 1870.
From early diildhood he was religiously dispoeed.

d07

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

BLant
Ejiraites

and at the University of Tubingen he engaged in
daily prayer with his intimate friend, Wilhehn
Hofacker. After filling the positions of vicar at
Tuttlingen, teacher in the Fellenbeig school at
Hofwyl, Switzerland, and repetent in Tikbingen, he
became, in 1833, pastor of the colony of Pietists at
Komthal, near Stuttgart. In 1843 he was made
Dekan at Milnsingen, and in 1847 at Herrenberg.
He was transferred to Reutlingen in 1850, and to
Stuttgart in 1852, where, for the remainder of his
life he was Prdlat and the greatly beloved and in-
fluential pastor of the Stiftskirche.

KapfT combined the genial manners, trustfulness,
and sympathetic warmth of the Swabian character.
He was a friend to ministers all over WQrttemberg,
and attracted all classes who had an interest in re-
ligion. As a preacher, he did not represent any
sharply defined theological or ecclesiastical tend-
ency. His sermons had much of the supernatural-
ism of the old TQbingen scliool, but more warmth
and sympathy than belonged to it. He had an eye
to the domestic and social wants of his people, and
drew largely upon his every-day intercourse with
them for his subjects. He also took a warm inter-
est in the ecclesiastical affairs of Wdrttembeig, and
in foreign missions as advanced by the missionary
institution in Basel. For more than a quarter of a
century, he was the center of the pious circles of the
land.

The best known of his publications are : Gtbe&mch
(Stuttgart, 1835; 21st ed., 1905); Commumonbuch
(1840; 24th ed., 1901); Das kleine Communionbuch
(1841; 36th ed., 1905); Wamung einea Jugend-
freundea (1841; 20th ed., 1902); Achtzig Predig-
ten iiber die alien Epiateln (1851; 6th ed., 1879);
83 Predigten iiber die alien Evangdien (1862; 6th
ed., 1876); and Casiudreden (ed. C. Kapff, 1880).

(Karl von BuBxtO

Bibuographt: C. Kapff, LtbenabUd von 8ixt Karl Kapff»
2 vols., Stuttgart. 1881 (by his son).

KAPPEL, PEACE OF. See Zwingli, Huld-

REICH.

KARAITES, k^'ra-oits.

The Sect in Babylonia (f 1). Egypt and the Crimea (f 4).
In Palestine (f 2). Constantinople (f 5).

Religious Philosophy (f 3). Poland (f 6).

Doctrine and Law ({ 7).

The name of the Karaites (Hebr. KaraHm, sing.
Kara), a very important Jewish sect, may be an
intensive noun from the verb kara, " to read," sig-
nifying " readers," i.e., readers of the Bible par
excellence. It is better, however, to take Kara as
a denominative form from mikra (Aram, kera),
" Scripture " and to interpret it as an " adherent
of the Scriptures," i.e., one who follows strictly the
text of the Bible and rejects the rabbinical tradi-
tion of the Talmud. This explanation finds sup-
port in the fact that the Karaites are also called
Bene Mikra, ** sons (adherents) of the Scripture,"
sus opposed to the Bene miahnah, or "sons of the
mishnah " or of tradition.

The founder of the Karaite sect was Anan ben
David, who, according to tradition, was disap-
pointed in his expectations of becoming either gaon
(head of one of the Babylonian academies) or resh

gahda (head of the Babylonian diaspora), and there-
fore renounced the Talmud, founding at Bagdad
in 761-762 a new community which
I. The rejected mishnaic and talmudic tra-
Sect in dition. Like all prominent Karaites,
Babylonia, he wrote a Sefer ha-Mizwot {" Book
of Precepts ") and two other works,
of which only a few fragments are extant; the
statement that he wrote a commentary on the
Pentateuch is without proof. Anan's pupil Mocha
and his son Moses (780-800) introduced a new
system of vowels and accents which displaced the
former system and promoted the Masorah, while
other Karaites applied the so-called hermeneutical
rules (middot), borrowed from Mohanunedan the-
oloSYi ^o ^he interpretation of the law. At a very
early period the Karaites followed the philosoph-
ical tendency of Mohanmiedanism, and about 800
Judah Yudghan attacked the rabbinical doctrine
of the anthropomorphism of God. His system was
elaborated by Benjamin ben Moses Nahawendi,
who flourished about 830. According to him, God
is too exalted to reveal himself to man, and revela-
tion was accordingly made by the medium of an
angel, who not only created the world but also per-
formed all the acts of God recorded in the Torah.
Benjamin's writings, with the exception of his
Sefer dinim (" Book of Laws ") are known only
from citations. With Benjamin and a few others
the Arabic period of Karaism came to a close, and
the Karaite communities of Babylonia and Persia
soon lost their importance.

Under the impulse of the Messianic expectations
which are a marked characteristic of Karaism,
Palestine now became the center of a Karaite prop-
aganda, which, in the tenth and eleventh centuries,
reached even to Greece and Spain, while the Ka-
raites living in Jerusalem took the
2. In name of Shoshantm or Maskilim, with
Palestine, reference to Dan. xii. 3. Karaite con-
gregations already existed in Egypt,
and Oonstantinople was selected as a missionary
field; but the chief object of attack was the first
and last great teacher of Judaism to polemize
against them, Saadia Gaon (b. 892; d. 942), who
had assailed Hiwi al-Balkhi and Ibn Sakuyah in
his KHab alrTamyiz ("Book of Distinction"),
written in 926, and in his Sefer Emunot we-De'ot
{" Book of the Articles of Faith and Doctrines of
Dogma "), written seven years later. The first
Karaite who wrote against Saadia was Solomon ben
Jeroham (b. at Fostat c. 915-920; d. about 960),
whose MUhamot Adonai (" Wars of the Lord ") is
still extant in its main portions. He also wrote
conmientaries on Ecclesiastes, the Song of Solo-
mon, The Psalms, and Lamentations, as well as
others which are now lost. He denounced phi-
losophy and all other sciences, and acknowledged
only the study of the Torah, although he respected
the Mishnah. His partisan, the Jerusalem Ka-
raite Sahl ben Mazliah also wrote against Saadia and
the latter's disciple, Samuel ben Jacob. Solomon
ben Jeroham's successor, Yafith ibn Ali (Japheth
ha-Levi) of Bassora, the greatest and most fruitful
Karaite exegete, was also an opponent of Saadia,
but he was moderate in his polemics and in his com-

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

298

xnentaries quoted many passages from his oppo-
nent. He paid special attention to grammar, and
in lexicographical respects his commentaries, which
are extant on the entire Old Testament, are very
instructive. Like Benjamin Nahawendi, he referred
Isa. liii. to the Messiah and his sufferings, in oppo-
sition to the Rabbinical exegetes, who, on account
of their hostility to Christianity, referred the chap-
ter to the people of Israel. Yafith lived about
915-1008, and wrote his commentaries in the last
quarter of the tenth century, apparently compos-
ing his Sefer ha-Mizwot before his commentaries.
In the first half of the eleventh century lived Abu
al-Faraj Harun of Jerusalem, the author of a gram-
matical work entitled Muahtamil (** The Compre-
hensive 'Of ^ which he compared Hebrew with
Arabic. He also wrote an Arabic commentary on
the Bible, in which he explained all difficult words
and sometimes entire sentences. To the middle of
the eleventh century belongs Jacob ben Reuben,
the author of commentaries on the Bible, composed
chiefly of compilations from older authorities.

With the first half of the tenth century began
the first epoch of Karaite religious philosophy which
was based upon the Arabic scholastic theology of
the kalam (literally "word"; cf.
3. Relig- logos) J a system developed in the seo-
ioosPhi- ond century of the Hejira, and in-
losophy. tended, according to the statements of
the Arabs themselves, to harmonize
tradition with philosophy. It therefore afforded a
means of defending religious doctrines by argu-
ments based on reason, and was primarily directed
against the tenets of the heterodox sects, and sec-
ondarily against the teachings of the philosophers.
Thus Aaron ben Elijah (see below, § 5) could con-
trast the MutakaUamun (" teachers of the word "),
with the '' philosophers," or the Aristotelians,
whereas the main elements of the kalam were
evolved from the Peripatetic philosophy. The
MiUakallamun also include the Mohanunedan sect
of the Mutazilites (''Separatists, Dissenters"; see
Mohammedanism), who were founded by Wasil ibn
Ata (b. 699/700; d. 748, 749), a contemporary
of Anan and the founder of an Islamitic religious
philosophy which professed a rationalistic formu-
lation of Mohanmiedan dogmas in opposition to
the liberal belief of traditional orthodoxy. The
Karaites were closely allied to this sect, and their
teachers even called themselves Mutakallamun.

The first religious and philosophical work of Kara-
ism was the Kitab air Anwar (" Book of Lights "),
written by Jacob al-Kirkisani in 937, and devoted
to a sununary of the marriage law of the Kara-
ites, so far as it deviated from the rabbinical sys-
tem. He also wrote a commentary on the Penta-
teuch, and was followed in the eleventh century
by Joseph ben Abraham ha-Roeh, who is men-
tioned by Maimonides in his Moreh Ntbukim as
a representative of the kalam and an opponent
of Hal Gaon. Joseph was the author of Kitab al-
Mvhtawif a philosophical work on " the roots of
religion." Hitherto the Karaites, interpreting Gen.
ii. 24 to mean that husband and wife form a unit,
had made it almost impossible for them to marry
among themselves. This theory was abolished by

Joseph and his pupil Joshua ben Judah (Abu al-
Faraj Furkan), although an exaggerated applica-
tion of the method of analogy prohibited marriage
within many degrees of affinity which were per-
mitted by the rabbinical Jews. About the middle
of the eleventh century Joshua ben Judah wrote
an extensive commentary on the Pentateuch and
a treatise on the law of marriage. According to
his pupil Ibn al-Taras, the works of Joshua pro-
moted Karaism in Spain, although they were soon
counteracted by rabbinical Judaism.

In the twelfth century Egypt took the place of
Jerusalem as the center of Karaism, and this cen-
tury also marks decay of Arabo-Karaite literature,
for its last representative was the
4* ^STP^ physician Daniel, who wrote a work

and the in 1682 in imitation of the Hoboi ha-

Crimea. Ldnibot (" The Duties of the Hearts "),
composed by Bahya of Saragossa in
the eleventh century, while Egypt was also the
home of the Hebrew poet Moses Dari. There were
also many congregations of Karaites in the Crimea,
where a conmiunity is said to have existed in 1279.
Crimean Karaite literature was extremely scanty,
and little of it has been preserved, although it is
known that the Karaites of the Crimea applied
themselves diligently to the study of the law.
Since they laid great stress on a sojourn in Jerusa-
lem, which could easily be reached by way of Con-
stantinople, several books of travel were written
by Karaites, including Samuel ha-Kadosh ben
David (1641-42), Moses ben Elijah ha-Levi (1654-
1655), and Benjamin ben Elijah of Koslov (1785-86).
About the middle of the eighteenth century there
were 500 families in the Crimea, represented by
four communities at Kala, Koslov, Kafa, and Man-
guf. In the Crimea the Karaites enjoyed special
privileges, as when, in 1796, the Empress Catharine
remitted half the poll-tax for every young man and
also exempted them from military service.

The Karaite community which existed at Con-
stantinople in the early part of the eleventh cen-
tury, and numbered 500 families in the second half
of the following century, is important for the his-
tory and literature of the sect. There is no doubt
that Karaites lived in Constantinople
5. Constan- at the time of Judah Hadassi (b. at

tinople. Jerusalem 1075; d. at Constantinople
1160), who began his Eshkol ha-Ko/er
(also called Sefer ha-Peles) in 1148. He classified
all religion on the basis of the ten commandments
and sought to oppose all heresies known to him.
In natural history he had no superior among his
contemporaries and he gave an extended and val-
uable account of the progress of philosophy, a sub-
ject which he also treated in his Sefer Teren hi-
Teren on Hebrew homonyms. Karaite literature
was especially promoted by two scholars named
Aaron. The first of these was Aaron ben Joseph,
whose literary activity falls between 1270 and
1300. He was a physician and wrote commentaries
on the Pentateuch, the earlier and later prophets,
and the Psalms. His most important work was
his commentary on the Pentateuch, entitled Mibhar
("Choice") and completed in 1294. Aaron was
likewise the author of a grammatical and exeget-

200

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

ical hand-book entitled KdU Yofi (** Diadem of
Beauty ") and a book of prayers which enjoyed
great popularity among the European Karaites.
The second Aaron was Aaron ben Elijah of Nioo-
media (b. at Cairo 1300; d. at Constantinople
1369), who wrote Ez ha-Hayyim (" Tree of Life "),
in which he developed the doctrinal system of the
new faith, showing how the Jew should practise
his religion to gain eternal life. He sought to
blend the system of the MrdakaUamun with the
school of Maimonides, and thus produced an eclectic
system, although at the same time he defended the
kalam, which he followed rather than the Aristo-
telian method. In his Gan ^Eden (" Paradise ")
he recapitulated all his predecessors. This work,
which is to the Karaites what the Maimonidean
Yad ha-Hazakah is to the rabbinical Jews, is based
upon the principle that the belief in the imity and
other attributes of God as well as in his government
of the world forms the end and aim of the law,
while his Keter Torah (" Crown of the Law ")» *
commentary on the Pentateuch, is intended as an
elucidation of his philosophical Ez ha-Hayyim,
The latest bloom of Karaite literature in Constan-
tinople is represented by the writings of Elijah
Bashyazi (b. at Adrianople c. 1420; d. there 1490),
the author of the Aderet Eliyahu ('' Mantle of
Elijah '')f a summary of the works of his predeces-
sors. His pupil and nephew, Caleb Afendopolo (b.
1465), completed the work of his master, in addi-
tion to writing independent works on theology, as-
tronomy, and medicine, while his two kinot (*' Lam-
entations '') on the expulsion of the people of God
from Spain, Russia, and Lithuania (1493) are his-
torically interesting. A contemporary of Caleb
was Judah ben Elijah ha-Gibbor, who enriched the
liturgy of the Karaites, while his son Elijah Shusbi
wrote a poem on the calendar. Moses Bashyazi, a
great-grandson of Elijah Bashyazi, was a distin-
guished figure of the sixteenth century.

While the literature of the Karaites in the By-
zantine countries was mainly doctrinal, their Po-
lish coreligionists, who were the last to produce
Karaite literature, were obliged to write contro-
versial books, owing to the inquiries of
6. Poland. Christians. The first Karaites en-
tered Poland at the end of the fouiv
teenth century at the request of the king, coming
from the Crimea to Lithuania, where Grand-duke
Witold took them under his protection and granted
them privileges which were afterward (1446) con-
firmed by King Covsimir Jagellon. The first com-
munities were at Lutsk and Troki, the two prin-
cipal cities 'of Lithuania, and in 1581 Stephen
Bathori allowed the Karaites to settle also in Vol-
hynia, Podlasie, and Kiev. The first Karaite to
make an open attack on Christianity was Isaac ben
Abraham Troki (b. 1533), who opposed the Christian
faith in the first part of his Ilizzuk Emunah (** Con-
firmation of Faith '*) on thegroimd that the prophe-
cies of the Old Testament can not refer to the foimder
of Christianity, while in the second part he criticized
the contradictions in the Gospels. Mention may
also be made of Mordecai ben Nisan, who wrote a
treatise in answer to four questions propounded
by Jacob Trigland, professor at Leydeni in Apr.,

1698, the first being whether the Karaites were the
ancient Sadduoees or originated with Anan. Though
full of anachronisms thia treatise (entitled Dod Mar-
dechax) possesses a certain amount of importance,
since it was long the chief source for the history of
Karaism. For the king of Sweden Mordecai wrote
his Lelmsh MaUctU on the differences between the
Karaites and the Rabbanites, and was also the
author of a book of granunatical rules {KekUim),
Equally noteworthy was Solomon ben Aaron Troki,
the author of Appiryon (c. 1700), containing an
account of the distinctive features and the origin
of Karaism, together with an outline of its cere-
monies, written for the information of the minis-
ter of the Swedish government. The second part
of another work of the same name contains refu-
tations of Christianity. In 1756 Simhah Isaac
Lutski, one of the most revered and learned of the
Karaites, wrote his Orah Zaddikim, containing a
list of the most celebrated Karaites and their works.

Karaite literature ends with Abraham Firko-
vich of Lutsk (d. at Chufut-Kale, 1874), whose val-
uable services to the criticism of the Old Testa-
ment are overshadowed by the systematic falsifi-
cations of manuscripts and epitaphs by which he
sought to prove that the Karaites were the de-
scendants of the Israelites who had been led into
the Assyrian captivity and who had settled in the
Crimea during the reign of Cambyses. Since 1830
the Crimean Karaites have had a printing-estab-
lishment at Eupatoria, where editions of their
most important manuscripts have been published.
Karaite communities are found not only in the
Crimea but also in Jerusalem and Constantinople,
as well as throughout Egypt, Galicia, Moldavia,
Wallachia, and southern Russia. In 1871 the Kar-
aites numbered about 6,000, but this nimiber has
decreased to some 5,500, the majority of whom live
in Russia.

The Karaites recognize as binding precepts for
religiouB and moral conduct only those which can
be deduced from the Bible by means of an accu-
rate exposition of the literal sense according to
usage and context. From this main doctrine,
which has been compared with that of Protestant-
ism, other principles are inferred as necessary
corollaries. They acknowledge no tra-
7. Doctrine ditional exposition of passages of the

and Law. Bible, but every experienced teacher
is permitted to correct or change for-
mer interpretations according to the best of his
knowledge and belief, provided his views are justi-
fied by the text; and such rabbinical laws as are
recognized by the Karaites are regarded as valid
solely because they are based on the Bible, this
category including injunctions concerning slaugh-
tering, fbung of the new moon, circumcision, and
marriage. The introduction of new laws and the
recognition of those which are non-Biblical are for-
bidden, and the Karaites, therefore, do not cele-
brate the Feast of Lights (Hanukkah), This strict
adherence to the letter of the law, as based upon
textual hermeneutics, has also exerted an influence
upon individual rules and regulations. Important
divergencies exist between the Karaites and the rab*
biniccd Jews with regard to the Sabbath, phylao-

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

800

terief , (see Tepbilloc) and the calendars, while less
essential differences concern the celebration of the
feasts, especially Passover, the Feast of Trumpets,
and the Feast of Tabernacles, as well as the fasts
and religious exercises. The earliest Karaite
teachers formed the liturgy by omitting all rab-
binical additions, so that religious customs have
been exempt from change or discussion. The rigor
with which the Karaites observe all their customs
has had a deep influence on their lives. They are
not content with religious worship on festivals and
on semi-festivals like Purim, but refrain from work
even on the intermediate days, while on fast^days
they abstain from all commercial pursuits. The
laws of ritual purity are also extremely exaggerated,
and their strictness in the observance of legal obli-
gations extends to the moral duties. They attend
to their avocations in quiet simplicity, and generally
wear dark clothing in their aversion for everything
which pleanes the sight.

The main principles of the religious system were
fixed as early as the time of Hadassi, and were
formulated in ten articles by Elijah Bashyazi and
his pupil Caleb Afendopolo, as follows: (1) The
universe was created (inade out of nothing); (2)
there is a Creator, who was neither created by any
other power nor self-created; (3) he has no form,
is one in every respect, and is like none of his crea-
tions; (4) God sent Moses, our teacher; (5) through
him God revealed the Torah, which contains the
absolute truth; (6) every Jew is bound to read the
Torah in the original; (7) God also revealed him-
self to the other prophets; (8) God will raise the
dead on the Day of Judgment; (9) God will recom-
pense every one according to his deeds; (10) God
will deliver Israel from their affliction and send to
them the son of David. On the whole it may be
said that the Karaites agree with the rabbinical
Jews in fundamental doctrines, but differ from
their opponents in carrying them out.

(Victor RYBSELf.)

Bibuoobapht: A minute. criticiU and extonrive guide to
litersture oonoeming the Karaites, including the pro-
ductionn of their leaders, is given in Hauck-Heriog, RE,
X. 64-4X). cf. 881-882. Consult also: 8. Pinsker. Lignite
ffodhmonioi, Vienna, 1860 (in Hebrew, on Karaite his-
iory and literature); A. Neubauer. in JA, 1866, i. 634-
642; idem, Aua der Peterwburoer Biblic^Kek; BeitrOge und
IMeumente tur Oe$ehiehte dea Ketr&erthumM, Leipsic, 1866;
G. Karpeles, OeadiidUe der jiidUdien LiUeratur, pp. 404-
412 et passim, Berlin, 1886; The ArUi-KaraUe WriHntf
cf Saadiah Oaon, in JQR, x (1808). 238-276; A Commen-
tary an the Book of Daniel by Jephet ben AH the Karaite,
ed. in Arabic with tranal, by D. 8. Margoliouth, in Aneo-
data Oxonienta, 3d ser., i., part 3, Oxford, 1889.

On the history consult: J. M. Jost, Oeachichte dea Jur-
dentumt und §einer Sekten, 3 vols., Leipsic, 1867-69; J.
Farst, Oeachichte dea KarHertuma, 3 vols., ib. 1862-69
(to be used with caution); A. Gottlober, Bikkoret letoledot
Karaim, Vilna. 1866; J. Gurland, Oinae Yiarael, St.
Petersburg. 1866-66; W. H. Rule. Hiat. of the KaraiU
Jewa, lx>ndon. 1870; A. Harkavy, DenknUUer aua der
Krim, St. Petersburg, 1876; M. Steinschneider, Polemiache
LUeraiur, Leipsic, 1877; idem, Arabiache Literalur der
Juden, Frankfort. 1902; H. Gr&ts. Oeachichte der Juden,
especially v. 163-204, Leipsic, 1896, Eng. transl., Lon-
don. 1892; Semiiic Studiea in the Memory of Rev. Dr. A.
Kohut, pp. 435^66, Berlin, 1897; David ben Sa'del, Ibn
alrHiti'a Arabic Chronicle of Karaite Doctora, tranal. by
O. MargalunUh, London, 1807; Ersch and CSruber, En-
eyclapOdie, section II., vols, xxvii., xxxiii.; JE, vii. 438-447.

KARBIIS. See Bubma.

KARG, GEORG ^GEORGIUS PARSDfOinUS):

German Lutheran theologian: b. at Heroklingen
(near Harburz. 31 m. n.e. of Augsburg) 1512; d.
at Ansbach (25 m. s.w. of Nuremberg) Nov. 29,
1576. He was educated at Wittenberg, and then
began to preach, though unauthorized by the uni-
versity to do so. He promulgated heretical doc-
trines, however, and in 1537 was imprisoned in the
castle of Wittenberg. He soon re^&ined the con-
fidence of Luther and Jonas, and the former, at the
request of Count Louis of Oettingen. ordained Kaig
minister at Oettingen. where he worked zealously
for the Reformation until forced to flee in 1547.
He found a welcome in the district of Ansbach and
was appointed pastor in Schwabach. In 1552 he
received a call to Ansbach. and was soon made su-
perintendent for the entire district. There he grad-
ually allowed the rites of the Roman Catholic
Church to fall into abeyance, and against the wishes
of the government sought to abolish all usages of
the Atiduarium, a sort of modified interim which
had been introduced in an attempt to comply with
the imperial demand. At the request of the prince,
Karg took part in 1551 in the conferences of tfao
Wittenberg theologians on the Council of Trent,
and also attended the sessions of the conferences
at Frankfort and Worms. His heretical tend-
encies had not entirely disappeared, however, and
in 1557 he was involved in a discussion on the
Eucharist, and later caused a commotion by his
teaching concerning justification by faith, declaring
that the law exacted either punishment or obedi-
ence, but not both, and that Christ had suffered
passively for man, but had rendered obedience for
himself. His active obedience, accordingly, was
not part of his vicarious task, nor was his right-
eousness imputed to man in the Scriptures, Luther's
interpretation of Phil. iii. 9 being incorrect. The
atonement for the sins of mankind was due to the
death of Christ, not to his righteousness, and he
had confirmed the law, not abrogated it. The
enunciation of these views resulted in a contro-
versy, and Karg was suspended from office and
obliged to make a solemn retraction before he was
reinstated by Jakob Andre& (q.v.) on Oct. 31, 1570.
The most important of his numerous writings was
his KatechismuSf which was first printed in 1564
and was still used in Ansbach in the early part of
the nineteenth century. (T. Kolde.)

Biblioorapht: P. F. Karrer, in ZeUachrift fQr lutheria^e
Theologie und Kirche, 1853, pp. 661 sqq.; G. Frank, Ge-
aehithie der proteatantiachen Theologie, L 158 sqq., Leiptdc,
1862, cf. J. J. I. Ddllin^er, Die Reformation, iii. 564 sqq.,
Regensburg, 1846.

KARTAHOS, kOr'ta-nes, JOANRIKIOS: Greek
theologian of the sixteenth century; b. in Corfu at
the end of the fifteenth or the beginning of the six-
teenth century; place and date of death unknown.
He was originally a monk and protosyncellus at
Corfu, and in the first third of the sixteenth cen-
tury was sent to Venice, where he incurred the hos-
tility of Arsenios Apostolis and was imprisoned.
He was later released and returned to Greece, but
no further details of his life are known. Kartanos
was one of the first to revive a knowledge of the
Bible and the teachings of the Church among the

801

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

common people by writing in Romaic, since they
were no longer familiar with classic Greek. His
chief work was his ** Flower," written during his
imprisonment and first published at Venice in
1536. It enjoyed inmiense popularity, but the ad-
mixture of apocryphal elements roused the hostil-
ity of the Orthodox Greek party. His heresies
were sucoessfully assailed and the movement which
he had inaugurated was stopped. The ethical
treatises of Kartanos were incorporated in the
Thesaurus of Damascenus the Studite and thus
gained a certain degree of currency in the Greek
Church. (Philipp Meter.)

Bibliography: E. I>egrand, Bibliographie HelUnique, i. 226,
Paris. 1885; P. Meyer, in TSK, 1898, pp. 315 oqq.; idem.
Die theoloQiBche Litteraiur der griechi»chen Kirche im 16.
JahrhunderU, pp. 120 sqq., Leipsic, 1890.

KASSHITES. See Babylonia, VI., 5.

KASSIA (KASIA): Byzantine poetess of the

ninth century. Krumbacher (ut inf.) suggests

that the form " Icasia " (Gibbon, Decline and Fall,

V. 199) is possibly a corruption of 4 Koala, She

lived at Constantinople under the Emperors The-

ophilus (829-842) and Michael III. (842-867) in

a cloister of her own founding. Both ecclesiastical

and secular poems arc extant under her name; but,

excepting such as were adopted in liturgical books,

they occur rarely in manuscript. Her three best

known sacred hymns are the " Idiomela " on the

birth of Christ, the birth of John the Baptist, and

on Ash Wednesday. The last-named is identical

with the song Eis iSn pomSn. W. Christ and N.

Paranikas edited the three songs in their Anihologia

GrcBca (pp. 10-104, Leipsic, 1871). Four short

poems were published by Papadopulos-Kerameus

(Byzantinische Zeitschrift, x. 60-61, 1901), and an

acrostic dirge and some epigrams were issued by

Krumbacher (ut inf.). G. KrOoer.

Bibliography: K. Krumbacher, KanOt Munich, 1897;
idem, Oeachichte, pp. 715-716; P. Maas, in ByzanHniachs
ZeiUchrift, x (1901), 54-59; 8. Petrides, in Revue de
VorierU chriiien, vu (1902), 218-244.

KATERKAMP, kfl'ter-kflmp, JOHANN THEO-
DOR HERMANN: German Roman Catholic; b.
at Ochtrup (25 m. n.w. of Milnster), Westphalia,
Jan. 17, 1764; d. at MOnster June 9, 1834. He
studied in Milnster, was ordained priest in 1787,
and for ten years was tutor to the sons of Baron
Droste-Vischering, spending a part of this time
traveling with his wards in Switzerland and Italy.
From 1797 till 1806 he resided in the home of Prin-
cess Amalie Galitzin. In 1809 he became profes-
sor of church history at Milnster, and in 1831 was
appointed dean of the cathedral at Milnster. His
printipal work is his church history to the year
1153 (6 vols., Munster, 1819-34). He also pub-
lished Denkwiirdigkeiten aus dem Ld>en der FUrstin
Amalia von GaUitzin (1828).

Bibuoorapht: Trauerrede, by H. Brockmann, MOnster,
1834; E. Ras«nann, Nachrichten von dem Leben und den
Schriften M anaterUkndiecher SchrifUUUer, ib. 1866; KL,
vu. 333-335.

KATTENBUSCH, kat'ten-bash, FRIEDRICH
WILHELM FERDINAND: German Lutheran; b.
at Kottwig (7 m. s.s.w. of Essen) Oct. 3, 1851.
He studied in Bonn, Berlin^ HaUe (186^73), and

Gdttingen (lie. theol., 1875); became privat^ocent
in G6ttingen, 1876; professor of systematic theol-
ogy at Giessen 1878, at Gdttingen 1904, and at
Halle 1906. He was created a privy ecclesiastical
councilor in 1897 and since 1903 has been a mem-
ber of the Norwegian VidenskabsseUkabet. In the-
ology he is a follower of Albrecht Ritschl, and has
written among other works: Lehrbuch der vergleich-
enden Confeeetonskunde, t. (Freiburg, 1892); Das
apostolische Symbol, seine Enlstehung, sein ge-
schichtlichcr Sinn und seine ursprUngliche Stellung
im Kidtus und in der Theologie der Kirche (2 vols.,
Leipsic, 1894-1900); and Das sOUiche RecfU des
Krieges (Giessen, 1906).

KAULEN, kaulen, FRANZ PHILIPP: German
Roman Catholic; b. at DUsseMorf Mar. 20, 1827;
d. at Bonn July 11, 1907. He studied in Bonn
(1846-49) and at the theological seminary in Cologne
(1849), and was chaplain at Duisburg (1850-52) and
Dottendorf (1852-53), rector and prison chaplain
at POtzchen, near Bonn (1853-59), lecturer in the
theological seminary at Bonn (185&-63), and privat-
docent in the University of Bonn (1863-80). In
1880 he became associate professor of Old-Testa-
ment exegesis in Bonn, and full professor in 1882.
After 1892 he was a domestic prelate to the pope.
He edited the fifth to the eighth editions of C. H.
Vosen's Rudimenta linguae hebraicae (Freiburg, 1872-
1899); the twelfth to the eighteenth editions of the
same author's Kurze EinleUung zum Erlemen der
hebrdischen Sprache (1874-1900); the second edition
of the KL (12 vols., 1882-1903); and the second
and third editions of K. Martin's translation of the
" Antiquities " of Josephus (Cologne, 1883-92). As
independent works he wrote: Liber Jonae prophetae
(Mainz, 1862); Legende von dem sdigen Hermann
Joseph (1862); GeschichUderVulgaia(lS69); Handr
buck zur Vulgaia (1870); EinleUung in die heUige
Schrift Alien und Neuen Testaments (2 parts, 1876-
1881); Assyrien und Babylomen nock den neuesten
Enideckungen (Cologne, 1877); Kwrze EinleUung in
die heUige Schrift des Alien und des Neuen Testaments
(Freibui^, 1897); and Der biblische Sch&pfungfbe-
richt erkldrt (1902).

KAUTZ, kauts (CUCIUS), JAKOB: Anabap-
tist; b. at Grossbockenheim (8 m. s.w. of Worms),
Bavaria, c. 1500; d. after 1532. In 1524 he was
preacher in Worms, where the reformatory move-
ment took on a radical character, and Anabaptism
found a favorable soil. The resentment of the citi-
zens, caused by their long and violent struggles
with the bishop, found expression at the beginning
of the Reformation in violent attacks upon tfa«
Church and the clergy. The same tendencies
showed themselves in the participation of the city
in the Peasants' War. By the intervention of
Coimt Palatine Ludwig, the bishop and the clergy
were reinstated in their rights, but Evangelical
preaching was continued. Among the Evangel-
icals there was a conservative and a radical party.
Ulrich Preu and Johann Freiherr, two of the preach-
ers, were in connection with Wittenberg while
Kautz and Hilarius represented a more radical
tendency, especially after the appearance of the
I two leading Anabaptists, Denk and H&tzer, in

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

Wonoa, whose teaching KautE adopted in 1527.
The number of Anabaptista in Worms grew rapidly.
Kautz with Denk, Hatzer, and Melchior Ring pub-
lished seven theses against their Evangelical op-
ponents in which the peculiar teachings of Denk
find expression; the distinction between the Pater-
nal and internal word of Scripture; the impossi-
bility of all external words and sacraments to as-
sure the inner man of his salvation; rejection of
the baptism of children and of the essential pres-
ence of Christ in the Lord's Supper; universal sal-
vation; denial of the objective value of Christ's
satisfaction; and exhortation to follow him. The
Lutheran preachers in Worms immediately replied,
also Cochlaeiis as representative of the Roman Cath-
olic). The excitement in the town increased and
the clergy of Strasburj; declared tbemaelves against
the theses and warned the people of Worms. At
the urgent request of Count Palatine Ludwig, the
preachers of both Evangelical parties were dis-
missed, and severe measures were adopted against
the adherents of Anabaptism among the citizens;
iiut the power of Aiiabaptism in Worms and its
neighborhood was not broken. The movement had
found a sympathetic response among the people,
and it was passible to hold it down only by force.
As the Lutheran preachers had been banished at
the same time, the progress of the Refonnation in
Worms was considerably retarded. Kauts wan-
dered from jilace to place, leading the restless life
cf an agitator. In the summer of 1.527 he apjieared
for some Uttle time at Augsburg, then at Rothen-
l)iirg-on-the-Tauber with Wilhelm Reublin. In
June, 1528, they were both at Strosburg, disputing
■with the preachers; in October they were arrested
for their inflammatory speeches. Cap) to and
Schwcnckfeld tried in vain to divert Kautz from his
revolutionary ideas, and he was expelled from the
dty. In 1532 he reappeared before the town, beg-
ging to be admitl«l; disappointment, despair, and
exhaustion had broken hia courage; but the coun-
cil did not receive him, and thenceforth he disap-
pears from history. (A. HcaLEBtO K. Holl.
Biblioobaphy; aQurcei mb in (he works of Zwingli, vol.

viii. passim, ed. of Zurirb. 1838-01. Consult: T. W.

Rahricb. Ociehidtit drr Rtjarmnlion in Eltaa. 1. 338 sqq..

il. Ta-TT, ISSO-SZ: idem, in ZHT. ISOO. pp. 20 sqq., 43

sqq., eo »qc|.: L. Kellor. Bin ApaiUl da WitAtravJrr.

Lsipeic, 1SS2: C. Gerbert. GaAiOitt dtr Straiiburgrr Sek-

lenbrnrrguno. pp. G7 aqq.. 83-84, Sltsaburg. 1889: A. U.

Nevmui. in Ameriain Churd IlitUmi Serin, ii. 25, New

Varlt. 1894; idem. Hill, of Anii-Ptdobaplitm. pp. 170,

24fi sqq., PbilgdelphJB. 1897.

KADTZSCH, koutsh, EHIL FRIEDRICH: Ger-
man Protestant; b. at Plauen (21 m.s.w. of Zwick-
au) Sept. 4, 1841. He studied in Leipsic (Ph.D.,
1863), taiight in the Nicolai Gymnasium of Leipsic,
1863-72; became privat-docent in Leipsic, 1869,
nssociate professor, 1871, full professor of Old-Tes-
tament exegesis at Basel, 1872; at TQbingen, 1880;
ftt Hallo, 1888. In 1877 he shared in founding the
Deufscher PalSstina-Verein. He has written: De
Veteris Teitamenli locia a Paulo aposlolo allegatis
(Leipsic, 1869); Die Echtheii der moabiiiacken AU
lertilmer (1876; in collaboration with A. Socio);
Johann Bvxtorf iler AeUere (Basel, 1879); Udiunga-
baiA zu Grt^ninn-KauiiRch htbrdischer Grarrvmalik
(Leipsic, 1881): Grammatik des Bibliiich-ATania-

incken (I8S4); PredigUn uber den zweilen Jahrganf
der wlirttembergischen Evaiigelien (TtlbiDgen, 1887;
in collaboration with H. Weiss); Die Genena mil
iiutterrr Uniersckeidung der QiuUtnechrifttn ubtr-
etld (Freiburg, 1888; in collaboration with A.
Sociti): Die Pmltnm HberseUl (1893); AbrtM der
Geachichte dea alUeaUxmenllichfn SchrifUuim (1897);
Bibetimesengchafl und Reiigionxunterrieht (Halle,
1900) ; Proverbs in the Polychrome BAU (New York,
1901; in collaboration with A. Miiller); Die Poent
urul die poeliseken Biicher ilea AUen TealamenU
(Tiibingen, 1902); and Die Aramdiitnen im Akn
Tetlameni (Halle, 1902). He has also edited the
second to the eighth editioii of H. Scholz's Abrii*
der hdtTaitchen Lattt- ami FormenUhre (Leipsic,
1874-99); the twenty-second to tlie twenty-seventh
edition of W. Gesenius' Hebraische Grammatik (1878-
1902); and the teoth and eleventh editions of K. H.
Hogenbaeh's Encyklopadie und Metliodologie (1880-
1884). He likewise published, in coliaboration nilh
other scholars. Die heilige Schrift des AUen Tala-
vients (Freiburg, 1894): Die Apokryphen und Pteud-
cpigraphen des AUen Teetamenls (1899); and Tat-
bibd de« AUen iind Neuen TesfameiUs (TQbingen,
190O).

KAWERAtJ, ka'v6-rau, PETER GUSTAV: Ger-
man Protestant; b. at Bunzlau (65 m. n.w. of
Brealau), Silesia, Feb. 25. 1847. He studied nt the
University of BerUn (1863-66). and was pastor
at Langheinersdorf, Brandenburg (1871-76), and
Klemiig (1876-82). He became professor and
spiritual inspector at the Kloster Unserer Lieben
Frau, Magdeburg, 1882; professor of practical the-
ology at Kiel. IS86; at Breslau, 1894. He was ap-
pointed university preacher at Kiel in 1888 and at
Breslau in 1894, was created a consistorial councilor
in the latter year; became provost of SI. Peter's
at Berlin, 1907. In 1883 he was one of the found-
ers of the Verein fiir Re forma tion^eschichte, and
has edited: Der Briefwedtsel dea Justus Jonas (2
vols., 1385); shared in the Brunswick edition and
edited the third, fourth, eighth, and part of the
twelfth volumes of the Weimar edition of Luther
(Weimar, 1885-91); Zwei alksle Calechismen dfr
tulherischen Refonnation (Halle, 1891); the third
vohune of W. Mailer's Lakrimch der Kirchenge-
schichte (Tiibingen, 1907); Schlesiaches Hautchoral-
bveJi (Breslau, 1898); and the fifth edition of J.
KOstlin's Martin Luther (2 vols., Berlin, 19CH-
1905); As independent works he has written: Jo-
hann Agrieola von EisMen (Berlin, 1881): Catpar
Giiltel, ein Lebensbild aus Luthers Freundeskreisr
(Halle, 1882); t/<4er Bere^htigung iinrf Bedeulung
des landesherrliehen KiTchcnrrgimenlt (Kiel, 1887);
De digatnia episroponim ( 1 889) ; Luthers Lebensende
in neaester vUramorUanistiacher Beleurhtung (Bar-
men, 1890); C. H. Spurgeon, ein Prediger iwi
Gottes Gnaden (Hamburg, 1892); Hieronymun Em-
aer (Halle, 1898): Die Vtratiche Melanehthon rur
katholiachen Ktrche mri'ickiufiihren (1902); and
Lulhera Riickkehr von der Wariburg nock Wiaen-
berg (1902).

EAYB, ke, JOHN: Bishop of Lincoln; b. at
Hammersmith, London, Dec. 27, 1783; d. at Rise-
holme (2 m. n. of Lincoln), Lincolnshire. Feb. 18,

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

1853. He Btudied at Chrial'H College, Cambridge
(B.A., 1804; M.A., 1807; B.D., ISU; D.D., 1815),
where he became fellow in 1804. He waa tutor of
Chriat'a College, 1808-1-1, master 1814-30, vice-
ehanceUor of the UDiversily 1815, and regiua pro-
fessor of divinity after 1816. In this capacity it
waa his peculiar service to recall Iheolc^ical stu-
(jenta to the study of the Fathers. He waa conac-
cra(«(l bishop oF Bristol in 1820, and translated to
Lin cob in 1827. His episcopal administration
ua^ marked by aggressiveneaa and efficiency. He
increased the number of resident clergy in the di-
oeese of Lincoln, revived the office ot rural dean,
and waa the first bishop to roqulre candidates tor
onlera to pOKs the theological examination of the
University ot CnmbridRe which up to that time
had been voluntary. His principal works are: The
Eeclaiattical Hietanj of the Second and Third Centu-
rieg, lUuetraled/rom Ike WriliTtgs of TeriuUian (Cam-
bridge, 1825); The Writings and Opinitms of Jutlin
Martyr {1829); TheWriiingnandOpinionaofClemeiU
of Alexandria (London, 1835); The Council of Ni-
c(Eo, in Connexion with the Life of Alhanaaius (1853);
The External Governtnent and Discipline of the Church
qf Chrial during the. First Three Cenluriei (1855).
All of these, with hia eermona, charges, and mis-
cellaneous writings, were collected in his Worts (8
vols,, London, 1888).

It D!fB. Mil

EAYSES, koi'K

2-263.

o the n'or

AUGUST: German Protes-
tant theologian; b, at Straaburg Feb. 14, 1821; d.
there June 17, 1885. He waa educated at the uni-
versity of his native city, and was appointed assiat-
ant librarian in 1840. From 1843 to 1855 he acted
as private tutor at Havre and Gebweiler, In 1858
he was appointed pastor at Stossweier, Upper
Alsace, whence he went to Neuhof, near Straaburg,
in 1868, and nine years later became associate pro-
fessor of theology at the UniverHity of Strasburg.
Influenced by his teacher. Ekiuard Reuss, Kayser
waa especially attracted to the study of the Old
TeR'ament, althougu Iiis first scientific inveatlga-
tions dealt with the literature and theology of the
fitst centuries of the Christian era. The results of
these investigations were embodied in La pkiloso-
phie de Cehe et M8 rapports attc le ChTistianitme
(StraaburRi 1843), Df Justini Martyris dodrina dia-
teriatio hiatorica (1850). and Die TetlamenU der
iuid{f Patriarchal (in Reusa and Cunitz, Beilrage
zu den Iheolagiechen Wiixenirhaften, iii., 1851).

By cani])aring (he commandments with the his-
torical traditiona of the Pentateuch Kayser had
f-arly come to the conviction that the Elohistic code
could not possibly antedate the restoration of the
JewLsli conmi on wealth under Persian rule. He
liud just prepared a work on this question when
C. H. Graf's Die geschichtlichen Biichrr dea AUen
Trtiemenlt (Leipsic. 1866) appeared, voicing the
«ome view. Kayser therefore refrained from pub-
lishing his own book, and devoted himself to the
problem from the point of view of literary history.
The resulU of hin studies appeared under the title
Dim roretitinrhc Buck der Urgeichichle Israel* und
fine Enreiteningen (Strasburg, 1874). He wrote
the posthumous Die Theologie de» AUen Teitamtjile

in ihrer geschickllichen Bnlwickelung dargtittSl (Stras-
burg, 1886). (A, EaicHBONf.)

KEACH, BEHJAMDI: Particular or CaJvinistic
Baptist; b. at Stoke Hammond (11 m. n.e. of
Aylesbury), Buckinghamshire, Feb. 29, 1640; d.
at Soulhwark, London, July IS, 1704. He entered
the Baptist ministry as a eelf-taugbt man in 1659,
and suffered during his career frequent persecu-
tions. On Oct. 8, 1664, he waa tried at Aylesbury
before Sir Robert Hyde, for having taken " certain
damnable positions " regarding the second advent
in a cat«chism he had published. He waa sen-
tenced to a fine of twenty pounds and two weeks'
imprisonment, with the pillory on separate days at
Aylesbury and Winslow. This sentence was rig-
orously executed, and Reach's little book was
burned by the pubfic hangman. In 1668 he re-
moved to London and became pastor of the Bap-
tist church in Tooley Street, Southwark. On the
indulgence ot 1672 his congregation erected a large
wooden structure at Horaleydown. Keach waa an
advocate of congregational singing, and his church
is said to have been the first Baptist church to in-
troduce that practise (1688), He attained consid-
erable fame as a preacher and defender ot Baptist
doctrines. Hia moat important works are: Tro-
pologia: a Key to open Scripture Metaphors (Lon-
don, 1682; new ed„ 1855); and Coapef Mysteries
Unveiled {4 parts, 1701; new ed., 1856). Other
works still remembered are, Travdt of True Godli-
ness (1683; new ed., 184B); The ProgreM <^ Sin:
or the Trarcls of Ungodliness (1684; new ed., 1849);
and A Golden Mine Opened (1694).

BiBLKKjHAFRr: DUB. m. 2M-255. whem tmiy be round
rcfnnDOoa M ■cmtersd nolicea; ■ Memoir, by H. M&lcom.
wu prelixnl M his Travtla of Tmr GodHntMi. New York.
1S31.

KEAME, JOHH JOSEPH: Roman Catholic arch-
bishop of Dubuque, la.; b. at Batlyshannon (22 m.
n.e. ot Sligo), County Donegal, Ireland, Sept, 12,
1839. At the age ot seven he was taken by his
parents to the United States, and after engaging in
business tor some years, studied at St. Charles' Col-
lege, EUIcott City, Ud. (1859-62), and St. Mary'a
TheologicalSeminary, Baltimore (1862-65). Hewaa
ordained to the priesthood in 1866, and from that
year tmtil 1878 was curate of St. Patrick's, Wash-
ington, D.C. In 1878 he was consecrated bishop
of Richmond, Va,, whence he was translated, in
1888, to the titular see ot Ajasso, that he might de-
vote himself to the upbuilding of the Cathohc Uni-
versity of America, Washington, D. C, ot which he
had been appointed rector two yeara previously,
when he had resigned his diocese at the request of
the American hierarchy and of the pope. He re-
mained at the head of the Catholic University until
1897, when he waa elevated to the titular arch-
diocese of Damascus. On his return trion a visit
to Rome he was translated to his present arch-
diocese ot Dubuque. During his curacy at Wash-
ington he helped to organize the Catholic Total Ab-
atinencc Union of America and the Catholic Young
Men's National Union, while during hia episcopate
at Richmond he established in his diocese the Con-
fraternity of the Holy Ghost, beaidea taking part
in the Tlvird Plenary Council, held at Baltimore in

THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZ0Q

1SS4. He WM likewise active in the promotion of
religious and educational work among the colored
people of bis see. He was Dudleian lecturer at
Harv&rd in 1890, and has written Onward and
Upward (Baltimore, 1902).

EEATOR, FREDERIC WILLIAM: Protestant
Episcopal missionary bishop of Oljmipia, Wash.;
b. at Honesdale, Pa., Uct. 22, 1S55. He was grad-
uated at Yale College in 1880, the Yale Law School
in 1882, and the Western Theological Seminary,
Chicago, in 1S91. He practised law in Chicago
from 1882 to 1890, and after completing his theo-
logical training was ordained to the priesthood in
1891. Re was then rector of the Church of the
Atonement, Chicago, 1801-96, Grace Church, Free-
port, 111,, 1896-99, and St. John's, Dubuque, la.,
1890-1902. In 1902 he was consecrated missionary
bishop of Olympia.

KEBLE, JOHN: A leader of the Oxford move-
ment in the Church of England (see Tractabian-
ibm); b. at Fairford (24 m. s,e. of Gloucester),
Gloucestershire, Apr. 25, 1792; d. at Bournemouth
(25 m. s.w. of Southampton), Hampshire, Mar. 29,
1866. He was educated by hia father (a clergy-
man) and at Corpus Christi College, Oxford; be-
came fellow of Oriel (at the time the foremost col-
lie in Oxford) in 1811 and was tutor 1818-23;
was ordained priest in 1816; became curate of
East Leach and Burthorpe (near Fairford) in 1818,
BUiate of Hursley, Hampshire, in 1825, vicar of
Hursley in 1836. From 1831 to 1841 he held the
lectureship on poetry at Oxford.

Keble's reputation rests on his contributions to
devotional poetry and his share in spreading sacra-
mentarian views in the Church of England and in
the devel<^ment of the Oxford movement. In
1827 he published, anonymously, The ChrUtian
Ytar (2 vols., Oxford), a collection of sacred lyrics,
which had been issued in 140 editions when the
OOpyright expired in 1873. Some of the poems
have been pronounced faultless of their kind. In
1839 appeared The Psalter, or P»alnu of David in
English Verse, and in 1846 Lyra Innocentium, a col-
lection of sacred poems for childhood. Of Keble's
hymns the best in common use are " O God of
mercy, God of might," and " Sun of my soul, thou
Savior dear," the latl«r taken fma the second poem
in the CMttian Year, entitled " Evening." With
the help of his brother Thomas, and Charles Oy-
«m, an intimate friend, he edited the works of
Richard Hooker (3 vols., Oxford, 1836), spending
five years on the task and producing what is still
the standard edition (revised by R. W. Church
and F. Paget, 3 vols., Oxford, 1888). In 1838 with
F. W. Newman and E. B. Pusey he began to work
on the Library o/ the Fathers, for which he trans-
lated IrensuB. At Oxfonl he was intimate with
Newman, Pusey, and Richard Hurrell Froude, and
his views concerning the sacraments — he regretted
that circumstances did not admit of his introducing
the confessional — and the episcopal constitution
of the Church inevitably brought him to the front in
the Oxford movement. Newman in hi^ Apologia
3 Keble its " true and primary author."
3 of the TracU for the Times (no^ 4,

13, 40, S2, 64, 57, $7, 60, 89), the fint being on
apostolic succession and the last on the mysticiam
attributed to the early Fathers. He approved of
Newman's Tract 90, but did not leave the oom-
munion of the English Church and r^arded tlw
doctrine of the immatnilate conception as an in-
superable barrier to ecclesiastical union. Other
works are Pradediones Aeademxeae (2 vols., Ox-
ford, 1844), his lectures on poetry; Sermons (1847);
and a Life of Bishop WiUon (2 vols., 1863). Aiter
his death appeared OccatioiKd Papers and Aerteuis
(Oxford, 1877) and eleven volumes of aermraia
(1876-80). Keble was not eloquent as a preacher,
but scriptural and impressive. He had a renuuk-
able power of attracting both old and young.
Shortly after hia death his friends and admirera
raised a fund and erected to hie memory KeUe
College at Oxford, which was opened in 1869.

D. S. SCHATF.
Bibuihiiapht; BiogiapluMi are by J. T. Colend«e. 2 ▼ob.,
Oifonl. 1BS9; W. Lock. BoAod, 1SS3. Coiundt mlao:
J. C. Sbiiiip. JohnKfUi: BuayimtluAiMiira[lkt"Chri»-
(tan y<>ir," £dinburgh, ISBS; Tht Birthplaa, Homt,
ChunAu and olhtr FlaoM connutnl tcilh (^ Atither <f
■■ The Cliralian Ytar." inlh Notti bu J. F. Moor. Oxford,
1867; J. H. Nevmui. Enay, Crttieal and Hitlariail. iL
421 Kjq.. London. 1873, and d. the Apobvia; S. W. Dot-
field, Engtuh Hvmns. PP. GOO-502. New York, 1S0O;
Juliui, Himnolofrv, PP. B10-ei3: DNB, nn 291-295.

EECEERMAinf, BARTHOLOHAEDS: Geiman
Reformed theologian; b. at Danzig 1571 (15737);
d. there Aug. 25, 1609. He studied at Witten-
berg, Leipsic, and Heidelberg, where he became
professor of Hebrew. From 1601 till his death
he was rector and professor of philosophy at the
Reformed Gymnasium of hia native city. All
his literary works grew out of courses of lectures.
His Opera onvfia (2 vols., Geneva, 1614) comprise
the whole sphere of philosophy, which he treated
in the spirit of a strict Aristotelianism, while many
other Reformed theologians adopted the method
and ideas of Petnis Ramus, His theological works,
Rhetorica ecclesiastica (3d. ed., Hanau, 1606), and
Syslema theologicum (1602, and often; Eng. transl.,
A Manududion to ThetAogy [London, 1620?]) form
only an appendix; and his dogmatic system is iuter^
esting chiefly on account of its method. Kecker-
mann starts from a subjective point of view, from
the enjoyment of God by man. The first book of
the Systema treats of God as the highest aim of
man. Prom the highest aim Keckermann proceeds
analytically to the means for its attainment, which
are knowledge of our misery and deliverance froni
it. Hence he distinguished two parts of theology,
a Iheologia paiholoffiki (book ii„ doctrines of the orig-
inal state, fall, and sin), and a Iheologia therapeutike
(book iii., election, redemption, justification, and
perfection). But he did not follow the consequences
of his subjective starting-point beyond the structure
of the external frame. Keckermann's attempt to
transfer ethics from theology to philoeopby is still
worthy of note. (E, F. Karl MOmjBR.)

Biblioobapht: M. Adun, VUae Oermanorum philotapiiarvn,
pp. 232 Bqq., Frulilort, 1700: P. Bayle. Dutionarg Hit-
lortoul and CriCual. iii. 696, Loudon. 1736; A. Sdnniier,
QlaabenMlthre Art monijrliicfc-re/tmntertfn Kxtria. i. 98,
ii, IBl eqn.. Zurich. 1844; F. W. J. H. Ous, OoAithlt
dfr proUttaalitchtn Dogmatik, I 408 Hiq.. Berlin, 18M.

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

iSS-

KEDHEY, JOHH STEIMFORT: Proteatant Epis-
eopal; b. at Bloom&eld, N. J., Feb. 12, ISIQ. He
woa educated at Union Coliege (A.B., 1S3S) and
General Theological Seminary (1841). He was or-
dered deacon in 1841 and prieat«d iu 1843. After
being ft missionary in North Carolina from 1842 to
1845, he wna rector of St. John's, Salem, N. J.
{1847-52), Bethesdfl, Saratoga Springs, N. Y,
(1852-59), Trinity, Society Hills, S. C. (1859-65),
Trinity, Potsdam, N. Y. (1865-70), and Trinity,
Camden, S. C. (1870-71). Since 1871 he has been
professor of divinity in Seabury Divinity School,
Faribault, Minn., although advancing years have
compelled him to retire from active work. He has
written: Cataipba fli'ifr, and Other Poems (New York,
1846); The Beaxiiiful and the SuUinie (1884);
Hegel's /Esthetics (Chicago, 1886); Christian Doc-
trine Harmonized (2 vols.. New York, 1888); Mens
ChrisH (1890); and Problems in Ethics (1900).

EEDROn. See Kidron.

KEEDE, JAKES BEnBETT: Church of Ire-
land, bishop of Meath; b. at Dublin Oct. 25, 1849.
He studied at Trinity College, Dublin (B.A., 1871),
and was ordered deacon in 1872 and ordained priest
in the following year. He was curate of St. Mat-
thias, Dublin (1872-74), diocesan curate of Meath
(1874^77), Y. M. C. A. chaplain at Dublin (1877-
1879), incumbent of Ballyboy (1879), and rector of
Navan (1879-97). In 1897 he was consecrated
bishop of Meath. He has been examining chap-
lain to the bishop of Meath (1885-94), prebendary
of Tipper and canon of St, Patrick's Cathedral,
Dublin (1892-97), and rural dean of Skryne (1896-
1897).

KEENER, JOHR CHRISTIAR: Methodiet Epis-
copal (South) bishop; b. at Baltimore, Md., Feb.
7, 1819. He was graduated at Wesleyan Univer-
Bity, Middletown, Conn., in 1836, and, after being
engaged in business for six years, entered the minis-
try of his denomination in 1841. For the next
seven years he was pastor of churches in Alabama,
and from 1848 to 1861 was pastor at New Orleans,
being also presiding elder in 1858 and 1860. He
was then superintendent of the chaplains attached
to the Confederate Army west of the Mississippi
until 1364, when he returned to New Orleans aa
presiding elder and editor of the Nevi Orleans Chris-
tian Advocate. In 1870 he was elected bishop. In
1873 he estabhshed a Methodist Episcopal mission
in Mexico. He has written: The Post Oak Circuit
(Nashville, Tenn.. 1857); Studies of B&U Truths
(1899); and The Garden of Eden and the Flood
<1900).

KEIL, kail, EARL AUGUST GOTTLIEB: Ger-
man theologian; b. at Grossenbain (19 m. n.n.w.
of Dresden), Saxony, Apr. 23, 1754; d. at Lcipsic
Apr. 22, 1813. Left an orphan at an eariy age, he
was adopted by an uncle in Lcipsic in 17G3, and
studied at the university of that city. In 1785 he
was appointed assistant professor of philosophy;
became assistant professor of theology two years
later, and in 1792, upon the death of his former
teacher. Professor Morus, he succeeded to the chair
of theology. Keil may be regarded as a worthy
VI.-20

representative of the Leipsio school of theology,
which exercised a considerable influence during the
latter part of the eighteenth and the beginning of
the nineteenth century. He published a Lehrbuek
der Hermeneutik des Neuen Tetlaments (Leipsic,
1810) and wrote a number of essays, which were
collected by J. D. Goldhom and published under
the title Keilii oputeula academica ad Novi Testa-
menli inlerpretaHonem grammatiof-kisUtricam el
Iheologiae christianae origines pertinentia (1820).
From 1812 to 1817 Eetl collaborated with Tzscbii^
ner in editing the Anoleklen fCr das Studium der
exegetisehen und tystemaiischen Theologie.

(WOLDEUAR ScHKlDTf.)
BlBLiouHArHT: Hii ■utohiognphy is iacluded in Kreuaku-.
BeaeAreibunff der FeiertidikeiUn am JubetfetUi dtr Un*-
vfTiiml Lripiig, Dtc. i, IS09. pp. 10-lfl. Leipue. IglO.

SEIL, JOHARR FRIEDRICH KARL; German
Protestant exegete; b. at Lauterbach near Disnits
(25 m. s.w. of Zwickau), Saxony, Feb. 26, 1807; d.
at RodUtz (8 m. s.e. of Glauchau), Saxony, May 6,
1388. He studied theology in Dorpat and Berlin,
and in 1833 accepted a call to the theological fac-
ulty of Dorpat, where he labored for twenty-five
years as docent and professor of Old- and New-Tes-
tament exegesis and Oriental languages. With Sai~
tonus, Busch, later Philippi, Theodosius, Hamack
and Kurtz, he educated for the Baltic provinces a
generation of preachers who faithfully adhered to
the confession of the Church. In 1859 he settled at
Leipsic, where he devoted himself to literary work
and to the practical affairs of the Lutheran Church.
In 1837 he removed to lUkilitz, continuing there bis
hterary activity until his death. He belonged to the
strictly orthodox and conservative school of Heng-
stenberg. Ignoring almost entirely modem criti-
cism, all his writings represent the view that the
books of the Old and New Testaments are to be re-
tained OS the revealed word of God. Till the very
last he regarded the modem development of German
theological science as a passing phase of error.
His chief work b the commentary on the Old Testa-
ment (4 vols, in 14, Leipsic, 1861-75; Eng. transi,,
25 vols., Edinburgh, 1864-78), which he undertook
with Franz Delitzsch. To this work he contrib-
uted commentaries on oU the books from Genesis
to Esther inclusive, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Daniel, and
the minor prophets. He also published commen-
taries on Maccabees (Leipsic, 1875), Matthew (1877),
Mark and Luke (1879), John (1881), Peter and Jude
(1833). and Hebrews (1335). Other works are: Der
Tempel Salomos (Dorpat, 1839); EiiMtung in die
koTioniachen Schri/ten des Alien Testamenis (Frank-
fort. 1853; 3d ed., 1873; Eng. transi., 2 vols.,
Manual of H islorico-Critical Introduction to . . ,
The 0. T., Edinburgh. 1870); and Handbueh der
biMiechen Archdologie (1858-69; 2d.ed., 1876; Eng.
transi.. Manual of Bi&iicol Arthteology, 2 vols.,
Edinburgh, 1887-88). (W. J. A. Kbil.)

KEIH, kaim, KARL THEODOR: German his-
torical theologian; b. at Stuttgart Dee. 17, 1826;
d. at Giessen Nov. 17, 1878. He studied theology
from 1843 to 1847 at Tubingen, devotmg himself
with special zeal to Oriental languages, and being
influenced by F. C. Baur. He wa« tutor in the
family of Count Sontheim, lS4&-{0; in 1860 am-

Keim
Keller

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

806

tinued his studies at Bonn; was lecturer at TO-
bingen, 1851-55; pastor in Esslingen, Wtlrttemberg,
1856-59. From 1860 to 1873 he was professor of
historical theology at the University of Zurich, and
from 1873 until shortly before his death, when ill
health compelled his resignation, held a correspond-
ing position at Giessen. The three years of preach-
ing and pastoral labor at Esslingen, of which a
memorial exists in Freundesworte zur Gemeindej a
collection of sermons (Stuttgart, 1861), show him to
have been an eloquent and edifying preacher; but
he was essentially a scholar. His chief importance
for Evangelical theology lies in the sphere of his-
tory, especially in the investigation and scientific
establishment of the historical foundations of
Christian faith. After his first theological examina-
tion he published a prize essay, VerMUnis der Chris-
ten in den ersten drei Jahrhunderten bis Konstantin
turn riimischen Reiche (1848). The Revolution of
1848 caused him to leave Ttibingen and return to
his native city where he occupied himself first with
the study of primitive Christianity, but soon turned
to the history of the Reformation, especially in
Swabia. In the latter field he published: Die Refor-
mation iier Reichsstadt Ulm (Stuttgart, 1851);
Schwabische Reformaiionsgeschichte his zum Augs-
hurger Reichstag (Tubingen, 1855); Arnbrosius
Blarer (Stuttgart, 1860); Reformationsbldtter der
Reichsstadt Esslingen (Esslingen, 1860). His his-
torical investigations show scientific earnestness and
great freedom from prejudice combined with a deep
insight into the character of the Reformers as
Thinkers upon the great religious and political
questions of the time. At Zurich Keim devoted
himself exclusively to the study of primitive Chris-
tianity. His special effort was to explain the
development of the Christian Church from its apos-
tolic origin up to its conquest over the old faith
and the military power of the Roman Empire,
and to give a scientific representation of the
historic origin of our faith, the history of Jesus.
The results along the first of these two lines are set
forth especially in: Die romischen Toleramedikte fUr
das Christentum und ihr geschichtlictier Wert and
Bedenken gegen die EcMheit des hadrianischen
Christenreskripts (in Theologische Jahrbilcher, 1852,
1856); Der Uebertriti Konstantins des Grossen zum
Christentum (Ziirich, 1862); Celsus' Wahres WoH
(ib. 1873); Aus dem Urchristentum. Geschichtliche
Untersuchungen in zvxingloser Folge (ib. 1878); and
Rom und das Christentum (Berlin, 1881). In re-
gard to the origin of our faith he wrote: Die mensch-
liche Entwickelung Jesu Christi (Ztirich, 1861), Die
geschicfUliche Wurde Jesu (ib. 1864); he then re-
published the two just named, with a new lecture,
imder the caption, Der geschichtliche Christus (ib.
1865); then followed his greatest works, Die Ge-
schichte Jesu von Nazara in ihrer Verkettung mit
dem GesammtUben seines V dikes frei untersucht und
ausfuhrlkh erklurt (3 vols., ib. 1867-72; Eng. transl.,
Tfie History of Jesus of Na^arethy 6 vols., London,
1873-82). In order to give his views a wider cur-
rency, Keim published Die Geschichte Jesu nach den
Ergebnissen heuiiger Wissenschaft fiir weitere Kreise
iibersichtlich erzdhlt (1874, 1875). Although he em-
phasized chiefly the human side ip Christ, he can

not be called a '' Unitarian." While minimizing the
miraculous element in Christianity, and in spite of
the most concrete conception of the human limita-
tions and development of its founder, he considered
Jesus not only the greatest upon earth, but the Son
" in whom the Father reveals himself." In his criti-
cism of the historical sources he starts from Paul,
whose epistles he regards as the firm basis for
Evangelical history and the decisive test for judg-
ing all other events; and in this criticism he pro-
ceeds entirely according to objective points of view,
unhampered by any dogmatic theory of inspiration.
He rejected the fourth Gospel; among the synoptic
Gospels he gave the preference to Matthew, which,
according to him, originated as early as 68 and is
distinguished by primitive simplicity and absence
of preconceived notions, showing only slight traces
of revision. Luke, according to Keim, obscured
the simple representation of Matthew by his medi-
ating Pauline standpoint. Mark wrote in the in-
terest of a world-embracing universalism, chang-
ing the picture of Jesus in Matthew by omitting
the most important speeches wherever they clash
with his theory. Keim's work shows rare scientific
solidity and deep penetration, and holds a
position in the literature of the life of Jesus
which can not be neglected even by those who
do not share his rationalistic standpoint.

(H. ZlEGLER.)

KEIBfANN, kai'man (KEYMARN), CHRISTIAN:
Saxon educator and hymn-writer; b. at Pankraz,
near Gabel (50 m. n.n.e. of Prague), Bohemia. Feb.
27, 1607; d. at Zittau (50 m. e.s.e. of Dresden),
Saxony, Jan. 13, 1662. He attended the gynma-
sium at Zittau and the University of Wittenberg
(M.A., 1634), became associate rector of the gym-
nasium at Zittau in 1634 and was rector from 1639
till his death. His Easter hymn, Meinen Jesum
lass ich nicfU (" My Savior will I not forsake ") has
been extremely popular. Also the Christmas hymn,
Freude, Freude uber Freude (" O joy all joys ex-
celling "), the Advent hymn, Hosianna, Davids
Sohn (" Hosannah to the Son of David "), and the
Passion hymn, Sei gegriisset, Jesu giltig (" Hail to
the Savior benign "), a paraphrase of Salve, Jesu,
summe bonu>s by Bernard of Clairvaux, found much
acceptance. On July 31, 1651, he was crov^ned
imperial poet-laureate. He was also active as a
pedagogical author. Religious education was fos-
tered by his Mnemosyne sacra (Gorlitz, 1646), and
Micae evangelicae (Zittau, 1655); also by the col-
lection of proverbs originally issued by Gerlach,
Sententiarum sacrarum centuriae duae (Dresden,
1635). Of wide use in linguistic instruction were
his Tabxdae declinationum (Leipsic, 1649), and the
Enchiridion grammaticum Laiinum (Jena, 1649),
and his books on his logic, rhetoric, and arith-
metic were issued rejjeatedly. He also wrote a
number of school dramas. Georg Mueller.

Bibliograx>ht: An early life is by C. Weis, Memoria C.
Keimanni, Zittau. 1689; the modem one by H. J. K6m-
mel, Chrittian Keimann, ib. 1856; idem, in ADB, xv.
636-536. Consult further: O. E. Koch, Geschichte de»
Kirchenlieda. Stuttgart, 1867; A. F. W. Fischer. Kircherw
liederUxikon, \. 196, 312, ii. 62, 248. 282. 449, Got ha.
1878-79; Julian. Hymnology, pp. 613-614. A large
literature is indicated in Hauck-Herzog, RE, x. 202.

307

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

XaUer

KEITH, kith, ALEXANDER: Clergyman of the
Free Church of Scotland; b. at Keith Hall (11 m.
n.w. of Aberdeen), Aberdeenshire, Nov. 30, 1791;
d. at Buxton (160 m. n.w. of London), Derbyshire,
Feb. 8, 1880. He studied at the Marischal College
and University of Aberdeen (B.A., 1809; D.D.,
1833), was licensed to preach in 1813, and was pre-
sented the same year to St. Cyrus, Kincardineshire,
which he resigned in 1840 on account of ill health.
In 1839 he visited Palestine as a member of a com-
mission sent out by the Church of Scotland to in-
quire into the condition of the Jews, preparatory
to the establishment of a mission among them.
At the disruption of 1843 he joined the Free Church.
He was the author of several works on prophecy,
the best known being Evidence of the Truth of the
Christian Religion, Derived from the Literal Ful-
filment of Prophecy (Edinburgh, 1828; 40th ed.,
London, 1873). Other works are: The Signs of the
Times (2 vols., Edinburgh, 1832); Demonstration
of the Truth of Christianity (1838); The Harmony
of Prophecy (1851); and The History and Destiny
of the World (London, 1861).

Biblioobapht: A. Black, Jetnsh Missionary Travds to the
Jews, pp. 3 aqq.. Newcastle. 1841; Hew Scott. Fasti
ecdesiae Scoticanae, iii.. 2. pp. 865, 881, London, 1871;
DNB, XXX. 315-316.

KEITH, GEORGE: Scotch Quaker, afterward
Anglican clergyman and missionary to America;
b., probably in Aberdeenshire, 1639; d. at Edbur-
ton (20 m. e. of Chichester), Sussex, Mar. 27, 1716.
After receiving the degree of M. A. from Marischal
College, Aberdeen, he became tutor and chaplain
in a noble family. He was designed for the Pres-
byterian ministry, but about 1664 adopted the
tenets of the Quakers, and soon won a prominent
position in the councils of the sect. He was inti-
mately associated with Robert Barclay, George
Fox, and William Penn. After having been fre-
quently imprisoned for preaching in England,
Keith emigrated to America about 1685, served for
a time as surveyor-general in New Jersey, and set-
tled in Philadelphia in 1689 as principal of a Friends'
school. Subsequently he traveled in New England
and defended the principles of the Quakers in con-
troversy with Increase Mather and others. Hav-
ing become involved in bitter disputes with other
leaders of the sect, in 1692 Keith headed a faction
called " Keithites," or " Christian Quakers." In
1694 he returned to England, where he was de-
nounced by Penn as an apostate and dismissed
from the society at the Annual Meeting of 1695.
After preaching to his followers for five years at
Turners* Hall, London, he united with the E^tab-
li.she<l Church in 1700, and subsequently led several
hundred Quakers to conform. From 1702 till 1704
he traveled in America as a missionary of the So-
ciety for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign
Parts. From 1706 till his death he was rector of
Edburton, Sussex. He is said to have been one
of the most scholarly and versatile men ever en-
rolled by the Quakers. The more important of
his numerous writings are: The Deism of WHliam
Penn and his Brethren (London, 1699); The Stand-
ard of the Quakers Examined (1702); and A Journal
of Travels (1706).

Bibuoobapht: DNB, xxx. 318-321, where references to
scattered notices are giyen.

KEITH-FALCONER, HONORABLE ION GRANT
NEVILLE: Church of Scotland layman; the third son
of the ninth earl of Kintore ; b. in Edinburgh July
5, 1856; d. at Aden, Arabia, May 11, 1887. He
was educated at Harrow Public School, and at
Cambridge University, at both of which he distin-
guished himself not only by scholarship but by his
bicycle-riding. He was appointed Lord Almoner's
professor of Arabic at Csimbridge, 1886. He also
taught himself Pitman's system of shorthand and
attained uncommon speed for a non-professional.
He became deeply interested in evangelistic work
in Cambridge and in London, and so his thoughts
turned to making his remarkable Oriental learning
available on the foreign field. With this in view he
paid a visit to Aden to see for himself the pros-
pects of a mission to the Mohammedans and being
convinced that his lifework lay in that direction
he laid aside his ambition as an Oriental scholar
in England, and in 1886 went to Aden as a lay
missionary of the Church of Scotland. There, how-
ever, he quickly succumbed to an attack of fever.
He was destined to be of much more consequence
in inciting others to labor for the conversion of
Mohanmiedans and other non-Christians than as
a worker himself. It was one of the sources of this
influence that he was a nobleman of wealth and
therefore one who could not be accused of sordid
motives. He died too soon to do much in literar-
ture. Still his article on shorthand in the ninth
edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannicaf his edition
(1885) of Kalilah and Dimnahy otherwise known as
the Fables of Bidpai, and some of his papers at-
tracted wide attention.
Bibliography: R. Sinker, Memorials of . . , Keith-Fair'

eoner, Cambridge, 1888.

KELLER (CELLARIUS), ANDREAS: Early Ger-
man Evangelical; b. at Rottenburg (25 m. s.w.
of Stuttgart), Wttrttemberg, 1503; d. Sept. 18,
1562. He probably studied at Vienna. In the
spring of 1524 he preached the Gospel with youth-
ful fire in his native town and combated the pa-
pacy, and accepted in the same year a call to Stras-
burg as assistant at St. Peter's. In Dec, 1524, he
became pastor at Wasselnheim, near Strasburg.
By means of brief tracts he sought to promote the
cause of the Gospel, and also wrote his now van-
ished catechism, Bericht der Kinder zu Waselheim
in Frag und Antwort gestellt (Strasburg, 1530). In
Sept., 1536, he became pastor at Wildberg, Wttrt-
temberg, and later superintendent. In 1542 Stras-
burg wished to recall him, but he remained at Wild-
berg, reformed the neighboring cloister of Reuthin,
and participated in the weightiest affairs of the
State Church, e.g., in the memorial with reference
to the attitude of the Evangelicals toward the coun-
cil, 1543—44; and in the matter of advisement con-
cerning the Confessio Wirtembergicaf June, 1551.
As a writer he now confined himself to German ver^
sions of foreign works. G. Bossert.

Bibuoobapht: Sources are: L. M. Fiachlin, Memoria the-
ologorum Wirietnbergensium^ supplement, pp. 46. 376,
Ulin. 1709-1710; C. F. Schnurrer. Erlduterungen der
wirtembergischen Kircken- Reformations- und Oelehrten-0&'
sehidUe, pp. 30. 209, Tabinsen, 1798; T. W. Roehrioh.

THE NEW aCHAIT-HEBZCO

L S7T. >7Il i. U.

•- »- JTI i«^

mm, UnnrU EARL: Gcmtto Btfonned
lijfMM; b. at FiiUkr rU m. rw. of CwkI;. Pn>-
iiK, Har. 3A, IMft. He wh educated at ilie niu-
«cni(iM of Legate aod Mariwix 'Pfa-D.. li^3,.
■■d frwB W74 M IM5 waa eoDDMted with tbe
■Ul* arduna ef Wert|<balia at Mooaler. whm be
'waa aucoMRKlr aewnd aiKtut (l«74^l>, and
dinctor IVi7^-9i). Hinee UA5 he hu bcca prh?
■Ute ardiiviat at Berlin. Ilewlea beii^ adiur of
4fa« tfoMlMC^l (far C<MWi«>»«Mfi«Aa^(, be baa

Jffiaiter mUiwUT, IMOj; DU O^gemefarwutum in
WMf^ofm naif OM Nuderrhtin, AeUnMHtkt ui^ Er-
tdultrtingen <9 parU, L«i|)aic, UM-Mj; £tn Apotia
Jtr WMtriau/er fbtograpbrof Hana Denk: 1882);
IfU fte/iirmalion U7i/f di* ilUren Bt/omparteien in
Arcm /uMmnentenffC dargriUlU (18>t5): i>ic R'aU'
MUCT un<f <2i< <lrul«Acn BiMuhtrrtttrunf/en <lSd6K
and Jokann van SlaupUt und die A n/dif <^ '^
Jormatiim (IWH;.

KBLLRSK, EARL ADAH HEmUCH'. Ger-
man Koman Catholie; b. at Heiligenatadt (1£ in.
II.W. of MUblhauaenJ, Pniaia, Aug. 36, 1837. He
studied at the academy of Honitcr, the Unirernty
«( TUbimen, and the aeniiaAty of Trevea, and was
ordained to tbe prieethood in IWl. He wsa then
vicar at Trevea 1862-66, pariab priest at Bitburg
1im-07. and proTemor of canon law in tbe tbeo-
lof!l«>l MKiinary at Hfldeeheim from 1867 to 1874,
wbi!it Dm iiwtitution waa cloeed an a roull of the
Kulturkompf . In 1874 he waa appdoted professor
of church hiJitory in the Univenity of Bonn, and
beM lliia pavilion until his retirement from active
life In JWJ. He hiM written Bu**- untl Straffvrr-
/akrungen gegen KUriker in den itekt ertlen cArirt-
fieA«n JakThuniUrten (Treves, 1863); NeUenitmiu
finf Ckn$Unt\im (Cologne, 1866): AutgewahUe
Hehrifien Tertidlian* Hbaitia (2 vola., Kempten,
l«7»-7:i); VfT/aimtng, Li-JiranU und UnfeUbarkeit
tUr Kircha (1H72); TertuUianM MmTniliche SiAri/ten
tibtrtettl (2 voIh., Cologne. 1SS2): and HtoriiJogit
Oder itoM Kirehenjahr und die HeUigen/eaU in ihrer
guekirhllicltfn Enlunckliing von den oUeaten Zeiten
In* tar Oegenuxtrt (Freiburg, 1901). He also re-
vImkI the nioventh volume of Rohrbachcr'a Uni-
verntlgetchiehle der kalhoHedten Kirche (MUuater,
]H80).

CELLS, SYHODOF: A synod convened in 1152
at KeltM (3K m. n.w. of Dublin), by Eugcniua HI.,
for the purfioMi of roorganiiing the Church of Ire-
knd. It (IIvIiImI Ihn country into four archbish-
aprlM, OMtalillNliol a hierarchy, introduced tithes
■nd t)io I'nterVponon, acknowledged the papal SU'

fromnoy, etc, tk-c Cbltic Church in Bbitaen and
MLANI), III., 2, I B.

KELLY, THOMAS: Irinh dissenting preacher
Mid hymn-wriUir; h. at Kellyvillo (4 m. w. of Athy),
County guMin's, July 111. 1769; d. there May 14,
18U. Ho was graduated at the University of

Itabtn tai Kadied lav in Loodoe. bs took orden
in Ilk EMUbHtixd a=:ti. c 17»2 azid bewail to
lK.ht:, For Lis ftrr^ ETioceiai »t-
by tbe art£J»bop from
the diooae (rf iKt^s- .Uter pn*d>-
Of for a time is tvo taemsamiai *»"••* ■'^ in the
city, be became a 'iiiii i 'i i aai. froei hi* ampk
meau. tntvd chapeli at A:Lt. PortAtiinftoo.
Walerfori, Weifacd. and other pUces. "ieie be
coatinued to pitaeb. His rvpcr.aiion mu upon hi*
0]/miu on Varianu Pattoger vf Striztvre (Ehiblin.
ISM). The nineiy-«tx hTmiu of the bm edition
grew to 765 in ihr ievenib : 1m3 . the lact that ap-
peared before his deaih. Hii best'knowa hymns
are, " Corae. see the pbee where Jous lay." and
" On the mountain I top appeartog."

BDuoGunrr: 8. V. Dnficid. £*alxk Btmm*. pp. 30S-
xrr t iHHiB. Xev Yofc. ISA. JbAu. E

KELLT, WILLIAM: Plymouih Brother; b. of
^nwyyalian parentage in the north of Ireland
1»21; d. St EicIcT. England. Mar. 27, 1906. Be
waa early left fatherks. supported himsElf by
tf*«hing in the island of Saik. and joined the Plyca-
outh Brethren (q.v.) in 1640. He retained a cloee
eoaoection with the Channel Islands for thirty
years, residing in Guernsey, but for tbe latter half
of his career his home was at Blaclcbeath, London,
S. E. He graduated with classical honors at Trin-
ity College, Dublin, and by his writings established
a reputation for aound scholarship and acquired
distinction as an able eontrDversialist. Elcsides
aiding Ttegelks in that eminent scholar's investi-
gations as a Biblical textual critic, he himself pub-
lished, in 1S60, a critical edition of the Rei-elation
of John, which earned a commendatory notice from
Ewald in tbe GOttingen Jahrbichrr, Such studies
were carried on concurrently with the editing of a
periodical entitled The Prospect, which gave way lo
Tk^ Bible Treaeury, carried on by Kelly to the lime
of his death. This brought tbe editor into corre-
spondence with such men as Dean Alford, Dr. Rob-
ert Scott the lexicographer, Principal Edwards.
Professor Sanday, and other theologians. In his
last days Arehdeacoa Deniaon was wont lo speak
of The BibU Treasury as tbe only religious magazine
worth reading, so steadfast was the editor in rejec-
tion of what he betieved to be Chriat-dishonoring
views of the Bible put forth by higher critics.

Kelly identified himself whole-heartedly with the
body of doctrine developed by the Ute John Nel-
son Darby (q.v.), whose CoUeded Writirigt were
edited by him. According to Neatby, he " was
essentially the interpreter of Darby to the uniniti-
ated." Kelly's own merits were, howe^-er, mani-
fest alike in hving as in written ministry. Spur-
geon, judging by the latter, has applied to him, in
the Ouide to Commenlaries. words of Goldsmith,
" born for the universe, who narrowed his mind "
by Darbyism. Although friction at last arose be-
tween them, tbe younger retained his veneration for
the older man.

In the list of Kelly's writings will be found lec-
tures on or formal eixpoaitions of all the books of
the Bible. Kelly exercised considerable influence
upon outside readers by hia Lectures on the ffnr

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Tatamenl Doririne of the Holy Spirit (London,
(1867); Onthe Churck of God (10th ed., 1006); On
the Pentateuch (1877); On the Gospel of Matthew
(1868); and On the Book of Revelation {\m\). "In
the Beginning" (Moeaic Cosmogony), Expogitiani
of the Prophecies of Isaiah and the Gospel ttf John.
(enlarged ed. by E. E. Whitfield, 1907); The Epistle
to the Hebrews and the Epistles of John; a work oq
God's Itupiraiion of the Scriptures, and his lost words
on Christ's Coming again {in which he vindicated
the originality of Darby in regard to the " Secret
Hapture " after itji impugnment by an American
writer) are other works which warrant notice.

E. E. Whitfield.

BlBUOaaAFBT: W. B. Nntby. William Ktllu at a Tluo-
bvian, in Expatilor, 7 ret., no. 17.

KELSO, JAHBS ANDERSOH: Presbyterian; b.
at Rawal Pindi (00 m. s.e. of Peahawur), India,
June 6, 1873. He wua graduated at Washington
and Jefferson College in 1892, Western Theological
Seminary in 1896, and studied in Berlin and Leip-
sic (Ph.D.. 1902). He was tutor of Giwk and
Latin at Washington and Jefferson College 1892-
1893, instructor in Hebrew in Western Theological
Seminary 1897-1901, professor of Hebrew and Old-
Testament literature in the same institution 1901-
1909, and president since 1909. He is "an adher-
entof the confessional Theology of the Presbylerian
Church, U.S.A." He has written DU Klagetieder,
der masoretische Text und die Veraionen (Leipsic,
1901).

KEHPIS, THOHj^ a.

Wrilii«8. Gcniinl Survey (f 1).

I. (» 3).

I. Life, Mini

It. The ImitUion of Uhriit.
III. EKsputed Autborebip i
tlu"ImiUtiatiiif Chrisl.
L Life, Minor Writings: Thomas i Kempis.
German mystic and author of the " Imitation of
Christ," was born at Kempen (40 ni. n.w. of Co-
Ic^e) in 1380 and died near Zwolle (52 m. e.n.e.
of Amsterdam) in 1471. His paternal name was
Hemerken or Hammerlein, " little iiammer." In
1395 he was sent to the school at Deventer con-
ducted by the Brethren of the Common Lite (q.v.).
He became skilful as a copyist and was thus en-
abled to support himself. Later he was admitted
to the Augustinian convent of Mount Saint Agnes
near Zwolle, where his brother John had been before
him and had risen to the dignity of prior. Thomas
received priest's orders in 1413 and was made sub-
prior 1439. The house was disturbed for a time
in consequence of the pope's rejection of the bishop-
elect of Utrecht, Rudolph of Diepholt; otherwise,
Thomas' life was a quiet one, his time being spent
between devotional exercises, cocap>oeitIon, and
copying. He copied the Bible no less than four
times, one of the copies being preserved at Darm-
stadt m five volumes. In its teachings he was
widely read, and Ilia works abound in Biblical quo-
tations, especially from the New Testament. His
life is no doubt fitly characterised by the words
under an old picture, first referred to by Francescus
Tolensis: " In all things I sought quiet and found
it not save in retirement and in books," A monu-
ment was dedicated to bis memory in the presence

of the archbishop of Utrecht in St. Michael's Church,
Zwolle, Nov. 11, 1897.

Thomas i Kempis belonged to the school of
mystics who were scattered along the Rhine from
Switzerland to Strasburg and Cologne and in the
Netherlands. He was a follower of Geert Grooto
and Florentius Radewijns, the founders of the
Brethren of the Common Life. His writings are
all of a devotional character and include tracts and
meditations, letters, sermons, a life of St. Lydewigis,
a Christian woman who remained steadfast under
a great stress of afflictions, and biographies of
Groote, Rodewjjns, and nine of their companions.
Works similar in contents to the "Imitation of
Chriat " and pervaded by the same spirit are his pro-
longed meditation on the life and blessings of the
Savior and another on the Incarnation. Both of
these works overflow with adoration for Christ.

n. The bnitatkin of Christ: The work which
has given Thomas k Kempis universal fame in the
Western ohurches is the De imitatione Ckristi. It
is the pearl of all the writings of the mystical Ger-
man-Dutch school of the fourteenth and fifteenth
centuries, and with the " Confessions " of Augus-
tine and Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress it occupies a
front rank, if not tbe foremost place, among useful
manuals of devotion, after the Bible. Protestants
and Roman Catholics alike join in giving it praise.
The Jesuit* give it an official place among their
" exercises." John Wesley and John Newton put
it among the works that influenced them at their
conversion. General Gordon carried it with him
to the battlefield. Few books have bad so exten-
sive a ciroulation. The number of counted edi-
tions exceeds 2,000; and 1,000 different editions
are preserved in the British Museum. The Bul-
lingcn collection, donated to the city of Cologne in
1838, contained at the time 400 different editions.
De Backer {Essai, ut inf.) enumerates 545 Latin
and about 900 French editions. Originally writ-
ten in Latin, a French translation was made as
early as 1447, which still remains in manuscript.
The first printed French copies appeared at Tou-
louse 1488. The earUest German translation was
mode in 1434 by J. de Bellorivo and is preserved
in Cologne. The editions in German began at
Augsburg in I486. The firet English translation
(1502) was by William Atkinson and Margaret,
mother of Henry VII., who did the fourth book.
Translations appeared in Italian (Venice, 1488,
Milan 1480), Spanish (SeviUe, 1536), Arabic (Rome,
1663), Armenian (Rome, 1674), Hebrew (Frank-
fort, 1837), and other languages. ComeilJe pro-
duced a poetical paraphrase in French in 1651.

The " Imitation of Christ " derives its title from
the heading of the first book, De imilatione Christi
el contemptti omnium vanitalum mundi. It consists
of four books and seems to have been written in
meter and rime, a fact first announced by K.
Hireche in 1874. The four books are not found in
all the manuscripts, nor are they arranged invaria-
bly in the same order. The work is a manual of
devotion intended to help the soul in its communion
with God and the pursuit of holiness. Its sentences
are statements, not arguments, and are pitched in
the bigbeet key of Christian experience. It was

Kemplfl

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

dio

meant for monastics and recluses. Behind and
within all its reflections runs the coimcil of self-
renunciation. The life of Christ is presented as the
highest study possible to a mortal. His teachings
far excel all the teachings of the saints. The book
gives counsels to read the Scriptures, statements
about the uses of adversity, advice for submission
to authority, warnings against temptation and how
to resist it, reflections about death and the judg-
ment, meditations upon the oblation of Christ, and
admonitions to flee the vanities of the world.
Christ himself is more than all the wisdom of the
schools and Hfts the mind to perceive more of eter-
nal truth in a moment of time than a student might
learn in the schools in ten years. Excellent as
these counsels are, they are set in the minor key
and are especially adapted for souls burdened with
care and sorrow and sitting in darkness. They
present only one side of the Christian hfe, and in
order to compass the whole of it they must be sup-
plemented by counsels for integrity, bravery and
constancy in the struggle of daily existence to which
the vast mass of mankind, who can not be recluses,
are called. The charge has even been made that
the piety commended by the "Imitation" is of a
selfish monkish type. It was written by a monk and
intended for the convent; it lays stress on the pas-
sive qualities and does not touch with firmness the
string of active service in the world. That which
makes it acceptable to all Christians is the supreme
stress it lays upon Christ and the possibility of im-
mediate communion with him and God. The ref-
erences to medieval mistakes or superstitions are
confined to several passages, viz., the merit of good
works and transubstantiation (iv. 2), purgatory
(iv. 9), and the worship of saints (i. 13, ii. 9, iii. 6,
59). In other works, however, Thomas h Kempis
exalts Mary as the queen of heaven, the efficient
mediatress of sinners, and to her all should flee as
to a mother. She should be invoked. He also
gives prayers to Mary (cf. the'De tabemaculiSf and
Hortus rosarum, Pohl's ed., ut inf., i. also iii. 357,
vi. 219, 235 sqq.).

HL DisputcMl Authorship of the "Imitation of
Christ " : To some extent national sentiments have
entered into the controversy which for 300 years

has been waged over the authorship

I. General of the " Imitation," France and Italy

Survey. contending for the honor of furnishing

the author as against the Netherlands.
The weight of opinion is in favor of Thomas k
Kempis. Among the recent treatments of the sub-
ject are: K. Hirsche, Prolegomena zu einer neuen
Ausgabe der Imitatio Christi (Berlin, 1873, 1884,
1894), containing a copy of the Latin text of the
manuscript dated 1441; C. Wolfsgruber, Giovanni
Geraen, aein Leben und sein Werk De Imitatione Christi
(Augsburg, 1880); L. Santini, / diritti di Tommaso
da Kempis (2 vols., Rome, 1879-81); S. Kettlewell,
AtUhorship of the " De Imitatione Christi" (London,
1877; 2d ed.. 1884); V. Becker, L'AtUeur de Vlmi-
tation et les documents Ne&landais (The Hague, 1882) ;
also Les demiers traveaux sur Vauteur de VImitaiion
(Brussels, 1889); H. S. Denifle, Kritische Bemerk-
ungen zur GersenrKempis Frage, in ZKT (1882-
1883); O. A. Spitzen, Thoma9 a Kempis aU acAn/ver

der navolging (Utrecht, 1880), also NouveUe de-
fense en riponse du Denifle (1884); F. X. Funk,
Oerson und Gersen, also Der Verfasser der Nachfolge
Christi, both in his Abhandlungen (ii. 373—114,
Paderbom, 1899); P. E. Puyol, Descriptions bib-
liographiques des manuscrits et des principales edi-
tions du livre De Imitatione Christi (Paris, 1898);
PaUographie, classemenij gi^n^alogie du litre de Imi-
tatione Christi (1898), and L^Auteur du livre De
Imitatione Christi (2 vols., 1899-1900); G. Ken-
tenich. Die Handschriften der Imitatio und die Auior-
schaft des Thomas, in ZKG, xxiii. 18 sqq., xxiv. 504
sqq.; J. E. G. De Montmorency, Thomas a Kempis,
his Age and his Book, New York, 1906; and L.
Schulze, in Hauck-Herzog, RE, xix. 719-733. For
other works, see the bibliography below. Pohl gives
a list of thirty-five persons to whom the authorship
has at one time or another been ascribed, among
them Thomas k Kempis, Jean Charlier de Gerson,
chancellor of the University of Paris, Giovanni
Gersen, the reputed abbot of Veroelli, Italy, St.
Bernard, Bonaventura, David of Augsburg, Johann
Tauler, Heinrich Suso, and even Innocent III., the
last chiefly on account of the second part of the title
of the *' Imitation," recalling Innocent's work on the
contempt of the world. The only claimants worthy
of attention are Thomas k Kempis, the Chancellor
Gerson (d. 1429), and the Abbot Giovanni Gersen,
who is said to have lived about 1230. The uncer-
tainty arises from several facts: (1) a number of
manuscripts and printed editions of the fifteenth cen-
tury have no note of authorship; (2) the rest are di-
vided between these three men and St. Bernard;
and (3) the manuscript copies show important di-
vergences. The matter has been made more per-
plexing by the forgery of names and dates in man-
uscripts of the " Imitation " since the controversy
began, these forgeries, however, being largely in the
interest of Gerson and Gersen. A reason for the
absence of an author's name in so many of the
manuscripts is to be found, if Thomas k Kempis
was indeed the author, in his wishing to remain
unknown according to his maxim Ama nesciri,
Love to be unknown. Of the Latin editions be-
longing to the fifteenth centiuy, Pohl gives twenty-
eight as accredited to Gerson, twelve to Thomas,
two to St. Bernard, and six anonymous. Or, to
follow Funk (p. 426), forty editions of that century
ascribed the work to Gerson, eleven to Thomas,
two to St. Bernard, one to Gersen, and two are
anonymous. Spitzen gives fifteen as ascribed to
Thomas k Kempis. Most of the editions contain-
ing Gerson 's name were printed in France; a few
were issued in Italy and Spain. The editions of
the sixteenth century show a change. There,
thirty-seven Latin editions ascribe the authorship
to Thomas k Kempis, twenty-five to Gerson. As
for the manuscripts, all of them dated before 1450»
the dates of which are probably genuine, were writ-
ten in Germany or the Netherlands. The oldest is
included in a codex preserved since 1826 in the royal
library of Brussels. The codex contains nine other
writings of Thomas besides the " Imitation." It is
dated 1441, containing the note, in Latin, finitus el
completus MCCCCXLI per manus frairis Th, Kenv-
penais in Monte S, Agnetis prope ZuvUis, " Finished

311

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Kexnplfl

and completed in 1441 by the hands of brother
Thomas h Kempis, at Momit Samt Agnes near
ZwoUe " (cf. Pohl, ii. 461). If this be a genuine
writing the manuscript is an autographic copy.
The text of the Imitation is written on older paper
than the other documents comprised in the (xxiex.
It also contains corrections which are foimd in the
first Dutch translation of 1420. For these reasons
Spitzen, Funk and others place this text of the
Imitation between 1416 and 1420.

The literary controversy over the composition

began in 1604 when Dom Pedro Manriquez, in a

work on the Lord's Supper issued at Milan, declared

the "Imitation" to be older than Bonaventiutt,

basing his statement upon an alleged

2. Gersen's quotation from it by that schoolman.

Claims. In 1606 Bellarmine in his De scripiaribus
ecdesiasticis stated it was already in ex-
istence in 1260. About the same time the Jesuit
Rossignoli found in a convent at Arona near Milan
a manuscript without date bearing the name of the
Abbot Giovanni Gersen as its author. The house had
at one time belonged to the Benedictines, and the
Benedictine Cajetan, secretary of Paul V., defended
the abbot's claim in his Gersen restituius (Rome,
1614) and later in his Apparatus ad Gersenem resti-
tutum. Cajetan also announced the discovery of
a manuscript in Venice containing the statement,
" Not Johannes Gerson but Johannes abbot of Ver-
celli wrote this book." Gersen's claims were at-
tacked by the Augustinian Heribert Rosweyde in
his Vindidae Kempenaea (Antwerp, 1617), and so
cogently that Bellarmine withdrew his statement.
The Congregation of Propaganda, urged by the
Benedictines, gave permission for the book to be
printed in Rome and elsewhere under the name of
Gerson. A revival of the assertion of the Italian's
authorship was started by the Piedmontese noble-
man, Gregory, in his Istoria della Vercelleae lettera-
tura (Turin, 1819). He was confirmed in his view
by a manuscript of the " Imitation " purchased in
Paris in 1830, containing the statement that in
1550 it was the property of an Italian Girolamo
d'Avogadri. The family Avogadri had its ances-
tral seat near Vercelli, and an old diariunif which
Gregory found, contained under the date of Feb.
5, 1347, the record of the transmission of a book
called the " Imitation of Christ." Gregory issued
his manuscript (Paris, 1833), and in his Histoire du
livre de Vlmitatione (Paris, 1842) he defended the
alleged authorship of the abbot of Vercelli. He
was thoroughly answered by J. B. Malou, bishop of
Bruges, in his Recherches historiques et critiques 8ur
le veritable auteur du livre de Vlmitation Chriati
(Tournay. 1848; 3d ed., Paris, 1858). The Italian
origin again found a vigorous advocate in Coelestin
Wolfsgruber (ut sup.). The abbot's claim has at
present little or no standing; and it has been shown
that the details of his life are simple conjectures.
Funk pronounces him a fiction. A monument was
dedicated to the Italian's memory at Vercelli in
1884.

After the decision of the Congregation of Propa-
ganda the matter of the authorship was taken up
with spirit in France. A careful examination of
the manuscript copies of the Imitation was made,

but with uncertain residt. Richelieu in his splendid
edition of 1640 Issued the work without name of
author, but in 1652 the French Parlia-
3. Gerson's ment ordered the work issued under the
Claims, name of Thomas k Kempis. Mabillon
made a fresh examination of manu-
scripts at three gatherings (1671, 1674, 1687), the
case being decided against Thomas h Kempis.
Dupin, in his edition of Gerson 's works (cf. 2d ed.,
17^, vol. i., pp. lix.-lxxxiv.), made a comparison of
Gerson 's writings with the " Imitation " and showed
that it was possible that Gerson was the author of the
latter, but closed his discussion with the statement
that it is not possible to come to a final decision
between the claims of Gersen, Gerson, and Thomas
k Kempis. The controversy again broke out with
the edition of 1724 made Ly the Benedictines Er-
hard and Mezier, w^ho ascribed the authorship to
Gerson as also did Vollardt in his edition (Paris,
1758). A strong reply was made by the Augus-
tinian E. Amort of Polling, Bavaria, who defended
with much learning the claims ?.. Phomas k Kempis
in his Informatio de statu controversiae (Augsbuig,
1728), and especially in his Scutum Kempense seu
vindidae IV librorum de Imitatione ChrisH (Cologne,
1728). The editions of De Sacy (Paris, 1853) and
Caro (ib., 1875) leave the authorship undecided.
After the claims of Thomas k Kempis seemed to be
very generally acknowledged, still another stage in
the controversy was opened by P. E. Puyol (1808,
ut sup.), who gave a description of 348 manuscripts
and annotated the variations between fifty-seven of
them. His conclusion was that the text of the
Italian manuscript is the more simple and conse-
quently the older. He has been followed by Ken-
tenich; Puyol 's work may lead to a more careful
comparison of the texts of the Imitation. The
claim that Gerson is the author of the ** Imitation
of Christ " is based upon editions and manuscripts
made before 1500 bearing his name and upon prob-
abilities drawn from Gerson 's style and mystical
temper of thought. The manuscript upon which
chief stress used to be laid is at Valenciennes and
is dated 1462. It contains Gerson's sermons on
the Passion of Christ and a book called IntemeUe
Consolation, On^ime Leroy in his Etudes sur Us
mysttres et sur le divers manuscrits de Gerson (Paris,
1837), and in his ComexUe et Gerson dans Vlmita-
tion de JeMi Christi (Paris, 1841), drew the con-
clusion that all these works must be by the same
author. It was later shown from a manuscript in
Amiens dated 1447 that the work IntemeUe Conso-
lation was a translation of the Imitation made by
Hesden from the Latin. The similarity between
Gerson's writings and the ** Imitation " was amply
refuted by J. B. Schwab in his life of Gerson
(Wtirzburg, 1858, pp. 782-786). (Person m his
judgment would have required the endowment of
a wholly new tongue to write the work. The first
edition of Gerson's works (1483) does not contain
it. Again, the lists of the chancellor's writings given
by his brother John (1423) and by Canesius (1429)
do not mention it. The author was by his own
statement a monk (iv. 5, 11, iii. 56), and Gerson
was not a monk. The attachment of Gerson's name
to the book can be explained only by the considera-

Kempifl
Kandriok

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

8 IS

tion that the '' Imitation " first went forth anony-
mously, and Gerson's mystical treatises gave to
French editors and copyists the supposed cue to
its authorship.

The claim of k Kempis has many arguments in
its favor. Jan Busch in his Chronicon Winder-
hemense, written in 1464, seven years before the
death of Thomas k Kempis, expressly states that

Thomas wrote the " Imitation." This
4. Thomas statement might be considered suffi-
k Kempis. cient of itself were it not for the fact

that the so-called Gaesdoncker Codex
of the Chronicon does not contain this statement.
Caspar of Pforzheim, who made his German trans-
lation in 1448, says the work was written by '' a
devoted father. Blaster Thomas, a canon regidar."
Hermann Rheyd, who met Thomas at the chapter of
Windesheim in 1454, speaks of him as the author.
John Wessel, who spent some time with Thomas,
was according to his early biographer attracted by
the book at Windesheim. Funk gives thirteen
dated manuscripts written before 1500 ascribing
the *' Imitation " to Thomas k Kempis. The original
Brussels Codex of 1441 has already been referred
to above. Its date is accepted by Hirsche, Pohl,
Funk, Schulze, and others; and the conclusion
drawn is that the manuscript of the '' Imitation " it
contains was written before 1420. The date 1441
has recently been disputed as ungenuine by Puyol
and Kentenich on the basis of its divergences from
other texts by the way of additions and also the
conclusion. A second manuscript in Liouvain is
also subscribed as autographic and seems to be
nearly as old (cf. Pohl, vi. 456). Another manu-
script preserved in Brussels has the date 1425 and
states that Thomas was the author. The Codex
Magdalenu8 in Oxford, dated 1438, strangely gives
the work under the title De mvsica ecclesiasticaf
the title of a work by Walter Hylton, an Eng-
lish mystic. Of printed editions of the fifteenth
century, at least twelve present Thomas as the
author, beginning with the Augsbui^ edition of
1472. Finally, in style and contents the ** Imita-
tion " agrees closely with other writings of Thomas
k Kempis; and the flow of thought is altogether
similar to that of the MediUUio de incamatione.
Spitzen has made it seem probable that the author
was acquainted with the writings of Jan van Ruys-
broeck and other mystics of the Netherlands. Fimk
has brought out the references to ecclesiastical cus-
toms which fit the book into the early part of the
fifteenth century better than into an earlier time.
Scholars like Schwab, Hirsche, Pohl, Schuize, and
Funk (and also the Italian Santini) agree that the
claims of Thomas k Kempis are almost beyond dis-
pute. On the other hand, Denifle cleared the deck
of all suggested names and ascribed the work to
some unknown canon regular of the Netherlands.
Karl MUller in a brief note (Ktrchengeschichte, ii.-
122) pronounces the theory of the Thomas author-
ship to be '' more than imcertain "; and Loofs
(Dogmengeschichtef 4th ed., p. 633) expresses sub-
stantially the same judgment. In addition to the
historic considerations for the Thomas authorship
the philosophical consideration certainly has weight,
that no sufficient reason can be given why the name

of Thomas k Kempis should have been attached to
the book if he did not write it. D. S. Schafp.

Bxbuogbapht: The firet ed. of the Opera by N. K^**^l»w
and G. de Leempt appeared at Utrecht, 1473 (oontaiDed
fifteen writings, not indudins the "Imitation"). Others
are by P. Danhassor, Nuremberg. 1494 (includes twenty
compositions); J. Badius, Antwerp. 1620, 1621, 1523;
O. Dupuyherbault, with Vita by J. B. Asoensius, Fans,
1649; Q. Putherbeus, Antwerp, 1674; H. Sonunalius,
3 vols., ib. 1699. 6th ed.. Douai. 1036 (le^rded as the
best until the next to be mentioned); M. J. Pohl, to
be in 8 vols., vols, i.-v., Freiburg. 1903 sqq. On the
Imitation there is a discusmon of the literature by R. P.
A. de Backer. Eatai bihliographique aur le livre De imUa-
tione Chriati, Li^, 1864. The editions of the work are
past counting. Among them may be singled out: the
first Latin ed., Augsburg. 1472 (bound up with a copy of
Jerome's De vir. ill., and writings of Augustine and Thomas
Aquinas), cf. Feu^mile ReprodueHon of the Firet Edv-
Hon of l\7l tDtift Hietorical Introduction by C. Knox-IAUle^
London, 1894. Of the many English translations may
be noted: the first, by W. Atkinson and the Princess
Margaret, mother of King Henry VIL, London, 1602;
reprinted ib. 1828, new ed. by J. K. Ingram, ib. 1803;
The Imitation of Chriet, Being the AtUograph MS. <4
Thomae a Kempie, De imitatione ChrieH^ Reproduced in
Faeaimile from the Original Preeerved in the Royal Library
at Brueeele, vrith Introduction by C. Ruelene, London,
1879; The Imitation of Chriet, now for the FirH Time Set
forth in Rythm and Sentencee, voith Preface by Canon Lid'
don, ib. 1889; Meditatione on the Life of Chriet . . .
Tranelated and Edited . . . by Archdeacon Wright . . .
and . . . 3. KettleweU, with a Preface by the Latter, Ox-
ford, 1892; The Imitation of Chriet; Tranelation by Canon
W. Benham, with IB Photogravuree after Celebrated Paint-
inge, ib. 1906; J. H. Srawley, The Imitation cf Chriet or
the Ecdeeiaetical Music, (Cambridge, 1908.

On the life of Thomas the fimdamental source is J.
Busch, Chronicon Windeehemenee, ed. H. Rosweyde, Ant-
werp, 1621, and K. Grube. Halle, 1886; with which
should be used H. Rosweyde. Chronicon ML 8. Agnetie,
Antwerp, 1616. ed. cum Roeweydii vindiciie Kempeneibue,
ib. 1622. Consult further: Vol. i. of the Opero by Pohl (ut
sup.) contains a discussion of the life and writings; B.
Bihring. Thomae ^ Kempie der Prediger der Nadtfolge
Chrieti, Leipsic, 1872; 8. KettleweU, Thomae ^ Kempie and
the Brethren cf the Common Life, 2 vols., London. 1882,
abridged ed.. 1886; F. R. Cruise, Thomae it Kempie, with
Notee cf a Viit^ to the Scenee in which hie Life wae Spent,
vnth Some Account of the Examination of hie ReUce, ib. 1887;
L. A. Wheatley. Story of the Imitation of Chriet, ib. 1891;
Rdring, Thomae h Kempie, Zijne voorgangere en tijne tiidge-
nooten, Utrecht. 1902; C. Bigg. Wayeide Sketchee in Ecde-
eiaetical Hietory, ib. 1906; KL, viii. 1666-59.

KEN (KENN), THOMAS: Bishop of Bath and
Wells; b. at Great (or Little) Berkhamsted, Hert-
fordshire, July, 1637; d. at Longleat (22 m. w.n.w.
of Salisbury), Wiltshire, Mar. 19, 1711. He stud-
ied at Winchester College, and at New College, Ox«
ford (B.A., 1661; M. A., 1664; D.D., 1679), wa»
fellow of New College 1657-66, and tutor in 1661.
In 1665 he went back to Winchester, became chap-
lain to Bishop George Morley, and took gratuitous
charge of the parish of St. John in the Soke. He
was elected fellow of Winchester in 1666, and col-
lated to a prebend at Winchester in 1669. He was
rector of Brightstone, Isle of Wight, 1667-69, and
of East Woodhay, Hampshire, 1669-72. With the
exception of a visit to Rome in 1675, he again re-
sided at Winchester, 1672-79, resuming charge of
the parish of St. John in the Soke. In 1679 he *
went to The Hague as chaplain to Mary, the king's
sister, wife of William II. of Orange, but returned
to England in the autumn of 1680 and became chap-
lain to Charles II. In the siunmer of 1683, when
the court was about to visit Winchester, he refused

RELIGIOUS EKCYCLOPEDU

Kompla
Kendriok

to allow hiB prebeodal bouse to be approprkted for

Che use of Nell GwyD. Charlea respected hU alti-
tude in the matter, admired his courage, and in
Nov., 1684, gave him the bishopric of Bath and
Wells. He was consecrated Jan. 25, 1685. In the
mean time he had sailed for Tangier in Aug., 1683,
as chaplain to Lord Dartmouth, commander of the
English fleet, returning to England in Apr., 1684.
In Feb., 1685, be attended the king on hiu death-
bed, gave him absolution, and vainly urged him to
receive the sacrament. He was loyal to James II.,
but in May, 1688, refused to publish the second
Declaration of Indulgence. He was one of the
seven bishops thrown into the Tower June 8, 1688.
With his six brethren he was tried on June 2S, and
acquitted and liberated June 30. For refusing to
take the oath of allegiance to William and Mary he
was deprived of his see in Apr., 1691. He then
retired to the home of his friend, Lord Weymouth,
Loagleat, Wiltshire, where he resided chiefly dur-
ing the remainder of his life. He was not in sym-
pathy with the more violent non-jurors, and op-
posed the clandestine consecrations of 1694. For
joining the other deprived bishops in a " charitable
Tecommendation " on behalf of the deprived cle:^,
he was summoned before the coimcil in Apr., 1696,
tut was quickly set at liberty. In June, 1704,
Queen Anne granted him a, treasury pension of
£200, he having declined, in 1702, her offer to re-
instate him in his see.

In early English hymnology Ken occupies an
important place. The morning hymn, " Awake,
my Houl, and with the sun," and the evening hymn,
" Glory to thee, my God, this night " (or. as it is
Tisually written. " All prniae to Thee, my God, this
nigbt "), are among the best hymns in the language,
and are known wherever English is spoken. E^cb
of these, && also the midnight hymn, " My God, now
I from sleep awake," ends with the familiar dox-
dogy, " Praise God from whom all blessings flow."
He wrote these hymns for the boys of Winchester
College, and first printed tbem in the 1695 edition
of his Manual /or the U»e of Windutler Scholara
(London, 1674; printed by 8. P. C. K., 1880), as
Hymia for Morning, Evening, arid Midnight (ed.
R. Palmer, 1898). Owing to their length these
three hymns have been rearranged in modem
bymnals, and divided into about a dozen separate
hymns. Other works by Ken are: An Ezpo»Hion
of the Church Catechism, or the Practice of Divine
Love (London, 1685; new ed., 1849); Prayers for
the V»e of all Persons vho came to the Baths for Cure
(1692; S. P. C. K., 1898); and the posthumous
nymnsfor AU the Feslttala of the Year (1721; new
eda,, 1868. etc.). Selections from bis devotional
writings have been Frequently published mider
various titles. W. Hawkins published his Worki
(4 vols.. 1721), including only poetical compositions.
J. T. Round collocUtl his Prose Worku (1838),
which have been reedited and augmented by W.
Benham (1SS9: new ed., 1899).

Ken was one of the best and most fearless preach-
ers of his time, and a man of rare piety and sweets
ness of spirit. He was anxious to do good; and
during his incumbency of the see of Bath and Wells
be devoted his revenues to charitable purposes.

On coming into the possession of £4,000 in 1C8S
he gave the greater part of it to the fund for Hu-
guenot refugees. He was an accomplished lin-
guist, and a musician, as well as a poet. He was
accustomed to sing bis hymns to his own accora-
paaiment on the lute. The reverence felt for Ken
WHS revived by the Oxford Movement. In Trad
86 (London, 1836) Newman gives a form of service
for Mar. 21. the day of Ken's burial.
BiBuooRAi-ii*; The <P»ti<al) Workt apreotKl ed.. wilb
a Life. W. Hkwkiiu (Ken'ii great-iicptipw). 4 vnh.. Lon-
don. 1721. and hia iVo» Workt and LtlUrt, ed, J. T.
RaULod. ib. 1S3S. also wntnimng Iha Lije by Hniikiiw

(which ia the ariKimil t

» thi>.

s Lilt by a layman IJ. L. J
1S51-M (admirable): E. H. Pluraptre, ib. ISSO; and
F. A. Clarke, ib. 1SQ6, Valuable maWrial is also found
i&T. Lathbury. Hill, of Oe Noniurnri. ib. 1862: J. liS-elyn,
Dion/, ed. W. Bray, vol«. ii.-iii.. pauim. ib. ISTfl; 8. W,
DuffielH, Enelith H^n*. pp. 40-50. New VoHi,1886; J. H.
Ovenon. Thi CHurck in Knoland. vol. ii. pawim, ib. 1897;
W. H. Hutlon. The Engluili Churdi U6tS-l7H). pa^m,
ib. t803: Julian, Hymnotovu. pp. 616-022 (valiwble): DSB,

KENDRICK, ASAHEL CLARK: Baptist; b. at
Poultney. Vt., Dec. 7, 1809; d. at Rochester, N. Y.,
Oct, 21, 1895. He was educated at Hamilton (Al-
lege, Clinton, N. Y. (B.A., 1831), and after being
professor of Greek in Madison University. Hamil-
ton, N. Y., from 1832 to 1S50, occupied a similar
chair at the University of Rochester until his death.
He was also professor of Hebrew and New-Testa-
ment interpretiktion in Rochester Theological Sem-
inary from 1865 to 1868, and from 1852 to 1854
studied and traveled in Europe, especially in Greeoe.
Although ordained to the Baptist ministry, he
never held a pastorale. From 1871 lo 1881 he was
a member of the New Testament Company of the
Anglo- .American Bible Revision Committee. He
was the author of; Life and Letters of Mrs. Emily C.
JiuUon (New York, 1860); Commentary on the Epis-
(^tofAe//(!6r^<s(Philadelphia, 1889); and TheMaral
Confiicl of Humanity, and other Papers (1894). He
likewise collaborated on several bii^raphies, and re-
vised the translation of H. Olahausen's BMioal
Commentary on the New Testament (6 vols.. New
York, 1836-58). besides translating C. B. Moll's
commentary on Hebrews for the American Lange
commentary (1868) and H. A. W. Meyer's commen-
tary on John (1884).

KENDRICK, JOECn HILLS: Protestant Epis-
copal missionary bishop of Arizona and New Mex-
ico; b. at Gambier, O., May 14, 1836. He was
graduated at Marietta College. Marietta, O.. in
1856, studied law, and was admitted to the New
York bar, but feeling himself dranTi toward tbe
Church, entered the theological seminary connected
with Kenyon Osllc^e, Gambier, O. He interrupted
his studies to serve in the Union Army during the
Civil War. and rose to be assistant adjutant-gen-
eral. Graduating from the theological eeminary
in 1864, he was ordered deacon in the same year,
and advanced to the priesthood in 1865. He served
as a missionary for two years at Put-in-Bay. O., and
was then rector of St. Andrew's, Fort Scott, Kan.
{1867-fi9), St. Paul's, Leavenworth, Kan. (1869-
1875), and the Church of the Good Shepherd, Co-
lumbus, O (1875-78). In 187S-89 he was a sen-

Kenites
Kanosis

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

di4

eral diocesan missionary, and for five years of this
period was superintendent of city missions in Co-
lumbus. In 1889 he was consecrated missionary
bishop of Arizona and New Mexico.

Bibuoorapht: W. S. Perry, The EpiaeopaU in Anurica,
p. 71. New York, 1896.

KENITES. See Cain.
KENIZZITES. See Caleb.

KENNEDY, ARCHIBALD ROBERT STIRLING:

Church of Scotland; b. at Whitehills (2 m. w. of
Banff), Banffshire, Scotland, Dec. 21, 1859. He
studied at the universities of Aberdeen (M.A.,
1879), Glasgow (B.D., 1883), Gottingen (1883),
and Berlin (1883-85), and in 1885-87 was fellow of
Glasgow University. He was professor of Hebrew
and cognate languages in the University of Aber-
deen 1887-94, and since 1894 has been professor of
Hebrew and Semitic languages in the University of
Edinburgh. He prep)ared the English editions of
the Hebrew, Syriac, Assyrian, and Arabic gram-
mars in the Porta lAnguarum ChrierUaliuin (London,
1885-95), and has ^ited Exodus, Joshua, and
Judges in The Temple BiTfle, besides writing the
commentary on Samuel for The Century Bible (1905) .

KENNETT (KENNET), WHITE: Bishop of
Peterborough; b. at Dover Aug. 10, 1600; d. at
Westminster Dec. 19, 1728. He studied at the
Westminster School and at St. Edmund's Hall,
Oxford (B.A., 1682; M.A., 1684; B.D., 1694;
D.D.f 1700), and was vicar of Ambrosden, Oxford-
shire, 1685-1700. As a student he had been an
admirer of James II., but afterward he became an
open supporter of the Revolution and a zealous
Whig partizan. In 1691 he returned to Oxford as
tutor and vice-principal at St. Edmund's Hall, and
gave a considerable impetus to the study of Brit-
ish antiquities. He was rector of St. Botolph,
Aldgate, London, 1700-07, and then rector at St.
Mary, Aldermary, London. In 1701 he became
prebendary of Salisbury Cathedral, archdeacon of
Huntingdon, and one of the original members of
the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in
Foreign Parts. In the same year he entered into
a famous controversy with Francis Atterbury (q.v.)
regarding the rights of convocation. In 1708 he
was collated to a prebend in Lincoln and installed
dean of Peterborough. Through the influence of his
friend Charles Trimnell, bishop of Norwich, he was
made bishop of Peterborough in 1718, despite the
fact that he was a Low-churchman and had taken
the side of Benjamin Hoadly (q.v.) in the Bango-
rian controversy. Kennett's most important works
are: Parochial Antiquiiiea , , . of Oxford and
Bucks (Oxford, 1695; greatly enlarged from the
author's manuscript notes, 2 vols., 1818); the third
volume of A Complete History of England (3 vols.,
London, 1706), covering the period from Charles I.
to Queen Anne; and the unfinished Register and
Chronicle, Ecclesiastical and Civil . . . from the
Restoration of King Charles II. (vol. i., 1728).

Bibliooraphy: An anonymouB Life of . , . W. Kennet
appeared, London, 1730; aim Remarks on Some Paeeagea
in the Life of Dr. Kennett (by J. Sharp), ib. 1730. Con-
sult: A. it Wood, Athenae Oxonieneee, ed. P. Bliss, iv.
792. 1003, London. 1820; DNB, xxzi 2-6; J. H. Over-

ton, Church in England, London. 1807; W. H. Hutton,
The Englieh Church 0626-1714). ib. 1903.

KENNICOTT, BENJAMIN: BibUcal scholar; b.
at Totnes (22 m. s.s.w. of Exeter), Devonshire,
Apr. 4, 1718; d. at Oxford Aug. 18, 1783. He
spent seven years in the grammar-school and be-
came master of the charity school at Totnes, and
subsequently studied at Wadham and Exeter col-
leges, Oxford (B.A., 1747; M.A., 1750; B.D. and
D.D., 1761). He was fellow of Exeter College
1747-71, Whitehall preacher 1753, vicar of Culham,
Oxfordshire, 1753-83, chaplain to the bishop of
Oxford 1766, Radcliflfe librarian at Oxford 1767-
1783, canon of Westminster Abbey 1770, canon of
Christ Church, Oxford, 1770-83, and held the vicar-
age of Menheniot, Cornwall, 1771-81. His life was
spent chiefly in the study of the Hebrew texts of
the Old Testament. After the publication of The
State of the Printed Text of the Old Testament (2
vols., Oxford, 1753-59; Latin transl., Leipsic,
1756-66), he was induced by Thomas Seeker to
undertake a collation of the text. P'or this work
the sum of about ten thousand pounds was raised
by subscription, and many scholars were employed,
both at home and abroad. During the progress
of the undertaking (1760-69) ten annual reports
were published, which were afterward collected in
one volume (Oxford, 1770). The result of these
labors was Kennicott's Hebrew Bible, Vetus Testa-
mentum Hebraicum cum txiriis ledionibus (2 vols.,
1776-80). To the second volume he appended a
Dissertatio generalis (also separately, Oxford, 1780;
Brunswick, 1783), giving an account of the manu-
scripts of the Old Testament. The text is that of
Van der Hooght, but without points, and the va-
rious readings are placed at the bottom of the page.
The number of manuscripts collated was 615.
Kennicott has been criticised for his preference for
the Samaritan Pentateuch, for his neglect of the
Massorah, for his disregard of the vowel points, and
for occasional inaccuracy. A considerable literature
was issued embodying these and other objections,
to which Kennicott and his friends made answer.
His Letter to a Friend Occasioned by a French Pam-
phlet (issued anonymously, 1772) answers a French
attack, and his Contra ephemeridum Goettigensium
criminationes (1782) replies to German criticisms.

Bibliooraphy: The Oentleman'e Maoatine, 1747, 1768,
1771. 1783. 1789. 1830; 8. Davidson, Lecturee on Biblical
Criticiam, Edinburgh. 1839; DNB, xxxi 10-12.

KENNION, GEORGE WYNDHAM: Church of
England, bishop of Bath and Wells; b. at Harro-
gate (27 m. w. of York), Yorkshire, Sept. 5, 1845.
He studied at Oriel College, Oxford (B.A., 1867),
and was ordered deacon in 1869 and ordained priest
in 1870. After being domestic chaplain to the
bishop of Tuam in 1860-70, he was diocesan in-
spector of Yorkshire 1871-73 and vicar of St.
Paul's, Sculcoates, Y'orkshire, 1873-76 and of All
Saints', Bradford, 1876-«2. In 1882 he was con-
secrated bishop of Adelaide, and in 1894 was trans-
lated to the see of Bath and Wells. He was also
visitor of Wadham College, Oxford, in 1882, lec-
turer in pastoral theology in the University of
Cambridge in 1900. and Ramsden Preacher in the
same university in the following year.

316

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Xenitas
Kanosis

KENOSIS.

Scriptural Basis of Kenosis (f 1).

Modem Rise of the Doctrine (f 2).

Early Orthodox Exegesis not Kenotic (f 3).

Concreteness of Early Christology (f 4).

Foreshadowings of Kenoticism (f 5).

The Antiochian School and Tertullian (f 6).

Kenotic Undercurrent (S 7).

The Problem Ignored by Scholasticism (f 8).

Calvinism not Really Kenotic (f 9).

Luther's Christology (5 10).

Early Post-Lutheran Doctrine (f 11).

Summary ({ 12).

English and American Treatment (f 13).

Ever since the middle of the nineteenth century,
it has been usual among Protestant, and especially
Lutheran, theologians to find the basis for a special
doctrine of what is called the kenOsia or self-empty-
ing of Christ in the passage (Phil. ii.

I. Scrip- 6-8) where Paul says that Christ
tural " being in the form of God, thought it

Basis of not robbery to be equal with God, but

Kenosis. made himself of no reputation (Gk.
heaulon ekenOaen) and took upon him
the form of a servant." Although this doctrine is
now of little influence among dogmatic theologi-
ans, the popularity which it enjoyed and its rela-
tion to the older dogmatic development makes a
detailed treatment of it useful for the knowledge of
the present condition of the Christological prob-
lem (see CHRisTOLoaY, IX., X.).

The regular Lutheran orthodoxy had seen in the
phrase quoted an aphorism relating to the historic
Christ, partly because the subject of the verb,
" Christ Jesus," is a term usually so applied, and
partly because " a kenosis properly so called can
not be predicated of the Logos apart

2. Modem from the flesh, of the abstract Deity,
Rise of the who is immutable and invariable "

Doctrine. (J. Gerhard, Loci, IV., xiv. 294). The
application of the expression to the
preexistcnt Christ was made first, among modem
Lutheran theologians, by Ernst Sartorius, tenta-
tively in 1832 and then more fully in his Lehre von
(Icr heiligen Liebe (ii. 21 sqq., Hamburg, 1844). In
the same year Johann Ludwig K6nig expressed
similar ideas in Hegelian phraseology; and in 1845
began to appear Thomasius' Beitrdge zur kirchlichen
Chriatologie, which inaugurated the triumph of the
modem conception of the kenosis. Here, appar-
ently, the perfect oneness of the person of Christ
was assured, since it was the divine Logos himself
who laid aside the fulness of his divine Nature in
all the relations in which it manifests itself exter-
nally, bringing himself down to the level of a hu-
man individual; the possibility of a real himian de-
velopment of Jesus was assured, since the Logos
determined to subject his divine being to the forms
of human existence, under the laws of hiunan de-
velopment, retaining the use of his absolute power
only so far as it was required for his redeeming
work; the Calvin istic theory of the union of God-
head and manhood so that the whole of the former
still existed outside the latter was avoided; and
the doctrine of the Communicatio Idiomatum (q.v.)
was preserved. Substantial assent was given to the
teaching of Thomasius by Lutherans like Kahnis,
Lutliardt and Delitzsch, by United theologians like

Gaupp and J. P. Lange, and by some Reformed
writers, especially Ebrard and later Godet in his
commentary on John. Thomasius took heed of
criticism so far as to attempt, in his most important
work, Christi Person und Werk (part ii., Erlangen,
1855), to avoid the alleged ApoUinarianism of his
Beitrdge by a distinction between the essential at-
tributes of God (absolute power, tmth, holiness,
love) and the merely relative attributes affected by
the kenosis (omnipotence, omniscience, onmipres-
ence), thus meeting the charge that he had taught
a mutability of the divine nature. He maintained,
however, that his doctrine of the kenosis was the
necessary outcome of the whole previous dogmatic
development. He did not deny that the view of
the early Church had in general been a dififerent
one, but he was convinced that Lutheran Christol-
ogy, in which the Incarnation was more deeply
realiised, required his conclusion.

The passage in Philippians was used as early as
Marcion; but the important phrase for him was
** the likeness of man ": for his Docetic position
the ekendsen phrase could be nothing more than a
general indication of the apparition of the Logos
in the lower world. The work ekenOsen is quoted
first by the Gnostic Theodotus, Oem-
3. Early ent of Alexandria, and Tertullian, to all
Orthodox of whom it seems to be nothing more
Exegesis than an expression designating the
not Incarnation. As long as the estimate
Kenotic. of the person of Christ took its depar-
ture from the historic Christ (which,
apart from Gnosticism, was the case down to the
apologists), no reflection was likely to be made upon
the kenosis of the preexistent Logos. It is only
after the beginning of Catholic theology with Clem-
ent, Irenaeus, and Tertullian that the text in Phi-
lippians belongs to the passages regularly used to
describe the Incarnation; Origen, in fact, under^
stands the official doctrine to assert that the Son
of God ** emptying himself (se ipsum exinaniens)
and becoming man was incarnate." With scarcely
an exception the early writers saw the subject of
ekendsen in the logos asarkoSy the Word apart from
the flesh. Only Novatian, Ambrosiaster, Pelagius,
and the commentary based on him which goes under
the name of Primasius of Hadnmietum understand
the subject to be the Word made flesh. An exe-
getical predisposition was therefore extant in the
early Church for a theory similar to the modem
kenosis-theory. But that is the most that can be
said. For the usual exposition of the text sees in
the " self-emptying " of the Logos merely an equiv-
alent for the '* taking the form of a servant," and
that again is merely an equivalent for ^* becoming
incamate. " Origen asserts that the rule of faith lays
down that the Logos '' being made man remained
that which he was before "; and Augustine, echo-
ing the voice of the older tradition, says: " Thus
he emptied himself, taking the form of a servant,
not losing the form of God; the form of a servant
was added, the form of God not subtracted."
Athanasius and Gregory of Nyssa, while admitting
that the Word so far emptied himself as to appear
not in his native majesty but in the htmiility of
human nature, yet insist on his unaltered substan-

Xenosis

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

816

tial greatness; and this remained the established
view. Athanasius, in opposition to the Arians,
who made the Son of God mutable in nature and
inunediately subject to human development, ne-
cessities, troubles, and sufferings, fights for the un-
changeableness of the Logos as the palladium of
orthodoxy; the Logos does not increase in wisdom
(Luke ii. 52), is not hungry or troubled even unto
de^th (John xii. 27), is not in ignorance of the day
of judgment, does not suffer or die — all these things
happen only to his '* flesh," to his human nature.
And after Athanasius not only the Antiochian
school but even ApoUinaris and C^yril make simi-
larly strong assertions of the unchangeableness of
the Godhead of the Logos, such things as ignorance,
sleeping, being troubled, and still more suffering
and death being referred only in a derived or loose
sense to the Logos proper. By a corresponding
train of thought, the *' exaltation " of Phil. ii. 9
18 always in patristic theology referred exclusively
to the human nature of Christ. In all this there
is no room for such a theory as that of Thomasius;
in fact, it is more than once expressly opposed.
Hilary mentions something not dissimilar as one
of the views on the Incarnation to be avoided, and
Cyril of Alexandria controverts two 'different ke-
notic theories, the exact meaning of the more im-
portant of which is disputable and obscure — but
Cyril's attitude is unmistakable; he rejects both
with equal finnness, and insists again on the way
in which the Godhead fills all in all; a limitation of
the Godhead in Christ is essentially unthinkable
on account of his unity with the Father. But the
very enei^gy with which the Fathers reject any
mutability of the Godhead, as much in relation to
the Incarnation as anywhere else, would, taken by
itself, make the whole conception of the Incarna-
tion practically unsustainable. Its immense im-
portance to early Christian thought would be un-
intelligible if this were all we knew about primitive
Christological development.

But this is not all. It must be borne in mind
that the idea of the Incarnation is older than any
realisation of the difficulties which beset it. It
springs not only from the passage in Philip-
pians, but also from such thoughts as those of II
Cor. iv. 4; John i. 14; I John i. 1. It appears
definitely in Ignatius, in a form as far
4. Con- as possible removed from Docetic
creteneas imaginings. With almost paradox-
of Early ical sharpness he contrasts the God-
Christology. head and the passible manhood of
Christ, in a way that by no means
suggests what would now be called kenosis; he is
rather filled with the conception that the invisible,
incomprehensible, impassible God became visible,
tangible, passible in the historical person of Jesus.
How the revelation of the in^nsible God in the his-
toric Christ came to pass, he does not undertake to
say; he merely asserts the fact with firm conviction,
dealing with a condescension of the revelation of God
to our level, in a " simple modalistic " manner. Ideas
of this kind did not die out with Ignatius, but
through the theology of Asia Minor leavened the
later development. Irenaeus, although he does not
quote the efcendsen, obviously connects them with

the thought of the passage. With him, however, it
is clear that the basis is not a metaphysical kenosis-
theory of the self-transformation of the Logos, but
the " simple modalistic " conviction that " the
man without beauty and subject to suffering," the
historic Christ, was, '^ in a different way from all
men who then lived, God and Lord and King etei>
nal, the only-begotten, the incarnate Word pro-
claimed by all the prophets and apostles " (Haer.
IV., XX. 2). The faith in " God manifest in the
flesh," centering around the indivisible historic
personality of Jesus, is what carries the belief in
the Incarnation through all the difficulties which
arose as soon as men began to attempt to define the
manner of the Incarnation. It is this unquestion-
ing belief in '' God in man " (Ignatius, Ephesians,
vii. 2), not any formal theory of a kenosis or any-
thing else, which forms the real basis of the primi-
tive doctrine on the subject.

Nor, when theories begin to appear, are they ke«
notic, at least not in the sense of Thomasius. The
oldest occurs in Irenaeus — ^the same Irenaeus who >^
speaks of '' the impassible becoming passible " and
of " the very Word of God incarnate
5. Fore- suspended on the tree," and who ve-
shadow- hemently opposes the Gnostic div-
ings of tinction between ** Jesus who suffered "
Kenoticism. and *^ Christ who departed before the
Passion." In so far, however, as he
had a theory, he distinguished in the historic Christ
the Logos and the homo ejus^ and, quite in accord
with the later development, regarded the man as
the object of temptation, suffering, death, in which
the Logos had no part, being, on the other hand,
" with " " the man " in victory, resurrection, and
ascension. Here is the source of the appearance
of kenotic ideas, in this doctrine of the Logos taking
into himself a part of his creation. He who ** ac-
cording to his invisible nature contains all things "
came '^ to us not as he was able to come, but as we
were able to receive him." Here is indeed a self-
limitation of the Logos; but it is a progressively
less and less self-limited communication of him-
self on the part of a Logos remaining all the while
in undiminished majesty, to man who progressively
responds more and more to the approach; it is the
sort of self-limitation asserted, not of the Logos
but of the " One God," by dynamic Monarchian-
ism. This conception of the dynamic indwelling
of the Logos in the man Jesus is not peculiar to
Irenaeus, but is to be perceived down to the final
disappearance of the Antiochian tradition in the
reign of Justinian. Origcn is the special represen-
tative of this view. In his controversy with Cel-
sus, who had objected that if God came down in
person to men he must have left his throne and suf-
fered change, Origen replies that Celsus knows not
the power of God nor that ** the Spirit of the Lord
filleth the earth" (Wisd. i. 7); that even if the
God of all, according to his power, came down to
take part with Jesus in earthly life, if the Logos
who in the beginning was with God and was God
came to us, it did not mean that he lost or left his
throne, or that he quitted one place to fill another
which before had not contained him. That in
some of Origen 's expressions there is room for **n

817

REUGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

earthly and human development of Jesus is clear
enough; but these views have nothing in common
with a kenosis theory like that of Thomasius.

Through Paul of Samosata and Lucian, with
some direct influence from Irenaeus, these views
came down to the Antiochian school; and it is
neither unfair nor surprising that Cyril
6. The and Apollinaris object to their the-
Antiochian ology that it goes only as far as
School and uniting man with God, not as far as
TertulUan. God in man (enanthropeais). But
this weakness of the early teaching c n
the Incarnation shows itself not only in Origen aL 1
the Antiochian school. Similar thoughts are m t
with in Athanasius, though already with the codi-
plementary ideas which alone remain in Cyril; and
from the Council of Nicsa a direct road leads
through Marcellus to the dynamic Monarchianism
of Photinus. In the West also, which followed
Antiochian lines down to 553, in spite of the in-
sistence on the single personality, there are clear
enough traces of the idea of a dynamic indwelling
of the Logos in the man Jesus. It is evidently not
worth while to seek echoes of kenotic ideas in Ter-
tullian; if it could be done at all, it could only be
after all danger was past of getting lost in the maze
created by a mixture of '' simple-modalistic "
thoughts, of apologetic conceptions of a theophany,
and of traditions of a dynamic indwelling of the
verbum ( = sapierUia = spirUus) in Christ. The mat-
ter is still more complicated in the case of Hilary,
even after the painstaking labors of Baur, Domer,
Thomasius, and Wirthm tiller. But a minute ex-
amination of the works of that eloquent and deep-
thinking theologian should convince the unpreju-
diced student that his doctrine is as little kenotic,
in the sense of Thomasius, as that of Irenaeus, on
whom he shows a certain dependence.

That in theoretical expositions of the Incarna-
tion which held strongly to the inmiutability of the
Godhead expressions should now and then be used
which give color to kenotic ideas is not to be won-
dered at; and the phenomenon occurs not only in
Hilary, not only in Irenaeus and Ori-
7. Kenotic gen, but also in the two Gregories,
Under- of Nazianzus and of Nyssa. This was
current, natural enough, both because the doc-
trine of the Incarnation rested on the
thought of " God manifest in the flesh," and be-
cause simple souls understood " the Word was
made flesh " for themselves, regardless of the re-
strictions of theologians; and when '* simple-do-
cetic " Wews were ruled out, there was scarcely any-
thing left for them but the kenotic. The spread of
Arianism may possibly be explained by the fact
that without hair-splitting it recognizes its Logos
as the passible subject of the historic person Jesus.
The kenotic undercurrent is partly responsible for
the title ** Mother of God " and for the phrase (very
old in a simple-modalistic sense) ** God crucified."
In pro[x>rtion as the Antiochian school, which dis-
approved of these expressions, was suppressed, the
undercurrent came to the surface; and Apollinaris,
the antithesis of the Antiochian theologians, sought
to give a theological dress to the ideas which it bore
with it. After the condenmation of Apollinarian-

ism, such kenoeis theories as he had framed were
of 0010*86 impossible — ^though it is strange that the
Alexandrian theology won its victory over Nesto-
rianism and its final triumph at the Council of
Chalcedon without showing traces of them. For
if (as was de fide after 553) the hypotUuiB Um logon
took to itself an impersonal hiunan nature, a real
human life of the historic Jesus is unthinkable if
the real subject of this historic person, the Logos,
retained his omniscience and his impassibility.
But so far as it was possible without endangering
the conceptual integrity of the two natures,
theologians combated the undercurrent; and they
were content to guard the formulas which set
the '' mystery of the Incarnation " beyond under-
standing.

In the medieval West, the scholastic theology
spent much formal labor on the doctrine of the In-
carnation, without paying any attention to the
passage in Philippians. That '' the Word of God
was not changed " in the Incarnation
8. The was an accepted axiom; but whether
Problem the finally prevalent formula, that not
Ignored the nature common to the divine Per-
by Scho- sons, but the person of the Word, be-
lasticism. came incarnate, was ever brought into
connection with the Philippian pas-
sage, it is impossible to say. In any case, its dis-
tinction between the nature and the person of the
Word would have no significance for the question
under discussion; and in regard to the kenosis the
medieval (}hurch did not get beyond the early con-
sensus indicated above. The present Roman
Catholic theology is in the same position, and pays
no heed to the question of kenosis.

Nor did Calvinistic theology go beyond the early
consensus, although the use made of the text in
Philippians has given the impression that there was
a special Calvinistic doctrine on the subject. Cal-
vin says (Instihdes II., xiii. 2): "Paul shows in
Phil. ii. 7, that C^hrist, since he was
9. Calvin- God, might have at once manifested
ism not his glory openly to the world, but
Really waived his right and of his own wiU
Kenotic emptied himself, putting on the form
of a servant and, content with that
humble station, suffering his Divinity to be hidden
by a veil of flesh." This kenosis is sometimes de-
scribed in language which seems to imply a real
alteration of the condition of the Logos; but too
much weight must not be laid on these expressions,
the limitations of which may easily be shown by
other more authoritative words, especially the so-
called Extra CalvinisHcum: " Since the Godhead
can not be comprehended and is everywhere pres-
ent, it follows of necessity that it exists outside of
(extra) the human nature which it assumed, but
none the less abides within it and personally united
with it " {Cateckivmy ques. 48); " the Logos united
hiunan nature with himself in such a manner that
he totally inhabited it, and 3ret totally remained
outside of {extra) it, since he is immeasurable and
infinite " (Maresius in Schneckenbuiger, p. 9).
There is really here no self-emptying; the Calvin-
ist theologians said with Augustine that the Logos
'' hid what he was/' and the veil was humanity

Kenoais

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

818

which was capable of containing the Godhead only
in a limited measure.

The question now arises whether the Luther-
an theology supplied the defects of the earlier
teaching on the Incarnation. Luther's own teach-
ing has so many sides that great care is needed to
avoid misrepresenting him. Certain points may be
brought out safely, however. (1) Lu-

10. Lu- ther adhered with equal firmness, dur-
ther's ing his whole public career, to the true

Christol- divinity and the true humanity of the
ogy. one historic person of Christ. (2) He
was never inclined to bring the two
into relation by anything like the theory of Thoma-
sius, and as early as 1518 gave an exegesis of Phil,
ii. 7, which would cut all Scriptural ground from
under such a theory. (3) Phrases reminding us
of Dorner's view are indeed present in Luther's
earlier work; but it is impossible to explain his
Christology by insistence on these. (4) He rather
shaped his Christology from the first, and especially
after the Lord's Supper controversy, along the lines
of a doctrine of the two natures imdcrstood in an
anti-Nestorian sense; and it is indisputable that
his view of the suffering of the Son of God and of
the communication of the divine attributes (in-
cluding omnipresence) to Christ according to his
humanity was a scholastic development of the cofm-
municatio idiomatum as taught in the early Church
(see Ubiquity). (5) But in spite of all Luther's
polemics against the alloisia of Zwingli, it may
fairly be asked whether he always regarded the
communication of the divine attributes as real and
actual. A number of logical difficulties in the way
of this might be collected from his works, and sober
thought must be convinced that the root of his
doctrine was not in the teaching as to the two na-
tures into which his historical position forced it to
grow. (6) It is rather the ultimate datum of his
Christology, that the historic person of Jesus was
and is the God of revelation. The essential feature
of his Christology is really this imderstanding of the
revealing condescension of God, this harking back
to " simple-motialistic " ideas. In connection with
the notion of the dynamic indwelling of God in the
man Jesus, this understanding of the historic per-
sonality of Jesus might have led to a new construc-
tion of Christology — if theologians had not been
bound to the old tradition which constructed from
above downward and to the scheme of the natures.

But since they were, the Lutheran development
could lead to nothing but a scholastic working out
of the idea of the communicalio idiomatum as ex-
tended by Luther beyond the traditional content
of the tenn. Schools differed in the manner of this
working out; but they agreed in denying any real
kenosis of the Logos. Chemnitz and Brenz are at
one not only in saying that in the Incarnation the
Word retained the fulness of his God-

II. Early head, but that this fulness was im-
post- parted to the humanity of Christ at

Lutheran the Incarnation. The only place where

Doctrine, real kenotic ideas are found in the

Lutheran theology of this period is

among the Philippists; but even here they occur in

nothing like the modem sense. When they speak

of the Son of God " hiding " his majesty in our
flesh and blood, or of an '' exaltation according to
both natures," they are merely Crypto-Calvinists.
It is against them that the condemnation of the
Formula of Concord is pronounced: " We reject
the opinion that to Christ according to his divine
nature all power in heaven and in earth was re-
stored at his resurrection and ascension, as though
he had laid aside and stripped himself of that
power, even according to his divinity, while he was
in the state of humiliation." The condemnation
goes further than was necessary at the time, for
neither Philippists nor Calvimsts taught a '' trans-
mutation of the divine nature "; the important
point is that it goes far enough to reach the modem
kenotics.

For the Giessen-Tiibingen controversy see Chris-
tology, IX.

The official or ecclesiastical theology of all ages,
then, has rejected the idea of kenosis as now held.
Just as in the early Church it appeared only in in-
ferior undercurrents and with the " heretical "
Apollinarists, so it was in the period

12. Sum- from the sixteenth to the eighteenth
mary. century. Echoes of kenotic thought
appear especially in Schwenckfeld, and
an indubitable kenosis theory in Menno Simons;
but in anything like official Protestant theology
they occur first in the reckless speculation of Zin-
zendorf — although here there is no consistently
worked out theory, and the kenotic ideas are crossed
by regard paid to the oflficial doctrine, including
the communicatio idiomatum. But if not the men-
tal ancestors, at least the forerunners of the modem
kenotics are (with the nameless persons condemned
by Hilary and Cyril and with the Apollinarists)
Menno Simons and Zinzendorf . The kenosis theory
is an attempt, made at the cost of breaking with
certain undeniably ecclesiastical traditions, to save
what has been characteristic of the official Chris-
tology of 1,700 years — ^a doctrine of the Incar-
nation constructed from above downward. Were
it tenable in itself, modem theology would have
no ground to reproach it with not being tradi-
tional. But its weaknesses, nay, its impossibili-
ties, have been frequently indicated, and there
is not space here to go into them again. It might
be pointed out that the theory proceeds from views
of the Trinity which are not far from an intoler-
able tritheism. If the Logos can become man in
such a manner that '' outside of the human form
assumed by him, he has not reserved to himself a
special existence, a special consciousness, a special
sphere of operation or possession of power " (Tho-
masius, ii. 201), little is left of the principle of the
Athanasian Creed, " not three Gods, but One God."
The justification of the theory, so far as it has one,
lies in the recognition, on the negative side, of the
insufficiency of the old Christology, and on the
positive in the necessity of leaving room for a real,
tme human life of Jesus. But all theories men
can make of the Incarnation of God are temerarious
at best; and the most temerarious of all, because
it assumes to describe the inmost secrets of the
Word as he becomes man, is the modem doctrine
of kenosis. (F. Loops.)

819

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Ktnoftis

English and American theories of kenosis are
scarcely more than reproductions of German spec-
ulation on the same subject, influenced by the
same motives and exhibiting the same general
types (see Christolggy). The conditions which
determined this movement in Christology were —
the pantheistic philosophy of Hegel and Schleier-
machcr which broke down the division wall be-
tween God and man and introduced a
13. Eng- universal principle of identity; a hu-
lish and manitarian spirit which directed at-
American tent ion to the nature, the ideals, and
Treatment the possibilities of man; a new inter-
est in the historical Christ, fostered
and made fruitful by a more adequate study of
Christ and his times, especially by means of the
synoptic Gospels; and a better method of psychol-
ogy by which the human consciousness is inter-
preted and a truer estimate of personality reached.
The three types of kenosis represented by English
and American writers are: (1) During the whole
{:>eriod of the Incarnation, although the essential
deity existed necessarily at all times and in all
places, yet his conscious and efficient deity was
wholly quiescent; he became very man. Only at
the resurrection did he reassume the full power of
deity — a condition insoluble to the reason (H.
Crosby, The True Humanity of Chriatf New York,
1880). (2) The Son of God voluntarily surren-
dered or abandoned certain natural prerogatives
or external attributes of God, while he yet re-
tained the essential, ethical properties of truth,
holiness, and love (C. Gore, The Incarnation, New
York. 1S91, p. 172; A. M. Fairbairn, The Place
of Christ in Modem Thought, New York, 1893, p.
470). (3) On the basis of an original kinship of
God and man, in the incarnation by self-limitation
God has become man (W. N. Clarke, An Outline of
Christian Theology, New York, 1898, pp. 291-293;
II. Viin Dyke, The Gospel for an Age of Doubt:
The Human Life of God, New York, 1897, pp.
123-167). Two explanations of this alleged inner
chiinge of the Logos in the Incarnation are given.
One Is the capacity of consciousness to retire a
portion of its riches into the region of the sub-
conscious so that for the time they become as if
they were not (R. H. Ilutton, Essays Theological
and Literary, London, 1871, pp. 259-260). The
other suggestion is derived from the assumption of
a self-limitation of God in the creative action and
with reference to future choices and deeds of moral
IxMugs: and the Incarnation is a further exhibition
of the principle by which God governs himself in
relation to the world (D. W. Simon, Reconciliation
through Incarnation, Edinburgh, 1898). There is
at present a strong tendency to seek a solution of
the problems raisetl by the personal life of Christ
by the ethical, rather than by the metaphysical,
path. C. A. B.

BiBLiooRAPnT: The history of the subject is necessarily
dealt with in the treatises on the history of doctrine and
on dogmatics, especially in the sections on Christology.
Consult further: F. C. Baur, Die chrUtliehe Lehre von der
Drcieinigkeit und M enB<^u>erduno Oottea, 3 vols., TObin-
icen, 1841-43: M, Schncckenburger, Zur kirchHcKen Theo-
hgie. Die orthodoxe I^hre vom doppelten Stande, Pfon-
hcim, 1848; I. A. Domer, Enlwickelungageschichte der Lehre

van der Perton ChriBti, 2 vob.. Stattgart, 1846-68. Eng.
transL. Hitl.cfthe Devdojmeni aftke Doctrine ef the Pereon
cfChriat, 6 vols.. Edinburgh. 1861-63; idem, in JahrbQeher
far deuteche Theolooie, i (1866). 361-416; A. Tholuok. Die-
puUUio ehriatolooica de . , . PhiL u. 6-0, HaUe. 1848;
G. ThomasiuB, ChrieH Pereon und Werk, vol. ii., Erlangen,
1867; H. Sohults. Die Lehre von der Oottheit Ckrieti,
Gotha. 1881; F. J. Hall. The KenoHc Theory Coneidered,
toith Particular Reference to tie Anglican Forme, London.
1898; O. Benaow. Die Lehre von der Kenoee, Leipdo. 1903;
R. C. Morgan, Ood'e Setf-emptied Servant, ib. 1906; Har-
nack. Doffma, iv. 140. 161-162. vil 244; DCO, I 927-
928; and the commentaries on Philippians.

KBNRICE; FRANCIS PATRICK: Archbishop
of Baltimore; b. at Dublin, Ireland, Dec. 3, 1797;
d. at Baltimore July 8, 1863. He received his the-
ological training in the College of the Propaganda,
Rome, and came to America in 1821. He was the
head of the Roman Catholic seminary at Bards-
town, Ky., 1821-30, coadjutor bishop of Philadel-
phia 1830-42, bishop of Philadelphia 1842-51, and
archbishop of Baltimore 1851-63. As apostolic
delegate he presided over the first plenary coun-
cil of the United States, convened at Baltimore
May, 1852 (see Baltimore Counciub); and in 1850
the pope conferred upon him and his successorB
the '' primacy of honor " over other American arch-
bishops. Besides polemical works, he wrote Theo-
logia dogmatica (4 vols., Philadelphia, 1839-40;
2d ed., 3 vols., Mechlin, 1858), and Theologia mar'
alis (3 vols., 1841-43; 2d ed., Mechlin, 1859).
These volumes constitute a complete body of di-
vinity, and are considered classical in the Roman
Catholic seminaries of America. He also pub-
lished an annotated and revised translation of the
entire New Testament (2 vols., New York, 1849-
1851), and of the Psalms, Book of Wisdom, and Can-
ticles (Baltimore, 1857), Job and the Prophets
(1859), the Pentateuch (1860), and historical books
of the Old Testament (1862).

Dibuoorapht: J. J. O'Shea. The Tw> Kenrieke, Philadel-
phia. 1904.

KBNRICK, PETER RICHARD: Archbishop of
St. Louis, brother of Francis Patrick Kenrick (q.v.);
b. at Dublin, Ireland, Aug. 17, 1806; d. at St.
Louis Mar. 4, 1896. He studied theology at May-
nooth. came to Philadelphia in 1833, took chaige
of The Catholic Herald, and became pastor of the
cathedral parish of Philadelphia in 1835. After
having been for a time president of the diocesan
seminary he became vicar-general about 1837. He
was coadjutor bishop of St. Louis 1841-43, bishop
1843-47, and archbishop 1847-96. In the Vatican
Council he opposed the dogma of papal infallibility,
but accepted it when it was promulgated. Be-
sides a number of translations, he published The
Holy House of Loretio (Philadelphia, n.d.), and The
Validity of Anglican Ordinations Examined (1841).

Diblioorapht: J. J. CShea. The Two Kenrieke, Phikdel-
phia. 1904.

KENT, CHARLES FOSTER: Congregational-
ist; b. at Pahnyra, N. Y., Aug. 13, 1867. He was
educated at Yale (B.A., 1889; Ph.D., 1891), Yak
Divinity School (B.D., 1891), and the University of
Berlin (1891-92). After being instructor in the
University of Chicago( 1893-95) and professor of
Biblical literature and history in Brown University
(1895-1901), he becaote, in 1901, Woolsey professor

Kentiffom

Keswiok Oonvention

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

8dO

of Biblical literature in Yale University. Be-
sides his work as editor of The Historical Series for
Bible Students (in collaboration with F. K. Sanders;
New York, 1899 sqq.), he has published: The Mes-
sages of the Bible (1899 sqq.); Library of Ancient
Inscriptions (in collaboration with F. K. Sanders;
1904 sqq.), and The Student's Old Testament (1904
sqq.), he has written Outlines of Hebrew History
(Providence, R. I., 1895); The Wise Men of Ancient
Israel and their Proverbs (New York, 1895); A
History of the Hebrew People: The United Kingdom
(1896) ; A History of the Hebrew People: The Divided
Kingdom (1897); A History of the Jewish People:
The Babylonian^ Persian, and Greek Periods (1899);
The Messages of the Earlier Prophets (1899); The
Messages of the Later Prophets (1900) ; The Messages
of Israel's Lawgivers (1902) ; Narratives of the Begin-
nings of Hebrew History (1904); Israel's Historical
and Biographical Narratives (1905); Origin and Per-
manent Value of the Old Testament (1906); Israel's
Laws and Legal Precedents (1907); Founders and
Rulers of United Israel from . . . Moses to the Divi-
sion of the Hebrew Kingdom (1908) ; Heroes and Crises
of Early Hebrew History (1908); and Kings and
Prophets of Israel and Judah (1909).

EENTI6ERN, ken'ti-gem, SAINT: known also
as St Mungo: The apostle of the Strathdyde
Britons and patron of the city of Glasgow; accord-
ing to his twelfth-century lives, b. at Culross, prob-
ably in 518; d. in Glasgow Jan. 13, 603. His birth
is surrounded with a halo of mystery, and his
mother may have been a nun. He was trained in
a monastic school at Culross, and in early manhood
settled at Cathures (Glasgow) and became bishop
of those who had remained Christian from the time
of Ninian. Because of attacks from the heathen he
went to Wales and foimded there the monastery of
Llanelwy (St. Asaph). In 573 the Christians gained
the supremacy in the north and Kentigern returned.
He reclaimed the Picts of Galloway and the Strath-
dyde Britons who had lapsed into paganism, visited
the land northeast of the Forth, and is even said to
have sent missionaries to the islands, to Norway,
and to Iceland. His life was written by Jooelin of
Fumess, c. 1180.

Bibliography: Live» of St. Ninian and St. Kentigern, ed.
A. P. Forbes, Edinburgh, 1874; idem, Kalendare of Scot-
tieh Saints, pp. 362-373, Edinburgh, 1872; T. MacLauch-
lan, The Early Scotch Church, chap, x., Edinburgh, 1865;
DNB, xxxi. 26-27; DCB, 603-606 (excellent for aources).

KEPHART, kepOiOrt, ISAIAH LAFAYETTE:
United Brethren; b. in Decatur Township, Pa.,
Dec. 10, 1832. He studied at Otterbein Univer-
sity, Westerville, O. (1857-61), was licensed to
preach in 1859, joined the Allegheny Conference
of his denomination, and was at East Salem, Pa.,
1861-63. He was chaplain of the Twenty-First
Pennsylvania Cavalry throughout the war, and
preached at HummeLstown, Pa., 1865-67. He be-
came principal of the public schools of Jefferson,
la., 1867; superintendent of schools in Greene
County, la., 1869; professor of natural science in
Western College, la., 1871, actuary of the United
Brethren Aid Society of Pennsylvania, residing at
Lebanon, Pa., 1876; professor of mental and moral

science in San Joaquin Valley College, GrL, 1883;
president of Westfield College, Westfield, Hi., 1885;
editor of The Religious Tdescope, the official oigan
of his denomination, 1889. Bte has written: Biog-
raphy of Rev, Jacob S. Kessler (Dayton, O., 1867);
Evils of the Use of Tobacco by Christians (1882);
The Holy Spirit in the Devout Life (1904) ; and Life
of Ezekid Boring Kephart (1908).

KBRI AND KBTHIBH: Words (in the form of
Aramaic participles) employed by the Maaoretes
(see Masorah) to distinguish the pointed or vow-
eled from the impointed text of the Old Testament.
Kethibhf " written " or " what is written," desig-
nates the original form of the text of the Old Tes-
tament in which the words were represented by
their consonants alone; keri, " read " or " what is
to be read," refers to the completely vocalized text.
Of the kethibh it is necessary to say only that it
was intended to represent the form in which all the
Hebrew Scriptures were written (without vowels)
by their authors, and that after it was adopted as
the authorized text, no alteration in the words or
letters was ever permitted. The keri serves two
main purposes. It makes the exact reading or
pronimciation of the words perfectly clear by in-
serting their vowels; and it is used to correct the
possible errors which, perhaps from the very be-
ginning, were observed in the kethibh or traditional
text. Since the second purpose could not be at-
tained by introducing notes into the body of the
text, the diveigences of the keri from the kethibh
were pointed out in the maigin by characteristic
methods and devices which may be observed in
any current copy of the Hebrew Bible. As a help
to the imderstanding of them, several modem edi-
tions contain a useful Masoretic clavis.

Some common and natural misconceptions may
be alluded to. The keri, when cited in the maigin,
is not always intended as a substitute for the ke-
thibh or official reading. It often merely records a
traditional variant reading. Nor, on the other
hand, was the kethibh made an imchangeable text
because it was thought to be infallible. The official
text (authorized not long after the destruction of
Jerusalem, 70 a.d.), was chosen not because it was
perfect but because it was thought to be the most
correct, and because a single archetype was (per-
haps wisely) deemed necessary. This is proved
by the fact that even the accidental peculiarities
of the copy thus chosen were retained and still re-
main. Again, the Masoretes or Jewish editors did
not establish or even seek to influence the keri or
the traditional readings as marked by the vowel
signs. The received form of words goes back to
times several centuries before the Masoretes began
their work. It was perpetuated chiefly by the
synagogal services (see Synagogue) ; and, of course,
without the pronunciation of the words the kethibh
itself could not have been preserved.

J. F. McCURDT.

Bibuoorapht: C. D. Ginsburg, Introduction to Ae Afcw-
wretico^ritical Edition of the Hebrew Bible, Londozi,
1807; F. Q. Kenyon. Our Bible and the Ancient MSS., ib,
1896; T. H. Weir. A Short Hiat. of the Hebrew Text of ths
O. T., ib. 1800. Much of the literature in the bibliography
under Bible Text, I., contains information on the subject.

821

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

KentiMm

Xeswlok OonTeation

KERN, JOHN ADAM: Methodist Episcopal,
South; b. near Winchester, Va., Apr. 23, 1846.
He studied at the University of Virginia 1868-70,
having already entered the ministry of his denom-
ination in 1864. For twenty-one years he was en-
gaged in pastoral work in the Baltimore Confer-
ence. From 1886 to 1893 he was professor of
moral philosophy in Randolph-Macon College, of
which he became vice-president in 1893 and presi-
dent in 1897. Since 1899 he has been professor of
practical theology in Vanderbilt University, Nash-
ville, Tenn. He has been elected four times to the
General Conference of his denomination, and in
theology is Evangelical, and favorable to all rever-
ent and scholarly study of the Scriptures and devel-
opment of Christian doctrine. He has written The
Ministry to the Congregation (Nashville, Tenn.,
1897); The Way of the Preacher (1902); The Idea of
the Church (1906); and The Listening Heart (1908).

KBRO: A monk said to have lived in the mon-
astery of St. Gall during the rule of Abbot Othmar
(720-759) and formerly supposed to have been the
author of the Old High German interlinear version
of the Benedictine rule and the " Keronian glosses.''
This tradition, however, originated with Jodocus
Metzler (d. 1639), and owes its currency chiefly to
Melchior Goldast (d. 1635). Other works were also
attributed to Kero, probably on the basis of the
name Kero or Kerolt written at the end of a St.
Gall manuscript which was burned in 1768. There
was actually a Kero at this monastery in the latter
part of the eighth century, but he can not have
been the author of the translation of the Benedic-
tine rule prepared shortly after 802 at the com-
mand of Charlemagne, for this version, uncouth,
corrupt, and grossly unintelligent, was the work of
several hands. The Keronian glosses, moreover,
are an extract from an Old High German interlinear
translation of a Latin dictionary, the version ap-
parently originating at Freising about 740.

(E. Steinmetkr.)

Diblioorapht: On Kero consult: B. Pes, Theaattrut anec-
dotorum novisfimuB, i. 3, p. 586. Augsburg, 1721; W.
Soberer , in ZeiUekrift fOr deuUthe* AUerium^ zviiL 145-
149; KL, vii. 393. On tbe Benedictine rule, P. Piper.
Naehtr&ge tur dUem detUaeken Litteratur, pp. 22-162, Stutt-
gart, 1898; on the glosses, R. KOgel, Ueber dot Kero-
nUche Olouar, Halle, 1879.

KESSLER, JOHANN (JOHANNES CHESSELIUS,
or AHENARIUS): Reformer and chronicler of
St. Gall; b. at St. Gall, Switzerland, 1502 (1503?);
d. there Feb. 24, 1574. He studied theology at
Basel, and in 1522, attracted by Luther's fame,
went to Wittenberg, where he was fully won for the
Reformation. On his return to St. Gall in 1523 he
abandoned the idea of taking orders, and became
a saddler. Nevertheless, in 1524 he began to
preach and hold meetings in private houses, and
the impression he made was so strong that the mag-
istrates became alarmed and interfered. In 1525
he resumed his ministerial work, and in 1536 he
became, with the consent of the coimcil, the regular
preacher to the Evangelical congregation of St.
Margaret. Vadian introduced him into the circle
of his friends, and the council elected him to vari-
ous positions. In 1537 he became teacher of an-
VI.-21

cient languages at the gymnasium, and in 1542 reg-
ular pastor of St. Gall. On the death of Vadian
in 1551 it became the task of Kessler to ooQtinue
the Reformation. He was a careful observer and
made use of his leisure hours to write a chroniele
on the persons and events of his time, which he
entitled Sabbala (ed. Ernst Gdtzinger, in MiUeUr
ungen zur vaUrldndischen Oeschichte, v.-x., St. Gall,
1866-68). It is one of the best and most fruitful
sources for the history of the Swiss Reformation
from 1519 to 1539, and for the history of the inner
life of the time. (Emil EaufO

Dibuoorapht: Sources are bis own letters, preaenred at
St. Gall and his writings. A new ed. of tbe Sabbaia, with
notes and biography, was published by E. £^ and R.
Sohooh, St. Gall. 1902. Consult also: J. J. Bemet,
Johann KettUr, ib. 1826; Sohaff, Chr%$iian Churek, yL
385. Yil 127; S. M. Jaokson. Hvldrmdi ZvfingU, New York,
1903.

KESWICK CONVENTION: A summer leligiouB
reunion, lasting one week, which has been held
annually at Keswick (24 m. s.s.w. of Carlisle), Eng-
land, since 1875, chiefly ** for the promotion of
practical holiness '' by means of prayer, diseuasicm,
and personal intercourse. It may be said to have
had its origin in the general revival that swept over
England in the early seventies (Moody and Sankey,
and others). The first meeting was held at Broad-
lands, near Romsey, July 17-23, 1874, followed by
a convention at Oxford Aug. 29 to Sept. 7, 1874,
and one at Brighton May 29 to Jime 7, 1875. At
the Brighton convention Canon Harford-Battersby,
vicar of St. John's, Keswick, suggested a conven-
tion at Keswick, to be held the following July oh
the grounds of his own vicarage. Since then the
convention has met annually at Keswick, the last
week in July, and year by year it has grown in
numbers and influence. The meetings are held in
a laige tent and are attended by several thousand
people, including representatives from foreign
countries. The services are notable for their spir-
itual character, for the prominence given to silent
prayer, and for their apostolic simplicity, music
and all else being subordinated to the one object
— the glory of God through the promotion of truth
and holiness. Since the Holy Spirit is recogniied
as the leader of all meetings, there has never been
any formal election of a chairman. During his
lifetime Canon Harford-Battersby presided over
the convention. After his death the chairmanship
passed by general consent to Mr. Henry Bowker,
and, after him, to Mr. Robert Wilson. The Kes-
wick movement is distinctly Ehrangelical in charac-
ter, and is supported chiefly by the Evangelical
branch of the Church of England. Keswick stands
for no new school of theological thought. The
Keswick speakers and teachers, some flfty in num-
ber, are conservative in spirit, clinging to old truths
and avoiding new and strange doctrines. With-
out exception they hold to the absolute plenary
inspiration of the Holy Scriptures in every part.
To them the Bible is the final court of appeal in
matters both of faith and duty. In the Keswick
teaching stress is laid upon the infilling of the
Spirit, and upon the power of faith to claim prom-
ised blessings. The convention takes an active
interest in missions and maintains a number of

Kethe ^ ^

Keys, Power of the

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

888

missionaries in foreign fields. The literature of
the convention includes the Life of Faith (Lon-
don, 1879 sqqOf the weekly organ of Keswick
teaching, The Keswick Week (an annual volume
containing addresses delivered at the convention),
and the Keswick Library (London, 1894 sqq.)i a
series of religious booklets.

Bibuooraphy: The Kemnek Convention; ite Meeeage^ «te
Method, and ite Men, ed. C. F. Harford, London, 1907;
A. T. Pieraon, The Keeiriek Movement, New York, 1907;
£. H. Hopkins, The Story of Keawiek, London, 1892;
and T. D. Harford-Dattenby, Menwira of the Keewiek Con^
vention, ib., 1890.

KETHE, WILLIAM. See Sternhold, Thoiias.

KBTHUBHIM. See Canon of Scripture, I., 4,
§2.

KBTTELER, ket'te-ler, WILHELM EMANUEL,
BARON VON: Bishop of Mainz; b. at Mttnster
Dec. 25, 1811; d. at Buighausen (58 m. e. of Mu-
nich), Upper Bavaria, July 13, 1877. He was ed-
ucated by the Jesuits at Brieg, Switzerland. He
studied law at G6ttingen, Berlin, Munich, and
Heidelberg, and was R^erendar at Mttnster 1834-
1838. After studying theology at Munich and Mttn-
ster he received ordination in 1844, became pastor
at Hopsten, Westphalia, in 1846, and provost of
the Hedwigskirche, Berlin, in 1849. He was ap-
pointed bishop of Mainz in 1850. To restore the
Church of Rome to its old power and splendor was
the great idea of his life; and, as the acknowledged
leader of the Ultramontane party in Germany, he
fought for this idea with as much adroitness as au-
dacity. At the Council of the Vatican he belonged
to the minority, but, as soon as the dogma of papal
infallibility was promulgated, he accepted it and
published it in his diocese. Well aware of the dan-
ger to the realization of his ideas which arose from
the establishment of a German empire under the
Protestant house of HohenzoUem, he resisted the
consolidation of the new organization in every pos-
sible way. He opposed vigorously Bismarck's
policy of placing the Roman CathoUc Church, in
its relation to the State, on an equality with other
social institutions, and advocated a policy of re-
sistance to state legislation involving ecclesiastical
affairs. His numerous writings include, Freiheit,
Avtoritdt, und Kirche (Mainz, 1862); Die wahren
Orundlagen dee religidsen Friedena (1868); Das aU-
gemeine KomU und seine BedetUung fUr unsere Zeit
(1869); Die Kathdiken im deutschen Reich (1873);
Der KtUiurkampf (1874); and Predigten (2 vols.,

1878).

Bibuoorapht: O. PfOlf, Biachof von Ketteler, 3 vols.,
Mains, 1809; F. GreiCFenrath, Biechof . . . von Ketteler
und die deutedie Soeiabrefonn, Frankfort, 1893; J. Wen-
sel, W. E. . . . von Ketteler, der Lehrer , . . der katho'
li»<A^9ocialen Beetr^mngen, Berlin, 1895; £. de Girard,
Ketteler et la queation ouvriire, Berne, 1896; KL, vi. 402-
406.

EETTENBACH, ket'ten-bOH, HEINRICH VON:

German Franciscan monk. The place and year of
his birth and death, as well as his ancestry, are im-
known, and there seems to be little foundation for
the common belief that he was a member of a
noble family, although from the style of his writings
it might be presumed that he was of Franconian
origin. In the latter part of 1521 he was in the

Franciscan monastery at Ulm, where he displayed
great zeal as a preacher and denoimoed the idleness
and corruption of the clergy with fearless satire.
In a controversy with the Dominican preacher
Peter Nestler he denied that the Church was em-
powered to amend or supplement the sanctions of
the Scriptures, declaring that it was based on an
unalterable Gospel, ridiculing the doctrine of papal
infallibility, and praising Luther, Melanchthon and
Karlstadt as soldiers in the divine cause. In his
sermon Von der chrisUichen Kirche (Ulm 15227),
delivered in the summer of 1522, he expounded the
doctrine of a Church consisting of the community
of the elect, living in common possession of service,
chattels, joys and sorrows, and founded upon Christ
and not upon Peter, whose church was rather the
synagogue of Satan, the imposture of the western
world, as Mohammed's is of the East. Luther is
hailed as the prophet of the times, laboring in the
spirit of Elijah and with the wisdom of Daniel. In
spite of the Edict of Worms and the opposition of
the bishop of Constance, Kettenbach remained at
his post till late in 1522, supported by the good-will
of a large part of the population. At the end of
the year, however, he was obliged to make a pre-
cipitate retreat from the city. It is not definitely
known where he went, although, from his active
participation in Franz von Sickingen's expedition
against Treves, it might be inferred that that region
was his immediate place of refuge. The imprint
of his later works would point to a residence in
Saxony.

The character of Kettenbach's works reveals the
growth of an opposition to the Roman Catholic
Chureh which found vent in exhortations to the
clergy and the cities to take up arms for the Re-
formed religion. The Vergleichung des AUerheUig'
sten Herm und VaterSf des Papsts, gegen den seUsam
fremden Oast in der Christenheit, genannt Jesus
(Augsburg, 1523) is a succession of sharply drawn
antitheses between the doctrines of the Gospel and
those of the Church. In his Practicay praktiziert
aus der Bibel avfvid zukUnfHge Jdhre (1523), Ket-
tenbach addressed himself to the inhabitants of the
imperial towns, urging them to embrace the cause of
the lower nobility against the princes, and defend-
ing Luther against the charge of having brought
disorder into the country. The magistracy of Nu-
remberg prohibited and confiscated the Practica on
Sept. 15, 1523, because of its attack on the pope
and the emperor. After the death of Franz von
Siddngen in May, 1523, Kettenbach published the
Vermahnung Framens von Sickingen an sein Heer,
in which the attempt was made to vindicate him
from the accusation of having brought civil war
into Germany. There is no certain proof, how-
ever, that Kettenbach himself was the author. The
last of his important writings was Eine neue Apologia
und Veraniworiung Martini Luthers wider der Pa>-
pisten Mordgeschrei (Wittenberg, 1523), in which
the Reformer is cleared of such charges as those of
opposing the sacraments, minimizing the import-
tanoe of confession, attacking the mass, and intro-
ducing disorder into the Church. After such in-
tense literary activity during 1522 and 1523 it is
surprising to find him silent during the following

828

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

S«9^ Pofw«r of tlM

year. He is known to have preached a sermon
on Matt. vii. 15 in the summer of 1525, but this is
the last trace of his existence. It has been con-
jectured that he may have perished in the Peas-
ants' Revolt or that he may have been identical
with the Franciscan Heinrich Spelt who was still
active in 1526. (G. Kawerau.)

Bibliography: G. Veeaenmeyer, Beytr&ge tur OeadUdUe der
Litteratur und Reformation, pp. 79-117, Ulm« 1792; ADB,
XV. 676-678.

EETTLER, GOTTHARD: Last master of the
Teutonic order in Livonia and first duke of Cour-
land; b. in Westphalia 1511; d. at Mitau (25 m.
s.w. of Riga), Courland, May 17, 1587. He was of
prominent family and was educated for the minis-
try. When about twenty years old, he went to
Livonia and entered the service of the Teutonic
order, in which he won high respect by his prudence
and energy. The Reformation had already found
its way into Livonia, and Kettler did not oppose
its progress; he was strengthened and confirmed in
Evangelical convictions by repeated sojourns at Wit-
tenberg (1553 and 1556), where he became person-
ally acquainted with Melanchthon. To strengthen
his order against attacks from Russia, he worked
eagerly for an alliance with Poland, and became
the foremost representative of the Polish party in
Livonia. He soon overcame the opposition of Wil-
helm FOrstenberg, the master of the order in
Livonia, and in 1559 succeeded to his position.
Kettler's main efforts were now directed toward a
secularization of the order in Livonia after the
model of Prussia (see Teutonic Order). The
king of Poland would assist Livonia against the
Russians only on condition of its entire submission
to Polish rule, and under the force of circumstances
Kettler had to comply with this demand; he be-
came merely feudal duke of Courland (1562). As
such he devoted his whole time and energy to the
reform and regulation of ecclesiastical conditions
in his state and achieved remarkable results.
Church affairs in Courland were in a very entangled
and neglected condition. The people had adopted
Christianity only in an external form, and heathen

traditions and superstitions still prevailed among
them. The introduction of the Reformation had
effected no essential change. A lack of preachers
and churches obstructed all efforts toward a thor-
ough-going reform. In 1567 the state assembly
decreed at Kettler's instance the erection of seventy
new churches. Church visitations were instituted,
and Superintendent Alexander Eichhom was com-
missioned to draw up a church order which was ap-
proved by the duke in 1570 and printed in 1572.
The first part, the '' Church Reformation," relates
chiefly to the organization of the Church, to the
foundation and maintenance of churches, schools
and charitable institutions, and regulates the ap-
pointment of preachers and their visitation by the
superintendent. In the second part, the " Church
Visitation," the confessional writings of the Lu-
theran Church are treated as the norm of the Church,
beside the Bible and the ecumenical symbols. Then
follow the precepts for pastors in regard to their
practical dealings with the congregation. The at-
tendance at church was strictly controlled by the
elders; fines and other punishments were to be
imposed, and culprits to be delivered to the secu-
lar authorities if they did not change their lives.
Chiurch government was exercised in the begimiing
by the superintendents and visitators; a consistory
was instituted later. (F. HosRSCHELMANNt.)

DiBLfooRAPHT: 8. Heiuung, Beri^ wie m in Relioion9-
taehen im . . . KvrlandoehaUen vorden^ Rostook, 1689; T.
Kallmeyer. Dis BegrHndung dtr 0vanQ9iiadirhUKmi»di»n
KireheinKwIand, Rica. 1861; T. Schinmann. inHMor^
iaehe DameUungen und onhivaligdyB Studien, p. 91, Ham-
burg-Mitau. 1886.

KEVIN, SAINT. See Ccbmgen, Saint.

KEY, JOSEPH STAUNTON: Bishop of the
Methodist Episcopal Church, South; b. at La
Grange, La., July 18, 1829. He was educated at
Emory College, Oxford, Ga. (A.B., 1848), and was
a pastor or presiding elder from the year of his
graduation until 1886, when he was elected a bishqp
of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South. In his
official capacity he has made repeated toun of
Mexico, China, Japan, and Korea.

KEYS, POWER OF THE.

T. Biblical Sources of the Doctrine.
II. The Patristic Period.

Sub-Apo8tolic Views (f 1).

Extension of the Power (f 2).

Origen, Cyprian, and Augustine
(§3).

Sins Controlled by the Power (i 4).

Treatment of the Lapsed and Pen-
itent (S 5).

The Power and the Priesthood (f 6).

lU The Middle Ages and the Roman

Cathotic Doctoine.
Penance (I 1).
The Priest as Judge or as Mediator

(12).
Combination of the Two Views

(18).
The Twofold Key and Thomas

Aquinas (f 4).
The Tridentine Decree (i 5).

L Biblical Sources of the Doctrine: The " power
of the keys '' b a symbolical term which in its
more extended sense denotes the whole range of
the power of the Church, while in its restricted
usage it connotes simply the power of granting
or refusing absolution. The concept goes back to
Christ's words to Peter (Matt. xvi. 19), " I will
give unto thee the keys of the kingdom of
heaven." This is doubtless based on " the key of
the house of David " mentioned in Isa. xxii. 22,

T1i0 Problem of Priastly Famb&Hy

(16).
T1i0 Keys in the Greek Church (1 7).
IV. Tlie Reformation and the Protee-

taat Doctrine.
Luther and Melanchthon (| 1).
The Calvinistio Theory (| 2).
Lutheran Attacks on the I>ootiiDe

(18).
Theological Aspect of the DoeCrine

(I 4).

and quoted in Rev. iii. 7, and implies that the
steward of the house received the keys so that no
one might open the door he had shut, or shut the
door he had opened. This metaphor is not carried
through in Matt. xvi. 19, but passages like llatt.
xxiii. 13 and Luke xi. 52 prove that '* binding and
loosing " must have been related to the concept of
admission and exclusion. In Matt, xviii. 18, where
the power of binding and loosing is conferred upon
all disciples as the representatives of the Church,

Keys, Power of the

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

884

the oonnection of the passage leaves no doubt that
it refers to the exclusion of sinners from or the ad-
mission of penitents to the congregation. Nor can
the similar words in Matt. xvi. 19 have an essentially
different meaning, so that the concept of the early
Church, which is shared by the Greek exegetes,
can not be wrong in interpreting the passage by
John XX. 23. It is especially to be emphasized that
in both passages the disciples receive no conunis-
sion of a new function, but are merely assured that
the exercise of their former function is valid before
God. It is still more desirable to interpret the
passage in Matthew from the whole connection of
the Sjmoptic Gospels, and it thus becomes plain
that in consideration of such passages as Matt,
xxiii. 8-10 we can not ascribe any legislative power
to the disciples. The sense of the " power of the
keys " seems to be, therefore, that Jesus gave Peter,
or his disciples, or the body of Christian believers,
authority to receive into the kingdom of heaven by
forgiveness of sins or to exclude from it by refusal
of pardon, thus forgiving sin (especially on earth)
in the name of God and with efficacy with God in
the same way as the Son of Man had hitherto ex-
ercised it (cf. Matt. ix. 6).

n. The Patristic Period: In the patristic period
the " power of the keys " was held to connote
strictly the remission (or retention) of sins, and
not l^;al enactments. This is clear from Tertul-
lian (Scorpiace, x.; De pudidbia, xxi.), from the
letter of the churches at Lyons and Vienne (Euse-
bius, Hist, ecd., V., ii. 5), from Cyprian (EpisL,
Ixxiii. 7, Ixxv. 16), and from other sources (Am-
brose, De pcBmterUiaf i. 2; Augustine, Contra ad-
venarium legia et prophetarum, 136; Faustus of
Riez, Sermo vi.; Leo the Great, Sermo xlix. 3;
Apostolic Constitutions, ii. 11 sqq.). It would be
erroneous to suppose that this was a
I. Sub- narrowing of the concept. The de-

Apostolic velopment was rather in the opposite
Views, direction, for when the " power of the
keys'' came to be interpreted as a ju-
dicial act, especially in relation to the lapsed, the
fiutherance of the juristic aspect of the concept was
easy. Thus the pseudo-Clementine Homilies (iii.
72; cf. Clement, Epist. ad Jacobunij 2) see in the
** power to bind and loose " the functions of the
episcopal office.

While in the primitive Church the " power of the
keys " may be regarded, roughly speaking, as
ascribed to the Church, or to its officials, or to those
endowed with the Spirit, in the sense that all three
concurred, nevertheless the official element grad-
ually superseded the other two. In this early
period the " power of the keys " was indubitably
possessed by the Church as a whole (cf. Tertullian,
Scorpiacef 10; Cyprian, EpisL, Ixxv. 16), the
Church consisting of the bishops, the clergy, and
the body of the faithful (Cyprian (Epist., xxxiii. 1).
Cyprian is the first to permit to the clergy what he
ascribes to the Church, since ** the Church is founded
upon the bishops, and every act of the Church is
controlled by these same rulers ** (Epist,, xxxiii. 1),
although he still maintains that " remission of sins
can not be given by those who, it is certain, have
not the Holy Spirit " (Epist., bdx. 11). Elsewhere

the idea is found (cf. Eusebius, Hist, ecd,, \,, xviii.
7; Cyprian, Epist,, xviii. 1, xix. 2, xxxiiL 2; De
lapeis, 19) that apostles and prophets, as well as
martyrs, have the right to forgive sins as posses-
sing the Holy Ghost. It is not clear, however, that
they exercised this function without

2. Exten- the cooperation of the other agents al-

sion of the ready mentioned, nor does Cyprian
Power, grant the martyrs more than interces-
sionary powers, the remission itself be-
ing granted by the priest (De lapsis, 16, 29; Epist,,
Iv. 24) who is "judge in the place of Christ " (Epist,,
lix. 7). But these three classes were never held to
be the sole decisive possessors of the " power of the
keys," and Montanistic expressions contain indubi-
table innovations. Thus Tertullian mentions
" God's dear ones " (De pcmitentia, 9) as those to
whom the lapsed should kneel next after the
presbyters. When, however, he grants the " power
of the keys " to the " spiritual," whether prophets
or apostles (De pttdidtia, 21), he includes the
Church, instead of excluding it, opposing only a
priesthood in which he fails to find this spiritual
characteristic.

Alexandrine theology seems to have made little
change. Origen, while energetically vindicating
the " power of the keys " to Christians of true
spiritual insight, presupposes, in the case of griev-
ous faults, the participation of priests or bishops in
the forgiveness of sins (De oratione, 28; Conmientary
on Matthew, xii. 14), thus restricting to them such a
spiritual character. It is evident, moreover, that
the " power of the keys " was held to be vested in
the bishop (cf. Tertullian, De baptismate, 17; Apos-
tolic Constitutions, ii. 11); but there is no evidence
in Cyprian to show that Peter, to say nothing of
his successors at Rome, had any prerogative of this
power over other apostles or bishops

3. Origen, (Epist,, Ixxv. 16), his view being that

Cyprian Christ gave this privilege first to Peter,

and and then to his fellow apostles (Epist.,

Augustine, lix. 19; De unitate, 4). So according
to Augustine, the keys were given to
the Church, represented by Peter (Epist., cxlix.
7, ccxcv. 2). The Church is administered by
the bishops (Sermo cccli. 9), but it is the Holy
Ghost which remits sins both " above man " and
" through man " (Sermo xcix. 9). The bishops
of Rome, however, laid special claims at an early
date to the " power of the keys " in virtue of their
succession to Peter (cf. Tertullian, De pudicitia,
1, 21; Cyprian, Epist., Ixxv. 17); while Leo the
Great (on Matt. xvi. 19), maintaining the " priv-
ilege of Peter," held that the " power of the keys "
was extended to the other apostles and to all the
heads of the Church; and Optatus (De echismate
DoruUi, vii. 3) beUeved that Peter received this
prerogative that he might communicate it to the
other apostles.

The " power of the keys " was used by the Church
especially in the administration of baptism, and
also in penance for grievous sins committed after
baptism, more venial faults being atoned for by
the daily penitence of the faithful heart, the fifth
petition of the Lord's Prayer, fasting, the oblations,
and the Eucharist. Although the list of grievous

326

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Keys, Power of the

sins was somewhat imoertain (cf. Tertullian, De
jrudicUiaf 19; Adveraua Marcionem, iv. 9; Augus-
tine, Sermo cccli. 4; Pacianus, Parcenesis ad pcmi-
tentiam, 3), practically idolatry, murder, and adul-
tery were from tbe very first the chief
4. Sins objects of ecclesiastical discipline.
Controlled The passages supposed to prove that
by the in the Greek Church the belief was
Power, early prevalent that all sins might be
forgiven (Clement, Stromaia^ ii. 13;
Origen, Contra Celsuniy iii. 51; Dionysius of Corinth
in Eusebius, Hist, eccl.j iv. 23, 6) are too vague to
admit of this interpretation; and while it is clear,
from Tertullian's De pudicitia that no rigid rule
was followed with respect to carnal sins, he states
as a general principle (De pttdicitta, 12; cf. 22 and
Origen, De oratione, xxviii.) that idolatry and
murder were considered unpardonable.

The Western Church, on the other hand, steadily
extended pardon to all sins, thus connecting the
*' power of the keys " more closely with the epis-
copal office. After 250 even the lapsed (see Lapsi)
were admitted to pardon, thus postulating for-
giveness for idolatry, although in many regions
the more rigid practise was retained as
5. Treat- in Spain at the beginning of the fourth
ment of century and at Csesarea in Cappadocia.
the Lapsed Pardon for a second lapse, however,
and was forbidden by Pope Siricius and
Penitent, was unknown to Augustine (Epist.
cliii. 7), besides being rejected by the
eleventh canon of the third Synod of Toledo, al-
though Sozomen had already declared his convic-
tion that '' God has decreed that pardon should be
extended to the penitent, even after many trans-
gressions " (Hist, eccl., vii. 16).

As a matter of fact the " power of the keys ** was
exercised by the clergy under the supervision of
the bishop, and the laity took no further part as
early as the middle of the third century (cf. Cyp-
rian, Epist., xix. 2, xlix., lix. 15; Augustine, Sermo
cccli.). After excommunication and penance for
a mortal sin, the penitent was again received into
the Church. This act was termed reconciliation,
and was performed by the laying on of hands,
prayer, and the kiss of peace by the bishop, assisted
by the clergy before the altar in the presence of the
congregation. The pardoning power of the Church
thus coincided with absolution (see Confession),
though not in the medieval sense, since the atoning
force of penance rested in the act of the penitent
himself, not in the reconciling power of the Church.
While God alone forgave sins, the Church, as his
merciful institution, could not refuse her cooperar
tion, but pointed out to the penitent the way in
which the wound of sin might be healed. Then
evolved the attitude represented by Cyprian:
'* Outside the Church there is no salvation," even
though the absolving power of the Church was not
final, but must be confirmed at the Last Judgment,
thus requiring prayer and the laying on of hands.

Beginning with Augustine, the tendency arises
to bring the priest's activity in the exercise of the
" power of the keys " into closer connection with
divine grace; and the sinner is no longer consid-
ered as a woimded man to be healed, but as a corpse

to be revived. Since this is impossible for the
Church, a preliminary working of grace in the heart
is assumed, which is later to be completed by the
operation of the ** power of the keys." While
Augustine bases forgiveness in reconciliation sim-
ply on the petition of the congregation of the faith-
ful, Leo the Great regards the priests
6. The as the specific intercessors for the
Power fallen, basing his view on Matt, xxviii.
and the 20, which he restricts to the clergy
Priesthood. (Epist., Ixxxii.; Ad Tfieodorum, 2).
The Roman Catholic concept of a
clerical priesthood independent of the laity, and
with whose mediation all works of grace are con-
nected, thus received sharp and conscious expres-
sion, and the accretions of later times are but the
development of the basal idea of Leo. There was,
however, as yet no formal pronouncement of
absolution. An entirely different view is advanced
by other Fathers. On the basis of Lev. xiv. 2 sqq.,
Jerome (Commentary on Matthew, iii.) held that
ecclesiastical authority possessed merely the right
to decide that they were set free whom the inward
grace of God had freed, and that they were bound
whom divine grace had not set free. Very similar
are the terms used by Gregory the Great (HomUia
xxvi. in Evangdia, 6), but it is clear from his own
statements how little this theoretic distinction prac-
tically implied.

nL The Middle Ages and the Roman Catholic
Doctrine: The primitive Chiurch distinguished be-
tween three classes of members — the faithful, cate-
chumens, and penitents. The " power of the keys "
was established chiefly for the third class, though in
some respects also for the second; for these two
classes alone stood in need of ecclesiastical recon-
ciliation or absolution. Early in the Middle Ages,
however, a tendency arose among the newly con-
verted Germanic peoples to make penance, which
originally was a special institution for special occc^
sions, a general characteristic of the
I. Penance, whole C!hurch, and to establish the
"power of the keys," which originally
dealt with penitents only, as a general coiut of judi-
cature above all the faithful. The first indication of
this tendency was that, through monastic discipline,
sins in thought gradually became subject to the
"power of the keys," deviating herein from the
practise of the early Chiurch. In the monasteries it
was considered a rule of discipline to confess to the
brethren even the slightest occurrences of sinful
emotions. The penitential of the Irish Vinnians
prescribes for sins in thought a rigid fast for half a
year, and abstinence from wine and meat for a whole
year. The Anglo-Saxon penitential, which bears
the name of Theodore of (Canterbury, prescribes
from twenty to forty days' fast for feeling lust.
This system was introduced into the Frankish
Church by St. Columban of Luxeuil (q.v.) and his
pupils, and received the support of the Frankish
bishops, as is evidenced by the eighth canon of the
Synod of Chalon-sur-Sadne (after 644). It must
also be noted, however, that as early as the fifth
century, Johannes Cassianus of Marseilles (q.v.), a
semi-Pelagian influenced by Eastern monasticism,
had postulated eight " principal sins " of thought.

Fofw«r of tlM

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

896

wliidi later developed into the seven deadly sins
o£ aeliolafltidam. The first provincial synod which
made eoofevioD a general duty was that of Aenham
(1100), and Innocent III. (1198-1216) finaUy in-
troduoed confession, and the consequent extension
o£ the " power of the keys " over all Christians,
throughout the Church in spite of the opposition
whieh the penitentials produced in France, his
evident object being to check the growth of heresy.
The result was a radical change in the treatment of
penance and reconciliation; for whereas since the
fourth century reconciliation had invariably been
public, while private penance had been prescribed
for secret sins, private penance was now restricted
to eases of voluntary private confession; and pub-
Ue penance (followed by public reconciliation,
gradually termed absolution) was reserved for open
■ins attested by witnesses, or for such heinous
crimes as murder (C!ouncils of Aries [813], canon
26; Ch&lon-sur-Sadne [813], canon 25; Mains [847],
canon 31; Pavia [850], canon 6; Mains [852], canon
10 sqq.; CapUularia Reffum Francorum, ed. S.
Baluse, Paris, 1677, v. 112). Public penance and
reconciliation still remained the prerogative of the
bishop, while private confession and absolution were
delegated to the priests, though only as the dele-
gates of the bishop (cf . Ratramnus, contra GrcBcor-
um opponta, iv. 7; CapUularia Reffum Francorumf
vi. 206). Whereas, moreover, reconciliation prima-
rily followed immediately after the completion of
penance, the penitential of Gildas (| 1) permitted
private reconciliation on the expiration of half
the period of penance, and that of Theodore of
Canterbury after a year or six months (i. 12, | 4),
while in the so-called Statutes of Boniface (cap.
31) reconciliation must immediately follow confes-
sion. In the course of the Middle Ages, however,
public penance and public reconciliation — the lat-
ter performed in the Roman Church on Maimdy
Thursday as early as the fifth century, and on
Good Friday in the Milanese and Spanish churches
— ^were steadily superseded by private confession
and private absolution, so that since the Reforma-
tion they have become entirely antiquated.

With regard to the theological definition of abso-
lution, and the share of the priest in its administrar
tion, two opposing views, inherited from the patristic
period, run almost parallel with each other during
the first part of tl^ Middle Ages. According to
the one, the priest is simply judge in foro ecdesia;
he declares that forgiveness has taken
2. The place by the act of divine grace in the
Priest penitent soul, but takes no part him-

M Judge self in the act of forgiving. The divine
or M forgiveness takes place before the ab-

Medlator. solution by the priest, and even before
confession, in the very moment the
heart repents; so that the Church's absolution is but
the declaration of what God has already done. How
prominent this view was, even in the thirteenth cen-
tury, may be seen from the manner in which Gratian
treats the subject. He raises the question whether
a sinner can satisfy God by repentance and secret
penance without confession, then states the argu-
ments and authorities on both sides, and finally
leaves the reader to decide the question for himself.

Peter the Lombard, the contemporary of Gratian,
defines (iv. 17) the priest's power to bind and to
loose merely as a power of declaration, signifying
simply he loosed before the Church him who was
looeed in the sight of God. Similar but stiU more
explicit were the views of Cardinal Robert Pulleyn
(Sent. vi. 52, 61, vii. 1) and Peter of Poitiers, chan-
cellor of the University of Paris (d. about 1204).
According to the other view, represented by Leo
the Great and Alcuin, the priest is not simply a
judge in foro ecciena, but is a mediator, intercsessor
and reconciler between God and the penitent. This
position, taken by the priests throughout the peni-
tentials, and exercising a profound influence on the
development of the doctrine of the " power of the
keys," attained increased importance in the De
vera el falsa pcmiterUia, a work belonging to the
eleventh or twelfth century, but ascribed to Au-
gustine. Here the priest appears as the representa-
tive of God in confession, and his forgiveness is the
forgiveness of God; while the view of Gregory the
Great, that sins in themselves beyond forgiveness
become forgivable through penance (but not through
absolution), is here modified so that the sinner in his
confession does not become clean in the sight of
God, but has his mortal sin changed to venial. This
residue of venial sins no longer involves eternal
punishment, but must be atoned for either by pen-
ance on earth or purgatory after death (chaps. 25,
35). These concepts were now evolved into a for-
mal system by the Victorines. To Hugo of St.
Victor the priest represents the humanity of Christ,
is the visible mediiun needed by sin-bound man to
draw near to God, and is used by God to pour his
grace into the human heart. Thus the priestly ab-
solution not only declares forgiveness, but effects it
(De BacramerUia, ii. 1 sqq., 8). Hugo regards the
sinner as boimd by the inner bondage of hardness
of heart and the outer chain of merited damnation,
the former loosed by God alone through contrition,
and the latter by the priest as the divine instrument.
Going still further, Hugo's pupil, Richard of St.
Victor, in his De poiestate ligandi et solvendi held
that God himself released from sin either immedi-
ately or through the mediation of men who were
not necessarily priests, this being done by contri-
tion even before confession. He also held that
through the priest, who possessed the '' power of
the keys," God transformed eternal punishment
into a transitory one, and that the priest trans-
formed transitory pimishment into penance.

In the case of two views so divergent, yet run-
ning parallel, further progress could be possible
only in their dialectic reconciliation and combina-
tion. This was attained by the great scholastics
of the thirteenth century, especially by Thomas
Aquinas, although Richard of St. Victor had plainly
sought to effect such a result. In his
3. Combi- Summa theologice (pars iv., quiPstio 20,
nation of membrum iii., art. 2; qusBstio 21,
the Two membrum i.; membnun ii., arts. 1-3)
Views. Alexander of Hales, closely followed
by Bona Ventura and Albertus Magnus,
held that, while the power to bind and to loose
belonged to God alone, the priest merely praying
for and obtaining absolution, but not imparting it,

887

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Keys, Power of the

nevertheless, the priest, as the medium between the
sinner and God, being the spokesman both of the
sinner and of God, was deprecator and judge in
one. Eternal punishment can not be remitted by
the priest, but only by God. On the other hand, the
'* power of the keys " extends to temporal punish-
ment, since the priest is a divinely appointed judge;
while purgatory is remitted only per accideru, the
priest being able to change the pains of purgatory
into temporal punishment, and thus into penance.
On this basis Thomas Aquinas completed the
Roman Catholic doctrine of the '' power of the
keys." He distinguished between the davia or-
dinis and the dams jturisdictionis {Summaf qusestio
19, art. 3, resp.), the former, received by the priest
in his ordination, opening heaven immediately to
individuals through sacramentary absolution; and
the latter having this effect only through excom-
munication and absolution before the forum of the
Church. The davia ordims alone having a sacra-
mental nature, laymen and deacons may possess
the (iUivia jurUdictioni8, which also includes the
granting of indulgences (quiestio 25,
4. The art. 2 ad 1 m.). The exerdse of the
Twofold davis ordinis presupposes the posses-
Key and sion of the davia juriadidionia; but,
Thomas on the other hand, the davia ordinia be-
Aquinas. comes effective only through the davia
jturiadidionia (qusestio 20, art. 1-2,
resp.), so that by depriving schismatics, heretics, and
the like of the davia juriadicbionia, a bishop may
wiAidraw from them the power of exercising the
davia ordinia (qusstio 19, art. 6, resp.). The sacra-
mental davia ordinia finds its exerdse in priestly
absolution, and it was through Thomas Aquinas that
the individual elements of the sacrament of penance
were imited in the Roman Catholic doctrine of the
'' power of the keys." He bases his view on the
concept that God alone remits sin and eternal pim-
ishment as a return for a contrition which is per-
fected by fulness of love and by a desire for
sacramental confession and absolution. Such a
penitent has the grace given him increased by the
" power of the keys "; and in case his contrition is
not sufficiently deep, the same power removes the
obstacles to the entrance of the atoning grace, pro-
vided the sinner himself sets up no opposing bar-
riers. The "power of the keys" remits a portion
of the temporal punishment, the residue being
atoned for by the prayers, alms, and fasting pre-
scribed to the penitent by the priest as satisfaction
(qusestio 18, art. 2-3). These latter, moreover,
may be remitted by the clavia jitriadidionia through
indulgences (qusestio 25, art. 1, resp.), which, in
view of the concept of vicarious satisfaction on
which they are based, may be used for the benefit
of souls in purgatory. This development of the
** power of the keys " essentially changed the form
of absolution; for although Alexander of Hales
states that in his time the deprecatory formula was
followed by the indicative, the latter must have
been an innovation, since until thirty years before
Thomas Aquinas the formula used by all priests
had been AbaoltUionem et remiaaianem tibt trUnuU
Deua, He himself defended the use of Ego te ab-
aolvo on its analogy to the other sacraments, and

as exactly expressing the effect of the sacrsunent
of penance and the '' power of the keys," even
though retaining the deprecatory formula as a
prayer before the indicative, a usage still followed
by the Rittude Romanum.

The teaching of Thomas Aquinas on the ** power
of the keys " was essentially adopted by Eugene
IV. at the Council of Florence (1439) and still more
fuUy by the fourteenth session of the Council of
Trent (Nov. 25, 1551). While the Decree (cap. 6)
and the Canons (9-10) of the Council

5. The of Trent declare that the absolution is
Tridentine not a mere statement of forgiveness, but

Decree, is a judicial and sacramental act, the
Romsin Catechism makes the ** power of
the keys " extend to all sins without exception (i. 11,
5), while the absolution pronounced by the priest,
who represents in all sacraments the person of
Christ, actually effects the forgiveness of sins (ii.
5, 10, 11, 17). While, moreover, in contrition, con-
fession, and satisfaction the penitent is active
(qpua operana), he is absolutely passive and recep-
tive toward absolution, which works entirely ex
opera operato.

From another point of view, the Romsm Catholic
priest is essentially a judge, not only in foro eccle-
aicBf but in foro Dei, In this capacity he investi-
gates the sins of the penitent to determine their
proper punishment, and considers the spiritual
state of him who makes confession, that he may
know whether to bind or loose. Since, however,
on the one hand, the formula Ego te abaolvo implies
that the absolution is infallible and absolute; while,
on the other hand, the possible error

6. The of the priest, the infrequency of his
Problem of ability to know completely the state of

Priestly his penitent's soul, and the insufii-
Fallibility. dency of confession as a substitute for
omniscience, render his decision only
conditional, Roman Catholic dogmatics wavers as a
result of the combination, without true union, of the
two courses of development sketched above. Prac-
tically, however, the entire remission of sins requires
from the penitents only contrition (repentance
made perfect in love), confession, and satisfaction.
For contrition is substituted attrition (mere fear
of punishment), and what it lacks in earnestness
and depth is made up by confession in its entirety
stnd by absolution. The latter trsmsmutes eternal
punishment into temporal, and temporal into pen-
since, this being remitted by indidgences. Thus
the infallible judgment of the priest becomes falli-
ble only in the case of the deliberate hypocrite;
and the one firm and immutable result of the con-
fused course of development here sketched is the
infallibility of the power of the C!hurch to bind and
loose, the single unalterable kernel of the entire
dogma of the '' power of the keys " and of tbe sacra-
ment of penance.

In the Greek Church private confession was in-
troduced for the monks by Basil (d. 379); and from
about the end of the iconoclastic controversy (see
IiiAQES AND Imaqb WORSHIP, II.) Until the middle
of the thirteenth century the "power of the keys"
was vested exclusively in the monks according to
their ecclesiastical grade. Collision with the priest-

X«ysi Power of thm
Ki«r

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

888

hood was avoided by ordaining monks as priests

and appointing them as confessors; but since the

thirteenth century, without annulling

7. The the prerogatives of the monks, the

Ktyi in ** power of the keys '' has gradually
the Greek been taken from the monastic orders

Chtixck. and entrusted to the priests; while,
under Roman Catholic influence, pen-
ance has become a sacrament. The doctrines of the
Greek Chiurch in this respect, however, have re-
mained more general thain the Roman Catholic,
and have not assumed so juristic a character.

IV. The Reformation and the Protestant Doc-
trine: The entire concept of the " power of the
keys " was transformed by the Reformation, Luther
especially representing a return to early beliefs.
Holding that the ** power of the keys '* was not
legalistic, but denoted simply the forgiveness or
retention of sins, he emphasized its entirely spiri-
tual character as contrasted with its secular usage.
He taught, moreover, that it concerned

z. Luther the personal relation of the sinner to

and Me- God, and that it opened or closed the
lanchthon. path to sharing in the divine grace,
and was not a mode of punishment.
As a power conferred on man by God or Christ, it
belonged to the Church, this being not the pope or
the cleigy, but the body of the faithful who h&ve the
Holy Spirit. While, however, in theory every Chris-
tian has this power and can exercise it in the name
of the Church, practically only one commissioned by
the Church may do so, again in the name of the
Church, and as obeying God and acting in his stead.
The spiritual Chiurch thus becomes a mediator be-
tween the individual and God. The key of binding
proclaims the imrepentant sinner doomed to eter-
nal death; but if he repents, the key of loosing
pronounces him free from sin and renews the prom-
ise of everlasting life (Von den SMuBsdn^ Erlangen
edition, xxzi. 178). The " power of the keys '' is
ezeroised by the Church first in preaching, the
preaching of the law binding and the preaching of
the Gospel loosing; in public and private absolu-
tion; and in excommunication, or prohibition to
receive the Sacrament or to share in the other
blessings of the Church until repentance and amend-
ment, although the person so excommunicated was
not to be prevented from hearing sermons. All
foigiveness was conditioned by faith, but excom-
munication was to be pronounced only on gross
and open sinners, who were to permit this judg-
ment of God and the Church to work in them to
repentance. Melanchthon agreed with Luther in
his doctrine of the " power of the keys," and main-
tained the right of the Church to appoint officials
to exercise it. He insisted, moreover, on confes-
sion and absolution before receiving the Sacrament,
and, influenced by Roman Catholicism, he distin-
guiiiied the " power of the keys," as a potestas ju-
ri9diciioni8f from the potestaa ordinia. He likewise
held that the " power of the keys " belonged, at
least in practise, to the clergy, while the Reformed
concept of the Church regarded her as the essential
possessor of this power.

The divergent view of the " power of the keys "
held by the Reformed, and especially by Calvin,

was intimately connected with their distinction be-
tween the invisible Church of the predestined and
the visible Church which was to be

3. The organized and ruled according to the
Calvinistic word of God; additional elements be-

Theoiy. ing the line drawn between the divine
and the created factors of salvation and
a concept by which forgiveness of sins presupposed
only the true renewal by the Holy Ghost in r^ener-
ation. Accordingly, Calvin, distinguishing between
Matt. xvi. and John xx. on the one hand and Matt,
xviii. on the other, postulated a double " power of
the keys " (Institutes, IV., xi. 1). Proceeding from
the theory of individual need and individual pastoral
care, he approximates the Lutheran idea of the
consolation of private absolution (III., iv. 14, IV.,
i. 22) although this never gains the importance of
an actual absolution. From this " power of the
keys," which rests in the " ministry of the word "
(cf. III., iv. 14, IV., vi. 4), must be distinguished the
** spiritual jurisdiction and discipline " of the
Church, which concerns the punishment meted out
by the Church as a theocratic and secular institu-
tion. It is clear that here there is no question of
a direct relation to God. Despite the difliculty of
the reconciliation of Calvin's view with the prom-
ises of Christ regarding the " power of the keys,"
his double interpretation was retained in the Re-
formed confessions, as in the Helvetic Confession,
14, and the Heidelberg Catechism, 83. The Council
of Trent, on the other hand, in its opposition to the
Reformation, while abandoning the old theory of
the two keys, retained the substance of the ancient
dogma (session xxiii. 1); and postulated still more
expUcitly that the " power of the keys " was a
prerogative granted by Christ to Peter and his suc-
cessors.

In the Evangelical churches, and especially the
Lutheran, the exercise of the *' power of the kejrs "
became more and more restricted to the clergy,
who used it, on the one hand, in private absolution
after a general confession, and, on the other, as a
pimishment in the form of excommunication,
though, as a matter of fact, the latter was restricted
by the consistories to carnal sins. Gradually, how-
ever, protests were raised against the " power of
the keys," in part through a more or less mistaken
idea regarding the Reformatory concept of the con-
solation and the sacramental signification of the
forgiveness of sins. The pioneer of this tendency
was Theophilus Grossgebauer, who required only
confession to God for secret sins, but held public
confession and reconciliation to be
3. Lu- necessary for open sins, in which alone
theran he believed the p>ower to bind and
Attacks loose to be effective, judgment being
on the exercised by a body of elders chosen

Doctrine, by the congregations concerned. Spe-
ner sought to transform private confes-
sion and absolution into a declaration before the
pastor for counsel and spiritual investigation; but
insisted that only the penitent might be absolved,
doubtful cases being referred to a body of elders for
judgment. While he held that the " power of the
keys " belonged to the entire Church or brotherhood,
and had wrongly become restricted to the clergy and

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

K*7a, Power ^Um

the authorities, his followers assailed private con-
fession atill more vigorously. On Nov. 16, 1698, as
a result of the diatribes of Johann Ka^par Schade of
Berlin, an electoral resolution made general confes-
sion and absolution binding on all, private confession
and absolution being left to the discretion of the in-
dividtml. Prussia's example was followed by the
other national Churches; and what Pietism began
rationalism completed. This development dimin-
ished the stress laid on the concept of the " power
of the keys." Schleiennacher, though reintroducing
it into dogmatics, restricted it, with the express
exception of the sermon, to the legal and judicial
authority of the Church. He was closely fol-
lowed by Domer; but, on the other himd, the
" Neo-Lutherans " of the nineteenth century en-
deavored to revive the " power of the keys " as a
specific attribute of the pastoral ofhce which hod
succeeded the apoatolate, only to meet the oppoei-
tioa of the Ertangen school.

From the point of view of dogmatics the " power
of the keys " may be defined as the duty and the
authority of the spiritual Church to make the ever^
lasting decision for mankind and for individuals de-
pendent on the relation to her as the body of ChriBt.
In this sense it preauppoeea not only

4. Theo- special and general absolution, but the
logical entire administration of the sacro-
Asprcl ments; and this must be exercised In
of the the HolyGhost. The determination of

Doclritta. its concrete forms and its transmission
from the spiritual to the earthly Church
falls within the province of practical theology.
Naturally, however, the "' power of the keys " can
be ignored only where the Church is regarded merely
as a religious association based on the pious thoughts
of men; but not where it is held to have arisen
from the determination and the participation of the
living God. (Johannes Kvnee.)

Bibuograpby: J. Moria. Commenlariut hitloricui dt di^
ciplina in adminUtrationr, tarrarntiili pomiltntiae, Ant-
nrp, 1092: J. WUerworth, The Faith of CaUialieM. i. S8
■qq., iu. 1-S5. London. 184fl: C. Elliott. DiUninlian a/
Roman CaOolicim. cd, HaDnah, ib. 1851; P. W, H. Wat-
■erscblcbfin, Dv Bunordnungen der abendt/lndiichen Kirfhe,
Halle. ISSI; G. Stiiti, Dal rlmitdte ButKkramtnt.
Frankfort. 1854: idem, Die PrivalbtiehU and Priral-
olualution, ib. 1354; idem, in TSK, 1866. pp. 43S-1S3:
T. KlicFoth. BeieUt uiul Abtolulinn, Sohwgrin. 1B6R:
C. F. PRgtenr. LutSert Lthn von der BridiU. Btuttican,
1857; S. Bbttow, A rrmtiir aj llu Fnpe't Supremacy.
■d. A. Napier, pp. St. MS et paaaim. CambnilKB, 18G0;
J. Bowcn. Tht Powo- of Oit Kspi and Oit Alhanaiiat
Crnd, London. I860: H, L. Ahrans, Dot Ami dtr
SiAlaail. RanoTsr, 18M; F. Frank. Dii Butidisriptin.
UuDi. ISeT: F. Probst. Sakramenli und Sakramrnla-
li»n, TObinoeo, ISTS; E, LOninl. (?»cAiiA(e d» dmlichtn
Kirdmrtthli. |l 2fi2 aqq., ii. 448 sqq., Btrasburx, 1S7S;
n, J. Schmita, ilia BunbOchrr and die Buudiiciiilin da
KirAe, Moina, 1S83; H. C. Lfg, A Formulary of Our
Parol Penilenliaru in Hie ISIh Centum, Phibdelpbia.
ISeZ: K. Holl. Enlhanatmue und BMtgeaalt beim arit-
chiedien Manclithum, Loipiic, 1808; F. B. Foster, Fun-
damenla! Idea oj the Roman Calliolie CAuriA, pp. 41-42.
284, Philsdelpbie,. 1899; J. KDstlin. Lulhere Thtolooie.
ii. 245 aqq,, SlullBurl, 1901: Nraniier. Chriwiian Church,
ii. 200. iii.-v. passim: KL. i. 1834-39: DCO. I D29.

KHLYSTY. See Russia, III., { 4.

KIDR05: .\ valley or rnvine east of Jerusa-
lem, now known as Wadi SittI Maryam (" Valley
of at. Mary "). At present it is always dry except

ionnlly after severe rains in the winter (see
■ The name (Hebr. kidkTon) occurs
eleven times in the Old Testament and once (John
xviii. 1) in the New Testament, where the A. V.
has " the brook Cedron " (following the Greek form,
kedrUn), the R. V. " the brook KIdron." The mar-
ginal reading of the R. V,, "of the Cedara," is a
possible translation of the Greek, but not applicable
to a Hebrew word; kidhrcm is usually referred to
the root kadJiar, " to be dark, gloomy."

KIEF, ki'ef (KIEW, DJEW): A city of Ru»-
sia, on the Dnieper, noted in ecclesiastiiml history
as an ancient metropolitan see, the cradle of the
Russian Church. In 1320 it came into the posses-
sion of the Lithuanians, and thus in 13S6 became
part of the kingdom of Poland, which ceded it to
Russia in 1636. Greek missionaries were the fu^t
to preach Christianity in this region, and Christians
are found there as early as the beginning of the tenth
century. After the conversion of Vladimir in 988,
the Greek patriarch sent thither the first archbishop,
Michael, a Syrian by birth (fl88-9S2). Under the
episcopate of Theopemptus (1035-17) the great
cathedral of St, Sophia was built, and the province
tlien included twelve dioceses, to which Smolensk
WQS added in U37. Early in the twelfth century
the relations of the see with Rome became more
and more strained. Under Matthew (1200-20)
Kief was destroyed by the Mongolian invaders, and
in 1299 the see was formally transferred to Vladi-
mir, and under Peter (1308-26) to Moscow, the old
title being still retained of " metropolitan of Kief
and all Russia." Under Gregory I. (HI6-19) the
Ruthenian Church was completely separated from
Ma'!COw and Constantinople, and he seems to have
been disposed to promote a reunion with Rome
and to have attended the Council of Constance.
Isidore (1437-58) took more decisive steps in the
same direction, labored diligently for the reunion
scheme of the Council of Ferrara-Florencc, and
died a cardinal and (Latin) patriarch-elect of Con-
stantinople in H63. But the reunion project found
little favor among the people, and a, state of schism
and conflict followed, the union being wholly dis-
solved at the death of Joseph II. (1498-1517) under
the influence of Helen, the Russian wife of King
Alexander II.. who instigated the employment of
harsh measures ogainst its adherents. In 1596,
however, the metropolitan of Kief n-itb all his eight
suffragans, decided once more to look to Rome for
help against the disorders of the times, and Clem-
ent VIII. received them, permitting them to re-
tain their own ecclesiastical language and customs.
By the influence of Moscow a rival line of Greek
metropolitans was kept up until 1707 without a
break. The successive divisions of Poland and the
anti-Roman influence of the Empress Catherine II.
tended to weaken the position of the Uniat Church
in the eighteenth century, and under Russian pres-
sure in 1839 most of its adherents returned to the
communion of Moscow. In 1771 they had nimi-
bered twelve millions; in 1834 scarcely a million
and a half were left.

PHT: H. Le Quien. Oriene OAruKai
1137 Kig.. Pam 1740: C. Q. FrieH, De
owiifi, Waraaw, 1763: L. I

*vi*«>-

.'SMut

Kiarftn
Ximohi

Toe new SCHAtT-HERZOfi

ftdO

eathoKque en Poloffne, Paris. 1860; A. Pichler, Oe§dUdU»
der kircfUichen Trennung, iL 1 sqq.. Munich, 1864; J.
Fteless, Oeschichte der Union der nUhenimJten Kirdte mii
Rom, 2 vols.. Vienna. 1878-80; L. K. Goats. Dm Kiever
HdhUnklotter dU KuUunentrum dea varmarufoliMdion Rua§-
latuU, Passau. 1904; KL. vii. 428-446 (a fuU article).
Further material will be found in the literature under
Poland; Russia. On the two councils of the Eastern
Church held there consult: E. H. Landon. Manual of
Couneila, London, 1846; A. N. Mouravieff, Hist of the
Chvreh of Ruaaia, pp. 36. 179. Oxford. 1842.

KIERAR, SAINT. See Ciaran, Saint.

KIERKEGAARD, kyer'ke-gOrd, SOREN AABY:
Danish philosopher and religious author; b. in
Copenhagen May 6, 1813; d. there Nov. 11, 1855.
He was matriculated at the University of Copen-
hagen in 1830, and took up the study of theology,
devoting also considerable time to philosophy and
esthetics. His first literary product was a small
pamphlet in which he attacked Hans Christian
Andersen, contending that the latter was mistaken
in making the hero of his ** Only a Fiddler " a
peevish nature, and maintaining that genius can
know of no defeat, but that, like a thunder-shower,
it will force itself against the wind. This utter-
ance may serve as a specimen of Kierkegaard's
thought. In 1840 he obtained his first degree in
theology, and in the following year the master's
degree for a dissertation on the conception of irony,
with special reference to Socrates. Shortly after-
ward, he went to Berlin. He wished to demon-
strate the truth of Christianity, but not, like other
apologists, by explaining its dogmas. On Feb. 20,
1843, the first part of his large work " Whether—
Or " appeared pseudonymously, rapidly followed
by the second part, entitled " Neither," in which
he answers the question propounded by himself as
to whether the esthetical or the ethical type of life
ought to be chosen. Between 1843 and 1846 nu-
merous other works appeared from his pen, of which
may be mentioned " Fear and Trembling," " Bits
of Philosophy," " What is Fear?" and "Stations on
the Path of Life," in all of which he conceals his
identity behind various alleged contemporary au-
thors, representing himself as merely the pub-
lisher of their pseudonymous literature. Only his
sermons were published over his own name.

The first part of these works endeavors to impress
the solemnity of Christianity upon an age which
lived, either without Christianity, or with a Chris-
tianity founded on custom only. The theme
" only the truth which builds is worth having "
forms the substance of the entire pseudonymous
literature published by Kierkegaard, and by his
treatment of this theme he became a religious re-
viver of great importance. His positive construc-
tion of Christianity, however, did not fail to find
opponents. Dogmatically he defined Christianity
as the paradox; ethically, as unmixed suffering;
psychologically, as a passionate departure from the
ways of the world. He rejected the ideas of creed,
church, priest, etc., and according to his conception
a Christian is an isolated individual, alone with
God, and in contact with the world only through
suffering. When this part of his literary activity
was completed he felt as though he had fulfilled his
mission, and desired to retire to a secluded par-
sonage; the attacks of which he now became the

subject in the press, however, led his activity into
a new channel, and the mental suffering which he
had endured led him to consider the influence
which mental agony exerts upon the life of a Chris-
tian. The fundamental idea in his subsequent
writings became more religious, more ChrisUan; his
sermons treated of the gospel of suffering.

From his early childhood Kierk^aard bad re-
garded the old bishop of Zealand, J. P. Mynster
(q.v.), with great reverence, for the latter had been
" his father's pastor." But now that he had oome
to consider it the duty of a Christian to lead a life
of suffering he asked himself if Mynster's preaching
was not rather an esthetic misrepresentaticm c^
the paradox and the gospel ot suffering than true
Christianity; and was Mynster's life a martyrdom?
For a long time Kierkegaard hoped that Mynster
would admit that the Christian ideal had been cor-
rectly defined in his writings, and also that he, the
primate of the Danish church, did not live accord-
ing to this ideal. Mynster, however, maintained
silence, and as Kierkegaard did not wish to dis-
turb the old prelate's tranquillity of mind he also
refrained from uttering his opinions. On the death
of Mynster, however, a sermon preached by Mar-
tensen, in which the latter designated the late
bishop as " a faithful witness of truth, "aroused
Kierkegaard's ire, and he wrote a protest, the pub-
lication of which, however, he delayed for some
time. But when Martensen, nine months later,
was appointed Mynster's successor as bishop of
Zealand this protest appeared in the periodical
Fasdrelandet of Dec. 18, 1854, under the title " Was
Bishop Mynster a Witness of Truth, a Faithful
Witness of Truth— Is this Truth ? " Martensen
practically ignored this attack, simply stigmatising
Kierkegaard as a Thersites who danced upon the
tombs of heroes; this, however, enraged Kierke-
gaard all the more, and he returned to the attack
with various articles and brochures in all of which
he censured '^ official Christendom," its divine ser-
vices, its religious acts, and its adherents. As an
advocate of individualism Kierkegaard had no sym-
pathy for the multitude, or for the awakening
tendency to organization. The enormous mental
strain which his attack on organized Christianity
had necessitated left him physically weak, and
hastened his death. Kierkegaard's works have es-
tablished in Denmark a literature so rich, so original,
and so complete in form that it is absolutely with-
out parallel in that country. (F. NiEUSENf.)

Biblioorapht: Selections from Kierk^aard's unpublished
papers, which throw much light upon his books, ed.
H. P. Baraod and H. Gottsched, appeared in 8 vols, at
Copenhagen, 1869-81. His "Works," ed. A. B. Draoh-
mann, J. L. Heiberg, and O. H. Lange, appearod, 14 vols.,
Oopenhagen, 1901-1906. There are biographies in Da-
nii^ by G. Brandes, Copenhagen, 1877, Germ, transl.,
Leipsic, 1879; C. Koch, Copenhagen, 1898; P. A. Rosen-
berg, Copenhagen, 1898. Of the voluminous literature,
mention may be made of A. B&rthold, S^en Kierke-
gaard, eine Verfaaaer-Exiatem eigener Art, Halberstadt,
1873; idem, At*a und Hber S&ren Kierkegaard, ib. 1874;
idem, Noten zu SOren Kierkegadrd*a L^)enageachiehte,
Halle, 1876; idem, Die Bedeutung der Aathetiachen Schrif-
ten S&ren Kierkegaard' a, ib. 1879; idem, S&ren Kierke-
gaard*a Peradnlidikeit in ihrer Vencicklung der Ideale,
Gatersloh, 1886; V. Deleiu^n. Eaquiaae d'une itude aur
SOren Kierkegaard, Paris, 1897; AttagetoAhlte chriaUitAe
Reden^ German by Julie von Reincke, with an account o£

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

liln (smll; tud UFc troco penouiil remiiilHeimii uf his
nietfl, OicsHD. 1901^ P. MUnch, IHt Haupt- und yrund-
Oedanktn der PkitotojAie S/mn KierktoaardM. LaipAic, Lti02,

KILHAM, ALBXAflDER: Founder of the Meth-
odist New Connection, (requeDtly called Kilham-
itea; b. at Bpworth (21 m. n.n.w. of Lincoln),
Lincolnshire, July 10, 1762; d. at Nottingham Dec.
2(1, 1798. He began to preach in 17S3, and was
received by Wesley iuto the regular itinerant min-
i-ilry in 1785. On the death of Wesley <1791) he
became an enec^lic leader of the faction favoring
complete w-paration of tbe Mcthodiots from the
Church of England and published a number of
rather violent pamphlets tn support of his views.
At the conference held in London in 1702 he was
ceoBured, and at the conference of 1796, also held
in London, he was unanimously expelled from tbe
conference. On Ai^. 9, 1797, Kilham met three
other Methodist clergymen and a number of lay-
men at Leeds and organized the Methodist New
Connection. See Method ibtb, I., 3.

Brin.[(WB»PBT; Hii Lift (wrtlten by himwIO wm ediUd
with k pnfun by J. Grundell, uiil R. Hull. Nottiujtbuii.
I7W; IJ. BliKikmi.] Life of Rev. Altiattdtr KiOiam.
Lnodan, IS38: W. J. TovdMnd, AlrxantUr XiUam. tht
FirtI fdeOiodat Reformer, ib. 1S90: DNB. nxL 103-103.

KILIAH, SADIT: Irish cleric in Germany,
who, with several companions, met a martyr's
death at WUrKbur^ in the eighth century. He is
called Bishop Chilianua in a necrology of the lime
and in the martyrology of Rabanua is spoken of as
coming from Ireland to preach the Gospel of Christ
in thoiw regions and meeting death because of his
faith. There are difficulties connected with the
tradition, not the least being that the Franks
dwelling on the middle Main were no longer a pagan
people and KiUan's labors, therefore, were not
those of a missionary. Only the fact of the Cel-
tic bishop's violent death is undoubted: the exact
period of his martyrdom at the hands of a Dux or
a Judge Gozbert can not be verified. Concerning
the form of the name " Kilian " the following seems
to be well establiahed. The Ch of tbe " Chilianus "
in tbe oldest authority is to be ascribed to the reg-
ular working of tbe laws of Germanic phonology.
Irish names ending in an, iane, ene are always
nicknames, appellatives, etc., as in the case of the
abbot of Armagh, about S40, addressed by Pope
John V. OS Tomian and Tomene. The old Irish cell
(^n. ceUe, dat. and ace. ciU, c being always pro-
nounced like k) signilied the cell of an anchorite,
n monastery or a church, and Cellan and Cillene
were common names among the Irish clergy in the
seventh and eighth centuries, signifying " anchor-
ite." On the analogy of Tomian and Tomene, Kil-
lian, spelled with two I's might properly be regarded
ns a variant of Cillene. The difficulty presented
hy the fact that tbe Frankish form is Kilian, with
single 1, may be explained by supposing the sub-
Htitution for the hquid double 1 of a single letter
bearing the same sound. Si. Kilian's reputation
dales from the time of Burchard. bishop of WOrs-
burg (d. about 754). (A. Hauck.)

July, ii., fiM-flU. Coniult- T. D. Hirdy.' OfwSpHrr
CalatuvM vf MaleriaU. i 1. p. 339, in RoUi Srrv: no. M.
LoDdoD. 1862: W. D. Killed. Ecdaiailical Hitl. of Irdanil.

2 volt.. Londoo, ISTS; S. Zinunar, Tht Itiik Eltmrnl in
VcdimxiJ CWfure. New York. 1391; Rettben. XD. ii. 303;
Hauck. KD. i, 370; DCB. i. 6M-6flS; KL. vii. MO-Ue-
DNB. X. 363-364.

KILLER, WILLIAM DOOL; Irish Presbyterian:
b. at Ballymena (23 m. n.w. of Belfast), County
Antrim, Apr. 5, ISOO; d. at Belfast Jan. 10. 1902.
He studied at the Belfast Academical Institution,
and in 1829 was ordained minister of Raphoe,
County Donegal. From 1841 he was professor of
church history and pastoral theology, and from
1869 until his death was president of the Presby-
terian College, Belfast. In theology he was a lib-
eral Evangelical. He wrote: The Ancient Church
(London, 1859); Memorial uf John Edgar (Belfast,
1867); The Old Catholic Church from the Apoaloiic
Age to A.D. 755 (Edinbuigh, 1871); The EccUti-
aslitxit History of Ireland from lAe Earliat Period
to Ike Present Time (2 vols., London, 1875); Tht
Itpiatian Letteri Entirely Spurioua (Edinburgh,
1886); The Frameujork o/ the Church: A TrealiM
on Church Oovemment (1890); and ReminUccnce*
of a Long Life (London, 1901); be also continued
J. 8. Rcid'a Hitlory of the PreAyterian Church in
Ireland from I7S3 (Belfast, 1853).

KILWARDBY, ROBERT: Archbishop of Can-
terbury; b. in England c. 1200; d. at Viterbo (42
m. n.n.w. of Rome), Italy, Sept. 11, 1279, He
probably studied at Oxford, but certainly at tbe
University of Paris, where he first distinguished
himself as a lecturer and writer on grammar and
logic. Later he joined the order of St. Dominic and
devoted himself to theology, distingniahing him-
self in this field by dividing most of Augustine's
works into chapters and prefixing to each an anal-
ysis of its contents. He was provincial prior of his
order in England 1261-72, archbishop of Canter-
bury 1272-78. and cardinal- bishop of Porto 1278-
1279. He was the first mendicant advanced to a
great post in the English Church. As archbishop
he held frequent synods. Those of 1273 and 1277
mark important developments in the representa-
tion of the lower clergy. On leaving England in
July, 1279, he took with him, along with other
property of the Bee, all the records of Canterbury.
To this day the oldest records of the see date from
the time of Archbishop Peclcham. Eilwardby's suo-
cessor. Kilwardby was a voluminous writer, and
in his day be was widely studied. Manuscripts of
his De orlu scienliarum, his moat important work,
are preserved in the Biblioth^ue Nationale, Paris,
and in the Bodleian Library, Qicford.

BiBLioositPHi: Sourees are: N. Trivet. Atirtalet tx rtgum
Atolio'. ed. T. Haft. LondoD, 1S46; ud in the ffoOi
Serita: A nnalea Monaatici. 5 toIl. LoDdon. I SM-OS
(eoRBuIt Index): CArpnicfH of lAi Rninu of Edward I.
amd II.. ed. W. Stubba, 2 vola.. ib. 1882-83: Bartholome*
of Collon. Hitl. An«f<(iiiHi. ed. H. R. Luud. Londun. 18SB.
Coneiill: J. Qu*li[ and J, Elchanl, Bcriplortt vrdinit prat'
dieaiorum. i. 3Tt-380. Parii. 1719: W. F. Hook. Artk-
biAop* ql' Canttrburu. iii. 304-326, 12 volt.. Londcm.
ISOO-TB; J, B- Haut^u. HisL dt la philatophit tcotoJr-
Hqut. II.. iL 28-33. Parii. 1880; DNB, XXD. 120-1S2.

EIMCHI, kim'ki (KIHHI): The name of a
Jewish family of scholars of Spanish descent, flour-
ishing in France in the twelfth and thirteenth oen-

1. Joseph ben Isaac Kimcbi, b. in southern

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

Spain c. 1100; d. probably in Narbonne c. llTo;
migrated from Spain to Narbonne. In hia gram-
roatical studieB he was influenced by Judab ben
Qayyuj, Abul-Walid, and Abrabani ibn Esra. His
ffiTonua.Sepheriikkaron," Book of remembrance "
(cf. Hal. iii. 16), gives for the firat time the division
of the Hebrew voweU into five long ones and five
Bhort ones. The Sephtr haggolui, " Book of Open
Evidence" (cf. Jer. mxii. 14) is a criticism of the
dictionary of Menahem ben Saru^ and its defense
by Jacob ben Meir. Joseph wrote also commen-
taries on Proverbs, Job and the Song of Songs.
Codex de Rossi 166 contains excerpts from an ex-
position of the Pentateuch, and nutrgiual notes in
the Codex de Rossi 1070 give comments on the
prophets. A commentary on the whole Bible be-
longed, according to the t^talogue CoUtdio Davidit,
p. 525, to the Hbrary of Oppenheimer. According
to Zunz {Liaeratargeadiichte der tynagogalen Poeeie,
p. 400, Berlin, 1865), Joseph wrote also six litur-
gical poems. From the Arabic he translated the
M^khar happeninijn of Solomon ibn Gabirol and a
large part of the " Duties of the Heart " of Bacbja
ibn Pakuda. Of his Sepher habberiih, " Book of
the Covenant " (cf. Ex. xxiv. 7), a conversation
between a believing Jew and an inSdel, only the
beginning has been preserved.

S. HoMB Kimchi, the older son of Joseph, d.
about 1190, has become generally known by hia
Mahalakh aheinln kadda'aih, " Guide to the Paths of
Science," a concise epitome of Hebrew grammar.
His grammatical work Sejiher Tahbotheth quoted
by David Kimchi seems to have been lost. Zunz
(ut sup., p. 462) enumerates four liturgical poems
by Moses. Hia exposition of Proverbs was com-
pleted 1178, that of Job 1184.

3. David Kimchi, usually called Redak, the
younger son of Joseph, was born at Narbonne c.
1160; d. there 1235. He often calls his father and
his brother hitt teachers. As a grammarian and
exegete David distinguishes himself by his diligent
compilation of facts, sober judgment and clear ex-
pression. By making an exhaustive use of Abul-
Walid, he enjoyed great authority among both
Christians and Jews, although he possessed little
originality. Reuchlin and Sebastian MUnster made
large use of his works. These have been very fre-
quently printed, many of his commentaries with
Latin translations. E. KOnig's LehrgA^twU der
HAraischen SproeAe (Leipaic, 1881 sqq.) was com-
piled " in constant dependence upon Qimchi," and
even now scholars may receive many a auggestion
from Kimchi's works. (H, L, Strack,)

BiBuoaBjiPBT: In eeoBral; Q. B. de Robh. Hi«tori«*M
WarlerbiHA dtr iadudien SdiriftiteBir. pp. 164-171.
BsulieD, IS3Bi Encb uid Gruber. E<Kvcloj<6<{it. It.
ixTvi. 54-S7: J. Winter and A. WOnwbe, Die jadiKJir
LiUtratyr. iL 191~20fi. 300-314, TrevSB, 1894; JB, vii.
494-407.

On 1: E. Bluth. in JVogonn for die Wiiatmchafl da
Jwlmlhumi. 1891-62 pugini: W. Bscher. in Rem* da
ttuAit jviva. vi (1S83). 208-221. On 2; W. Baeber.
ut BUp., no 11H00). 281-286. On 8: J. Taubw. SlonJ-
punkt und Lnitvna da Darid Kimchi oK Grammatiktr,
Breslau. 1867; Eruvclopadia Britaniiica, liv. 77-78.

SmC, HEHBY CBTTSCEILL: C-ongregation-
alist; b. at Hillsdale. Mich.. Sept. 18. 1858. He
studied at Hillsdale College, Oberlin College (B.A.,

1879), Oberlin Theological Seminary (from which
he was graduated in 1882), Harvard (1883-84),
and Berlin (1893-94). While a student in the
seminary he was tutor in Latin (1879-81) and math-
ematics (1881-S2) in the preparatory department
of his college. He returned to Oberlin in 1S&4 aod
was associate profes-sor of mathematics there until
1890, when be was transferred to the department of
philosophy, being promoted to a full professorship
of the latter subject in the following year. Since
1897 he has been professor of theology in the same
institution, of which he was elected sixth president
in 1902. He was a member of the committee of ten
appointed in 1893 by the National Education As-
sociation to report on studies in secondary schools,
and has written: Outline of Erdmann't History ^
Pkiloaophy (New York, 1892); Appetd qf the Chad
(baccalaureate sermons; Oberlin, 19O0); Out-
line of the " Microootma " of Hermann Lotze (1901);
Reconslniction in Theology (New York. 1901); The-
ology and the Social ConscioueneM (1902); Pergonal
and Ideal ElemerUa in Education (1904); Rational
Liring: Some Pracfital Inferences from Modem
Psychology (_1905); Letten to Sunday School Teachert
on the Great Truths of our Chriilian Faith (Boston,
1906) ; Seeming Unreality of the Spirituai Lift (New
York. 1908); and Laws of FnendtMp-'Human and
Divine (1909).

KIHG, JOHN: Bishop of London; b. at Wonn-
inghall (8 m. e. of Oxford), Buckinghamshire, c.
1550; d. in London Mar. 30, 1621, He studied at
the Westminster School and at Christ Church, Ox-
ford (B.A., 15S0; M. A., 1583; B.D., 1591; D.D.,
1601) and, on taking orders, became domestic chap-
lain to John Piers, archbishop of York. He was
made archdeacon of Nottingham 1590, rector of
St, Andrew, Holbom, 1597, prebendary of St. Paul's
1599, dean of Christ Church. Oxford, 1605, preb-
endary of Lincoln 1610, and bishop of London
1611. He was vice-chancellor of the Universityof
Oxford 1607-10, and was also a royal chaplain, both
under Queen Elizabeth and James I., who styled
him the " King of preachers." The report that on
his death-bed he became reconcileil to the Church of
Rome is unfounded. He published several single
sermons and Lectures 'upon Jonas, Delivered at
Yarke in . . . 159i (Oxford, 1597), reprinted in
Nichols' CommentaricB of the Puritan Period (vol.
i.. London, 1864).

BlBI.IOUR:tFHT: A. i Wood. Alhrnai OToaitn^t. fd. p.

BliM. ii. 294. 634. 861. iii. ^30. FoMti. i. 24g, 255, 4 vote..

London, 1813-20: DIfB. mi. 130-138 (where nferepoe

to sOLlWrnd nolioea is given).

KIHG, JOIIAS: Congregational missionary; b.
at Hawley, Mass., July 29, 1792; d. at Athens,
Greece. May 22, 1869. He was graduated at Will-
iams College, 1816, and at Andover Theological
Seminary, 1819; entered the Congregational minis-
try; labored as missionary in Syria 1823-26, and
in Greece from July, 1828, til! his death. From
1821 till 1823 he held (nominally) the professorehip
of Oriental languages and Uterature at Amherst
and spent a part of hia time studying in Paris, with
a view to entering upon the duties of his chair. He
published several volumes of translations, and orig-
inal works in modem Greek. His work in Athens

333

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Ximohi
SiB^om

was at all times disliked by the ecclesiastical au-
thorities; and in Mar., 1852, he was convicted of
teaching doctrines contrary to the religion of the
Greek Church, and sentenced to fifteen days' im-
prisonment and to exile, with costs. A protest
from the United States government prevented the
execution of this sentence, and in 1854 it was re-
voked. King's '' Miscellaneous Works " (Modem
Gk., 2 vols., Athens, 1859) include dociunents re-
ferring to his trial.

Biblioorapht: Mrs. F. £. H. Haines, Jomu King, MU-
tionary to Syria and Oreece, New York, 1879.

KING, THOMAS STARR: Unitarian; b. in
New York Dec. 16, 1824; d. in San Francisco Mar.
4, 1864. His education was interrupted by the
death of his father, a Universalist clergyman then
residing at Charlestown, Mass., and he was com-
pelled to go to work in a dry-goods store. Later,
while engaged in teaching, he studied theology in
his spare time, and began to preach in 1845. He
was pastor of the Universalist Church at Charles-
town 1846-48, of the Hollis Street Unitarian Church,
Boston, 1848-60, and of the Unitarian Church in
San Francisco 1860-64. He was a brilliant speaker
and achieved a national reputation as a lecturer.
At the outbreak of the Civil War, when it seemed
probable that California would secede, King threw
himself into the breach and by his eloquence saved
the State to the Union. During the war he was ac-
tive in the interest of the United States Sanitary
Commission. While located at Boston he spent
much time exploring the White Mountains and
published The While HillSf their Legends^ Land-
scape f arid Poetry (Boston, 1859). Patriotism and
other Papers (1864), Christianity and Humanity
( 1877) , Substance and Show, and other Lectures (1877)
were published posthumously.

Biblioorapht: A Memoir, by E. P. Whipple, was prefixed
to ChriatianUy and Humanity, ut sup., pp. vii.-Ixxx.
CoDsiilt also: R. Frothingham. A TriinUe to Thomas
Starr King, Boston, 1864; O. T. Shuck, Thomat Starr
Kino in Verae, privately printed, 1905.

KING, WILLIAM: Archbishop of Dublin; b.
at Antrim, Ireland, May 1, 1650; d. at Dublin May
8, 1729. He studied at Trinity College, Dublm
(B.A., 1670; M.A., 1673; D.D., 1689), and took
orders in 1674. He became provost of the cathe-
dral church of Tuam 1676, chancellor of St. Patrick's
and rector of St. Werburgh's 1679, dean of St. Pat-
rick's 1689, bishop of Derry 1691, and archbishop of
Dublin 1703. For espousing the cause of William
of Orange he was imprisoned by James II. in 1688
and again in 1690, but was liberated after the de-
feat of James' army at the battle of the Boyne (July
1, 1690). Though a Whig, he was an Irish patriot,
and defended vigorously the interests of the Irish
against the encroachments of the English. His
major work is De origine mali (Dublin and London,
1702; Eng. transl. by Edmund Law, London, 1731),
which attempts, on a Lockean basis, to reconcile
the existence of evil with the goodness of God. The
work attracted considerable attention, and was
criticized by Bayle, Leibnitz, and others. King also
published a number of sermons and The State qf the

Protestants in Ireland under the Late King James'
Government (London, 1691), an important vindica-
tion of the principles of the Revolution.

Biblioorapht: The chief authority is J. Ware, Archiepia-
eoporum Cauelienaium et Tuamenaium vitae, Dublin,
1626; very valuable is A Oreat Arehbiahop of Dublin.
TFtZQiam KinOt his AtUolnoffraphy, Family, and a SeUetion
from his Ccrrttpondence, ed. Sir Charles Simeon King,
London, 1908. For other scattered references consult
DNB, xxxi 163-167.

KINGDOM, BROTHERHOOD OF THE: An

organization having for its aim the study of the
teachings of Jesus regarding the kingdom of God
and the realization of these teachings in a spirit of
brotherhood. There are no officers except an ex-
ecutive conmiittee elected annually, with chair-
man, and corresponding and recording secretaries.
The Brotherhood was founded in Dec, 1892. Shortly
thereafter the compilation of a series of essays on
the kingdom in its various relations was suggested
and the work of their preparation was undertaken
by a small group of men. Later, it was agreed that
the writers should meet at Marlborough on the
Hudson, N. Y., in the month of August, 1893, for
the purpose of comparing their essays and bringing
them into a full agreement and unity. The sim-
ple basis of organization, entitled Spirii and Aims
of the Brotherhood, was then adopted, and the first
executive conunittee was elected. Thirteen annual
conferences have since been held, all but one at
Marlborough, and a few smaller conferences have
been held at various times between these annual
conferences, in the city of New York and elsewhere.
The first conference was attended by eleven men.
The second being more largely attended and ex-
citing considerable neighborhood interest, the
meetings took on a more public character, so that
in announcing the third conference it seemed de-
sirable to extend a public invitation to all interested
in the movement, and since that time the confer-
ences have been entirely open to the public, with
the exception of a short business session each morn-
ing, confined to the enrolled members of the Broth-
erhood. Reports of four of these conferences have
been published, besides tracts, leaflets, and maga-
zine articles from time to time.

While the Brotherhood has as yet attempted
little beyond the holding of its annual conference
and the putting forth of occasional expressions of
opinion regarding current questions of a social and
religious character in pamphlets and circulars, it
has made preparation for a larger sphere of activ-
ity in the future in several ways. It has a standing
committee on evangelization, whose aim is to pro-
mote evangelistic effort on a social basis. It has
also a conunittee on foreign correspondence, through
which it seeks to come into touch with those of
similar views and aims in England, on the continent
of Europe, and elsewhere. And latterly, as the
need of more permanent organization and lateral
extension has become manifest, provision has been
made for local chapters of the Brotherhood, receiv-
ing their charters from it and pledged to its spirit
and aims as their unalterable basis of constitution.

Lbighton Wiluamb.

Kingdom of Gkxl

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

334

Jewish Views of the Kingdom (i 1).

The Pauline Doctrine (i 2).

The Teaching of Jesus (i 3).

The Kingdom Previous to Augustine

(§4).
Augustine's Doctrine of the Kingdom

(§6).

KINGDOM OF GOD.

Luther on the Elingdom (i 6).
Luther's Earthly Kingdom of God

(J 7).
Theories of Zwingli and Calvin (i 8).
Pietism and the Enlightenment on the

Kingdom (i 9).
Kant and Herder (i 10).

In the teaching of Jesus '' kingdom of God " is
a phrase denoting his adherence to the expectation
of salvation developed from the Israelitic belief in
God as the king of the people; although in modem
systematic theology it implies a body of subjects
who obey a ruler, so that the highest good, in the
religious and ethical sense, is regarded as a saving
gift of God and as a conmion aim to be attained.
Since, however, the Oriental kingdom is not an
organic nation, but dominion over a territory, the
dominant idea is not so much the rule of God over
his people, as manifested in their obedience, as the
realization of the future kingdom (Isa. lii. 7; Ob.
21), overcoming its present obstacles in favor of his
people. From this kingdom mankind shall reap
abundant blessings, though for its progress they
can do nothing, since it comes only through the
miraculous intervention of God, and by means of a
total and sudden change of the world (Dan. ii. 44).
These deviating concepts of history and of system-
atic theology, however, are supplementary rather
than contradictory, since the realization of the
kingdom of God in favor of his people presupposes
that they are obedient to the divine governance,
as is evident from the prophetical writings (cf. Isa.
vi. sqq., x. 20 sqq., xlv. 8, Ix. 21).

The hope of the future " kingdom of God " in
Jewish eschatology had various forms regarding
the obstacles to God's rule, whom the kingdom con-
cerned, the manner in which it was to be realized,
and the consequences of its establish-
I. Jewish ment. The obstacle to God's rule was
Views seen at first in the oppression of God's
of the people by neighboring nations and by
Kingdom, the universal empires which followed
each other; later in the oppression of
the pious by impious factions and rulers; subse-
quently in the dominion of hostile spiritual powers,
such as stars, avenging angels, and Satan; and
finally, about the first century B.C., in the belief
that the whole present world is evil and doomed.
Those whom the kingdom of God concerned were
originally the people of Israel; then righteous in-
dividuals, first in Israel, and later also outside the
chosen people. Its realization meant primarily
the restitution of the old national glory by the aid
of God and the cooperation of man; but later, as
conditions became worse, solely by miraculous di-
vine intervention. Finally there was expected an
entire change of all things, a new world which al-
ready exists in heaven and is brought about by the
conquest of Satan, the last judgment, the resurreo-
tion of the dead, and the downfall of the old world.
The gifts of the kingdom are partly temporal and
partly heavenly, consisting on the one hand in the
imiversal rule of Israel or of the pious, with peace
on earth; and on the other hand in eternal life, the
cessation of evil, Sabbath rest, and commimion

The Theory of Sehleiennaeber (f 11).
Reoonoiliation of Confliedng Views by

Sohleiermaefaer (f 12).
Ritsohl's Theory of the iHtigAwn

(J 13).
The Kingdom of God and the Charoh

(I 14).

with God and the angels. Nevertheless, there was
only a partial spiritualization, and the expectation
of the blessings of salvation was still more or less
connected with the idea of a recompense for the
fulfilment of the law.

In the New Testament both the old elements of
Judaism and the new concepts of Christianity are
clearly represented by Paul. He shares with Juda-
ism the pessimistic view of the present world which
stands under the dominion of Satan (II Cor. iv. 4;
cf. Gal. i. 4; Rom. viii. 20 sqq., xii. 2); and, as In
Judaism, only the righteous, who fulfil the law, can
inherit the future kingdom of God (Gal. v. 21;
I Cor. vi. 9; I Thess. ii. 12, iii. 13; cf. I Cor. xv. 50
sqq.). With him, too, the '' kingdom " is the do-
minion of God, who will be '' all in all " (I Cor. xv.
28), and the just shall rule with him (Rom. v. 17,
iv. 13). He goes beyond the Jewish conception,
on the other hand, by dating the arrival of the
kingdom from the coming of Jesus the Messiah, by
substituting universal human moral requirements
for specifically national conditions, by spiritual-
izing the gifts of the kingdom (Rom. xi. 17, cf. viiL
19 sqq.), and by abolishing the concepts of legal-
ism and reward, which are replaced by ethical ful-
filments (Rom. xiv. 18; Gal. vi. 7 sqq.). While
these changes may still be considered as purifying
and completing the Jewish idea, Paul
2. The differed essentially from Judaieon by
Pauline the new concept that the future world
Doctrine, with its miraculous powers projects
into the present world (Rom. viii. 24
sqq.; Phil. iii. 20), and that upon earth God grants
the blessings of the kingdom to those who believe
in Christ, as partaking already, in a sense, of the
life of the world to come (II Cor. i. 22, v. 5, 17;
I Cor. XV. 24 sqq.; Gal. i. 4; Col. i. 13). Nor does
the Pauline equation of the Church and the king-
dom of Christ (which represents no essential change
in the concept, but only a divergent view of the
initiation and the development of the consumma-
tion) denote a human society for the independent
solution of ethical problems, much less a legalis-
tically organized association, but an organism of
divinely granted powers or " graces," by which
God permits the Church to grow as the body of
Christ (Eph. ii. 19-22, iv. 16). Paul again tran-
scends the Jewish concept by not considering these
divine powers to be ethically indifferent " graces,"
but by regarding the moral life of the Christians in
sanctification and love as the fruit of the supra-
natural and supramundane power of the Spirit
(Gal. V. 22 sqq.), and by valuing the other " graces "
according to their usefulness for the moral up-
building of the Church (I Cor. xiv. 5).

In consequence of this projection of the future
kingdom of God with its powers into the present
world, the fundamental ethical and religious ideas

336

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Kingdom of Ood

of the kingdom as, on the one hand, an obedient
people ruled by God, and, on the other, as the
totality of gifts which God's rule vouchsafes to its
members, approach each other much more closely
than in the Jewish scheme. The exercise of the
" graces,'' by which the kingdom of God or Christ
is extended, becomes an ethical task for the Chris-
tian, however much before and after the efforts of
his will he may be filled with the consciousness of
his dependence on the working of divine grace
(Rom. xii. 6-8; I Cor. xii. 14 sqq.); so that Paul
calls his missionary associates " fellow workers unto
the kingdom of God " (Col. iv. 11).

The Apocalypse, in like manner, recognizes not
only a future kingdom of God (xix.-xxi.), but also
one that is active in this present world. The be-
lievers are already rulers (i. 6, v. 10), though the
special blessings of the divine kingdom are prom-
ises and there is no organic connection between
obedience and promise. On the other hand, the
Gospel and Epistles of John set forth the same con-
cept as that of Paul, except for the individualism
and spiritualism of Hellenistic terminology, as ex-
emplified in the substitution of eternal life for the
kingdom (except in John iii. 3, 5, xviii. 36 sqq.).
While, however, Paul makes the arrival of the
kingdom in this world dependent upon the eleva-
tion of Jesus to the right hand of God, for John the
kingdom comes inmiediately through the knowl-
edge of God (xvii. 3, xviii. 37, xiv. 9).

In distinction from Paul and John, the preach-
ing of Jesus follows the Jewish scheme, in that he
urges the will of man to the acquisition of moral
justice by pointing to the future kingdom, since
God will reward such an attitude alone with a share
in his kingdom (Matt. v. 1-12, vi. 2, 33, vii. 21,
xviii. 3, 8 sqq., xix. 21, 27-29, xxv. 34; Luke xii.
35-48). By the kingdom Jesus understood the
establishment of the rule of God in the immediate
future, with a general resurrection and judgment
by a miracle of God, accompanied with a renovation
of the world denoting for the just the enjoyment
of an abundance of blessings, such as participation
in the divine governance (Matt. xix. 28), a share in
the Messianic meal with the patriarchs (Matt. viii.
11, xxvi. 29), and the sight of God, whose children
they become, being equal to the angels (Matt. v.
6, 8, 9; Luke xx. 36). From Jewish hopes he drew
the political and national factor and
3. The the portrayal of physical pleasures, but
Teaching he did not use the term ** kingdom of
of Jesus. God " to signify the obedient subjects
of God, or an organized community of
such subjects. Whether the view of Paul and John
concerning the projection of the future kingdom
of God into this world was foreign to the spirit of
Jesus depends on the question whether the justice
demanded by him as a condition for a share in
God's kingdom was of the same high quality as the
gifts of the kingdom; whether he considered those
gifts as an organic completion of justice or as a re-
ward which stood only in a mechanical relation to
it; and whether his preaching was merely manda-
tory, or possessed a creating and saving power, so
that voluntary obedience to it could at once be
felt to be the reception of miraculous, morally sa-

vixig, and beatifying powers of God. As to the first
point, we know that Jesus abolished the heteronomy
of the legalistic attitude, and consequently the basis
of a mechanical concept of a future reward, by lay-
ing all stress upon the disposition of the heart
(Mark vii. 16; Matt. vu. 16-17), by substituting
for the legalistic relation the relation of children to
a father (Mark x. 14 sqq.), by denying any legal
claims to reward (Matt. xx. 1 sqq.; LiSce xvii. 7-
10), by making God himself the model (Matt. v.
48), and by promising the kingdom of God to those
who long for righteousness (Matt. v. 6). At the
same time, Jesus subordinated temporal rewards
to the spiritual blessings of the kingdom, so that
with him there is an organic relation between the
moral condition in this world and the blessings of
the world to come. Jesus himself knew that son-
ship with God was a blessed thing (Matt. xi. 27),
and he admonished others to feel themselves to be
the children of God (Matt. x. 29-^2; Luke x. 19).
He promised rest to all who should take his yoke
upon them (Matt. xi. 28-30), and he urged his hear-
ers to trust boldly in God with the full assurance
that their prayers were heard (Mark xi. 22 sqq.;
Matt. vii. 7), and to live in purity of heart and in
love even of their enemies. It is thus dear that,
despite diveigencies in terminology and concept,
the teachings of John and Paul on the kingdom of
God were in harmony with the preaching of Jesus.
It is plain from Matt. xii. 28 and Luke x. 18-20
that Jesus held that the kingdom of God had al-
ready come in its religious, though not in its ethical,
concept; and in like manner the comparison of
John the Baptist to the least in the kingdom of
heaven (Matt. xi. 11; cf. Luke xvi. 16) implies that
with him the time of prophecy had ended and that
of fulfilment begun. Such parables as those of the
grain of mustard seed, the leaven, and the tares
also teach that the kingdom had already begun,
and foreshadow the progress of revelation and of
the divine power entered into the world; while the
victories over the powers of evil and the divine suc-
cess of his preaching of the kingdom also confirmed
his belief.

In later primitive Christianity the kingdom of
God was an exclusively eschatologtcal concept, so
that, according to Hegesippus, Idnsfolk of Jesus
declared to Domitian that ** the kingdom of Christ
is not cosmic or earthly, but heavenly and angelic at
the consmnmation of the age " (cf . also I Clem,
xlii. 3; Kermas, Simaitudea.x. 12, S). The Church
is distinguished from the kingdom of
4. The God; sl^ will be gathered from the
Kingdom four comers of the earth into the king-
Previous dom which God has prepared for her
to Augus- (Didachef ix. 4, x. 5). For Tertullian,
tine. Cyprian, Justin, and Irenaeus the
characteristic feature of the coming of
the kingdoip is the rule of God, by which they un-
derstood the discontinuance of their state of serv-
itude and oppression, and the enjoyment of a won-
derfully increased fertility of the earth. On the
other hand, Lactantius (Divinae irutiiutiionea, VII.,
xxiv. 4) held that the righteous would reign with
God and Christ on earth, the wicked being not en-
tirely destroyed, but doooned to perpetual bondage

Klngiilmn of Qod

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

886

and the objects of the victory of God and the tri-
umph of the just. Irenaeus {Haer., v. 32 sqq.), in
opposition to the Gnostic allegorical interpretation of
the New Testament, understood the cosmic Sabbath
of the millennium (cf. Heb. iv.), and the heavenly
feast (Matt. viii. 11) as the expectation of the king-
dom, that the just might rightly enjoy the reward
of their patience where they had suffered oppres-
sion. Among the Greek Fathers it was Origen who,
under the influence of the Greek ideal of the do-
minion of reason over the passions, originated an
ethical and individualistic concept of the kingdom
ci God based on Luke zvii. 21; Rom. xiv. 17, vi.
12; I Cor. xv. 28, but so modified that the gift of
God and of his saving blessings transcends ethical
duty, and the spiritual state of the Christian is con-
sidered the beginning of heavenly perfection. He
understands the second petition of the Lord's
Prayer expressly after the analogy of the rule of a
king over his subjects in a well-ordered city, so that
the soul must submit to the governance of God
and obey his spiritual laws. The perfection of the
kingdom of God, so that God will be all in all, takes
place in every individual when Christ has con-
quered the enemies in him, and he progresses un-
ceasingly until knowledge, wisdom, and other vir-
tues come to perfection in him. The same thoughts
are found in Cyril of Jerusalem (" Mystagogical
Lectures,'' v. 13) and Gregory of Nyssa (De ora-
Hone, ii.), while Chr3rsostom, influenced by the Stoic
idea of the wise man as king, develops the thought
that with the coming of the kingdom the soul itself
will become a king, thus coming into harmony with
the New-Testament test of the kingdom of God
that we shall acquire dominion in it (De oratione
daminica horn.). Ephraem (Cohortatio ad pcmiten-
tiam, xxiv., cf. ix., x.), like Johannes Cassianus (Co-
hortaiiOf i. 13), following Origen, laid stronger stress
on the mystic indwelling of God.

Augustine unites in the concept of the kingdom
of God the two characteristics of ^' being rul^ by
God " and of " reigning with God," the latter, which
begins after the resurrection, being the decisive indi-
cation. The saints or the just themselves constitute
the kingdom of God, since their hearts are governed
inwardly by Christ or God (Af PL, xxxix. 830, 832) ;
but the kingdom, strictly speaking, is still in the
future (AfPL, xxxiv. 1814, xxxvi. 388), and he de-
clared it madness to connect temporal life with the
kingdom of heaven. With Augustine
5. Augu»- the future '' reigning with God " had
tine's Doc- no analogy with a rule to be exercised
trine of the over others or with an influence upon
Kingdom, others, but consisted wholly of the con-
templation and enjoyment of God.
Nevertheless, Augustine gave up his former expec-
tation of the millennium and referred the promises
of Rev. XX. to the present {De civUate Dei, xx. 9),
so that the reign of the saints with Christ promised
for the millennium must exist in the present, though
with a power far inferior to that of the future. The
kingdom consequently implies for him, as for Barna-
bas before him, Sabbath rest (ed. AfPL, xxxvi.
1198). However personal this conception of the
kingdom in which God rules may be, Augustine re-
garded it from the very first as a community, a

phase in the battle which is waged in the course of
the world between the " kingdom of heaven " and
the " kmgdom of earth " or " of the devlL" On
the other hand, he also identified the empirical
church, which includes sinners, with the kingdom
of God (MPL, xxxvi. 409, xxxvii. 672 sqq.). This
organization is for him an instrument of the rule
of God, and the activity of its ministers is useful to
the kingdom, even if their personal conduct is evil
(AfPL, xxxvi. 1169). It was not strange, there-,
fore, that scholasticism should make Augustine's
ethical " Church of conflict " the " Church mili-
tant," and in like manner he influenced the course
of medieval development by his idea that the secu-
lar state should submit to the guidance of the
Church, which embodies true justice for the com-
munity. Alongside the concept of the kingdom of
God as relating to oi^ganized society, there developed
after Augustine the idea of the kingdom in relation
to the individual. St. Bernard, like the Greek
Fathers (cf. Thomas Aquinas, Catena aurea, on Matt,
vi. and Luke xi.) and Augustine, distinguished, on
the basis of Luke xvii. 21, between a free submis-
sion of man's will to the will of God in the present
world, and the future reign with Christ. Bona-
ventura (Stimulus amoris, iii. 17) regards devotion
to God and the experience of salvation as the high-
est good, which is the indwelling of God; while ac-
cording to Tauler (Predigten, Frankfort, 1703, 774,
926, 1202, 1206), the kingdom of God is God him-
self, dwelling in the soul in his own nature and
essence, with all his heavenly gifts and treasures.
Luther follows, on the whole, the thoughts of
Augustine, though with important modifications.
He treats the kingdom of God from the standpoint
of the law and the Gospel, the law expressing the
eternal destiny of man, which is realized by the
Gospel, so that life according to the law is life in the
kingdom of God. In this connection

6. Luther he also uses the analogy of a command-
on the ing king and an obedient people. The

Kingdom, life of voluntary submission to the will
of God is at the same time the blessed
life, so that ** blessedness means that God rules in
us, and we are his kingdom " (Werke, Erlangen ed.,
xxi. 184). Thus the kingdom of God as the ethical
rule of God is for him the highest good in the eth-
ical as well as in the religious sense. Man is under
the dominion of sin, but the Gospel comes as a mes-
sage of redemption through Christ, whereby the
law is fulfilled, or the rule of God is realized ac-
cording to its two factors, beginning in the present
and completed in the future. Upon earth this is
called the kingdom of Christ, but for Luther there
is no real difference between the kingdom of Christ
and that of God. Owing to Luther's concept of
redemption, he differs from Augustine in regard to
the realization of the kingdom of God. While both
regard the kingdom as voluntary devotion un-
trammeled by the law, and as a miraculous gift of
the spirit of God, Luther derives the effect of this
change, which still takes place through the miracu-
lous powers of God, psychologically from the indi-
vidual assurance of forgiveness through Christ.
Moreover, in consequence of his doctrine that, more
than all human actions, faith resting upon the

337

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Kingdom of Ood

pledge of forgiveness in Christ is the certainty of
salvation, the faith of the Christian means for
Luther experience of salvation in a way quite dif-
ferent from that of Augustine, and thus for him the
future " reigning with God " coincides with the
present " rule by God " both in time and in con-
tent. Luther extends the thought of the royal
dominion of the believers over all creatures and
over heaven and earth, in the sense that the assur-
ance of the fatherhood of God includes the assur-
ance that all things work together for good, i.e., for
eternal life. Thus by his concept of the kingdom,
which is a share in the dominion of God or Christ
over all, he avoids the disregard of the good and
evil of this world which had been taught by Augus-
tine and, at first, by himself.

As the kingdom of God consists of the Christians
over whom and in favor of whom God or Christ
rules, and who rule with him, it was but natural
for Luther to regard the kingdom on earth as in an
extensive and intensive state of growth, so that it
is the duty of every Christian to in-

7. Luther's crease the number of the faithful or to
Earthly build up God's kingdom (Erlangen ed..

Kingdom viii. 241, xii. 319, xxxiii. 344, xxxix.
of God. 14, I. 153, 235). But Luther did not

go far enough to regard the kingdom
of God as the highest ethical good or as an all-com-
prehending ethical end. This was because, in the
first place, his ethics was not teleological but ex-
periential, and in the second place because he did
not subordinate the spheres of the economic and
political states which, together with the Church,
make up his ideal of life on earth, to a common and
eternal purpose. The secular spheres and their
various vocations have for him only earthly aims,
and their works are governed by natural law. He
did not think of the possibility and necessity of
elevating earthly callings to a higher sphere of
morality by means of Christianity; yet he did not
contradict the view of Melanchthon, who saw in
the good works of Christians in their secular call-
ings a '^ policy of Christ to show his kingdom be-
fore the world." For Luther, as for others, the
realization of the kingdom of Christ was the Church,
which, however, he held to be the congregation o^
believers whom Christ rules through the Word and
the Spirit. On the other hand, he recognized the
kingdom of God wherever faith and love were mani-
fest in earthly callings, and he held the Church to
be the kingdom only where her activity truly pro-
ceeded from faith and love (Erlangen ed., xxiii.
385).

With Zwingli the ethical conception of the king-
dom of God preponderated. For him it is con-
tained, in the first place, in preaching, i.e., in the
offering of heavenly blessings and of the grace
vouchsafed in Christ, and, in the second place, in
the Church, to which preaching calls. Where the

Gospel is received, there is established

8. Theories the kingdom of God, which consists of
of Zwingli faith, piety, justice, and innocence, so

and Calvin, that it coincides with those who are

regenerated through Christ (Opera, ed.

H. Schuler and J. Schulthess, Zurich, 1828-42, vi.

210, 236, 239, 289, 302, 352, 390, 609, 693); and he

VL-22

emphasizes the view that the '' people of God " are
characterized simply and solely by their striving
to have the kingdom of God within them. With
Calvin the fundamental characteristic of the king-
dom was the rule of God, in the sense of the sub-
ordination of man to the divine will (CommefUarii
in N, T., ed. A. Tholuck, Berlin, 1833-34, i. 167).
It is not in the future, but begins in faith upon earth
through the Word and the secret working of the
Holy Spirit (ib., 1. 167, iii. 44, 336). It is, therefore,
a product of divine as well as human activity; nor
did it first come with Christ, whose office it was
** to spread through all the world the kingdom of
God, which was then restricted to a comer of Ju-
dsea " (ib., i. 287). The future kingdom is thus
the completion of the one begun on earth, and is
characterized by continued progress (ib., i. 167;
CR, XXX. 667). Unlike Luther, Calvin sought to
bring the kingdom of God to expression in the ex-
ternal forms of life. The realization of the rule of
God is, in the eyes of Calvin also, the Church, and
the conununion of saints is the test of the empirical
church (ed. A. Tholuck, i. 146, 262, ii. 198; CR,
XXX. 757). He again differed from Luther in so
far as he was inclined to regard the constitution of
the New Testament as an eternal law given by God,
and to regard church discipline as an order insti-
tuted by God for the conservation of the spiritual
state (CR, 776 sqq., 867 sqq., 891 sqq.); while he
carefully distinguished political from ecclesiastical
dominion (CR, xxv. 1092 sqq.).

In Pietism (q.v.) the longing for the betterment
of religious conditions led to a distinction between
the kingdom of God and the official Church or
Christian morality. Spener advocated the expec-
tation of better times for the Church, interpreting
this as a preparatory triiunph of the

9. Pietism glorious kingdom of Christ; a time of
and the the expansion and awakening of the

Enlighten- Church, which was to begin with the
ment on the destruction of Babylon (the Roman

Kingdom. Catholic Church); and the conversion
of the Jews, llie yoimger generation
of Pietists, like J. J. Moser, dated the banning, of
the kingdom from the movement of Spener, think-
ing of the contrast between traditional and genuine
Christianity. Emancipation from dogmatics, a
deeper study of the Bible, and its historical inter-
pretation led to the tenet that the Scriptures con-
tain the records of a history of revelation and re-
ligion passing through a series of developments
comprised under the general term '' kingdom of
God," a theory represented especially by Bengel,
C. A. Crusius, and Johann Jakob Hess. The period
of the Enlightenment (q.v.) emphasized primarily
the active ethical side in the kingdom of God and its
analogy with a conununity of obedient subjects,
but did not overlook the religious side, since it was
only through God's government of the world that
the harmony between the sphere of morality and
that of nature was accomplished, or that the com-
prehensive union of humanity was effected which
was necessary for the realization of the moral idea.
Owing to the indelible goodness of the heart, it was
held that there is no sharp distinction between the
history of natural humanity and the history of sal-

Sixi^om of Ood

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

888

vatioD, so that the kingdom of God progresses even
outside Judaism and Christianity. Leibnitz in-
terpreted the '^ kingdom of grace " as the dominion
of God in the spirit^world, while Semler understood
it as the new spiritual reign of God in the Church,
and Reinhard conceived it as an ethical brother-
hood established by Jesus to include all peoples.

Kant, on the other hand, made morality entirely
independent, even regeneration being an act of the
individual. Morality leads, however, to a religious
faith of reason in so far as the duty is felt to aim
at a highest good. The power of morality is insuf-
ficient to realize this; and it must,

zo. Kant therefore, postulate a moral ruler of
and the world, since a society must be es-

Herder. tablished according to the laws of vir-
tue for the protection of the individual
against the evil principle which siurounds him.
This ethical conununity, which can be realized only
as a people of God under laws of virtue, Kant calls
the kingdom of God on earth, and uses its idea as
a test for the criticism and purification of the em-
pirical Church. Herder considered the kingdom
of God to be the development of humanity as it
proceeds under the laws of nature or of the good-
ness, power, and wisdom of God, who furnishes the
means and endowments; and he was the first con-
sciously to combine the ethical and religious sense
of Christianity with the Greek universal and free
development of the entire personality.

The founder of the specific use of the concept
of the kingdom of God in modem theology was
Schleiermacher. The idea of the kingdom of God
forms the basis of his teaching, governing his sys-
tem both of doctrine and of ethics. The kingdom
of God is the purpose and realization of redemp-
tion; and it is not only the highest purpose of ao-
tion, but also the highest blessing

II. The (Chrisaiche SiUe, Berlin, 1843, p. 78).
Theory of He conceives the kingdom of God after

Schleier- the analogy of the relation between

macher. a ruling king and his obedient sub-
jects, yet so that the king's will is the
will of all who serve and live under him. The man-
ner in which the rule of God (or the being of God)
is exercised in man is consciousness of God, which
is real only as motivating activity or, more specifi-
cally (since God is the supreme all-embracing unity),
as the love of all mankind {Glaubenslehre, Berlin,
1821-22, §§ 90, 94). This consciousness of God
raises man above the world, and through it is real-
ized the further progress of the kingdom of God
throughout the earth. Unlike Kant, Schleier-
macher not only conceived moral activity as im-
mediately religious, as having its motive in the
consciousness of God; but he was also able to im-
derstand human activity as the working of the
Divine, in virtue of his ethical fundamental con-
cept of the highest good. By this he understood
such a result of moral activity as both included this
activity within itself and propagated it. Never-
theless, Schleiermacher's restriction of the blessed-
ness arising from the consciousness of God to those
filled with the love of all mankind was, at least in
terminology, an ethical narrowing of the concept
of the inunanent kingdom of God. For Schleier-

macher the realization of the kingdom of God was
the work of Christ, in so far as he, through the
strength and bliss of his consciousness of God, ex-
ercised a creative power of attraction which origi-
nated a common life ruled by the same impulse of
divine consciousness; since before Christ there had
never been so great a power of pure consciousness
of God, and hence no society comprising all man-
kind.

In endeavoring to harmonize Christian tradition
with the point of view of historical development,
Schleiermacher saw, on the one hand, a course of
evolution, first realized in Christ, and, on the other
hand, he looked upon conditions before Christ as
a universal life of sin, i.e., an impediment of human
nature contrary to its destiny, and upon the work
of Christ in founding the imiversal life of the king-
dom of God as redemption. For both
12. Recon- points of view he presupposed the
ciliation of original, or indelible, perfection of
Conflicting man and the world. He thus shared
Views by the view of primitive Christianity, re-
Schleier- garding a kingdom of evil opposed to
macher. the kingdom of God, even though he
rejected the rule of a personal devil,
and replaced the Pauline view of "the flesh" and
Augustine's doctrine of original sin by that of uni-
versal sin; but he contradicted himself by consider-
ing sin a necessary step in development. The king-
dom of God becomes real through redemption from
sin and evil. The consciousness of God, given by
Christ to the believer, is pure and blessed will di-
rected toward the kingdom of God; but this con-
tinual 'mpuke toward the kingdom of God becomes
real in the individual only in so far as the spirit of
the universal life founded by Christ becomes his
own impulse {Glaubendehrey § 121). This universal
life of the kingdom of God coincided for Schleier-
macher with his concept of the Church, since for
him the existence of the Church was a matter of
faith in Christ, who alone can be sure that in a
world of sin and evil the empirical Church is a place
of goodness and salvation. His position here is
similar to that of Luther in so far as he too held
that the kingdom of God can not be tested by the
legal oiganization of the Church and does not coin-
cide with the empirical Church. While there is a
wide divergence between the concept, both in primi-
tive Christianity and later, that the immanent king-
dom of God comes to pass through the miraculous
power of the Spirit proceeding from the exalted
Christ, and Schleiermacher's view that the personal
life of Christ on earth became the motivating power
of the universal spirit of the universal life, this di-
veigence is based merely on a changed psychology.
On the other hand, there is an essential limitation
of Christian hope when it is reduced to an expecta-
tion of infinite organic progress, with a rejection of
the eternal perfection of the individual and the mass.
Schleiermacher marked, however, an important
development not only in the doctrine of faith, but
also in the doctrine of ethics, since the doctrine of
faith developed for him into the ethical impulse to
do all that is in our power for the realization of the
kingdom of God, while in the religious satisfaction
granted by God is found a suflicient motive for mo-

830

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Kingdom of Gkxl
Kinffo

rality. At the same time it becomes possible to
harmonize the divergent incentives to morality pre-
sented in the New Testament, and to blend in the
concept of a single moral highest good the two pre-
vious varieties of Christian ethics, the theory of
duty and the theory of virtue. It likewise obvi-
ates the danger of quietism in case there is no end
to stimulate the will, and, finally, it affords a basis
of uniting early Christian and pre-Christian ethics.
Ritschl followed Schleiermacher, but deepened
his thoughts by a closer approach to the New Tes-
tament and to Luther. He took his stand in the
historical life of the body of believers, which is as-
sured that it is established through the revelation
of the free grace of God in Christ which
13. Ritschl*8 brings forgiveness of sins. Like Schlei-
Theoiy ermacher, he united the recognition
of the of a moral development which cul-
Kingdom. minates in Christ with the concept of
sin, but to him sin was more than im-
perfect development, it was the contradiction of
good, and its judgment as our own action and guilt
was not phenomenological, as it was with Schleier-
macher, but inherent, and according to the judg-
ment of God. The spiritual movement of believers
proceeds in two directions, in the specifically re-
ligious fimction of the consciousness of reconcilia-
tion with God, and in the moral function of activ-
ity for the kingdom of God. This kingdom Ritschl
understood after the analogy of a people that heart-
ily obeys its ruler; the will of God, however, he re-
garded not as a sum of norms, but as a uniform
purpose. For both Schleiermacher and Ritschl,
the kingdom of God is the highest good, not only
as a problem to be solved progressively by the ac-
tivity of all mankind, but also as a religious good,
as a gift and work of God, and as something that
makes life and blessedness. Although Ritschl was
rightly led by Kaftan to emphasize not only the
divinely fixed purpose of the kingdom of God, but
also the divine blessings to be enjoyed, he justly
refused to speak with Kaftan of two sides of the
kingdom of God, of an ethical side by which man
faces the world, and a mystical side by which he
retires from the world; for not only does the super-
mundane kingdom of God in the New Testament
include the ethical side, but Kaftan's idea leads to
quietism.

The ethical results of Schleiermacher's concept
of the kingdom of God were fully accepted by
Ritschl, and he was thus enabled to obviate a dual-
ism between the moral requirements of holiness
and justice on the one hand, and love on the other,
by recognizing love, as directed toward the ends
of the kingdom of God, to be itself the moral will.
He likewise removed Luther's and Schleiermacher's
lack of clearness in defining the relation of the king-
dom of God to the Church by distin-
14. The guishing between the religious, ethical,
Kingdom and legal concepts of the Church. In
of God so far as both arc regarded as the work-
and the ing of Go<l, the Church and the king-
Church, dom of God coincide; they are both
the sum total of persons who liave
been transposed by the Gospel of Christ into the
life of an ethically active faith, independently of

any legal organization. The Church has the special
duty of worship, acknowledgment, and education;
the kingdom of God that of the organization of hu-
manity through love. The legal organization of
the Church is only a means for the solution of her
ethical problems. If systematic theology retains
the concept of the kingdom of God, it must always
be in objective continuity not only with theology
since Origen, but also with primitive Christianity
although its formulas must be amended by modem
historical knowledge. (J. GoTTSCHicKf.)

Biblioorapht: A review of the subject is given in J. Weiss,
Die Idee dee Reichee Oottee in der Theologie, Giessen. 1001.
Much of the literature under Mcbsiah; Parables; and
Biblical Theoloot treats the subject (especially the
discussions by Weiss, Holtzmann, and Beyschlag) as do
many of the treatises on the life of Christ. Consult fur-
ther: SchOrer. Oeechichte, ii. 496-566. Eng. transl., II.,
ii. 126 sqq.; F. Theremin, Lehre vom gdUlichsn Reich,
Berlin. 1823; K. Wittichen. Die Idee dee ReicKee OoUee,
Gdttingen. 1872; J. S. Candlish. The Kingdom of God
Biblically and Hietorically Considered, Edinburgh. 1884;
G. Wilson, The Kingdom of Ood . . . According to the
Inapired Recorde, Bloomington. 111., 1888; A. B. Bruce.
The Kingdom of Ood; or Chriet'e Teachinge according to
the Synoptical OoepeU, Edinburgh. 1889; E. Issel. Die
Lehre vom Reich Oottee, Leyden. 1891; O. Schmoller, Die
Lehre vom Reich Oottee, ib. 1891; E. Haupt. in TSK, Ixv
(1892); Hering. in Zeitechrift fikr Theologie und Kirthe,
1892; O. Holtsmann. Neuteetamentliche Zeitgeechichte,
new ed.. Ttibingen, 1906; G. Schnedermann, Jeeu Vfr-
kUndigung und Lehre vom Reich Oottee, 2 parts, Leipsic.
1893-95; H. Holland. Ood'a City and the Coming of the
Kingdom, London. 1894; L. Tolstoi. The Kingdom of Ood
tM within you. New York, 1894, and often; L. Paul. Die
Voratellunget: vom Meeeiae und vom Ootteareich hei den
SynopHkem, Bonn, 1895; A. Titius. Jeeu Lehre vom Reiche
Oottee, Freiburg, 1895; R. Belaney, Kingdom of Ood on
Earth, London. 1896; Kl6pper, in ZWT, 1897; F. Krop,
La Pensfe de Jfeue eur le royaume de Dieu, Paris, 1897;
J. Sch&fer, Dae Reich Oottee im Licht der Parabeln, Mains.
1897; R. Wegener. Ritechle Idee dee Reichee Oottee, Leip-
sic. 1897; G. Dalmann. Die Worte Jeeu, pp. 75-113.
Leipsic, 1898; A. Jtilicher, Die Oleichniereden Jeeu, vol.
ii., Freiburg. 1899; W. Baldensperger, D<u Selbetbewueet'
aein Jeeu, Strasburg, 19(X); J. Weiss. Die Predigt Jeeu
vom Reich Oottee, GOttingen. 19(X); W. Bousset, Die Re-
ligion dee Jxidenthume im neuteetamentlichen Zeitalter, pp.
199-276. Berlin. 1903; P. Vols. JUdieche Eechatologie von
Daniel hie Akiba, f f 27, 42-48. TObingen. 1903; P. Wemle.
Die Reichgotteehoffnung in den AUeeten chrietlichen Doku-
menten und bei Jee%u, ib. 1903; W. Bousset. Jeeut^ PP. 71-
98. New York. 1906; J. Bfihmer. Der rdigionegeediiehiUeke
Rahmen dee Reichee Oottee, Leipsic, 1909.

KINGO, THOMAS HAIVSEN: Danish bishop
and hymn-writer; b. at Slangerup (15 m. n.n.w. of
Copenhagen) 1634; d. at Odense, island of Fdnen,
Oct. 14, 1703. He studied at the University of
Copenhagen, being graduated in 1654, and for some
time acted as tutor in private families. In 1661 he
was appointed vicar to the pastor at Kirke Hel-
singe (50 m. s.w. of Copenhagen), and in 1668 he
was ordained minister at his native town, where
his poetic activity began. At first he essayed pa-
triotic poems, but later devoted himself almost en-
tirely to the writing of hymns, and in 1674 the first
part of his Aandelige Sjunge Chor (" Spiritual Song
Choir ") appeared; followed in 1681 by part ii.
This work consists of a collection of beautiful hymns
several of which are still popular in the Danish
Church. In 1677 Kingo was appointed bishop of
Zealand. Charged by the government with the
compilation of a new hymn-book, he edited (1699)
the so-called Kingo*8 Paalmebog which contains

XSagBi Books of
Klii#aliip in Zoisol

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

840

eighty-five of his own oompontions, and which is
still used in various parts of Denmark and Norway.
Kingo was especially renowned for his beautiful
Ea^er hynms, in one of which he ssrmboliKs the
resurrection of Jesus by the " golden sun which
breaks through the dark clouds." He was influ-
ential also in causing light and tuneful melodies to
be adapted to the requirements of the Church.

(F. NWLBKN't.)

Bibuoorapbt: There b a biography by R. Peteraen, Co-
peohecen, 1887.

KIHGS, BOOKS OF.

Contente and View-pc^t Historicity and QuoDcrfogy

(I 1) (I 3).

Date and Sonreee (i 2.) The Text (f 4).

The two books which follow Samuel and precede
Chronicles in the English version were originally one
book, but were divided in the Septuagint and the
Vulgate; in Daniel Bomberg's Hebrew Bible the
division was adopted for the Hebrew. The books
divide into three parts. I Kings L-xi. contains the
account of David's death with Solomon's accession
and the story of his reign, including the account of
the building of the temple and of the internal and
external policies inaugurated by him; I Kings

xii.-II Kings xvii. contains the syn-

I. Contents chronistic account of the two king-

and View- doms of Judah and Israel to the fall

point of the latter; II Kings xviii.-xxv.

continues the history of the southern
kingdom to the Babylonian exile. The first two
chapters of I Kings belong rather to the preceding
narrative beginning with II Sam. ix. and giving
the story of David's reign, and chap. iii. begins a
narrative different from that which precedes. The
form is neither that of a chronicle of external events
nor a political history, but rather an account based
on a religious conception of the relation of the people
to Yahweh and the connection between its unfaith-
fulness and the destruction which befell both king-
doms (II Kings xvii. 7 sqq.). That the promise to
the house of David (I Kings xi. 32, 36, 39) was
not to fail appears to have been confirmed in the
view of the author by the fact that Jehoiachin
in his exile was restored to honor, this being a
pledge that God would keep his promise to his
people. The keynote is struck in the mention of
Solomon's cult of the high places and the relation
of each king of Judah to this cult is specifically
noted, while throughout nms the relation of the
people to prophetic teachings, this last especially
characteristic of these books. The point of view of
the editor of the sources from which the book was
compiled is unmistakably that of the Deuterono-
mist and preexilic prophecy; viz., that the cause of
the destruction of the kingdoms was the ever-re-
newed cult of the high places and the idolatry con-
nected with it. Yet it is not to be maintained, with
WelUiausen, that the priestly view is excluded and
that there is no knowledge shown of the distinction
between Levites and priests or of the Mosaic taber-
nacle (I King vii. 4). and that consequently the
chronicler's representation is to be set aside. Simi-
larly the assertion that the Aaronic line of priests has
no mention either overlooks the Zadokite succession
which came in with the supersession of Abiathar

(I Kings iL-26-27) and ccmtinued in the Zadok-
Eleasar line till the exile, or attempts to nullify it by
regarding that line as not Aaronic on the ground that
I Sam. ii. 27 sqq. (asserted to be a prophecy after
the event) predicted the extinction of the Aaronic
line; but this prophecy affected only the house of Eli
and not the entire priesthood (cf. II Sam. xv. 24
for the Zadokite-Levite conception). The dis-
tinction between priest and Levite as made in
Deut. xviii. 3, 6, is certainly preexilic

The terminus a quo for the final redaction of the
book is set by the mention of the restoration of
Jehoiachin to honor (II Kings xxv. 27sqq.) in 561 B.C.
But the original author must have worked before
the exile about 600 b.c. under Jehoiakim, who is
the latest king in connection with whom occurs the
usual Deuteronomic formula closing
2. Date and the account of a reign. A second
Sources, editing is seen in the i>a8sage II Kings
xviL 19-21, still before the exile of
Judah. From this second hand proceeded the syn-
chronistic data given for the two kingdoms, —
materials not found in the sources employed by
the first editors. Reference to these sources is very
characteristic of the whole work. Thus there is
note of the book of the acts of Solomon (I., xi. 41),
fourteen references to the book of the Chronicles of
the kings of Judah, and seventeen to the book of
the Chronicles of the kings of Israel. These have
been supposed to be the official records of the re-
spective kingdoms, but the frequent changes of
dynasty in the northern kingdom make this sup-
position untenable. They must rather have been
works which indeed employed official documents and
sources but were freer handling of the materials
than were official records. From such sources were
obtained the statistical data such as the age of the
king at accession, the length of his reign and the
political situation. It is also debatable whether
the editor had in mind two works as sources (for
Israel and for Judah) or one in two parts. Be-
sides these sources others were employed, such as
a prophetic-historical narrative like that from which
the Elijah-Elisha portion is taken: also the piece
II, xviii. 13-xx. 19, repeated in Isa. xxxvi.-xxxix.,
in which xviii. 14-16 is from a still different source
(as is shown by the spelling of the name Hezekiah).
This duplicated passage is probably original neither
with Kings nor Isaiah. Similarly II., xxiv. 18-xxv,
30 is paraJleled by Jer. Iii. but is not original with
Jeremiah. The Septuagint refers in I., viii. 53 to
a ''book of the ode," possibly the book of Jasher
(Josh. x. 13), the word " ode " coming in through a
misreading by transposition of letters (ahyr in-
stead of yshr).

So far as the political relations are concerned, the
historicity of these books is recognized. The es-
pecial point of attack in this matter has been the
Elijah-Elisha narratives, so rich in miracles paral-
leled only in the events ascribed to
3. Histo- the times of Moses and Joshua. But
ricity and it is to be noted that the marvels at
Chronology, the Carmel sacrifice, as in the desert
at the giving of the law through
Moses, and again in Elijah's removal from earthly
life without passing the gates of death, are no

341

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Klnrsi Books of
Xinffship in Imrwel

more extraordinary than the work he was called
to perform, midway between Moses and Christ, in
winning a victory for the worship of Yahweh.
The circumstances of the northern kingdom at the
time were such as to correspond with the atmosphere
of miracle in which this prophet lived. Difficulties
are found also in the chronology of the books. The
regnal periods of the kings are given in full years, a
result of a round rather than an exact reckoning.
The Talmud suggests that the reckoning was from
Nisan to Nisan, after a method which appears in
the New Testament in the account of the resur-
rection, which equates the parts of three days
with three full days, and in Josephus. This method
of reckoning appears definitely in II Kings xviii.
9-10, where the siege of Samaria is given as lasting
three years, though beginning in the seventh and
ending in the ninth year of Hoshea. Similarly,
while David's reign in Hebron is given in II Sam.
V. 4-5 as seven and a half years, in I Kings ii. 11 it
is given as seven years. Other cases of disregard
of portions of a year* might be given, but not in a
uniform and consistent manner, the consequence
being that an exact chronology can not be obtained
from these books. The totals are vitally affected,
as when the reigns of the kings of Judah from
Solomon to the destruction foot up to 260 years
and of the kings of Israel to 241 years. A recognized
means of correction is found in the Assyrian annals,
and of the attempts to use this means especially
noteworthy is that of Kamphausen, who requires
only six changes in the data of Israelitic succession
to reconcile the differences in Assyrian and Israelitic
chronology. See Time, Biblical Reckoning of.

The original text of the Biblical authors is
no longer extant; the Masoretic text does not ex-
actly reproduce this, nor does it agree with that
which formed the base of the early versions. If

reference is made to the extreme care
4. The exercised by the Masoretes in regard
Text. to the text they received, it must also

be recalled that this care was not ex-
ercised in the earliest times, as is proved by the
widely different texts sometimes found in parallel
passages. Thus in the parallels II Kings xviii. 13-
XX. 19 and Isa. xxxvi.-xxxix. the Isaiah passage
affords fifteen examples of the acripHo plenOf that in
Kings only three, as opposed to corresponding
scriptio defectiva in the other. Other changes are
due to glosses and marginal notes which copyists
have received into the text. The testimony of the
manuscripts of the Septuagint testify to changes
in the Hebrew; thus the Alexandrine codex is nearer
to the Masoretic text than is the Vatican, yet the
intent of the translators to be faithful is manifest
in that they reproduced in Greek letters Hebrew
words which they no longer understood. Moreover,
that the Greek translators had access to some of the
sources of the Hebrew is shown by additions not
found in the present Hebrew text. Care must be
exercised, however, not to overestimate the value of
the Septuagint for textual criticism, since the dif-
ferences between extant representatives of this text
differ so widely. Of the fragments preserved in the
Hexapla of Origen the version of Aquila is a close
reproduction of the Palestinian text, that of Sym-

machus is clear and elegant, that of Theodotion
partakes of the character of a recension of the
Septuagint on the basis of a text approximating
the Masoretic. The Targum of the prophets af-
fords little textual help, partaking as it does of
the paraphrastic rather than of the literal and
containing additions to the text. Where it can be
used, however, it is the earliest witness to the
Palestinian text on its mother soil. The Vulgate of
Jerome has also considerable value since it testifies
to the text of the end of the fourth Christian century.

(W. VOLCKt.)
Biblioorapht: The leading commentaries are: O. Thenius,
Leipsic, 1873; K. C. W. F. B&hr, in Lange. Eng. tranal..
New York, 1874; G. Rawlinson, in Bible Commentary,
London. 1874; C. F. Keil. Leipaic. 1876, Eng. transl.,
Edinburgh, 1877; G. Hammond and G. RawUnson, in
PtUpit Commentary, 2 vols., London. 1881-89; A. Kloo-
termann. Munich, 1887; J. R. Lumby, in Cambridge
BibU, Cambridge, 1888; F. W. Farrar. in Expoeitor'a
Bible, 2 voIb.. London, 1893-94; R. Kittel, Gdttingen,
1900; W. E. Barnes, in Cambridge Bible, 1908. Special
topics are treated in: A. Clemen. Die WunderbaricKte Hber
Elia und Eliea, Grimma, 1877; J. Meinhold, Die Jeaaierer-
ti^ungen xxxvi-xxxix, Gdttingen, 1897. On text-criticiam,
B. Stade. in ZATW, iii.-vi (1883-86), passim; A. Morgen-
stem. Die Sckolien dee Gregoriue Abuljfarag . . . eum Buth
der KOnige, Berlin. 1895; J. Berlinger, Die Peeehitta nun /.
Buck der KOnige, BerUn. 1897; F. C. Burldtt, Fragmente cf
the Book of Kinge according to . . . Aquila, Cambridge,
1897; C. F. Kent. StudenVa Old Teetament, vol. ii.. New
York. 1905 (valuable); W. D. Oockett, A Harmony of the
Booke of Samuel, Kinge . . . inthe Text of the Vereion of
1884, London. 1906. Consiilt also the principal works on
Old Testament Introduction under Biblical Introduc-
tion, and for chronology the works dted under Eba; Tiiib,
BiBUCAL Reckoning or.

KINGSHIP nv ISRAEL: The Israelitic king-
dom was later in origin than Israelitic nationality.
The latter began as a theocracy at Sinai under an
eldership which appeared sufficient for the demands
both of peace and war. The astonishment that
Moses " founded no state " (Vatke)
Hebrew and the conclusion therefrom that the
Ideals of Pentateuchal legislation must have
Kingship, arisen later in a state already in ex-
istence proceed from a false view of
the Hebrew state. Tlie bond of Hebrew nationality
was the covenant with Yahweh, which based legal
relations upon prophetic authority. A human
kingdom was superfluous since Yahweh was king
and leader in war (Ex. xv. 18, xiv. 14; Num. xxi.
14), with that leadership incarnated in Moses. But
the time came when no mighty and prophetically in-
spired man like Moses or Joshua stood at the head of
the people, when the spiritual bond was not strong
enough to hold the scattered tribes together, when
even the Yahweh worship was endangered by the
disintegrating influences of Canaanitic heathenism.
In the days of the Judges the need was felt of a
central power to unify action, and this tendency
was exemplified in the history of Gideon (q.v.) and
Abimelech (Judges viii.-ix.), though the results of
this premature attempt postponed for a long time
definite establishment of the kingdom. When Sam-
uel became too old for the performance of his duties
and his sons proved unworthy, while the Philistines
were aggressive, the demand became clamorous
and Samuel yielded to the request of the people
to anoint a king. Wellhausen mistakenly regards
I Sam. ix. 1-x. 16, zi. as the early account of the

Xinffship ix

in Israel

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

d4d

founding of the kingdom and chap. viii. as the post-
exilic view. But chap. viii. is entirely consonant
with the person and character of Samuel (see Sam-
uel; Saul). It was not by chance that a man from
the smallest tribe was chosen king; the will of Yah-
weh determined the selection and chap. viii. supplies
the account, basing the selection on SauPs worth.
A similar reason underlay the choice of David. In
both cases consecration to the kingly office was by
anointing (I Sam. x. 1, xvi. 13), as was customary
among the neighboring peoples. This anointing
was connected with religious usage and implied
divine sanction. In David's case it was repeated
when he was made king over Judah and again when
he became king of Israel (II Sam. ii. 4, v. 3). Pro-
phetic anointing is often mentioned, as in the cases
of Absalom, Solomon, Jehoahaz, and Jehu (II Sam.
xix. 10; I Kings i. 39; II Kings xi. 12, xxiii. 30).
The rabbis regarded anointing as necessary only to
the establishment of a new dynasty and thus ex-
plain omissions of anointing in other cases. A
symbol of kingly power was the scepter, in place of
which Saul appears to have used the spear. From
early times the crown also is in evidence (I Sam.
i. 10), and the throne appears with Solomon (I
Kings X. 18).

The position of the king was from the first not
that of an Oriental despot with unlimited power.
The law of the kingdom (I Sam. x. 25; cf . Deut. xvii.
14-20) was naturally not a mere embodiment of
popiilar law and custom, but arose out of the relig-
ious situation of the Hebrews. The king was to be
an Israelite, was not to multiply wives or wealth or

horses (as evidences of his glory).

Kingly Further he was to regard the torah,

Duties and written and prophetic, as his guide.

Privileges. In war he was the leader, and in peace

the chief authority in justice. As
judge he was to be humble in mind, giving access
to those who sought relief; his responsibility to
Yahweh was urged by the prophets. As Yahweh
had made free choice of the king, so he might re-
ject and displace him (I Sam. xiii. 13-14; I Kings
xi. 29 sqq.). The succession was hereditary, but the
power of appointment of a successor was in the reign-
ing king, with the mothers of the various princes
exercising influence behind the throne. Often the
succession was otherwise determined — by the
nobility, the priesthood, and indeed the people. The
queen mother had a high and influential position
from which, however, she might be deposed (I
Kings XV. 13). In the northern kingdom also pro-
phetic sanction was given to the kingship, as in the
case of Jeroboam I. and Jehu (qq.v.). But in gen-
eral other forces, including that of usurpation, were
at work in Israel (Hos. viii. 4). In the cult the king
took a conmianding position, offering sacrifices,
praying, and blessing the people. But in sacrificing,
it might be that the priest was the actual officiant;
indeed in later times it may be said that the king
yielded to the priest his priestly functions. A limita-
tion of the kingly privileges doubtless came into
play and is in view in the legislation of Ezekiel. It
was his duty (according to Ezekiel) to care for the
ordinary and festival offerings, and in prcexilic
times he might appoint and dismiss priests (I Kings

ii. 35), though he was in these matters not left to
the exercise of arbitrary power.

The king was surrounded with coimcilors and
ministers who came to bear the name of princes as
inmates of the royal palace; in addition to these
he had personal servants about him, who often mis-
used their power. The number of the officers was
not set by law, but varied with the
The Royal needs of the times; thus under David
Court and there were the general of the army, the
Revenues, captain of the guard, the recorder,
the chancellor, and the overseer of
labor; under Solomon appeared an upper officer
over the twelve prefects of the districts, and an officer
in charge of the household (I Kings iv. 5-6); with
these went a large number of lesser officials of various
grades and service, while later there came in eu-
nuchs (perhaps the name of an office, I Kings xxii.
9, margin). The royal revenues were not at all
times on the same basis, and I Sam. viii. 11 sqq. in-
dicates possibilities of arbitrariness hi the king's
demands. Yet only profligate kings would over-
ride the rights of their subjects, as in the instance of
Naboth, and in cases of aggression would usually
have at least the semblance of right of action. Cus-
tom developed the perquisites of the king. Thus
Amos vii. 1 indicates that to the king belonged the
first cutting of the grass. The custom of making
presents to the king is very early, and regular-
ity developed it into tribute. Ck)nquered peoples
brought tribute (II Sam. viii. 2), as did those who
placed themselves under the royal protection or did
homage (II Sam. viii. 10; I Kings x. 25). Solomon
put the Canaanites and even Israelites to forced
labor. Of booty taken in war a considerable part
was appropriated by the kmg, and the kings had usu-
ally their private estates. For the idealistic and
prophetic development of the idea of the kingdom
see Messiah^ Messianism. C. von Orelli.

Bibliography: S. Oettli, D<i9 Konigsidealdes Allen Te^ament,
Greifswald. 1899; R. Smend. AlUeslamenlliche Rdiffiotut-
ffeachichte, TQbingen, 1899; the literature on the History cf
Israel under Ahab; later workfl cited under Archeoixkst,
Biblical; and for the idealistic view of the monarchy the
works under Mbsbiau.

KINGSLEY, CHARLES: Enghsh clergyman and
author; b. at Holne (20 m. s.w. of Exeter), Devon-
shire, June 12, 1819; d. at Eversley (26 m. n.e. of
of Winchester), Hampshire, Jan. 23, 1875. He was
a precocious child, fond of atldetics and romantic
in disix)sition; the scenery with which he was sur-
rounded made a profound impression on his charac-
ter. He received his education at Clifton. Helston,
King's College, London, and Magdalene College,
Cambridge, where he studied fitfully and allowed
himself to be distracted by manifold interests.
He had at this time little taste for theology, but
finally decided to take orders, and was ordained in
July, 1842, to the curacy of Eversley. There his
duties were practical rather than theoretical, for
the parish was in a state of utter decay. In 1845 he
received the honorary appointment of canon of Mid-
dleham. His literary activities had already begun,
and at London in 1848 appeared his drama The
Saint* 8 Tragedy, a play based on St. Elizabeth of
Hungary, in which he voiced his disapproval of
medieval asceticism, which, in his opinion, detracted

343

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEPIA

Xinffship in Israel
Xinsol

lip u
ynng

from the sanctity of marriage. He became inter-
ested, on the other hand, in " Christian socialism,''
and contributed numerous papers to aid the caiise.
To this same influence were due his first two novels,
AUon Locke (1850) and Yeast (1851), the latter
originally contributed to Fraser^a Magazine. In
1851 he caused considerable excitement by his
defense of '' Christian socialism '' in a sermon in a
London church, and was forbidden to preach in the
diocese, although the prohibition was soon with-
drawn, especially as the working classes warmly
championed him. He was by no means a revolution-
ist, however, but in later life inclined to the Tory
side, the explanation of his interest in " Christian
socialism ** being his desire to mold popular trends
by practical Christianity. His position naturally
exposed him to frequent attack, and in 1851, after
refuting the criticisms aimed at the alleged immo-
rality of his Yeastf he sought to gain much-needed
rest by his first trip abroad, in which he visited the
Rhine, thus laying the foundations for his Two Years
Ago (1857). Meanwhile his pen had not been idle,
and in 1853 appeared his Hypaiiay a novel in which
he attempted a covert attack on the asceticism of
the High-church party. The novel had an immense
vogue, although it did not escape criticism and is not
without serious faults of construction.

His wife's health now obliged Kingsley to spend
the winter and spring at Torquay and Bideford, his
studies of natural history at the former place giving
him the foundation for his Glaucus (1855) and the
latter for his great historical novel Westtoard Ho!
(1855). At Bideford, moreover, he formed a draw-
ing class for young men in the same spirit of prac-
ticality with which he had lectured for a year on
English literature at Queen's College in 1848. The
unpopularity and prejudice against which Kingsley
had thus far struggled were now ending. In 1859 he
was appointed one of the queen's chaplains and in
the following year received the professorship of
modem history at Cambridge. Yet his tenure of
office, which ended in his retirement in 1869, can
scarcely be termed successful, for his mind was too
versatile and too superficial for him to be a reliable
historian. In 1864, moreover, he became involved
in a controversy with John Henry Newman. In a
review of a work by James Anthony Froude he
accused the Roman Catholic clergy in general and
Newman in particular of having but faint regard
for truth for its own sake. Newman retorted, and
upon Kingsley's replying with a pamphlet What^
theUf does Dr. Newman mean f his antagonist com-
pletely routed him with his famous Apologia pro
vita sua (1864). About this time he wrote his
Water Babies (1863) and a few years later his histor-
ical novel Hereward the Wake (1866), but his health
was beginning to fail, and in 1864 he was obliged to
make a trip to France, while in the following year
he was likewise forced to take a vacation of three
months on the Norfolk coast. After resigning his
professorship at Cambridge he was for a time promi-
nent in the Educational League and also acted as
president of the section for education at the So-
cial Science Congress at Bristol in Oct., 1869. In
the same year he made a visit to the West Indies,
embodying the result of his observations in his At

Last (IS70). He now took up his residence at (tes-
ter, where he had been appointed canon, and founded
a class in botany, his interests in science becoming
more and more pronounced, so that he finally
regarded Darwinism as in harmony with theology.
He remained at Chester only three years, however,
for in 1873 he was appointed canon of Westminister.
His enfeebled health again forced him to seek a
change of scene, and in 1874 he made a tour of
America, but returned to England with little benefit
from his trip, dying on a visit to his old parish.

Charles Kingsley was an earnest and consistent
advocate of what was somewhat derisively called
" muscular Christianity," and his enthusiasm for
practical work among the poor, like his interest in
science, especially in its popular aspects, was un-
feigned. He can scarcely be regarded, on the other
hand, as a theologian, fdthough he was throughout
his life a firm adherent of the Broad-church party,
his opposition to the Tractarian movement being so
pronounced as to lead Pusey and his colleagues in the
High-church wing to make a successful protest
against conferring an Oxford degree on him. The
inscription on his tomb in the churchyard at Evers-
ley strikingly attests the affection of his parish-
ioners: Amavimtis,amamiis,amabimtis, ''We loved,
love, and shall love (him)." His chief theological
works were his Twenty-five Village Sermons (Lon-
don, 1849); Sermons on National Subjects (2 vols.,
1852-54); Sermons for the Times (IS55); The Good
News of God (1859); Town and Country Sermons
(1861); Sermons on the Pentateuch (1863); David
(four University sermons, 1867); The Water of
Life and Other Sermons (1867); Discipline and other
Sermons (1868); Westminster Sermons (1874); and
the posthimious AU Saints* Day and Other Sermons
(1878).

Biblioobapht: The chief source is CharleM KxngAey, Hi$
LeUera and Memoriet of hi* lAfe, edited by hie Wife, Lon-
don* 1877. Consult further: J. H. Rigg, Modern An-
glican Theology, with a Memoir of Canon Kingeley, ib.
1880; A Memoir is prefixed by T. Hughes to AUon Locke,
ib. 1881; M. Kaufmann, Charlee Kingeley, Chrietian So-
cialiet and Social Reformer, ib. 1892; J. A. R. Marriott,
Charlee Kingeley, Noveliet. ib. 1892; E. Groth, CharUe
Kingeley ale Dichler und Sotialreformer, Leipsic, 1893;
C. W. Stubba. Charlee Kingeley and the Chrietian Social
Movement, London, 1899; DNB, xxjd. 175-181.

KINSHIP, PRIMITIVE. See Ck)MPARATivs Re-
ligion, VI., 1, b, § 1.

KINSMAN, FREDERICK JOSEPH: Protestant
Episcopal bishop of Delaware; b. at Warren, O.,
Sept. 27, 1868. He was educated at Keble Col-
lege, Oxford (B.A., 1894); master at St. Paul's
School, Concord, N. H. (1895-97); rector of St.
Martin's, New Bedford, Mass. (1897-1900); pro-
fessor of ecclesiastical history in Berkeley Divinity
School, Middletown, Conn. (1900-03) ; and in the
General Theological Seminary, New York City
(1903-08). In 1908 he was consecrated bishop of
Delaware.

KINSOLVING, GEORGE HERBERT: Protes-
tant Episcopal bishop of Texas; b. at Liberty, Va.,
Apr. 28, 1849. He was educated at the University
of Virginia and received his theological training at
the Virginia Theological Seminary, from which he
was graduated in 1873. He was ordered deacon in

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

1874 and priested in the following year. After being
assistant at Christ Church, Baltimore, in 1874-75,
be was rector of St. Mark's, BaKimore (1875-79),
at. John's, CiDcinnatt, O. (1879-91), and the Church
of the Epiphany, Philadelphia (1891-92). In
1892 be was consecrated bishop coadjutor of Texas,
and in the following year, on the death oE Bishop
Alexander Gregg, became his successor.

KIHSOLVIHG, LUCrE5 LEE: Protestant Epis-
copal bishop of Southern Brasil; b. at Middleburg,
Va., May 14, 1862. He studied at the University
of Virginia and was graduated from the theological
■eminary at Alexandria, Va., in 1889. He was
ordered deacon and ordained priest in the same
year, and from 1889 to I89S was a miBsionnry of the
Protestant Episcopal Church in the state of Rio
Grande do Sul, Braiil, while in 1899 he was con-
secrated missionary bishop of Southern Brazil.

KIP, WILLIAM IRGRAHAH: Protestant Epis-
copal bishop of Califomiai b. in New York City
Oct. 3, 1811; d. in San Francisco Apr. 7, 1893.
He was educated at Rutgers and Yale {B.A., 1831).
the Protestant Episcopal Theological Seminary of
Virginia (1S32--33), and the General Theological
Seminary, from which he was graduated in 1835.
He was ordered deacon in 1835 and priested in the
same year. He was successively rector of St. Peter's,
Morristown, N. J. (1835-36), curate of Grace
Church, New York City (1836-37), and rector of St.
Paul's, Albany, N. Y. (1837-53). In 1853 he was
consecrated first missionary bishop of California,
and four years bter, when California was made a
full bishopric, became diocesan. He wrote; The
HUlory, Object, and Proper Observation of the Holy
Seaton of Lent (New York, 1843); The DoubU
Witness of the Church (188-1); CkrUtma* HolidayB
lit Rome (1845); Early JeauH Miteiona in North
Amerwa (1846); The Early ConfiieU of Christianity
(1850); The Cotacomfts of Rome (I8S4); The Un-
notvced Things of Scripture (1868); Nea York m
the Olden Time (1872); Historical Scenes in the old
Jesuit Missions (1875); The Church of the Aposttea
(1877); and The Early Days of my Episcopate
(1892); besides many addresses and episcopal
charges.

KIPPIS, AUDREW: English non-conformi»t; b.
at Nottingham Mar. 28, 1725; d. in London Oct.
8, 1795. He was prepared for the Presbyterian
ministry at Philip Doddridge's academy at North-
ampton, where he spent the years 1741-46. He
■was pastor oE dissenting congregations at Boston,
Lincolnshire, 1746-50; atDorking, Surrey, 1760-53;
and at Westminster, London, 1753-96. From 1767
till 1734 he was classical and philological tutor in the
Coward Academy at Hoxton, and was afterward
s tutor in the dissenting academy at Hackney.
He early abandoned Calvinism for Socinianism,
was associated with many charitien, and was a volu-
minous writ«r. His reputation rests upon his un-
finished edition of the Biographia Britannica (5 vols.
and part of vol. vi., London, 1778-95). Other works
are: A Vindicalion of the Protestant Dissenting
Ministers (1772); Sermons on Practical Subjeds
(1791); and lives of Nathaniel Lardner and Flulip
Doddridge for editions of their works.

D»Hnfi>

Wnh

. Hitl. and ArUi^uUUt

Churchit. iv. 103-117, 402. Londoo
D\B, xxi, 105-107 (wbcre refcrencH lo other litcralim
may be (ound); Julian. HymmAogv. D. B2B.

EIR, ker: A place-name mentioned II Kings
xvi. 9; Isa. xxii. 6; and Amos i. 5, ix. 7 as within the
Assyrian region and as the dwelUng-plaee of an
Aramaic people. Even the early translators did
not know its location; the later translators followed
J. D. Michaelis in placing it on the river still known
as Kur and flowing into the Caspian. But the As-
syrian kingdom never included this region. Scbrader
sought it in South Babylonia. The correct position
is given by Winckler as the plain of Jatbur, between
the Tigris and the mountains, and bordering on
Elam, the land of the Karians mentioned by Anian
(III., viii. 5) near Sittakene. Winckler regards the
Kir as a mistake for fior. That Aramaic peoples
were inhabitants of the region appears both from
the Bible (II Kings xvi. 9). and from the inscrip-
tions, since Tiglath-Pilescr transported Damascans
thither. It seems probable tliat this was the original
home of the Arameans, whither they were deported
after the manner of Isa. xxxvii. 29. In Amos i. 5
and iz. 7 the word seems to be a later intrusion.

(A. Jereuias.)
BiBLiootuPHi: B. Winckler. AtOcslammairlu: Unlersudt-
uneen. ii. 253 Hiq.. Nachtrae. p. 378. Leiptic, ise:^
idem. AUaritnUUHcAr FnrKhiingrn, pp. 17S-179. ib. ISft*.

KISCHER, klKRcr, ATHARASIUS: German Jes-
uit; b. at Oeisa (30 m. n.e. of Fulda) May 2,
1602; d. in Rome Nov. 28, 1680. He joined the
Society of Jesus at Mainz in 1S18, and afterward
became teacher of philosophy and mathematics at
WOrsburg. On the invasion of the Swedes in 1631
he fled to Avignon, wlience he repaired to Rome in
1636. For eight years he taught mathematics at
the CollegitiDi Romanum and founded in the college
a museum that has preserved his name. He was a
scholar of varied attainments and wrote Dumerous
books on mathematics, physics, natural history,
philosophy, philology, history, and archeology.
While his writings are now antiquated, Kircher is
important for his work as a pioneer, particularly
in the field of Egyptian hieroglyphics. To be men-
tioned are; Prodromus Coplus aive Mgyptiacus
(Rome, 1636); (Edipus Mgyptiacus (3 vols., 1652-
1655); China . . . illaslrata (Amsterdam, 1667);
and Lalium (1671).

BlBUOORAFHTr Hii *utob1ograp>iy i> in A, LsoBeoniaiitel,
Fateicutun tpUiataevm, A. Kircheri, pp. 05 aqq.. Aue*^
bur«. I6S4: A. and A. de Hacker. Bibluith/nvt da firi-
raint ill la tonfU dt Jiiat. Lh^kb. 1853-01; KL. vii. 710-
717.

EIRCHHOFER, kirH'hof-cr, BfELCHIOR: Swiss
church historian; b. at Schaffhausen Jan. 3. 1775;
d. at Stein (U m. e.s.e. of Schaffhausen) Feb. 13,
1853. He studied theology and philosophy at
Marburg 1794-96, took orders in 1797, and held
various country pastorates till 1808, when he be-
came pastor at Stein, in the canton of Schaffhausen,
and remained there till his death. In his works
Kirchhofer combined a calm and objective manner
of presentation with thoroughness and soundno^s of
inve.4tigation. He wrote monographs on Sebastian
HofmeUler (Zurich, 1808). Oswald Myconius (1813).
Werner Steiner (1818), Berthold Haller (1828),

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

and GuillAUme Farel (2 vols., 1831-33; Eng. transl.
London, 1837), and conlinucti Hot finger's Hd-
wfiacfte Kirchejigeachichte (ed. L. Wirz, 5 parts,
1808-19). He also published the Schaffkausmaehe
JahrbOeha- (Schaffhausen, 1819-29), and Nmi-
jahrabl&tler Jut die schaffhauteriBche Jugend (1822-
1843), which conlain a history of Schaffhausen until
the incorporation of the city into the Swiss Confed-
eracy in 1501, besides some smaller pamphlets,
tracts, and criticisms. (C. A. Babchtold.)

KIRCHMEYER, klrH'mQi"er, THOMAS (HAO-
GEORGUS): Protestant Iheologiaa and reiieious
dranmlist; b. at Hubelschmeiss near Straubing (2.5
m. s.e. of Regeasburg) c. 1508; d. probably at
Wiesloch (8 m. s. of Heidelberg) Dec. 24. 1563.
He was educated at TQbingen, though his name dots
not appear in the university lists, and received an
excellent training in the humanities and took the
master 'a degree. He embraced with passionate
aeal the cause of the Reformation but at the same
time was bold in maintaining his individual beliefs
against the authority of the great Protestant the-
ologians. He fir^t appears aa pastor of Suiza, in
present Saxe- Wei mar, 1,W5. In 1537 he is described
by Nicholas Mcdier of Naumburg as a thoughtful
man. who did not hesitate to express his dissent from
llie authorities at Wittenberg, and was therefore
" prone to all hcreeies and seditions." In 1541 he
became pastor at Kahla. Before this, however, he
had written his trilogy of dramas against the Roman
church upon nhich his fame is founded; Pam-
mackiua (Wittenberg. 1538), Merealor (1510),
and Incendia (1541). At Kahla the Wittenberg
theologians refused to allow his commentary on the
first epistle of John to be printed because in it he
taught that the elect, even when they sin against

in possession of the Holy Ghost. Melanchthon
Bought to gain him over from this opinion; and
in 1544 Luther, Melanchthon, and Bugenhagen
justified their condemnation of his work in a com-
munication to the elector with whom Kirchmeyer
stood in great favor. He accompanied the court to
the diet of Speyer in 1544 and in the same year
published the prohibited book with a dedication lo
Johann Ernst of Saxony. The followers of Luther
thenceforward regarded Kirchmeyer as an op-
ponent and after the death of the great Reformer
new controversies arose as to his orthodoxy. In
addition to the charge already brought against him
he was accused of preaching the Zwinglian con-
ception of the Lord's Supper. Impeached by
Kasper Afjuila of Saalfeld he was tried before the
consistory of Weimar under the presidency of Duke
Johann Wilhelm, and acquitted of the charge, but
being ordered to explain himself on some points to
his congregation he left Kahla and spent many
years in wandering through Switzerland and South
Germany.

Kirchmeyer's dramas contain little action and
deal with personifications inslcad of real persons,
after the fashion of the old Moralities, but they are
tnarked by a spirit of bitter criticism of Roman

Catholic teachings and practises which naturally
made them popular in Protestant circles. Besides
the three plays already mentioned he wrote utso
three Biblical dramas, Hamanus (1543), Hiciemiaa
( 1551) and yiKJiM /scariofes (1553), all translated into
German. Of polemical works, the most celebrated
is the Regnum papisticum (Basil ? 1553), an unre-
strained denunciation in verse of the Roman church
[Eng. trans.. The Popish Kingdome, London, 1570,
rep. 1880]. Minor works are the Agriculttira aacra
libri V. (1550), and the Sati/ranim libri quinque
(1555). He was also the author of many transla-
tions from Greek into Latin, including Sophocles,
Isocrates, Epict«tua, Dio Chrysostom, Plutarch,
and Synesius. In 1551 he published a summary of
canon law which attained great popularity, owing
to its impartial treatment of many controverted
subjects; yet strangely enough it is this work that
led the way to the Regnum pa-pUticam. His in-
dependent spirit finds re[)eat*d expression in hia
Latin verse wherein he does not hesitate to sing
the praises of men of the old faith, among them
Erasmus, to whom he concedes much merit as a
pioneer of the Reformation. (G. Kawbrad.)

iciom. Do. Ul«m und Wirkf

Leipmc, 19U8.- O. T

itdu^ /nAoiu, iU. 107-154

Nurenib.rg.l-BO; J. J. I. voD

DOUingpf. Dit Ri/mnatiim.

B. Holoteio. Dit Rtfarmal

um >m BpiivtlhUd, dtr drama-

[iacAln LUIrratur da 10. Ja

rhu«dn-U. pp. 108 K|q., Hslla.

ISSfl: J- JsnsMn. ttisl. of

the airman PcopU. lii. T6-B2.

London. 1907; ADB. «ilii.

24SH]q.

KIRK, EDWARD NORRIS: American Con-
gregationalist; b. in Sew York Aug. 14, 1802; d. in
Boston Mar. 27, 1874. He was graduated at the
College of New Jersey (Princeton) in 1820 and at the
Princeton Theological Seminary in 1825, and trav-
eled in the southern States as agent of the American
Board 1826-28. He was pastor of a Presbyterian
church in Albany 1828-37, secretary of the Foreign
Evangelical Society 1839-42, and pastor of the
Mount Vernon Congregational Church in Boeton
1842-71, During the years 1837-39 he traveled in
Europe and preached for several months in Paris.
He was a successful evangelist, one of the lirst mem-
bc-rs of the EvangeUcal Alliance, and a vigorous ad-
vocate of the evangehzation of the Roman Catholic
rotmtries of Europe. His writings include: Mexao-
ruil of Rev. John Chetter (Albany, 1829); Sermona
(New York, 1840); LectuTea on Chritfa Parable*
(1856); asecond volume of rSermons (Boston, 1860);
and Lecturer on Revivals (ed. D. O. Meors, 1874).

BiBLiooRAPnT: D, O, Mous. Lift of Eduvrd SorriM Kirk,
Bosloo. 1877.

EIRE, HARRIS ELLIOTT: Presbyterian; b.
at Pulaski, Giles Co,, Tenn., Oct. 12, 1872, He is
a graduate of the academic and theological depart-
ments of the Southwestern L'niversity, Clarksville,
Tenn.; was pastor of Cottage Presbyterian Church,
Nashville, Tenn., 1897-99, of the First Presbyterian
Church, Florence, Ala,, 1899-1901, and of Franklin
Street Presbyterian Church, Baltimore, 1901-09.
In 1909 he was called to the chair of polemics in
Princeton Theological Seminary. He is a " pro-
gressive conservative, believing in the adaptation of
the essenliol views of the conservative theology to

Xirkland

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

846

modem conditions in a sympathetic and construc-
tive way." He has written a nimiber of essays, and
The Lo9t Book (Richmond, 1905).

KIRKLAND,JOHK THORNTON: American Con-
gr^gationalist, son of Samuel Kirkland (q.v.); b.
at Herkimer, N. Y., Aug. 17, 1770; d. in Boston
Apr. 26, 1840. He studied at Phillips Academy
(Andover), and at Harvard College (B.A., 1789),
where, while preparing for the ministry, he was tutor
in logic and metaphysics 1792-94. He was pastor of
the New South Church, Boston, 1794-1810, and
president of Harvard College 1810-28. Under his
vigorous administration three new buildings were
erected and the course of study was greatly ex-
tended. He published several sermons, and a Life
of Fiaher Ames, printed in Ames' Works (Boston,
1809).

Buuoorapht: A. E. Dunning, CongreffotionalitU in Amer-
tca, pp. 293, 296. New York, 1894; National Cydopadia
cjf American Biographyt vi. 417. ib. 1896.

KIRKLAND, SAMUEL: American missionary
to the Iroquois Indians; b. at Norwich, Conn., Dec.
1, 1741; d. at Clinton, N. Y., Feb. 28, 1808. He
was graduated at the College of New Jersey (Prince-
ton) in 1765, and on his return from a visit to the
Senecas in 1766 was ordained into the Congrega-
tional ministry and sent as missionary to the Six
Nations. During the Revolution he served as a
chaplain in the army. For persuading the Oneidas
and Tuscaroras to remain neutral he was rewarded
by Congress with a laige grant of land in 1785.
At the close of the war he resumed his missionary
work. In 1791 he conducted a delegation of some
forty warriors to Philadelphia to meet Congress
and discuss methods of introducing civilization
among the tribes; and in 1793 he founded the Ham-
ilton Oneida Academy (now Hamilton College)
for the education of American and Indian youth.

Bibuooraprt: S. K. Lothxxjp, in J. Spark, LiJbrary of
American Biography, 10 vols.. New York, 184^51; W.
B. Spraffue, Annalt of ths American Pulpit, I 623-630, ib.
1869.

KIRKPATRICK, ALEXANDER FRANCIS: Church
of England; b. at Lewes (50 m. s. of London),
Sussex, June 25, 1849. He studied at Trinity
College, Cambridge (B.A., 1871), where he was
elected fellow in 1871. He was ordered deacon in
1874 and ordained priest in 1875. He was assist-
ant tutor in Trinity College 1871-82 and junior proc-
tor 1881-82, and from the latter year until 1903
was regius professor of Hebrew and canon of Ely.
Since 1903 he has been Lady Margaret professor of
divinity and honorary canon of Ely. He was uni-
versity preacher in 1875, 1878, 1882, 1889, 1897,
and 1903, Cambridge Whitehall preacher m 1878-
1880, Lady Margaret preacher in 1882 and 1893,
and Warburtonian lecturer at Lincoln's Inn in 1886-
1890. He was examining chaplain to the bishop
of Winchester 1878-90, the bishop of Rochester
1891-95, and again to the bishop of Winchester
1895-1903, and since 1903 has been examining
chaplain to the archbishop of Canterbury. He has
also been master of Selwyn College, Cambridge,
since 1898, and besides being the general editor of the
Old Testament and Apocrypha for the Cambridge
Bible for Schools and CoUegea, for which series he

has prepared the volumes on I and II Samuel (2
vols., London, 1880-^1) and the Psalms (3 vols.,
1890-1901), has written The Divine Library of the
Old Testament (1891) and The Doctrine of the
Prophets (Warburtonian lectures; 1892).

KIRKTJS, WILLIAM: Protestant Episcopalian;
b. at Hull, England, May 9, 1830; d. in Brooklyn,
July 10, 1907. He was educated at Lancashire
Independent College, Manchester, and at the
University of London (B.A., 1849). He then
entered the Congregational ministry, and was
assistant minister of Craven Chapel, London,
1850-52, minister of St. Thomas Square Chapel,
Hackney, London, 1852-68, and of Longsight
Chapel, Manchester, 1868-70. From 1870 until
1872 he was headmaster of Broughton High
School, Manchester. In 1872 he was admitted to
deacon's orders in the Church of England and
became curate at Cheatham Hill, Manchester.
In the same year he came to the United States, and,
being ordained to the priesthood, was curate of
Grace Church, New York City, from 1873 to 1875.
He was then rector of Christ Church, Baltimore,
Md., 1875-76, and rector of St. Michael and All
Angels in the same city 1876-92. In 1892 he re-
tired from active parochial work to devote himself
to literature. Besides editing The American Lit-
erary Churchman (Baltimore) from 1881 to 1885 and
writing two novels under the pseudonym of Florence
Williamson, he published Christianity, Theoretical
and Practical (London, 1854) ; Miscellaneous Essays
(2 vols., 1833-69); Orthodoxy, Scripture, and
Reason (1865); and Religion, a Reixdation and
Rule ofUfe (New York, 1886).

KIRN, OTTO: German Protestant; b. at Hes-
lach (a suburb of Stuttgart) Jan. 23, 1857. He
studied at the theological seminaries of Maulbronn
and Blaubeuren and at the University of Tubingen
(1875-80; lie. theol., 1886; Ph.D., 1889), and after
being lecturer at the theological seminary at Tii-
bingen 1881-84, was deacon at Besigheim, Wtirttem-
berg, until 1889. In 1889 he became privat-dooent
at the University of Basel, where he was appointed
associate professor in 1890 and full professor in
1894. Since 1895 he has been professor of dogmatic
theology at the University of Leipsic. He has
written IJ^ber Wesen und Begriindung der religiosen
Gewissheit (Basil, 1889); Schleiermacher und die
Romantik (1895); Glaube und Geschichte (Leipsic,
1900); Grundriss der evangelischen Dogmaiik (1905);
Grundriss der iheologischen Ethik (1906); and many
addresses and sermons.

KIRWAN, WALTER BLAKE: Church of Ire-
land; b. of Roman Catholic parents at Gort (IS m.
s.e. of Galway), County Gaiway, Ireland, in the
year 1754; d. at Mount Pleasant, near Dublin, Oct.
27, 1805. He studied in the Jesuit College of Saint
Omer, France; lived at Saint Croix (or Santa Cruz),
Lesser Antilles, with a relative who was a large
landed proprietor, but ill health caused his return to
Europe. He entered the Franciscan order, studied
in the College of St. Anthony of Padua, at Louvain,
where he became instructor in natural and moral
philosophy, and in that city was admitted to the
priesthood. From 1778 to 1785 he was chaplain

847

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Kirkland
Kiss of Pmum

to the Neapolitan ambassador at the British court.
His eloquent sermons attracted attention, but,
shaken in his allegiance to the Roman Church in
1785, he went into retirement and two years later
declared himself a Protestant. On June 27 he
preached his first sermon as such in St. Peter's
Church, Dublin, and was henceforth identified with
the Church of Ireland. He never would, however,
say anything against his former coreligionists. In
1788 he became rector of St. Nicholas-Without,
Dublin, and held this place till his death, from 1800
in connection with the deanship of KiUala, County
Mayo. In 1798 he married and was survived by
his wife and four children. He had great pulpit
power, but is chiefly remembered for his sermons in
behalf of charities, as he had remarkable ability
in inducing persons to give. Of the thirteen ser-
mons which were published by his widow (London,
1814, 2d ed., 1816, reprinted Philadelphia, 1816)
eleven are charity sermons, and although the pres-
ent reader can not give them their pristine attrac-
tiveness, they are interesting and moving discourses
(one of them b reprinted in H. C. Fish's Master"
pieces of Pulpit Eloquence, i. 581-592). In the
British Museum are two volumes of his Latin theses,
one on Biblical chronology and the other on the
Decalogue (Louvain, 1775 and 1776).

Biblioorapht: A sketoh of his life, probably by his widow,
is prefaced to his Sermona as above. Ck>Dault also DNB,
xxxii. 230.

KIS, STEPHANUS (called Szegedinus from his
birthplace): Hungarian Reformer; b. at Sieged
(96 m. s.e. of Budapest) 1515; d. at Riczkeve
(22 m. 8.8.W. of Budapest) 1572. He studied at
Vienna and Cracow, and under Melanchthon at
Wittenberg 1543-45. He served as school-teacher
in his native land, suffering persecution for his faith
until Peter Petrovics, commander of Temesvar
under Queen Isabella and a Calvinist, took him
into favor and made him rector of his school (1548).
Political changes brought Temesvar under Ferdi-
nand of Hapsburg, Petrovics was succeeded by a
Roman Catholic in 1552, and all Protestant pastors
and teachers were driven from the town. Kis
found refuge under Turkish dominion, but the ill
will of the Romanists followed him and, on their
complaint, he was kept imprisoned in chains for a
year and a half by a Turkish pasha until his friends
released him by a heavy ransom in 1563. Hence-
forth he lived in quiet at Rdczkeve, acting as super-
intendent of thirty-five congregations under Turk-
ish rule. He was the greatest scholar among the
Hungarian Reformers and his works made him
known in all Europe. They are: (1) Theoloffiae
sincerae loci communes (Basel, 1585), preceded by
a sketch of his life by his scholar and successor at
lUczkeve, Matthfcus Skaricza, which is also an
important source for the history of the Reformation
in Hungary and contains a couplet by Paulus Turi,
another of the pupils of Kis, on Calvin's ** Insti-
tutes":

Praeter apostolicas post Christi tempora chartas
Huic peperere libro saecula nulla param.

(cf. The Prefbyterian and Reformed Review, Apr.,
18d9, p. 194). (2) Speculum ponHficum Roma-
norum (Basel, 1584; 5th ed., 1624; Germ, transl.,

1586); (3) AssertU) vera de trinitais (Geneva, 1573,
edited by Beza); (4) Tabulae analyticae (Scbaff-
hausen, 1592). F. Balooh.

Biblioorapht: The Life by Matthaeus Skaricsa was re-
published. Basel, 1008, cf. Miacellanea Oroeninoana vt
1, pp. 506-669, 1762. A life in Hungarian, by LadisUus
F6ldvari, appeared at Budapest. 1890.

KISS OF PEACE: (Gk. phiUma hagion, phiUma
agapiSf aspasmos, eirSni; Lat. osculum sandumf
osculum pads, salutatiOf pax) : An expression which
occurs five times in the New Testament at the close
of an apostolic message (Rom. xvi. 16; I Cor. xvi.
20; II Cor. xiii. 12; I Thess. v. 26; I Pet. v. 14)
in the exhortation '^ Salute one another with an
holy kiss '' or an equivalent expression. A con-
gregational assembly before which the letters were
read aloud is assumed, and a custom of the syna-
gogue may be involved (cf. The Expositor^ ix. 1894,
p. 461). The import of the holy kiss is a general
attestation of brotherly love on the ground of re-
ligious fellowship, and it is not to be considered an
independent liturgical ceremony.

After the middle of the second century the kiss
of peace has an established place in public worship
and a definite connection with the Eucharist, in
the transition from the prayers preceding and in-
troducing that soleomity to the act of consecration.
This place is assigned to it in Tertullian, and
Clement of Alexandria terms it "a mystery.''
The liturgical sources and liturgies of the Eastern
Church attest the subsequent continuance of the
practise in the same context. At the outset,
moreover, this ordinance appears to have been
frequently in force in the West. Only in Rome and
North Africa, the kiss of peace occurred not before
the consecration, but between consecration and com-
munion, an arrangement, which, in cnurse of time,
became the prevailing one in the Latin Church
(see Mass, II.). The modification is doubtless to be
explained by an endeavor to associate the practise
inmiediately with the eucharistic solemnity, to-
ward which it is directed. For in this context the
kiss of peace has its basis and significance under the
words of the Lord, " First be reconciled with thy
brother, etc." (Matt. v. 23 sqq.), wherein agree-
ment or unity is accentuated. The ceremony was
begun by the clergy among themselves, and the
congrei^tion followed. It is to be assumed that
originally the separation of the sexes was duly ob-
served; and to prevent disorder, this point was
repeatedly and insistently emphasized in later
times.

In Western Christendom the kiss of peace con-
tinued to be observed imtil the waning period of the
Middle Ages, though it is an open question to what
extent and in what particular forms. The East ap-
pears to have given up the general kiss of peace still
earlier. In both divisions of Christendom there was
substituted in its place the practise of kissing the
altar, the sacred elements, or the stole by the clergy,
and kissing the hand by both clergy and laity. It
was only transiently that they followed, in the West,
the precedent purporting to have been adopted by
Bishop Walter of York (1250), of using the '* kiss
tablet ** {osculatorium, pax), a metal, or, in some
cases, marble disc exhibiting the cross or sacred

Kist

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

d4d

figures. Relics or even the book of the Gospeb were
sometimes employed in the practise. At a later
period the osculatorium was withheld from the laity
and reserved exclusively for the clergy.

If not quite unrelated, still in only a very general
relation to the holy kiss, is the kiss bestowed on
neophytes, after the sacrament of baptism; on
penitents when reinstated in full communion; on
the dead; and on candidates for ordination.

Victor Schultze.

Bibuoorapht: DB^ iii. &-6; EB, iv. 4262-54; Bingham,
Orioines, II., xi. 10, xbc 17, IV., vi. 16, XII., iv. 6, XV.,
iii. 3; E. Mart^ne, De arUiquia eedenae riiibu9, I., iii. 4-
6. Antwerp, 1736; A. J. Binterim, DenkwOrdigkeiten^
1 1, pp. 163. 492. iv. 3. p. 486. Mains, 1826-27; W. Palmer,
AtUiquiiiea of the Enolith Ritual^ vol. ii, London, 1846;
DCii. il 902-906.

KIST, NICOLAAS CHRISTIAN: Dutch theo-
logian; b. at Bommel (25 m. e. of Dort) Apr. 11,
1793; d. at Leyden Dec. 21, 1859. After com-
pleting his theological education at Utrecht, he
served for five years as pastor at Zoelen, but in 1823
was appointed professor of historical theology at
Leyden, where he spent the remainder of hia life.
His chief works were De Christdijke Kerk op
aarde (Haarlem, 1830); Nederlands hededagen en
biddagshrieven (2 vols., Leyden, 1848-49); and
Orationes quae ecdeitiae reique Christianae apedarU
historiam quaUuor (1853). He likewise collaborated
with H. J. Roijaards in establishing and editing the
Archiefvoor kerkelijke geschiedenis and its immediate
continuations under similar names (22 vols., Ley-
den, and Schiedam, 1829-54), and with W. Moll
in foimding and editing the KerkhUtoriach archie/
(4 vols., Amsterdam, 1855-66). (C. Sfippf.)

KrrcmN, GEORGE WILLIAM: Church of
England; b. at Naughton Rectory, Ipswich (23 m.
s.e. of Bury St. Edmimds), Suffolk, Dec. 7, 1827.
He studied at Christ Cliurch, Oxford (B.A., 1850;
M.A., 1852), and was ordered deacon in 1852 and
ordained priest in 1859. He was classical tutor of
his college, censor and junior proctor, chaplain to the
bishop of Chester (1871-72), tutor of the crown
prince of Denmark, censor of non-collegiate students
in the University of Oxford (1868-83), and lecturer
and tutor in history in Christ Church (1870-83).
In 1883 he became dean of Winchester, and in 1894
dean of Durham and warden of the University of
Durham. He was select preacher at Oxford 1863-
1864, Whitehall preacher 1866-67, commissary to the
bishop of Gibraltar 1874-1904, and is an honorary
fellow of King's College, London, and an honorary
student of Christ Church. In theology he is a
moderate liberal. His publications include: Ba-
con's Novum Organum (2 vols., Oxford, 1855);
Bacon* 8 Advancement of Learning (London, 1860);
Catalogue of Manuscripts in the Library of Christ
Church, Oxford (Oxford, 1867); A History of France
(3 vols., 1873-77); Life of Pope Pius IL (1881);
Winchester Cathedral Records (2 vols., Winchester,
1886); Documents Relating to the Foundation of the
Chapter of Winchester, A.D, 1641-1647 (London,
1889); Winchester (1890); RoUs of the Obedien-
taries of St. Swithin's Priory, A.D. 1309-1634
(Winchester, 1895); The Manor of Marydown,
Hampshire (1895); Edward Harold Browne, Bishop

of Winchester: A Memoir (London, 1895); and
Ruskin in Oxford, and other Studies (1904).

ETTTEL, RUDOLF: German Protestant; b. at
Ehningen (15 m. s.w. of Stuttgart), WQrttemberg,
Mar. 28, 1853. He studied at Tabingen 1871-76
(Ph.D., 1879), and, after being a pastor 1876-79,
was lecturer at Tubingen 1879-81. He was then
professor in a gymnasium at Stuttgart until 1888,
when he was appointed professor of Old-Testament
exegesis at the University of Breslau, where he was
rector in 1896-97. Since 1898 he has been professor
of the same subject at Leipsic. He has translated
Judges and Samuel for £. F. Kautzsch's Heilige
Schrift des Alten Testaments (Freiburg, 1892);
and the Psalms of Solomon for the same scholar's
Apokryphen und Pseudepigraphen des Alten Testa-
menfo (Tubingen, 1898); edited Chronicles for SBOr
(New York, 1895); C. F. A. DiUmann's Handbueh
der altiestamentlichen Theologie (Leipsic, 1895); the
sixth edition of the same scholar's Kommeniar tu
Jesaja (1898); and Biblia Hebraica (in collaborar
tion with various other scholars; Leipsic, 1905-07).
He is likewise the editor of Saat auf Hoffnung, and
has written: SittZtc^ Fmyen (Stuttgart, 1883); Ge-
schichU der HtbrOer (2 vols., Gotha, 1888-92; Eng.
transl. by J. Taylor, H. W. Hogg, and E. B. Spiers,
2 vols., London, 1895) ; Aus dem Leben des Prophe-
ten Jeeaia (Gotha, 1894); Die Anfdnge der h^brdi-
schen Geschichtsschreibung im Alten Testament (Leip-
sic, 1896); commentaries on Eongs and Chronicles
(in W. Nowack's Handkommentar zum Alten Testa-
ment; GOttingen, 1900-02); Die orienialischen Aus-
grabungen und die dUere biblische Geschichte (Leipsic,
1903); Der BabelnBibelstreit und die Offenbarungs-
frage (Leipsic, 1903); and Studien zur hebrdischen
Archdologie und Rdigionsgeschichte (1908), in Bei-
irdge zur Wissenschaft vom Alten Testament, which
he edits.

KiirnL See Table of the Nations.

KUTO, JOHN: English Biblical scholar; b. at
Plymouth Dec. 4, 1804; d. at Cannstadt, Germany,
Nov. 25, 1854. In his eleventh year he had to leave
school to assist his father, a stonemason, and in
1817, while cariying slates up a high ladder, he
suffered a fall that rendered him completely deaf
for the rest of his life. Cut off from ordinary society
by this infirmity he now devoted himself to study
and resorted to various expedients for earning pen-
nies to prociure books. With the exception of a few
months spent as apprentice to an ill-natured Plym-
outh shoemaker, he was in the workhouse from
Nov., 1819, till July, 1823. Friends then provided
for his support and secured permission for him to
use the public library, and in 1824 A. N. Groves
(q.v.), a dentist at Elxeter, took him as a pupil.
In July, 1825, he entered the Missionary College
at Islington to learn printing, and in June, 1827,
he went to Malta as a printer in the employ of the
Church Missionary Society. In Jan., 1829, he re-
turned to England, and the following June he
joined Groves' private mission party as tutor to
Groves' children. The party reached Bagdad in
December. In 1833 he returned to England, ob-
tained employment with Charles Knight, then
editor of the publications of the Society for the

849

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

KliurMilMboli

Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, and wrote indus-
triously for Knights' Penny Magazine and Penny
Cydopcsdia. Through connections formed with Lon-
don and Edinburgh publishers he was now enabled
to follow his literary bent and make for himself an
enviable reputation as a popular writer on Eastern
and Biblical subjects. In 1844, though a layman,
he was created D.D. by the University of Giessen;
in 1845 he was elected a fellow of the Society of An-
tiquaries; and in 1850, in recognition of his " use-
ful and meritorious literary works," a civil list
pension of £100 per annum was conferred upon him.
His last years were saddened by ill health and finan-
cial difficulties. When, in Feb., 1854, he was forced
to stop work, generous friends contributed to his
support and enabled him to spend the last three
months of his life in Germany. The works for which
Kitto is particularly remembered are: The Pictorial
Bible (3 vols., London, 1835-38); Cyclapcedia of
Biblical Literature (2 vols., Edinburgh, 1843-45),
which he edited and largely wrote; and Daily Bible
Illustrations (8 vols., 1849-53). Other works
deserving mention are: Pictorial History of Pales-
tine (2 vols., London, 1841); and The Lost Senses
(2 parts, 1845). He also founded and edited the
Journal of Sacred Literature (London, 1848-53).

Bibliography: Bioffraphical matter is contained in The
Lost Sentes, ut sup. Consult: J. E. Ryland, Memoin of
John Kitto. . . . with a critical EtUmate of Dr. KiUo*a
Life and Writinoa by Profe—or Eadie, Edinbuigh, 1856;
J. Eadie, Life of J. Kitto, ib. 1882; W. M.Thayer, From
Poor-Houee to Pulpit; the Triumpha of , . , John Kitto,
Boston. 1859; DNB, xxxi. 233-235.

EXARENBACH, klOr'en-bacH, ADOLF: German
Reformer; b. at LUttringhausen (17 m. s.e. of
DusseldorO. in the latter part of the fifteenth
century; executed at Cologne Sept. 28, 1529. He
was educated at Lennep, at MUnster (where he
came under the influence both of the Brethren of the
Common Life — see Common Life, Brethren of
THE— and of the humanists), and at the Lau-
rentian seminary in Cologne, over which pre-
sided Arnold of Tongem, later one of his judiges.
For a time after receiving his degree in 1517 nothing
is kno^Ti of him, but within a few years he was a
teacher in a Latin school at MUnster. He had al-
ready come to sympathize with the principles of the
Reformation, perhaps through the influence of his
mother, and he was obliged to leave the city on a
charge of insulting the cross. In 1524 Klarenbaoh
was associate rector at the municipal school of Wesel,
a town strongly in favor of the new faith. There,
though he had never taken orders, he seems to
have assumed ecclesiastical functions, aided by a
number of others who had become disaffected with
Roman Catholic tenets. The hostility of the monks
obliged him to leave Wesel for Osnabrtick after
two years, and in his new home he taught Latin,
in addition to giving Protestant lectures on certain
books of the New Testament and the dialectics of
Melanchthon. His activity roused the opposition of
the cathedral chapter of Osnabrtick, but he declined
a call to Meldorp, feeling that his duty summoned
him rather to Lennep, where he settled shortly after
Easter, 1527. The attacks there made upon him
evoked his chief literary work in 1527, in which he
assailed the doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church

and defended Protestant tenets. Expelled from
Lennep, Klarenbaoh turned to his old friend Johann
Klopreis, the ex-parish priest of Btlderich, who
had already been cited before the spiritual court at
Cologne. Under Klarenbaoh's inspiration, however,
Klopreis became so outspoken in his sentiments that
he was again summoned to appear before the court
and was imprisoned, while Klarenbach, who had
accompanied him to the trial to give him encourage-
ment, was likewise placed in confinement on Apr.
3, 1528. Klopreis succeeded in making his escape
Jan. 1, 1529, but his comrade was denied all hope of
freedom.

The problem before the Roman Catholics of
Cologne was a serious one, for Protestantism was
beginning to work its way insidiously into this
stronghold of Roman Catholicism in Germany; the
citizens were distrustful of the clergy, and the uni-
versity was declining under Luther's influence. In
view of the importance of Klarenbaoh in the Protes-
tant movement and his audacity in invading the
center of archiepiscopal power, it became doubly
necessary to make a terrible example of him. His
trial was a long one, since not only the ecclesiastical
court, but also the civil court of Cologne and even
the imperial supreme court at Speyer were con-
cerned. The latter wished Klarenbach to be re-
leased on condition that he would bring no claim
for damages, but the court of the Inquisition refused
to agree, and on Mar. 4, the sentence of death was
imposed. The execution took place on Sept. 28,
the delay being due to the fact that the populace was
displeased at the verdict and must first be pacified.
During the course of the siunmer, however, the city
was visited by a plague, so that the conviction
spread that this was a divine retribution for mercy
to heretics, and the execution accordingly became
feasible, especially in view of the repeated failures
of the efforts made to induce him to retract his
teachings. The German Protestants regarded
KlarenbEUsh and Peter Fliesteden, a somewhat fa-
natical character of whom little is known, but who
was imprisoned with Klarenbach and died with
him, as the martyrs of the Lower Rhine, and in
1829 the third centennial of the execution was
publicly celebrated and a monument was erected
in his honor.

The exact relation of Klarenbach to the Reforma-
tion is somewhat uncertain, but it seems probable,
on the whole, that he was Biblical rather than
professedly Lutheran, although he had read the
works of the Wittenberg reformer, approving por-
tions of them and rejecting others. On the other
hand, the circmnstances of his trial led him to em-
phasize certain aspects of his beliefs and to pass
over others more lightly. Noteworthy features of
his defense were his frequent use of the term " breth-
ren,'' an appellation rare with Luther, and his rigid
avoidance of taking an oath, apparently due to the
influence of the old Evangelical thought as exem-
plified by the Waldenses, Moravian Brethren, and
the Anabaptists. [While he held that " there is
no satisfaction for sin save the death of Christ
alone," he yet insisted that " our good works are
signs, witnesses and pledges of such faith in Christ."
He rejected transubstantiation and consubetantia-

Klopstook

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

350

tion alike, insisting that the elements in commu-
nion are " only external signs and nothing more/'
He defines baptism as " dipping into the water and
drawing out again '* and as inviting death to all
fleshly lust and a putting on of a new man and the
leading henceforth of a spiritual life. Cf. extracts
in Rembert, pp. 134 sqq. a. h. n.]

(E. BRATKEf.)

Biblioorapht: EpUtola Johannia RotiAerck , . . in qua
narratur . . . tragoedia . . . Adolphi ClarenJbach^ Co-
logne, 1630. ed. £. Bratke and A. Canted in Theolo-
gi$che ArheUen aua dem rheinitchen . . . Prtdigerverein,
Freibuis. 1808; C. Krafft. OetchidUe . . . Adolf Claren-
bach und Peter Flieeteden, Elberfeld, 1886; E. Densmer,
(heckiefUe der Reformalion am Niederrhein, DQsseldorf,
1890; K. Rembert. Die **WiedertAitfer" in Herzoglum
JiUich, pp. 114-137 et passim, Berlin, 1800.

KLARER, klOr'er, WALTER: Swiss Reformer;
b. at Hundwil, canton of Appenzell, 1499; d. there
1566. He attended the schools in St. Gall, Schaff-
hausen, and Bern, and then spent four years in the
Stipendium regium at Paris, where he studied canon
law. He joined the Reformation at its very start,
and in 1522 became pastor in his native town. In
1531 he officiated at Herisau, in 1532 at Gossau.
During the following ten years he was preacher of
Um&sch, in the canton of Appenzell, and from
1543 to 1566 again in Himdwil. He took part in a
number of important conferences and disputations,
including the Disputation of Bern in 1528. In 1565
he wrote, from memory, a brief history of the Ref-
ormation in Appenzell from 1521 to 1531 (ed. J. J.
Simler, from a German copy, the original being lost,
in Sammlung aUerund neuer Urkunden, pp. 803-840,
Zurich, 1759; reprinted by Heim from another
German copy in the Appenzell Year Book for
1873, pp. 86-106). (Emil EGLif.)

Biblioorapht: Some data from autobioffraphic sources ap-
peared, ed. Walser. in Appemeller Chronik, 1740, pp. 390-
391; other material is scattered throiigh the sources of
the history of the Swiss Reformation.

KLAUS, BROTHER. See Flue, Nikolaus von
(dbr).

KLEINERT, klain'ert, HUGO WILHELM
PAUL: German Protestant; b. at Vielguth (near
Bemstadt, 22 m. e. of Breslau), Silesia, Sept. 25,
1837. He studied at Breslau and Halle (Ph.D.,
1857; lie. theol., Breslau, 1860), and was deacon
and teacher of religion at the gymnasium of Oppeln
1861-63, and teacher in the Friedrich-Wilhelm
gymnasium in Berlin 1863-65. He was then in-
spector at the Domkandidatenstift, Berlin, 1865-
1867, and preacher at St. Gertrude's in the same city
1867-77. Meanwhile, in 1864, he had become privat-
dooent for Old-Testament exegesis at the University
of Berlin, where he was appointed associate professor
of the same subject in 18i68. Since 1877 he has been
professor of Old-Testament exegesis and practical
theology. He was made a consistorial counselor in
1873 and in 1894 was created a supreme consistorial
counselor. In theology he is Evangelical, although
he belongs to the critical school. He has written
Ueber das Buck Koheleth (Berlin, 1864); Angustin
und Goethe's Fauat (1866); Schillere retigidee Bedeu^
lung (1866); the commentary on Obadiah, Jonah,
and Micah in J. P. Lange's Btbelwerk (Bielefeld,
1869; Eng. transl., New York, 1874); UnUrsuch-

ungen zur aUteatamenUichen Rechis- und LUeratur-
geechichie (1872); Abriss der EinleUung zutn Alien
TeetamenU in Tabellenform (Berlin, 1878); Die
revidierte Lutherbibel (Heidelberg, 1883); Zur
chrisUichen KuUur und KvUurgeechichte (Berlin,
1889); Der preuasische Agenden-Entwurf (Gotha,
1894); Selbstgeeprdche am Krankerir und SterMager
(Berlin, 1896); Die Profeten Israels in socieUer
Beziehung (Leipsic, 1905); Homilelik (1907); and
Afusik und Religion, GoUesdienst und Volksfeier
(1908).

EXEUKER, klei'ker, JOHAIVN FRIEDRICH:

German Protestant apologete; b. at Osterode
(41 m. s.s.e. of Hanover) Oct. 24, 1749; d. at Kiel
May 31, 1827. He studied philosophy and theology
at GOttingen, where he distinguished himself by
his restless energy and capacity for work. As pri-
vate tutor at BOckeburg he formed a friendship
with Herder, through whose influence he was ap-
pointed prorector at Lemgo. This post he ex-
changed for a gymnasial rectorship at Osnabrdck
in 1778. Diuing the last twenty-eight years of his
life he was professor of theology at Kiel. He was a
stanch adversary of the rationalism of the time and
a prominent representative of a theosophical-
Biblical supematuralism on a historical basis.
His theology was distinctly Christocentric. He
regarded Christianity as the highest revelation of
God, to teach man the nature of the highest good,
the kingdom of God, and to enable him to partici-
pate in its realization. His niunerous works attest
not only his industry, but also his sound scholar-
ship, especially in Oriental languages, patristic, and
classical literature. They include: Menschlicher
Versuch Ober den Sohn GoUes und der Menschen
(Leipsic, 1776); Johannes, Petrus und Paulus
als Christologen hetrachtet (Riga, 1785) ; Salonumische
Denkwurdigkeiten (1785); Neue Prufung und
ErJd&rung der vorziiglichsten Beweise fur die
Wahrheit des Christenihums (3 parts, 1787-94);
Ausfuhrliche UrUersuchung der Grunde fur die
AeMheit und Glaubumrdigkeit der schri/Uichen
Urkunden des Christenihums (5 parts, Leipsic,
1793-99); and Grundriss einer Encyclopddie der
Theologie (2 parts, Hamburg, 1800-01).

(F. Arnold.)

Biblioorapht: H. Ratjen, Johann Friedrich Kleuker und
Brief e an eeine Freunde, Gdttingen. 1882; C. E. Carston!*,
Qeeehiehle der theologiachen FakuMt tu Kiel, 1875; Vol-
behr, Profeeeoren und Docenien der ChrieHan-Albrechte
UniveraiiAt zu Kiel, Kiel. 1887.

EXIEFOTH, kli'fdth, THEODOR FRIEDRICH
DETHLOF: German Lutheran; b. at Kdrchow
near Wittenburg (17 m. s.w. of Schwerin), Mecklen-
burg-Schwerin, Jan. 18, 1810; d. at Schwerin Jan.
26, 1895. He was educated at the gymnasium of
Schwerin, and at the Universities of Berlin and Ros-
tock. In 1833 he was appointed in-
Life, structor of Duke William of Mecklen-
burg, and in 1837 accompanied Grand
Duke Frederick Francis as tutor to Dresden. He
became pastor at Ludwigslust in 1840, and supei^
intendent of Schwerin in 1844. Since 1835 he had
been the leading spirit in the ecclesiastical and
theological affairs of his state. With the abolish-
ment of the old constitution of the estates in 1848

851

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Xlopstook

and the organization of a parliamentary government,
the rule of the Church by the State had become an
impossibility. Thus there originated in 1850 a
superior ecclesiastical court with Kliefoth as chief
ecclesiastical councilor. In 1886 he became its
president. During the decades 1850-70, he was
actively engaged in ecclesiastical reforms. Being
convinced that the prosperity of the Chiu'ch is prin-
cipally dependent upon the efficiency of the admin-
istrators of the means of grace, he was intent upon
filling the clergy with the spirit and doctrines of
the Lutheran Church. To this end the faculty of
Rostock was reorganized with teachers of strictly
Lutheran tendency, the institution of church in-
spections by superintendents was again called into
life, abuses in the church service and in the admin-
istration of ecclesiastical acts were abolished, and
the rationalistic spirit was removed from the pulpit.
New formularies of liturgy on the basis of the old
chiu*ch orders were made, and the old treasures of
Lutheran church music were embodied in a new book
of melodies.

Kliefoth laid down his conception of the Church
and church polity in his Acht Bucher von der
Kirche (vol. i., Schwerin, 1854). The first four
books treat of the kingdom of God foimding of
the Church, of the means of grace, of the con-
gregation and its service, and of the
His Views Church and its order and government.
of the The last four books, which were to
Church and treat of the development and comple-
Church tion of the Church never appeared.
Polity. Kliefoth's peculiar conception was due
chiefly to his occupation with the old
Lutheran church orders. With great energy he
emphasizes the divine foimdation of the Church
through the acts of salvation of the triime God;
its divine basis in the means of grace, which mediate
and vouchsafe the continuous effect of Christ and
his spirit; the divine institution of the office of
the means of grace; and the necessity of the oi^
ganization and incorporation of the Church in
church order and church government. The Church
is for him the empirical congregation of the called,
and not merely the congregation of true believers;
and for him Lutheranism is not merely a doctrine or
dogmatical tendency, but a distinctive church body
whose peculiar historical development is to be per-
petuated. He opposed the territorialism of state
omnipotence, which denied the independence of
the Church, the collegialism of modem represent-
ative church government, which originated in the
Reformed Church and seemed to him to endanger
the privilege and authority of the office of the means
of grace; unionism, which threatened to absorb
the Lutheran Church as such, or at least its confes-
sion; and the amalgamation of Church and politics,
with its tendency toward the establishment of a
national German Evangelical Chiu*ch. On the other
hand he aimed at the restoration of the Lutheran
state churches and the strengthening of Lutheran-
ism through a closer union. In this sense he repre-
sented the government of the Mecklenburg church
at the Eisenach Conference after 1852; and in 1868
he founded ^nth others the AUgemeine evangdiBchr
ItUhenache Konferem,

Kliefoth was one of the strongest men among the
churchmen and theologians of his day, and one of
the most effective preachers of the nineteenth
century. The political and ecclesiastical liberals
decried him as a dangerous reactionist, the unionists
hated his strict Lutheranism, the representatives
of pietistic subjectivism were offended by his eo-
clesiasticism, and popular sentiment disliked his
hierarchical tendencies. He was also the most no-
table authority of his time on hturgics and the
old Lutheran church orders. His Liturgische Ah-
haruUungen (8 vols., Schwerin, 1854-61, 2d. ed.,
1858-69) is his most prominent work, the most pecu-
liar expression of his spirit. Other important works
are: Einleitung in die Dogmengeschichte (Lud wigs-
lust, 1839); Thearie dea Kultus der evangdischen
Kirche (1844); Ueber Predigt und Katechese in der
Vergangenheit und in der Gegenwart (in Meck-
lenburgisches KirchenbkUt, ii. 1-55, 169-245,
Rostock, 1846); Die ureprUngliche GoUesdienst-
ordnung in den deutechen Kirchen liUherischen
Bekenniniases (Rostock, 1847); Dae Verh&linie der
Landeeherren ale Inhaber der KirchengewaU zu
ihren Kirchenbehdrden (Schwerin, 1861); Der preua-
sische Stoat und die Kirchen (1873); and Christiiche
Eschalologie (Leipsic, 1886). He also wrote com-
mentaries on Zechariah (Schwerin, 1859), Ezekiel
(2 parts, Rostock, 1864-65), Daniel (Schwerin, 1868),
and Revelation (Leipsic, 1874). With Prof. O.
Mejer of Rostock he edited the Kirchliche Zeitechrift
(Schwerin, 1854-59), which, with A. W. Dieckhoflf,
he continued as Theologische Zeitechrift (1860-64).
He published several collections of sermons, and
a great number of single and occasional sermons.

(Ernst Haack.)

Biblioorapht: AUijemeine evanoelucK-liUherUcke Kirdten-
zeituna, 1883. no. 19, 1805, noa. 10-15; L. von Hinch-
feld, Fri&drich Franz II. . . . und aeine VorgAnger^ 2
vols., Leipaio, 1891; C. Meuael, KirchlicheM UandUxikon,
iv. 11-13, ib. 1894.

EXING, CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH: German
Protestant; b. at Altdorf (11 m. s.w. of Stuttgart),
WQrttemberg, Nov. 4, 1800; d. at Marbach (15 m.
s. of Heilbronn), WQrttemberg, Mar. 8, 1862. He
studied at Tilbingen and Berlin, became pastor at
Waibhngen in 1826, professor of theology at Mar-
burg in 1832, at Bonn in 1842, pastor at Ebers-
bach in 1849, and dean of Marbach in 1851. He
was a pupil of Schleiermacher and Neander. In his
writings, as in his lectures, he was instructive, sound,
and winning, and showed himself a man of fine dis-
crimination and independent judgment. He edited
the sermons of the Franciscan Bertholdt {Ber-
thddt dee Franciecanere Predigten^ Berlin, 1824),
prepared for J. P. Lange's Bibelwerk the commen-
tary on the Epistles to the Corinthians (Eng. transl.,
in Schaff's edition of Lange's Commentary (N. T.,
vol. vi., New York, 1868). He also published a
number of treatises in TSK,

EXOPSTOCK, klep'stek, FRIEDRICH GOTTLIEB.

Early Life and Studies ({ 1).

Studies at Leipsic. Earlier Poetic Work ({ 2).

Life and Works after 1748 ({ 3).

His Influence and Importance ({ 4).

Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock, the great German
religious poet, was bom at Quedh'nburg (31 m. s.w.
of Magdeburg), Prussia, July 2, 1724; d. at Ham-

Kiop»took
Klostermann

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

862

bux^ Mar. 14, 1803. He was descended from a
fainily which for three generations had attained a
fair measure of distinction in the law and the govern-
ment service. When Friedrich was nine years old
his father removed to Friedeburg in
X. Early the county of Mansfeld where the
Life and boy revealed even then that profound
Studies, love for nature which was to find ex-
pression in his poetry. At the age of
thirteen he retiuned to Quedlinburg and began
his studies at the gynmasium, with little en-
thusiasm and success, however. A free scholarship
enabled him to enter, in 1739, the Schulpforte, the
ancient Schola Portensis founded by the Elector
Maurice of Saxony for the education of Protestant
youth. This was the time of the great struggle
between the classicbts and the romanticists,
between Gottsched and Bodmer, and young
Klopstock fell easily under the sway of the
" revolutionary " ideas of the Swiss school. It
was in 1737 that Gottsched opened the conflict
by his attack on Milton's Paradise Lost and Bodmer
replied in the celebrated Vam Wunderbaren in der
Poesie (1740) which Klopstock took as his guide in
the study of the epic, going at the same time to
Homer and Vergil for his models. For a time he was
possessed with the desire of celebrating in epic form,
the deeds of Henry the Fowler, liberator of Germany
from the Hungarians, but it came to him after
many sleepless nights that the Messiah was the
worthiest subject for the pen of an epic writer, and
the youthful poet then entered upon his life's task
which was to take twenty-five years in the comple-
tion. He graduated from the Schulpforte in 1745,
delivering a valedictory address which must be re-
garded as marking, with the work of Bodmer already
mentioned, the opening of a new era in the history
of German literature. Abandoning the standards
of the spiritless verse-literature of the modem clas-
sicists, Klopstock soimded an appeal for a national
epic in the spirit of the great epics of the ancient
world. He called for a German epic literature with-
out knowing that such a treasime of national
lore was in existence. At a time when Vergil
was generally set above Homer because the one
was " refined " and the other " rude " the youthful
Klopstock dared to reverse the order and to proclaim
the Greek singer as the prince of poets.

In the autimm of 1745 Klopstock began the study
of theology at Jena; but his disgust was speedily
aroused by the rudeness of student life there, and in
the spring of the following year he removed to
Leipsic. Before his departure, however, he had
written the first three cantos of the
2. Studies Messiets, in prose form. At Leipsic he
at Leipsic. came into intimate association with
Earlier G&rtner, Andreas Cramer, A. Schlegel,
Poetic Rabener, Zacharift, Giseke, and Ebert,
Work. who, with others, formed a poetic
circle whose productions were pub-
lished in the Bremer Beitrdge edited by Gartner.
Here in an atmosphere of culture and personal affec-
tion, Klopstock began the composition of odes on
the Horatian mode^ From the year 1747 date the
Lehrling der Griechen, WingoHf Die KUnftig Gdiebte,
and from the following year, Selmar und Sdma, An

Ebertf An Giseke, Petrarca und Laura, and others.
In 1746 he had selected the hexameter as the most
suitable form for his epic, and after laboring for
nearly two years on the recasting of his prose ma-
terial into verse published the first three cantos
of the Messias in the Bremer Beitrdge in 1748.
The effect produced on the popular mind was
tremendous; in the national literature they opened
a new line of development. Above the musical
and empty verse jingle of the time the opening
songs of the Messias towered incomparable, with
their fervid religiosity and poetic fire cast in noble
Homeric phrase forms. As Kleist said, so lofty
and rich a style had been deemed impossible in
Germany. Less enthusiastic natures were carried
away by the exalted piety which now found ex-
pression in such full-mouthed utterance. In spite
of much that was personal in the Messias, much
that was historically and critically unwarranted, no
one could deny its author the gift of poetic, soul-
stirring, Christian inspiration.

In 1748 Klopstock left Leipsic and took up the
post of tutor in the house of a relative at Langen-
salza, where his duties gave him ample leisure for
the pursuit of his poetic works. At the same time
he was at work on the fourth and fifth cantos of
the Messias; happy, it may be presumed, in the
enjoyment of a vast popularity. Hos-
3. Life and tile critics, however, were not wanting;
Works the orthodox clergy assailed his " bold
after 1748. fictions," while the followers of Gott-
sched found fault with the technique
of the poem and the excessive sentimentality that
characterizes it in parts. In the spring of 1750
Klopstock returned to Quedlinburg, but went soon
after to Switzerland, where his Messias had achieved
its greatest triumph. He remained in Zurich till
the spring of 1751 when he went to Copenhagen
at the invitation of Frederick V. whose minister,
BemstorfT, was one of his warmest admirers.
The recipient of a liberal pension, he could
now devote himself to the completion of his great
poem. In 1754 he married Margareta Moller,
whom, three years earlier, he had met in Ham-
burg, and had subsequently sung under the name
of Cidli, and with whom he lived happily till her
death in 1758. From this period date many odes
and the plays, Der Tod Adams (1757), Sahmo (1764),
and Die Hermannsschlacht (1769), the latter reveal-
ing his complete lack of the dramatic sense and all
contributing, by their unrestrained sentimentahty,
to the deterioration of dramatic standards in Ger-
many. Frederick V. died in 1766; Count Bemstorff
soon after fell from power, and, retiring in 1770 to
Hamburg, was followed by Klopstock who passed
the remainder of his life in that city with the excep-
tion of the years 1774 and 1775, when the Mai^grave
Charles Frederick of Baden summoned him to Carls-
ruhe. There, in spite of honors conferred upon him,
the poet found conditions little to his taste. It was
on his return to Hamburg that he met Goethe, but
the acquaintance then formed soon came to an end.
In 1774 there appeared Die Gelehrtenrepublik con-
taining Klopstock 's opinion on literary questions,
conditions, and personalities of the times as well as
his investigations in the history of the German

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

KloatcnoMUk

language. This work fell far below expectations, as
Goethe tells in the twelfth book of his Dichtung und
Wahrheit. In 1779 there appeared the FTogmeidt
ubtr Spraehe und DicMkunM and in the following
year the definitive edition of the Meaiag, Klop-
Btock'a laat yeare were passed in a leisurely activity,
devoted to the composition of odes and the prepara-
tion of an edition of his collected works. The out-
break of the French Revolution aroused his enthu-
siasm and he was honored with the citizenship of
the French Republic, but the excesses of the later
revolutionists were teamed with horror and
anger. In 1791 Iw married Fran von Winthem
(n£e Dimpfri), a niece of his first wife. He
had no children. Among his last productions
are several epigrams directed against the Kantian
philosophy.

It was Klopatock who. to quote Platen, gave
new life to the German language and liberated it
front) the thraldom of the French. Poeay became

(he beautiful and noble expression of
4. His In- the artist's soul finding full satisfaction
flueoce and in the sincere formulation of the prob-
Importance. iems that beset it. This has been the

main characteristic of German poetry
since the time of Klopstock and only they have
achieved and retained primacy who have remained
faithful to it. Klopstock's joyous and enthusiastic
nature found its most grateful expression in the
national and sacred song. Whenever he wanders
outside of these realms he falls beneath his own
level. If the great period in German literature that
followed him may be characterized us being marked
by a successful assimilation of national poetic ele-
ments with foreign elements of ancient and modem
times, Klopstock must be regarded as the one who
ushered in this new era. The one quality that he
possessed above his contemporaries was the ele-
ment of Germanic patriotism which evinced itself
in his life and thought. He is Germanic in the
delight he takes in tales of heroic deeds and in nature,
home, and love; Germanic aboveatlin that passionate
longing for salvation which is the great inheritance
of the German people. His admiration of the heroic
finds utterance in odes like Kaieer Heinrich, Mein
Vaterland. Hermann imd Tkutnelda, Heinrick der
Vogler. Die beiden Mugen, Die KOnigin Luise. His
love of nature speaks in the BardaU, Zurichersee,
Friedemlturg, Rheinwein, Das AoseiUiand, Die tote
Clarism. A mighty current of faith pulsates in such
odes as An GoU. Dem ErlSaer, Der Erbarmer. Da*
grotae Halldujah , bs well as in his magnificent hymn
of the Resurrection. This confidence in the Savior
reveak itself in the certain hope of a rising from the
dead and of aii eternal life, and Klopstock is the
poet of the future life primarily. When Gervinus in
his life characterises the Mettiwi as " an unbroken
succession of monstrous errors " he has overlooked
(his great fact. At the same time he has failed to
recognize the esMential weakneJia of the poem which
consists in this, that an individual here attempts to
create an epic where the necessary conditions and
presuppositions are absent. A national epic can
arise only on the basiti of a common national life
and the poet in Ihis case becomes only the mouth-
piece as is the cose with the Heliand. A " poetic
VI.-23

invention " such as Klopatock resorts to in his cre-
ation of a Christian mythology is fatal to the epio
story from the very beginning, since the true epic
poet finds his activity not in creation but in narra-
tion of traditional facts; as far as diction is con-
cerned it must be the simple language of the people.
Judged by these standards, the Meaaias as an epic
is a failure. But on the other hand it must not be
denied the merit of having disseminated through-
out the European world, tliis joyous message of sal-
vation free from all dogmatic and credal restrictions.
Klopstock '8 most unsuccessful attempt waa his re-
casting of the old hymns of the Church which, in
their utter lack of sympathy for an objective world
and a consciousness of nationality, proved ungrate-
ful material for his talents. On the other band
what he excelled in was his knowledge of classi-
cal antiquity and especially of the poetry of the
Greeks.

His works first appeared in Leipeic, 7 vols., 179S-
1310, but not in complete form till 1844-45, 11
vols.; hia correspondence appeared in 3 vols, at
Stuttgart, 1839-40. There are numerous editions of
all or part of his works; e.g. Oden (Stuttgart, ISSfii
£ng. transl., London, 1S4S). Of Metnat, on which
hb fame rests, an Eng. transl. appeared in 4 vols.
at Hamburg. 1821-22. {A. Fhbtbb.)

Bibuooiupht: C.V.Ccanaa. Klaiatxk. 2 toIb.. HunburB,
1777-78; idem, Klofi^odt. Er; uiuf Obcr ihn. 5 vol)., ib..
ITBO-SZ; J. H. H. Doriac, KlBpitockt Ltbeii, Wamu,
1S2S; J. W. Laben, Die Entu/ickelung der dmlichm Po—it
var Klofnladc't mbrm Auflrttm bit lu GotOiH Tod. 3 vol*..
Bruuewisk. 186«-6fi; R. Hampl. Klapttockttiulim. Rostock,
lS7e-80: K. IlBimnnuui, Kloptlockt Ltben und Wtrkt,
filelFhld, ISOO; F. Muncker. Kleptock. GacMMt tinm
Ltbtiu ufirf »irwr Sdiriflm. 2 vols,. Slult«sit, 1900^ Juliwi,

HimnDlon, PP. 02&-e:>s.

KLOSTERHARN, AUGUST EEinRICH: Gei^
man Protestant; b. at Steinhude (15 m. w.n.w. of
Hanover) May 16, 1837. He studied m Erlangen
and Berlin 1855-58. and was assistant pastor in
BQckehurg until 1664. From 1864 to 1868 he was
tutor and privat-docent at GOttingen, and since
1868 has been professor ofOld-Testament exegesis in
Kiel. He has written: Vindica Lucantr (Gfittingen,
IS66); Dai Markutevangelium naeh aeinem Quellen-
werU far die evangeiische GeachifMe (1867); Urder-
gvchung Tur alOe^amenllichen Theologit (Gotha,
1868); Korrektwren ivr biaherigen ErklOrung de»
Rstnerbriefei (1881); Die GemiUaatimmungen der
Ckrittm in Remer v. 1-11 (Kiel, 1881); Ueher
deutadie Art bei MaHin Ljtlher (1884); Dit Gol-
tesfuTchl aU HauplttUde der Weisheit (1885) ;
Die Backer Samuelia und der Kdnige ausgeUgl
(Nilrdlingen, 1887); Zur ThtorU der bOilitehen
Weiaaagang und lur Charakttriatik da Hdfrder-
brie/ea (1889); Der Pentateuch, BeiiT&ge xu atinem
Veratdndnis und aeiner £nls(ehun(f>9e8cAuA(«(I«ipsic,
1893); Deulerojeaaia, kebrdiach und deuUch (Mu-
nich, 1893) ; Qetthiehle dea Volket larael bit zur Res-
tauration unter Eara und Nehemia (1896); Ein
dipUnnaiiacker Briefwedtael aua dem ew&iten Jahr-
tausend var Ckriato (Kiel. 1898); Deuteronomium
ual Grdgda (1900) ; and Schulvieaen im alien larad,
(Leipsic, 1908).

Knapp
Kneaokar

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

854

studied at the academy of NeucMtel and the univer-
sities of Leipsic, Kiel, Berlin, and Erlangen (Ph.D.,
Kiel, 1892). In 1901 he became privat-docent for
New-Testament exegesis and early Christian litera-
ture in Kiel, where he was appointed full professor in
1906. He has written De libn Coheleth versiane Alex-
andrina (Kiel, 1892); Griechiache Exzerpte aus Ho-
milien des Origenes (Leipsic, 1894); Analekta zur
Septua^rUa, Hexapla und PatrisHk (1895); Die
Schriften des Origenes und Hieronymus Brief an
Paula (Berlin, 1897); Utberlieferung der Jeremias-
hamUie des Origenes (Leipsic, 1897); Eusebius'
Schrift t^^pi Tuv TQKtKuv bvofi&ruv rtjv kv Ty Sei^ }'P^V
(1902); Reste des Petrusevangeliums, der Petrusapo-
kalypse und des Kerugma Petri (Bonn, 1903); Udfer
des Didymus von Alexandrien In epistolas canonicas
enarratio (Leipsic, 1905) ; and commentary on Mark
(TQbingen, 1907 ; in collaboration with H. Greas-
mann).

KIVAPP, ALBERT: The most distinguished Ger-
man writer of spiritual songs in the first half of the
nineteenth century; b. at Tubingen July 25, 1798;
d. at Stuttgart June 18, 1864. He was the son of a
councilor of the superior court in Tilbingen, and
his boyhood was spent in the poetic and inspiring
atmosphere of the Black Forest. He entered the
seminary of Maulbronn in 1814, and from 1816 to
1820 studied at the EvangeHcal theological seminary
in Tilbingen, where he imbibed more poetry than
theology and found the pranks of student life more
to his taste than the supeniaturalism of the time. In
1820 he was sent to Feuerbach as vicar, and later
to Gaisberg, both villages near Stuttgart. In
Gaisberg he met Ludwig Hofacker (q.v.) and under
his influence Knapp's life became more serious and
his convictions more Evangelical. In 1825 he was
appointed deacon in Sulz-on-the-Neckar and in 1831
in Kirchheim, at the special request of Duchess
Henrietta of Wiirttemberg. In 1836 he became
deacon at the Hospitalkirche in Stuttgart, then
archdeacon at the Stiftskirche, and in 1845 pastor
of St. Leonardskirche. He declined the office of
rural dean and was not active in the Christian
and charitable associations of the town, preferring
to confine himself to parochial duties, by which
he won many personal friends and the love of his
congregation.

Knapp's character was eminently broad, strong,
and natural, his motto being Homo sum, nil hu-
mani a me alienum puto. His mind was open to
everything noble and sublime in art and nature.
But this susceptibility was kept within the limits
of a spiritual orthodoxy, and he attacked every
philosophy and theology which attempted to shake
or undermine the fundamentals of Christian truth,
which was for him also the absolutely beautiful. He
was averse to all extremes, to those of orthodoxy as
much as to the negative tendencies of the theolo-
gians, nor had he any sympathy with the one-
sided views of sect. His standpoint was that of a
pure Evangelical Christianity and a moderate con-
fessionalism. He was not as powerful a preacher
as Ludwig Hofacker, but his sermons are distin-
guished by a varied wealth and depth of thought
expressed in vigorous language. His addresses to

his fellow preachers at ministerial conferences were
no less remarkable.

Knapp was an original poet and hymn-writer
and his claim to permanent fame rests upon his
gift for spiritual poetry. His collections of poems —
ChrisUiche Oedichte (2 vols., Basel, 1829); Neuere
Gedichte (2 vols., 1834); Christenlieder (Stuttgjart,
1841), a collection of hymns including forty-eight
original; Neueste Folge (1843); Auswahl (1854,
1868); Herbstbltiten (1859)— reveal his fertility,
though some of them lack final finish. Nature and
its glories furnish him inexhaustible material and
inspiration, but he also treats facts of history and
powerful personalities. In his Christoter^pe, a
Christian almanac and year-book, which he edited
from 1833 to 1853, he celebrates poets like Goethe
and Schiller, warriors like Napoleon, musicians like
Bach, Handel, Mozart, and Beethoven, German
heroes like the Hohenstauffens, classical antiquity,
and modem history. He aimed to unite in his poems
" transient nature and the fleeting life of man. and,
raising itself above them both, the Word of God in
its eternal youth.'' As far back as the twenties he
conceived the idea of offering to the Christian public
an Evangelischer Liederschatz fiir Kirche und Haus.
From more than 80,000 hymns he selected 3,590 and
published them at Stuttgart in 1837. He con-
sidered some changes of the text necessary, especially
the removal of harsh expressions and grammatical
faults; but he went further and took the liberty of
** putting shallow and feeble expressions into a
more vigorous. Biblical language and of filling up
apparent gaps by new strophes and of freely re-
producing whole songs.'' In single cases he suc-
ceeded briUiantly, but on the whole he had to con-
fess in the second edition (1850) that he had been
frequently guided too strongly by his subjective
feelings. Even in this revised edition he did not
properly reproduce the original, as he was still
guided by the principle that the old hynms should
be adapted to modem taste. The same may be said
of the third edition (1865). The work received
bitter criticism from G. C. H. Stip in his Hymnolo-
gische Reisebriefe (Berlin, 1852) and from Philipp
Wackemagel in the Kirchentag at Bremen in the
same year. A collection of Knapp 's prose works
appeared under the title Gesammelte prosdische
Sdmften (2 parts, Stuttgart, 1875). It consists
chiefly of biographies of men like Ludwig Hofacker,
Dann. Flatt, Eberhard Wdmer, Hedinger, Zinzen-
dorf, and others. Here the poet perceived many
traits of character and motives of life which would
be lost to the ordinary eye.

(Richard LAUXMANxf.)

Biblioorapht: A LtbenahUd, begun by himself and fin-
ished by hifl son, J. Knapp, appeared Stuttgart, 1867.
Brief sketches are by K. Cierok, ib. 1879. and O. BrQraan,
Hamburg, 1902; Julian. Hymnolooy, pp. 627-628.

KIVAPP, knap, GEORG CHRISTIAN: German
Protestant; b. at Glaucha, Halle, Sept. 17, 1753; d.
at Halle Oct. 14, 1825. He was the son of the pietist
Johann Georg Knapp, and was one of the last ex-
ponents of Pietism in Halle. After studying at the
universities of Halle and Gdttingen he became ex-
traordinary professor of theology at Halle in 1777
and full professor in 1782. In 1785 he assumed.

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

with A. n. Niemeyer, the direction of the Francke
foundationa, camp rising the orphaji- bouse, the
Latin school, and the Bible and Missionary Institule,
In spite of failing health he administered his labo-
rious offices for more than four decades with great
fideiily and success. Though diffident and re-
served, Knapp was a popular teacher, and hia lec-
tures on the Old and New Testaments, as well as on
Christian doctrine, were largely attended. When
Tholuck visited him toward the close of his life, he
produced a bundle of letters from former students,
remarking, " Here is my comfort, in the letters of
those in whom the scattered seed first b^an to
spring up during their professional experiences."
As a writer Knapp turned mainly to exegesis. His
principal works are a translation of the Psalms,
with notes (Halle, 1776; 3d ed., 1789); an excellent
edition of the New Testament (1797; 5th ed., 1840);
and the collection of treatises, Scripta, varii argu-
wenii maximam partem exegetiei alqtie hislorUi
(2 vols,. 1805; 2d ed., 1824). Posthumous were
Vorlesungen iiber die ChrigUiche GlaitberaUhre (ed.
K. Thilo, 2 parts, 1827: En,-. transL, Lectures
on Chritlian Theology, 2 vols., New York, 1831-
1833); and BibliacheGlauberalehre vomehmlick zum
praktisclwn Gebrauch (ed. E. F. Guerike, Halle,
1840); and Beitrdge zur LebemgeuiiiehU: Augugl
Golllieb Spangenbergs (od. O. Frick, 1884). Men-
tion may be made of two popular anonymous
tracts, iras goU icb thun, dags left »elig werdet
(1806); and AnleJtung lu einem golUeligen LAen
(1311). In collaboration with I. L. Schulie and
A. H. Niemeyer he edited the review, Frankera
Siiflungen (3 vols.. Halle, 1792-96). in this he
published, among other thin^, Spener'a LAen,
Verdimele und StTeUigkaten (vol. i., pp. 79-114);
Spenera iind Frankcrus Khgen iiber die MSngel der
Religionttehrer {vol. ii., pp. 33-84, 161-220); and
Johann Amatagius Freylinghauxen (vol. ii., pp. 305-
333). Knapp collaborated in the Bctckretimng des
Haihschen WaitenKaaiie* (Halle, 1799), and also
edited M issiomiieriehte (Halle, 1799-1824).

(GeORG MtLLER.)
lliKl.iDOHAPiii: r. T«baclten. in ADB. ivi. 36fl-2<l7: H.
Holtinuuui >Dd It. Zapllel, LtziJam /Or Thtalooit um/
KiriAcnircjffl. p. 600. Brunawi.'li, t888: F. VipnuDUi,
Dictionruiirt di la BiUc. ill. IBIO-ll, Pajis, IBCUj.

KHEELAND, ABNBR: American editor and
deiatic writer; b. at Gardner, Mass., Apr. 6, 1774;
d. at Farmington, la., Aug. 27, 1844. He was first
11 Baptist, then a Universalist minister, but ulti-
mately became a deist. Aft«r editing universalist
periodicals in Philadelphia and New York, he went
to Boston and founded there in 1831 the Initstigator.
YoT views expressed in this paper he was tried for
blasphemy before the supreme court at Boston
in 1836 and sentenced to imprisonment for a short
lime. His works include: The New Tealamenl in
Greek and English (2 vols., Philadelphia, 1822);
Lectures on the Doctrine qf Univertal Salvation
(1824); and A Review of the Evidenees o/ Chrisli-
anity (New York, 1829).
BiBLToanAFSTt Tlie trinl Ik nnrtemid in hu cm ffcciflc ef

Iht Trial, Cmriclion and Final /mpriwniwnl . . . of A.

Kneetartd, Rwiim. IH.^8: C. G. Grwne, Rrod and Jador.

ib. 1S34: S, U. Parker, Hepar! of Iht AmmenU o! 0»

EREELDIG. See Worship.

kheelisg cortroversy m bavakia: ad

incident of Bavarian cccleaiustical politics under the
ministry of Karl von Abel between 1838 and 1S46.
King Ludwig I. (1825—18), an arbitrary nUer, par-
ticularly in the later years of his reign, longed for
the restoration of the old glory of the Roman Church,
and appointed Abel, an outspoken Roman Catholic
reactionary, minister for the interior. As such be
aimed blow after blow at the Protestants. On
Aug. 14, 1838, an order of the war department re-
quired all soldiers, regardless of confession, to kneel
in the mass and likewise if they happened to be
on guard duty when the host was carried by in the
Corpus Christi procession. Numerous petition*
tor the revocation of the order were sent to the su-
preme consistory and the council of state, but proved
fruitless, Abel persuading the king that plots of the
liberal opposition were concealed in all Protestant
complaints. The coiisistory remained silent till 1843,
but then, incited by the increasing arrogance of
Abet and the determined resistance of the Protec-
tants, they represented that the act required of the
latter was for them a sin. An attempt was made to
annul the order by legislative action but failed.
Even J. J. t. von DfiUinger defended it, claiming that
kneeling was. for the Prolestftnt soldier, merely a
motion of the body having nothing to do with
faith and conscience, and a vehement literary con-
troversy was carried on between C!. C. A. von
Hartess (q,v.) and other Protestanta and RAmaa
Catholic theologians. The first modification of the
offensive order exempted Protestant soldiers from
attending Roman Catholic services, and in Dec,
1848. its more objectionable requirements were
annulled by the personal intervention of the king,
who finally listened to other counselors than Abol
and learned the true import of the opposition and
its serious character, Abel's administration wa«
overthroB-n in 1847. The entire movement bene-
fited the Protestant Church more than it ad-
vanced the Roman. (E. Dobn.)

BiBuoaBAPQT: E, Dom. in Beitrage eur baytrittfwn Kit-
dttneuchitMi. v., parts 1-2. ErUaceu, 1890; K. Fusha,
Annnlxn der pn^aatanlitt/un Kirc/ie in . . . Bajremt
Uunich, tSSe; C. EiJen. BdradMHiatn and UrlMk dm
. . . E- L- von Aittrt iibvr dit . , , ParttibeiPfganQen
unim JahrhutiderU. SaubrOFkBa. ISW; □. Thomasiiia,
Dof Wudrfencaelixn det ewtrntttifchtn L^tit in der fv-
UuTiMchtn Kircht Bayerna, ErlangFii, ISST.
KITEDCKER, kneik'er, JOHAHH JAKOB: Ger-
man Protestant; b, at Tauberbischofaheiffl (19 m.
B.W, of Wurabui^) Feb. 12, 1840. He studied in
Heidelberg, 1861-65, where he became privat-
doccnt in 1873. In 1880 he wa.i appointed a.st)ociate
professor of Old-Testament CTOgesis and Semitic
languages in Heidelberg. He was also engaged in
pastoral work from 1865 to 1004, holding the pas-
torat« of Eppelbeim, near Heidelberg, for the last
twenty-one years of this period. In theology be
belongs to the critical school, and besides editing
F. Hitiig's Vorlexungen fiber Inbtiiche Theologie
and jneMtianiache Weiiea^ngen de» Alien TeiAamtni*
(Carlsruhe, 1880), has written iSilooft, Quell, Teich

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

uttd Tal in Jenittdem (Heidelberg, 1873); Dot
Biidi BarMk (Leipaic, 1879); DU An/Snge del
rOmitehen ChriMtentuvu (Karlsruhe, 1881); Un-
glavie oder OUtubeT (Heidelberg, 1895); and tXe
Gleichberechtigutig da hirchluJien Liberaligmua mit
der kirchlichen Rechigl&vbigkeit im Lichle de» Mi-
lUrhen CkritterUumt, dtr rcformatorueken Grund-
»6tce und dea badiachen Bekennlnwtanda (1898).
KNIGHT, ALBION WILLUUSON: Protestant
Epiitcopal bishop; b. at White Springs, Fla., Aug.
24, 1859. He studied at the University of the South,
Sewftnee, Tcnci,, but on account of illness took no
degree. In 1881 hewasordered deacon, was ordained
priest in 1S83, and, after beingamissionajy in south-
ern Florida 1881-83, held parishes at Palatka,
Fla., 1884-86, and Jacksonville, FU., 1886-93. He
was dean of the cathedral at Atlanta, Ga., 1803-
1904, and was conBecrat«d bishop of Cuba in 1904.
KNIGHT, GBOSGB THOHSON: tlniversalist;
b. at Windham, Me., Oct. 29, 1850. He was edu-
cated at Tufta College (B.A„ 1872; M,A., 1875)
and at the Tufts Divinity School <B.D., 1875), and
has taught in the latter institution liiice 1875, as
instructor in rhetoric and church history 187&-83,
u professor of church history 1883-1901, and as
professor of Christian theology since 1901. He is
also secretary and librarian of the Universaliat
Historical Society. He has published: The Good-
nesB of God (Boston, 1904); and The Praise of
Hypotriay (Chicago, 1906).

KNIGHT, WILLIAM ALLEN: Congregational-
ist; b. at Milton, Miss., Oct. 20, 1863. He studied
ftt Adalbert College, Western Reserve University,
HiruD College, Hiram, O. (B.A., 1889), Oberlin
Theological Seminary, from which he was graduated
in 1900, and Harvard University (1903-05). lie
was associate pastor of the First Presbyterian
Church, Cleveland, O., 1891-94, and became pas-
tor of the First Congregational Church, Saginaw,
Hich., in 1894, of the Central Congregational
Church, Fall River, Mass., in 1897, and of Ihe
Brighton Congregational Church, Boston, in 1902.
Id theology he belongs to the liberal school, and
bos written: The Song of our Syrian Gtieal (Boston,
1003); Th« Lave Waick (ISOi); Saint Abigati of the
Pines (1905); Tfte Tryst by the Sea (1905); and
Bigna in the Christmat Fire (1908).

KNIPPEBDOLLING (KHIPPEHDOLLIBCK).
BERNT: German Anabaptist; bom in MUnster;
«xecuted there Jan. 23, 1536. He came of a re-
spected family and was himself a merchant; he
became involved in the riot of 1627 at Milnster and
was imprisoned by the bishop, but by a fine secured
Us release. He adopted the faith of the Anabap-
tists, sheltered some of the leaders in his house, and
■was after the victory of the faction made bQtger-
neister. He aided in the placing of John ot Ley-
den at the head of aflairs at MUnster (sec MU.vster,
ANABAPTiB're in), and became sword-bearer and then
governor; but when the city was retaken, he was
captured and put to death.

Bibuooiufiit: Coniuit the liUratun under UOnsTER. Am-

BAPTtSn IN.

KNIPSTRO,knIp'stro, JOHANNES: German the-
ologian and one of the founders of the Protes-

tant church in Pomerania; b. at Sandali (49 m.
n.n.e. of Magdeburg) Mny 1, 1407; d. at Wolgast
(33 m. B.C. of Stralaund) Oct. 4, 1556. Little is
known regarding his early life, but in 1516 he n'ent
from a Franciscan cloister in Silesia to a Minorite
convent at Frankfort-on-the-Oder, probably for the
prosecution of his studies there, A legend dating
from the end of the seventeenth century describes
Knipstro as meeting and overcoming the celebrated
Tetiel in a public debate on indulgences in Jan.,
1518, but earher sources contain nothing to support
this tradition. It is more correct to say that Knip-
stro embraced the teachings of Lulher at an early
age, and that about the year 1521 he began to
preach the new doctrines publicly at Pyritz, whither
he had been transferred in the hope of counteract-
ing his heretical tendencies. Erasmus of Man-
teuffel, bishop of Cammin, ordered Ihe arrest of
Knipstro, who succeeded in making his escape to
Stettin and was a preacher in Stralsund in Nov.,
1525. There he remained till 1531, taking an
important part in the organication of the church sys-
tem and acting as a tealous supporter of the Lu-
theran doclrine against the principles ot Zwinglian-
ism which found favor among some of his colleagues.
After two years' sojourn in Greifswald Knipstro
returned to Stralsund, where he rose to a position
of eminence, and continually endeavored to im-
press conservative Lutheranism on the religious
life of the city. He represented Stralsund in the
important religious assembly of the Hansa towns
which met at Hamburg in 1535, and subsequently
became court preacher to Duke Philip of Pomerania-
Wolgast, When the country was divided into the
three sees of Wolgast, Stettin, and Slolp, Knipstro
was appointed general superintendent of the first
diocese, displaying in the performance of his office
an active xcal for the improvement of discipline and
the moral uplifting of the clergy. From 1539 to 1541
he was professor of theology at the new University of
Greifswald, and though he held no academic de-
gree, he continued uninterruptedly to fill this posi-
tion after 1543, resigning his pastorate in Wolgast.
In 1552, however, he left Greifswald and returned to
his parish. Together with Paul von Rode, he drew
up, in 1542. a new constitution for the church
which was adopted by the provincial synods. To-
ward the Interim Knipstro maintained an attitude
of politic compromise in deference to the wishes of
Duke Philip, who nominally accepted it tor hia
dominions and made his peace with the emperor.
In the Osiandrian controversy which broke out soon
after, Knip>stro, as an opponent of Osiander, entered
into controversy with Petrus ArtopOua of Stettin,
and publishe<l, in accordance with the instructions
of the synod, his ATitwort der Theologen imd Paslorm
in Pommfmaaf die Cotifeenion A. Ouiandri (Witten-
berg, 1552). The dispute lasted several years and
resulted in the deposition of ArtopDus.

Of far greater importance was the contest which
Knipstro carried on against Johann Freder over the
question of ordination, a controversy in which
political and doctrinal interests were clo^Iy iii'
termingled. Freder, who was a brother- in-laiv of
Justus Jonas, had been summoned from a tutorial
position to the post of preacher in the Hamburg

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Kniclit

catbcdrSil in 1540, but had not been inducted with
the laying on of hands on account of the opposition
of the Roman Catholic canons. In 1547 he be-
came iuperintendent at Stralsund and accordingly
esercieed the powers of examination and ordination
over the city clergy. Knipstro now demanded that
Freder should receive ordination at hi? handa, an act
which would have been an official recognilion of the
authority of the general superintendency of Wol-
gast over Stralsund. The authorities of Stralsimd
forbade Freder to submit to such ordination, and
in 1549 the dispute was interrupted for a lime by
the dismissal of Freder on account of his opposi-
tion to the Interim. In 1549 Freder became pro-
fessor of theology at Oreifswald, and in 1550 super-
intendent at Rugen, then part of the ecclesiastical
province of the Danish bishop of Roeskilde, who
had the power of confirmation. To nullify this
authority Knipstro introduced Freder into office at
Rvlgen without waiting for Ibe confirmation of
Bishop Pailadius of Roeskilde, who now required
Freder to appear in Copenhagen. Philip, however,
forbotlehim tomake the journey, whereupon Knip-
stro entered into a sharp controversy with Freder,
denying the power of ordination to one who had
not himself been ordained. Freder in reply denied
that the imposition of hands constituted an essential
part of ordination, and appealed to the Wittenberg
theologians, who declared, through Melanchthon
and Bugenhagen. that the custom of imposition as a
praiseworthy practise was derived from old apos-
tolic times and that it should not be abandoned,
although one might be considered duly ordained
who had not observed it. In 1551 Freder was or-
dained by Pailadius in Denmark, and though he
was deprived of his professorsliip at Greifswald he
still remained superintendent at Rugen and in 1553
came to an agreement with Knipstro. The contest,
however, was speedily renewed, and as Freder as-
sumed a radical position in defiance of a decision of
the synod of Greifswald, he was compelled to leave
RUgen and became superintendent at Wismar.
Knipstro, who had thus vindicated the authority
of the ruling powers against that of a foreign bishop,
continued In the active exercise of his duties for
the remainder of his lite. (G. Kawbrau.)

Biblidqhapbt: J. Rimge (d. 1595). Brtvi* drnffn^tio.
pu-tly priDled in J. G. L. KoKKarUn. Di acadrrmia Pom-
mjiw. pp. M «jq., Greif»w»ld. 1839; J, F, Mayer. Sipio-
dalnoia Fnmtranica, ib. 1703; F. BiLblow. Johaimti
Kniptlro. Hslle. 1SS8. Cooaull alw^ O. Fade, fiOiVMcA-
Fommertriit GarhirhUn, V. 217 Bqq.. Laipnc ISSB; G.
Rictschcl. LuOitr und dit Ordinaiiim, pp. 90 gqq.. WitUD-
berg. 1B89,

KHOBEL, AUGUST WILHELM: German Prot-
estant exegete; b. at Tzschecheln near Sorau (55
m. B.E.e. of Frankfort-on-the-Oder), Lower Lusatia.
Aug. 7, 1807; d. at Giessen May 25, 1863. He
studied at the gymnasium of Sorau and at the Uni-
versity of BreBku(Ph.D., 1831; Th.D., 1838), where
he became privat-docent in 1831 and professor ex-
traordinary of theology in 1835. His Propkitia-
mu» der Hdiraer (2 vols., Bresluu, 1837) secured him
a professorship in theology at Giessen in 1839.
At Giessen he lectured exclusively on the Old Testa-
ment. His lectures were of great value from the
linguistic, historical, and arcbeological side, though

the decidedly rationalistic bent of his mind pre-
vented bim from thoroughly appreciating the poeti-
cal and theological value of the Old Testament.
His works are distinguished by sober' mindeduess
and discretion, by sound linguistic and historical
views, and by a comprehensive knowledge of Orien-
tal antiquity. With the exception of the above-
mentioned work and V6lkerUi/d der GenesU (Gie»-
sen, 1850). he published exclusively exegetical
works; viz., commentaries on Isaiah (Leipsic,
1843; 3d ed. 1861), which involved him in a con-
troversy with Ewald, and occoaioned him to write
his Exegetitchea Vademecum /iJr Herm Ewaid in
Tubingen (Giessen, 1844); Genesis (Leipsic, 1852;
2d ed. 1860); Exodus and Leviticus (1S57); and
Numbers, Deuteronomy, and Joshua (1861). They
all appeared in L. Hirxel's KuTige/asgUa ex€ge-
tucha Handbvch zum Allen Teatarrient, and with
the contributions of Otto Thenius and Ernst Ber-
theau. form the most valuable part of that col-
lection. Knobel also wTote a commentary on
Ecclesiastes (Leipsic, 1836). (O. ZOrKLERt.)

Br&LUHtRAPBT; H, E. Snhba. BuJi/raphiaeh-HleroritiAn
Leiiktm. ii. 3S7. Danutwlt. 1843: C. MxuhI. KircUiAtt
Handlnikan. iv, 23, L*ipuc. ISM; ADIt. xvi. 300-304.

KBOEPFLER, knirp'fler, ALOIS: German Ro-
man Cathohc; b. at Schomburg Aug. 29, 1847.
He studied in Tubingen (Ph. D., 1873) and at the
theological seminary at Rottenburg, and after being
a lecturer at the Wilhehnstift, TUbmgen, 1870-80,
was teacher at the Reabcbule at Schramberg and
professor in the Lyceum of Possau from 1880 to 1886.
Since 1886 he has been professor of church his-
tory in the University of Munich, of which he was
rector in tS93-94. Besides editing the fifth and
sixth volumes of the second edition of C. J. vod
Hefele's ConcitttngeschichU (Freiburg, 18Sti~90) and
Veriiffentliehungen aw dem kircJiengetchiehUiekeit
Seminar Miinchen (Munich, 1399 sqq.), to which be
has contributed editions of Walafried Strabo's Liber
de etordii» ei incrtmeniii renim eccUaiaalicarum
(Munich, 1890) and Rabanua Maurus' De intiitu-
tione clericorum libri lre» (1900), he has written
Ktkhbewegung in Bayern unttr Albrecltt V. (Munich,
1891); Wert und Bedeuiung da Studiuma der
KirchengeschickU (1893); Lehrbueh der Kirchenge-
schidtte (Freiburg, 1895); Johann Adam Mdller
(Munich, 1896); and Dot I'ote-unMr im GeiaU der
K<Tehenv&ler in Wort itnd BOd (in collaboration
with L. Glatzle; Freiburg, 1S98).

KHOKB, knO'ke, XIARL: German Lutheran; b.
at Schmedenfledt (near Peine, 13 m. n.w. of Bnuw-
wick) Oct. 15, 1841. He studied in GAttingen and
Erlangen, and was private tutor (1865-67), prin-
cipal of a school at Walarode (1867-69). teacher in
the normal school at Alfeld (1869-75), and prin-
cipal of a similar institution at Wuustorf, near
Hanover (1875-82). Since 1SS2 he has been pro-
feasor of practical theology in G&ttingen. In
1D04 he was made abbot of Bursfelde. and is also
a eonsistorial councilor. He is the foundt'r of the
Evangelical Lutheran Association in the province
of Hanover, and has written: Zur Mcihodik der
bibUichen GeKhiehU. i. (Hanover, 1875); Der
Ckria und die potiiitehe OeprOge der Zeii (1876);
Dot erite Triennium da SehulUhttritminart ta

Xni

THE NEW SCHAFP-HERZOa

Wunttorf (1877); Utber KaUchismusunlerncbl
(1886); PraktisiJi-theoioffUcheT Kommtntar tu den
jPtutaraUtriefen da ApmteU Paidia (2 vols,, G6ttin-
gen, 1887-89); Grundriai der praktticlien ThaAogie
(188fl); Gmndritt der Padagogik urui ihre Ge-
xhichle sett dem ZeitaUer des HuTnarmmtus (Berlin,
1894); ZtiT Oegchiehte der biblUchen Figur-Spnich-
Biicker (Gotha, 1899); and Auigabe dea luther-
■iachen Enchiridiom bit zu Lutkert Tode (Stuttgart,
1903). He also edited the fourth edition of J. J.
van Oosterzee'ePasl/milbTir/eund der Brief an Phile-
mon (Bielefeld, 1894), and editions of T. Mancinua'
Die PoMicm Chrisli (GOltingen, 1898) and Luther's
onaller catechism (Halle, 1904).

EflOLLYS, ncilK, HAHSERD: English Particu-
lar Baptist; b. at Cawkwell (20 m. e.n.e. of Lincoln),
liincohiBhire, c. 1599; d. in LondoD Sept. 19. 1691.
He studied at Cambridge, took orders in 1629, and
became vicar of Humberstone, Lincolnshire, but
resigned his living in 1830, became a separatist
And renounced his orders. The same year he was
Arre9t«d on a warrant from the High Commission
Court and imprisoned at Boston, Lincolnshire.
Escaping through the connivance of bis keeper he
fled to New England early in 1638, and later in that
year foundwl a church at Dover, N. H., over which
he presided till his return to England in 1641.
It is not known when, or where, he was baptized
into the Baptist faith; but in 1645 he was ordained
pastor of a Baptist congregation that he hud gath-
ered in London. He held several offices under
Cromwell's government, and preached to large au-
diences without interference till the Restoration
(1660). After an enforced absence of some three
years in Germany he resumed his pastorate in Lon-
don and preached there almost up to the day of his
death. In 1670 he was arrested and unprisoaed
under the second Conventicle Act (q. v.), but was soon
discharged. In 1689 he took a l^uling part in the
movement to unite the Baptists. He WTOte several
books, including: The Shining of a Flaming Fire
in Zion (London, 1646); The Rudiments of the He-
treto Grammar in English (164S); Grammidica
Lalina, Gracce et Hebraica Compcndiuni (1665);
And his autobiography to the year 1672 (1692),
■wHich was completed by W. Klffin. The Hanserd
Knollya Society was organized in London in 1845
to repubUsh early Baptist writings; it was dissolved
after ten vohimes had been issued.

■: DNB.i

9-231 eivea a liit of the ic

KHOPKEH, knop'ken (KKOP, KNOPPE), AB-
DREAS, AMD THE REFORMATION IH RIGA:

Andreaa Knopken, the Reformer of Riga, was bom,
probably in a village near KQetrin (17 m. n.e. of
Prankfort), possibly in 1493, and he died at Riga
Feb. 18, 1639, In 1511 he was a student at Frank-
fort-on-the-Oder, and shortly afterward went to
Riga. Becoming discontented with his environment,
he devot«d himself anew to study, and accordingly
wont to Treplow. where, under the leadership of
Bugenhngen, he soon acquired such proficiency in
the Bible that he was appointed assistant to his
teacher at the school in the same city. The teachers
were under the influence of Lutheronism, and the

new movement thus spread among the monks and
clergy, and prepared the way for the Refonoation
among the laity. The measures taken by Erasmus
Manteuffel, afterward bishop of Kammin, resulted
in the closing of the school, but Knopken had al-
ready returned to Riga, together with a number of
Livonian scholars, in 1521.

Even before his coming, however, the works of
Luther were eagerly read in Livonia, and in ground
which liad been thus prepared Knopken, intro-
duced by a letter of Melanchlhon, actively im-
planted his propaganda. The number of his ad-
herents increased continually, and t,o confirm them
in their faith he lectured on the Epistle to the Ro-
mans (Wittenberg, 1524), laying his chief stress oa
the presentation of Evangelical doctrines, and
especially on the cardinal dogma of justification.
the position being that of the writings of Luther and
Melanchthon between 1519 and 1521. He likewise
polemized sharply against the Roman Catholic
Church. To check this Protestant propaganda.
Jasper Lindc, archbishop of Riga, urgal the grand
master Plettenberg to take repressive measures
against the Evangelicals, but the request was re^
fused, and the grand master advised a disputation
instead. The debate accordingly took place in the
choir of St. Peter's on June 19, 1522, and was ad-
judged to be a victory for Knopken. Under such
circumstances it became easy for the authorities to
decbre their allegiance to the Reformation, and
after a letter addressed to tbe archbishop with a
request for a reform of the Church and the appoint-
ment of Evangelical teachers had proved fruitless,
the municipal council, aided by the elders of both
gilds, elected Knopken archdeacon of St, Peter's.
where he dehvered his inaugural sermon Oct, 23,
1522. The protection of the authorities enabled him
to officiate without fear of molestation, and he soon
received assistants in his personal friend Joaciiim Jldl-
ler and in Sylvester Tegetmeier. The denunciatory
speeches of the latter, however, led to grave excesses
on the part of the Protestants, and, though they
were checked for a time, they broke out again in
1524. In this time of riot Tegetmeier had no part,
for soon after the first commotion he had changed

pastor of St, James, entering upon his duties there
on the firet Sunday in Advent, 1322. The number
of Evangelical preachers in Riga steadily increased,
while the efforts of the archbishop to induce the
German government to suppress (he rr
unsucce-saful, and served only t
of Riga to greater hostility. They refused allegiance
to Linde's successor, Johann Blonkenteld, and the
grand master was obliged, in accordance with the
terms of his agreement with tlie Lutherans, to give
them his protection. The archbishop was suspected
of coquetting with the Russians and was arrested by
the grand master, but regained his freedom by an
ostensible submission and hastenctl to Livonia to
complain to the emperor. He diei! on the way,
however, and his successor. Thomas Sch6ning.
desiring to regain his archiepiscopal rights and es-
tates, granted tbe Lutherans their privileges and
freedom.

860

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

KnoU

Knoiiys

Knowledire, Theoloffioal

In 1530 Knopken and Johann Briessmann (q. v.);
who had been called from K6nigsberg three years
previously, prepared a church order for Riga, basing
it primarily on the Kdnigsberg articles of 1525 and
closely following Luther's Formula mtssce. After
the separation of the community from Roman
Catholic control, the council took charge of the ad-
ministration of ecclesiastical affairs, electing and
calling pastors in cooperation with the gilds, and
providing for the maintenance of the clergy, the
churches, and the schools. Two members of the
council, with the mayor as a "superintendent,"
formed a sort of consistory for the administration
of external affairs after 1532, but the internal control
remained in the hands of the chief clergy. The
congregations were represented by their elders in
the election of pastors and in the administration
of the funds for the church and the poor. By the
time of Knopken 's death, the Reformation had been
carried through in Riga, and in 1554 Evangelical
preacliing was ofRcially proclaimed free from
restrictions in all Livonia.

(F. HdRSCHELMANNf.)

Hiblioorapht: F. Hdrschelmann, Andreaa Knopken, der
RefomuUor Rigaa, Leii>sic. 1896; T. Schiemann, Die Re-
formation AU-IAvlands, Hamburg, 1885.

KNOWLEDGE, THEOLOGICAL, PRINCIPLE OF.

Christ the Source of Theological Knowledge (i 1).
Knowledge a Progression ($ 2).
The Biblical Christ (S 3).
Summary ({ 4).

In the early Protestant theology the entire

Scripture was the basis of theological knowledge;

in modem theology the historic Christ

I. Christ is regarded as the only source of
the Source knowledge of God and things divine.

of Theo- It is admitted that God makes himself

logical known by inner workings in the spirit,

Knowledge, but it is claimed that real, that is,

clear, certain, and general knowledge

flows only from that medium through which the

subjective experiences of Christians are conveyed,

from the Christ of tradition. Nature and extrar-

ChrLstian history are considered as sources which,

without Christ, are ambiguous and enigmatical.

Even the practical reason can give only a religion

of morality, and not a sin-forgiving grace.

If it be asked what is there in Christ that gives
knowledge of God and things divine, the answer
must be, his faith in them and his communion with
God, his self-consciousness and his moral character
as it influences the world. The primitive Christian
tradition concerning the words of Jesus and His
deeds, by which His inmost being is made known,
is dominated by faith in the infinite value of his
death, in his resurrection and exaltation to lordship
over the world, and in his return to earth. More-
over, inasmuch as the inner life of Jesus, his spirit,
i.e., his faith and moral character, became to a
certain extent the common spirit of the congrega-
tion of his disciples during their intercourse with him,
the primitive Christian knowledge of God himself,
of divine things, and of moral relationship must
to some extent be regarded, in general, as the in-
fluence of the earthly Christ. The Holy Spirit,
who spoke and speaks out of the oral and written

preaching of the primitive Christians, can not be
regarded as a new and second principle of the
knowledge of God. For if we, like them, by no
means conceive our religious and moral knowledge
as a mere after-effect of the earthly Christ, we never-
theless do regard it as an effect of Christ himself —
of the exalted Christ. "The historic Christ, the
only principle of divine knowledge," means for us
also the Christ who manifests himself from heaven
as the risen one, thus converting a Saul, and now
delaying his return. The Lutheran view, that in-
spirations are bound to external media, from which
the real knowledge flows, is true also of primitive
Christianity: the matters of common knowledge
proceed from the pneumatic manifestations of the
exalted Christ and from the tradition of the pneu-
matic life of the earthly Christ. We may abide by
the interpretation of John xvi. 12-15, which dedares
that the Spirit only glorifies the sole exegete of
God (John i. 18) by teaching how he may be more
and more perfectly known.

But did the human race have a finished knowledge
of its Redeemer by the time the apostles died?

There was no want of great men after

2. Know!- this, who were able, under the influence

edge a of new historic manifestations, to

Progression, discover here and there some unhewn

stones in the Evangelical tradition;
Athanasius, Augustine, Luther may be named.
Though they have not in the least surpassed the
apostolic knowledge of Christ, they none the less
have deepened the understanding of the apostles
and their knowledge of him. The effects of the im-
personal spirit of Jesus, of the spirit, originating
from him, in the first primitive Christian Church
as r. whole, and of the spiritual factors at work in sev-
eral individual cases in the days of primitive Chris-
tianity, unfold themselves in the whole history of
the Church. The progress of secular science does
not embarrass Jesus himself, who wished to be
neither a naturalist nor a historian. We ought to
permit ourselves no doubt concerning the fact,
that it is not simply from a development within
the Church that we have learned to separate the
temporary husks from the divine, infallible spirit
of Christ. If we believe that the living Christ
dominates the whole history of thought, we can say
that he interprets himself, the earthly Jesus, by
means also of events and advances in knowledge
that take place out of the sphere of church history;
he spoke not only through the destruction of Jeru-
salem, but also through the destruction of the an-
cient conception of the world. The field in which
Jesus sowed his word was time, his time, the future
times. His spirit was not of time but of eternity;
his word a germ which makes its full content and its
peculiar character known only in the course of the
historical development. Christ in the inmost con-
tent of his spiritual being was more than he could
manifest (Schleiermacher, Der chrisUiche Glavbe,
§ 93| 2). It is only in the entire course of the his-
torical development of the Church that he can be
understood in his entirety.

That the apostolic beginning of the prooess,
which bore its fruit in the establishment of the
Church and in the New Testament, has for this

4. uutnm -mtnh, ip^m -vrtivins

iMkfciitfwwifliiy if lagiM surfft Aunvn ji *fae 5«?v

'fanMWOt rMMii M uutom % .'vtanon *i» -lie

mwm -wtoo^ if *!»

> tte '^hsK .t JI -9^ TJ 3MflBB if 'lie

•am ' afblMi * Obv. -»

iwi -htf if ^h0t jOfT ^rvwiML T!ui *«rm -veII liifis*'
^Wiktut ttw uitfuift iM^uumi^ if "Ik yji rinjiigi^i
.■nwiiny >f!Ciirrf if 'tbrac fmm -be .sser jcm if
:f!wtlatwi imt mmtuiie 'be fnmer -virh u ^arrfarf
«iri«1iL THm 3ihH«S9U 'thrift :« jnr le "^e iiiebineii
nwbft "iw mty prtoispie 2rir 'be imawfect^ if
^fvr ^ic *:he vsrm ' dihdisu * CbRac m smsic -^
4fMfi<!f» iut ■•wjyfbmif ii prmi&ve CkhaBeiucy.
^wryJuiMC af^MMite. iieinm|i *a ^le eceraai; anc
«tttm itU rhtf 31 memc v» igmrfj Chnc Sjf 'diie
omiMp^wt ^aiit .netitfty viirii ■* y% m^ffSMt aam imoiiF'
^mvt ftw «il ptfiefMrfy p«nv>ied «^ heiiev^ ic sil m i.
umI miv^leKinn if fvir Onct in 'Vir Lisrl :a "ibe ioavt'
iifiipi 'if <.lirtiic -vhidi ^le int •jlimumm hwi uui
«fMi he iiiitMdf m 'dK LoiH if -Jie 5»pir3C isiOefi
fo<H in rhem " "HirmC- B^it if nevsrJieiMi v«
tMfefvmckkte in che pramcrv^ Chmeien eoiweocian
4f Chrtae *iie ^bmeafti ^desn frmn -Jie wo/ogmm ni ^-Jut
4mf mui «n *Mnmi ^etm vhiisb ipi!iv vsl ni rbe
ijpiirte 'if Chriae, iw^ /»""* auvum vims ie 'm^

iS tehwn fmm *iM oweMy of cbet time a
tW» Mkt 'Mikj nh«t -viiuefa is mttuniAnaty neervvl
wtefc hee <1e9%k)^e«i fram fi^ mpirt of Ouvt. in
Ihit «iKnCinl» thust hi, thttC whieh cnij rrmttk

'die ~hnwnni ir Paui'f 5uxb. Tin<pi.iin^ -he ineaBtm^
ti Zhrtat -^noe m la ^itirza mx. if
TV -nirue II ■meai ise * -snireiv
lonziiiB a ^ewun. gyryiimnnm .lonrzr '^le
PVaieiFi ■ "VTcboiiz mrateaniznic 'be
'•'*"«'"• mxrx V immu. -'jn 'be imer "»*"'^ .r j
'o smecne "iie Taoie ixueeiaMj^y <aaiii:-
'ii aRminr^ 'ZbraOMnirr m j. xer^F^ianiDeac -ii

i_i. »

ion

miy -nac

ji -be X«!W T-^xamesii
•iiTrx If -be •;iTie '

:n 3

'TTmifr, tbe miv smrmie for "iie kaowi-

1M» JQrt M tb0k vmm^, din£ nfae ^Mnsinl a ^iie ue«ppenniLcei43f
■Wtimiyjiiiy imu w "ui, ai for levierii n'manw muMZflfr-
lxti»ry. »>>fci*> k ti^aiwemion ghet e^^yJim^ ^afcen j
Itom tlw Iwrt/MT' ^ tlw^ time k ixneMencinL Does |
tte 4fMinl ^ «a iivle^etufeitt nevneM in the emt \
«f idl tlw !Kf!;w-T«it«ment vievs eonrixtioDeii bj :
Hw y^/0y fA the time mean ako the aacrl^ee of
iMr ^raJoe an rrorHactafXM? For ezampie. is the '
tlboailliA that >«ms bed a p^taonal pTMs^^ .

^trnmni rwin^ ^jeeaane it w erxvi^kxed bj a lev- i
Mb Ib^rnmJa? KaJdenai^eriipeT ha* 'iedared that even
far /mvm YmmfM it wan a formuk thnt ezplained
M$tmn yfrmttMXj, whidk he ezperieneed aa a won-
ilfom mft0Arf. In thai, too, eonaistt fak oricm-
alMjr, t^ tpfitk with W^lfbaosen, that he fierceiyt<i
Hm trje aiKl «temal m the maw of efaduo^ie nib-
Uifcy rvsjeetiKl the ineirfcntal, the carkatored, the
<lmJ <ifkTr*wirta, and in the knm of hk indhidualitj
gaifirtt»trj t/jiEKAher that wbieh faaa eternal worth,
i\m btiman-dfirfne. But maj not «>ich a gathering
lwir« lieen ako the pntummiie achievement of the
iffiMi td a Faiif, or fA prnnHive Chrktianitj aa a
whtMl In thk way, e4(., the whole primitnre
(^trytlMn %M%tf\tAnKj er/uM hn Mmmptd aa revelatioD.
Helantifie ther;lofE/ will no longer rake question
atxMt that* But not orjly that which the earthly
ieatM himnftlf gatherer! an eternally valid out of the
maafi tA New-Teatafmnt factora that are hiatorically
oonrJitir/ne/J m Uf (je reoeiverl an imperkhable, but
ako tliAt which, without orjntra/Jicting the spirit of
Jmum liaa, un/Jer the f/neumatic manifefitation« of
iha Exalted One, undergone a new development

pnemnanr Jie n "Jkt »mrMBLT *^
iiaa xicfsiil^ 'xnsaicXBd.
in doe prmm*'? 'rbnacians imier ^ibe inrfiipnce
of die pnenmnce TianifHrinnna j£
Chrkc T!iia aimuui
of die earuuy *Z1iri
Evangeiieai nF^-Hr-jm :n. ipier liiac by ibis t^iucb-
isoae tbe scmiciT^ (Ilmscaa pr^achxnc may he
'ja id QonsBGeney. Ea -feciaKnc uinz

iar'Juy Jeaoa k :Lbe 7^ foiinrraiinn of
kaowkd^ of Goii — cue hia jewu-gctifln ainsc also
be added — diia alfsne. ace ;Uio ^be prsoa of iz. vix.

the raen ace. wbico. beianc zo zbe
exateed Cbrkc la Rem. L 3^-L v» ind ubafi which
k fondaniensal in ^be cnncicie <s£ '^heciocical know^
ed^K. by wbien been die •>Jd Tescaxiieiic. mm canned
in T. Z aa weA m die prea^bix^c eT«i of & P:&ul
(t, I. 5j moBC be ^lesced: he k iniieed. by virtue
of an act of reraa^son by the Risen •!>{:«. hk ere&Msc
ayaatie. acd ysc =0 abaorrviy cnf&llibje lawgiver
in manen of ^^'r^^ Kisr. Thikiii!.

1487: J. Kafcao. oi Xn:idhr>,'S /ir rWewtfw »«rf

Ldm, pp. :i «vv- Leipae. lsG3. idea.
kiManadm J^auM vid 4tr ^fnekiektiidka

um0 dm OioiJifna csf den. ' pearA^fiUTurAn ' Jt»%a Cir\»-
tmm, m ZeiJiarkr\ft f-ir TT-r- .Vjpuf -"'i l^srrA*. -rd 1^97 .171-
2M: O. RiuehL in Z^Uaekrxf: fir- rkn^yfie :^nd XsncAc.
m <1«3 . 371 -I2«: W. Herr-ar- Xiwr Veritkr ce» CXri*-

JSdbVt «^ <>^!>«>^<« -V^^ <^ dinJCJidkrm C:<n.dm«rcn(iaM«.
Gnftdfto. 1%M: G. Eeke. I>ic £A«xoffije4c Sd^uU AUbrtekl
Ritadd* umd die rttrngdhadu Kvdu der Gagnaeart, BcrtiB,
1W7.

KHOWLEDGE» THEORY OF RELIGIOUS. See

TteTB, THLTUJL'LNESa. L

nOWLIKG, nAling. RICHARD JOHH : Church
of England; b. at Devonport < 2 m. w.n.w. of Plym-
outh), Devonshire, Sept. 16. ISol. He studied at
Balliol College, Oxford (B.A.. 1S74). and was or-
dered deacon in 1875 and ordained priest in 1876.
He was classical master in Abingdon Grammar

361

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDU

Xnowledire, TheoloffioAi

School 1874-76, and curate of Wellington, Somer-
set, 1876-78 and of St. Martin-in-the-Fields,
London, 1878-84. He was then called to King's
Ck)llege, London, where he was successively cen-
sor and lecturer (1884-90), vice-principal (1890-
1897), and professor of New-Testament exegesis
(1894-1905). Since 1905 he has been canon of
Durham and professor of divinity in Durham Uni-
versity, and fellow of King's Ck)llege. He was
examining chaplain to the archbishop of Canter-
bury and the bishop of Exeter 190^-05 and ex-
aminer in the University of London 1905-06, be-
sides being select preacher at Cambridge in 1895
and Boyle Lecturer in 1903-05. His theological
position is conservative. He has written The WH-
neas of the Epistles, a Study in modem Criticism
(London, 1892); Ads of the Apostles in The Ex^
positcr^s Greek Testament (1901); Our Lord's Virgin
Birth and the Criticism of To^y (1903); The
Epistle of St. James (1904); The Testimony of St,
Paul to Christ (Boyle Lectures for 1903-05; 1905) ;
and Literary Criticism and the New Testament

(1907).

KNOW-NOTHING MOVEMENT: A popular
movement which had considerable influence in the
United States in the middle of the nineteenth cen-
ttuy, partly political, partly inspired by a not un-
natural nervousness in view of the experience of
all European countries with the meddling of the
Roman Catholic Church in national politics and the
fact that there was no official deliverance to show
that it would not do the same in the United States.
It was based on the theory that the republic would
be in danger unless the Roman Catholic Qiurch
were held in check and foreign-bom citiflens,
especially Roman Catholics, excluded from all
share in the government. As the successor of
various ** native American " movements which had
nursed similar beliefs even in colonial times, the
Know-Nothing party (so called from the injimction
laid upon its members to profess utter ignorance of
even the existence of any such organization) was
formally organized in 1852, when political condi-
tions favored the launching of a new party which
should attract the dissatisfied elements of the older
ones. It was begun as a local organization in New
York City, and at first aimed at local and munici-
pal victories. As stated in its ritual after a na-
tional council had been formed, its objects were
among other things ** to resist the insidious policy
of the Church of Rome and all other foreign influ-
ence against our republican institutions in all law-
ful ways " and ** to place in all offices of honor,
trust, or profit in the gift of the people or by
appointment none but native-bom Protestant citi-
zens." These and other uncompromising declara-
tions were for the initiated; a statement of princi-
ples was drawn up for the general public which
professed to aim at " no interference with religious
faith or worship and no test or oaths for office."
* After several successes in municipal elections, in
1854 the party sent forty representatives to Con-
gress and elected a govemor and legislature in
Massachusetts. In the foUo^^ing year they carried
the elections in nine States, and elected the gov-
ernors of New Hampshire, Connecticut, and Rhode

Island, while in the next Congress there were seven-
ty-five Know-Nothing members elected as such.
The inflammatory talk of the promoters of the
movement produced its natural results. Riotous
mobs assembled in various New England cities,
and Ronutn Catholic churches were set on fire there
and in New York, New Jersey, and Ohio. At least
twenty persons were killed in Know-Nothing riots
in Louisville, and attempts were made to assassi-
nate Archbishop Bedini, nuncio in Brazil, who had
been commissioned to examine various ecclesias-
tical nuttters on his passage through the United
States. In 1856 the party held a national conven-
tion and nominated Millard Fillmore for president.
The northem delegates, however, seceded from the
convention on failing to secure a definite anti-sla-
very declaration, and Fillmore secured only the
eight electoral votes of Maryland. From this time
Know-Nothingism as a political movement may be
said to have collapsed, although in 1860 Bell and
Everett, candidates of the " Constitutional Union,"
received thirty-nine electoral vot^s largely through
the support of Know-Nothing elements which had
refused to merge in either of the two great parties.
With the outbreak of the Civil War an opportunity
was afforded to American citizens of foreign birth
and Roman Cntliolic religion to demonstrate their
loyalty to the land of their adoption; and the fact
that no less than 150,000 men of Irish birth en-
listed in the Union army proved that the laity of
that church were not scheming against the govern-
ment. The general decay of religious intoler-
ance tended in the same direction — although in
comparatively recent years, especially from 1891 to
1897, the ** American Protective Association " has
attracted some attention as representing substan-
tially the same principles.

Bibuoorapht: T. B. Whitney, Defence of American Policy^
New York, 1856 (by an advocate); J. Kehoe, Life and
WriUn4f9 of Archbishop Hughse, ib. 1865; J. L. Spalding,
Life of Archbishop Spalding, Baltimore, 1872; T. V. Cooper
and H. T. Fenton, American Policies, Chicago. 1884 (con-
taining the ritual); J. B. McMaeter. The Riotous Career
of the Know-Nothings, in With the Fathers, New York.
1896; L. F. Schmeokebier. Hist, of the Know-Nothing
Party in Maryland, Baltimore, 1899; J. A. Woodbum,
Political Parties, New York, 1903; T. J. Jenkins, in CaOi-
olie World, Ivii (1893), 511-522; and the works on the
history of the period.

KNOX, nex, EDMUND ARBUTHNOTT: Church
of England, bishop of Manchester; b. at Bangalore,
India, Dec. 6, 1847. He studied at Christ Church,
Oxford (B.A., 1869), and was ordered deacon in
1870 and ordained priest in 1872. From 1868 to
1885 he was fellow of Merton College, Oxford, where
he was tutor from 1875 to 1885 and chaplain from
1879 to 1885, besides being curate of Holy Trinity,
Oxford, from 1870 to 1874 and vicar of St. John the
Baptist, in the same city, from 1874 to 1879. He
was rector of Kibworth-Beauchamp from 1884 to

1891 and also of Smeeton-Westerby, Leicestershire,
in 1887-88, and was then vicar of Aston-juxta-
Birmingham from 1891 to 1894, being likewise
examining chaplain to the bishop of Worcester from

1892 to 1894. In 1894 he was consecrated suffragan
bishop of Coventry, being at the same time both
rector of St. Philip's, Birmingham, and archdeacon
of Birmingham from 1894 to 190a From 1892

THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZ0G

to 1903 he was surrogate of the diocese of Worcester,
and was appointed honorary canon of Worcester in
1892. In 1003 he was tranalated to the diocese of
Hanchester. He has written Paaton and Teachers
(London, 1902).

KHOX, GEORGE WILLIAM: Presbyterian; b.
at Rome. N. Y., Aug. 11, 1853. He was graduated
at Hflmilton College in 1874 and Auburn Theoiogi-
cal Seminary in 1877. He then engaged in mission'
ary work in Japan, and was profesflor of homiletica
in Union Theological Seminary, Tokyo, 188l-B3and
of philosophy and ethics in the Imperial University
of Japan in 1886. In 1893 he returned to the United
States and was pastor of the Presbyterian church at
Rye, N. Y., 1894-99. He was lecturer on apologet^
ics in Union Theological Seminary, New York
City, 1897-99, and since 1899 has been professor of
philosophy and history of religion in the same in-
stitution. He was vice-president of the Asiatic
Society of Japan 1891-92, Nathaniel Taylor lecturer
at Yale in 1903; also lecturer on the history of
religion in 1905-06. In addition to works in Japa-
nese he has written: The Christian Poinl of View (in
collaboration with F. Brown and A, C McGiffert
(New York, 1902); Dirtct and Fundameni^ Proof s
i^ the Christian Religion (1903); Japanese Life in
Toum and Cojaiiry (1904); The Spirit qf the Orient
(1900); and The Development qf Rdigwn in Japan
(1906).

KNOX, JOHII.

EKlier Life ({ 1

n (t 2).

liitry at St. Andnws (I 3),

Kqdi

Had. 1G49-54 <| G).
It, 1554-69(16).
the Church in Sootlnnd 1% T).
"' y(iS).

V ID EdinbuTRh sad PrivaUi Life (| 9).
nnonnl Appearsnoe and Uannsr ({ 10).
TeBtimooira to bis CbaraoUr (I 11).
Neither the place nor the date of the birth of
John Knox, the great Scotch Reformer, is settled
beyond dispute; but the weightiest considerations
favor Giffordgate, a suburb of the town of Hadding-
ton (IQm. e.of Edinburgh) aa the pbce and 1513 or
1614 as the year (ct. H. Cowan, John Knox. pp. 22-
25. 45-48). He died at Edinburgh Nov, 24. 1572.
His falherwas William Knox, of fair, though not dis-
tinguished, descent, who fought at
I. Earlier Flodden, and bad his borne in the
Life. county of Haddington. His mother's
name waa Sinclair. He received the ele-
ments of a liberal education in Haddington, which
early possessed an excellent grammar-BchooJ — one
of those schools originally monastic and due to the
public spirit which, at least as regards education,
Animated the Scottish Church even antecedently to
the Reformation. Thence he proceeded either to the
"University of Glasgow, where the name " John
Knox " occurs among the ineorporati in 1522, or to
St. Andrews, where he is stated by Beia to have
studied under the celebrated John Major (q.v,), a
native, like Knox, of East Lothian and one of the
greatest scholars of bis time. Major was at Glasgow
in 1522 and at St. Andrews in 1531. How long
Knox remained at college is uncertain. He certainly

never made any pretense to be such a scholar as hia
contemporaries George Buchanan and Alesius; nor
h there evidence that he even gi^uatcd. That
he was a fair Latinist, and accustomed to study, ap-
pears from the fact, which seems to be well attest^.
of his familiarity with the writings of Augustine and
Jerome. He aoiuired the Greek and Hebrew lan-
guages at a later period, as bis writings indicate.
He was ordained to the priesthood at some date
prior to 1540, when his status as a priest is
first mentioned. It appears from evidence ad-
duced by Laing (in his ed. of the IToritB of Knox).
that in 1543 Knox ha<] not yet divested biin-
self of Roman orders; at any rate, in his char-
acter as a priest, he signed a notarial instru-
ment dated Mar. 27 of that year, the original of
which is still to be found in the charter-room at
Tyninghume Cnslle. Up to this time, however, he
Bccms to have employed himself in private tuition,
rather than in parochial duties; and, at the moment
when he last signed his name as a priest, he was
probably already engaged in the office — which he
held for several yeara^ — of tutor in the family of
Hugh Douglaa of Longniddry, in East Lothian, with
the further charge of the son of a neigbboricg geotle-
man, John Cockbum of Ormiston. Both of these
lairds, like Knox himself, had even at this time A
leaning to the new doctrines.

Knox ftrst publicly professed the Protestant faith
about the end of 1545. His mind had in all probabil-
ity been directed to that faith for some
a. Convet- time before the change was avowed,
uoo to According to Calderwood, Thomas
Protestant- Guiltaume, a native of East Lothian,
ism. of the order of Blackfriars and for a
short time chaplain to the Regent
Arran in 1543. was the first " to give Mr. Knox a
taste of the truth." Beza attributes his original
change of opinion to the study in early manhood,
as already ihiiitcd, of Augustine and Jerome. But
the immediate instrument, probably, of hia actual
conversion was the learned and amiable George
Wiahart (q.v.) who. after a period of banishment,
returned to his native country in 1544, to perish,
within two years, at the stake, as the last and
roost illustrious of the victims of Cardinal Bea-
ton. Among other places where be preached the
Reformed doctrines Wishart had come to East
Lothian in Dec, 1545, and there made Knox's
acquaintance. The attachment which the latter
formed for the person as well as for the doctrine of
Wishart, must be described as of the nature of a
youthful enthusiasm, Knox followed (he Reformer
everywhere, and constituted himself his body-guard,
bearing, it is said, a two-edged sword, that he might
be prepared to defend him against the cardinal'^
emissaries, who were known to be seeking Wish-
art's life. And, on the night of the laKer's appre-
hension, Knox was hardly restrained from sharing
his captivity, and cotiaequently, in all probability,
his fate. The words of WLsharl's remonstrance ate *
well known: " Nay, return to your baims [pupils].
One is sufficient for a sacrifice."

Knox was first called to the Protestant ministry
at St. Andrews, which was throughout his life
intimately associal«d with the Reformer's career.

863

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

There appears to have been no regular ordina-
tion. Of course, he had been already ordained
as a priest in the Church of Rome.
3. Ministry But imposition of hands and other
at St forms were not regarded by Knox as
Andrews, of more than secondary importance.
A graphic account of the whole pro-
ceedings connected with his call to the ministry,
together with a report of the first sermon he de-
livered in St. Andrews, will be found in his History
of the Reformation.

At this time he was residing in the castle of St.
Andrews. After Beaton's death, this stronghold be-
came a place of refuge for many of the
4« Confine- Protestants. Along with his pupils,
ment in the sons of the lairds of Longniddry
the French and Ormiston, already mentioned.
Galleys. Knox passed there some comparatively
peaceful months. His repose was
rudely interrupted by the investiture and capitu-
lation of the castle in the end of July, 1547, succeeded,
as regarded Knox and some of the rest of the ref-
ugees, by confinement in the French galleys. He
spent nineteen months as a galley-slave, amid
hardships and miseries which are said to have per-
manently injured his health. '^ How long I con-
tinued prisoner," he said at St. Andrews, in 1559,
" what torments I sustained in the galleys, and
what were the sobs of my heart, is now no time to
recite." He adds, however, that he always con-
tinued to hope for a return to his native country.
In the History (vol. i., p. 228), the same confidence
of a return is referred to as never having forsaken
him; and he gives a curious testimony to the fact,
by mentioning how, on one occasion, " lying be-
twixt Dundee and St. Andrews, the second time
that the galleys returned to Scotland, the said John
[Knox] being so extremely sick that few hoped his
life, Maister [afterwards Sir] James [Balfour, one of
his fellow prisoners] willed him to look to the land,
and asked if he knew it. Who answered, * Yes,
I know it well; for I see the steeple of that place
where God first in public opened my mouth to his
glory; and I am fully persuaded, how weak soever
I now appear, that I shall not depart this life, till
that my tongue shall glorify his godly name in the
same place.' "

On his release, which took place early in 1549,
through the intervention, apparently, of the Eng-
lish government, Knox found that, in the existing
state of the country, he could be of little use in his
beloved Scotland. For nearly ten years, accord-
ingly, he submitted to voluntary exile, like many
of the worthiest of his countrymen in those troub-
lous times. All these years, however, he devoted
himself to ministerial labors in connection with the
Reformed Church. His first sphere of duty was
provided for him in England, for the
5* Ministry space of about five years as a minister
in England, of the English Church. It is to be
Jf 549-54' remembered that, during the whole
reign of Edward VI., the Church of
England was in a transition state; some of its
most marked peculiarities (to which Knox himself
and others in Scotland and abroad afterward ob-
jected) were then in abeyance, or at least not

insisted upon as terms of communion. Thus the
use of the prayer-book was not enforced, neither
was kneeling at the conmiunion. Episcopal govern-
ment was of course acknowledged; but Knox held
his commission, as a Reformed preacher, directly
from the privy council, and was virtually inde-
pendent of diocesan jiuisdiotion. Moreover, he
seems to have had no strong objection to episcopacy
itself, although he disapproved of '' your proud
prelates' great dominions and charge, impossible by
one man to be dischai^ged;" and on this, along with
other grounds, he declined the bishopric of Rochester
in 1552. The ofiices he held in the Church of Eng-
land are briefly indicated in the History ^ which says,
'' He was first appointed preacher to Berwick, then
to Newcastle; and last he was called to London
and to the southern parts of England, where he
renutined till the death of Edward VI." (Works,
i., p. 280). From other sources it appears that in
1551 he was appointed one of the six chaplains in
ordinary to the king; and in this capacity there was
submitted to him, and, after revisal, he joined the
other chaplains in sanctioning. The Articles con-
cerning an Uniformity in Religion of 1552, which
became the basis of the Thirty-nine Articles (q. v.)
of the Church of England.

From England, after the death of Edward, Knox
proceeded to the continent, traveling for a time
from place to place in some uncertainty. In Sept.
1554, while living at Geneva, he accepted in accord-
ance with Calvin's counsel a call to

6. On the the EInglish Church at Frankfort.
Continent, Here controversies in connection with

1554-59. vestments, ceremonies, and the use of
the English prayer-book met him, and,
notwithstanding the great moderation which he
showed from first to last, led, in Mar., 1555, to his
resignation of his charge (cf. his treatise, A Brief
Narrative of the Troubles which Arose at Frankfurt,
reprinted in Laing's edition of his works). He
returned to Geneva, where he was invited to be-
come minister of the refugee English congregation.
In August, however, he was induced to set out for
Scotland, where he remained for nine months,
preaching Evangelical doctrine in various parts of
the country, and persuading those who favored the
Reformation to cease from attendance at mass, and
to join with himself in the celebration of the Lord's
Supper according to a Reformed ritual. In May,
1556, he was cited to appear before the hierarchy
in Edinburgh, and he boldly responded to the sum-
mons; but the bishops found it expedient not to
proceed with the trial. In July an uigent call from
his congregation at Geneva, along, probably, with
the desire to prevent the renewal of persecution in
Scotland, caused him to resume his Genevan
ministry. His marriage to Marjorie Bowes, daughter
of Richard Bowes, captain of Norham Castle, had
meanwhile taken place, and his wife along with her
mother accompanied him to Geneva, where they
arrived in September. The church in which he
preached there (called the l^lise de Notre Dame la
Neuve) had been granted, at Calvin's solicitation,
for the use of the English and Italian congregations
by the municipal authorities. Knox's life in Geneva
was no idle one. To preaching and clerical work

Xnoz-Xattla

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

864

of an exacting kind he added a large correspond-
ence; and he was constantly engaged in literary
work. His publications at Geneva included his
Fint Blast against the Monstrous Regiment [Rule]
of Women; and his long and elaborate treatise on
predestination (published 1560) was composed in
Geneva. With the exception of some months spent
at Dieppe (1557-58) when he was contemplating a
return to Scotland, he continued to officiate in
Geneva (while deeply interested in his native land
and in constant communication with the reform
party there) till Jan., 1559, when he finally left
for home.

He arrived in Edinburgh May 2, 1559. The time
was a critical one. During his absence the reform
party had become more numerous, more self-reliant
and aggressive, and better consolidated. The queen
dowager, Mary of Lorraine, acting as regent for her
daughter, the young Mary, queen of

7. Organ- Scots, then in France, had become
ization of more desirous to crush the Protestants

the Church and determined to use force. Civil
in Scotland, war was imminent, but each side shrank
from the first step. Knox at once
became the leader of the Reformers. He preached
against '' idolatry ** with the greatest boldness,
and with the result that what he calls the ** rascal
multitude " began the ** purging '* of churches and
the destruction of monasteries. PoUtics and religion
were closely intertwined; the Reformers were strug-
gling to keep Scotland free from the yoke of France,
and did not hesitate to seek the help of England.
Knox negotiated with the English government to
secure its support, and he approved of the declara-
tion of the lords of his party in Oct., 1559, sus-
pending their allegiance to the regent. The death
of the latter in June, 1560, opened the way to a cessa-
tion of hostilities and an agreement leaving the
settlement of ecclesiastical questions to the Scot-
tish estates. The doctrine, worship, and government
of the Roman Church were overthrown by the par-
liament of 1560 and Protestantisqi was established
as the national religion. Knox, assisted by five
other ministers, formulated the confession of faith
adopted at this time (see Scotch Confession of
Faith) and drew up the constitution of the new
Church — ^the First Book of Discipline (see the sec-
tion on the Church of Scotland in the article Pres-

BTTERIANS).

Queen Mary returned to Scotland in Aug., 1561,
thoroughly predisposed against Knox; while he and
the other Reformers looked upon her with anxiety
and suspicion. Fimdamental differences of char-
acter and training made a keen encoun-

8. Knox ter between the two inevitable. Five
and Queen personal interviews between Knox and

Mary. the queen are recorded (each at Mary's
invitation). He found her no mean
opponent in argument, and had to acknowledge
the acuteness of her mind, if he could not commend
the qualities of her heart. His attitude for the
most part was unyielding and repelling, his lan-
guage and manner harsh and uncourtierlike. In
his preaching and other public utterances he was
sometimes even violent. It must be remembered,
however, that the momentous issues at stake re-

quired a plain-spoken prophet, not a smooth-
tongued courtier. Still it might have been wiser
as well as more Christlike for Knox, at the outset
of their intercourse, to seek to win rather than
repel. Perhaps the Reformer feared Mary's well-
known power of fascination and steeled himself
against it. Later his heart became wholly hardened
toward the adulterous accomplice, as be believed,
of her husband's murderer.

Knox's life from the time of his return to Scot-
land in 1559 is a part of the history of his country and
its full story is to be sought in the histories of Scot-
land. Only details which have a more personal
interest can be noted here. When the Reformed
religion was formally ratified by law in Scotland in
1560 he was appointed minister of the Church of
St. Giles, then the great parish church of Edin-
burgh. He was at this time in the fulness of his
powers, as is manifest abundantly in the style of

his History of the Reformation— -& work

Q. Ministry which appears to have been begun

in Edin- about 1559, and completed in the course

burgh and of the next six or seven years. The

Private History, if sometimes rough and even

Life. coarse in language, and not always

conunendable in temper and spirit, is
written with a force and vigor not surpassed by
any of his other writings — of all which it may be
said, that, whatever their faults, they are works of
true genius, and well worthy in their character,
upon the whole, of the great leader and statesman
who wrote them. At the very beginning of his
labors as minister of Edinburgh, he had the mis-
fortune to lase his much-loved and helpful young
wife, whom Calvin described as miavissima. She
left tw^o sons, one of whom, Nathanael, died at Cam-
bridge in 1580; the other, Eleazer, became vicar of
Clacton Magna in the archdeaconry of Colchester
and died in 1591. In 1564 Knox made a second
marriage, which was greatly talked of at the time
because the bride was remotely connected with the
royal family and still more because she was a maiden
of seventeen while Knox was three times as old. The
young lady was Margaret Stewart, daughter of An-
drew, Lord Stewart of Ochiltree. She bore Knox
three daughters, of whom the youngest, Elizabeth,
became the wife of the famous John Welsh, minister
of Ayr. At this time the Reformer lived a very
laborious life. He was much engrossed with the
public affairs of the national Church, and at the
same time devoted to his work as a parish minister,
to say nothing of his continual, and perhaps, in his
position, unavoidable controversies, more or less per-
sonal, with the ecclesiastical and political factions
of the day, which he regarded as his country's en-
emies. He was, however, not without social and
family enjoyments. A fair stipend of four hundred
marks Scots, equal to about forty-four pounds of
English money of that day, enabled him to exercise
hospitality and to advance money to a friend in
need. He had a good house, which was provided
and kept in repair by the mimicipality. His home,
during the greater part of his ministry in Edin-
burgh, stood on the site now occupied by the City
Council Chambers. Another house in Edinburgh,
still preserved with little change and known since

865

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Knox-XattU

the eighteenth century at latest as " John Knox's
house/' may have been occupied by him toward
the close of his life. With all his severity, there
must have been much sympathy in a man who was
repeatedly invited to reconcile the sundered, hus-
band with wife, friend with friend. He lived in
kindly relations with his neighbors, many of whom,
in every rank, were among his intimate friends,
and he was not indisposed to mirth and humor, of
which, as of other traits of his character, his wri-
tings furnish abundant evidence.

An interesting description of Knox's appearance,
and especially of his style as a preacher, in his
later years, is furnished in the Diary of James
Melville (published by the Bannatyne Club, Edin-
burgh, 1829, pp. 26, 33). Melville was at the time
a student in St. Andrews, and the pe-

10. Per- riod he refers to is the year 1571, when
sonal Ap- Knox, for his personal security, had,

pearance not for the first time in his life, taken
and refuge in that city. " Of all the bene-

Bfanner. fits I had that year," writes Melville,
** was the coming of that most notable
prophet and apostle of our nation, Mr. John Knox,
to St. Andrews, who, by the faction of the queen
occupying the castle and town of Edinbui^h, was
compelled to remove therefrom, with a number
of the best, and chose to come to St. Andrews. . . .
Mr. Knox would sometimes come in, and repose him
in our college-yard, and call us scholars unto him, and
bless us, and exhort us to know God and his work
in our country, and stand by the good cause; to
use our time well, and learn the good instructions,
and follow the good example, of our masters. . . .
He was very weak. I saw him every day of his doc-
trine go hulie and fear [slowly and warily], with a
furring of martriks about his neck, a staff in the one
hand, and good godly Richard Ballantyne, his
servant, holding up the other oxter [arm-pit], from
the abbey to the parish church; and by the said
Richard and another servant lifted up to the pulpit,
where he behoved to lean at his first entry; but ere
he had done with his sermon, he was so active and
vigorous that he was like to ding that pulpit in
blads and flee out of it." A Latin epistle sent by
Sir Peter Young to Beza in 1579, contains a de-
scription of the Reformer's personal appearance in
later years. His stature was " a little under
middle height "; his " limbs were graceful "; his
head '' of moderate size "; his face '' longish ";
his nose " beyond the average length "; his fore-
head " rather narrow "; his brows "standing out
like a ridge "; his cheeks ** somewhat full " as well
as '* ruddy "; his mouth " large "; his *' com-
plexion darkish "; his eyes dark blue (or bluish
grey) and his glance " keen "; his beard ** black,
with white hairs intermingled " and a ** span and
a half long." In his coimtenance, which was
" grave and severe," " a certain graciousness was
united with natural dignity and majesty."

John Knox died as he had lived — full of faith,
but alwa3rs ready for conflict. He found a devoted
nurse in his young wife; and all the noblest and
best men of Scotland hung about his house for
tidings of the progress of his malady, in the vain
hope of his being longer spared. His servant,

Richard Ballantyne, after detailing the incidents
of his last hours, says of him: '* Of this manner
departit this man of God, the lycht of Scotland,
the comfort of the Kirke within the
II. Testi- same, the mirrour of Godliness, and
monies patrone and exemple to all trew min-
to His isteris, in puritie of lyfe, soundness
Character, in doctrine, and in bauldness in re-
proving of wicketness, and one that
caired not the favore of men (how great soever
they were) to reprove thair abuses and synes
.... What dexteritie in teiching, bauldness in
reproving, and hatred of wickedness was in him,
my ignorant dulness is not able to dedair." A
higher testimony to the worth of a man not with-
out faults was pronounced at his grave in the
churchyard of St. Giles by the Earl of Mortoim, the
regent of Scotland, in the presence of an immense
concourse, who had followed the body to its last
resting-place: "Here lyeth a man who in his life
never feared the face of man, who hath been often
threatened with dagge and dagger, but yet hath
ended his dayes in peace and honour."

W. LBsf, revised by Henry Cowan.

Bibliography: The Works of Knox are best consulted in
the excellent edition by David L>aing, printed for the
Bannatyne Club, 6 vols., Edinburgh, 1864, which in-
cludes the principal sources for a biography, vis., his His-
tory qf the Reformation, his correspondence, and other his*
torical matter, such as Smeaton's account of his last illness
and death. Other sources are: the MemoriaU of Trane-
acHone in Scotland by Richard Bannatyne and the Me-
moire of J. Melville, both published for the Bannatyne Club,
Edinburgh. Of modem lives the first was that by T.
McCrie, new ed. with additions by A. Criohton, London,
1889. Other biographies or discussions of phases of the
life are: by F. Brandes, Elberfeld, 1862; P. Lorimer.
J. Knox and the Church of England, London, 1875;
T. Carlyle. Heroee and Hero Warehip, Essay iv., ib. 1884;
W. M. Taylor, New York, 1885; R. W. Qosse, London, 1888;
R. L. Stevenson, in FamUiar Studiee of Men and Booke, ib.
1888; P. H. Brown, 2 vols.. Edinburgh, 1805; J. C. Car-
rick, John Knox and hie Land, Glasgow, 1902; R. Mulct,
John Knox, 1606-79, Halle, 1904; J. Stalker, John Knox,
hie Ideals and Ideas, London, 1904; H. Cowan, New York,
1905; J. Glasse, New York. 1905; A. T. Innes, Edm-
burgh, 1905; A. Lang, John Knox and the Reformation,
London, 1905; D. MaoMillan, London, 1905; C. Martin.
La Oenise dee doctrines de John Knox, Paris, 1906; I.
Crook, Cincinnati, 1907; W. Walker, Chreatest Men cf the
Christian Church, Chicago, 1908; DNB, xxxi. 308-^28.
Besides this the various works on the Reformation of
Scotland discuss the subject.

KNOZ-LITTLE, WU.LIAM JOHN: Church of
England; b. at Stewartstown (12 m. n. of Armagh),
County Tyrone, Ireland, Dec. 1, 1839. He was
educated at Trinity College, Cambridge (B.A.,
1862), and was ordered deacon in 1863 and ordained
priest in the following year. He was curate of Christ
Church, Lancaster (1863-64), assistant master of
Sherborne School (1865-70), curate of Turweston,
Bucks (1870-74), and of St. Thomas, Regent Street,
London (1874-75), and rector of St. Alban's, Cheet-
wood, Manchester (1875-85), and vicar of Hoar
Cross, Burton-on-Trent (1885-1907). He has also
been canon of Worcester since 1881, proctor
for chapter in Convocation of Canterbury since
1888, and subdean of Worcester since 1902. He
has written: The Three Hours* Agony of Our Blessed
Redeemer (Manchester, 1877); Sermons preached for
the most Part in Manchester (London, 1880); Char-
acteristics and Motives of the Christian Ltfe (1880);

Knudtaon

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

866

The Mystery of the Passion of Our Mast Holy Re-
deemer (1881); The Witness of the Passion of Our
Most Holy Redeemer (1884); The Hopes and De-
cisions of the Passion of Our Most Holy Redeemer
(1886); The Broken Vow: A Story of Here and Here-
after (1887); The Child of Stafferton; A Chapter
from a Family Chronicle (1888); The Light of Life
(sermons; 1889); Sunlight and Shadow in the
Christian Life (sermons; 1889); The Christian
Home^ its Foundation and Duties (1891); The
Journey of Life (sermons; 1892); Sketches in Sun-
shine and Storm (1892); Labour and Sorrow (ser-
mons; 1894); The Waif from the Waves: A Story
of three Lives (1894); Treasury of Meditation (1896);
St. Francis of Assisi^ his Times, Life, and Work
(1897); The Perfect Life {eermons; 1898); Sketches
and Studies in South Africa (1899); David the Hero
King of Israel (1903); and The Conflict of Ideals
tmthin the Church of England (1905).

KNUDTZON, knut'zen JOERGEN ALEXANDER:
Norwegian Orientalist; b. at Trondhjem (240 m.
n. of Christiania) Sept. 9, 1854. He studied at
the miiversities of Christiania (Ph.D., 1889), Ber-
lin, and Leipsic (studying in Germany from 1885
to 1887). He studied theology primarily at the
request of Prof. C. P. Caspari of Christiania, who
intended to have Knudtzon as his successor, but
the latter, after completing his training in Germany
and delivering a course of lectures for a term at
Christiania, was regarded not sufficiently conservar-
tive. He accordingly withdrew from theology in
favor of Assyriology, holding that theology "as a
science must be historical and critical''; and was
lecturer in Assyriology at the University of Chris-
tiania, 1894-1907; and since 1907 professor of
Semitic languages there. He has written Om det
aaakakUe perfekhim og imperfektum i hdrraisk (Chris-
tiania, 1889); Assyrische Od)ete an den Sonnengott
far Stoat und kdnigliches Haus aus der Zeit Asar-
haddons und Asurbanipals (2 vols., Leipsic, 1893);
Die zwei Arzavx^Briefe, die dUesten Urkunden in
indogermanischer Sprache (in collaboration with S.
Bugge and A. Torp; 1902); and Die El-Amama
Tafdn in Umschrift und Ufbersetzung (1907).

KOCH, kOH, ANTON: German Roman Catho-
lic; b. at Pfronstetten (near Miinsingen, 23 m. w.
of Uhn), Wtirttemburg, Apr. 19, 1859. He studied
at the University of Tilbingen and the seminary
of Rottenburg, and was ordained to the priesthood
in 1884. He was stationed at SchOnbei^g, near
Ellwangen, for two years, and from 1886 to 1889
was lecturer at the Wilhelmstift, Tubingen. In
1889-91 he was privat-docent in Tubingen, and
then teacher of religion at a g3rmnasium in Stutt-
gart for three years. In 1894 he was recalled to
Tubingen as associate professor of moral and pas-
toral theology, and since 1896 has been professor
of the same subjects there. He has written Der
heUige Fauetus, Bischof von Riez (Stuttgart, 1895),
and Lehrbuch der MoraUheologie (Freiburg, 1905).

KOEBERLE, ktr'ber-16, JUSTUS ADOLF: Ger-
man Lutheran; b. at Memmingen (33 m. s.e. of Ulm)
June 27, 1871; d. at Rostock Feb. 7, 1908. He
studied in Halle, Berlin, and Erlangen from 1889 to
1893, and after four years of pastoral work in

Munich became a lecturer in the Univereity of
Erlangen in 1898, privat-docent in 1890, and in
1904 professor of Old-Testament exegesis and
Oriental philology. In theology he was an adher-
ent of the Erlangen school. He wrote: De
Elohislae Pentateuchi prioris qui vacatur ethica
(Erlangen, 1896); Die Tempelsdnger im Alien
Testament (1899); Naiur und Geist nach der Auf-
fassung des Alien Testaments (Munich, 1901); Die
Motive des Glaubens an die Gebetserhdrung im AUen
Testament (Leipsic, 1901); Die geistige Kultur der
semitischen VoUcer (1901); Babylonische Kultur und
biblische Religion (Munich, 1903); Sunde und Gnade
im religiosen Leben des Volkes Israel bis auf Christum
(1905); Das R^Usd des Leidens, eine Einfukrung
in das Buch Hiob (Berlin, 1905); and Zum Kampfe
um das AUe Testament (Wismar, 1906; 2d ed.,
with title Die alttestamentliche Offenbarungf 1908);
Der Prophet Jeremia. Sein L^ben und Wirken
(Calw, 1908) ; and has been since 1907 one of the
editors of Theologie der Gegenwart.

KOEGEL, kt)'gl, THEODOR JOHANNES RU-
DOLF: German Protestant; b. at Bimbaimi (44
m. w.n.w. of Posen), Prussia, Feb. 18, 1829; d. in
Berlin June 2, 1896. He attended the gynmasium
at Halle, and afterward studied philosophy and
theology at the universities of Halle and Berlin.
He became intimate with Tholuck, was his aman-
uensis, and later accompanied him on a journey to
France and Spain. He was a gynmasial teacher in
Dresden 1852-54, pastor in charge at Nakel, near
Bromberg, 1854-57, and pastor of the German
Evangelical congregation at The Hague 1857-63.
Early in 1863 he was called to Berlin as cour^
preacher, and in 1873 was appointed first court
preacher, general superintendent of the Kurmark,
and ephorus of the Cathedral Probationers' Founda-
tion.

Kdgel was distinguished particularly as a
preacher, and also for his part in ecclesiastical
affairs. His sermons are true to the text, but they
invariably bear a definite stamp of their own.
Their wealth of content is conveyed in a concise,
sharply pointed style; and the copious illustrations
from history and human life are vividly presented
in terms exceedingly brief and plastic. His sermons
bear the in^press of a powerful moral earnestness,
psychological acumen, and discriminating taste.
Esthetic and poetical endowment becomes distinctly
subservient to the art of preaching. K6gel exercised
a considerable influence over the internal and exter-
nal development of the Prussian State Church in the
decade after 1870. Two of his characteristic traits
are conspicuous in this connection: first, his uncondi-
tional championship of the LTnion; second, his sharp
opposition to the Protestant Association. In conform-
ity to this last was his antagonism toward Emil Herr-
mann's synodical constitution plans, which seemed to
him to jeopardize the integrity of the confessional
standard of doctrine. These antagonisms became es-
pecially acute on occasion of the extraordinary gen-
eral synod of 1875, and led to the founding of the
Positive Union party under K5gel's leadership.
The final consequence was that in 1878 Kdgel was
called to the superior ecclesiastical council, from
which soon afterward President Herrmann with-

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

drew. In the course of the years 1892-94 he re-
tired from his offices on account of infirmity. His
Bermons form the bulk of his writings. Of these he
published numerous collections, including: Drr erate
Brief Petri (Maim, 1863); Die Seligpreiaungen iter
Bergpredigl (Berlin, 1869); Da& Vaienmter (1873);
A-ua dem Varkof int HeiHgthum (2 vols., Bremen,
187S-76); Der Britf Pauli an die Hsmfr (1876);
Wach aiif. du Sladt JerutaUm (1882); Das Ewin-
gelium Johannis (2 parts, 1892-93); and Griaut
und GeUii durcha Kirchenjakr (2 parts, 1895-96).
Other works are: Reden und Ampraciien (1887);
Ethisches und Aealhetisehea. Vortr&ge und Betrack-
lungcn (1888); and Gedichte (1891). With W. Baur
and E. Frommel he edited the yeat^book Neue
Chrislaterpe (Bremen, 1880 sqq.).

GGOKO RlETSCHEL.
Biblioubipht: (1. KUgeJ. Sudol/ KOetl. tin Werdan und
U'irken. 3 vota.. Berlin, 1889-1904; ChriMidit WtU. I8B7.
pp. Z5B Bqq. <i>a Kugel u a poet}.

KOEHLER, koh'ler. (PHILIPP) AUGUST: Ger-
man Proteitant Biblical scholar; b. at Schmalen-
berg (50 m. s.s.n. of Heidelberg), in the Rhenish
PalatinaM!, Feb. 8, 1836; d. at Erlangen Feb. 17,
1897. He began his education at the gymnasium of
ZweibrUcken, and then studied theology at Bonn,
Erlangen, and Utrecht. In 1857 he established him-
self as prival^ooent at Erlangen, and in 1862 be-
came professor extraordinary for 01d-Teatamente«e-
gesis. In IS64 be was called as ordinary professor to
Jena, in 1866 to Bonn, and in 1868 back to Erlangen
as successor of Delitzsch. Here he labored for
twenty-nine years, becoming one of the most influ-
ential meml>ers of the theological faculty. His en-
dowments 6tted him for testing the views of others,
rather than to enter new paths of investigation.
Bis theological tendency was influenced chiefly by
Delitzsch and Hofmann. Like them, be empbasiied
throughout his life the importance of Old-Testa-
ment history as a history of salvation preparatory
to Christianity. His first comprehensive work was
exegetical, Die nachexilisehen Propheten erkldrt:
part i., l>ie Weismgung Haggait (Erlangen, 1860);
part ii., Die Weissagung Sacharjas (1861); part
iii., Die WeiauMffung Sacharjiu (1863); part iv., Die
Weiisagung Maleachis (1865). But the moat im-
portant work is his Lehrbuch der Bibliiektn GeechichU
Alien Teatamenta (2 parts, in sections, Erlangen,
1875-85, Leipsic, 1889-93). It was not a history
of the people of Israel that he undertook to write,
but only an account of what the Old Testament
itself tells about the origin and history of its people,
with a detailed examination of the Old-Testament
sources by the aid of the modem scientific appara-
tiis. He freely admits the existence of different
accounts of single events and whole periods of
Isroelitic history, as, for instance, the Johvistic
and Elohistic sources in the Pentateuch, his aim
being to show from the Old Testament what
finally developed in the post-exilic time as the com-
mon view of the Old-Testament community in
regard to its history on the basis of the differing
accounts. He made a distinction between the secu-
lar and theological content In Biblical history.
From the use which Jesus made of the Old TestA-
jnent he inferred that it was to be oonsidered aa

God's instruction to his congregation concerning his
former revelations. The books of the Bible, be
states, originated in the same way as other books.
The historians of the Old TeKtament never show
that in the composition of tlieir works they hod
not the same freedom or independence of judg-
ment as other historians. But if those books in
apite of that fact have been regarded by Jesus and
the apostles as the word of God to his congregation,
the Christian congregation has a sure test that
there is to be found in them the most failhfiJ repre-
sentation of the deeds and revelations of God. On
the other hand, the Old Testament does not pretend
to be a God-given docmnent concerning the knowl-
edge of the things of the natural life, as, for instance,
of the primitive history of man and the secular his-
tory of larael, but only a God-given document con-
cerning the knowledge of the revelations of God in
so far as they reflect themselves in the consciousness
of Israel as the congregation of God. Of other
works may be mentioned. Die niederl&Tutieche re-
/ormierte Kirche (Erlangen, 1856); De pronunei-
atione ac vi Hacrosancli Utragrammatit rnil' (1866);
and UAer Berickligung der Lulkeritchen Bibeluber-
aeltung (,\8&&). (Ernst Sblum.)

BiBUooK*pm: fJKZ. viii (ISW). 273-29T.

KOEHLER, WALTER ERICH: German Lu-
theran; b. at Elberfeld (16 m. e.n.e. of DUsseldorf).
Dec. 27, 1S70. He studied in Halle, Heidelberg
(Ph.D., 1895), Straaburg, Bonn, and TQbingen
(lie. theol., 1898), and in 1900 became privat-do-
cent for church history at Oiessen, associate pro-
fessor of the same subject in 1904; and professor of
church history at Zurich, 1909. In theology he
belongs to the critical school. He has written: Die
katholischen Kirchen da Morgerdandea (Darmstadt,
1896); Lutlier und die KirchengeschickU, i, (Er-
langen, 1900); Refornutiion und Ketzcrproieas (Tu-
bingen, 1901); Dokumente turn Ablassstreil von
75/7(1902); Die Entaldiung dea ProbUms Slaat und
Kirche (1903); Ein Wort tu Denifie* Luther (1904),
Die An/dnge des Pictitmut in Gieteen 1889-1695
(Giesaen, 1907); besides preparing a Kritiaehe Aut-
gabe von l/ulhera f&nfuTaineanng Theien mil Gegtm-
sehH/ten (Leipsic, 1903).

XOEHIG, ko'nig, ARTHUR: German Roman
Catholic; b. at Neisse (46 m. a.s.e. of Breslau)
June 4, 1843. He studied at the Univeraity of
Breslau 1861-66 and at the theological seminary
in the same city 1866-67, and was ordained to the
priesthood in 1867. He was Instructor In religion
at the gymnasium of Gross Glogau 1867-68, going
thence in a similar capacity to the Realschule at
Neisse. In 1882 be was appointed professor of
dogmatic theology at the University of Breslau,
exchanging this position in 1S98 for the profes-
sorship of pastoral theology. He has written: Die
Echthea der Apottelgetehichle (Breslau. 1867); Das
Zeugnit der Natur fiir Gottes Dasein (Freiburg,
1870); Lehrbuch fiir den kalholischen Rtligiona-
uaterrieht in den oberen Klaasen der Gymnatien und
Realaehvlen (1879); Handbuch /Ur den katkolitektn
ReUgionminlenicht in den miOieren KUxaaen der Oytn-
narimund ReaUchvUn {[^SO); Schsp/ung und Od-
UterkemUnit (1885); Der katholiache Prietler vor

XohlbmesB*

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

ISOO Jabren (BreHku. 1890); Officium dtt heUigen
Rotenkraruea {\89l); Mutubilder und Ckaraklerx&ge
Qtu lier Kirckengeachkkte {Gla.U, 1890); £tn Blait
wit der GegchiclUe del ediUriachen SchuluKteru
(BresUu, 1903); and Ant dem Kampfe um den
GoUetglauben (1904).

KOEHIG, FRIEDRICH EDnAED: Oemmn Pnrt-
estant; b. at Rcichenbach (56 m. a. of Leipsic),
Saxony, Nov. 15, 1846. He studied id LeipsLc
(Ph.D., 1874), where he became privat-docenl in
1879 and associate profesaor ot Old -Testament exe-
gesis in 1885. In 1888 he went to Hostock as full
professor of the same subject, and since lOOO has
occupied a sirailar position at the University of
Bonn. In theology he is one of the leading ad-
herents of the conservative school. His writings
include: Gedanke, LavX vtui Akxent aU die drei Fak-
loren der SpradibilduTtg (Weimar, 1874); New:
Studien iiber Sdin/t, Augtiprache vrtd genereUe For-
meniekTe det Aethiopitchen (Leipsic, 1877); De
crilicae aacrae anpanenlo e linguae legOna repetilo
(1879); Histariach-kTUischea Ldtrgebaude der ftf^ni-
iachen Spradte (3 vols., 1881-87); Der OfferJtarunga-
begriff dea AUen Tettomenta (2 vols., 1882); Die
Hauptprablenie der altisraelitiachen Religiomge-
achidiU (1884; Eng. transl. by A. J. Campbell,
The Rdigioua HiaU^ of laraet, Edinburgh, 1885);
Falacke Extreme in der neuren Krilik dei AUen
TeatamenU (Leipsic, 1895); Der Gtaubensael der
ChriaUn naeh Begriff uml Fundament unlersackl
(Erlangen, 1891); The Eiilea' Book of Conaotalion
contained in Isaiah xl.-Azi-i. (Edinbu:^h, 1899); Die
Originaiilal dea neulich entdrckten hebrdiachen Sirach-
baiea (Freibuig, 1899); StiliaHk, Rhelarik. Poetik in
Betug auf die bHUiache Lileral-ur (Leipsic, 1900);
Ntueate Printipien der alUeatameidlichen Krilik (Ber-
lin, 1902); BOtel und Babel (1902; Eng. transl. by
K. T. Filter, Bible and Babylon, London, 1905) ; Die
Bibet-Babet-Frage und die wiasenacha/UifJie Methode
(1904): and PropheUnideal . Jvdentum undChriaUti-
ban {1906>: Hebraiaehe Grammatik (Leipeic, 1908);
Talmud und Neuea Teatament (Gross- Lichterfelde,
1908) ; and Getchichte dea Reichea GoUea bia auf Jesua
Chrialua (Brunswick, 1908).

KOENIG, kn'nig, SAMUEL: Swiss Hetii>t; b.at
Gerzensee (9 m. s.s.e. of Bern), 1670; d. at Bern
Hay 31, 1750, He studied theology at Bern and
Zurich, and after passing the examination for en-
trance into the Bernese ministry set out on a tour of
Holland, England, and Germany. In England the
mystical writings of Jane I,ead (q.v.) exercised an
extraordinary influence over him. Hetuming to
Bern in 1693, he became preacher at the Church ot
the Holy Cihost and gained approval by his sermons,
in which, from a desire of popularity, he espoused
the cause of orthodoxy against the younger school
of Pietists, inchuling Gtlldin, Christian Lutz, and
othera. Personal association with the leaders of
Pietism, however, won him over to their side, and
with the same vehfmence with which he had as-
sailed them he now turned against the orthodox
cause, thus arousing tremendous rxcitcment in (he
religious world of Bern. KOnig speedily tn«;rnfled
in the Pietistic teachings chrliastic and separatist
tendencies which enabled the clergy to bring the

Pietist leaders before the courts on the eluu^ ot
heresy. The trial began in 1698 and continued till
the spring of the following year, the I*ietists being
accused of disseminating heretical t^acbinga, vipla-
ting the ordinances and discipline of the Church,
and disturbing the pubUc peace. They defended
themselves with great skill, and their arraignment
of the orthodox system might have influenced any
but the most stubborn of opponents. The verdict,
however, had been determined beforehand, and
K6nig, as the most obnoxious critic of the existing
system, was degraded from his clerical office and
banished. Though the outcome of the tria,l was a
severe blow to the Pietists, it wrought harm to the
Church, since the severity of the sentence intensified
the separatist tendency among the members of the
sect, and it was only the labors of the younger Luti
that prevented a complete rupture with the Church.
Konig wandered through Germany for many years,
until in 1711 he was appointed French preacher to
the count of Isenburg at Budingen. IFnoeasing
yearning for home and the conviction that he had
been unj ustly treated made his long exile an urihappy
one, and his antiorthodox writings increased in acer-
bity. Gradually, however, he withdrew from the
field of theology, and successfully devoted himself
to studies in Oriental languages and mathematics.
In 1730 he was pcrmilled to return to Bern, and the
government created for him an associate professor^
ship in languages and mathematics at the Univer-
sity, where hia inability to maintain discipline still
further embittereil him, Hia renewed activity in
Pietiat propaganda exposed him to censure, but he es-
caped puniahment in view of hia age. The last years
of his life were darkened by the banishment of his
two sons, who were found guilty of taking part in
the conspiracy of Hentii against the aristocratic
city government. Of KOnig's works the moat note-
worthy is his Etifnwtogicon helleno-htbraieum (Frank-
fort, 1722), in which he sought to derive the Greek
language from Semitic sources, while his Theolo-
gitches Prognostikon i-om Unlergang dee tHrktacJien
Rcirha (Bildingen, 1717) is characteristic of his doc-
trinal bias. (W. Hadorn.)
Biblioorafht: F, TrechHl, Samuel Kinig unit drr PMir-
nui in Brrn. B«m. 18G2; A. RitBchL, GtKliirlilt da PirUa-
mui, pp. 406 aqq,. Bono, 18SH: HKdorn, in A'ircAn^^mnd,
I39S, und 1899. pp. 194 niq.

KOESTLIR.kftat'lin.HEIBRICH ADOLF: German

Lutheran; b.atTiJbingenSept. 4, 1846; d. in Cann-
Btadt (4 m, n,e. of Stuttgart) June 5, 1907. He
studied at the seminary of Schfinthal (1860-64) and
the University of TQbingen (1864-68), after which
he was vicur in Weilheim, near Tubingen (1868-
1869), private tutor to the family of Baron von
Wftchter, ambassador of Wiirttemberg. at Paris
(1869-70), chaplain of the Second Wdrttembei^
Field-Brigade In the Franco- Prussian war (1870-
1871), tutor at the theological seminary at Tiibin-
gen (1871-73), and deacon at Sulz-on-the-Neckar
(1873-74). He then held pastoml«s at Maulbronn
(1875-78), Friedrichshafen (1878-81), and Stutt-
gart (18SI-S3). From 1883 to 1891 he was pro-
fesaor of theology at the seminary for preachers at
Friedbcrg. Hesse, and from 1891 to 1895 was su-
preme consistorial coimcUor and superintendent

860

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDU

Kohlbrueffve

of the province of Starkenbuig. In 1895 he became
privy ecclesiastical councilor and was appointed
professor of theology in Giessen. He retired from
active life in 1901, and resided at Darmstadt (1901-
1904) and Cannstadt (after 1904). In 1883-85 he
was a member of the committee for the preparation
of a new hynmal for Hesse, and in 1900-04 was
engaged in preparing the Hessian Kirchenbuck, the
Hessian Oemeindegebeffmchf and similar works. In
theology he held that ** the object of all theology is
to understand the person and message of Jesus
Christ as the Savior of mankind, all creeds being
but an approximate expression of the life and sal-
vation in him." Besides editing the Manataschrift
Jut Pastoraltheologie at Berlin since 1904, he wrote
Ana emsten Tagen, Fddpredigten (Stuttgart, 1871);
Kandidatenfahrten (Tabingen, 1875); OeschichUder
Muaik (1875); Friedrich Silcher und Carl Maria von
Wd)er (Stuttgart 1877); Die Tonkunsl, Eif^Ohrung
in die Aesthetik der Muaik (1878); Die Muaik ala
chriatliche VoUcamacht (1878); Joaephine Lang
(Leipsic, 1881) ; Luther ala der Voter dea evangdiachen
Kirchengeaanga (1882); Der Begriff dea geiatlichen
Amta (Ludwigsburg, 1885); Im Felde (Darmstadt,
1886); Oeachichte dea chriatlichen Gotteadienata
(Tubingen, 1887); Die Lehre van der Seelaorge nach
evangdiachen Grunda&bsen (Berlin, 1895); and Pr^
digten und Reden (Giessen, 1901).

KOESTLIN, JULIUS THEODOR: German Prot-
estant; b. at Stuttgart May 17, 1826; d. at Halle
May 12, 1902. He was educated at the univer-
sities of Tubingen (1844-18) and Berlm (1849-
1850), and in 1850 became lecturer in the theologi-
cal seminary at Tubingen. Five years later he was
appointed associate professor of theology at GOttin-
^en, whence he was called in 1860 to Breslau as full
professor of the same subject. From 1870 imtil
1896, when he retired from active life, he was
professor of New-Testament exegesis at Halle. In
1849 he visited ScOtla^^id, where he studied Presby-
terianism, later introducing certain Presbyterian
features into German consistorial government.
Among his numerous writings, special mention
may be made of his: Die achottiache Kirche, ihr in-
nerea Ld>en und ihr VerhdUnia zum Stoat (Gotha,
1852); Luthera Lehre van der Kirche (Stuttgart,
1853); Der Olaube, aein Weaen^ Grund und Gegen-
atand (Gotha, 1859); Luihera Theohgie in ihrer ge-
achichtlichen Entwicklung und ihrem inneren Zu-
aommenhange (2 vols., Stuttgart, 1863; Eng. transl.,
from the second German edition, Theology of Lu-
ther in iia Historical Development and Inner Harmony,
2 vols., Philadelphia, 1897); Martin Luther, aein
Leben und aeine Schriften (2 vols., Elberfeld, 1875);
Luthera Ld)en (Leipsic, 1882; Eng. transl., London,
1883); Martin Luther der ReformaUrry Featachrift
(Halle, 1883; Eng. transl., London, 1883); Auto-
biographie (Danzig, 1891); Die Begr&ndung unaerer
aittlich-rdigidaen Uebenseugungen (Berlin, 1893);
Rdigion und Reich Gottea, Abhandlungen zur Dog-
maixk und Ethik (Gotha, 1894); Der Glaube und
aeine Bedeutung fitr Erkenninia, Ltben und Kirche
(Berlin, 1895); and ChriaUiche Ethik (1899).

KOHLBRUEGGE, kOl'brOg-ge, HERMANN
FRIEDRICH: Founder of the Dutch-Reformed
VI.— 24

congregation at Elberfeld; b. at Amsterdam Aug.
15, 1803; d. at Elberfeld (16 m. e. of DOsseldorf),
Rhenish Prussia, Mar. 5, 1875. He was brought
up as a Lutheran, and after attending the Latin
school and the Athenaeum became assistant
preacher to the Lutheran congregation at Amster-
dam. He soon perceived that there was little left
of Luther's spirit in the Lutheran Church of Hol-
land, and his sermons on the radical corruption of
human nature aroused the opposition of his ration-
alistic colleagues and resulted in his being deposed.
After living in retirement for several years he became
a convert to the Reformed faith; but the Reformed
Church, fearing the disturbance of its peace, refused
him admission. In 1833, while traveling for his
health through the Rhine region, he accepted a call
to Elberfeld, where his energetic personality, the
peculiarity of his doctrinal system and the profound
earnestness of his sermons made a deep impression.
Already Gottfried Daniel Krummacher (q.v.) had
aroused many earnest believers, and KohlbrUgge
was eagerly demanded to continue his work; but
the Prussian government, considering him a danger-
ous enemy of the plan of uniting the Lutheran and
Reformed churches, forbade hki the pulpit. For
a number of years KohlbrOgge lived in retirement at
Utrecht, interpreting the Scriptures every Sunday
to some friends. Meanwhile the act of union had
produced a great fermentation in the Rhine region,
especially among the Reformed congregations.
In Elberfeld a rupture occurred in the Reformed
church, and in 1847 the dissenters elected Kohl-
brOgge as their pastor, and constituted themselves
as the ** Dutch Reformed '' congregation. This body,
which was recognized by royal patent of 1847,
considered itself a member of the Dutch State Church
and adopted the Confeaaio Belgica and the Heidel-
bei^g catechism. It still exists secluded from all
outside movements of Christianity with a strict
church order, legal church discipline, and well-
organized charities.

The peculiarity of KohlbrOgge consists less in an
actual deviation from the doctrine and confessions
of the Reformed Church than in a one-sided con-
ception of certain doctrinal points. In his effort to
oppose to Pietism the objectivity and self-glory of
grace, he did not emphasize strongly enough sancti-
fication and renovation of the heart. £Us sermons,
which constitute the bulk of his works, spread far
beyond the borders of his congregation. Of his
writings may be mentioned: Daa aMbenie Kapitd dea
Briefea Pauii an die R&mer (Elberfeld, 1839; Eng.
transl., London, 1854); Betrachtung vber daa erate
Kapitd dea Evangdiuma nach Matthdua (1844); Daa
alte Teatament nach aeinem wahren Sinne gewOrdigt
aua den Schriften der Evangdiaten und Apoatd
(1846); Schriftmaaaige Erlduterung dea chriatlichen
Bekenntniaaea : ** Ich glaube an den heUigen Geiat "
(1855; Eng. transl.. Scriptural Eliundation of the
Article on the Chriatian Faith: I Bdieve in the Holy
Ghoat, 1856); Daa And der Preabyter (1856); and
Blicke in daa erate Kapitd dea eraten Budiea Samudia
(1868). His numerous collections of hLi sermons
include: Sieben Predigten uber Sachorja Hi,
(Elberfeld, 1848); Sid)en Predigten uber den Pro-
pheten Jona (1849); Acht Predigten Uber Evangdium

K^m

ridr*

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

Johannit (IMQ); PredigUn Sber die erste EpisUl deg
ApoateU Petrut {185&\ Eng. trana)., IS56); Zwamig
Predigten im Johre 180 gehaUen (HftUe, 1857) ; and
ApoiUlgwchichle. Cap. S-10. in SB PredtgUn (Elber-
feld, 1874). Some of these sermooB have appeared
in Engliah under the title Miscellaneous Sermims
(London, I85S}. (H. Calamines,)

BiBLioGHtPBT: Zur BrinnrnAHg an Hntnann Fritdrieh
Kahtbranttt. Elberfeld. 1S7G; £iu Erinntnina an H. F.
KohlbrODgt. Wedand Faatar dxr niedrrlandiacfke^efontiiTten
Kirchen. Hsgen. 1SS2: A. HiUchl. aachicMt da Putitrnm,
1. 583 «iq.. Bonn. 1880.

KOHLEK, CHRISTIAK and HIEROnYMDS:

Swiss fanatics and impoators, foundera of the sect
of the Brilggters. Christian was born in 1710 and
HieronymuB in 1714 at Brilgglen near RQggisberg
(9 m. 6. of Bern), Switzerland, in a region dominated
by the influence of sectaries, propheloses, and
mystics. From their father the two brothers in-
herited a reputation for hydronumcy, and soon
discovered how to turn their Icnowledge to material
proBt, revealing at the same time a certain degree
-of native talent and a cunning and ambition which
became an important factor in gaining a following.
They had received no regular education, one being
a day-laborer and the other a wagoner, had married
at an early age, and were conspicuous for their moral
delinquencies. In 1745 a remarkable movement,
traceable to the influence of pietietic separatism,
broke out in Brtlggten and its vicinity, when children
began to pray and to preach to their elders. Among
these inspired children were the oSEpring of the
Kohler brothers, and from them the fanatic spirit
psased to their parents, who now experienced visions
and dreams, and related to their neighbors the
wonderful revelations vouchHafed them during pe-
riods of ecstasy. It has been supposed that in the
beginning the two men were subjects of self-decep-
tion, but it is not impossible that their ecstatic
visions were deliberat* mendacities. They made
use of the plentiful apocalyptic literature of the time
for all their revelations with regard to the millen-
nium and the antichrist, while they shared with all
separatiiSta an irreconcilable hatred for the Church.
Their sole innovation was their audacious imper-
sonation of the Trinity, a claim in which they were
assisted by a womaa of evil repute named Eliza-
beth Kissling. Christian Kohler proclaimed himself
the temple of the Father, Hieronymus that of the
BOD, and the KissUng woman that of the HolyGhost.
The success of their imposture evidently turned
their heads, for they made no attempt to preserve
any consistency of deception, but announced them-
selves at various times as the two witnesses of the
Apocalypse, as the servants of Christ and his repre-
sentatives, and as the successors to the throne of
God. The Kissling woman was not only the in-
carnation of the Holy Ghost, but also the woman of
the Apocalypse who was to give birth to the Sa-
viour. At the same time they continued to practise
divination and anftwered questions concerning the
condition of the dead, being able to speak with
authority since Christian Kohler was in constant
communication with heaven. In case the departed
Boul was declared by them to be in bell, they pro-
fessed themselves able to absolve il, and thus

profited by an active trade in indulgences. Id 1750,
after tliey had pursued their practises for more than
five years, they were arrested and banished from the
canton for six years. They frequently returned in
secttt, however, and renewed their prophecies until
a price was set upon their heads. Hieronynius was
seized Oct. 8, 1752, and executed Jan. 16, 1753;
Elizabeth KissUng was impriBOned; and Christian,
after incarceration, professed himself ready to
abanrlon his beliefs. His subsequent fat« is un-
known. Most of the BrOgglera were quite ignorant
of the vicious character of their prophets and ab-
jured their heresies, but some remained faithful to
the " murdered Messiah," and awaited his speedy
return. The sect disappeared, but about fifty years
later the Antonians renewed many of their doc-
trines and practises (see Antonia!IS. 2).

(W. Hadohn.)

BiBuao&APnT: J. It, Kyburi, Dai rntderkU Oelteimnit dtr
Boihtil in da- Bragolfttlr. 2 valo.. Zuricb. 17fi3; L.
Ueiatcr, Fleh-riUcJie Szenen der neuerfi Srh^B^in^ervi vrwi
Intolerani, pp. IBl M)q.. ib. 17aS; J. it. Schlfccj, Kir-
rhtnoHchirhii da 18. Jahrhundertt. II.. ii. 10e2 nqq.. 3
" ... - g HnKMiboch, HiU. of

Sthat

, 1900, p

'■riUthrifl niu

KOHLER, KAUPHANN: German- American

rabbi; b. at Fiirth (5 m. n.w. of Nuremberg),
Germany, May 10, 1S4S. He studied at the rab-
binical schools of Hassfurt, HOchber^, Mainz, Al-
tona, and Frankfort, and at the uni\'ersitie8 of
Munich, Berlin, Leipsic, and Erlangen (Ph.D.,
1868). In 1860 he came to the United States and
was rabbi of Congregation Beth-El in Detroit until
1871. He then became rabbi of Sinai Congrega-
tion, Chicago, where he introduced Hundoy lectures
into the service of the American synagogue. In
1879 he was chosen rabbi of Temple Beth-El, New
York City. In 1903 he was made honorary min-
ister of that synagogue for life, that he might ac-
cept the proffered presidency of Hebrew Union Col-
lege, Cincinnati, O. He is one of the leaders of Re-
formed Judaism in the llnited States. He edited
the weekly Sabbath VtsiVor 1881-82 and the weekly
Jeuriih Reformer in ISSfi, and was editor of the de-
partments of theology and philosophy of the Jew-
ish Encydopetiia. He has edited David Einham's
autgewdhUe Prcdigten iind Reden (New York, 1880)
and has written: Der Segen Jakob's (Berlin, 1867);
Die BiTkI uwf die Todesslrafe (Leipsic, 1868); Da»
hohx Lied HberseUt ufuf kritiecb neit bearbeiUt (New
York, 1878): Backwards or Forwards: Lecttirea on
Reformed Judaism (ISSS); The Ethical Basia ef
Judaism (1887); Church and Synagogue in their
Mutual Rttationis (Chicago, 1889); and A Guide to
Inatruclion in Judaism (New York, 1898).

KOLB, FRAHZ: Refoniwr; b. at Intzlingen,
near Lorrach (28 m. s.s.w. of Freiburg), Baden,
1465;d. atBemNov. 10, 1535. In 1491 he entered
the Univereity of Basel, where humanism was well
represented; in 1407 he became master and teacher
in St. Martin's school, but in 1502 he retired to a,
Carthusian monastery in Swabia. Zwingli was
probably his successor in Basel. In 1504 Kolb went
to Freiburg as cantor and preacher and after-
ward was active for some time in the neighboring

871

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDU

Kohler
Kol Nidre

Murten. In 1507 he became rector of the schools in
Freiburg. In the same year he went to Italy as
field-chaplain with Swiss mercenaries in the service
of Emperor Maximilian. In 1509 he left Freiburg
and went to Bern as cathedral preacher. He was
a stem moralist and arraigned the people for their
vices. With less success he attacked the demorali-
zing mercenary traffic, and because of these attacks
was forced to leave Bern in 1512 and again retired
to a Carthusian monastery, this time at Nurembei^g.
He preached the Reformation in Nurembei^g, but
was persecuted in 1522 and fled. On the reconmien-
dation of Luther, apparently, he received the post
of preacher from Count George II. of Wertheim.
Here he was active in the reform of the church ser-
vice, but inclined toward the doctrinal conceptions
of Zwingli with whom he soon afterward came in
personal contact at Zurich. On this account in 1525
he lost the confidence of his protector and returned
to Nuremberg, where the Reformation in the mean
time had achieved its full victory. Kolb was sus-
pected, however, of sympathizing with the teach-
ings of sectaries like Denk and M (Inzer, who at that
time were active in Nuremberg, and although cleared
of this suspicion, he applied in 1526 to Zwingli for
a position, and in the following year became the
assistant of Berthold Haller in Bern. With Haller
he took the most prominent part in the great dispu-
tation of 1528 which achieved the victory of the
Gospel in Bern (see Bern, Disputation of).
Kolb's Wertheimer RatsMag (1524) gives his views;
and some of his letters are in the Luther and the
Zwingli correspondence. (E. BLOscHf.)

Bibuooraphy: L. EiasenldflTel, Franz Kolb, Zell, n. d.;
S. Fischer, Reformation und Diaputation in Bern, Bern,
1828.

KOLDE, THEODOR (FRIEDRICH HERMANN) :
German Lutheran; b. at Friedland (26 m. s.e. of
Kdnigsberg), Upper Silesia, May, 6 1850. He stud-
ied in Breslau (1869-70) and Leipsic (1871-72;
Ph. D., Halle, 1874; lie. theol., Marburg, 1876), and
in 1876 became privat-docent for church history in
Marburg, where he was appointed associate profes-
sor in 1879. Since 1881 he has been full professor
of church history at Erlangen. He has written : Der
Kanzler Briick und seine Bedeutung fur die Ent-
vricklung der Reformation (Gotha, 1874); Luthers
SteUung zu KonzU und Kirche his zum Wormser
Reichstag (Giitersloh, 1876); Die deutsche Augus-
tiner-Congregation und Johann von Staupitz (Gotha,
1879); Friedrich der Weise und die Anf&nge der Re-
formation (Erlangen, 1881); Analecta Lutherana
(Gotha, 1883) ; Luther und der Reichstag zu Worms
(Halle, 1883); Martin Luther, eine Biographic (2
vols., Gotha, 1884-93); Die HeUsarmee nach eigener
Anschauung und nach ihren Schriften (Erlangen,
188.5); Der Methodismus und seine Bekdmpfung
(1886) ; Beitrage zur Reformationsgeschichte (Leipsic,
1888); Die Loci communes Philipp Melanchthons
(1890); Luthers Selbstmord: eine OeschichtslUge P.
Majunkes beleuchtet (1890); Ud)er Gremen des his-
torischen Erkennens (1890); Die kirchlichen BrUder-
schaften und das religiose Leben im modemen Kathali-
zismus (Erlangen, 1895); Andreas AUhamer- der
Humanist und Reformalor (1896); Die Aufbwrger
Confession UUeinisch und deutsch kurz erl&utert

(Gotha, 1896); Das rdigidse Ld>en in Erfurt heim
Ausgange des MittelaUers (Halle, 1898) ; Dr, Johann
Teuschbein und der erste Reformationsversuch in
Rothenburg cb der Tauber (Leipsic, 1901); Edward
Irving (1903); Das bayerische Religionsedikt vom
10. Jan. 1803 (Erlangen, 1903) ; Der Staatsgedanke
der Reformation und die romische Kirche (Leipsic,
1903); P. Denifle, seine Beschimpfung Luthers und
der evangelischen Kirche (1904); Der Katholizismus
und das zwamigste Jahrhundert (1905) ; Die Anf&nge
einer katholischen Oemeinde in Erlangen (Erlangen,
1906); Die dlteste Redaktion der Augaburger Kan-
fession mit Melanchthons Eirdeitung (Gtltersloh,
1906); and Historische Einleitung in die tymbclir
schen Bucher der Evangleisch4uiherischen Kirche
(1907). He has also edited the BeUr&ge zur
bayerischen Kirchengeschichte (Erlangen since 1895).

KOL NIDRE, kelnl'dr^ (" AU vows"): The
name given to the evening service taking place in
the synagogue before the beginning of the Day
of Atonement, derived from the opening words.
The service is opened by the formula Kol nidre which
runs as follows: ^'AU vows, renunciations, bans,
konams and [other] cognomens [with which vows may
be designated] and kinuse and oaths, which we vow
and swear and ban and bind upon our souls, from
this day of atonement until the [next] day of atone-
ment which shall come for our welfare — we repent
them all; they shall be solved, remitted, abolished,
be void and null, without power and without validity.
May our vows be no vows, and our oaths be no
oaths.'' Then cantor and congregations recite to-
gether Num. XV. 26. The cantor closes with an
offering of thanks in that God has kept alive his
praying people.

This ceremony has caused many accusations
against the Jews, especially one concerning the un-
trustworthiness of an oath by a Jew. It is to be
noted, however, that in this formula there is no
allusion to oaths sworn to others, but only to ob-
ligations which one imposes upon himself. Because
the Oriental, through his emotional temperament, is
easily moved to make unconsidered vows, the
Talmudists declared vows unmeritorious and even
sinful, and some vows were declared initially in-
valid; others could be solved if repentance was ex-
pressed. Besides that, a general absolution of
future vows was allowed by a solemn declaration on
New Year's Day. In post-Talmudic times this
usage was changed so that the declaration was to be
made on the first evening of the day of atonement
by the whole congregation and with reference to the
past, not to the future.

Kol nidre is first mentioned in the time of the
Geonim (689-1034 a.d.) It was only slowly that the
formula was recognized and expanded. Even in the
twelfth century and later it was rejected by men
like Jehuda Hadassi (c. 1148); Isaac ben Sheshet of
Saragossa (d. c. 1406); Jacob Landau (flourished
c. 1480 in Italy) in a collection of ritualistic decrees
called Agur; and Mordecai ben Abraham Jaffe
(d. Mar. 7, 1612), rabbi in Poland and in Prague.
Kol nidre was abolished in Mecklenbui^g-Schwerin
in May, 1844, in Hanover at the end of the sixties,
and still later in Magdeburg. There was substituted

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

372

either a German hymn or a new Hebrew prayer; but
the majority of *' orthodox " congregations, in
Germany, Austria-Himgary and other countries, ad-
hered to the early formula.

An important change in the formula was made by
Meir ben Samuel (d. after 1135). Up to his time
the solution of the vows of the past year had been
pronounced, but he allowed the vows of the year
just begun to be declared invalid. This restitution
of the original idea was widely adopted, especially
in the German ritual. See also Oath; and Vows.

(H. L. Strack.)

Bibuoorapht: J. A. EiBenmenger, EntdeekteM Judenthum,
pert ii., chap. 0, Kdnigsberg. 1711; M. Philipson, (/«6er
die Verbesaeruno dee Judeneide, Neustrelits, 1797; Z.
Frankel, Die EideeUiehing der Jvden, Dresden, 1840;
L. Zuni. OeeammeUe Schriften, il 241-264. Berlin, 1876;
L. LOW, OeeammeUe Schiften, iii. 350-366, Siegedin.
1803. Conault also Lehnmnn, in Der leraelit, 1863, nos.
26,38.

KOMANDER, kO-mOnMer (DORFMANN), JO-
HANN: Reformer of the canton of Grisons; b.
at Maienfeld (12 m. n. of Chur); d. at Chur early
in 1557. He studied at Basel with Zwingli in 1502-
1503, was settled as pastor in Chur as early as 1523,
and was active there till his death. Though the
Reformation had made considerable progress in the
vicinity of Chur, Komander met with violent op-
position at first, but Zwingli's influence induced the
authorities of the town to protect him. Forty
other preachers joined his cause. The papal party,
however, found in 1525 a peculiar ally in the Anabap-
tists. Theodor Schlegel, the clever abbot of St.
Lucius in Chur, secretly favored the Anabaptists,
and then at the federal diet in 1525 accused Koman-
der and his friends as the instigators of their heresy.
Komander calmly and courageously requested the
council to let him justify his faith from Holy Scrip-
ture. A religious colloquy was ordered at Ilanz on
Jan. 7, 1526, for which Komander prepared eight-
een theses on the basis of Zwingli's theses for the
first disputation of Zurich. The colloquy lasted two
days, but only the first thesis on the authority of the
Bible was discussed, all further efforts being frus-
trated by the intrigues of Schlegel. On the whole,
the result of the colloquy was favorable to the Ref-
ormation; the authority of Komander increased,
and seven other clergymen of Grisons joined his
cause. But under pressure from the Roman strong-
holds in the confederation, and to free certain re-
spected Evangelical citizens of the Valtellina (q. v.)
who had been captured by Roman noblemen, the
federal diet, assembled in 1526 at Chur, resolved
to maintain the old usages in regard to public wor-
ship, although preaching was to remain free. Soon
after the issue of this decree, some Evangelical
preachers were banished for refusing to restore the
mass and images. Nevertheless, Komander ven-
tured to expound the Evangelical doctrine of the
Lord's Supper at Easter, 1526, and it was adminis-
tered according to Evangelical rite in 1527. Soon
afterward the odious decree was revoked, and
freedom of choice between the two conflicting re-
ligions was permitted. An ArtikeUbrief , favorable
to the Evangelicals, was issued June 25, 1526. It
gave the congregations the right to choose their
own pastors, restricted the rights of patronage of

the cathedral chapter, and forbade the election of a
bishop without the consent of the federal diet.
Irritated by these decisions, the bishop and Schlegel
entered into treasonable relations with the Medici;
but the conspiracy was discovered, the bishop was
exiled, and Schlegel was beheaded in 1529.

After the outward security of the Reformation had
been achieved, Komander busied himself with its
internal development. Zwingli gave him an ex-
cellent assistant in Nicolaus Baling. Komander
learned Hebrew, and studied so diligently that he
injured his eyesight. From his correspondence with
Zwingli, it is evident that he had many disagreeable
encounters with the Anabaptists. He was a genuine
disciple of Zwingli, and was always in close relation
with his friends at Zurich. In agreement with
Bullinger, he proposed at the federal diet of 1536
a firmer organization of the Church. This idea was
realized in 1537 by the institution of a synod. The
catechism of Grisons is Komander's work, and he
took a prominent part in the composition of the Con-
fessio Rhaetica, which was chiefly directed against
Antitrinitarian heresies. In the latter years of
his life he devoted his efforts to the development
of the high school at Chur, founded in 1539, which
soon began 'to flourish under Johannes Pontisella
and Simon Lenmius. Komander's last public ap>-
pearance was in a fiery discourse delivered before
the federal diet in 1556 against the sending of a
submissive embassy to the pope.

(B. RlGGENBACHf.)

Bibuoorapht: The souroes and treatment of Komander
are best sought in the literature cited under Zwinou. e.g..
Zwingli 's Opera, vols, vii.-viii.; R. Staehelin, HtUdreich
Zwingli, 2 vols.. Basel. 1895-97; S. M. Jackson. Huldrcich
Zvfinoli, New York. 1903 (consult Index " Comander "):
and the literature under Repormation in the section on
Switzerland. Consult: U. Campell, Hint. Raetioa^ ed.
P. Plattner. 2 vols.. Basel. 1886-90; F. Trechsel, Die
proteetarUieeken ArUitrinitarier, vol. ii.. Heidelberg. 1844:
H. G. Bulsberger, Oeechichte der Reformation im Kanton
OraubUnden, Chur. 1880; Schaff, Chrietian Church, vii.
138-140; Bxdlingere Korreeponden* in QueUen zur Schtcti-
ter Oeechichte, vol. xxiii., Basel. 1904; E. Bldsch, Oe-
echichte der echweiMTxech-reformierten Kirche, i. 55 aqq.,
176 sqq., Bern. 1898. For the colloquy at Hans, cf.
J. C. FQssli. Beitr&ge tur Kirchen- und Refofrmationege-
echichU, i. 337-382. Zurich, 1741; U. Campell. ut sup., ii.
287-308; Hofmeietere Akten turn ReHgionegeeprdeh in
Ilanz, Chur, 1904.

KOOLHAAS, kdlOiCIs, KASPAR JANSZOON:
Dutch Protestant; b. at Cologne Jan. 24, 1536; d.
at Amsterdam Jan. 15, 1615. After a few years of
study at Cologne and Dilsseldorf, he joined the Car-
thusians at Coblenz, but in 1560 entered the Prot-
estant ministry at Marbach, and in 1566 became
pastor at Deventer, Holland. When the city fell
into the hands of the Spaniards he fled to Germany,
but returned to Holland in 1573 and became pastor
at Leyden in 1574. At the founding of the univer-
sity there he delivered the opening address. In a
quarrel between the government and the consistory
he defended the rights of the government in ecclesi-
astical affairs. In his opinion the Church assumed
too many rights and curtailed freedom of thought.
The ministers of the classis of South Holland now
forbade him to preach. As his views on predestina-
tion differed from those of the stricter Calvinists an
accusation was presented against him at the Synorl

878

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDU

Xomand«r

of Middelburg in 1581, and in 1582 he was excom-
municated at the Synod of Haarlem, though this ex-
conmiunication was soon annulled. On account of
the continued opposition of the clergy he finally
withdrew from the Church and earned his living as a
distiller. He was a follower of Luther, rather than
of Calvin. For his opposition to the restrictions
placed upon the Church by ecclesiastical formu-
laries he must be regarded as a forerunner of Ar-
miniusandthe Remonstrants. (H. C. RoooEt.)

Biblxoorapht: H. C. Rogge, Catpar Januoon CoolhoM, de
voorlooper van Anniniu9 en der Remonttranten, 2 vols.,
Amsterdam, 1856-58.

KOPPy GEORG: German cardinal; b. at Du-
derstadt (15 m. e. of Gdttingen) July 27, 1837. He
studied at the Gymnasium of Hildesheim, and after
being a telegrapher in the service of the Hanoverian
government (1856-58) studied theology at the epis-
copal seminary in Hildesheim ( 1858-61) . In 1862 he
was ordained to the priesthood, and was then vicar
of a school at Henneckenrode and curate at Detfurt
until 1865, when he became assistant to the vicar-
general at Hildesheim. In 1870 he was created
apostolic prothonotary, and in 1872 became a mem-
ber of the chapter of the cathedral at Hildesheim and
vicar-general of the diocese. In 1881 he was con-
secrated bishop of Fulda, and in 1887 became prince-
bishop of Breslau. In 1893 he was created caixiinal-
priest of Santa Agnese fuori le Mura. He was a
member of the Prussian house of deputies in 1884-
1886, and since 1886 has been a member of the
upper house. He is a domestic prelate of the pope.

Biblxoorapht: Der Paptt, die RegierunOt und die VenvaU-
uno der heUigen Kirche in Rom, pp. 186, 187-188, Munich,
1904.

KORAH, kd'ra, KORAHITES: Names which
appear in three connections in the Old Testament:
(1) As an Edomitic stock or clan (Gen. xxxvi. 5, 14,
16, 18; I Chron, i. 35); (2) as a family (or city) be-
longing to the descendants of Caleb, reckoned as
Judahites (I Chron. ii. 43 and perhaps I Chron. xii. 6) ;
(3) most frequently as descendants of Levi, belong-
ing to the family of Kohath in the genealogies of Ex.
vi. 21,24; IChron. vi. 22, ix. 15, xxvi. 1. Num. xxvi.
58 departs from the usual division of the Levi
stock into three branches and makes the Korahite
family one of five. Num. xvi.-xvii. deals with the
Kohathite Korah in connection with the rebellion of
Dathan and Abiram; the Chronicler makes the
Korahites doorkeepers of the sanctuary (I Chron. ix.
19, 26, 31). The Korahites appear also in the super-
scriptions of Ps. xlii., xliv.-xlix., Ixxxiv., Ixnv.,
Ixxxvii., Ixxxviii.

Of special importance is the passage Num. xvi.-
xvii., formerly thought to be a unit, but shown by
Kuenen to be composed of three narratives woven
together and differing in their representations. J
makes Dathan and Abiram the opponents of the
leadership of Moses, P makes Korah the representa-
tive of the laity against Moses and Aaron who stand
for the priesthood, while the third element regards
Korah as a non-priestly Levite who champions the
cause of the Levites against the exclusive priestly
claims of the Aaronites. Evidently the Korah of
these chapters is the Korah of (3) above (cf. Num.
xxvi. 11); P must have regarded Korah as a Levite,

and the editor evidently had a pragmatic aim in com-
bining the narratives. Difi&culties arise regarding the
historicity of the P narrative, though traditional
material is employed. Two Korahs — (2) and (3)
above — may have been confused in the combination,
but from aU passages cited above no secure history
of the family can be deduced.

In clearer but not altogether consistent form is
the Levitical relationship of the Korahitic Levites
set forth in Chronicles and in the priest code. The
former (I., ix. 19) regards the Korahites as door-
keepers of the sanctuary; the latter gives them more
minute and particular temple service (Num. iii. 31).
In the older parts of Ezra-Nehemiah the singers and
doorkeepers are not reckoned to the Levites but are
a special division. The Sons of Korah of the inscrip-
tions of the Psalms appear in Chronicles as door-
keepers, not as singers. Yet in II Chron. xx. 19 the
Kohathites and Korahites appear as singers, and I
Chron. vi. 18 sqq. makes Heman to be of Kohathite
stock, while I Chron. ix. 33 closes the preceding list
of Levites with the words *^ and these are the
singers." Thus the line between doorkeepers and
singers is not sharply drawn by the Chronicler, and
the title of the Psalms cited, ** for the Sons of Korah/'
does not find satisfactory support in Chronicles and
appears to be based on some variant system. It is
hardly probable, however, that a new gUd of singers
was oi^anized in times after the Chronicles to which
the name ** sons of Korah " was given; possibly
this designation was a collective term embracing
the doorkeepers and the singers and was used in the
Greek period, to which Ps. xliv. belongs.

(F. Buhl.)

Bibuoorapht: W. von Baudiasm. OeechicfUe dee aUteeta-
mentlichen Prieetertuma, Leipdo, 1889; A. Kuenen. ThT,
xii (1878). 139 aqq.; B. W. Baoon. THple TradiHon of
the Exodus, pp. 190 sqq.. Hartford. 1894; J. Kdberle, Die
TempeU&nger im A. T., pp. 182 sqq.. Erlangen. 1899;
J. E. Oarpenter and G. Harford-Battersby, CompoeUion
of the Hexateueh, ii. 212 aqq., London. 1902; Smith,
OTJC, pp. 204 sqq.; Driver. Introduction, pp. 69-^1;
DB, iii. 11-12: EB, ii. 2686-88; JE, vU. 566-667; and,
in seneral, literature on the Hexateuch.

KORAN. See Mohammed, Mohammedanism.

KOREA.

I. The Land and People. II. Miaaiona.

Extent, Climate, Beaourcea Roman Catholic Miaaiona

(§ 1). (§ 1).

Government and Recent Protectant Miaaiona (f 2).
Hiatory (f 2). Reaulta (f 3).

I. The Land and People: Korea comprises the
peninsula lying between Japan and Chinese Asia.
The name by which the country was known to its
inhabitants when first opened by treaty to foreign
entrance was Cho-sen, ** Morning-calm/' later
changed to Tai-han. The term Korea comes from
Korai, Korye, or Koryu, the name of the strongest of
three kingdoms which existed in the country in the
tenth century. From the fact that foreigners were
until toward the end of the nineteenth century not
allowed to enter or reside in the land, Korea be-
came poetically known as the " Hermit Nation."
The peninsula runs approximately north and south,
having the Sea of Japan on the east, the Strait of
Korea on the south, the Yellow Sea on the west,
while Russian and Ciiinese territory boimd it on the
north. If the dictionary definition of an island be

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

874

acoeptedi Korea would more probably be termed an

island, for the small lake situated on the slopes of

" the ever white mountain " in the

z. Extent, north is the source of two rivers, the
Climate, Tumen, which empties into the Sea of

Resources. Japan, and the Yaloo which finds its
way into the Yellow Sea, the northern
boundary being therefore entirely of water, making
of Korea a body of land entirely surrounded by
water. The length of the country from north to
south is about 700 miles, and it has an area vari-
ously estimated as between 80,000 and 92,000
square miles, approximately that of the States of
New York and Pennsylvania combined, with a
population estimated at about twelve millions.
A chain of mountains running from north to
south divides, when about three-fourths of the
length of the peninsula has been traversed, into two
ranges which run along the whole eastern coast and
are the sources of many rapid, turbulent streams
pouring into the Sea of Japan, and of several less
rapid but larger rivers which, flowing placidly
through the plains to the west coast, make of Korea
a fertile country, producing all kinds of cereals,
though rice is the staple product and the main arti-
cle of diet. The climate is not unlike that of the
.Eastern States; for although the capital, Seoul, is
as far south as Richmond, Va., the cold ocean current
that flows down between Japan and Korea very
much modifies the climate of the peninsula. With
the exception of some six weeks of rain, during
what is commonly known as the rainy season, the
climate is, in the main, dry and healthful, warm in
summer, and quite cold in winter, with of course the
varying degrees that come from an extreme length
north to south of about 1,000 miles. The mineral
deposits in Korea are large and varied, silver, tin,
lead and copper being found in paying quantities,
and still larger deposits of gold and coal have been
found. It is not, however, the El Dorado that some
have claimed it to be. The people are inferior
neither mentally nor physically to other Orientals.
A people which has preserved its ancient civilization
and so long succeeded in maintaining itself as a
hermit nation might be expected to show peculiar
and excellent qualities, and these have appeared and
have been emphasized especially among the con-
verts to Christianity.

Korea is a limited monarchy of the paternal type,
with a written constitution limiting the power of the
monarch and in a manner guiding the administra-
tion of the government. During a considerable pe-
riod Korea was tributary to China, but this position
as a tribute-paying country in no way affected its
independence in internal government.
2. Govern- The United States recognized this in-

ment and dependence when it made its treaty

Recent with Korea in 1882. The question of

History, independence was, however, constantly

arising, and was a matter of no little

controversy until the close of the China-Japan war,

when, by the treaty of peace, the independence of

Korea became a recognized fact. Japan at this

time gained the ascendency in the little peninsula;

but she failed to use her power wisely and soon

lost all influence^ and Ruaaian predominance be-

came a fact. At the opening of the Japan-
Russian war, a treaty of alliance between Japan
and Korea was signed, by which, in payment for
the privilege of being permitted freely to transport
her troops across Korean territory, Japan guaran-
teed in perpetuity to maintain the independence
of Korea, and the dignity of the reigning family.
However, immediately after the close of this war,
after the treaty of Portsmouth, Japan assumed an
entirely different attitude toward Korea, and, taking
the place of a conqueror rather than an ally, lias
attempted to maintain this position ever since. A
forced treaty of protection was nominally passed
by the cabinet and put into effect, since the foreign
powers by their withdrawal of the legations ac-
knowledged their willingness to yield to Japan's re-
quest. The emperor protested against this, and
having in 1907 sent an embassy to The Hague in
order to bring the matter to the attention of the
civilized powers, Japan compelled the abdication of
the emperor, had his eldest son put on the throne,
and his youngest son proclaimed crown prince. At
the present time, while there is nominally an em-
peror in Korea, the government is administered by
a Japanese " resident ** at Seoul, with a large force
of Japanese constabulary and soldiery, and " under-
residents '' at a number of prominent points, though
Japan still nominally maintains that Korea is in-
dependent.

n. Missions: The missionaries on their first
arrival declared the people irreligious because they
found a scarcity of temples and shrines, and even
such temples as they had were not crowded by dev-
otees as in some neighboring lands. They soon
found that the people would announce that those
things were good enough for women and children,
but that the educated of the land seemed to have no
faith in any one of their ancient religions, Shamaii-
ism, Buddhism, or Confucianism. Shamanism had
the strongest hold, but even this was losing its grip
upon the people. The natural conclusion that they
were irreligious has been revised upon a closer
acquaintance. Their religious instincts, coupled
with their own power of reasoning, have led the
people to reject successively, in lai^ measure, all
their ancient faiths, and as a result there is pre-
sented before the world a people ready and waiting
for the truth. Given such a people, Christianity
might be expected speedily to take root and flour-
ish, and such has been the history of the Christian
faith.

Roman Catholicism early reached Korea. Al-
though at the time of the Hideyoshi invasion, 1592-
1597, Roman Catholic Christians and some priests
followed in the wake of the Japanese army, at this
time there appears no trace of any definite results, or
in fact of any real attempt at the propagation of
Christianity. In 1777, however, the attention of a
young Korean was drawn toward some Roman
Catholic books, and, securing a position in the em-
bassy to China, he attempted to find out more about
the faith, and returning in 1782 to the capital, was
soon actively engaged in propagating the new re-
ligion. The vital truths as presented by these
Christians soon took hold upon the Korean peo-
ple, and the history of early Ronum Catholicism

375

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

in the hermit nation is ahnost like a romance. It
was not, however, allowed to progress freely, and
at the close of that century, as well as at different
times during the first half of the nine-
I. Roman teenth century, persecution broke out
Catholic and threatened the life of the infant
Missions, cliurch. Many of the Koreans, how-
ever, remained firm, and, despite all
persecutions and opposition, the progress was steady
and constant. The latest of these severe persecutions
occurred in 1866. Many attempts had been made
from the very beginning of this work to introduce
French priests, but this failed until 1835, after which
in various guises and by various means, from time
to time they entered Korea. Many of them suffered
martyrdom, a notably large number met death in
1866. Roman Catholicism, however, did not give
the Bible. It gave very little enlightenment out-
side of a few catechisms, and did not seem to lend
itself to education and the general uplift of the
people. There are still, however, in Korea a large
number of Roman Catholics, and their figures total
up to approximately 40,000.

Protestant Christianity made several attempts to
enter the land. Notable was the effort of the in-
trepid pioneer, Gutzlaff, who landed from native
boats on Korean soil, and sold copies of Scriptures
and tracts in the Spanish language as early as 1832.
Missionaries in China were also quite
2, Prot- concerned about their near neighbor,
estant Korea, and the Rev. Dr. Thompson, of
Missions, the London Mission School, was at his
own earnest request permitted to make
the attempt. He had learned the language, and just
as he was ready to leave he was offered free passage
if he would act as interpreter on the ill-fated ship
*' Sherman,'' and while there is no definite data to
prove it, it is generally conceded that he was, with
the others, massacred by the Koreans when the ship
st randed in Pyeng-Yang. The treaty made by Japan
with Korea in 1876, followed by the first treaty with
a western power, that with the United States, made
by Admiral (then Commodore) Shufeldt, of the
United States Navy, opened Korea at last to the
residence of missionaries. In the spring of 1884,
J. W. Heron, M.D., of Tennessee was conmiissioned
as the first missionary from a Protestant Church to
the hermit nation. In June of the same year, the
same board also appointed Rev. H. G. Underwood.
Dr. H. N. Allen, stationed in Shanghai at the time,
was transferred to Korea, and he, reaching Seoul
with his family in the fall of 1884, became the first
resident Protestant missionary. Just prior to Dr.
Allen's arrival, however. Rev. R. S. McClay, D.D.,
of the Methodist Church, had been commissioned by
his board to visit Korea, and make arrangements for
the establishment of a mission in Seoul. He was
warmly welcomed by the authorities, and was in-
vited to establish medical and educational institu-
tions in the country. Reporting this to his board
they at once took action, and appointed the Rev. H.
G. Appenzeller, and Wm. B. Scranton, M.D., while
the Women's Foreign Missionary Society of the
same church appointed Mrs. M. F. Scranton as their
representative. Thus it may be seen that these two
churches began their mission work in Korea at

practically the same time, and to a large extent
upon these same missions has devolved the bulk of
the work during the past years. Very early in the
history of the work, the missionaries were led to
adopt what might be thought quite stringent rules,
looking toward self-support. 'The many principles
underlying these rules were: (1) to develop church
missionary work only so fast as the natives were
able to take care of it; (2) to plan church architec-
ture along native lines; (3) to insist that the
natives erect their own churches; (4) that native
Evangelists be employed only so far as the natives
were able to pay for them, and that the responsi-
bility for the salvation of their neighbors be placed
upon the native Christians.

Not only was Korea opened politically by the
treaties that had been made, but in a marvelous
way the missionaries seemed from the beginning
to have entrance to the hearts of the people, and
although there was no small amount of initiatory
work to be undertaken, a literature to
3. Results, be prepared, the Bible to be translated,
etc., yet from opening of work results
in the way of conversions have been manifest. Al-
though the first missionary, a physician, did not
arrive until the sununer of 1884, and the first clerical
missionary in 1885, yet the first convert was bap-
tized in July, 1886, and before the close of 1887
there were two regularly oi^anized churches in
Korea. Steadily the work has been going forward
at increasing speed, gathering momentum as it ad-
vanced, until for some years past the speed at which
the advance has been made has far exceeded the
ability of the missionaries to keep up with it. The
latest reports concerning the work for all denomina-
tions show considerably over 1,000 native churches
with more than 120,000 Christians, and these Chris-
tians maintain, almost wholly at their own expense,
over 500 schools for the education of the sons of the
church. Students of the times believe that if the
opportunities presented in Korea are met, this will
be the first of modem eastern nations to become
Christian.

The churches working there at the present time
are the American Presbyterian North, the Amer-
ican Presbyterian Church South, The Methodist
Episcopal, the Southern Methodist, the Canadian
Presbyterian, the Australian Presbyterian, and the
Church of England. As each of the Presbyterian
churches has opened up work, it has united with
the other Presbyterian forces and from the very be-
ginning, ecclesiastically, these churches have been
one. lliis oneness was crystallized in September,
1907, by the organization of the Presbyterians
in Korea for their work there under authority de-
rived from the four general assemblies. The two
Methodist churches also work in harmony, and
while at the present time ecclesiastically they are
not yet united, it is expected that union will take
place. There are those who are hoping for a still
greater union, that of Methodists with Presbyte-
rians, whereby the unity of the Church of Christ
may be practically demonstrated to the people of
Korea. H. G. Underwood.

Bibuographt: The bett work for a historical survey and
at the same time for a view of the people and their cue-

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

876

toma b W. E. GriiB% Carm M« H^rmiU Nation, Sth ed..
New York, 1907. PsrlutiM the beet view of the Koraen
b given in J. a Gate's Vanguard, ib. 1904; cf. the Mme
Mikhor'a Karmn ShtitkeM, Edinburgh, 1806. Consult
farther: P. Lowell, CAotdn, Th» Land of Morning Calm,
Boston, 1886; W. R. Oerles, Life in Com, London, 1888;
a W. Qilmore, Kormfrom iU CajfUal, Philadelphia. 1802;
D. L. Qifford, Birnifday Life in Korta, New York, 1806;
A. Hamilton, Korea, ib. 1904; Mrs. L. H. Underwood.
Fifimn YearB among ths TopknoU, ib. 1004; With Tommy
Tompkint in Korm, ib. 1005; H. B. Hulbert. HiaL of
Korm, 2 vols.. London, 1000; idem, Ths Patting of
Koroa, New York, 1000 (strongly antagonistic to Japan),
with which should be compared O. T. Ladd, In Kotm
wik Marquia Ito, ib. 1006 (with strong bias in favor of
Japan, deeply antagonistic if not unfair to Korea); Q. H.
Jones, JCorso, Land, PoopU, and Cuaiomt, Cincinnati, 1007;
H. Q. Underwood, Tht CaU of Korea, New York. 1006; F.
A. McKenaie, The Tragedy ef Korea, London, 1006.

KORESHAH ECCLESIA, KORBSHAH UNTTT.
See CoMicuNiaM, II., 4.

KORHTHAL.

A Center of Pbtism (f 1). Doctrine, Government (f 3).
Foundatten of the Comma- The First Pastorate (f 4).
nity (f 2). Subsequent History (f 6).

Kornthal, a small village near Stuttgart, b note-
worthy as the center of WQrttembei^ Pietism. In
WOrttemberg the Pietistic movement, though in-
q>ired by Spener and Francke, had retained its in-
dividuality, thanks to its nonpolemic
I. A Center and popular character and the greater
of Wrning of its thcological representa-

Pietism. tives. It also far outlived its Halle
counterpart, reaching its acme in the
second half of the eighteenth century. It arose
under the influence of Johann Michael Hahn (q.v.)
who renewed the speculations of Jakob Boehme
(q.v.) and gave the Pietistic laity a higher sense of
their religious independence. This feeling was
increased both by their union with the CJhristen-
tumegesellschaft (q.v.) in Basel and by the rise of a
school of Biblical supematuralism. If the latter
factor was a dbtinct weakening of the strict adher-
ence to the Bible taught by J. A. Bengel (q.v.), a
further impulse toward decay was given by the
rationalizing policy of Frederick I. His oppressive
measures, including a rather rationalistic agenda
in 1809 and the denial of the right of congregations
to refuse unpleasing pastors in 1810, roused an an-
tagonism among the Pietists which was augmented
not only by the Swabian tendency to cling to tradi-
tional views, but also by their acceptance of Bengel's
ehiliastic theories, which prophesied the coming of
the Millennium in 1836. Partly following the ex-
ample of the Harmonists (see Communism, II., 6),
thousands of Pietists emigrated to southern Russia,
their exodus being aided by the repeal of the emi-
gration-laws by William I. on Frederick's death.
William sought to stay such emigration, and on Feb.
14, 1817, issued directions to all civil authorities
waging them to dissuade would-be emigrants from
carrying out their intentions. In reply, the burgo-
master of Leonberg, Gottlieb Wilhelm Hoffmann,
suggested to the king that as the emigrants sought
only religious freedom, they would readily remain
if they were permitted to establish congregations
which, although independent of the ecclesiastical
authorities, would not be essentially severed from
the Lutheran Church, whose doctrines they held.

This response of Hoffmann, himself a leader both in
Pietism and in political affairs, led the king to re-
quest him (Apr. 1) to draw up a scheme for the
creation of such congregations; and the burgo-
master accordingly formulated a plan (Apr. 14)
avowedly based on the Moravian modeL

On Sept. 8, 1818, a royal decree permitted the
formation of a religious commimity, and on Jan. 12,
1819, Komthal was purchased, the oratory of the
conmiunity being dedicated Nov. 7,
3. Founda- 1819. In all these transactions Hoff-
tk>n of the mann acted in concert with other
Commu- Pietistic leaders, particularly with
nity. Hahn, who was chosen leader of the
new conununity, but died immediately
after the purchase of Komthal. Yet the very pres-
ence of such a man implied that the early purpose
of the community was widened, and it was no
longer its sole intent to protect Lutheranism from
the rationalizing influence of ecclesiastical authori-
ties, but to form a body of the truly converted — the
keynote of Pietism from its beginning. A certain
opposition to the Chiu*ch developed, partly because a
layman was at the head of the new oi^ganiaation,
partly because of an ascetic and legalistic tendency
in Hahn, combined with the belief in the immediate
Second Advent, for which preparation could rightly
be made only by gathering together the faithful. Nor
was a degree of separatism displeasing to Hoffmann,
who throughout his life regarded the Church as an
obstacle to all progress of the kingdom of God.
Under Moravian influence, he sought especially to
make the conununity a model in industrial under-
takings and to render it influential over the people
through educational institutions.

To show the harmony of the new body with the
established Church, the Augsburg Confession was
formally adopted, though the rejection
3. Doc- of the secua docenUs was omitted, and a
trine, special paragraph was drawn up ex-
Govern- pressing abhorrence of all religious
ment intolerance. While, however, the com-
munity was not subject to the consi''^-
tory, but only to the minister of public worship, its
adherence to the old ecclesiastical books was not
emphasized as clearly as might have been expected.
Yet even this was in entire conformity with its Piet-
istic basis, with its ideal of an apostolic life and the
realization of the Sermon on the Mount. This is
shown by the program prepared by Hahn in 1817,
with its insistence on ecclesiastical discipline, partic-
ularly in admission of and exclusion from the com-
munity. These latter features, however, involved
both legal and ethical problems, the former arising
primarily from the economic principles of the com-
munity, and the latter from the possible contingency
of the breaking up of families because of variance
in religious views. On the other liand, they were
readily relieved from the obligation to military ser-
vice or to take oath. The commtmity was em-
powered to call a regular clergyman who should also
inspect schools, etc., and should, in this capacity, be
subject to the State Church, though the community
was to appoint teachers and choose religious text-
books for the schools. A specifically Pietistic trait
was the requirement that laymen should have the

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

KoraalMD BoolaaU

right to edify the community, except in the regular
religious services. The discipline extended even to
clothing, food, and reading; hut the basis of it all
was cbiliasm, ieen even in the flimsy coDstructioQ of
the housea, so soon was the Second Advent ex-
pected. A third motive in the establishment of
the conununity, besides the desire to escape rational-
ism and to create a pure congregation, was the foun-
dation, again borrowed from the Moravians, of a
missionary institute and a printing-press. The
latter, like HoiTmann's plans for the communily's
industrial enterprise, came to naught; the former,
on the other hand, by the erection of one of the first
refuges for destitute children, was a fitst step iu
licme missions.

The first pastor of the community of Komthal
was Friedricb formerly at Winzerhausen, a chil-
isst, who was called in 1819. Hoffmann, however,

still remained the civil head . In these

4. The early years the basal principles of the

First community were still strong. Its

Pastorate, foundation had called forth a flood of

pamphlets, and evoked not only the
wrath of the rationalists, but the eiispicions of the
Bupematuralists — the natural result being to in-
crease the enthusiasm of the members of the commu-
nity and their friends. The settlement became a sort
of place of pilgrimage both for other Pietists and
for earnest Christians, aa well as for mere curiosity-
seekers. Yet, despite this mass of religious en-
thusiasts, there were no manifestations of fanaticism,
owing to the governing genius of Hoffmann. He
was now endeavoring to establish a second colony.
but meanwhile the opposition of the government
had increased. King William, however, mindful of
the economic advantages of such communities, and
desiring to transform a marshy district of Upper
Swabia into fertile land by the industry of the Piet-
ists, offered them this region. Hoffmann did not
dare to reject it, and in 1824 the community of
"Wilhelmsdorf was founded in the midst of Roman
Catholic Upper Swabia. It was a heavy burden for
the parent colony, and was joined only bythepoorewt
members, who went not as a privilege, but as a sac-
rifice. Wilhelmsilort struggled on, however, until
1852, when it formally separated from Komthal,
though it is still exempt from the consistory.

After Friedrich's death In 1827 there was an
int«riin until 1833, when Kapff was called as

his successor. The fact that he be-

5. SubsB- longed to the State Church minimized

quent the antagonism between the commu-

Histoiy. nity and the Church. Non-members

were admitted to confirmation and the
Lord's Supper; and as the remembrance of their
earlier grievances against the Stale Church faded
away, the danger of religious extravagance vanished
under Kapff's guidance, while the quiet course of
1836, the yearsetby Bcngelfor theSecond Advent,
dampened chiliastic hopes. On the other hand.
between 1831 and 1848. the decay of rationalism was
replaced by the warmth of Pietism within the Stale
Church, to which Von Kapff himself relumed in 1843.
The reason for the existence of the community thus
became somewhat questionable, and since 1848 its
religioussigniScancehas in a great measure vanished.

Nevertheless, the third pastor, J. H. Staudt, who
presided over the community from 1843 to 1882.
was able not only to preserve Koruthat's individuat-
ily, but also to make it a center for Pietists and even
for wider circles. At the same time, he kept the
community from adopting schemes at variance with
its original purpose. Between his successor, how-
ever, and a portion of the community a conflict arose,
which was settled only by the aid of the consistory.
The position of the community has become more
(liHicult as a result of recent legislation. The laws
of Nov. 1, 1867, granting unrestricled domicile, of
July 3. 1869, on the civil equality of confessions,
and of June 16, 1SS5, on membership in communities,
have abrogated its privilege to prohibit undesirable
elements from citi/enship. The result, as in the
analogous case of the State Church, has been the
strengthening of the moral power of the commu-
nity; and in 1892 both Komthal and Wilhelmsdorf
passed a sanctioned agenda empowering them to
preserve the character of their membership by ex-
clusively ecclesiastical regulations. The present
significance of the community, which now numbers
about 1,200, is essentially that of a refuge for those
who, wearied of struggle, long for a peaceful and
spiritual atmosphere. (C. Kolb.)

BiBuoaiurHT: S. C. Kapff. Die uUrttemiovJaeAfn BrO-
dfraemrindcti KanUhol and WiUulmtdorf, Komtbal. 183B:
C. Palmer. Gemiiniduiflm and SrJilm WQrllrmlKrot, «d.
Ittlfc. TtlbiDKeo. ISTT; H. SrhiDidt. Dit innert Afunon
in WurOrmbrTg, pp. .^3 Kiq.. Hunhurg, 1879: further lit-
entura ID Hauck-Hf-rHB. HE. id. 3S-3e.

KORTHOLT, CHRISTIAH: German Lutheran;
b. at Boig, on the island of Femem or Fehmam (in
the Baltic Sea), Holstein, Jan. 15, 1632; d. at Kiel
Mar. 31 (Apr. 1), 1694. He studied at the univer-
sities of Rostock, Jena, Leipsic and Wittenberg,
became professor of Greek at Rostock in 1662 and
professor of theology and prochaneellor at the newly
founded University of Kiel in 1666. He owed his
fame not so much to his church history published
after his death (Hiatoria tcdemaetica Novi Testa-
vierdi, Leipsic, 1697), as to some excellent mono-
graphs, for instance, on the first persecutions of the
Christians {De peraeculioniinis tcclesin primitiva sub
imperatorilmt elhnicui. Jena, 1660, Kiel, 1689) and
on the literary opponents of Christianity {Poganua
obirectal/>r, giiie de. aduinniia gentilium, libri Hi,
Kiel. 1698). He was also one of the first Protes-
tant theolc^ians who undertook to refute Baronius
{Di»qui»itionr» Anti-Baroniana, 1700). He was in
harmony with the Pietists, and was the personal
friend of Spener and Francke.

(Paol TecBACKXBT.)

pp. B7 IN

III: The OtdadUninrrdu, I
in H. Pipping, Mtmo
., iMnaa. 17U5.

EOSTERS, WILLSH HERDRIK: Dutch the-
ologian and Old-Testament scholar; b. at Enscbede
(78 m. p. of UfrechO Oct. 3, 1843; d. at Leyden
Dec. 19, 1897. He was the son of Dr. Jan Koaters,
a physician of some repute: received his prelimi-
nary education in the schools of his native town;
entered the University of I*yden as a student in
theology in 1861, ending his course in 1868 and
taking hia doctorate with a disaertAtion on Deutei^

Kottwltz

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

878

onomy compared' with Genesis and Exodus; while
there he was greatly influenced by Kuenen, whose
successor he later became. He assumed the pas-
torate at Rockanye 1874, at Heenobet 1874, at
Barendrecht 1877, at Neede 1880, and at Deven-
ter 1883; in 1892 he succeeded Kuenen as profes-
sor at Leyden. In his pastorate he made himself
greatly beloved by his interest in the poor and the
sick, while at the same time he was an excellent
preacher, applying to his work the results of a wide
reading. In his chair as a university teacher he
was happy and successful, delivering at his inau-
guration an address on Het godsdiemtig Karakter van
IsraeU Historiografie (Leyden, 1892). Notwith-
standing the engrossing character of his duties in
preparing his lectures, he collaborated in the edit-
ing of the Theologiache Tijdschrifty contributing
much of his own work to its columns; he was the
author also of Het Herstd van Israel in het perziache
Tijdvak (Leyden, 1893) ; the views advanced in this
book are embodied in the volume on EzrarNehemiah
in the Century Bible (London 1909). The views
for which he was most noted are that the " retiun "
which appears in the account of Ezra and Nehemiah
never really took place; that the temple was built
not by returning exiles but by the Jews who were
on the spot and had never gone into exile; and that
the reform of Ezra followed and not preceded that
of Nehemiah — in the last point following Van Hoon-
acker of Louvain and other scholars. These posi-
tions have been accepted in the main by a consid-
erable number of Old-Testament scholars, though
not by the majority. T. Witton Da vies.

Biblxoqrapht: H. Oor, Leven^>ericht van WUUm Hendrik
Ko9ter9, Leyden, 1898.

KOTTWITZ, ket'wlts, HANS ERNST, BARON
VON: Philanthropist; b. in Tschepplau, near Glogau
(55 m. n.w. of Breslau), Silesia, Sept. 2 (or 1), 1757;
d. at Berlin May 13, 1843. The facts of his life have
to be gathered from a few letters and the biographies
of others, and events before he settled at Berlin in
1807 and became a public personality are veiled in
obscurity. He received his education in an insti-
tution of Breslau. Later he came to the court of
Frederick II. as page. About this time he had a
quarrel with his parents and decided to emigrate,
but an order of the sovereign, issued at the insti-
gation of his father, compelled him to stay. After
the death of his father in 1777, Hans Ernst, as his
only surviving son, was probably charged with the
administration of his estate. Of the following
thirty years nothing is known except his marriage,
his entrance into the order of the freemasons, his
conversion, the beginnings of his philanthropic
work in Silesia, various travels, and perhaps also
his divorce. The unfortunate outcome of his mar-
riage was probably occasioned by his liberality in
the cause of philanthropy, which sometimes seems
to have bordered on imprudence, especially from
the practical standpoint of his wife. It is not
known in what relation Kottwitz stood to the Unity
of Brethren (Moravians), but it is certain that he
attained peace of soul and his religious convictions
by contact with this sect; Bishop Spangenberg
especially influenced him deeply, according to his
own statement. His relations with the freema-

sons date probably from the time before his coz>-
version, and it was undoubtedly their philanthropic
efforts that attracted him.

Kottwitz took Exodus vi. 9 as the bajsis of his
life-work, being of the opinion that misery of the
body depresses the human spirit, and that the
tears of earthly pain must be dried before the
realization of spiritual needs can come to the poor
and unhappy. For this purpose he undertook ex-
tensive travels over several states of Germany such
as Silesia, the mark of Brandenburg, Sleswick,
Holstein, Mecklenburg, and Pomerania, and founded
factories in Silesia after his own ideals and an in-
stitution for voluntary occupation in opposition
to the compulsory work of the houses of correction
at Berlin. Both kinds of institutions were based
on the principle of self-help and self-respect. Kottr
witz intended to discourage begging and at the
same time remove poverty by providing remiinenir
tive labor. The poor working men in Silesia were
mostly weavers. He distributed material among
them, paid for their work generously and sold their
productions, often with great sacrifioes of his own
fortune. In 1807 he removed to Berlin, just at a
time when there was great misery among the work-
ing classes on account of the war with Napoleon.
Here he founded institutions similar to those in
Silesia and in addition provided free lodgings for
whole families of working men. When a family by
diligence and thrift had lifted itself out of its miser-
able conditions, it made way for another family.
The children of these working men were provided
with their own teachers, and every evening there
was held a common service, consisting of song,
reading of Scripture, and extempore prayer, which
was conducted by Kottwitz himself or by one of
his teachers. The maintenance of these institu-
tions must have devoured inmiense sums of his
private fortune, and it was only at a later time that
the king contributed an annual sum of 3,000 thalers
for the care of 120 old and invalid persons. The
whole colony numbered 600. In 1823 the financial
circumstances of Kottwitz compelled him to hand
lus foundations over to the city, but he became a
member in the directorate and was allowed to keep
his residence among his people. While his work
on the whole failed, his intercourse with his friends
and lus care for individual souls remained of last-
ing value. In Berlin he became the acknowledged
leader of the Pietists, and his colony their principal
place of meeting. The circle of his friends included
old and young, lawyers, army officers, and theo-
logians, among them Jllnicke, Neander, Strauss,
Hengstenberg, Tholuck, Stier, Rothe, Wichem, and
others. (F. Bosse.)

Bibliography: T. Ritter, Erinnerungen aua dem Leben dea
. . . Barona von KoUvnU, Berlin, 1857; J. L. Jaoobi.
Erinnerungen an den Baron E. von Kottwitz, Halle, 1882;
W. Baur, in Neue Christoterpe, 1883; ADB, xvi. 766-772.

KRABBE, krab'be, OTTO KARSTEN: German
Lutheran; b. at Hamburg Dec. 27, 1805; d. at
Rostock Nov. 14, 1873. He studied theology at
Bonn, Berlin, and G5ttingen, attending also lec-
tures on philology, philosophy, and history. At
Bonn he was influenced by Nitzsch, Sack, and
Ltlcke; at Berlin he was in personal intercourse

REUOIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

EffiT*-

with Schleiermacher and especially Neander. In
1H33 he waa caUed to the Johanneum at Hacn-
burg as professor of Biblical philology and philoso-
phy, and in 1840 he became professor of theology
at Rostock, where he remained until the end of his
life. He lectured chiefly on systematic and prac-
tical theology. He was also elected preacher of the
university and leader of the homiletical seminar,
in 1S44 a member of the theoli^col board of exam-
iners, and in 1851 a member of the consistory. He
took a very active part in the affairs of the univer-
flity, being elected six times its rector. His life-
work tended throughout toward the practical side
of religious and churchly life. He made it his chief
task to combat rationalism in the theological faculty,
and in the State Church of Mecklenburg; and he
waa especially in harmony with Kllefoth'a efforts
(see Kliefoth, Theodor Friedbich Dethlof) for
the reassertioii of the Lutheran confession and the
Lutheran church order. His most important dog-
matic work is Die Lehre itm d(T SiiTule unrf vom
Tode in ihrer Beaehung zu einarvter and zu drr
Au/ertUhutig Christi (Hamburg, 1836). According
to Krabbe, Schleiermacher with his doctrine of the
activity of the redemption of Christ had firmly
founded an essential basis of Chrbtian conviction,
but because he ignored the essence and importance
of sin, he bad not penetrated to an adequate imder-
iitanding of atuaement and redemption. Krabbe
developed on the basis of the Old and New Testa-
ment the Biblical doctrines of the original condi-
tion, of the fall and its consequences, emphasizing
the fact of the resurrection of Christ in its central
importance. Other works are: I'oriwungen iiber
das Lcben Jesu (1839); Die eamgdische Landa-
kirche Preussena and ihre offerdlichen RechttverhSU-
nisne (Rostock, 1S49); Avgiat Neandcr (Hamburg,
ISSS); Die Univemtdt RosUxk im 15. und 16. Jahr-
huTidert (Rostock, 1854); Aitt dem kirchlichen tind
ausaerkirchlirhm L^ien Rostoeks. Zw QaehichU
ITaUengfrins und dea dreiarigjdhrigen Kruges (Ber-
lin, 1863); Heinrich Mailer und teim ZeiHRoatock,
1866); Dairid Ckytraeua (1870); Wider die gegen-
vdHigc Richlung da StaatsiebcTia im Verhnlinia zur
Kirche (1873). (K. Schmidt.)

Hihjn^, 1874. pp. 99 scjq.; EranetlUeha Kircfierutity^ntr.

IS74. pp. L'OBHiq.

KRAFFT, ADAM: Early German Protestant;
b. at Fulda 1493; d. at Marburg Sept 9, 1558. He
studied at Erfurt (B.A.. 1512; M.A.. 1519), preached
for a time at I'uldn, and afterward went to Here-
teld. He then became court- preacher to Philip the
Magnanimous, of Hesse, who made him superin-
tendent at Marburg in 1226, and professor of the-
ology in 1527. He took a prominent part in all
important measures for establishing Proteatantism
in Hesse, and as the head of the Reformation in
Hesse exerted a large influence on the history of
tiie country. Cabl Mibbt.

liiHUOnBAPUT: F, W. 8(ri«ler, Haiitrhr GtUKrleinarh,rhlt.

KHAFFT, JOHAHH (CBATO VOH CBAFFT-
HBIM ) : German physician and advocate of
Protestantinn; b. at Brcslau Nov. 22, 1519; d.

there Oct. 19, 1585. In 1534 he entered the Um'-
veraity of Wittenberg, where he lived six years on
terms of intimate friendship with Luther and Me-
lanchthon . At the instance of the former he studied
medicine at Lcipsic and at Padua. After his re-
turn to Germany he was appointed physician in
ordinary t« hia native town (1550), in 1560 to the
Emperor Ferdinand I., and then successively to
Maximilian II. and Rudolf U. He utilized the
great confidence which he enjoyed under Emperor
Maximilian for the advancement of Protestantism,
continually frustrating the attempts of Bishop
Hoseus and of the Jesuits to lure Maximilian to the
side of the opponents of Protestantism. He was an
advocate of the niilder Melanchthoniitn tendency
of German Protestantism, and opposed the stricter
Lutherans under Flacius. After the overthrow of
Melanchthonianism in 1374 his opponents suc-
ceeded in breaking his influence with the court. In
1581 he retired to his estate, Riickerts. near Reiner*,
in the county of Glatz, but in 1583 he returned to
Breslau, where he exercised a decisive influence upon
the coufessioDul change at the court of Li^niti,
Brieg, and Ohlau. (Paul Tschackebt.)

BinuooRAPnr; Hia Conrilia el epirtota mfdicinoiea. ed.
L. Schali. Bppenred in T vols,. Frankfort. leTl. Hii life
wu wrilten by A, G. E. T. Hciuchf I, Brulau. 18&3. Con-
ault funbei J. F. A. GiJIst, Cra4a van CraffOicim uiul Ktiu
Freundt. 2 vols., Fronkfurl. I860.
KRAFFT, JOHAHH CHRISTIAK GOTTLOB
LUDWIG : German Reformed minister; b. at
Duisburg (15 m. n. of Dlisseldorf) Dec. 12, 1784;
d. at Erlangen May 15, 1845. He was educated at
Duisburg, and then was for live years a private
tutor in Frankfort. In ISOS he was appointed
pastor of the Reformed congregation at Weeie,
near Cloves, and in 1817 of that at Erlangen, where
in the following year he became professor of the-
ology in the university. For some yea,rB after his
marriage (1811) his mind was filled with doubts re-
garding the great truths of the Gospel, but study
opened his eyes, and at the time of his appointment
to tlie pastorate at Erlangen he had become a Rrm
Bibhcal supematuralist. His conviction that Holy
Scripture from banning to end is the work of the
Holy Spirit became thenceforth the basis of his
theology. Ebcc^^is and apologetics became his
life-work, and his chief aim waa to educate theo-
logians thoroughly grounded in tlie Bible. During
his professorship at Erlangen he lectured to large
audiences on pastoral theology, dogmatics, New-
Testament exegesis, and the history of missions,
being the first German professor to discuss the last-
named topic. Though he was not an exceptionally
eloquent preacher, his energy and earnest faith did
much to make Krafft an important factor in the
reviviiicatioR of the Lutheran Church of Bavaria
at a period when the influence of ultra- rationalism
had caused its decline. He published a treatise,
De servo el libera arbitrio (Nuremberg, IS18), seven
sermons on Isa. hii., and four on 1 Cor. i. 30. His
Chronologie und Harntanie der vier Evangelim waa
published after his death by Dr. Burger (Erlangen,
1848). (K. GoKBBi-t.)

lulhtrudi4n KiriAt Baifm,

&:!&

Lath

THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZ0G

KRAFFT, KARL JOHAHH FRIEDEBICH WIl-
HBLH; German Reformed, brother of Wilhelm
Ludwig KrafTt; b. at Cologne Nov. 25, 1814; d. at
Elberfeld Mar. 16, 1898. Ue was educate at the
universitieo of Erlangen, Berlin, and Bonn (1832-
1837),afler which he was instructor in religion at the
gymnaaium at Bonn. He then held brief pastoi^
atea at Flaroergheiin-GiwwbliUeBbeim near Bonn
tad at the Reformed Church at Htlckeswagen near
Lennep. In 1844, however, afl*r a lour of Italy,
be accepted a call to DUKseldorf. Here he dis-
tinguiBhed himself as an Evangelical preacher, re-
giated all revolutionary tendencies in the critical
years 1848^9, labored enmestly in behalf of both
home and foreign missionn, taught religion for five
years at the Realschulo of Ddsseldorf, conducted
the local school for girlf, founded a Protestant hos-
pital, and even found time to take part in the gen-
eral inspection ot churches outride the Rhcin prov-
ince and to engage in hterary labors. In 1856 he
accepted a call to the newly founded hfth pastor-
al* of the Reformed community at Elberfeld. Ex-
cept for his field service as chaplain in 1866 and
1870-71, his service here remained unbroken until
his retirement on account of ill-health in 1886.
EtaSt's chief interest lay in the domain of the New
Tcfltament, in which he held iirmly to the doctrine
of inspiration, and of the church history of the
Rbein province. His writings comprise: Briefe
uttd Dokumeiil^ avji der Zeit der ReformatUin (in
collaboration with W. L. Krafft; Elberfeld, 1S761;
RadMick avf die tynodaU GeachichU des bergi»chtn
Landa (1878); GeschiehU der bciden MSrlyrer der
mangtliadien Kirche, Clarenbach und Fliesteden
(1SS6); and Ldiembitd den Kaiifmanns Daniel
Hermann (1895). (F. Sibftbrt.)

KRAFFT, Wn.HELH LUDWIG: German Re-
formed, brother of the preceding; b. at Cologne
Sept.S, 1821; d. at Bonn Mar. 11, 18S8. He was
educated at the universities of Bonn (1838-41) and
Berlin (1841-13), and in 1844 he made a tour of
Greece, Egypt, Nubia, Arabia, Sinai, and Palestine.
After further study in Rome he became privat-
dooent in the Lutheran theological faculty at Bonn
in 1846, extraordinary professor in 1850, and full
professor in 1859. Here he lectured on the geog-
raphy of Palestine, and later on church history.
In 1863 he was made a member of the theologit^
examining board at MUnster and later was ap-
pointed to the Coblenz consistory. In 1894 he re-
signed from the consistory, and ehortly before his
death was relieved from the obligation to lecture.
Besides minor contributions he published: Die
Topographie Jenaalems (Bonn, 1846) ; Die Kirchen-
getehichie der germaniachen VOtker (Berlin, 1854), of
which only the first part ot the first volume ap-
peared; Briefe und Dokumevie aug drr Zeit der Re-
tormation (Elbei^eld, 1876); and Die deutsche BAel
wr Luther (Bonn, 1883). (F. Sigffebt.)

BlBLlooiuFHT: Bonnrr Zrilung, Jan. 10, 1S97.

KBAfllCH, krfl'niH, AHTOB: German Roman
Catholic; b. at SUsaenberg (near Heilsberg, 41 m.
B.e. of KOnigsberg), East Prussia. Aug. 20, 1852.
He studied at the Lyceum of Braunsberg (1875-
1878) and the University of WOriburg (D.D., 1881),

and after being litfrat at the Selecta at Womidilt
(1882-84) was curate at Elbing (1884-88). He
was then sub-director of the semiiuiry for priests
at Braunsberg from 1388 to 1891, became privatr
docent at the lyceum of the same city in 1889, asso-
ciate professor of dogmatic theology and auxilian'
theological sciences in 1892, and professor of tlv
some subjects in 1894. He has written : Der heilige
Basitiut in seiner StcUuf\g mm Filiogtw (Brauns-
berg, 1882); Ueher die Empfonglichkeit der nunxh-
liehen Nalur /fir die GOter der iiberruUHrUrhea
Ordnung nach der Lehre da heiligen Augujdinu4 und
de» heUigen Thomai von Aquin (Paderbom, 1892);
Die Asketik in ikrer dogmaliachen GrutuUage bei
Basiliua dem Groaaen (1396); Ecclesia qutba» de
caufia per se ipsa ait motiiitm credibitilatis tt di-
vinm aita legationU Ualimoniu m ( Bra,unsberg,
1898); Kirche und Kirchapiet Rcichenberg (1903);
and Qua vi ac ralione Clemena Alexandrinufi ethmca$
ad retxgianem ehriatianam addueere etuduerit (1903).

KRABTZ, krflnts, ALBERT: Historian of the
fiftaenlh century; b. at Hamburg c. 1445 or some-
what earlier; d. there Dec. 7, 1517. He was ma-
triculated at Rostock 1463, continued his studies
at Cologne, at first being interested in lav and then
turning to theology and history. After extensive
journeys, during which he gathered from different
libraries materbl later utilized in his works on his-
tory, he seems to have been appointed professor at
the University of Rostock, of which in 1482 be
became rector and in 14S6 dean of the philosophical
faculty. In the same year he was appointed also
syndic of the town of Lilbeek. He seems to haw
lived at that time in LUbeck, and it in not certain
whether he continued to be active at Rostock. In
1493 he became first lector of theolcgy at the cathe-
dral of Hambui^, and after 1500 he seems to have
held also the position of syndic of Hamburg. In
1508 he became dean of the cathedral cfiapter and
twic«, in 1508 and 1514, held strict church visita-
tions in his diocese, urging the removal of abuses
and a stricter obedience to the laws of the church.
In theology Krants took the standpoint of the
older Catholicism, but in some of his views reveals
the b^innings of the modem spirit. He approved
of Luther's vehement opposition against the abuse
of indulgences, but considered the removal of them
an undertaking beyond the powers of a monk.
A few diiyw before his death, as he lay on hia
bed, Luther's theses were brought and read to
him. He then ejaculated: " Brother, brother, go
to thy cell and say 'God be merciful to me.'"
From the lectures of Kranti to the clergy of Ham-
burg Bertold Moller edited Spirarilietimum opiu-
culum in officitim misse (l.TOO)- Krantz edited also
Ordo miaaalis secundum ritiim ercleaia Hambiirgea-
sia (Strasburg, 1509), but lus chief fame rests upon
his historical work-s; he lias been called a second
Adam of Bremen, although others have reproached
him with partizanship and plagiarism; but his wri-
tings show great diligence and the method em-
ployed in there marks essential progress in histor-
ical literature. Their titles are Wandalia aeu de
Watulalonim -rera online, variia geniibui, . . . mi-
gralionibua (Colc^e, 1518); Saxonia. De Saxon-

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDU

■ictB genlit -neluata origine, longinquis expedifi/mibus
... el beUis (1520); Ilyatoria ron den aiten Hus-
aen lU Behemen in Kaiser Sigmunda Zeiten (n. p.,
1523); Chronica regnorum aquikmarum Danxm.
Suecia el Norvagia (Strasburg, Germ,, 1545, Lat.,
1546); MctTopolis seu historia de eccUaiit tub Carnlo
Magna in Saxonia (Basic, 1548), These works
Etill possess value for the church history o! north
Europe and of northwestern Gormany; they were
continually reprinted in the sixteenth and seven-
teenth centuries, though the Roman Catholic
Church put them on the index.

(Cari. Bbrtheait.)

BiBHwiaAPUT; N. Wilkens, Lrbtn da bmiAnten Dot*
Albnti CranUii. Hunburg, 1732; ZtiUchri/l dt* Vrrtint
fUT hav^wawdut Ofrhichti. iii (1861). 3BS-413 (by C.
MOnckuberg). i (1800), 38£-4S4 (by E. SchUer); O,
Knbba, Dit Umreriiiat Aiutuct, i. :>34-23S, Roatmik.
I8S4: R. LiDgs. in //antiKAe OeiMMMaUiT, v (I88&).
03-100: J. Uoll^r, in Cimbria likrala. iii. 378-302;
L. Due, iD HiUariik TiiMrift, It, iv. 18T aqq.. v. 22S;
ADB. ivii, 13-M.

KRAPF, JOHAMH LUDWIG: Pioneer mission-
ary; b. at Derendigen, near Tflbingen, Jan. 11,
JSIO: d. at Kornthal (5 m. n.w. of Stuttgart) Nov.
26, 1881. Hp studied at the Latin school at Tu-
bingen, at the school of the Basel Mission, and at
the University of TQbingen; after a short experi-
ence as vicar and teacher, he was sent in 18^ to
join the Abyssinian mission of the Church Mbsion-
ary Society, but the attempt there was rendered
abortive through hostile Roman Catholic influence.
In 1830 he went to Shoa, south of Abyssinia, and
won the confidence and protection of the kbg of
that region, but in 1842 Roman Catholic interfer-
ence again interrupted his work. In 1844 he es-
tablished himself in Mohammedan territory at
Mombasa (see Africa, II.. British East Africa Pro-
tectorate), where he occupied himself in mission-
ary labors, in the study of the languages, the com-
pilation of dictionaries, and in the work of Bible
translation. In consequence of surveys of the ter-
ritories carried out in frequent missionary journeys,
the mis.sion work in East Africa was syetematic-
ally planned. In 1855 he returned to Kornthal,
where, except for two journeys to Africa on special
missions, he carried on his lexicc^raphical work
and that of translating the Bible into the languages
of Eastern Africa.

BiBLtoanAFHT: Von W. Clsiu, JoHann Ludurio Krapf, Buel,
1882.

ERADS, FRAIIZ XAVER: Roman Catholic; b.
at Treves Sept. 18, 1840; d. at Sun Rcmo (26 m.
n.e. of Nice), Italy, Dec. 28, 1890. He studied at
Treves, and at the universities of Freiburg and
Bonn, and after residing for a time in Paris, was
appointed to a benefice at Pfalzcl, near Treves, in
1865. In 1872 he was appointed associate pro-
fessor of the history of art in the University of
Strasburg, whence he was called, in 1878, to Frei-
burg. OS professor of church history. In 1904 the
Kraua-GesellKchuft was founde<l in his honor at
Munich to promote the deepening of the Christian
life and to further harmony between Roman Catho-
hca and Protestants. Amonf; Kraus's numerous
publications mention may be made of his Beitrdge
tu Trirradten Arckdologie und Getchiehte (Treves,

1868); Die chriatliche Kurul in ihrm friihesUn Art-
fdngen (Leipsic, 1872); Lekrlnudi der KirchcTige-
ichiehU Jiir Sludiertnde (4 vols,, Treves, 1872-76);
Roma aotUraTiea; die rOmischen Katakornben (Frei-
burg, 1873); Kural und AUertum in EhoBg-Lothar-
ingen (4 vols., Strasburg, 1876-82); Charakler-
bilder aue der daiBtlichen Kirchengeachiehte (Treves,
1879); SynckronialiMhe Tabdlen zur ckriatlichen
Kumtgachichte (Freiburg, 1880); ReakniyklopO-
die der chri^idien AUertiiTneT (2 vols., 1882-86);
Die MinitUuren dee Codex Egberti in der Stadlbiblio-
thek xu Trier (Freiburg. 1884); Die WoTidgemdlde
der S. Georgskirche lu ObentU auf der In»d Reick-
enau (1S84); Die A/i'niaturen der Maneste'schen
lAederliandaehrifl (Strasburg, 1887) ; Die Kunal-
denkmdter des GriatheriogtUTM Baden (in collabora-
tion with J. Durm and £. Wagner; 6 vols., Frei-
burg, 1887-1904); Die chriaUieJwn Inaehri/ten der
Rhifinlander (2 vols., 1890-94); Die Wandgemdlde
ion S(. '4n^fa in i^ormis (Berlin, 1893): GeictticKU
der ehrisUiehen Kuml (2 vols., Frcibui^, 1895-
1908): Eteaya (2 vols., Berlin, 1896-1901); DanU,
aein Ldxn und aein Werk, aein Verhallnia zur K-unet
und eur Poltiik (1897); Die Wa-ndgemHide der St.
Syloeeierkapelle lu Ooldback am Bodenaee (Munich,
1902); and Cavour, die Erhebung Italiena im neun-
tehnUn Jahrhuntlert (Mainz, 1902),

Biblioqhapht; K. Bnig, Zur ffrinnminp on Frani Xantr
Kmiu. Fnibuig, 1002 (canUin* cooipleu list of hia wri-
tinimji E, HBUvillBf, Frani Xa^rr Kra«.; UbmtbiU au*
der Zeil da KefBrmkatholiiitmu: Cotmar, 1004,

KRAUSS, SAHUEL: Hungarian Jewish scholar;
b. at Ukk, county of Zala, Feb. IS, 1866, He
studied at the rabbinical seminary at Budapest and
the university of the same city (1884-89), then In
Berlin, taking the degree of Ph.D. at Giessen in
1893 and receiving the rabbinical diploma from the
eemtnary at Budapest in 1894. In 1894 he became
professor of Hebrew at tlie rabbinical seminary at
Budapest, and in 1906 professor at the similar in-
stitution in Vienna. He was the managing editor
of the Hungarian translation of the Bible made by
him in collaboration with W. Bacher and J, B^n6czi,
In theology he is a progressive conservative. Be-
sides a Hungarian translation of the Tahnudic
tractate Derekh Erti (Budai>e9t, 1895), he has pre-
pared a Hebrew commentary on Isaiak (Zhitomir,
1904) and written Rendacerea Zaidd VoiMs ea Er-
kolcalan (a manual of systematic instruction in the
Jewish rehgion; Budapest, 1895); Griechiache ufid
lateiniache LehnwOrter im Tatmud, Midraach und
Targum (2 vols., Berlin, 1898-99); David Kanf-
marm, Biographie (1901); Da* LAen Jeau naeh
jiidiethen Quellen (1902); and Bad und Badrweten
im Tatmud (Frankfort, 1908),

KRAOTH, CHARLES PORTERFIELD: One of
the most prominent theologians of the English Lu-
theran Chureh in America; b. in Martinsburg, Va.,
Mar. 17, 1823; d. in Philadelphia Jan. 2, 1883. At
the age of ten he came to Gettysburg, where bis
father, the Rev. Charles Philip Krauth, was president
of Pennsylvania College and afterward professor in
the theological seminary of the General Synod.
He was graduated from Pennsylvania College in
1839 and in 1841, having linished his theological
course in the eeminaiy, he took charge of a mission

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

Blation at Canton, a suburb of Baltimore. From
1842 to 1855 he served congregations in Baltimore,
Martinsbutg, and Winchester, Va. On account of
the Bjckness of his wife he spent the winter'ot IS52-
1853 in the Went Indies, and temporarily supplied
the pulpit of the Dutch Reformed Church in St.
Thomas. In 1855 he took charge of the First Eng-
lish Lutheran Church in Pittsburg, and in 1859 of
St. Mark's Church, Philadelphia. After a short
pastorate at Nt. Mark's he became editor of The
Lu^eran, which he made a powerful weapon against
the so-called " American Lutheranism " then in
vogue in the General Synod of the Lutheran Church
in America. When the miniaterlum of Penuayl-
vania, in ila conflict with the General Synod, re-
solved to establish its own theological seminary at
Philadelphia, Dr. Krautb, as a matter of course,
was called to the chair of syslematic theolcgy. At
the formal opening of the new seminary and the
installation of its first faculty (Oct. 4, 1864), be,
the youngest of the faculty, delivered the inaug-
ural address dehning its theoli^caJ and churchly
position. A new Geld of activity was opened, when
the first stepn were taken toward the organisation
of the General C-ouncil (see Lutueranh). While
up to this time Dr. Krauth's literary fvork had been
preeminently of a polemical character, the taak was
now to lay a strong foundation on which a general
Lutheran body could be organised In the unity of
the faith of the fathers. He composed the Funda-
menial ArticUt of Faith and Church Polity, adopted
at the Reading Convention in 1866, as the basis for
the constitution of the " General Council of the
Evangelical Lutheran Church in North America."
Ub was also the author of the Constitution /or Con-
gregationt, finally adopted by the General Council
in 1880, When the question on the principles of
church fellowship became burning in the General
Council, be wrote a series of fourteen echolsriy arti-
cles on this subject in The Lviheran (1875-76),
which were afterward summed up in 106 theses on
Pulpit and AUar FrUotnahip, written by order of
the General Council (1877). These articles and
theses may be said to represent the height of hia
fully matured convictions on this perplexing and
delicate subject. He takes^lhe strictly confessional
position that pulpit and altar fellowship means
church fellowship and that all syncretism and
unionism in the pulpit and at the altar are to be re-
jected on principle. For ten years Dr, Krauth was
presiilent of the Council, until his failing health for-
bade his attendance on the conventions of that
body.

Dr. Krauth's eminent gifts and comprehensive
scholarship were readily appreciated beyond the
limits of his own church. Soon after he became
professor in the theolc^cal seminary he was elected
a trustee of the University of Pennsylvania, and in
18E18 he was appointed professor of mental and
moral philosophy in that institution. In 1873 he
was made vice-provoat, and during a long vacancy
performed all the duties of the provost. In 1881,
in addition to his other duties, he undertook the
department of history at the University of Penn-
sylvania. He was a member of the Americiin Corn-
mitt* for the Revision of the English Version of

the Bible, and was assigned to the Old-Ttatament
company.- His literary activity coTern the field at
philosophy as well as that of theology. Among hi«
more important publications may be mentioonli
An English translation of Tholuck's commcntar*
on the Gospel of St. John (Philadelphia. 1859); s
new edition of W. Fleming's Vocabulary of PhQort'
phy (1860; in enlarged form 1875); an Eoglisb
translation of the Augsburg Confession, with btro-
duction and annotations (1868); TJie Conterrat!!*
Reformation and ila TkeiAogy (1872), hia princif«l
work, in which he collected the most valuable of
his easays and treatises; and a. Dew edition of
Berkeley's Principle* of Human Krtotoledgt, with
introduction and annotations (1874). At the re-
quest of the ministeriuiti of Peansj-lvaoia he had
undertaken an extended English biography of Mar-
tin Luther for the Luther jubilee of 1883, but did
not hve to complete this work. A. Sfa^th.

Bibuooupkt: A. Sputh. ChaHri PoHerfield Krauti. viiL
i., New York. I89B; B. M. Bchmucker. ia LuHkeTait Ckmrdi
Rn'ira, July. 1883; A-mtritan Church Hiatorv Serin, iv.
41S Bqq., el DUiim, New Yoi^, 1803.

ERAWUTZCKY, krQ-wuts'kt, ADAH: German
Roman Catholic; b. at Neustadt (50 m. s.e. iA
Bre.^lau), Upper Silesia, Mar. 2, 1842; d. in Br«8!su
in Jan., 1907. He studied in Brealau (1860-63).
Tubingen (1863-64), and Munich (1864; D.D.,I865),
and at the seminary tor priests at Breslau (1864-65).
He was ordained to the priesthood in 1865, and
after being curate at Konth and Breslau, became
subdirector of the seminary and prival--doceiit in tlie
Univeraity of Breslau in 1868. In 1885 be waa
appointed associate professor of moral theology at
Breslau. and professor in 1888. He wrote Z&klung
und Ordnung der heiligen Sakramente in ihrer ge-
BcfticAfJicAenEnttPi'atiunjf (Breslau, 1865); Devisume
beolijka in Benrdicli XII. conxtitulionrm " Bmedie-
tus Deu»" (1868); Petrinische Studien (2 parte.
1872-73); Dei BeUarmin kUiner KattchismuM mil
KommenlaT (1873); and Einleitung in da» Sludiam
Her kaiholischm MoraUhtoloffie (1890).

KRELL (CRELL), RIEOLAUS.- Saxon stat«8-
man and religious reformer; b. in Leipsic c. 1550;
beheaded at Dresden Oct. S, 1601. He was the
son of the jurist Wolfgang Krell, and studied at the
Royal School at Grimma and at the University of
Leipsie (B.A., 1572; M.A., 1575>. concluding his
education with a journey to Switzerland and France.
It was here, no doubt, that he obtained the degree
of doctor of law. He soon achieved great renown
at Leipsic as a university instructor, ail well as a
practical jurist. In l.WO he was appointed aulie
councilor by Elector Augustus, and in 1581 he was
delegated as counselor and preceptor to Prince
Christian. When the latter assumed the govern-
ment in 1586 he pursued a policy which materially
diverged from that of his father. Whereas here-
tofore public officers and the clergy were required
to subscribe the Formula of Concord, this practise
now fell away. The higher clergy who had con-
tinued loyal to the Formula of Concord were sup-
planted by men with Philippist views; and when
Court Preocher Mirus objected, he was put under
custody at Klinigstein. This attack on Lutheran
orthodoxy in the interest of Crypt o-Colvinism was

888

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Xranth

attributed to Doctor Krell, who had been appointed
privy councilor in 1586, and chanceUor in 1589. In
fact KreU wrote to John Casimir, ''I'll get even
with the parsons in short order; they must dance
as I pipe." Moreover, a new catechism was pre-
pared by the Dresden court preachers Steinbach
and Salmuth; by the latter, too, an edition of the
Bible was set afoot, with Calvinistic elucidations.
A great uprising occurred when the form of exor-
cism was stricken out of the order of baptism. A
butcher in Dresden, cleaver in hand, compelled the
baptism of his child in the earlier manner; at Wit-
tenberg the new superintendent's house was stormed
and scenes of turbulence ensued on every side.
Krell, nevertheless, believed himself sure of com-
plete triumph. The territorial estates, nobles and
public officers feared some prejudice to their vested
rights. The elector had retrenched the official
power of the former court positions and given
Chancellor Krell almost unlimited power. Besides,
there was dissatisfaction with the foreign policy.
Henry of Navarre was supported with troops and
funds in violation of a promise given by the elec-
tor in 1588; and the discontent was enhanced when
the campaign of 1591 totally miscarried. But the
sudden death of Christian Oct. 5, 1591, put an end
to Krell 's activity. Even before the burial of his
patron, he was thrown into prison at KOnigstein,
where he languished for ten years. Under the re-
gency of Frederick William of Saxe- Weimar, a zeal-
ous Lutheran, all pubUc officers and clergymen were
again pledged to the articles of faith as expressed
in the Formula of Concord. Although the estates
interceded for Krell in a measure, the judicial suit
against him was protracted year after year. There
were manifold articles of complaint lodged against
him. The Meissen Commissioner's Diet of Feb. 1,
1600, advanced four charges: seduction of the elec-
tor to Calvinism, instigation to the French cam-
paign, alienation of the emperor, and civil division.
The court of appeal at Prague condemned him to
execution by the sword. The sword with which
the sentence was executed is still preserved. It
bears the inscription Cave, Calviniane,

Georg Mueller.

Biblioqrapbt: An extensive list of literature is e:i'ven in
Hauck-Herzog, RE, xi. 85. Consult: M. Ritter. DeutacKe
Getchichte itn ZeitaUer der OeQenrefomuUion, L 644-645,
ii. 44-61, Stuttgart, 1889-05; idem, in ADB, xviL 116-
122; A. V. Richard. Der kur/QrtUiche anchaUche Karuler
. . . Nicolau* KreU, Dresden, 1859; F. Brandee. Der
Karuler KreU, Leipsic, 1873; F. von Besold. Briefe dea
PfaUgrafen Johann CaHmir, ii. 419, Munich, 1884; G.
liroysen, Daa ZeitaUer dea dreiaaioiflhrioen Kriegea, pp.
364-375. Berlin. 1888; J. Janssen. Oeachichte dea deutadten
VoUcea, vols, v.-viii. passim. Freiburg. 1893-94, Eng.
transl. St. Louis. 1896-1905; G. Kawerau, Reformation
und Gegenreformation, pp. 267, 274-276, Berlin. 1899;
B. Bohnennt&dt, Daa Proteaaverfahren geoen den kuraOd^a-
ischen Kamler N. KreU, Halle, 1901; Moeller, Chriatian
Church, iii. 297-298; Cambridge Modem Hiatory, ill 711,
713, New York, 1905.

KRIEG, krig, KORNEL: German Roman Cath-
olic; b. at Weisenbach (20 m. s. of Carlsruhe),
Sept. 14, 1839. He studied in Freiburg and Bonn
(Ph.D., Heidelberg, 1876; D.D., Freibui^, 1879),
and in 1880 became privat-docent in the former
institution, where he was promoted to his present
position of full professor of BibUcal encyclopedia.

pastoral theology, and Biblical introduction in
1883. He has written: Grundrisa der rdmitchen AU
tertUmer (Altbreisach, 1872); Monotheiamua der
Offenbarung und das HeitterUum (Maims, 1880); Die
theologiachen Sckriften dea Boethtua (Cologne, 1884);
Die liturgiachen Beatrebungen im karclingiachen
ZeUdUer (Freiburg, 1889); LehHmch der Pddagogik
(Paderbom, 1893); Daa Buck von den heiligen vier-
xehn Nothe^em (Freiburg, 1895); FUratabt Martin
Oerbert von Sankt Blaaien (1896); F. G, Wanker,
ein Theologe der Uebergangazeit (1896); Encydo-
pddie der theologiachen Wiaaenacha/ten (1900); Wia-
aenachaft der Seelenleitung, eine Paataraltheologie, t,
(1905); and Wiaaenacha/t dea JnrMichen KcUechu-
menaUa (1907).

KROPATSCHECK, kra-pdt'schek, FRIEDRICH:
German Protestant; b. at Wismar (18 m. n. of
Schwerin), Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Jan. 25, 1875.
He studied in Basel, Berlin, and Greifswald (Ph.D.,
1898), and from 1899 to 1901 was inspector of the
theological Studienhaus at Greifswald. During
this period he was privat-docent at the university
of the same city, where he became associate pro-
fessor of systematic theology and New-Testament
exegesis in 1902; since 1904 he has held a similar
position in Breslau. He has edited the Bibliache
Zeii- und Streitfragen since 1904, and has written
Johannea Ddlach atia Feldkirch (Greifswald, 1898);
Occam und Lather (GQtersloh, 1900); and Die
Schriftprimip der hUheriachen Kirche, u (Leipsic,
1904).

KROTEL, krd'tel, 60TTL0B FREDERICK:

Lutheran; b. at Ilsfeld (25 m. e. of Carlsruhe),
Germany, Feb. 4, 1826; d. in New York City May
17, 1907. He emigrated to the United States in
childhood and was educated at the University of
Pennsylvania (B.A., 1846). He then studied the-
ology and was licensed to preach in 1848 by the
Evangelical Lutheran ministerium of Pennsylvania,
holding pastorates at Passyunk, Philadelphia, Pa.
(1848-49), Lebanon, Pa. (1849-53), Lancaster, Pa.
(1853-61), Philadelphia (1861-68), Holy Trinity,
New York City (1868-95), and the Church of the
Advent in the same city (1896-1907). He was also
professor in the Evangelical Lutheran Theological
Seminary, Philadelphia, in 1864-68, and president
of the General Council, of which he was one of the
founders, in 1869-70 and 1888-93. He was editor
of Der lutheriache Herold from 1872 to 1875 and
one of the editors of The Lutheran, the official organ
of the General Council, from 1881 to 1883 and edi-
tor-in-chief from 1895 till his death. In addition
to translating C. F. Ledderhose's Life of Mdanch-
than (Philadelphia, 1854) and J. G. W. Uhlhom's
Luther and Ae Svnaa (1876), he wrote Who are
the Bleaaedf MedUaiiona on the Beatitudea (Phila-
delphia, 1855) and Explanation of Luther'a Small
Catechiam (ISQS; incollaboration with W. J. Mann).

Biblioorapht: In Memoriam Rev. 0. F, Krotel, priyately
printed. New York, 1908.

KRUEDENER, kroi'de-ner"', BARBARA JU-
LIANA VON: Russian mystic; b. at Riga Nov.
11, 1764; d. at Karasubazar (70 m. n.e. of Sebaa-
topol) Dec. 25, 1824. She was the daughter of

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

884

Otto Hermann von VietinghofT, a Russian imperial
privy councilor and a man of rationalistic views
and a leading freemason, and of his wife Anna
Ulrica, a strict Lutheran. After a fashionable ed-
ucation, she was married to Baron von Krildener
Sept. 23, 1782, who was then first Russian minister
at the court of Courland. The marriage proved
unhappy, since the husband was conscientious and
retiring, while the wife was restless, given to co-
quetry and to the enjoyment of fashionable society
in various capitals. At Paris she formed a liaison
with a young officer which she refused to terminate
at her husband's demand, and would not return to
her home even during her husband's last illness,
his death occurring June 14, 1802. Meanwhile she
published a graceful novel, Valerie, ou lettres de
Gustave de Linar h Ernest de O, (issued anonymously,
2 vols., Paris, 1804; a reissue, ib. 1878).

During a sojourn at Riga in the summer of 1804,
Juliana experienced conversion, an experience which
nothing in her past life seemed to make probable.
From this time forth, as her utterances attested,
an unwholesome, nervous '' religiosity " came to be
the dominant element in her character, and, through
its extravagance, reflects a cloudy mysticism like
that of the enthusiasms of the Chiliasts of Baden,
Alsace, and Wtirttemberg, with whom she cultivated
relations of intimacy. Borne along by the charm
of a seductive, and yet, amid aU its aberrations,
always distinguished personality, Baroness Kril-
dener contrived to bring singular effects to pass.
But even the sympathetic side of her nature, which
impelled her to numberless benefactions to the poor
and sick, came gradually to lose its purity in the
atmosphere surrounding her. What especially con-
tributed to lead her astray and to impair her esteem
was her association with the Wtirttemberg " proph-
etess " Marie Gottliebin Kummer (familiarly styled
Die Kummerin). From the close of 1808, the
baroness and her new companions traveled about
in the Wiirttemberg districts, holding conventicles;
but in the summer of 1809, she was expelled, while
Kummer was put in ward.

Meanwhile, the apocalyptic elation of the en-
thusiasts had become powerfully enhanced by the
political and military events of that era. In Napo-
leon they beheld Apollyon (Abaddon, Rev. ix. 11);
Alexander of Russia seemed to them the deliverer.
And as the baroness learned that Pietistic influ-
ences were felt by the czar, her plan was laid. At
Heilbronn, accordingly, in June 1815, she so thor-
oughly succeeded, in an audience lasting several
hours, in beguiling this mobile potentate with her
personal views that he became a constant " guest ''
at her Bible classes in Heidelberg and Paris. She
fostered in him the thoughts the material sequel
of which was the treaty later known as the Holy
Alliance, concluded between the czar of Russia,
the emperor of Austria, and the king of Prussia,
Sept. 2G, 1815. Before long, however, Alexander
turned away from his new friend, whose persisting
association with Kummer and other unsalutary
elements rendered him distrustful; to this was added
his displeasure on account of her indiscreet utter-
ances regarding the Holy Alliance.

That episode marks the climax in the life of

Baroness KrQdener. In the 3rears 1816-18, at-
tended usually by an ample retinue, she ti^versed
northerly Switzerland and southern Baden, win-
ning souls, in her manner, for the kingdom <rf heaven,
and lavishly dispensing among the poor and suffer-
ing the money constantly supplied by her infatuated
adorers. She fell under a particularly demoralising
influence in the person of the Post-Secretary Keller
from Brunswick, who hailed her as Deborah, Esther,
Judith, and even as that woman of the Apocalypse
(xii. 1) who should bear the Messiah; or as Bfary's
" vicaress," who should engender the New Church.
Indeed, miraculous powers were claimed by the
baroness herself. She was finally expelled from
Switzerland and the South German States, and (in
1818) returned to her home. That she and her
companions remained unmolested there was owing
to the grace of the Czar Alexander. She conducted
classes for Biblical study at Mitau, Riga, and on
her estate Kosse, near Werro. But when once again
she played the political prophetess, and acclaimed
Alexander as future liberator of the Greeks, the
Czar wrote to her in his own hand, enjoining her to
silence under pain of his disfavor. By invitation
of Princess Alexander Galitzin she journeyed to the
Crimea in 1824, both to improve her health and
to labor among the Pietists of that region, and there
fell ill and died. G. KrOoer.

Bibuoorapht: The earlier literature (cf. for it Hauck-
Herzog, RE, xL 14d-147) is entirely superseded by £. Muh-
lenbeck, £tude atur let orioinet de la SairUe-AUianoe. Avee
un portrait du Mme. de Krudener, Paris, 1888.

KRUEGER, kroi'ger, HERMANN GUSTAV
EDUARD: German Protestant; b. at Bremen
June 29, 1862. He studied in Heidelberg (1881-
83), Jena (1883-84; Ph.D., 1884), Giessen (1884-
85; lie. theol., 1886), and Gdttingen (1885-86).
In 1886 he became privat-docent for theology in
Giessen, where he was appointed associate profes-
sor of the same subject in 1889. Since 1891 he has
been full professor at Giessen, and in 1902-03 was
rector of the university. He is primarily a student
of patristics and the history of dogma, and belongs
to no denomination. Since 1888 he has been a col-
laborator on the Theologi8cher Jahretberichi, of which
he has been joint editor since 1895, first with H. Holz-
mann (1895-1901) and later with W. K6hler (since
1901). He has likewise edited the Samndung atisge-
wdhUer QueUenachriften zur Kircherir und Dagmen-
geschichte, to which he contributed Justins Apolo-
gieen (Freiburg, 1891) and Augustin de catechizandi*
rudibua (1893). He also translated J. Reville's La
Religion d Rome sous les Sevbres (Leipsic, 1888) and
edited the second and third volumes of K. von
Hase's Kirchengeschichte ai^ der Grundlage akade-
mischer Vorlesungen (1890-92) He has written:
Monophysitische Streitigkeiten im Zusammenhange
mit der Reichspoliiik (Jena, 1884); Lucifer von
Calaris und das Schisma der Luciferianer (Leipsic,
1886) ; Geschichte der altchrisUichen Literatur in den
ersten drei Jahrhunderien (Freiburg, 1895; Eng.
transl. by C. R. Gillet, History of Early Chr^
tian Literature f New York, 1897); Was heissi
und zu welchem Ende studiert man Dogmenge-
schichtef (1895); Die Entstehung des Neuen Testa-
ments (1896); Das Dogma vom Neuen Testament

885

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

(Giessen, 1896); Die neueren BemUhungen um
Wiedervereinigung der chriatlichen Kitchen (Frei-
burg, 1897); Petrua Caniaiua in Oeachichte und
Legende (Giessen, 1897); Die neuen Funds avf dem
Gebiet der dltesten Kirchengenchichte (1898); Die
sogenannte Kirchengeachichte des Zacharuu Rhetor
(Leipsic, 1899); Kritik und Ueberlieferung auf dem
Gebiet der Erforechung des Urchristentume (Giessen,
1903); Philipp der Grossmutige ale Politiker (1904);
Dae Dogma von der Dreieinigkeit und Gottmenech-
heit (Tubingen, 1905); Philipp Melanchthon, eine
Charakterskizze (Halle, 1906); and Dae PapsUhum
(Tubingen, 1907; Eng. transl., The Papacy; its Idea
and its Exponents^ New York, 1909) .

KRUMMACHERy krQm'maH''er : The name of
four distinguished Reformed preachers of Germany.

1. Friedrich Adolf Krummacher was bom at
Tecklenburg (22 m. n.n.e. of Miinster) July 13,
1767; d. at Bremen Apr. 4, 1845. He attended the
Latin school of his native town and in 1786 became
a student of theology at the small Reformed Col-
lege of Lingen. Dissatisfied with the conditions
there, he removed to Halle, where he attended,
among others, the lectures of Knapp and Bahrdt.
After the completion of his studies, he spent one
year as schoolmaster in Bremen. In 1790 he was
appointed associate rector of the gymnasium at
Hanun. In 1793 he assumed the rectorship of the
gymnasium in Mdrs, on the left bank of the Rhine,
in spite of the menace of war. In 1800 he was
called to the professorship of theology and rhetoric
at Duisburg. His theology, though tinged by the
influences of the period, was marked by a piety
and a reverence for Scriptural Christianity which
made him a valuable counterpoise to the rational-
ism of his colleague Grimm. The pressure of Na-
poleonic autocracy had a paralyzing effect upon
the University of Duisburg, and it declined still
more after the town came under the rule of the
newly established grand duchy of Berg; the French
government did not even pay the salaries of the
professors, and after Krmnmacher's brother-in-
law M5ller had left the institution in 1805, he was
glad to exchange his position in 1807 for that of a
country pastor at Kettwig in the romantic valley
of the Ruhr, where he ^oon won the confidence of
the Westphalian peasants. In 1812 Duke Alexis
Frederick Christian of Anhalt-Bemburg appointed
him general sup)erintendent, councilor of the con-
sistory, and chief preacher at Bembui^g. In 1820
he declined a call to the University of Bonn as pro-
fessor of theology. In 1821 the Evangelical Union
was introduced in Bernburg under his guidance.
From 1824 to 1843, when, owing to old age, he re-
signed his position, he was pastor of the Church of
St. Ansgar in Bremen, where he acquired great pop-
ularity, though he could not compete with his col-
league Driiseke as a preacher.

Krummacher possessed a contemplative, esthetic,
and poetic nature, a genial disposition with a tender
heart, a dignified earnestness, and a child-like sim-
plicity. He was well trained in philology and the-
ology, and his education was very comprehensive.
He exerted much influence upon his contempo-
r:irics, not only as professor and preacher, but also as
Vr.-25

poet and prose writer. During the Duisburg period
he published Hymnua an die Liebe (Wesel, 1801),
followed by Parabdn (Duisburg, 1809; Elng. transl.,
Parables, London, 1824 and often), which acquired
a permanent place in German literature, and a
treatise, then very popular, Ud)er den Oeist und die
Form der evangelischen Geschichte in historischer und
dsthetischer Hinsickt (Leipsic, 1805). In his rural
solitude at Kettwig he wrote, beside essays and
criticisms in magazines. Die KinderweU (Duisburg,
1809), a favorite book of Queen Louise; Das Fest-
bUchlein, eine Schriftfilrs VoUc (1809-18); Apdogen
und Paramythien (1809); and Bibelkatechismus
(1810). While at Bembui^g he published the pa-
triotic poem Der Eroberer (1814); the Biblical
drama Johannes (Leipsic, 1815); and the anony-
mous polemical treatise Apostolisches Sendschreibin
an die Christengemeinden von dem vxis Noth tkut
zur Kirchenverbesserung (1815), called forth by the
institution of the so-called litiurgical commission in
Berlin. Then followed: Leiden, Sterben und Aufet'
stehung unsers Herm Jesu Christi, twelve pictures
after Goltzius with preface and text (Berlin, 1817);
Paragraph^ zur heUigen Geschichte (1818); Fikrst
Woifgang zu Anhalt, eine ReformaHonspredigt (Des-
sau, 1820), Briefwechsd zwischen Asmus und seinem
Vetter (Duisburg, 1820), a polemical treatise, di-
rected against Voss; Die freie evangelische Kirche,
ein Friedensgruss (1821); Bilder und Bildchen
(Essen, 1823); Katechismus der christlichen Lehre
(1823); and Die chrisUiche V<dksschide im Bunde
mil der Kirche (1825). To the Bremen period be-
long: Katechismus der chrisUichen Lehre nach dem
Bekenntnis der evangelischen Kirche (1825); Si.
Ansgar (Bremen, 1828); Das Tdubchen (Essen,
1828) ; Der Hauptmann Cornelius, sermons on Acts
X (Bremen, 1829; Eng. transl., Cornelius the Centu-
rion, Edinburgh, 1839); Die Geschichte des Reichs
GoUes nach der heUigen Schrift (Essen, 1831-45);
Ld)en des heUigen Johannes (1833). Krummacher
was a most faithful contributor to the Bremer Kirch-
enbote edited by Mallet. The first parts of the Fest"
buchlein, the juvenile writings, and the catechism
were received with special favor and went into
numerous editions. (H. MALLETf.)

2. Gottfried Daniel Krummacher, brother of
Friedrich Adolf, was bom at Tecklenburg (22 m.
n.n.e. of MOnster) Apr. 1, 1774; d. at Elberfeld
(24 m. n.e. of Cologne) Jan. 30, 1837. Even as a
boy he gave evidence of a peculiar and dreamy na-
ture. At the University of Duisburg he came imder
the influence of its rector Franz Arnold Hasen-
kamp (q.v.), and of Professor Moller, which pre-
served him from being carried away by the ration-
alism of Grimm. After the completion of his studies
he went to his brother Friedrich Adolf at Hamm
where he taught and preached; then he became
private tutor in Soest and in 1796 in Mdrs, where
his brother now was. Thence he was called as
preacher to the neighboring town of Baerl, in 1801
to Wtdfrath near Elberfeld, and in 1816 to Elber-
feld itself. He exerted a wide influence by the
whole-hearted sincerity of his character, evidenced
in his preaching; but owing to his peculiar educa-
tion he possessed some rugged and harsh traits,
in his theology he followed the Dutch school of

Xuehnoel

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

886

Coooeius and Lampe, but at the same time, espe-
cially in the beginning of his activity in Elberfeld,
taught absolute predestination with all possible
harshness according to the articles of the Synod
of Dort. Unlike Lampe, Krummacher attracted
only the elect while he repelled the unconverted.
In spite of the apparent dryness and stiffness of
his sermons, he attracted his hearers by the irre-
sistible power of his conviction, and by the depth
and fervor of his Christian experience which he
owed chiefly to writings like those of Madame
Guyon, Bunyan, Bogatzky, and Tersteegen. From
an exegetical standpoint his sermons are open to
criticism for their arbitrary Biblical interpretation.
Knmmmcher's appearance at Elberfeld, just at the
time of the religious awakening, produced a re-
vival which caused a sensation in the whole coun-
try. Carried away by his success, he did not shrink
from the very extremes of the doctrine of predes-
tination, and the offensive conduct of his adher-
ents necessitated the interference of the ecclesias-
tical authorities. Krummacher tried to modify
his doctrine and manners, but some of his follow-
ers adhered strictly to the principles of predestina-
tion, and after his death and that of his nephew
joined the Dutch Reformed congregation of Dr.
KohlbrUgge in Elberfeld.

Krummacher published a number of sermons:
Reformationspredigten (Elberfeld, 1817), Beitrag
zur Beantwortung der Frage: Wcls ist evangeliachf
(1828), Jakoba Kampf und Steg (1829; Eng. transl.,
Jacob Wrestling with the Angdf London, 1838), Die
evangelieche Lehre von der Rechtfertigung (1831), Die
Wanderungen Israels dvrch die Wuste nach Kanaan^
in Betiehung avf die innere FOhrung der Gl&ubigen
heUuckUt (1834; Eng. transl., IsraeVs Wanderings
in the Wilderness^ 2 vols., London, 1837), Die hohe-
priesterliche Segensformel (1834), Wahrheit zur OoU-
sdigkeitf oder Hauspostille (1834), Gute Botschaft
(1838) . Tdgliches Manna fur Pilger durch die WHsle
was published posthumously by his friends (1843).
He also published a translation of Calvin's com-
mentary on Philippians (Dilsselthal, 1836).

(M. G6BELt.)

8. Friedrich Wilhelm Krummacher, elder son of
Friedrich Adolf, was bom at Mdrs (17 m. n.n.e. of
Dilsseldorf) Jan. 28, 1796; d. at Potsdam Dec. 10,
1868. He studied at the high-schools of Duisburg
and Bemburg, and then studied theology in Halle
and Jena. In 1819 he became assistant preacher
of the Reformed congregation in Frankfort. In
1823 he was appointed preacher at Ruhrort, in
1825 at Gemarke (Barmen). In 1834 he went to
Elberfeld as colleague of his uncle Gottfried Daniel.
A sermon preached by him on Gal. i. 8, 9 in 1840
at the Church of St. Ansgar in Bremen (translated
into English imder the title Paul not a Man to Suit
the Taste of our Age, London, 1841), occasioned the
" Bremen Controversy," which extended over sev-
eral years and called forth numerous treatises. In
1847 he became preacher at Trinity Church in Ber-
lin, and in 1853 court preacher at Potsdam. His
style is sometimes too picturesque and addicted to
the use of foreign words; but his homiletic power
is undeniable. As he successfully opposed ration-
alism with all the resources of wit, genius, and

faith, and tried to restore the old beliefs, so, with
Tholuck and Claus Harms, he was influential in
throwing overboard the mechanical mode of preadk-
ing which followed Reinhardt.

The most important of F. W. Krummadier's
numerous works was Elias der Thtsinier (Elberfeld,
1826; Eng. transl., Elijah the TishbUe, London,
1836; a classic). Other works were: Salomo and
Sulamith ( 1 828 ; Eng. transl. , Solomon and Shulamitef
London, 1838); Blicke ins Reich der Gnade (1828;
Eng. transl., A Glance into the King€iam of Grace,
1837); Kirchliche Lehrstimmen (1832; Ehig. transL,
The Church's Voice of Instruction, 1839); Der Pro-
phet Elisa (1837; Eng. transl., Elisha, 1838); Der
scheinheilige Rationalismus (1841); Weg zutn HeU
(1842); TheologischeReplik{}»^); Das Adventabueh
(Leipsic, 1847); Die Sabbathsghcke (12 parts, 1851-
1858); Das Passionsbuch (IS&i; En^. transL, The
Suffering Saviour, Edinburgh, 1856); Des Christen
Walifahrt nach der himmlischen HeinuUh (Berlin,
1858); Immanuel Friedrich Sander (1860); Christus
Ubt; ein Oster- und PJingstbuch (1862; En^. transL,
The Risen Redeemer, 1863) ; David, der K&nig von Israd
(1867; Eng. transl., 1867); and an autobiography
(Berlin, 1869; Eng. transl., 1869). (R. KOosLf.)

4. Emil Wilhelm Krummacher, younger son of
Friedrich Adolf, was bom at MOrs (17 m. n.n.e.
of DQsseldorf) May 7, 1798; d. at Bonn Jan. 15,
1886. From 1841 to 1876 he was preacher in Duis-
burg. Like his father and brother he published a
number of devotional works, which, however, did
not attain the same importance as theirs. Among
them are: Hirtenruf zur lebendigen Qtieile des HeUs
(Elberfeld, 1830); Das Dogma von der Onadenwahl
(Duisburg, 1856); and Gideon, der Richier Israels
(Elberfeld, 1861). (H. MAiXBTf.)

Biblioorapht: 1. A. W. MdUer, F. A. Krwtmmadkier und
Beine FreuntU, 2 vols.. Bremen, 1840; ADB, xriL 240-243.

2. E. W. Knimmaoher, OoUfried Danid Krwmmacktn
Uben, Elberfeld. 1838; A. W. MdUer, at sup.; ADB,
xvii. 24d-247;

3. Friedrich Wilhelm Krummaeher, SUIfBUriograpkit,
Berlin, 1860; Eng. tntnal., Autdriography, Edinburi^ 1800:
A. Nebe. Zur OeKhiehU der Prwdiot, Winhadbn, 1870; DNB,
xviL 243>246.

KUEBELy ku'bel, ROBERT: German Protestant;
b. at Kirchheim-unter-Teck (15 m. s.e. of Stutt-
gart) Feb. 12, 1838; d. at Tubingen Deo. 4, 1894.
He studied theology at Tubingen, 1856-60, and, on
completing his studies, became instructor of He-
brew in the Seminary of Blaubeuren. In 1865 he
became repetent at the theological seminary in
TQbingen, in 1867 deacon in Balingen, in 1870 pro-
fessor and director in the preachers' seminary at
Herbom, and in 1874 city pastor, religious instruc-
tor, and school inspector at Ellwangen. In 1879
he succeeded J. T. Beck as professor of Christian
dogmatics and ethics at TQbingen. His theolog-
ical position was essentially that of Beck. Indeed,
he was the last academic representative of that
peculiarly Swabian Biblical realism which was
founded by Bengel and revised by Beck.

In the center of Kuebel's theologystands the con-
ception of the kingdom of God. This exists in
heaven, and has been revealed to man through the
appearance of Christ. Christ belongs essentially to
the other world and brings us the state of justifi-

887

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

cation. Great emphasis is laid upon the authority
of Scripture, though its infallibility is restricted to
that which Christ and the apostles established by
the authority of their teachings. Regeneration is
not accomplished without the faith of the person
to be baptized. The baptism of children produces
a Christian disposition, but not regeneration. The
main task of the Christian is self-training for the
kingdom of God: but since God is also the lord of
the earth, faithful fulfilment of our earthly calling
serves as preparation for eternal destiny. Chris-
tian virtue is similarity to Christ. Kuebel distin-
guishes sharply between the secular state and the
kingdom of God. The life of the people can be
Christianized neither through a Christian state nor
through a church of the people (VoUcakirche). The
test of the true Church is its membership of real
believers. The majority of church members are
catechumens who stand in the vestibule of the true
Church. He reproaches the modem Church be-
cause it strives to be a world power, in contrast to
the world-renouncing spirit of Christianity in earlier
times. Modern Christianity preaches the recon-
ciliation of Christianity and culture, while the mod-
ern view of the world is irreconcilable with the Bib-
lical view. In the Evangelizing spirit and in the
craze for forming religious associations he sees an
infringement upon family life. He holds that the
worldly spirit of modem Christianity must sooner
or later disperse the Church and produce a more
compact union of true believers. The hope of a
millennium in the sense of a material kingdom of
Christ is to be rejected; it is the duty of the Chris-
tian in this world to remain faithful to the Lord in
patience and to long for the future; for Christianity
can never make heaven out of earth. His principal
works are: Bibelkunde (2 parts, Stuttgart, 1870);
Das christliche Lehraystem, nach der heiligen Schrift
dargestelU (1874); Katechetik (Barmen, 1877);
Ueber den Unterschied der positiven und der Itberalen
Richiung in der modemen Theologie (NOrdlingen,
1881); Christliche Bedenken uber modem-christlickes
Wesen von einem Sorgvollen (1888); Exegetisch-
homileiisches Handbuch turn Evangelium dea Mai-
thdiis (2 parts, 1889); and the posthumous Chriatr
liche Ethik (1896). He also wrote conmientaries on
Cialatians, Philippians, the Pastoral Epistles, and
James for Grau's Bxbdwerk (2 vols., Bielefeld, 1876-
1S80), and commentaries on the Pastoral Epistles,
Hebrews, and Revelation for Strack and ZOck-
ler's Kurzgefasster Kommentar (9 vols., N6rdlingen,
1886-94). (Karl von Burkj.)

Bibliography: Robert Kiibel, naeh eioenen AufMeichnungen
geschilfiert, Stuttgart. 1895; Burk. in NKZ, vol. vi. 1896.

KUECHENER, kU'Hen-er, HERMANN: German
mystic. He is known only through his trial for
heresy at WQrzburg in 1342. The trial ended with
his recantation, but, as his sincerity was doubted,
ho was detained in prison for some time. His con-
fessions before the court show that he was an ad-
herent of the then widely prevalent quietistio-pan-
theistic mysticism (see Free Spirit, Brethren of
tuk). By a mystical absorption into the absolute
divine being he imagined that he transformed him-
s(>lf into God. He became impervious to all sense-
impressions, fancied that be was soaring high above

the earth, and that he could walk across the Rhine
without wetting his feet. In this " deixed " state,
the person of Christ, the hierarchy, dogmas and
precepts of the Church, and even moral laws, lost
all significance for him. Herman Haupt.

Bibuoorapht: Monumenta Boiea, xl. 416-421, Munidi,
1870; H. Hatu>t, Die r^iffidsen Sekten in Franken vor
der Reformation, pp. 6 sqq.. WOrsburg, 1882.

KUEHL, kill, ERNST RICHARD THEODOR:

German Protestant; b. at Visbuhr (near KOslin,
1(X) m. w. of Danzig) Apr. 29, 1861. He studied
in Berlin (1878-^82; Ph.D., Halle, 1882), and, after
a year in Italy (1882-83), was inspector of the
Sedlnitzkysches Johannaeum in Breslau 1883-87.
In 1887 he became associate professor of New-Tes-
tament exegesis in Breslau, and in 1893 went to
Marburg as full professor of the same subject.
Since 1895 he has been professor of New-Testa-
ment exegesis at KOnigsbei^. He has written: Die
Mas8orah und die Septuaginta im Jeremia (Halle,
1882); Die Oemeindeordung in den PatAortiXbrieftn
(BerUn, 1885); Die Brief e Petri und Juda (in
H. A. W. Meyer's Kritisch-exegetischer Handkom-
mentor Uber doe Neue Testamentf GOttingen, 1887);
Die Heiltbedeuiung dee Todee ChrieU (Berlin, 1890);
Zur patdiniechen Theodicee (1897); Rechtfertigung
auf Grund dee Olaubena und OeriM nach den Wer-
ken bei Paulua (KOnigsberg, 1904); Ueber II Kor,
V, 1-1 Of ein Beitrag turn HeUeniamua bei Paulua
(1904); Stellung dea Jakobuatriefea rum altteata-
mentlichen Geaetz und zwr pauliniachen RechtferHg'
ungalehre (1905); ErlAuternde Umachreibung der
pauliniachen Brief e unter BeibehaUung der Briefform,
i. (1905); and Daa Selbaa>ewuaataein Jeau (1908).

KUEHNOEL, kOh'neil (KUINOL, KUXNOELIUS),
CHRISTIAN GOTTLIEB: German Protestant; b.
at Leipsic Jan. 2, 1768; d. at Giessen Oct. 23, 1841.
He was educated at the Thomas School in Leipsic,
and at the University of Leipsic (Ph.D., 1787),
where in 1788 he established himself as privat-
dooent for philosophy and philology. In his lec-
tures, as well as in his publications, he occupied
himself equally with Old- and New-Testament exe-
gesis and with the exposition of Greek and Roman
classics. In 1790 he became professor extraor^
dinary of philosophy at Leipsic; in 1799 he was
called to Giessen, where he remained until his
death. In 1809 he became ordinary professor in
the theological faculty there. His lectures suffered
from philological dryness, but he exercised a sound
and stimulating influence upon many of his hear-
ers, in a scientific as well as practical direction, and
his writings, in spite of their disagreeable diffuse-
ness and pedantry were in high authority and ac-
quired fame even beyond the borders of (3ermany.
He wrote translations of Hosea (Leipsic, 1789), of
the Messianic prophecies (1792), and of the Psalms
(1799), with brief German notes; Geachichte dea
jUdiachen Volka von Abraham bia auf JeruaaUma
Zerat&rung (1791); a Latin commentary on Hosea
(1792); Obaervationea ad Novum Teatamenlum ex
libria apocryphia Veteria TeatamenH (1794); Peri-
coptB evangdica (2 vols., 1796-97); and Specimen
obaervationum in Paalmoa (in Commentationea the-
ologies (voL iv., 1798). Of higher value are his
commentaries on the New Testament, especially

KUMIMI

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

888

his C(>rnmerdanu8 in libros Novi TesiamerUi his-
taricos (4 vols., 1807-18), and the CammerUariuB
in Epidolam ad Hdiraos (1831). He wrote also
a number of works on classical philology.

(O. ZibCKLEK\.)

Bibliographt: C. W. Justi and J. M. Hartnuum, H9Mi»(hB
DenkwHrdigkeiten, 'tv. 2, pp. 436 sqq.. Marbuzs. 1806:
H. E. Scriba, BiographMi^UerdriackM Lexikon^ i. 100-
200. ii. 410. DarmBtadt. 1831-43; ADB, xvu. 364-367.

KUENEN, ka'nen, ABRAHAM: Dutch theo-
logian and Biblical scholar; b. at Haarlem Sept.
16, 1828; d. at Leyden Dec. 10, 1891. He studied
at the gymnasium in Haarlem and the University
of Leyden, and at the latter institution attracted
the attention of his teachers, particularly of the
orientalist Juynboll and of the theologian Scholten.
In 1851, by editing passages of the Samaritan
Pentateuch and of the Arabic version of Abu Said,
he gained his doctorate and also an assistant-cura-
torship in the University oi Leyden; he also be-
came assistant professor of the Semitic languages,
and, in 1855, professor of theology. He lectured
on introduction to the Old Testament, on the his-
tory and religion of Israel, on the branches of New-
Testament studies which were especially in his
charge, on propedeutics and methodology, and,
from 1860, also on ethics. As a member of the
theological faculty until 1877 it was his duty to
preach regularly at the academic services. Tiele
says that the sermons thus deUvered were uttered
with warmth but without emotion, and that while
the convincing logic of Kuenen's exposition ap-
pealed to the intelligence of his hearers, the philo-
sophical repose of the man did not attract the mul-
titude. Kuenen was neither a brilliant speaker
nor a popular orator, but he was an excellent
teacher and a convincing lecturer, possessing the
gift of clear communication of ideas. His style
was simple, but warm and impressive when a
question of principle was involved. He sought to
convince not by showy rhetoric but by a wealth of
illustration, keen criticism and convincing argu-
mentation. The variety of subjects taught by
him is sufficient proof of his versatility. In a new
partition of the branches of instruction among the
professors, Kuenen retained the department of the
Old Testament.

Kuenen was one of the founders and editors of
the Theologiache Tijdschrift, was president of the
Teyler Stichting, secretary of the Haagsche Ge-
nootdchap tot Verdediging van den Christelijken
Godsdienst, and president of the KoninkUjke Aka-
demie van Wetenschappen at Amsterdam. In the
struggle between orthodoxy and the liberal move-
ment, he was a leader of the modem school. In
his De religione Christiana per cordinuaa theologuB
commutaiiones 8ibt constanli et incolumi he com-
bated the orthodoxy which demanded belief in
the contravention of natural law. On the other
hand, he often preached moderation to the more
ardent advocates of liberalism. Industrious from
his youth, Kuenen was endowed with a remark-
able memory, so that the volume, variety, and
exactness of his learning were phenomenal. He
was not a discoverer of truth, but was a scholar of
great aciunen, a critic of the first rank, whose im-

portance can be explained by the oombinatiofi of
a pure character with a high intelligence. His per-
sonality was revealed both in his great modesty
and in his stem devotion to duty, which led him
to accept from opponents as well as from sympa-
thetic fellow workers whatever he recognised as
tmth. In his writings he aimed to present simply
the facts as he believed he had found them, while
his readers were left to draw the conclusions.

Kuenen's most noteworthy production is his Hia-
torisch'Kriiisch Ondenoek naar het onstaand en de
verzameling van de Boeken dee Ouden Verbonds (3
vols., Leyden, 1861-65; Eng. transl. of part,
HiHoricoiritical Inquiry into the Griffin and
Composition of the Hexaieuchf London, 1886),
an exhaustive study of the sources for the
history of the people and religion of Israel pre-
served in the Old Testament. In this he adopts
the hypothesis of Graf that the priest code is of
later date than the other Pentateuchal documents,
and defends and illustrates it with a wealth of
leaming and quiet moderation, and with great
sobriety of judgment. He also contributed much
of value to the knowledge of the structure of He-
brew poetry. Of less value is Kuenen 's other
principal work, De Godedienet tot den ondergang
van den Joodachen etaat (2 vols., Haarlem, 1869-
1870; Eng. transl.. Religion of Israd to the FaU of
the Jewish State, London, 1873-75), which, in its
sympathy with the recoil from a one-sided super-
naturalism, fails to take account of the divine fac-
tor in history; e.g., when merely natural evolution
is discerned in prophecy. This comes out espe-
cially in De Profeten en de profetie onder Israel (2
vols., Leyden, 1875; Eng. transl.. Prophets and
Prophecy in Israel, London, 1877). Another valu-
able contribution is Kuenen ^s Hibbert Lectures
on National Religions and Universal Religions
(London, 1882), which appeared also in Dutch,
German, and French. He rendered great ser-
vice by his collaboration with H. Oort and I.
Hooykaas in the translation of the Old Testament
from the Hebrew into Dutch in De Bijbel voor Jon-
gelieden (8 vols., The Hague, 1871-78, new ed.,
1900, Eng. transl., Bible far Learners, 6 vols.,
1873-79), and in Kinderbijbel (2 vols., 1887-88;
cf. E. Kautzsch in TSK, Ixxiv., 1901, pp. 670-
681). He wrote also: Het goed recht der modemen
(Leyden, 1866); Friedrich Schleiermacher in de
akademische godsdienstoefening (1868); and Les
Grigines du texte masorithique de VAnden Testor
ment (Paris, 1875), while his contributions to peri-
odicals were exceedingly numerous and weighty,
especially those to Nieuw en Gad and to the The-
clogische Tijdschrift. A. Kamphausen.

Bibuographt: A complete list of Kuenen 'a works is given
in O^ammeUe AbhandHunoen Kvenena, ed. K. Budde, pp.
601-511, Freiburg, 1894. For his life consult the sketches
by P. H. Wicksteed. in JQR, v (1892), 671-606; C. H.
Toy. m New World, i (1892). 64-88; C. P. Tiele, in the
" Year Book of the Amsterdam Academy of Soienoes '*
for 1892; H. Oort. m ThT, 1892. pp. 113-116. and in
De Oida, 1892; W. C. van Manen. in ProteUanHaehB Kir-
cheruteituno, 1892. passim; A. R^vilK in Manntn van
beteekenia, vol. xxL. Haarlem, 1890. A valuable list of review
articles is indicated in Richardson. EneycUrpaedia, p. 006.

KUENSTLE, ktinstle, KARL: Roman Catholic;
b. at Schutterwald (near Offenburg, 17 m. saw.

389

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

of Carlsruhe) Baden, Oct. 8, 1859. He studied
in Freibui^ and WUnsbui^, was curate at Mees-
burg (1884-86) and Rastatt (1886-88), and stud-
ied for two years in Italy. In 1895 he became
privat-dooent in Freiburg, associate professor of
patristics in 1896, and honorary professor of the
same subject in 1903. He has written : UAer den
LibeUus precum des Faust intu und MarcellinuB
(Freiburg, 1890); Hagiogmpkische Studien Hber
die PcLSsio FeliciUUxB cum aeptem filiia (Paderbom,
1894); Kine Bibliothek der Synibole und theolog-
ischen Traktaten tur Bek&mpfung dea PriaeiUianis-
mti9 und westgothiachen Arianiamua aua dem aecha^
ten Jahrhundert (Mainz, 1900); Die Pfarrkirche
St, Peter und Paul in Reichenau-Niedenell und
ihre neuentdeckten WandgenUilde (in collaboration
with K. Bayerle; Freiburg, 1901); Daa Comma
Joanneum auf aeine Herkun/t unteraucht (1905);
Antipriacillianay dogmengeachichtliche Foraehungen
und Texte (1905) ; and Die Legende der S Lebenden
und der 3 Toten und der ToUntanz (1908).

KULTURKAMPF. See Ultramontanibm.

KUNZE, kun'ze, JOHANNES WILHELM: Ger-
man Protestant; b. at Dittmannsdorf, near Meis-
sen, Saxony, Aug. 31, 1865. He studied in Leip-
sic and Erlangen, and taught at the seminary in
Annabel^ 1888-89 and at the Wettiner Gymna-
sium, Dresden, 1889-92. Then until 1903 he was
assistant university preacher at Leipsic, where he
became privat-docent in 1894 and associate pro-
fessor of the history of dogma in 1899. In 1903
he was appointed professor of systematic theology
in the Evangelical theological faculty in Vienna,
and in 1905 became professor of systematic and
practical theology in Greifswald. He has written
Marcua Eremita, ein neuer Zeuge fUr daa cUtchriatr
liche TaufhekenrUnia (Leipsic, 1895); Daa nicdniach-
konstantinopoliianiache Symbol (1898); Glaubena-
regel, heilige Schrift und Tavfbekenntnia (1899);
Chrisioph Emat Luthardt, ein Lebena- und Charak-
terbild (1903); Die ewige GottheU Jeau ChriaH (1904) ;
and Die Uebergabe der Evangdium beim Taufun-
terricht (1908). Kunxe is one of the editors of
Quellenachriften zur Oeachichte dea ProieatanUamua
(1905 sqq.).

KUNZE, JOHN CHRISTOPHER: Lutheran; b.
at Artem (30 m. w.s.w. of Halle), Prussian Saxony,
Aug. 4, 1744; d. in New York July 24, 1807. He
received his classical training in the gymnasia at
Rossleben and Merseburg, and studied theology
at the University of Leipsic. After teaching a
few years he came to Philadelphia in 1770 as asso-
ciate pastor of the Lutheran congregation there.
He remained in this work till 1784, maintaining
(luring a part of this time a theological seminary
uiui also serving as professor of oriental languages
und literature at the University of Pennsylvania
1780-84. From 1784 till his death he was pastor
of the Lutheran congregation in New York, and
was also professor of oriental languages and litera-
ture at Columbia 1784-87 and again 1792-99. He
was an early advocate of the necessity of English
education for German youth, and it was largely
through his influence that English was introduced
into the pulpits of German churches in America.

He edited A Hymn and Prayer Book for . . . Lu-
theran Churchea (New York, 1795), the first English
Lutheran hynm-book published in the United States.

Biblioobapht: C. E. Norton. Four Amtnean UnivermiiM,
New York, 1806; Appl€ion*9 Cvdopamiia tS Afnmioan
Biooraphy, iii. 678. ib. 1898.

KURTZ, karts, JOHANN HEINRICH: German
ezegete and church historian; b. at Montjoie (16
m. s.s.e. of Aachen), Rhenish Prussia, Dec. 13,
1809; d. at Marburg Apr. 26, 1890. He attended
the Latin school of Montjoie (1821-23) and the
gymnasia of Dortmund (1825-27) and Soest (1827-
1830), studied theology at Halle (1830-31) and Bonn
(1831-33), became teacher of religion at the gym-
nasium of Mitau in 1835, and professor of church
history at Dorpat in 1849. In 1859 he became
professor of Old-Testament exegesis, and continued
as such until 1870 when he was pensioned. From
1855 to 1866 he was dean of the theological faculty.
In 1871 he settled at Marburg, where he spent the
rest of his life in literary labors.

His first book was Die Aatronomie und die Bibel,
Verauch einer Daratellung der bUdiachen Koamologie,
aowie einer ErlAuterung und BeatOHgung deratXben
aua den ReauUaten und Anaichten der neueren Aa-
tronomie (Mitau, 1842); in later editions the ma-
terial of this work was considerably enlaiged and
the title was changed to Bibel und Aatronomie,
nebat Zugaben venvandten InhaUa, Eine DarStelr
lung der bibliachen Koamologie und ihrer Beziehung
au den Noiurwiaaenechaften (5th ed., Berlin, 1865;
Eng. transl.. The BibU and Aatronomy, Philadelphia,
1857). The work is characterised by a certain the-
osophical type of thought and shows the great
interest which Kurts took in the results of natural
science. He tried to prove the central position of
the earth in the history of the universe and show how
the universe is connected with, and subordinate
to, the progress and completion of man's salvation.
In the same year appeared Daa Moaaiache Opfer,
ein Beitrag tur Symbolik dea Moaaiachen KtUtua,
The same topic was treated by Kurts in theological
periodicals ajid culminated in Der aUteatamentliche
OpferkuUua naeh aeiner geaetdichen BegrHndung und
Anwendung (Mitau, 1862; Eng. transl., Sacrificial
Worahip ^ the Old Teatament, Edinbui^h, 1863).
Another work on the Old Testament was the Lehr-
buch der heiligen QeachichJte, ein Wegweiaer tum
Veratdndnia dea gdtUichen Heilaplana (K6nigsberg,
1843; 19th ed., Leipsic, 1906; Eng. transl.. Manual
of Sacred HUiory, Philadelphia, 1855). From this
Lehrbuch proceeded Bibliache Geachichte der heiligen
Schrift nachendhU und fUr daa Veratdndnia der un^
teren Klaaaen in Oymnaeien und hdheren BUrger-
achulen erlduUrt (Berlin, 1847; 51st ed., Breslau,
1901; Eng. transl., Bible Hiatory, Edinbui^h, 1867),
the work that made the name of the author most
widely known. It is used even in the missionary
schools of India. From the same Lehrbuch pro-
ceeded also the principal work of Kurtz in the field
of the Old Testament, his Geachichte dea alien Bundea
(vol. i., Berlin, 1848, 3d. ed., 1864; vol. ii., 1855, 2d
ed., 1858; Eng. transl., Hiatory of the Old Covenant,
with annotations by A. Ekiersheim, 3 vols., Edin-
bui^h, 1860), which extends, however, only to the
death of Moses. The work had been preceded by

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

investigations on the PenUteucb such aa BsUrdge
xur Verteidigung und Begriinduttg der Ei'nAciC dta
Pentaieuchs (Kenigaberg, 1844) and Dit Einheii der
Gtnaia (Berlin, 1846). Laler Kurti changed his
opinion and, like Delitmch, distioguiBhed different
sources in tbe Pentateuch, but coasidered all as
belonging to the time of Moses. The historical
reality of the account in the Pentateuch and ita
character of revelation are the fundamental pre-
suppositions of his work. The LeAr&uc/i da' hriligcn
GtKhiehte had been followed in 1844 by Chriatlxche
RtligioiuUhre {Ifllh ed., Leipsic, 1902). which, like
the former work, was destined for use in secondary
schools. In 184S appeared the Lchrbuch der Kirch-
enguchichu far SludirreniU (14th ed., by N. Bon-
wetach and P. Tachackcrt, 2 vols., Leipsic, 1906;
Eng. trans!.. Church Histari/, 3 vols., Londom and
New York, 1889-00) and in 1852 the LrUfaden,
ainoe the third ed. (1856) called the AbrUa der
KvchengetchichU (16tb ed,, Leipsic, 1906). Kurts's
works on church historj- are distinguished by his
peculiar gift of clearly arranging and condensing bia
material and making prominent the most charac-
teristic features in popular and vigorous language.

(N. BONWBTSCB.)

EXnrPES, ABRAHAM: Duteh I'rotratant; b.
ftt Maasaluis (10 m. w. of Rotterdam) Oct. 29,
1837. He studied in Leyden. and was pastor at
Beest (1863-68), Utrecht (1808-70), and Amster-
dam (1870-74). In 1874 he became a figure in the
political life of Holland, being a member of the
States^eneral for Cronda from tiiat ye.ar until
1S7T. In 1804 he was again returned to the same
body for Sleidrecht, and in 1901 became prime
minister. In 1880 he founded at Amsterdam the
Free University, where he iias since been professor,
lecturing on various topics as occasion requires.
In theology he is a strict orthodox Calvinist, and
aa such founded the Reformed Free Church in
1886. He has lectured extensively in the United
States, and in 1S98 was L. P. Stone lecturer at
Princeton Theological Seminary. Besides editing
the Slandaard (a daily newspaper) since 1872 and
the HfTout (weekly) since 1878, he has written
many works, including: Etnvormigheid, de vloedc

van kH modeme Uven (.Amsterdam, 1869); R((
Tnodemisme. ftn Fata Morgana op ehritt^jk gibitd
(1S71); Tradaat tan de re/ornuUie der ka*en {ISSS>:
Met verk van den Ileiligen Geeal (3 parts, 1888-89:
Eng. transl., New York, 1900); E voto doHnaui
Toeliehting op den Heidelbergachen Cateekitmiu {i
parts, 1892-95); and Caltrinistn (Stone lectiws,
1899). He also edited Johannes a L&sco's oompleU
works (2 vols.. Amsterdam, 1866); Ktrkertuuit-
prolocoUen der hoUandacke grmeerUe te London, 1569'
1571 (Utrecht, 1870); and F. du Jon'a OpwnJ*
Iheotoz/iea aeleeta (Amsterdam, 1SS2). Portionsof hit
ETicyclopaedie der keilige Godgeleerd/t^id (3 vols., Aor
sterdam, 1864) have been traoslated into EngUfii
under the title, EjicydopiBdia of Sacred Thtalej):
Its PrificipUe (London and New York, 1898).
BlBI-IOflHAPVr: L. H. Jordui. Comparatin* Rcliavrm. pp.

434-436, New Yark, 1905: W. B. de S. Lohmui, is Pnr

blltariati and Rtfnmrd Rcvim:. ix (189S>. 561 mq.; C ,V

MoKin. in Outlook. In a003), 333 sqq.

KYIWNES, koi-dO'ntz. DEHETRIOS : Grvek
theologian; flourished between 1330 and 1400,
chiefly at Thessalonica and Cotistantinople. He
was acquainted with many famous men, including
Barlaani, Gregorios, Paiamas, NIcephoroe, Gregorss,
Joseph Bryennios, and the Emperor John Canl*-
cuzenus. He understood Latin, and in eccle^-ios-
tical questions of the day inclined toward Rome,
favoring the union and opposing the Hesychaats.
In this spirit he wrote " On the Procession irf tbe
Holy Ghost " and " On (he blasphemous Dogmaa
of Gregory Palamas," llie latter one of the most
important worics in the Hesychastic cont^over^^l■.
Kydones also polemized against Mohammedanism,
and made a Greek translation of the Con/utatio
Akorani Mnhamedici of Richardus Florentinus.
He was likewise able to prepare Greek versioi;3 of
considerable portions of such Latin theologians as
Augustine and Thomas Aquinas, was the author
of a treatise '' On Conlempt of Death," and cer-
tain other theological addresses are ascribed to
him. His works, so far as edited, are collected in
MPG. cliv. (Phiufp Meybb.)

BiBLioaiopKI: F^briciui-IIirle^ Biblxathtca Orata. a.
39B-405; KrumbHcher. (ladiiditt. pp. 101. 487-48&

EYRIE ELEISOH. See LrrUBOiCB, IIL

LABADIE, la"ba"di', JEAH DB, LABADISTS:
The founder of a Dutch quietistic sect and his ad-
herents. De Labadie, also called Jean de la Badie,
was born at Bourg (15 m. n. of Bordeaux) Feb.
13, 1610; d. at Altona Feb. 13, 1674. He studied
in the Jesuit school of Bordeaux, and against the
wishes of his friends connected himself with the
order, although he never Itecame a professed mem-
ber. After 1626 he devoted himself to philosophy
and theology, u well as to the Vulgate and the
writings of St. Augustine, developing a mystical
and Augualinian trend. He was ordained in 1635,
but four years later was released from his vows as
a Jesuit at his own request on the plea of ill health.
He then began to preach with much succe^ ns a

secular priest in his native town, as well as in
Paris, Amiens (where he was mode canon and
teacher of theology in 1640), and Abbeville. (He
regarded himself as divinely inspired; cf. Didara-
tion de la foi, p. 84; Hutoritch verkad Lebeni La-
badisten Schewingk, p. 109.] He t>ecame attracted
to the doctrines of the Reformation through his
studies of the Scriptures, but was protected against
the anger of the monks and priests by Cardinal
Richelieu, only in 1645 to be expelled from Amiens
by Mazarin as a disturber of the peace [a modi-
fication of a sentence to life imprisonment, ob-
tained through an appeal from the assembly of
the cleigy of France, then in session; TraiU de la
Sol de ChreU&nne.] He went later to the Car-

ddi

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

LalMdi«

melite hermitage at Graville in enforced retirement,
where he read the ** Institutes " of Calvin, with
which he came into thorough agreement in doc-
trine, though still in sympathy with the practise
of the Roman Catholic Church. [The change in
his attitude he expressed in the words, ** This is
the last time Rome shall persecute me in her Com-
munion. Up to the present I have endeavored to
help and to heal her, remaining within her juris-
diction; but now it is full time for me to renounce
her and to testify against her." Cf. G. D. J.
Schotel, Anna Maria van Schvarmanf p. 160, Ley-
den, 1853.] The ceaseless opposition of the Jesu-
its, who had now become his bitter foes, and his
knowledge of the life of the Reformed congrega-
tions first led him formally to declare his allegiance
to the Reformed Chiurch at Montauban in 1650.
He now sought to be a reformer of the Reformed,
finding his opportunity first as a preacher and
later as professor of theology at Montauban. In
1657 he was expelled from Montauban and took
refuge in Orange, but was forced to leave when
that city was taken by Louis XIV. in 1659. He
then started for London to become pastor of the
Reformed French congregation there, but was so
strongly urged, on the way, to remain at Geneva
as preacher that he accepted, and worked there
successfully for a revival in religion and morals
alike. He gathered about himself a circle of
disciples, including Pierre Yvon (1646-1707), Pierre
Dulignon (d. 1679), Francois Menuret (d. 1670),
Theodor Untereyk (d. 1693), and Friedrich Span-
heim (d. 1701). His reputation and his writings
on asceticism, meditation, and contemplation were
spread throughout Holland, chiefly by the agency
of Gottschalk van Schurman, and attracted the at-
tention of earnest Christians at Utrecht like G.
Voetius, J. van Lodenstein, and Anna Maria van
Schurman (q.v.), who came to look upon Labadie
as a possible reformer of the Dutch Reformed
Church, which had degenerated into crass worldli-
ness. After a short stay at Utrecht, where some
of the prominent theologians denounced him as an
irresponsible visionary, he was invited to Middle-
burg in 1666 as preacher to the Walloon Reformed
congregation. His pastorate at Middelburg was
at first successful, and while there he published
his ^crit sur la prophitie (Amsterdam, 1668) and
his Manuel de piiU (1669).

Gradually, however, Labadie's caprice and self-
will restricted his ministrations to a small circle of
ardent followers, which developed into a separatis-
tic sect. He refused to subscribe to the Belgic
Confession, considering it unbiblical in many arti-
cles, and he decUned to follow the Reformed lit-
urgy, preferring extempore prayers. The breach
widened, and in 1668 Labadie publicly refused to
submit to the judgment of the synod and was
suspended. Nevertheless he celebrated the com-
munion before tho regular service, and was ac-
cordingly deposed and forbidden to remain in
Middelbui^. Retiring with his followers to the
neighboring town of Veer, he sought to gather there
and at Amsterdam a congregation of the truly re-
generate. Few of importance joined them, however,
excepting Anna Maria van Schurman and Conrad

van Benningen. Despite this, their services were
attended by such numbers that their meetings were
prohibited by the authorities in 1670, whereupon
the community of some fifty persons, with five
pastors and preachers, were invited by the Pal-
gravine Elizabeth (see Euzabeth, Albertine) to
settle at Herford. Their presence raised serious op-
position there, and in 1672 they retired to Altona.

Shortly after the death of Labadie, his followers,
now numbering 162, returned to Holland, alarmed
at the war which had broken out between Den-
mark and Sweden, and settled in the neighbor-
hood of the castle of Waltha or Thetinga near
Wiewert in western Frisia.

Many hundreds of Labadie's converts remained
in the Reformed Church as an Evangelical element.
Here their communism was further developed. In
the Labadist conununities all dressed in the most
simple fashion without adornment, and ate to-
gether at three tables, for the leaders, the brethren,
and the guests respectively. Elach family had a
separate dwelling, but was obliged to leave the
doors open in token of the community of goods.
The colony supported itself chiefly by weaving,
soap-boiling, and the working of iron. The gov-
ernment was aristocratic and hierarchic, while the
distinctive doctrines were the immediate efiicacy
of the Holy Ghost in the hearts of the elect, the
Church restricted to the regenerate, and chiliasm.
The sacraments were allowed only to the regenerate,
so that infant baptism was barely tolerated and
communion was rare. The marriage of the re-
generate was regarded as holy, the children being
considered as belonging not to the parents but to
the Lord, so that they were brought up in the com-
munity. On the other hand, the marriage of un-
believers was rejected as sinful. The first and
most necessary virtue was obedience. Worship
was extremely simple, and was led partly in French
and partly in Dutch by the ** speaJcers.'' The ob-
servance of Sunday was lax. During the acme of
their prosperity in 1680 the Labadists were invited
by Cornells van Sommelsdyk, governor of Surinam,
to send colonists to his dominions. They gladly
responded, but in 1688 their plantation, which they
had named Providence, had to be abandoned when
the governor was murdered by his soldiers. A
second attempt at colonization was made at Bo-
hemia Manor, Cecil Co., Md., in 1684, after Jasper
Dankers and Peter Sluyter, agents of the Labadists,
had visited America in 1679. The Maryland colony
survived until a few years after Sluyter's death
(1722), but was gradually absorbed in the surround-
uig population. [This was the first communistic
settlement in the New World (see Communism, II.,
{ 1). The principal industries were sheep raising
and tobacco culture. The peaceful existence of
the community was due to the religious toleration
practised in Maryland.] In 1692 the communistic
system of the parent house was abandoned and
each member lost a fourth of his investment. From
this blow the Labadist4i never recovered. By 1703
the conununity at Wiewert had dwindled from be-
tween three and four hundred to thirty, and in
1732 the last " speaker " died and the society was
finally dissolved. (G. FRANKf.)

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

S92

Bibuooeapht: The earUer litermture is given in J. O.
Waloh« BiUiolh^a OiMlogica aeUda, u. 48-56. Jena, 1757-
1705. Among the aouroee (collected in the Library of
the Peabody Institute, Baltimore, Md.) are: DiclanUion
ds J. de UAbadie, . . . conUnant Um rauoru qui I'ont
Migi b, quiUer la txmmumon de Viglue romaine, Montau-
ban. 1650; also his DidaraHon . . . h quiUer la com-
munion de V^lit rifomUe, Geneva, 1666; Uietoire curieuee
de la vie, de la conduite, et dee vraie eenUmene du Sr. Jean
de Labadie, The Hague, 1670 (this volume contains also
the Module RifuUUion copUe de deux lettree qui ei douierU
ioindre h Vhietaire, etc.); A. M. van Schurman, Opuecula,
Reims, 1667; idem. Eukieria, Latin Altona, 1673, Dutch
Amsterdam, 1684. Consult further: M. Goebel, Oe-
echicfUe dee chrieaichen Lebene, il 181-273. Coblents.
1852 (exists aim in French); H. van Berkum, De Labadie
en de Labadiatene, Sneek, 1851; F. Sjoerds, Beknopt Le-
veneberichl van . . . J. de Labadie, Gorinchem. 1860;
H. Heppe, Oeechichte dee PieHemue der reformierien Kirche,
pp. 241-374, Leyden. 1870; A. Ritschl. OeechiehU dee
Pietiemue, I 194-268. Bonn, 1880; J. H. Kurts. Lehr-
buck der KirchenoeechichU, il 166, 7-8. Leipsic. 1800;
M. Bajorath. in T8K, 1803. pp. 125-166; B. B. James.
The Labadiet Colony in Maryland, Baltimore, 1800; Von
Schubert, in Schriften dee Vereine fUr edUeeunff-holsteinieche
KirchenoeechichU, iii. part 2. Kiel. 1004; Lichtenberser.
E8R, vii. 63(*-632; Journal of Jaeper Dankera and Peter
Sluyter, ed. Long, in Memoira of Long laland Hietorical
Society, vol. i.. 1867.

LAB ARUM. See Jesus Christ, Monogram of;

CONSTANTINE THE GrEAT AND HIS SONS, I., § 4.

LABBE, lQ"b^', PHILIPPE: French Jesuit, one
of the most famous and prolific authors of his
order in the seventeenth century; b. at Bourges
July 10, 1607; d. at Paris Mar. 25, 1667. For a
few years he taught philosophy and theology in
his native city and elsewhere, but he was soon
called by his superiors to Paris, where he devoted
the remainder of his life to investigation and au-
thorship. Of his writings, which number almost
eighty, the most important was his Sacrosanda
concilia ad regiam editionem exacta (18 vols., Paris,
1662-72; reprinted by N. Coletus, 23 vols., Venice,
1728-32), the last ten volumes being edited after
Labbe's death by the Jesuit Gabriel Gossart (d.
1674). Introductory to this collection Labbe had
already written Galliw synodorum conciliorumque
hrevi8 et accurata historia (Paris, 1646) and His-
torica synopsis conciliorum nationalium, proving
cialium, dicecesaneorum, cum vitis epistolisque Ro-
manorum pontificum (1601). Other works were
devoted to chronology: Concordia chronologica (4
vols., Paris, 1656) and Ahrigft chronologique de Vhis-
toire sacr^e et profane de tons les ages et de tous les
si^cles (4 vols., 1663-66); martyrology: Hagio-
logium Franco-GallicB excerptum ex antiquo martyro-
logio sancta ahbalias Sancti Laurentii Biiuricensis
(1643); Byzantine history: Michcelis Glycw aiv-
notes (the first edition of this historian, 1660);
French history: Melanges curieux de pliLsieurs sil-
jets rares pour servir d, Vhistoire de la France eccUsi-
astique et politique (1650); the history of literature:
Biblioiheca biblioihecarum (1664); and the Jansen-
ist controversy: Triumphus catholicce veritatis ad-
versus novatores, sive Jansenius damnatus (1651)
and Biblioiheca anlijansenicana (1654).

(O. ZOCKLERf.)

BniLiOORAPHT: L. G. Michaud. Biographic univeraelle,
xxii. 256-268. 45 vols.. Paris. 1843-65; A. and A. de
Backer. Bibliolhfijue dee ecrivaine de la aocii-U de Jfaua,
ii. 549-562. 3 vols.. Lidge. 1869-76; H. Hurler. Nomen-
elator Hterariita, ii. 201-210. Izmtbrudc, 1881; KL, vii.

1281-1282. On the Concilia oooBult: Hefele. Conoliei.
oeechichte, i. 76 aqq.. Ens. tnuul., i. eO aqq.; H. QwDtin.
Jean Dominique Manei, et lea grandea cotUeUema <m-
cUiairee, Pwia, 1000.

LABOURS, la'^bOr', GUILLAnifB ICASIE
JOSEPH: Cardinal; b. at Achiet-le-Petit (11 m.
s. of Arras) Oct. 27, 1841 ; d. at Reniies 1906.
He studied at the Seminary of St. Sulpioe, Paris,
and became professor and superior at the Petit
S^minaire of Arras. He was then vicar-general of
Arras, in 1885 was consecrated bishop of liaiiB, and
in 1893 was enthroned archbishop of Rennes. In
1897 he was created cardinal priest of Santa Maria
e San Francesco al Foro Romano.

Bibuographt: Der Papet, die Roffierunff und die Verwdl'
uno der heilioen Kirche in Rom, Munioh, 1904.

LACHMANN, lOH'mOn, CARL CONRAD FRIED-
RICH WILHELM: German philologist; b. at
Brunswick Mar. 4, 1793; d. in Berlin Mar. 13,
1851. He studied classical and Germanic phi-
lology in Leipsic and Gdttingen, became privat-
docent at GOttingen 1815, at Berlin 1816, professor
of philology at K6nigsbei*g 1818, and at Berlin
1825. He was one of the founders of modem tex-
tual criticism, made the restoration of texts the
special object of his studies, and edited many LaUn
and old German works. His editions of Proper-
tius (Leipsic, 1816), Catullus (Berlin, 1829), Tibul-
lus (1829), and Lucretius (1850) are famous. His
excellent editions of the New-Testament text (1831;
large ed., with the Vulgate, 2 vols., 1842-50) at-
tempt to restore that current in the Eastern Church
in the fourth century. Through his BetrcLchtungen
iiber Homer's Ilias (1847), in which he sought to
show that the Iliad is made up of a number of in-
dependent lays he exerted a considerable influence
on modern Homeric criticism.

Biblioorapht: M. Herts, Karl Lachmann, Berlin, 1851;
P. HchafT, Companion to the Greek Teatament^ pp. 254-
256. New York, 1883; Scrivener, I ntroducOoft. ii. 231-
235 et paaaim (a review of hia work on the N. T.).

LACHMANN, lOH'mQn (LACHAMAIIN), JO-
HANN: German Reformer; b. at Heilbronn c.
1491; d. there 1538. He was a son of Bemhard
Lachamann, a celebrated bell-founder, entered the
University of Heidelberg in 1505, became baccalau^
reus 1507, magister and assistant in master's exam-
inations 1508, and baccalaureus juris 1509 (Dr. jur.,
1521). In 1514 he became vicar of the parish of
his native town, which belonged to the cathedral
chapter at Wurzburg, and at the close of 1520 he
succeeded his friend Johannes Krdner of Scherding
as city preacher. Luther's ideas early found a
fertile soil at Heilbronn. Even Krdner is reported
to have preached that more importance rested
in diligently hearing the word of God than in
the mass. Through Lachmann's influence the old
Church continued to lose ground. In 1524 the con-
cubinage of priests was forbidden, and the mari-
olatry of the Carmelites was vigorously assailed.
In 1525 the barefoot friars were enjoined to
preach the Gospel and then they were forbidden
to preach at all. The citizens requested conmiu-
nion in both forms, which request the bishop re-
fused Mar. 9, 1525. The Evangelicals' leader was

898

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

lAbanun
liAOordaire

Lacbmann, whom Gotz von Berlichingen entreated
to serve as his pastor's colleague at Neokarzim-
mern on occasion of a disputation with an over-
bearing barefoot friar.

In the Peasants' War Lachmann proved his
Evangelical moderation, his courage, and his patriot-
ism. In a written appeal (Apr. 5, 1525), he fear-
lessly admonished the insurgent peasants to obey
the sovereign authority and return home. When
the peasants entered the town (Apr. 18) the council
turned to Lachmann, who induced the peasant
leaders to moderate their demands, and also to re-
nounce Heilbronn's cooperation, thus preserving his
native place from grievous injuries. While the re-
action fancied that it held the stakes of a game
already won, Lachmann carried the council step
by step, demanding the appointment of an Evan-
gelical preacher, more frequent preaching, inaugu-
ration of the Evangelical communion, suppression
of the numerous holidays, strict moral discipline,
and Evangelical care of the poor. In 1526 he even
dared to enter into wedlock with the daughter of
the burgomaster, dreading neither the bishop's
jurisdiction nor the revilements of the old school
of believers. He earnestly grappled with irregu-
larities in public worship and in moral matters,
and prompted the young schoolmaster Kaspar
Greter (q.v.) to undertake the religious instruction
of youth. Communion was observed according to
the Evangelical rite for the first time on Apr. 28,
1528; and in 1529 the German rite of baptism was
also introduced.

At the Diet of Speyer in 1529, Heilbronn joined
the Protestants, and also adopted the Schwabach
Articles, with the exception of the seventeenth,
but, at Lachmann 's advice, in common with Hall,
Nuremberg, and Brandenburg — Ansbach declined
to enter the Schmalkald League. For the diet at
Augsbui^, Lachmann prepared a memorial in-
tended to give the emperor a clear view of the
Reformation and of the state of the Church in
HeUbronn (a. ZKG, xxv., 1904, pp. 318-328,
460-474). The emperor was to see that the pastor
remained unprejudiced in his pastoral rights, not-
withstanding that Lachmann, together with the
deacons, followed the regular Lutheran form of
public worship, communion, and baptism, with
daily preaching on week-days. Congregational
singing in German alternated with the Latin sing-
ing by the school choir. After both councils and
the entire citizenship had pledged themselves to
fidelity toward their native town, the diet's deci-
sion was rejected, Dec. 8, 1531, and the Reforma-
tion was approved by the whole congregation.
Thereupon all priests, cloisters, and the comman-
der of the Teutonic Order were summoned to ac-
cept the Reformation. The priests complied; the
cloister churches and that of the Teutonic Order
were closed, on refusing their support of the Refor-
mation. A new Evangelical liturgy was introduced
Aug. 22, 1532. To relieve Lachmann from over-
work the council resolved to call a second preacher
and tried unsuccessfully to secure Erhard Schnepf.
On May 20, 1533, Menrad Molther (q.v.) of Augs-
burg was called; and in 1536, Lachmann's faithful
colleague, Johann Bersich, was appointed pastor.

Lachmann, an ardent follower of Luther and an
intimate friend of Johann Brenz, had taken part,
with perfect conviction, in the Syngramma Suevi-
cum (1525); and, with Brenz and Schnepf, he had
constantly upheld Luther's aims. There was no
need of Melanchthon's warning him on June 3,
1530, against ZwingU (CR, ii. 30). In 1532 when
Butzer was reassuring his adherents in Kraichgau
and gaining new ones, Lachmann, with Brenz, as-
sembled the friends of Luther at Heilbronn.

Lachmann early sacrificed his strength to his
fidelity in office. He was a finely cultivated, hu-
mane, and spirited man, of inflexible courage, holy
zeal against everything evil and vulgar, and glow-
ing love of country. G. Bossert.

Bibuoorapht: C. Jftger. MittheUungen Mur 9chu>(iln9cken
und frdnkUchen ReformatianaguchiehU, Stuttgart, 1828;
H. Titot, KirchenoeaekichUiche BeitrOge Hber Stadt und
OberanU Heilbronn, Heilbronn. 1862; T. Pressel. Anecdota
Brentiana, iii. 164-165. Tabincen. 1868; F. DOrr. HeU-
bronner Chronik, Heilbronn, 1896; Beaehreibuno dea
OberanUa Heilbronn, 2 vols.. Stuttgart, 1001-03; Monu-
menta Oermaniae paedagoffiea, yoI. xxii.. Berlin, 1903;
ADB, xvu. 469; Duncker, in ZKO, xxv. 308-328; J.
Laehtnann aU Patriot im Bauemkrieg naeh aeinen Brief en,
in WUrttemb, JahrbHeher, 1908, pp. 44-76. Letters from
Melanchthon to Lachmann are in CR, ii. 82, 871.

LACORDAIRE, lQ"c6r"d&r', JEAN-BAPTISTE
HENRI: French preacher and theological writer;
b. at Recey-sur-Ouroe (135 m. s.e. of Paris), de-
partment of C6te d'Or, Mar. 12, 1802; d. at Sor-
^ze (14 m. s.w. of Castres), department of Tarn,
Nov. 21, 1861. He was educated at Dijon, where
as a law-student he came under the influence of
Rousseau's writings and was a pronounced deist.
Beginning to practise his profession in Paris in
1822, he was stirred by Lamennais' Easai 8ur Virir
diffirence^ and within two years was convinced
that Christianity was the indispensable basis of
modem social Ufe. He entered the seminary of
Saint-Sulpice in 1824, was ordained priest in 1827,
declined the position of auditor of the Rota at
Rome with the idea of devoting himself to preach-
ing, and began as almoner of the Convent of the
Visitation in Paris and also, a little later, at the
CoUdge Royal Henri IV., where his impatience
with the old-fashioned Gallicanism of the univer-
sity body became more and more excited. With
Lamennais and Montalembert, enthusiastic over
the prospect of freedom offered by the revolution
of 1830, he opened a school without seeking the
sanction of the privileged state university. It was
closed by the police and its projectors were fined;
and almost at the same time their newspaper
UAvenir was condemned by the pope. Lacor-
daire went to Rome and submitted uncondition-
ally. On his return to Paris, he took up the
defense of the Church's doctrine in a course of pub-
lic addresses or confirenceSf which were enthusias-
tically listened to by great crowds and set forth
the Ultramontane view of history in its most daz-
zling form. He now conceived the idea of bring-
ing back the Dominican order, banished since the
Revolution, to France. With this end in view, he
visited Rome again in 1838, and early in the next
year published his Mimoire pour le ritablissemerU
en France de Vordre des Frires Pricheura. With
two other FrenchmeiL he entered the order on

XAOtAUtillfl

The new SCHAt'F-HERZOG

Apr. 9, and after a novitiate at Santa Maria sopra
Minerva, returned to France, where he continued
to conunand the greatest popularity as a preacher.
After the revolution of 1848, he was elected to the
National Assembly, but resigned his seat on being
censured by his superiors for a profession of repub-
lican principles, abandoning also the publication
of his newspaper L*Ere nouvelle. In 1850 he went
to Rome to defend the cause of the archbishop of
Paris, who had condemned the reactionary news-
paper L^Univers. At the same time France was
constituted a separate province of the Dominican
order, with Lacordaire for provincial. After the
coup d'iUU of 1851 he left Paris, and preached
there but once more, in 1853, after which the gov-
ernment insisted on his absenting himself from the
capital. He delivered a course of conferences at
Toulouse in 1854, and then devoted himself to ed-
ucation, first at Oullin and then at Sor^ze, where
he remained until his death, with the exception of
a visit to Paris for his reception into the Academy.
His complete works were published in Paris, 9
vols., 1872-73; his sermons and addresses in 4
vols., 1886-88; and three different collections of
letters in 1863, 1864, and 1886. [The following
have appeared in English translation: four volimies
of Conferences delivered in Ndtre Dame in Paris
(London, 1851-72); Life: Conferences Delivered at
Toulouse (1873); St Mary Magdalen (1880); Life
of St. Dominic (1883); Thoughts and Teachings of
Lacordaire, selections (Dublin, 1892).]

(C. Pfender.)

Biblioorapht: Lists of Lacordaire 's works and a long list
of notices of bis life are given in the British Museum
Catalogue. Among the many accounts of his life the
best are by J. T. Foisset, Paris. 1874; F. Beslay, Paris,
1862; A. Guillemin. Tours. 1862; C. F. R. de Montalem-
bert. Paris. 1862. Eng. transl.. London. 1878; Dora
Greenwell. Edinburgh. 1867; B. Chocame, Paris, 1873.
Eng. transl., London. 1878; H. L. Farrer (H. L. Lear),
ib., 1887; A. de Broglie, Paris, 1895; Abbe du Hamel. Abbe-
vUle. 1896.

LACTANTIUS, lac-tan'shius.

I. Life.
IL Works.

The De DivinU InMHhUionOma (fi 1).
Lost Works ({ 2).
Doubtful Works ($ 3).

L Life: The most frequently reprinted of the
Latin Fathers, Lucius Csecilius Firmianus Lactan-
tins, was probably of African birth, though he was
long thought to have been an Italian. Very little
is known of his life. Jerome asserts (De mr. ill.,
Ixxx.) that he was a pupil of Amobius, called by
Diocletian to Nicomedia as a teacher of rhetoric,
and forced to become a writer by lack of scholars;
and he is said to have been in his old age the teacher
in Gaul of Crispus, the son of Constantine. His
having studied under Amobius is, however, doubt-
ful; and it is impossible to determine the date of
his birth or whether he was of Christian or pagan
parentage. Since Diocletian took up his perma-
nent residence at Nicomedia in 285, the call of
Lactantius thither was probably not much later
than that date; and it is evident from the De di-
vinis institutionibus (I., i. 8) that he was still hold-
ing his office there at the beginning of the perse-
cution of Diocletian (Feb. 23, 303). If he was a

Christian at that time, he must have lost the op-
portunity to teach in that year, and then presum-
ably he took up his literary activity. But there
is no certain evidence as to the date of his coqto^
sion to Christianity or as to his fortunes in tic
persecution, assuming that he was then a dim-
tian. The facts which he describes as an eye-wit-
ness lead to the conclusion that he was still m
Bithynia in 305, and probably longer. His so-
journ in Gaul as the teacher of Crispus (b. ZfSt)
was probably before 317. If the De mortHnu fet-
secutorum was written by him, and in Bithynia
(see below, { 3), he was there as late as 313.

IL Works: In the above-cited passage Jerome
names twelve works of Lactantius, of which seven
are wholly or almost wholly lost. Of those sdll
extant, the De opificio Dei is a small treatise ad-
dressed to a former pupO named I>emetrianus, a
wealthy man in danger of deserting his philosoph-
ical principles for a life of pleasure. The main pw-
pose of the treatise is to determine the relation be-
tween soul and body. Lactantius shows that God
has given reason to man as a protection, and jus-
tifies the arrangements of providence by a detailed
description of the structure of the human body,
concluding with an exposition of the nature of the
soul, and referring to a treatise still to be written
against the pagan philosophers, obviously the In-
stitutiones. As to the date of the work, it has been
customary to draw conclusions from I., i. 7 and xx.
1, which would place it after the beginning of the
persecution; but the passages quoted do not justify
even such an approximate decision as this.

The principal work of Lactantius is the De di-
vinis institutionibus, in seven books. The first, De
falsa religione, combats polytheism as the basis of
all errors, the unity of God being proved philo-
sophically from the concept of a Su-

I. The De preme Being and historically from the
Divinis testimony of poets and philosophers.

Institu- In the second book, De origrine erroris,

tionibus. Lactantius endeavors to show that the
demons are the source of error. The
third, De falsa sapientia, shows the weakness of
philosophy, pretending to unattainable knowledge
and divided into numerous conflicting sects; while
the fourth, De vera sapientia et religione, draws a
contrasting picture of Christianity. The three re-
maining books discuss fundamental ethical con-
ceptions (v.), the proper form of rendering worship
to God (vi.), and immortality (vii.). The same
difficulty exists as in the case of the De opificio
about the determination of the date; but it is a
tenable hypothesis that the outbreak of the per-
secution, covering a period of at least two years,
lies between the composition of the first four books
and that of the fifth, according to which theory
the author found leisure to continue his work only
when he had left the headquarters of the anti-
Christian movement. From such passages as V.,
xi. 15 and VI., xvii. 6 it follows that these books
were written not earlier than 305 or later than the
toleration edict of Galerius in 311. The Epitome,
or abbreviated form of the Institutiones, was known
to Jerome, and generally, until 1712, only in a mu-
tilated form from which about one-third was mis£-

395

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Tiaotantiiui

ing at the beginning. In the year named it was
published by C. M. Pfaff in full from a manuscript
dijfcovered by Maffei at Turin. It is addressed to
a /rater PetUadius, possibly Lactantius' own brother,
and offers not so much a selection as a complete
recasting in briefer form of the ]a.rge work, made,
according to the preface, long afterward.

The De ira Dei treats a question suggested in
the Instttutiones (II., xvii. 5) — whether a personal
affection like anger may properly be ascribed to
Ood. According to it, Christian theology presup-
poses a God who is the ruler of the world, and
whom we must reverence and fear. Without the
fear of God, man would fall a prey to his desires,
and if God looked upon this without anger he
would be permitting sin. The date can not be
more closely fixed than by its references to the In-
stituiianes; Brandt places it in 308, but it was
more probably written after the cessation of the
persecution, and thus at least as late as 311 or 312.
Of the lost works of Lactantius, outside of a few
fragments, nothing is known beyond the titles given
by Jerome. Completely lost are the Symposium,

the GrammaticuSf the two books ad-
2. Lost dressed to Asclepiades, and the met-
Works. rical description of Lactantius' journey

from Africa to Nicomedia, in which he
followed a wide-spread literary fashion of his time.
A few fragments remain of the three collections of
letters mentioned by Jerome, which seem to have
been rather small treatises on various subjects in
epistolary form than letters in the modem sense.
Damasus complains (Epist. ad Hieronymumf in
Jerome, Epist., xxxv. 1) that they are long and
tedious, insufficiently representative of Christian
doctrine, and written too much in the tone of a
{)edagogue.

To the works whose authenticity is doubtful
belongs the treatise which has been known since
1679 from a single manuscript where it bears the
title L. CcBcilii liber ad Donatum confessorem de

mortibus peraecutorum. Its purpose is
3. Doubt- to show that the persecutors of Chris-
ful Works, tianity have been visited by special

divine judgments. The author is ap-
parently well informed as to the facts he. narrates,
though obviously inspired by bitter hatred of the
persecutors and disposed to give credence to any
current gossip that suited his purpose. The book
was written before the outbreak of the Licinian
persecution in 321, and, since the death of Dio-
cletian (Dec. 3, 316) is mentioned in it, not earlier
than 317. The authorship has been questioned
almost ever since its first publication — in recent
times most vigorously by Brandt; but conclusive
grounds for denying the Lactantian authorship
have not yet been presented. The following facts
have weight in the discussion: the style shows both
resemblances to and differences from that of Lac-
tantius, and is thus inconclusive; tradition, from
Jerome down, is favorable to Lactantius; the
author evidently was in Nicomedia during the per-
secution, and states the facts fairly, though making
his own selection of them; he was evidently a man
of position, from the way in which he gives impor-
tant people as his authorities. The hypothesis of

a literary forgery presents too many difficulties,
while there is nothing in the known facts of Lac-
tantius' life which militates against the acceptance
of his authorship, since the date of his leaving Nico-
media is unsettled. The poem De ave phcenice is
a version of the old phenix legend, written by a
Christian, as is shown in the conclusion, where the
phenix comes to symbolize Christ in his resurrec-
tion. There are resemblances in diction between
this and the prose works of Lactantius, who is
known (see above, { 2) to have written verses; and
since the manuscripts ascribe it definitely to him,
there is no reason for doubting this attribution, in
spite of the fact that Jerome does not include it in
his list. Two other poems sometimes attributed
to Lactantius are now known not to be his: that
entitled De resitrrectione or De pascha is by Venan-
tins Fortunatus (see Fobtunatus), and of the De
passions Dominiy first published in the Aldine edi-
tion of 1515, no manuscript has yet been found, so
that it may possibly be a Renaissance forgery.

All the works of Lactantius bear the marks of
his rhetorical profession. They are pleasant read-
ing, and successfully imitate the best classical
models in style, showing a wide range of historical
and antiquarian knowledge and frequently citing
the classical poets and philosophers. These en-
dowments, however, which won for Lactantius
from Pico della Mirandola the title of the Christian
Cicero, are less valued to-day than those of such
technically inferior authors as Tertullian and Au-
gustine. As a theologian he has small importance.
Becoming, as it seems, a Christian only in his ma-
ture years, he never fully penetrated the deeper
religious spirit of his new faith. In Brandt's edi-
tion the index of his quotations from classical
authors fills twenty-four pages, against four for
those from the Scriptiu-es; and of the latter most
are given on Cyprian's authority. His main theo-
logical content is sunmied up in the belief in God
as the Creator of the world and in the power of the
new law given by Christ, the following of which
frees men from sin and its penalty. He was not
touched by the Christological controversy, and his
eschatology is a reproduction of the old millena-
rian teaching. In a word, Lactantius does not be-
long to the reaUy great men of the early Church;
but with all his superficiality he stands out as an
attractive personality, followed as a leader by a
great many in his own and later ages.

(Erwin Preusghen.)

Biblxoorapht: Litermture on the subject is to be found in
ANF, Bibliography, pp. 77-81; KrOger. History, pp.
307-317; Potthast. Wegweuer, p. 703; J. M. Baldwin,
Dictionary of PkilMophy and Ptychology, iii. 1, p. 325.
New York, 1905. The Opera of Lactantius have been
frequently printed, eighty-eix editions being known
1461-1730. Among the best issues are those by O. F.
Fritische, 2 vols., Leipsic, 1842-44. in MPL, vi-vii..
and in CSEL, xix.. xxvii.. parts 1-2. Vienna. 1890-07.
Eng. transl. with introductory notice is in ANF, vii.
1-328. Accounts of the life, so far as known, are usually
found in the prolegomena to the editions of the Opera.
Consult: R. Inchon. Ladanee, Paris, 1003 (an important
contribution to the subject); P. Bertold, Proleoomena zu
LaetantiuB, Metten. 1861; S. Brandt. U^)er das Leben de*
LaetarUiua, Vienna, 1890; C. £. Freppel, Commodian, Amo-
biiu, LactanHue, Paris. 1893; A. Mandni, in Studi etorici,
ii (1893). 444 sqq.
On his writiiigi and vlbamsB of hia work consult: B.

liftotioliiia

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

396

Mountain, Summary of the WriHngt t^ LactanHut, Lon-
don, 1830; C. Leuillier, £tude9 ntr Ladanee apologule,
Caen, 1846; C. F. Jacob, Ladanee eonmderi eomme ajto-
toffieie, Strasburg, 1848; E. Overlaeh, Die Theolooie dee
Laetantiue, Sohwerin, 1858; T. MOller, Qweetumee Lae-
taniianm, GOttinsen. 1875; M. E. Heinig. Die Ethik dee
Lactantixie, Qrunma. 1887; A. Ebert, AUgemeine Qe-
echidUe der Lileratur dee MiitelaUere, i, 72 eqq., Leipeic,
1880; F. Marbach, Die Peydtologie dee LadanHue, Halle.
1880; J. Belaer. in TQ, Ixxiv (1802). 246-203, 430-464;
P. G. FrotBcber, Der Apologd Ladanliue in eeinem Ver-
haUnie xur griediiedten Philoeophie, Leiptdo, 1806; Geil-
lier. AiUeure eaerfe, u. 404-521; Schaff. Chrietian Chvrdt^
ii. 055-058; Hamack, Dogma, i.-v. paasim; DCB, iii.
613-617; and in general, works on the church history
of the third and fourth centuries and on the history of
doctrine.

LACTICmiA: LiteraUy " milk foods," i.e. arti-
cles of food which are the product of an animal, as
distin^ished from its flesh, such as milk, butter,
lard, cheese, and eggs. At an early period it be-
came customary to abstain on fasting-days, espe-
cially in Lent, not only from meat, but from other
foods. The Synod of Laodicea (between 343 and
381) restricted the food taken during Lent to xero-
phagy, or bread, herbs, salt, and water, this being
confirmed by the Tnillan Council of 692, which
expressly forbade eggs and cheese, and punished
violation by the deposition of priests and the ex-
communication of laymen. In the Greek Church,
especially in the Russian branch, abstinence from
the lacticinia begins with the end of " cheese-
week," which extends from Sexagesima to Quin-
quagesima.

In the West the custom of abstinence from the
lacticinia on fasting-days developed at an early
date, although the rule was not as rigid as in the
East. It was recommended from Rome, however,
in the sixth or seventh century, and was confirmed
by synods after the ninth century, which subse-
quently forbade the eating of the lacticinia. Thomas
Aquinas states that this abstinence was custom-
ary in his time, and it was finally established by
Alexander VII. on Mar. 18, 1666. From Lent the
prohibition of lacticinia extended to other fast-
days, as is shown by papal dispensations for the
dioceses of Cologne and Treves (1344), and for the
landgravate of Meissen (1485). Dispensations were
also granted for the eating of lacticinia in Lent,
particularly in the North, and the power of such
dispensation is now generally placed in the hands
of the bishops at their quinquennial faculties, the
exact extent to which lacticinia may be eaten being
determined annually by a papal indult.

(P. HiNSCHIUSt.)

LACY, JOHN. See French Prophbts.

LADD, GEORGE TRUMBULL: Congregation-
alist; b. at Painesville, O., Jan. 19, 1842. He was
graduated at Western Reserve College in 1864 and
at Andover Theological Seminary in 1869. After
acting as supply at Edinburg, O., 1869-71, he was
pastor of Spring Street Congregational Church,
Milwaukee, Wis., 1871-79, professor of mental and
moral philosophy in Bowdoin College 1879-81, and
from 1881 to 1906 held a corresponding chair at
Yale. In 1879-81 he lectured on church polity
and systematic theology at Andover Theological
Seminary, and in 1896-96 had charge of the grad-

uate seminar in ethics at Harvard, where be his
lectured repeatedly. He has also lectured in Japan
(1892, 1899, 1906), and in India (as Haskell k«-
turer of the University of Chicago, 1899-1900).
He has written: Prineiplea of Church Polity (New
York, 1882); The Doctrine of Sacred Scripture (2
vols., 1884); ElemenU of Physiological Paycholcgy
(1887); Wh4iti8theBibUf(l88S); Introduction ta
PhilMophy (1889); OuUines of Physioloffieal Pty-
chology {ISW); Philosophy of Mind (1891); Primer
of Psychology (1894); Psychology, Descriptive and
Explanatory (1894); Philosophy of Knou^edge
(1897); Outlines of Descriptive Psychology (1898):
Essays on the Higher Education (1899); A Theory
of Reality (1899); Philosophy of Conduct (1902);
Philosophy of Religion (2 vols., 1905); and In
Korea with Marquis Ito (1908). He has also trans-
lated several works of R. H. Lotze, including Ovt-
lines of the Philosophy of Religion (Boston, 1885).

LAEMMER, HUGO: German Roman Catholic;
b. at Allenstein (65 m. s. of Kdnigsbeiig), East
Prussia, Jan. 25, 1835. In his early life a Lutheran,
he was educated at the universities of Kdnigsbeig.
Leipsic (Ph.D., 1854), and Berlin (lie. theoL, 1856).
In 1857 he became privat-dooent in Berlin and in
1857-58 studied in Italy. He was received into
the Roman Catholic Chureh at Braunsbei^ in 1858,
immediately entered the theological seminaiy
there, and in 1859 was ordained to the priesthood,
after which he continued his studies at Rome for
two years, being appointed missionarius apostoliaa
in 1861. Returning to Germany, he was subdireo-
tor of the Seminary at Braunsberg for two jrears,
and then consultor to the Oongregatioo of the Prop-
aganda in Rome for a year. In 1864 he was ap-
pointed professor of moral theology at Braunsberg,
and later in the same year, despite the protests of
the Protestant faculty, became professor of dog-
matic theology in the Roman Catholic faculty of
the University of Breslau. Shortly afterward, he
was created consistorial counselor, prosynodal ex-
aminer, and episcopal penitentiary. He was made
an honorary member of the DoktorencoUegium of
the theological faculty of the University of Vienna
in 1865, and in 1882 was created a prothonotary
prelate. He is also a privy counselor and is now
professor of chiu>ch history and canon law in Bres-
lau and a canon of Breslau. In addition to edit-
ing Anselm^s Cur Deus Homo (Berlin, 1857); the
'' Ecclesiastical History *' of Euaebius (2 vols.,
Schaffhausen, 1859-62); and Scriptorum Grada
orthodoxcB bibliotheca selecta^ i. (Freibui^, 1864), he
has written: Clementis Alexandrini de logo doctrina
(Berlin, 1855); Papst Nikolaus der Erste und die
byzantinische Staatskirche seiner ZeU (1857); Dt
theologia romano-catholica, qua reformatorum aetale
viguitf antetridentina (1857); Die vortridentinisch-
katholische Theologie des Reformations-ZeitaUers aus
den Quellen dargestelU (a translation of the prece-
ding work, 1858); Analecta Romana, kirchenge-
schichtliche Forschungen in ramischen Bibliotheken
und Archiven (Schaffhausen, 1861); Misericordias
Domini (an autobiography, Freiburg, 1861); Afofi-
umenta Vaticana historiam eccUsiasticam seecuU
sexti decimi illustrantia (1861); Zur Kirchenge-

897

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Xjaotioinia

schichU dea sechzehrUen und siebxehrUen Jahrkufir
derts (1863); De Leonis AUalii codidJbus gui Roma
in bibliotheca ValliceUana asservantur (1864); In
decreia concUii RvJthenorum Zamoacieruis ardwadr
veraiones theolagiaMXLnonica (1865); CcdetHa ttrbs
Jerusalem (1866); Meletematum Romanorum man-
tissa (1876); De martyrologio Romano (1878); In-
stUuUonen des kathoUschen Kirchenrechts (1886);
and De CcBsaris Baronii liierarum commercio (1003).

L^TARE SUNDAY: The fourth Sunday in
Lent, so called from the first word of the introit of
the mass, Icetare, ** rejoice "; it is also called Do-
minica de rosOf because the day selected by the
pope for the blessing of the Golden Rose (q.v.).

LAGARDE, lQ"gard', PAUL ANTON DE: Ger-
man Orientalist; b. at Berlin Nov. 2, 1827; d. at
Gdttingen Dec. 22, 1891. His family name was
B5tticher, for which in 1854 he substituted La-
garde, the name of a grand-aunt who had part in
his early education. He studied at Berlin 1844-46,
and at Halle 1846-47, again at Berlin 1847^9;
became privat-docent at Halle 1851; traveled in
the interest of philosophical studies to London
and Paris 1852-53; passed the next year at Halle;
taught school at Berlin 1854-66; under a grant
from the king spent two and a half years in work
upon the Septuagint; was called as professor of
oriental languages to Gdttingen in succession to
Ewald 1869, and labored there till his death.

Judgments of Lagarde have varied greatly. His
nature was undoubtedly erratic, and hardships and
nusimderstandings embittered his life. He has
been characterized as a prophet, who raised his
voice against abuses in Church and State, educa-
tion and worship, society and culture. It did not
disturb him in the least that his voice was often
that of one crying in the wilderness. He was also
a poet, and several of his compositions have
found place in popular collections. His political
activity may be dismissed with the mere mention,
though it was by no means least characteristic.
But whatever may be thought of his activity in
other fields, his importance in the world of scholar-
ship is unquestionable. His knowledge of Oriental
languages was monumental; he was master of
Arabic, Aramaic, Armenian, Coptic, Hebrew, Per-
sian, Syriac, and other Eastern tongues, and thus
was enabled to do work in comparative linguistics
which almost no other has been fitted to carry out.
This profound erudition he gave to the service of
the Old and the New Testament and to patristics,
using it in the careful editing of texts, which he
carried through with a thoroughness producing in-
tense satisfaction among scholars and causing great
regret that his life could not have been spared to
complete some of the works which he only com-
menced. This is especially true of his labors upon
the text of the Septuagint (Librorum Veteris Tes-
tamenti canonicorum, pars t., Graxe^ Gdttingen,
1883). He left his property to the Royal Society
of Gdttingen. A supplementary fund has been
raised to his memory, devoted to the edition of
works belonging to the culture of the Middle Ages,
ecclesiastical texts and scholastic writings, and
Semitic literature. Through the mediation of Paul

Haupt his library was bought by the University of

the City of New York.

Lagarde's literary activities were immenee. R. J. H.
Gottheil has published an incomplete bibliography {Pro-
ceedino9 of Out American Oriental SodOy^ 1892, pp. ocxi.-
ccxxix.), which includes 297 publications. Almost all
of Lagarde's works were published at his own expense.
Among those which he edited or wrote the following are note-
worthy: HorcB AramaioB (Berlin, 1847); Rudimenta mythologia
SemiHca tupplemenla lexici Aramaiei (1848); Arica (Halle,
1851); Epittola Novi TtatamenH Coptice (1852); Didat-
ealia apoiOolorufn Svriaee (Leipsic, 1864); Zur Urgeachiehte
der Armenier (1864); Reliquia jwri» eccUtxaaiici antiqui*'
9ima Syriaee, ChrtBce (2 parts, 1866). Analecta Syriaca^
appendix Arabica (2 parts, 1868); HippoljfH Romani qwB
feruntur omnia Qrace (1868): TiH Boetreni contra Afani-
duBoe libri quatuor Syriace (Berlin, 1860); Tili BoBtreni
qua ex opere contra Manichatoa in Codice Hamburgenri
aervata aunt Qrace; accedunt ItUii Romani epiatula et
Oreoarii Thaumaturoi «arA iiipot wi^rrit (1869); Oeoponi-
eon in aermonem Syriaeum veraorum qua auperaunt (Leip-
sic 1860); dementia Romani recoqnUionea Syriace (1861);
Libri Veteria Teatamenti apocryphi Syriace (1861); Con-
atihUionea apoatolorum Qrace (1862); Anmerkungen tur
griechiadten Uaberaetzung der Prcverbien (1863); Die vier
Evanqelien aua der Wiener Handachrift herauageodien (1864);
Clementina (1866); Oeaammelte Abhandlungen (1866); Der
Pentateuch Koptiadi (1867); MateruUen eur Oeachichte und
Kritik dea Pentateuch (1867); Geneaia Orctce (1868); Hier-
onymi quaationea Hebraica in libra Geneaia (1868); Bet-
tr&oe Mur baktri^hen Lexicographia (1868); Onoma^iea aacra
(Gdttingen, 1872); Propheta Chaldaice (Leipsic. 1872);
Hagiographa Chaldaice (1872); Paalterium juxta Hebraoa
Hieronymi (1874); Paabni 1-4^ Arabiee in uaum acholarum
(1876); Paalteni veraio Memphitica (Gdttingen. 1876);
Paalterium, Job, Proverbia Arabiee (1876); Armeniache
Studien (1878); Symmicta (2 vols.. 1877-80); Semitica (2
parts. 1878-79): Deutadte Schnften (1878; 4th complete
ed.. with portrait, 1903); Prceter miaaorum libri duo (1879);
Orienialia (2 parts, 1879-80); Aua dem deutachen Gelehrter^
Uben (1880); VeUria Teatamenti ab Origene recenaiti frag-
menta apud Syroa aervata quinque (1880); Die lateiniadten
Ueberaetzungen dea Ignaiiua (1882); AnkUndigung einer
neuen Auagabe der griechiachen Ueberaetaung dea A. T.
(1882); Librorum Veteria Teatamenti canonicorum, para i.,
Grace (1883); luda Uaritii macama Hebraice (1883);
Petri Hiapani {Pedro de Alcala) de lingua Arabica libri duo
(1883); Peraiache Studien (1884); Mittheilungen (4 vols..
1884-91); Pro6e einer neuen Auagabe der lateiniachen Utber-
aeteungen dea A. T. (1886); Die revidierte Lutherbibel dea
halleachen Waiaenhauaea, beaprochen (1886); Catena in
ewangelia JEgypiiaca qua auperaunt (1886); Erinnerungen
an Friedrich RUckert (1886); Neu-<Jriechiachea aua Klein^
Aaien (1886); Juden und Indogermanen (1887); Purim;
ein Beitrag eur Geachidite der Religion (1887); Agathangelua
und die Akten Oregora von Armenien, neu herauagegd)en
(1887); O. Bruno, Opere italiane, riatampate da P. de La-
garde (2 vols., 1888); Ud)eraicht Ober die im AramAiachen,
Arabiaichen, und U^diachen Hbliche Bildung der Nomina
(1889): Ud)er einige Berliner Theologen und waa von ihnen
au lernen iat (1890); AUea und Neuea Hber daa Weihnadtta-
feat (1891); Septuaginta-Studien (2 parts, 1891-92); Bib-
liotheca Syriaca (1892). A collected edition of his Oe-
dichle was issued by his wife (Gdttingen, 1897).

E. Nbstlb.

Biblioobapht: Autobiographic material is found in his
Mitteilungen, ill. 34 sqq.; Symmicta, i. 227-232; in his
edition of the Greek O. T.. pp. 642-644. Besides the
bibliography of Gottheil. ut sup., S. R. Driver noticed
several of Lagarde 's works in ib» Contemporary Review,
March. 1889. Nestle has in hand a complete bibliography
of Lagarde's writings. The one biography of note is by
his wife. Anna de Lagarde, Paul de Lagarde; Erinnerung-
en aua eeinem Leben f€r die Freunde, Gdttingen, 1894.
The oration at the burial, by U. von Wilamowits-Mdllen-
dorf, is reproduced in the latter's Reden und VortrAge, pp.
90-96, 117, Berlin, 1901; a memorial oration by J. Well-
hausen u in Gdttinger Oelehrte Nadirichten, 1894, pp. 49
sqq. Later sketches are: E. Wolff, Paxil de Lagarde,
Kiel. 1892; K. Albrecht. Paul de Lagarde, Berlm, 1901 ;
E. Platshoff-Lejeune. Paul de Lagarde, ib. 1903. Maga-
sine articles are: A. Neubauer, in Athenaum, Jan. 9,

Xiftines

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

898

1892; G. F. Moore, in Andac^ Revimc, Feb. 1892; W.
Mu8»-Arnolt, in CkruUan Intellioeneer, March 2, 1892;
further literature of this kind is indicated in Richardson.
Encyclopaedia, p. 609.

LAUIEZ, loi-neth' (LAYNEZ), lAGO (DIEGO):
Spanish Jesuit; b. at Almazan (95 m. n.e. of Ma-
drid), Castile, 1512; d. at Rome Jan. 19, 1565.
After graduating at the University of AlGsila. he
went to Paris in 1533, joined Ignatius Loyola there,
and was one of the six young men who, with Igna-
(ius, took the vows of the society in the church of
Montmartre Aug. 15, 1534. For many years he
preached in Italian cities in the interest of the new
movement, was provincial for Italy 1552-54, and
on the death of Ignatius, in 1556, he became the
head of the society as vicar-general. In 1558 he
was elected general. During the eight years of his
shrewd leadership he greatly extended the work and
influence of the society. As the most prominent
papal theologian at the Council of Trent he exer-
cised a direct influence on the history of the Ro-
man Church by his defense of papal infallibility,
and of papal views in general. So important a
factor was he in the council that frequently, when
he was prevented by illness from attending, the
fritting was postponed till he could be present. In
1561 he took a leading part in the Conference of
Poissy between the Roman Catholics and the Hu-
guenots. He published no important work. H.
Grisar has edited his Disputatxones Tridentince (2
vols., Innsbruck, 1886).

Diuliooraphy: As sources the early lives by M. d'Esne,
Douai, 1597, P. de Ribadeneira (in French). Douai, 1597
(and in Latin). Cologne, 1604. and by F. Dilarino (pseu-
donym), Rome, 1672, are to be consulted. Modem lives
are by J. Boero, Paris, 1894; H. Mdller, Les OrioineM de
la compagnie de Jieue; Ignact et Lainei, ib. 1898; cf. KL,
vii. 1555-57.

LAITY: The body of non-clerical members of
the Christian conmiunity. The designation is
foreign to the very early Church (cf. Gal. iii. 26-
28) [though the distinction between priests and
people was clearly marked among the Hebrews].
The term arose when the officers of the congrega-
tion became prominent, and when that develop-
ment began which culminated in the monarchical
episcopacy. The expression first occurs, as applied
to the congregation in the First Epistle of Clement
(ANF, i. 16), denoting, as in the body politic, the
subjects in contrast with the rulers, the clergy.
At the head of the clergy stood the bishop, who
appointed the rest of the clergy, and installed them
in office by the act of ordination. All ceremonial
functions were reserved for the clergy and forbid-
den to laymen. If these principles be viewed in
the light of the Apostolic Age, they indicate an
enormous innovation, a total revolution of condi-
tions in the congregation. Indeed, for a good
while longer expressions, views, and privileges still
appear that had survived from the earlier age, and
were gradually weeded out as being incompatible
with the Church episcopal. For example, the
designation of the congregation as brotherhood
(Gk. addphoiH)^ which reflects the view of the
primitive Church, was long in use. The right of
lajrmen to baptize was restricted, even from Ter-
tullian's time, to baptism in case of necessity (see
Baptism, III. 4); and sermons by laymen prac-

tically ceased in the third century, though it should
be added that provision for lay preaching was made
by the Apostolic Constitutions (viii. 32). For t
layman to preach in the presence of a bishop ins
particularly objectionable (cf. Eusebius, Hitt, ecd,
vi. 19).* The laity's distinctive right oontiaued to
be the election of the bishop; though this, too, be^
came gradually circumscribed through the coopo»-
tion of the other bishops of the province, and
through the rights of the metropolitan. SimiUrly,
the congregation originally had the right to depose
the bishop in case of grave shortcomings — a yn-
rpgative still exercised in Cyprian's time, thougb
contested as early as by the Roman Bishop Calii-
tus I. (d. 222). The clergy's battle against andent
rights of laymen is shown in an interesting way bj
the Syriac Didaacalia (cf. TU, new ser., x. 2, pp.
274 sqq.), the particular issue here being the right
of absolution. The same LHdascalia shows the
laity grouped in classes, having their separate places
in public worship — old men and young men, old
women, young women and maidens (TU, x. 2, pp.
68-69). The Canones HtppolyH (TU, vi. 4, p. 110)
give special directions to ]a3rmen with refeience to
their behavior at the agape. H. Achsus.

A word may be added regarding lay representa-
tion. Nearly all the Evangelical parties in Europe

♦ In answer to the complaint of Demetrius of Alexandzm
the bishops of Cesarea and Jeruaalem wrote that *' when-
ever persons able to instruct the brethren are found, they
are exhorted by the holy bishops to preach to the people.
Thus in Laranda Luelpis was asked by Neon, at Iconivn.
Paulinus by Celsus, and at Smyrna Theodore by Attictm"
Missionary work was frequently undertaken and churcbei
established by laymen, as in Abyssinia (fourth century) by
Fnmientius and Aedesius. youn^ Tyrian captives (Socrates.
HUt. eccL, i. 19). An imperial law (394) prohibited laymen
from discussing religious questions in public Pope Leo L
sought to curb Nestorian and Eutychian error by urging the
exclusion from the teaching and preaching o£5oe of monks
and laymen (453). Frequent prohibitions of lay preachii«
in the subsequent time indicate imperfect observance of
papal and imperial orders. Charlemagne forbade even the
recitation of the lesson in church by a layman. It is probable
that most of the prohibitions of lay activity were directed
against heretical teaching and that any sealous layman in
sympathy with the hierarchy could at any time have secuied
permission to exercise his gifts. The multiplication of
grades of clergy (subdeacons, readers, exorcists, acolytes,
sextons, etc.) resulted from the growth of the sacerdotal
idea in accordance with which even the more external
and mechanical duties in connection with church services
must be performed by functionaries duly consecrated, and
involved the exclusion of the laity from active participcttioo
in church work. With the growth of monasticiam and the
decline in the efficiency of the secular clergy, most of the
preaching and missionary work of the medieval time was
done by unordained monks.

Medieval Evangelical parties, like the Waldenses, in«fttfifi
upon freedom of preaching and teaching. Peter Waldo was
himself a layman. Men and women alike who were received
into the inner circle of the society freely evangelised. Yet
when the party completed its organisation there was a clear
line of demarcation between the " Poor Men " or Perfect!
who renounced property and family relations and devoted
themselves exclusively to evangelism and the ** Friends "
of the evangelist^) who lived in the world, and supported
the latter in their religious work. All the Evangelical par-
ties of the sixteenth century (Lutherans, Zwinglians, Cal-
vinists, and Anabaptists) strongly reasserted the doctrine of
the universal priesthood of believers, and restriction was
put upon lay teaching and preaching only so far as seemed
necessary in the interest of good order and sound teaching.
At present the utmost freedom is given to lay effort by all
Evr.ngelical parties. — A H. N.

899

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Laini

and America now make provision for lay represen-
tation in their general meetings (synods, confer-
ences, conventions, etc.). In Germany and in Eng-
land State control involves the preponderance of
lay authority. In the disestablished Episcopal
Church of Ireland lay representation is provided
for. In the Protestant Episcopal Church in the
Unit<id States three lay delegates from each church
participate in the diocesan conventions, and each
diocesan convention sends four lay delegates to the
general convention (with an equal number of cler-
ical delegates), which legislates for the entire body.
The Reformed bodies of the Presbyterian type
amply provide for lay representation in the ruling
elders, appointed for life, who participate with the
ministers in the presbytery and in the graduated
synod ical meetings that culminate in the general
assembly. Original Wesleyanism made no pro-
vision for lay representation. A growing and in-
sistent demand for it led to controversies and
schisms. It was adopted in a limited measure,
after years of discussion and thorough testing of the
sentiments of the constituency, by the Methodist
Episcopal Church of the United States in 1872.
A still more liberal representation (equal to the
ministerial) had been accorded to laymen by the
Methodist Episcopal Church South in 1866 and put
in full operation in 1870. All the Anglo-American
congregational bodies (Congregationalists, Baptists,
Disciples, Unitarians, Universalists, etc.) have al-
ways accorded equality of privileges in general
meetings to laymen. — A. H. N.

Bibliography: E. Hatch, OrganiMotion of the Early ChrU"
tian Churches, lecture v., London, 1895; Bingham, Oriif-
inea. I., v (gives citations from original authorities);
L. Coleman, Ancient ChrUtianiiy Exemplifled, pp. 107-
100 et passim, Philadelphia, 1869; H. B. Reetarick, Lay
Readers; their Hiatary, OrganiMotion^ and Work, New York,
1894; Schaff. Christian Church, ii. 123-131; Neander,
Christian Church, consult Index, p. 131; DC A, il 912-
916; and the literature on the Didachb and the Apoe-
TOLicAL CoNBTrruTiONS. The development of the dis-
tinction between clergy and laity is usually treated in
discussions of post-apostolio Christianity.

LAMAISML

Tibet ($1). Development into TAinfii«m

Visits by OccidenUls (fi 2). ($ 4).
Introduction of Buddhism Characteristics of TAinfif«m
(5 3). (5 6).

Tibetan Literature ($ 6).

Lamaism is the name given to the religion of
Tibet and a large part of Mongolia. It is a com-
posite faith consisting of a debased (not the clas-
sical) Buddhism, which accommodated to itself ele-
ments of the early native " bon " (see below, { 3)
religion and of Hinduism and then developed its
own forms of belief and of government. The word
lama means a ** superior," and is applied by cour-
tesy to all monks above the grade of novice, though
originally given only to the abbots.

Tibet is a region of Central Asia, bounded south
by the Himalaya, north by the Kuen-luen Moun-
tains (which almost meet on the west),

I. Tibet west by Kashmir, and east by China.
It is a region of high plateaus cut
by extremely deep and often precipitous val-
leys, divided by a lofty mountain range running
east and west so that geographers make two main

divisions — ^the northern, inhospitable, entirely un-
known to occidentals, intersected by parallel moun-
tain ranges running east and west, between which
are valleys and lakes froien eight months in the
year, where the population is sparse; the southern,
richer in its possibilities and possessions, several
times traversed in whole or in part by western
travelers, and containing the sources of the Brah-
maputra, Indus, Sutlej, Ganges, Mekong, Hoang-
ho, Yang-tse-kiang and other important rivers.
The population is estimated at between one and a
half and three and a half millions, of whom about
half a million are said to be monks. The ethno-
logical affinities, as indicated by the language, are
with the peoples of the Himalayas and Assam, but
observation points to a mixing with the Chinese on
the east and the Hindus on the south. In the set-
tled regions polyandry is the rule, among the no-
mads monogamy prevails, while the wealthy are
frequently polygamous. The culture is of mixed
native, Cihinese, and Indian origin. The principal
points of the history, so far as it is known, are nec-
essarily related in the story of the religion. China
claims the region as a part of the empire, and a resi-
dent at the capital, Lhasa, is the representative of
the suzerain power.

The first European visitor of record was Odoric
of Pordenone (Odoricus Forojuliensis), who in 1330
led a company of monks into the country and
reached Lhasa, which he described (cf. H. Cordier,
Le8 Voyages en Aaie . . . du . . , frhe Odoric de
Pordenone, Paris, 1891). Of the result of his
preaching nothing is known. In 1624 the Portu-
guese Jesuit Antonio D' Andrada (q.v.)
2. Visits went from Delhi to western Tibet and
by Occi- was kindly received by the local chief
dentals, of Tjaprang. His success as a preacher
was such that the foundation of a
cathedral was laid, but the position was abandoned
when apparently all was favorable. Lhasa was
again visited in 1706 by the missionaries J. de A&-
culi and F. M. de Torin, who stayed but a short
time. During 1716-27 Hippolytus Desiderius and
Emanuel Freyre resided in the land, protected by
the local ruler against the prejudice of the people,
in whom the tendency toward isolation was be-
ginning to show itse^. Other missionaries were
sent out in 1719 and 1730, but the opportunity to
establish Christianity was lost. About 1760 the
isolation of the country was brought about, and
thereafter entrance was difficult to effect and was
usually accomplished only by craft. In 1811 an
English physician reached Lhasa disguised as a
Hindu and in attendance upon a Chinese general.
The Abb^ E. R. Hue (q.v.) arrived there by way of
Mongolia in Jan., 1846, but was compelled to leave
in March of the same year. In spite of the policy
of exclusion, reports from Hindus, from Mongolians,
and from Russian subjects have made the situa-
tion and appearance of Lhasa and its vicinity well
known. From nearly all sides the city has been
approached by numerous travelers, but access to
the capital was strictly barred until the recent
British expedition, which failed, however, to reach
the Lama, who retired as the English drew near,
and finally went to Pfekin, where he stayed

Z«amb«rt

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

400

until 1900, when he was induced to start on his
return.

The early faith of the people was the ** bon " re-
ligion, a shamanistic animism, the deities of which
were nature gods and spirits; ancestor worship was
an element, witchcraft and magic were dominant,
and the idea of transformation was widely diffused.
Legends, probably untrustworthy, as-
3. Intro- cribe the introduction of Buddhism to
duction of descendants of Asoka who after defeat
Buddhism, took refuge in Tibet. The introduc-
tion of the faith was probably due to
King Sron-tsan-gampo (b. 617 or 629), who mar-
ried a Chinese and a Hindu princess, both devoted
Buddhists, and at their request summoned teachers
and obtained books from India. The progress of
the new religion seems to have been slow and the
opposition of the old faith strenuous, for about a
century later a successor of Sron-tsan-gampo in-
vited the noted Padmasambhava from India to
complete the conversion of the land (747), and he
is celebrated as the founder of Lamaism. His wri-
tings appear to have been the nucleus of a large lit-
erature, of which, however, nothing is known. The
whole circle of Buddha legends was carried over and
applied to him, with fantastic additions to the effect
that he claimed to be a greater magician than
Buddha, that he overcame the magic and van-
quished the magicians of the bon religion, created
a magic draft which bestowed inmiortality, and
had a magic horse which carried him to distant
isles where he preached his religion to the demons
and magicians. The entire trend of the story shows
that the practise of Buddhism in Tibet, as else-
where, was to assimilate what it could not con-
quer. Buddhism had already developed a series
of Buddhas prior to Gautama, and now, in accord-
ance with the Hindu doctrine of avatars, it was
announced that Padmasambhava, already regarded
as an incarnation, w^ould have successors imtil the
new Buddha came, while the attainment of Bud-
dhaship was to be assisted by the practise of Yoga.
For a century and a half the progress was great, but
the reputation of the founder became a menace
to the king (c. 900), the religion was proscribed, and
the monks were persecuted and driven into hiding.
Eventually this course aroused the resentment of
the people, who rallied around the monks, King
Lang-darma lost his life and the kingdom, the power
going to petty chiefs and the abbots, while shortly
after the heads of the great monasteries came to
exercise a power almost regal. In 1042 Attisa, one
of these abbots, whose life marks an epoch in the
development, invited the Indian monk Vikrasila to
Tibet, a period of great literary activity ensued and
of moral reformation of the Church. The new
teacher united the conmiunities of monks and paved
the way for a reimited Tibetan Church. This was
first realized after Genghis Khan had united China
and Mongolia into one empire (1220-1340), when
his grandson Kublai Khan chose as his spiritual
adviser Ragspa, abbot of the Sa-skya monastery,
became a convert to Buddhism, made Tibet an
ecclesiastical state in the empire, and appointed the
abbot ruler. This condition continued under eight
reigning abbots till 1340. The results were two-

fold: the conversion to this form of Buddhism of
great numbers of the Mongolians, and the subver-
sion of Attisa's reforms and a rejuvenescence d
magic. When this empire fell, the Ming dynasty
of China gave precedence to the abbots of Digung,
Phag-dub and Tshal, broke the preeminence of the
Sa-skya monastery and made it subordinate to
Phagdub, while the political control was vested in
the great monasteries.

At the beginning of the fifteenth century a new

reformer arose who is known only as Tsong-kapa,

" the man of Tsong-ka." He was a noted scholar,

belonged to the same sect as Attisa, and aimed at

the purification and unification of the

4. Devel- Church. To the monks he forbade

opment marriage and the use of magic made

into the yellow robe and the begging-bowl

I4imai8m. the badge of his sect, took as his three
guiding principles piu« teaching, stem
discipline, and the absolutism of the Church, while
the individual's welfare was subjected to that of
the organization. He made Lhasa the center of the
new movement, and founded there three great
monasteries in 1407, 1414, and 1417. The reOgioD
received as its governing characteristic the idea of
the continued reincarnation of the Boddhisat in the
chief abbot, and this incarnation was made subject
not to descent, since marriage was prohibited to
the monks, but to the choice of the Boddhisat him-
self, who became incarnate in a babe bom after the
abbot's death. Tsong-kapa is reported to have
said that he would be continually reborn as Dalai
Lama. Alongside this official was to be another,
the Tasi Lama, the two theoretically equal, but in
fact the Dalai Lama the greater both by reason of
the laiger territory ruled and because he incar-
nated Padmapani, who is to be the new Buddlui
and savior of the world. The succession of Daki
Lamas is traced to a successor of Tsong-kapa wbo
in 1439 became the head of the Church and thus
gave to the religion its decisive cast. The second
of these officials developed further the organization
of the Church, and foimded a body of advisere co^
responding closely to the Roman Catholic cardinal-
ate. Missionary efforts continued among the Mon-
golians, and the fourth Dalai Lama came from the
family of a Mongolian chief. In 200 years the
yellow Church became supreme, the red monks
sank to a mere faction, while a national conscious-
ness was awakened and bound up with the ecclesi-
astical order. The Tatar dynasty of China con-
firmed the ecclesiastical privileges of the order, but
since 1750 has kept a representative at Lhasa as a
reminder of political dependence, and it is believed
that Chinese influence is potent in determining the
succession to the chief office and the emperor cer-
tainly has the right of confirmation. The Dalai
Lama resides in the important monastery of Mt
Potala near Lhasa; the Tasi Lama (also calkd
" Pan-chen ") lives at Kra-shis-lhun-po.

The religion centers in the " three jewels " of
Buddhism, belief in the Buddha, the law, and the
order. It is held that prior to the historical Gau-
tama there were other Buddhas, three of whom are
now withdrawn from the world except as guardians
during the intervals when no Buddha is incarnated;

401

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

XiM&bttrt

a fourth corresponds to the historical Buddha
who is known as Amitabha and incarnated in
the Tasi Lama; while the fifth is the
5. Charac- Bodhisat Padmapani, the coming Bud-
teristics of dha and savior of the world, incar-
Lamaism. nated recurrently in the Dalai Lama,
who is therefore sacred. The Bud-
dhist doctrines of heavens and hells is fully accepted,
while the saints of the order are objects of adoration.
The principle of reincarnation is applied not only to
the two heads of the Church but to the abbots
and monks, and most monasteries claim to have at
least one incarnated saint. Sjmcretism is seen in
the worship of deities and spirits whose disguise as
Buddhist saints is transparent, and in the formulas
of worship and ritual which retain elements from
the bon ceremonial and from Hinduism. Similar
traces of elementary religion are seen in the mag-
ical charms and the divination which still remain
in use. Baptism, confirmation, and the mass for
the dead are among the rites of the Church, while
the rosary is everywhere found. Especial efficacy
attaches to the Buddhist formula Ornmani padme
hum, " Oh the jewel in the lotus." Hence it is ever
on the lips of the people, is inscribed on cylinders
made to revolve by hand, water, or wind, and on
flags which flutter in the wind, each turn or wave
being regarded as a repetition of the prayer bring-
ing merit to the owner or maker. Great merit is
attached to the ascetic life, hence about one-fifth
of the population are in the cloisters. Alongside
the reincarnation of the male saints are those of
females, reflecting perhaps the influence of the
Sakti religions of India. Of two nunneries the ab-
besses are incarnations of deities probably derived
from the early bon religion. Politics has influ-
enced the Church to declare the emperors of China
and Russia incarnations of Lamaist saints; curi-
ously, the king of England is not so regarded, pos-
sibly because it is the heretical red monks who are
most numerous on the Indian border. The acces-
sion to the headship depends upon the assumption
that when a Dalai Lama dies the soul of the Bod-
dhisat who lived in him is reincarnated in an in-
fant bom forty-nine or more days after his death.
This infant is discovered in various ways — by the
use of the lot, by divination, or, as in the case of
the last Lama, by the intervention of a monk of
pure life, who had first to be discovered. When
found, the infant and his parents are brought to a
palace near Lhasa, kept there till the child is four
years of age, when he is entered as a novice; at
eight years of age he becomes a monk, then abbot
and Dalai Lama. In this way the real control of
the Church and the direction of affairs is kept in
the hands of the advisers, and the Dalai Lama is
hardly more than the living idol of the population.
Of the literature of the bon religion little is
known, but such as has been investigated is in a
native script and dialect, both of early
6. Tibetan date. The Lamaist literature consists
Literature, of translations of the Buddhist canon
and standard conmientaries, and of
the Tibetan writings of the monks on encyclopedic
subjects. The canon embraces 1,083 titles, an
immense mass of writings, which exists in several
V1.-2G

recensions. The literature includes rules for the
discipline of monks and nuns, metaphysical trei^
tises, discourses of the Buddhas, legends from their
lives, treatises on magic, hymns to deities, com-
mentaries on the canon and conmientaries on com-
mentaries, dictionaries of philosophical terms and
phraseology and of language, and works on philoso-
phy, medicine, astronomy, and astrology, trans-
lated from the Sanscrit. Many of these are diglots
of Sanscrit and Tibetan, and the literature has been
translated also into Mongolian, a laige collection
of the plates of which was kept at Peking and des-
troyed during the Boxer uprising. The red church
literature outside of the forgoing is by the yellow
church held heterodox, and the principal work is
the book of the legends of Padmasambhava, exist-
ing in many editions in Tibetan, Lepcha, and Mon-
golian. The popular literature is also immense and
various — apocalyptic, miraculous, prophetic, and
ritualistic. Noteworthy are the works of Milareba
(1038-1122), a story of his life and travels, and the
" Collection of 100,000 Songs." Both are valuable
as pictiu-es of the language and customs of the
times. Another monk of about the same period,
Kasarrgyalpo, wrote a huge epic on the deeds of
heroes assigned to the eighth century, which has been
widely diffused in the Mongolian and Kalmuck lan-
guages. The principal printing-press is at Nartang
near Shigatse, in the jurisdiction of the Tasi Lama.
Block printing is done from wooden plates, 12x24
inches in size, each block representing a page of
text.

The language, while akin to the crude dialects of
the wild peoples of the Himalayas, has been so de-
veloped by the monks as to be capable of expressing
with fulness and precision the sublimest and subtlest
thought of India. The religion of Lamaism has made
of Tibet a land of culture so far as the monasteries
are concerned, but has not raised the mass of the
population much above the level of animistic peo-
ples, so hedged about is life with ritualistic and
magical observances. Geo. W. Gilmorb.

Bibuooraphy: The best account of the religion ftvailable
m English is L. A. WaddeU, The Btuidhimn of Tibet, Lon-
don, 1804. An excellent though condensed account,
covering the literature and the history, is A. GrOnwedel, in
Die KtUiur der Oegenwart, I., iii. 1, IHe orienUUiechen Re-
liffionen, pp. 136-161. Berlin, 1906. cf. his Mj/Ou^Utoie dee
Buddhiemue in Tibet und der Monoolei, Leipsic. 1000.
The account in P. D. Chantepie de la Saussaye. LiMmdk
der Religioneifeechichte, ii. 113-117. is so abbreviated as to
be misleading. Material is found also in E. Schlagint-
weit. Buddhiem in Thibet, London, 1863; idem. Lebene-
beechreibung dee Padma Sambhava, in Aldiandlungen der
kdniglichen baj/riechen Akademie, Munich. 1800, 1003;
W. W. Rockhill, The Lamaiet Ceremony called " Making
of Manx PiUa" in the Journal cf the American Oriental
Society, 1800, pp. zxii.-xxiv.; idem. The Uae of SkuUe in
Lamaiet Ceremoniee, ib. pp. xxiv.-xxxi.; Saraohandra
Dasa. Journey to Lhaea and Central Tibet, London, 1002.
Still of use is B. H. Hodgson. EBeay on the LanQuagee^
Literature and Religion of Nepal and Tibet, ib. 1874. For
travels consult: G. Sandberg. The Exploration cf Tibet
ieBS-1904. Calcutta, 1004; W. W. RockhiU. The Land
of the Lamae, New York, 1801; H. S. Landor. In the For-
bidden Land, London. 1808; O. T. Crosby. Tibet and
Turkeetan, New York. 1005; L. A. WaddeU. Lhaeea and
ita Mytteriee, unth a Record of the {Britith) Expedition cf
190S-04y London, 1005.

LAMBERT LE BEGUE: Belgian ecclesiastic;
b. in the first quarter of the twelfth century of a

I«amb6Tt
liambeth

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

408

family of poor Walloon artisans; d. at Li^ c.
1177. Whether he bore the name le Bdgue (" the
Stammerer "), which is by no means peculiar to
Lambert, on account of a physical infirmity is not
to be ascertained. As a secular priest he first had
charge of a church affiliated with the cathedral
foundation at Li^e; there he undertook the cure
of the small church of St. Christopher, in a suburb
of Li^gc. At the diocesan synod of 1166 he de-
manded a moral reform of the clei^gy, especially
curtailment of extravagance in dress, and the pro-
hibition of admitting sons of priests to orders.
When subsequently ecclesiastical abuses grew worse
he vehemently opposed them in the pulpit. At the
same time he exerted a profound influence upon
the populace of Li^e through his penitential ser-
mons. To his devoted followers, the women and
maidens whom he had led to renounce the world,
he dedicated a number of religious poems in the
Walloon dialect; also a paraphrase of the Acts and
a translation of Paul's epistles. These writings are
lost; but P. Meyer believes he has discovered the
Latin Psalter which Lambert used. In his stormy
zeal for winning the widest circles to the thoughts
of the Sermon on the Moimt and imitation of Christ's
life of poverty, Lambert vividly reminds of Francis
of Assisi; still more so, of Waldo of Lyons. In his
sermons he often deviated widely from the doctrine
and tradition of the Church. Thus, he ascribed a
greater importance to the devout mind and prac-
tical love of one's neighbor than to means of grace
and ecclesiastical sacraments; he characterized all
expenditures for the administration of sacraments
and for acts of consecration as simony, opposed pil-
grimages to Palestine, and taught that no obedi-
ence was due to priests forgetful of duty. In 1175
the clergy of the diocese of Li^ge, whom Lambert
had vehemently attacked, urged an accusation of
heresy against him. He was condemned and im-
prisoned, but escaped and went to Italy on a pil-
grimage to Pope Calixtus III., who permitted him
to return in peace to LiiSge. Lambert's most ex-
tensive polemical tract, ArUigraphum Peiriy was
published by A. Fayen (in Compte rendu de stances
de la commission royale d*histoire, vol. Ixviii., pp.
255-356, Brussels, 1899). In the seventeenth cen-
tury he was numbered with the saints of the Church.
His memory is perpetuated especially by the Beg-
uines, who without doubt were founded by him.
At first a nickname, '^ Beguines " was soon adopted
by the societies themselves. See Beqhards,
Beguines. Herman Haupt.

Bibliography: P. Coens, Disquiaitio hUtorica de origine
Beghinarum, Li^ge, 1620; Brial, in Histoire litUraire de
la France, xiv. 402-410; H. Delvaux. in BioQraphie na-
tionale, xv. 168-162. Brussels, 1891; AnaUda BoUandiana,
xiii. 206 eqq., Brussels, 1894; P. Frederioq, Corpus docu-
mentorum inquieiiionia hceretica pravitatU Neerlandicte,
ii. 9-36, The Hasue, 1896; P. Meyer, Le Peautter de Lam-
bert le B^gue, in Romania, xxix (1900), 628-545; A. Fayen,
in Comptea rendus dee »4ancea de la eommieeion royale
d*hUtoire, Ixviii (1899), 256-356.

LAMBERT, l5n"bar', FRANCOIS: Reformer in
Hesse; b. at Avignon 1486; d, at Frankenberg (32
m. s.w. of Cassel), Prussia, Apr. 18, 1530. At the
age of fifteen he entered the cloister of the Fran-
ciscan Observants at Avignon. His calling as

" Apostolic preacher " gave him oocasion to fa-
miliarize himself more deeply with Holy Scripture,
and he made a great impression as a preacher of
repentance and castigation. Under the influenee
of Luther's writings, which found their way to him
shortly after 1520, he left the (cloister in the spring
of 1522 and went to Geneva and TAii«AntM>^ where
he was promptly suspected of heretical opinions.
At Zurich, in July of that 3rear, he ventured to de-
fend in public debate the intercession of the saints
against Zwingli, but finally declared himself van-
quished. Under the assumed name of Johannes
Serranus he now entered Germany to study the
Lutheran Reformation at its source. Having se-
cured, through Georg Spalatin, credentials to Lu-
ther and the elector, he went to Wittenbeig in
Jan., 1523. His sojourn there lasted till Feb.,
1524. At Luther's advice he delivered lectures on
the prophet Hosea, the Gospel of Luke, Elaechielf
and Canticles; sought to advance the Reformation
by translation of reformatory pamphlets into
French and Italian; and prepared a tract on the
subject of his exit from the cloister and a commen-
tary on the Minorite rule. He was one of the first
monks of the Reformation era to resolve on con-
tracting matrimony. In Mar., 1524, he went to
MQtz, whither he was called by secret friends ctf the
Reformation, but was not allowed so much as once
to venture to speak publicly. In Strasbui]g, whither
he turned in Apr., 1524, he found friends, but failed
to obtain a position. In spite of his extensive
literary activity, his outward status continued op-
pressive. At last, in 1526, there was opened for
him the opportunity for work and the prospect of
an assured living. Recommended by Jacob Sturm
of Strasburg to Landgrave Philip of Hesse, he was
enabled to take the leading part at the Hombeig
Sjmod (q.v.). In 1527 he was made professor at
the University of Marburg, where in company with
Adam Kraft and Erhard Schnepf he served as one
of the university's first theological teachers. His
attachment to Zwingli 's theory of the Eucharist
subjected him to much suspicion in Germany, and
his French mobility, pragmatism, and easy elo-
quence provoked opposition, but as a teacher be
found great acceptance. His favorite branch was
exposition of the Old and New Testament, although
his object was not learned exegesis, but practioU
interpretation and application. Carl Mirbt.

Bibliography: Biographies are by: J. W. Baum, Stras-
burg. 1840 (in German); F. W. Hassencamp, Elberfeld.
1860; F. St. Stieve, Wratislaw, 1867 (in Latin); L. Ruf-
fet. Paris, 1873 (in French). Consult further: F. G.
Schelhom. in Amanitaiee lUeraruB iv. 307-389, Supple*
meat. x. 1235 sqq., Leipsic. 1730; F. W. Strieder. Hee-
8i$che Gelehriengeachichte, vii. 378-306. ix. 405-406. Ckosel
1787: F. W. Hassencamp. Heaaieche Kirchengeaehiehie,
i. 65-75. Marburg. 1852; O. Qemen. in ZKO, xxii (1001).
133 sqq.; ADB, xvii. 548 sqq.

LAMBERT, lam'b&rt (LAMPERT), OF HERS-
FELD: Medieval historian; b. probably c. 1025;
d. after 1078. It is not improbable that he was
educated at the famous cathedral school of Bam>
berg. He entered the Benedictine abbey of Hers-
feld Mar. 15, 1058, and was ordained priest at
Aschaffenburg in the following September, after
which he made a pilgrimage through Hungary and

408

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

lAmltert
Lambeth

Bulgaria to the Holy Land, returning to Hersfeld a
year later. The abbey school, which Lambert may
have conducted, was a very flourishing one, and
his works are good evidence of the height which
learning had reached there. The most character-
istic is his biography of LuUus, the reputed founder
of the abbey, a really masterly performance, writ-
ten between 1063 and 1073. He followed this with
a poem, now lost, on the later history of the abbey,
and a complete history to the year 1074, of which
only scattered sixteenth-century extracts remain.
But his most important work was his Annalea from
the creation of the world to 1077. The first part is
brief and not original, but from 1040 the narra-
tive grows fuller and becomes the most extensive
account of Henry IV. by a contemporary. In
opposition to his abbot and the majority of his fel-
low monks, Lambert was decidedly against the em-
peror, and probably wrote the annals with the pur-
pose of justifying the election of Rudolf of Swabia
by the Saxon and Church party. He shows little
of the conscientiousness of the true historian, but a
literary talent remarkable for his age, which for-
merly led to the placing of too high a value upon
his work. In fact, until quite recent times it de-
termined the conception of the character of Henry
IV. taken by modem historians, and it is still im-
portant for the large number of facts contained in

it. (O. HOLDER-EOOER.)

Bibliooraphy: The Opera, ed. O. Holder-Egger, are in
ScriptoreM rerum Oermanicarum, Hanover, 1804, where
mention is made of earlier editions and literature. Con-
8ult: A. Eigenbrodt, Lampert v<m Hen/eld und die neuere
Quellenforechuno, Caseel, 1806; idem, Lampert van Here-
feld und die Wortaualegung, Leipsic, 1806; Wattenbaoh,
DGQ, ii. 07-100; Rettberg, KD, i. 602; Ceillier. AuUure
aacree, xiii. 300-401.

LAMBETH, lam'beth, ARTICLES: A series of
nine articles drawn up in 1595 to supplement the
Thirty-nine Articles by stating the doctrine of
predestination in terms more explicit and incisive
than were used in art. xvii. of 1571, which admits
of both a Calvinistic and an anti-Calvinistio inter-
pretation. Toward the close of Elizabeth's reign
Calvinism had many sympathizers in England, not
only among the Puritans, but also in the Estab-
lished Church. Calvinistic theology was ably ad-
vocated at Cambridge by Thomas Cartwright, Will-
iam Perkins and William Whitaker (q.v.). On the
other hand Peter Baro (q.v.) taught anti-Calvinism.
He found an ally in William Barrett, fellow of.Gon-
ville and Caius, who on Apr. 29, 1595, sharply
attacked Calvin, Beza, Peter Martyr, and others
in a sermon which he preached for his bachelor's
degree. A lively controversy followed at Cam-
bridge, Barrett being forced to recant, and the
matter was referred to Archbishop Whitgift. Whit-
aker drew up nine articles strongly and harshly
Calvinistic as an interpretation of art. xvii. of the
Thirty-nine Artidee; and, after some modifications
of language by the archbishop, they were signed by
Whitgift, Bishop Fletcher of London, Bishop
Vaughan of Bangor, and others at a conference
at Lambeth Palace Nov. 20, 1595. Archbishop
Hutton of York later added his assent. Whitgift
Font the articles to Cambridge as an admissible
interpretation of art. xvii., hoping thereby to

allay the controversy and deal a blow at Puri-
tanism by making concessions to the Calvin-
ists of the Church of England. Though he was
moderately Calvinistic in doctrine he was strongly
opposed to the Geneva polity, and he was too good
a diurchman to insist on the articles when the queen
expressed disapproval, being displeased because the
conference had been held without her consent and
impatient with both sides for stirring up contro-
versy. Consequently the articles were soon with-
drawn— a measure rendered easier by the death of
Whitaker two weeks after the conference.

The Lambeth Articles state in the most explicit
terms that God from eternity has destined a part
of the human race for life, another part for death,
and that the ^* moving cause " of " predestination
to life " is nothing whatever in the individual —
neither " the foresight of faith, or of perseverance,
or of good works, or of anything that is in the per-
son predestinated "; the cause is " solely the good
will and pleasure of God." In different forms of
expression it is declared that the twofold decree has
made two distinct classes of men. But it is not
said — doubtless intentionaUy — ^that God's decree
occasioned the Fall; the implication is rather in-
fralapsarian. At the Hampton Court Conference
(q.v.) in 1604 the Puritans asked in vain that the
Lambeth Articles be recognized. They were in-
corporated in the Irish Articles of 1615 (see Irish
Articles). (F. Kattenbusch.)

BiBuooaAPHT: Sohaff, Creeds, i. 65S-662, ill 528-626;
J. H. Overton. The Church in England, i. 481-483. Lon-
don, 1897 (where the articles are siven); and eepedally
J. Strype, The Life and AeU cf , , . John WhUoift,
3 vole.. Oxford, 1822.

LAMBETH COHFBRBHCS (also called the Pan-
Anglican Synod): A gathering held at Lambeth
Palace approximately every ten years under the
presidency of the archbishop of Canterbury, and
composed of all the bishops of the Anglican Com-
munion. The first suggestion of such an assembly
is said to have come from Bishop Hopkins of Ver-
mont in 1851, but the earliest official action in that
direction was taken by the provincial synod of
Canada in 1865. The matter was brought to the
attention of the convocation of Canterbury in the
following year, and the first call was issued by
Archbishop Longley in 1867. In September of thi^
year seventy-six bishops assembled at Lambeth
and discussed various questions affecting the or-
ganization and work of the Anglican Communion
as a whole. The second conference was held in
1878, under the presidency of Archbishop Tait, at-
tended by 100 bishops; the third in 1888, with 145
in attendance, presided over by Archbishop Ben-
son; the fourth in 1897, under Archbishop Temple,
with 194 bishops; and the fifth in 1908. The bish-
ops carefully disclaim any legislative or synodical
authority, but their deliberations and resolutions
have a wide and increasing effect upon the action
of the various national churches represented. The
largest general interest attaches to the step taken
by them in 1888, when they sanctioned, with some
final modifications, the statement as to the basis
of a possible reunion of Christendom put forth by
the general qonvention of the American Episcopal

I<aml>rwohini

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

404

Church in 1886; for the text of the statement,
conunonly known as the Chicago-Lambeth Quadri-
lateral, see Fundamental Doctrines of Christi-
anity, § 4.

Bibliooraprt: R. T. Davidson, The Lambeth Confereneee
of 1807, 1878, and 1888, with the Official ReporU, new ed.,
London. 1806; idem, Origin and Hiet. of the Lambeth
Conferencee of 1867 and 1878, ib. 1888. The encyclical
letters and reports are published in tract form by the
Sw P. C. K., London; Lambeth Conference of 1907, London,
1007; Conference of Bi»hop9 of the Ansiiean Communion
. . . 1908, . . . Encyclical, ib.. 1008.

LAMBRUSCHIIVI, lOm-brQs-ki'ni, LUI6I: Car-
dinal and statesman; b. at Genoa May 6, 1776; d.
at Rome May 8, 1854. He early entered the Bar-
nabitc Order, and rose to high rank in his order,
afterward in ecclesiastical diplomacy. With Ercole
Consalvi (q.v.) he represented the Curia's inter-
ests at the Congress of Vienna in 1818, and after
his return, as secretary of the Congregation for
Extraordinary Affairs, he conducted negotiations
over concordats w^ith Bavaria and Naples (see
Concordats and Delimiting Bulls, VI. 2, § 2;
VI. 3). In 1819 he was made archbishop of
Genoa; and in 1823 he was sent as papal nuncio to
Paris, where he successfully laborcKl to make Ul-
tramontanism (q.v.) dominant in France, and this,
too, upon the fundamental ground of legitimacy.
In 1831 he was made cardinal by Gregory XVI.,
and in 1836 secretary of state for foreign affairs.
It was in Lambruschini that the reaction now cen-
tered. Wherever measures were devised, or where
efforts were forward which reflected the tendency
of the modern era, he perceived revolution. Hence,
too, he strictly opposed the strivings toward unity
and freedom within the States of the Church; the
prisons were fllled, and previously granted conces-
sions were set at nought. In the Prussian govern-
ment's conflict with the Curia, 1836-38 (see Droste-
Vischering), Lambruschini vindicated the stand-
point of the Curia and drafted the state papers
against Prussia (Rome, 1838; German text, Augs-
burg, 1839). When ultimately the government
of Gregory XVI. became extremely odious Lam-
bruschini had to bear the blame for it. Although
he had seen to it that only his adherents should be
admitted to the college of cardinals, so strong be-
came the feeling against him, that when it came to
electing a successor to Gregory XVI., he received
only ten votes. Under Pius IX. he adorned high
positions, but never regained his influence.

K. Benrath.

Bibliography: Lambruschini was the author of Opere
apirituali, Rome, 1836 (an ascetic work); SuW immaco-
kUo concepimento di Maria, ib. 1843, Eng. transl., A Polemi-
cal Dissertation on the Immaculate Conception of the most
Blessed Virgin Mary, Ix)ndon, 1865. Consult: L. C. Farini,
Lo Stato romano 1816-1860, i. 78 aqq., Turin, 1850; F. Gual-
terio, Gli ultimi rivolgimenti italiani, vol. i., Florence, 1850;
H. Reuchlin, Oeschichte Italiena, vol. i., Leipsic, 1860; F.
Njppold, The Papacy in the 19th Century, pp. 98-115, New
York, 1900.

LAMENNAIS, la"men"n6', HUGUES FELICITE
ROBERT DE: A prominent French Roman Cath-
olic theological author, of an increasingly liberal
type; b. at Saint-Malo (on the English Channel,
200 m. w. of Paris) July 19, 1782; d. in Paris Feb.
27, 1854. His childhood was marked by piety of

the strict Breton t3rpe and great devoticm to stodj.
In 1808 he appeared as a defender of the ptpal
authority in his lUflexions sur VHat de Vi^fm n
France pendant le XVIIIme si^de ei sur la ataa-
lion actuellef which Napoleon's government at-
tempted to suppress. In 1811 he entered the
seminary of Saint-Malo to study for the pnesthood
In the Tradition de V6glise «ur VinstituHon da
&i}Sqtte8 (Paris, 1814), written jointly with hii
brother, he exulted over Napoleon's downfall, and
on the return from Elba sought safety in EDglud
during the " hundred days." In 1816 he was or-
dained, and continued to write articles in the Ro-
man Catholic and legitimist papers, especially
against deism. In 1817 appeared the first volume
of his principal work, the Essai sur I'tndiff^rence en
motive de religion (Eng. transl.. Essay on Indiffer-
ence in Matters of Religion, London, 1895), intended
to do the work of combating the prevalent in-
difference to religion and arousing interest in the
Christian cause. Three more volumes (1820-24)
stirred up much excitement, and called forth bit-
ter accusations on the part of the Jesuits, while
the Galilean bishops and the Sorbonne were luke^
warm in their approval. In 1824 Lamennaii
visited Rome, and declined the offer of a cardinal's
hat made by Leo XII. His treatise De la rdigion
consider fe dans ses rapports avec l*€)rdre politique el
civil (1826) was still more displeasing to the Gai-
lican party and, in spite of the eloquence of his
advocate, Berryer, suffered a judicial condemna-
tion. He now became more and more disaffected
to the Bourbons, whose fall he predicted in his
next work, Des progrbs de la revolution et de la
guerre centre I'^glise (1829). In this he advocated
the separation of the Church from the State which
oppressed and fettered it, and more freedom for
the people as well as for the Church. After the
July revolution of 1830 he began to publish L'Avemr,
a newspaper whose motto was " God and freedom;
the pope and the people." The bishops now be-
gan to bring formal charges against Lamennais; he
went to Rome with Lacordaire and Montalembert
in 1832, but found little support, and their ideas
were condemned by the new pope, Gregory X\7.,
in his encyclical of Aug. 15. The publication of
L'Ai}enir was abandoned. Lamennais retired to
La Chdnaie, and gave way to the logical develop-
ment of his liberal principles, marking a definite
breach with Rome by the publication of Paroles
d'un croyant (1834; Eng. transl.. The Words of a
Believer, London, 1834, 1845, 1848, 1891), which was
condemned by a fresh encyclical of July 7, but made
a deep impression on the people, whom he addressed
in its glowing words of hope and love. His Livre du
peiiple (1837; Eng. transl.. The Book of the People,
London, 1838) reminds them not only of their
rights but of their duties in the tone of an inspired
prophet. This was followed by a number of fugi-
tive writings of democratic tendency, of which Le
Pays et le gouvemement cost him a fine of two thou-
sand francs. He attempted to bring his new ideas
into harmony with his original principles in the
Esquisse d'une philosophie (4 vols., 1841—46), ac-
cording to which the truth is determined, not as in
his first book by the Church, but by human reason.

406

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

XiM&'braaohlni

examining, judging, and confinning. The revolution
of 1848 brought him fresh hopes and fresh disap-
pointments. He was elected to the National Assem-
bly, and laid before it the project of a constitution
which was considered beautiful but impracticable.
After the coup d^itai (1851) he spent the short re-
mainder of his life in retirement. He had a noble
and active nature, never content unless at work.
His unselfish piety and humility were imquestioned;
but the failure of all his plans so embittered a pos-
itive and passionate disposition as to lead him far
away from the principles with which he began his
life, into a position which his early associates consid-
ored little short of apostasy. His (Euvres compUtes
were issued in twelve volumes at Paris, 1836-37; six
volumes of (Euvrea posthumes appeared in 1855-
1859 and two of (Euvres irUdites in 1866.

(C. Pfender.)

Biblioorapht: Biographical material may be found in:
A. Blaise, Ettai biographique aur LamennaUt Paris, 1868;
J. M. Peignd, LamennaU, aa vie intime h la Chinaie, Paris,
1864; E. Dowden. in FortnighUy Retfiew, xi (1869), pp.
1-26; C. Beard, in Theological Review, x (1873), 341 sqq.,
xi (1874), 70 sqq.; G. J. Harney, in Open Court, v (1801).
295Q-62; H. Gibson, VAbbi de Lamennaie, London, 1809;
C. Boutard, Lamennaia, aa vie et aea doctrinea, vols, i.-ii.,
Pftris, 1905-08. For study of his thought consult: T. Passa.
£tude aur Lamennaia, Paris, 1856; M. Lami, Philoaoj^ie
de Lamennaia, ib. 1867; O. Bordage, La Philoaoj^ia de
fjamennaia, Strasburg, 1869; P. Janet, La Philoaophie de
lAimennaia, Paris, 1890; E. Spuller, Lamennaia: ihide
d'hiatoire politique et religieuae, ib. 1892; F. Bnmeti^re,
Nouveaux eaaaia aur la littirature eontemporaine, ib. 1895;
A. Molien et F. Deune, Lamennaia; , . . aea idiea, ib. 1899.

LAMMAS-DAY: The English name for the fes-
tival of St. Peter's Chains, Aug. 1, which com-
memorates the imprisonment and miraculous
deliverance of the apostle (Acts xii. 3-19). The
ancient vernacular English name is derived from
the custom in England of celebrating at that time
a thanksgiving for the wheat-harvest, and offering
the '* first-fruits " in the form of loaves of bread;
whence the Middle English lamnuuse, from the
Anglo-Saxon hlammasaef ^* loaf-mass."

LAMPE, Idm'pe, FRESDRICH ADOLF: Ger-
man Reformed theologian; b. at Detmold Feb.
19, 1683; d. at Bremen Dec. 8, 1729. He studied
in Bremen 1698-1702, and at the University
of Franeker 1702-03. In 1703 he was called as
preacher to Weeze near Cleves, in 1706 to Duis-
burg, and in 1709 to the church of St. Stephen in
Bremen. From 1720 to 1727 he was professor of
dogmatics and church history at Utrecht; and
from 1727 till his death he was pastor of St. Ans-
gar's and professor at the gymnasium in Bremen.
From his schools in Bremen and Utrecht proceeded
a great number of men who exerted a salutary in-
fluence in all spheres of life in the Reformed Church.
Lampe's theology was essentially Biblical; and it
was his great merit to further Bible study in the
Reformed Church, and to revive the federal theol-
ogy (see CoccEius, Johannes). His most im-
portant work is Geheimnia des Gnadertbundea, dem
grossen Bundesgott zu Ehren und cUlen heilbegierigen
Seelen zur Erbauung gedffnet (6 vols., Bremen,
1712 seq.; Dutch transl., 1727). The first volume
treats of the " nature of the covenant of grace "
and entirely follows the fundamental conceptions

of Cocoeius. The following volumes trace the
church of God historically through the threefold
economy of the covenant of grace under the prom-
ise (vol. ii.), the law (vols. iii. and iv.), and the
Gospel (vols. V. and vi.). Lampe adopted the sys-
tematic form which Frans Burmann had given to
the federal theology. In this framework the
whole content of theology is presented, but only
in its results for practical Christian life, and in a
form intelligible to all persons versed in the Bible.
It is owing to Lampe's peculiar imion of theory
and practise that his spirit as that of no other theo-
logian entered the congregations, while the history
of theological science took little notice of him. In
the doctrine of the order of salvation Lampe gave
to Calvinism and Cocceianism a new and peculiarly
Pietistic turn, by emphasizing the Pietistic atten-
tion to the inner life of the individual and the pres-
sure of personal decision, but the fimdamental view
of Calvinism guarded him against all excesses of
Pietistic individualism. The Church was for him
a divine institution, and he was averse to all sepa-
ratistic tendencies. Very popular have been his
catechisms:' Milch der Wahrheitf nach Ardeitung
dea Heiddberger Katechxsmus (1718); EirUeihing zu
dem Geheimnia dea Gnadenbundea; Erate Wahrheita-
milch far Sduglinge am Alter und Veratand; also
his excellent book on commimion, Der heilige
BrautachmtuJc der Hochzeit-Gdate dea Lammea an
aeiner Bundeatafd (Bremen, 1720). He also wrote:
Commentariua analyUco-exegeticua in Evangelium
aecundum Johannem (3 vols., Amsterdam, 1724-
1726; Germ, transl., 2 vols., Leipsic, 1729); De-
lineatio theologice actives (Utrecht, 1727, Germ,
transl., Frankfurt, 1728), the first system of ethics
of the federal theology; and DiaaeriatUmum . . .
aynlagma (Amsterdam, 1737). Together with C.
van Hase the younger Lampe edited the Bibliotheca
hiaiorico-philologicchiheologica (Bremen, 1718-27).
He also took a prominent position among hymn-
writers in the Reformed Church.

(£. F. KaBL Mt)LLBR.)

Biblioorapht: O. ThelemAnn, Friedridt Adolf Lampe,
Bielefeld, 1868; H. L. J. Heppe, Oeachichte dea PieUamva,
pp. 236 sqq., 479-480, Leyden, 1879; A. Ritsohl. C7«-
achichte dea Pietiamua, i. 427 sqq., Bonn, 1880. An index
to his own writings and to earlier literature about him ia
in A. J. van der Aa. Biographiaih Woordenboek, der Nader'
landen, xi. 83, Harlem, 1852 sqq.

LAMPETIAIfS. See Messalians.

LAMY, la''mi', BERNARD: French Roman
Catholic; b. at Le Mans (130 m. s.w. of Paris),
June, 1640; d. at Rouen Jan. 29, 1715. He en-
tered the Congregation of the Oratory in 1658, and
became professor of philosophy in Saumur in 1671,
afterward at the University of Angers. On ac-
count of his Cartesian views he was deposed from
his chair at Angers in 1675 and driven from the
city. Through the favor of Cardinal Le Camus he
was soon given the chair of theology in the semi-
nary at Grenoble, and in 1686 was recalled to Paris
as professor of theology in the seminary of St. Mag-
loire. For publishing a book without proper per-
mission he was transferred to the Oratory at Rouen
in 1690. His principal works are: L'art de parler
(Paris, 1675); Entretiena aur lea adencea (Brussels,

lAnoe, Th« Holy
Lanfkmno

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

406

1684); Apparatus adhMiaMcraiGrenohhj 1686; Fr.

transL, Lyons, 1709; Eng. transL, Apparatus BUbli-

cu8f London, 1723); Harmonia aeu concordia guatuor

Evangdistcarum (Paris, 1689; enlarged ed., 2 vols.,

1699); and the posthumous Z)e UsbernaculofadariSfde

sancta civitate Jerusalum et de templo (1720), upon

which he worked for thirty years.

BiBLiooaAPHT: KL, viL 1372-74; J. Pot^. ^logu hUto-
riquet, Le Mans, 1817; B. Haurteu. Hi9L liiUraire du
Maine, u. 117 sqq., Paris, 1844; Liohtenberser. E8R, vii.
70fh-7lO,

LANCE, THE HOLY: The instrument with
which the side of Christ was pierced after his death
upon the cross (John xix. 31). It was believed to
have been found, with the other instruments of the
passion, by Helena, the mother of Constantine (see
Helena, Saint, 1), and in the time of Bede was
said to be preserved at Jerusalem. The metal head
was carried by the Emperor Heradius to Constan-
tinople, and later to Antioch, where it was discov-
ered by the crusaders in 1098. Baldwin II. pledged
it to the Venetians, from whom Louis IX. of France
obtained it in 1239 and brought it to Paris. Here
it was preserved and venerated in the Bainte Cha-
pelle, together with the crown of thorns; but since
1796 it has disappeared. The larger portion re-
mained in Constantinople until 1492, when Ba-
jazet presented it to Innocent VIII.; since then it
has been preserved in St. Peter's. A second lance
was venerated in the Middle Ages among the sacred
treasures of the empire. According to some au-
thorities it was the lance of Constantine, contain-
ing some of the nails of the cross, while others main-
tained that it was the actual lance of the crucifixion.
The Roman Catholic Church has never, even when
sanctioning liturgical devotion to these relics, pro-
nounced upon their genuineness. For the so-called
** Holy Laiice " used in the Extern Church in the
celebration of the Lord's Supper, see Eastern
Church, § 19.

Biblioorapht: BenecUct XIV., De . . . canonizatione,
chaps. XXV., xxxi., 4 vols., Bonona. 1734-38; C. Rohault
de Fleury. Mhnoire tur lea inatrumerUa de la paaeion, Paris,
1869; KL, vii. 1419-22.

LANCELOTTI, lan"ch6-let'ti, GIOVANNI PAOLO:
Professor of canon law at Perugia, where he died
in 1590, and known as the author of the InsiUu-
tionea juris canonici which are appended to not a
few editions of the Corpus juris canonici. The
thought of writing a text-book of canon law on the
model of Justinian's ** Institutes " had already occu-
pied Lancelotti for some time when in 1557 Pope
Paul IV. conunissioned him to undertake it. The
work was not, however, formally approved by the
pope, and appeared in 1563 as a private publication.
It was first adopted by Petrus Matthseus in his edi-
tion of the Corpus juris, 1591. The value of Lan-
celotti's Institutiones lies in the fact that from them
it is easy to become acquainted with the law in
force prior to the Council of Trent, and with the
practise of that age. The later editors have care-
fully printed out in their notes the differences in-
troduced by the newer legislation. E. Sehlinq.

Bibliography: G. B. Venniglioli. Biografia degli ecrittori
Perugini, ii. 40 sqq., Perugia, 1829; J. F. von Schulte,
Geeehichte der QueOen und Literatur dee canoniechen Rechte,

iii. 451 sqq.. Stuttcut, 1880; KL, viL 1376; liefate*
berger, ESR, vii. 718-719.

LANDELS, WILLIAM: British Baptist; b. near
Berwick, Scotland, Apr. 25, 1823; d. at Kiriossldy.
Scotland, July 7, 1899. His father was an Aukl
Kirk farmer and fisherman. Converted (c 1841)
under Primitive Methodist influence, be was en-
couraged by the Morisonians to enter the ministiy,
and in 1843 began a course of study under James
Morison at Kilmarnock, with whom he spent three
smnmers. He was ordained in 1844 and becune
pastor of a small Morisonian church at DarveL He
seems to have come under Baptist influence at
about this time, and when called upon as pastor to
baptize infants, his scruples led him to examine the
question of infant baptism. Having become con-
vinced that it was without Scriptural warrant, he
received believers' baptism at the hands of T. Mse-
lean, of Dunbar, and soon afterward became pssr
tor at Cupar (July, 1846). From 1850 to 1855 he
was pastor in Birmingham. His most important
work was in Regents Park Chapel, London (1855-
1883), where his eloquence attracted large audiences
and where he had as members and colaborers Sir
Morton Peto, Lord Justice Lush, Principal AngvB,
and other eminent Baptists. From 1883 to 18d5
he was pastor of the Dublin Street Church, Edin-
burgh, his last pastorate. He published about
twenty-five voliunes, mostly sermons; among the
most important are: The Gospel in Various AspecU
(London, 1856); The Message of Christianity (1856);
The Unseen (1859); Woman's Sphere and Work
(1859); True Manhood (1861); The Path of Life
(1862); Seed for Springtime (1863); Everyday Re-
ligion (1863); and The Cross of Christ (1864).

Biblioorapht: T. D. Landels. Memoir of JViUiam Landeb,
London, 1900 (by his son); Baptiet Handbook, ib. 1900.

LANDERER, land'er-er, MAXIMILIAN ALBERT
VON: One of the most important, though not
best known, representatives of the VermitUungS'
theologie; b. at Manlbronn (23 m. n.w. of Stutt-
gart) Jan. 14, 1810; d. at Ttibingen Apr. 13, 1878, '
From 1823 to 1827 he studied in Maulbronn, and
then went to the theological seminary of Tu-
bingen, just at the time when Baur had be^un his
academic career, and the transition from the su-
pernatural theology of the older Tubingen school
to the Hegelianism which characterized the later
was under way. After the completion of his studies
in 1832, he became assistant to his father, who was
pastor of Walddorf, then a teacher at Maulbronn,
and in 1835 in Tubingen. Four years later he was
appointed first deacon at Gdppingen, and in 1841
professor at Tubingen.

Landerer considered it his task to mediate be-
tween the negative tendency of Baur and the or-
thodox theology of Beck. He tried to show that
the fundamental principles of the traditional faith
might be maintained without essential rejection
of the results of historical criticism or clear and
scientific method. In opposition to Hegel's abso-
lute knowledge, Landerer upheld experience in the
ethico-religious sphere as well as that of natural
science. But the facts of the ethico-religious con-
sciousness are inseparable from the revelation of

407

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Lanoe, The Holy
Lanfkmnc

Scripture, which again, in its historical develop-
ment, connects itself with the individual conscious-
ness. The central principle of dogmatics he con-
sidered to be the unity of the divine and human by
the perfect union of God and man in the person
of Jesus, which proves the Christian religion to be
absolute. He deviated from the teachings of the
Church in his anthropocentric construction of
Christology; yet, though placing the center of
Christ's personality in his humanity, he sought to
bring out the other side by emphasizing the abso-
lute sinlessness and supernatural birth of Christ
and the concrete facts of revelation. On the whole,
the results of Landerer's dogmatic teachings were
of a positive nature, although not in the sense of
orthodox exdusiveness. He always kept his mind
open for the results of modem science and criti-
cism— to such an extent that it was exceedingly
difRcuIt for him to arrive at final results, and he
could never make up his mind to publish a dogmatic
system. His contributions to the second edition
of the RE show his talents in the sphere of theol-
ogy; his article on Melanchthon especially made
a remarkable impression. Not less important is
that on the relation of grace and freedom in the
conmiunication of salvation in the Jahrbitcher fur
deiUsche Theologies which he helped to found. After
his death his pupils, P. Buder and H. Weiss pub-
lished two university lectures imder the title Zur
Dogmatik, with his memorial address on Ferdinand
Christian Baur (TUbmgen, 1879); P. Lang edited
a collection of his sermons (1880); and P. Zeller a
third posthumous work, NeuesU Dogmengeschichte
von Sender bi8 airf die Gegenwart (1881).

(H. SCHMIDTf.)
Bibuography: Worie der Erinnerung an Dr. Max Albert
Landerer, Tabingen. 1878; JahrhOcKer fUr deuUehe Theo-
logie, 1878. part 3; O. Pfleiderer, in Prote9tantiachs
Kirehtrueitung, 1878, no. 20.

LAIVDO: Pope Aug., 9ia-Mar., 914. His pon-
tificate fell within the period during which the Ro-
man nobles ruled both the city and the papal see,
so that no details of his administration are known.

(A. Hauck.)

Bibliography: Liber pontiftealU, ed. L. Duchesne, i. 148,
Paris, 1886; Bower, Popet, ii. 308.

LAIVDO, ATHANASIO. See Aoafios Monachos.

LANFRANC.

Early Life, to 1042 (t 1).
At Bee and Caen. 1042-70 (t 2).
Archbishop of Canterbury, 1070-80 (§ 3).
Writings (t 4).

Lanfranc, prior of Bee and archbishop of Can-
terbury, was bom at Pavia, Italy, about the be-
ginning of the eleventh century (1005?); d. at
Canterbury May 24, 1089. Details of his life are
scanty, for he himself left no memoirs, nor was any
biography of him written until forty years after
his death. He appears to have been of noble

parentage, and was educated in rhet-

I. Early Life, oric and Roman law. After his father's

to 1042. death, he left Pavia for a time, and

according to some doubtful accounts
continued his legal studies at Bologna. Returning
to his native city a master of Lombard law, he be-

came one of the three chief jurists of the Pavian
school. Probably banished as an adherent of the
nobility in the social and political struggles which
raged in the Lombard cities from 1035 to 1043, he
suddenly left Pavia and settled at Avranches in
Normandy as a teacher. Finding little favor there,
he soon determined to go to Rouen, the capital of
Normandy, but on his way is said to have been
attacked by robbers and left boimd and blind-
folded in the forest. In the terror of the night, he
vowed to dedicate himself to God, if he should be
freed, and in the morning, when released by pass-
ing travelers, he applied for entrance at the abbey
of Bee, near the plaoe where he had been attacked.
The abbey, foimded a few years previously by
an old warrior named Herluin (see Bec, Abbey of),
was both poor and ill-governed, and Lanfranc
quickly determined to leave it. Herluin, however,
persuaded him to remain and in 1045 or 1046 made
him prior. In 1049 he went to Reims,
2. At Bec probisibly to call the attention of the
and Caen, Curia to the uncanonical marriage of
1042-70. William the Conqueror with Matilda
of Flanders, and accompanied Leo IX.
to Rome. There, at Easter, 1050, he received the
hostile letter of Berengar of Tours (q.v.), and at
the command of the pope detailed his own views
on the Eucharist before the Lateran Council, gain-
ing both their approval and the favor of Leo, who
sent him to the Council of Veroelli as papal theo-
logian, thus enabling him to score a second triumph
over Berengar. Equally 'crushing was his victory
over his opponent's adherents in Normandy, who
were finally expelled from the coimtry by Duke
William.

Meanwhile Lanfranc's school was steadily in-
creasing both in numbers and prestige, and enjoyed
the special favor of Popes Nicholas II. and Alexan-
der II., so that Lanfranc became the greatest teacher
and dogmatic authority of the West. This pros-
perity was interrupted at the end of 1058 or the
beginning of 1059 by William, who, censured by
the Curia for his marriage with Matilda, banished
Lanfranc from his dominions as his chief antago-
nist. But the latter appeased the duke by going to
Rome and winning the papal sanction to the mar-
riage. The result of this diplomacy so impressed
William that he made his former opponent his chief
coimcilor, thus inaugurating a new period in Lan-
franc's liife. The exact extent of his influence is
imoertain, but William's alliance with Alexander
II. in 1066 was evidently due to him, and the
grateful duke made him abbot of the new monas-
tery of St. Stephen in Caen. In August of the fol-
lowing year William offered him the vacant arch-
diocese of Rouen, but this was declined by the
abbot who, in 1068, went to Rome as the con-
queror's envoy to secure a papal embassy to
reorganize ecclesiastical affairs in England. This
embassy entered England early in 1070 and in the
summer appeared in Normandy and announced
to the abbot of Caen that he had been chosen to
succeed the deposed Stigand as archbishop of
Canterbury.

On Aug. 29, 1070, Lanfranc was enthroned as
I archbishop of Canterbury, where, after a vain re*

Lanfirano

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

406

quest to Alexander II. to be permitted to resign,
he triumphed both over the disoi^ganization of his
archdiocese and such powerful enemies as Odo of
Bayeux (half-brother of the king). His difficulties
arose from two problems, the questions of the
primacy and the cathedral monas-

3. Arch- teries. During the last few decades

biihop of the archbishopric of York had not only
Canterbury, claimed independence in the north of

1070-89. England, but had asserted jurisdiction
over the dioceses of Worcester, Lich-
field, and Dorchester. Lanfranc, after consider-
able controversy, exacted personal submission
from Thomas, the new archbishop of York, but
was obliged to prove the ancient and legal inferior-
ity of York to Canterbury to secure the continued
supremacy of Canterbury. In 1071, when both
archbishops appeared at Rome to receive the pal-
lium, Alexander II., declaring himself imable to
solve the problem, referred the matter to an Eng-
lish council, at the same time appointing Lanfranc
liis vicar. The question was considered at Win-
chester at Easter, 1072, but the historic suprem-
acy of Canterbury was denied. At the same time
an attempt, aim^ at Lanfranc himself as a monk,
was initiated to transform all cathedral monasteries
in England into secular cloisters, and the leaders of
this scheme foimd themselves able to win the royal
support. In this juncture Lanfranc, who feared
that a double defeat would annul all his influence
in Church and State, forged, or had forged, ten
papal briefs, as well as a legend and three canons
of a council, which he produced at Windsor in Whit-
suntide, 1072, thus gaining an easy victory, which
won him recognition as primate and metropolitan.

After this victory Lanfranc energetically began
to reform and reorganize the ecclesiastical condi-
tion of England, beginning with Canterbury. He
transferred episcopal sees from villages to cities,
secured the independence of the ecclesiastical
courts, and introduced continental canon law, at
the same time gradually filling the monasteries
with continental monks and hicreasing the sever-
ity of their rule. Yet he was no radical, as is seen
by his attitude on the celibacy of the clergy. Him-
self an advocate of this principle, he obliged only
the cathedral staff to put away their wives, though
he directed that henceforth each of the clergy, on
taking deacon's orders, should make the vow of
celibacy. Despite his exclusion of the English
from high positions in churches and monasteries,
for which he seems in every case to have had good
reason, he regarded himself as an Englishman; and
in this spirit he promoted the cult of national Eng-
lish saints and opposed all unnecessary harshness
toward the conquered. Since his victory at Wind-
sor, he was the mightiest man in England save the
king, whose chief councilor he was and who en-
trusted him with the administration of the king-
dom during his own absences on the continent.

Yet even this power was insufficient for him,
and in 1072 he asserted the primacy of Canterbury
over Ireland as well as all Britain, actually gaining
it permanently in Ireland and Wales, and for a
time in Scotland. But the higher he rose, the
cooler were his relations with the Curia. From the

very first Gregory VII. was scarcely in sympitlij
with Lanfranc, who doubtless encouraged WilUaa
in refusing to take the oath of allegiance to Greg-
ory; while the archbishop seems only to have hm
waiting for a favorable opportunity to break wiiL
the papal court. This chance came with the coo-
quest of Rome by Heiuy IV., when Lanfranc en-
tered into negotiations with Hugo the Wise, the
leader of the Guibertines, but his plans came to
nought, and England remained neutral. His gro:
friend, William the Conqueror, died Sept. 7, 1087,
and William II. repaid the archbishop's loyaky
and energy with ingratitude, so that death came as
a kindly friend to save him from deeper sorrows.

As in character, so as an author Lanfranc was far
inferior to his pupil and successor Anselm of Can-
terbury (q.v.). His few works, which are almost
entirely occasional treatises, are as follows: Libet
de corpore et sanguine Domini €xnUra Berengarivm^

which consists of two parts, one n-
4. Wri- futing Berengar's attacks on Hum-
tings, bert of Moyenmoutier and the Romai

Church, and the other defending tb
usual Roman Catholic doctrine of the sacraments
the author's only advance over his predecessor
being his assumption that the body and blood 0
Christ are received even by the imworthy. Th
treatise is really identical with the letter addressee
by Lanfranc, while abbot of Caen, to Berengar
and was composed in 1069 or 1070. A portion oi
Lanfranc*s correspondence during his primacy hai
been preserved as Decretales episttUcB. The Scrip
turn de ordinatione sua was written between 107;
and 1087 and treats of his conflict with Thomas
archbishop of York. The Statuta, or Canstiiutumet
of the cathedral monastery of Canterbury, com
posed before 1084, fall into two parts, one contain
ing the agenda and remarkably similar to the Con
cordia regularis of Athelwold of Winchester, thui
presupposing an English source; and the seconc
discussing the administration of the monastery anc
corresponding in part word for word ^nth the Ordi
Cluniacensis of St. Bernard. Brief and unimpor
tant works are his LibeUus de celanda confessione,
sermo sii'e scntenticBy and Annotat%uncul€e (glosses
on Cassian's Collationes). The Oratio in concUio
habita and the Elucidarium, printed in editions of
Lanfranc's works, are not his, and the authenticity
of his glosses on the Pauline epistles is questioned,
although it may be regarde<l, on good manuscript
evidence, as genuine. The following works as-
cribed to Lanfranc are lost: De sacramentis ex-
communicatorum; Nonnulla scripta contra Beren^
gar turn; Laudes, triumphi et res gestce Wilhdmi
comitis (possibly identical with the work of Guido
of Amiens); and Historia ecdesiastica (probably
the same as the Scriptum de ordinatione sua). The
influence of Lanfranc was more potent as teacher
than as author, although he neither founded nor
could found a theological school. Even his most
important theological scholar, Anselm, quickly
marked out ways of his o\\ti, in method following
Berengar rather tlian Lanfranc, who probably
taught primarily as a jurist. There is some evidence
that he lectured on canon law in Bee, where Ivo
of Chartres (q.v.) was his pupil; and it is accordingly

;ii|

40G

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

lAnfirano

possible that to Lanfranc is really due the solution

of the problem of investiture, through which Ivo

achieved his fame. (H. BOhicer.)

Bibuoqraphy: The Opera were edited by L. d'Achery,
Paris, 1648. and (inefficiently) by Giles in PEA, 2 vols..
Oxford. 1844, from both of which they were republished
in MPL, d. Some of Lanfranc's letters are in D. Wil-
kins, Concilia MagruB Britannia, vol. i., London, 1757.

Sources for a life are the Vita by Eadmer. in A8B, May,
vi. 848-952; another life with commentary is in the same,
pp. 832-847. also, with Mabillon's text and D'Achery's
notes, in MPL, cl.; Eadmer's Hiatoria novorum in Ana-
lia, ed. M. Rule, in Rolls Series, no. 81, pp. 20 sqq., Lon-
don. 1884; William of Malmesbury. Oesta pontiflcutn
Anglvrum, cd. N. E. 8. A. Hamilton in Rolls Series, no.
52. pp. 37 sqq.. ib. 1870; Guilelmus Pictavensis, Gesla
Guilelmi 11., ed. J. A. Giles, in Scriptores rerum . . . W'tZ-
helmi, ib. 1845. Modem lives are by: A. Gharma. Paris.
1849 (not to be neglected); W. and M. Wilks, The Three
Archbishops Lanfranc, Anselm, A Becket, London. 1858;
J. de Crozal, Paris. 1877; P. Moiraghi. Pavia, 1889; E.
Languemare, Paris, 1902. Further material is foimd in
E. A. Freeman, Norman Conquest, vols, ii.-iv., London,
1879; idem, WUliam Rufus. i. 1-140, ii. 359-360, ib.
1882; idem. William the Conqueror, pp. 141-146. ib. 1888
(all valuable); T. Wright, Bioffraphia Britannica Hteraria,
ii. 1-14, ib. 1846; E. Churton. Hist, of the Early Enolish
Church, chap. xv.. London. 1850; W. F. Hook. Lives of
the Archbishops of Canterbury, vol. ii. chap. ii.. ib. 1862;
M. Rule. Life and Times of St. Anselm, i. 163-181, ib.
1883; J. H. Overton. The Church in England, i. 161-169.
173-175 et passim, ib. 1897; H. B6hmer. Kirche und
Stoat in England und in der Normandie, Leipsic. 1899;
idem. Die F&lschungen Lanf ranks von Canterbury, ib.,
1902; W. R. W. Stephens. The English Church {1066-
1B7B), passim. London. 1901; Geillier. AuUurs sacris*
xiu. 165-175. 290-295, 440-459; Histoire litUraire de la
France, viii. 260-305; Schaflf, Christian Church, iv. 554-
572; DNB, xxxii. 83-89 (where references to other litera-
ture are given); and the literature under Berenqar.

LAlfG, iQng, AUGUST: German Reformed; b.
at Huppichteroth (near Gummersbach, 24 m. e. of
Cologne) Feb. 26, 1867. He studied in Bonn
(1886-88, 1889-90; Th. Lie, 1890) and Berlin (1888-
1889), and since 1893 has been cathedral preacher in
Halle; since 1900 he has also been privat-docent for
church history at the university of the same city.
He has written Wurttembergs Gemeinachaften (Bar-
men, 1892); Das hdussliche Leben Johann Calvina
(Munich, 1893); Die Bekehrung Johann Calvina
(Leipsic, 1897); Der Evangelienkommentar Martin
Butzers und die GrundzUge seiner Theologie (1900);
Die Bedeuiung der reformierien Theologie fiir die re-
ligidse Lage der Gegenwart (Neukirchen, 1905); Der
Ileidelberger Katechismus und vier verwandte Katechis-
men (Leo Juds und Microns kleine Katechismen, sowie
die beiden Vorarbeiten Ursin's) nebst einer historisch-
theologischen Eijileitung (Leipsic, 1907) ; and Johan-
nes Calvin, Bin Lebensbild zu seinem JfiO. Geburts-
tag (1909).

LANG, COSMO GORDON: Church of England,
archbishop of York and primate of England;
b. at Aberdeen, of Presbyterian parentage, Oct. 31,
1864. He was educated at Glasgow University
and Balliol College, Oxford (B.A., 1885), and then
studied law, but suddenly determined to take or-
ders and pursued theological studies at Cuddes-
doii, being ordered deacon in 1890 and advanced
to the priesthood in the following year. He was
fellow of All Souls', Oxford, in 1888-93, curate of
Leeds in 1890-93, fellow of Magdalen College, Ox-
ford, and dean of divinity in 1893-96, vicar of St.

Mary the Virgin (the university church), Oxford,
in 1894-96, and vicar of Portsea, as well as chap-
lain of the Kingston prison, in 1896-1901. He was
also examining chaplain to the bishop of Lichfield
in 1894-96 and to the bishop of Oxford in 1894-
1901, honorary chaplain to Queen Victoria in 1899-
1901, and select preacher at Oxford in 1896 and
Cambridge in 1897. In 1901 he was consecrated
suffragan bishop of Stepney, and in 1908, on the
resignation of Archbishop W. D. Maclagan (q.v.),
was appointed archbishop of York. He has writ-
ten: Miracles of Jesus as Marks of the Way of Life
(London, 1900) ; Thoughts on Some of the Parables
of Jesus (1905); Opportunity of the Church of Eng-
land (1905); and Principles of Religious Education
(1906).

LANG, HEINRICH: Advocate of liberalism in
Switzerland and Germany; b. at Frommem, near
Balingen (38 m. s.w. of Stuttgart), Wtirttemberg,
Nov. 14, 1826; d. at Zurich Jan. 13, 1876. He
entered the University of Tubingen at the age of
eighteen, and there came strongly under the influ-
ence of Hegeliamsm. Nevertheless, he did not go
to the radical extremes of the Neohegelians, being
restrained by the tenets of Schleiermacher; yet in
the great theological struggle precipitated by
Strauss, Baur, and their school at Ttlbingen, he
took a decided stand on the side of unfettered in-
vestigation. Like Strauss, he accepted the nega-
tive results of philosophical and historical criticism
concerning miracles and supernatural dogmas;
while, like Baur, he held primitive Christian litera-
ture and the history of Christian dogma to be a
necessary and continuous process, whereby Chris-
tian consciousness seeks to explain its absolute
content in the formulas given it. Despite his un-
restricted investigations, Lang retained his inter-
est in practical religion, but shortly after passing
his theological examination in Aug., 1848, a speech
in favor of the abrogation of the Frankfort Parlia-
ment and the establishment of a German republic
exposed him to the danger of legal proceedings, and
he accordingly fled to Wartau, in the Swiss canton
of St. Gall, where he was pastor 1848-63. In this
pastorate he first published a small collection of
sermons (St. Gall, 1853), to prove that the liberal
theologian, while still maintaining his position,
may preach in edifying and popular manner, and
may be equally devoted to his pulpit and his studies.
His own theological investigations were set forth
in his Versuch einer christlichen Dogmalik (Berlin,
1858; 2d ed., 1868), showing that the religious
principle of Christianity must be revised on the
basis of modern science, this principle itself being
none other than spirituality as contrasted with the
pagan religions of nature, and childlike dependence
on God as opposed to Jewish legalism. This work
is particularly characterized by its theories of the
atonement and Christology, in which the person of
Christ is, relatively speaking, eliminated.

With Lang's next work, Ein Gang durch die
christliche WeU, Studien iiber die Entwickelung des
christlichen Geistes in Briefen an einen Laien (Ber-
lin, 1859), tracing the evolution of Christian re-
ligious teaching and ethics from their beginning to

Tiiiifw

THE NEW SCHAFF-HEBZOQ

the present, be won & hearing among the laity, and
in the same year awuined editoriaJ control c^ the
liberal ZeiUtimmen uus der re/ormierten Kirche dcr
Sehweii, which he directed until 1872, and then
Under the title Reform, until his death. Despite
faia open expression of radical views, his eagemesa
to promote true Christianity on the basis of hia
modem conception of the universe ia shown in Ills
Slund^ der Andackt (2 vols., Winterthur, 1862-65)
and alio In his ReligiOu Choraktere (1862), in
which he traoea the lives and characters of such
tiiver)^nt men as St. Paul, Zwingli, Leasing, and
Bchkiermacher.

In IS63 Lang waa called to the pastorate of
Ueilen on the Lake of Zurich, where, without being
the nominal leader of the party, he gradually be-
came the guiding spirit of the movement for tbe
reform of the Swiss Church. In 1870 he published
St Berlin hia Martin Luthtr, ein Tfligiotti Charak-
lerbild, with the aim of aiding the German people
to secure independence of orthodoxy. In 1S71 he
waa called to St. Peter's, Zurich, as deacon, and
ehorlly afterward became pastor. Here his abil-
ity as a preacher first gained full recognition and
activity, both in the iucrcased utl«&datice at his
•erviccs and also in the approval shown his Re-
tigiftte RaUn (2 vols.. Zurich, 1873-75). Here too
he was chosen a member of the Evangelical church-
council of the Canton of Zurich, and during this
period published two addresses Zur ktrcklichen
Silaation der Gegenu>aH (Zurich, 1873). In the
first of these he set forth the struggle of modem
■ociety with the Roman CathoUc hierarchy, and
in the second the posilion between the conflicting
extremes of orthodoxy and materialism. Hence-
forth his battle was waged against the latter, and
in this spirit lie wrote in Reform against Strauss,
Von Ilartmann, and Albert Lange; while his two
contributions to the Deidscht Zeit- urvi SlreHfragen
of Holtiendorff and Onckcn: Daa Lebrti Jemi -and
die Kirche der Zukunfl (Berlin, 1872). and Die Re-
ligion im ZeitaUer Darwiru (1873), were equally de-
signed to maintain religion in its proper place in
modern society. {P. CHHiBTf.)

Bibuoohafht: A. E. niEdenniLan, IlriHricH Ijtfia, Zuricb,
IStt: K. E. Mayer. Heinrith Lano. Buel. 1H77.

LANG, lang, JOHH DUITHORE: Scotch Presby-
terian; b.at Greenock (20 m. w.n.w. of Glasgow),
Aug. 25, 1799; d. at Sydney, New South Wales, Aug.
8, 1878. He studied at Glasgow (M.A., 18KI; D.D.,
1925), was ordained in 1822, and founded the Scots'
Church in Sydney the following year. He was the
first minister of the Church of Scotland in Aus-
tralia, At a time when every increase to the pop-
ulation WHS of the utmost consequence, he was the
means of bringing out many thousands of eiccllent
emigrants from Great Britain to the new coionies,
Bs also ministers and teachers for the work of the
Church. He represented Port Philip, Moreton
Bay, and Sydney successively in the legislative
assembly, and was instrumental in securing the
eeparation and independence of Victoria and
Queensland from New South Wales. He founded
and edited at Sydney at various times several secu-
lar weekly papers, and also published several works,
the chief of which is his Historical and SlalUticat

AraiMni of Nan South WaU* (2 vols.. I.attlaD, UH;

4th ed. revised, 2 vole., 1874).

Bibuouhapht: Coniult his BrUJ Sittdt V ■« Prliir
iowl.'S'.Syi.aey.lKJa: G. B. Bsitoo. />»■( nd/>na<
JVru Simtk Wala. ib. 1800: DNB. xnriL W-«D.

LAHG, JOHll MAKSHALL : Chtirch of Stodial:
b. at GEassford (12 m. s.e- of Glasgow). Laoaik-
shire. May H, 1834; d. at Aberdeen May 2. im
He studied at tbe L'niveraity of Glasgow (ILL,
1856), and became minister of St. Nicholaa (Em),
Aberdeen 1856; Fyvie, Aberdeenshire, 1859; Andn-
ston Church, Glasgow 1866; Moraingaide Pvak.
Edinbuigh 1868, and Bnrony Parish, GlMgow ISTJ.
After 1900 he was vice-chancellor and princip*] i
the L'niversity of Aberdeea. He was modntu
of the Church of Scotland in 1S93, presidenl of tit
Alliance of Reformed Churches in 1899, and Biird
Lecturer in I<>00-01. In theology be described hio-
self as "holding the great Christian verities; libcnl
in attitude as to creeds, criticiam, and matters id
entering into the substance of the faith." He wrou:
Hwjjien ami Wonif (Edinburgh, 1879); TheLaMSvf
per 0/ Our Lord (1881); Life: It it Worik Lmnjf
(London, 1883); Gidtan and the Judges (1S90); Ttt
Eipanman of Ike Chriitian Life (Ihiff te«tui«9. Edifr
burgh, 1897); and TheChvrch and Ha Social MttxiM
(Baird lectures, 1902), besides contributing Tht R*-
ligum* of Central Anuriai to the St. GiU* Ledum \<w
1881 (Edinburgh, 1881) and Tkf Anglican Chwrklo
the same series for 1883 (IS83>. and preparing the
homiletic sections on Luke for The Pulpit Comme*-
lary (London, 1889).

LANGE, lang'e, JOACHIM: German Lulheru
and leader of the Halle Pietists; b. at Gordelq^n
(86 m. w. of BerUn) Oct. 26, 1670; d. at Halle
May 7. 1744. After a youth of poverty, he begsn
his university career at Leipsio in I6S9, where he
came under the personal inSucooe of A. H. Franckz
and C. Thomasius. In 1690 he accompanied
Francke to Erfurt and thence, in 1691. to Bal^
On completing his theolc^ical studies in 1693. be
went to Berlin, where he became private tutor in
the house of F. R. von Canitz, whose poems ta
later edited under the title NAenetunden unlrr-
tckiedener Gedichte (Berlin, 1700). At the same
time he came' in close contact with Spener and
other leading Pietists. In 1696 he was called to
COstin as rector of the gymnasium there, but twti
years later he returned to Berhn as head of t!«
Fricdrichswerdersches Gymnasium, and was also
pastor of the Friedrichstadt Church from 1699.
From 1709 until his death he was &rst adjunct and
then full professor in the theological faculty of
Halle, of which he was rector in 1721-22 and 1731-
1732. Despite the learning, piety, and discipline be
had evinced at Berlin, and notwithstanduig the
immense popularity of his earlier years at Halle,
he had few pupils after 1730. His lectures, though
chiefly on dogmatic and moral theology, also in-
cluded exegetics ond, for a time, asoetjcs.

Lange's literary activity was more potent and
lasting than his academic work, but of his long list
of writings (even an incomplete catalogue number-
ing ninety-five) only those most important for the-
ology can be mentioned here. He began his career
aa an author by hia Idea tliEologia peaudorlhodoxa.

411

tlEUGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

apectatim SchdviffiancB (Berlin, 1706), first as an
appendix to J. W. Zierold's Synopna verUatia, and
in the following year as a separate work. He then
assailed the Unachuldige Nachrichtenf edited by
V. E. L^techer, the orthodox leader, after 1702,
with his Anfrichtige Nackricht van der Unechtheit
der sogenanrUen UnachtUdigen Nachrichten (5 vols.,
Leipsic, 1707-14). His chief attack on the or-
thodox, however, was his Aniibarbarua orthodoxies
dogmoHco-hermeneuHcus (4 parts, Berlin, 1709-11);
while in his Richtige MiUeUtnuse (4 vols., Halle,
1712-14) he sought to combat the errors and ex-
travagances of his fellow Pietists. He again at-
tacked LOscher in the name of the theological
faculty of Halle with his Die Gestalt des Kreuz-
reicha Christi in seiner UnachiUd, etc. (Halle, 1713);
and when his opponent sought peace with Halle
in 1716 and 1719, it was Lange whose stubborn
attitude prevented any reconciliation. Lange now
engaged in a controversy with the philosopher
Christian Wolfif (q.v.), who had been appointed
professor at Halle in 1706. Wolfif's prorectorial
address on the moral philosophy of the Chinese
(July 12, 1721), declaring that unaided human
reason could attain to moral truths, was bitterly
offensive to the theological faculty, and Lange, not
only by using his court influence to brand Wolfif's
determinism and atheism as perilous to the State,
but especially by his Causa Dei aaveraua cUheiamum
el pseudophUoaophiam pnBaertim Stoicamt Spinozi-
anam et Wdfianam (Halle, 1723), secured his oppo-
nent's banishment in 1723. Yet despite this tri-
umph, which was followed by a series of polemics,
such as the Kurze Darsiellung der Orundadtze der
Wolff' achen Philoaophie (Halle, 1736), could not
prevent Wolff's return in 1740, while Lange was
prohibited from making further attacks.

Lange's writings, though highly esteemed by
his contemporaries, have now only a historical
value. His works on church history, systematic
theology, and exegesis are exemplified by his Hia-
toria eccleaiaatica Veteria el Novi Teatamenti (Halle,
1722); (Economia aaluHa evangdique dogmoHca el
moralia (1728); and Hefmeneutica aacra (Berlin,
1733), and his two comprehensive works on the
Bible, Bibliachea Licht und Recht (7 vols., Halle,
1729-38), and Hauainbd (2 vols., Leipsic, 1743).
As an author of pietistic hymns he is best known
by his O Jesu, aOaaea Licht, nun iat die Nacht ver-
gangen, and Herr, vxinn wirat Du Zion batten f

(Georo MCllbr.)

Biblioqrapht: The chief aoiirce is the autobiofcraphy,
Halle. 1744. Conault further: C. W. F. Walch. Hutorie
der Ketaereien . . . und ReligionMireitigkeiUn, i. 844 eqq.,
Leipaic. 1762; A. Ritsohl. Ottchichte de9 PittiMmuM, i. 280-
660. Bonn. 1884; W. Schrader. Ofchuhts der Friedrich^
UnivertitM tu HaUe, i. 133-135. 200-212. 307-320. Ber-
Un. 1894.

LANGE, JOHANH PETER: German theologian
and ex^gete of the Evangelical school; b. on a
farm in the parish of Sonnbom, near Elberfeld,
Prussia, Apr. 10, 1802; d. at Bonn July 8, 1884.
His father was a farmer and wagoner and brought
his son up in the same occupations, but allowed
him to indulge his passion for reading. He stud-
ied at the gymnasium in DOsseldorf 1821-22 and
the University of Bonn, where he was particularly

influenced by Nitzsch, 1822-25. He became assist-
ant minister at Langenbei^g, near Elberfeld, 1825;
Reformed pastor of Wald, near Solingen, 1826; of
Langenbei^g, 1828; and of Duisburg, 1832. At
Duisburg he attracted attention by his articles in
Hengstenberg's Evangeliache Kirchemeilung and
other periodicals, by his poems, and by his book
{7e6er den geachichtlichen Charakter der kanoniachen
Evangelien, intheaondere der Kindheitageachichte
Jeau; mil Beziehung auf " daa Ldyen Jeau von D.
F. Strauaa'' (Duisburg, 1836). In 1841, after
Strauss had been prevented from taking his pro-
fessorship of theology at Zurich (see Strauss,
David Friedrich), Lange was called to the posi-
tion. Here he elaborated his Leben Jeau nach den
Evangdien (5 vols., Heidelbei^g, 1844-47; Eng.
transl., 6 vols., Edinburgh, 1864, 4 vols., Philadel-
phia, 1872), a positive refutation of the famous
work of Strauss, which had a wide circulation and
a marked effect upon the subsequent literature on
the subject. In 1854 he succeeded Domer as pro-
fessor of dogmatic theology at Bonn. In 1860 he
became consistorial councilor.

Lange was small of stature, had a strong consti-
tution, a benignant face and bright eye. He was
simple in habits, genial, full of kindness, wit, and
humor, and was always fully alive to the religious,
literary, and social questions of the day. He was
a poet as well as a theologian, his mind teeming with
new ideas, often fanciful, but always interesting
and suggestive. Some of his compositions have
gone into the hymn-book. As theologian he was
one of the most original and fertile authors of the
nineteenth century. His theology is Biblical and
Evangelical — catholic. His Theologiach-homiletiachea
Btbdxoerk (16 parts on the New Testament, Biele-
feld, 1857-71, 20 parts on the Old Testament,
1865-76) in its English form (ed. Philip Schaff, 25
vols, including an additional vol. on the Apocrypha
by E. C. Bissell, New York and Edinburgh, 1864-
1874 new ed. 1886) made his name familiar in
England and America. He originated the plan,
engaged about twenty contributors, and commented
himself on Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers,
Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi, Matthew, Mark, John,
Romans, and Revelation, giving original and bril-
liant homiletical hints. Other works worthy of
mention are: Bibliache Dicktungen (2 vols., Elber-
feld, 1832-34); Daa Land der HerrlichkeU (M5rs,
1838); VermiachU Schri/ten (4 vols., 1840-41; new
series, 3 vols., Bielefeld, 1860-64); ChriaUiche Dog-
matik (part i., Philoaophiache Dogmatik, Heidelberg,
1849; part ii., Poaitive DognuUikj 1851; part iii.,
Polemik und Irenik, 1852); Vom Oelberge, geiatliche
Dichtungen (Frankfort, 1853); Daa apoaioliache
ZeiUiUer (2 vols., Brunswick, 1854); Orundriaa
der theologiachen EncyklopOdie (Heidelberg, 1877);
Orundriaa der bibliachen Hermeneutik (1878); Qrundr-
riaa der chriatlichen Ethik (1878); Orundriaa der
Bibdkunde (1881).

(PhIUP SCHAFPf.) D. S. SCHAPF.
BiBUOORAPHT : p. Sohaff. Oermany; iU UnivereUiea, The-
ology and Relioion, pp. 381-388. New York, 1867; Worit
der Erinnerung an , , . J, P. Lange, Bonn, 1884.

LANGEH, lOng^en, JOSEPH: German Old Cath-
olic; b. at Cologne June 8, 1837; d. at Bonn July

liftxitfaet

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

418

13, 1901. He studied in Bonn, and was ordained
to the Roman Catholic priesthood in 1859. After
being curate in Wervelinghoven, near Neuss, for a
year, he was chaplain and lecturer at the Roman
Catholic theological institute at Bonn until 1861,
when he became privat-docent for New-Testaitfent
exegesis in the imiversity. He was appointed pro-
fessor extraordinary in 1864, and full professor in
1867. Before his break with Roman Catholicism
in 1870, he published Die deiUerokanoniachen StOcke
dea Bucke8 Esther (Freiburg, 1862); Die letzten
Lebenatage Jesu (1864); Das Judentum in Palds-
tina zur Zeit Christi (1866); and Grundriss der Ein-
leitung in das Neue Testament (1868). In the latter
work the author's divergence from the rising ultra-
montane school became manifest, and the second edi-
tion, though essentially identical with the first, could
no longer appear at Freiburg, but was published
at Bonn in 1873. It was natural that Langen should
join the protest against Ultramontanism (q.v.),
and with his colleagues at Bonn he was suspended
and excommimicated by the arehbishop of (Cologne
in 1872. He took an active part in the oiganiza-
tion of the Old Catholic Church, drew up the Old
Catholic catechism and the Leitfaden fur den Re-
ligionsunterricht an den hdheren Schulen, and was
president of the committee appointed for the theo-
logical interpretation of the question of union with
the Greek Chureh. When the fifth Old Catholic
synod in 1878 annulled the obligation of celibacy,
he retired from pastoral activity and thenceforth
took part in Old Catholic church-life only on special
occasions.

Becoming, through stress of circumstances, a
historian instead of an exegete, Langen now wrote
the book which was to be at once the scientific
basis of Old Catholicism and the justification of
opposition to Vaticanism, Das vatikanische Dogma
von dem Universal-Episkopat und der Unfehlbar-
keit des Papstes in seinem Verhdltnis zum Neuen
Testament und zur kirchlichen Ueberlieferung (3
parts, Bonn, 1871-73). To this same period be-
longs Die Kirchenvdter und das Neue Testament
(1874); but the chief work of his later life was his
Geschichte der rdmischen KirchCy quellenmdssig dar-
gestelU (4 vols., 1881-93), which extends to the
death of Innocent III. (1216) and forms the
historic counterpart of his more theoretical Vati-
kanisches Dogma, He promised also a supple-
mentary volmne which should contain a r6sum6
of the history of the papal power from the death
of Innocent to modern times, but this, though it
probably exists in manuscript, has never appeared.
In his studies on the development of the papacy
Langen wrote also Die Klemensromane (Gotha,
1890), while as an advocate of union between the
Old Catholics and the Greek Church he wrote
Die trinitarische Lehrdifferenz zwischen der abend-
Idndischen und morgenldndischen Kirche (Bonn,
1876) and Johannes von Damaskus (Gotha, 1879).

Although opinions upon Langen's scholarship
differ, in great part because of the fundamental di-
vergence of the points of view of Evangelical and
Old Catholic thought, he was, at all events, an in-
spiring teacher, despite the fact that personally
he was solitary, strongly pessimistic, and fre-

quently over-severe in his jud^^ment oi men and
conditions. (L. K. Gqbte.)

Bibuoorapht: Consult the literature under Ou> Cathousm.

LANGTOH, STEPHEH: Archbishop of Canter-
bury; b. in England (probably in Linoolnshire) c.
1150; d. at Slindon (50 m. s.w. of London), Sus-
sex, July 9, 1228. He studied at the University of
Paris and lectured there on theology till 1206,
when Innocent III., with whom he had formed i
friendship at Paris, called him to Rome and msde
him cardinal-priest of St. Chrysogonus. Hu piety
and learning had already won him prebends at
Paris and York and he was recognised as the fore-
most English churchman. On the death of Hu-
bert Walter, archbishop of Canterbury (1205),
some of the younger monks elected to the see
Reginald, the subprior, while another faction under
pressure from King John chose John de Grey,
bishop of Norwich. Both elections were quashed
on appeal to Rome and sixteen monks of Chrut
Churclk, who had gone to Rome empowered to act
for the whole chapter, were ordered to proceed to
a new election in presence of the pope. Langtoo
was chosen and was consecrated by the pope at
Viterbo June 17, 1207.

There followed a struggle between John and In-
nocent III. (q.v.) which brought great misery upoo
imhappy England. The king proclaimed that any
one who recognized Stephen as archbishop should
be treated as a public enemy, and expelled the
Canterbury monks (July 15, 1207), who were now
unanimous in support of Stephen. In Mar., 1206,
Innocent placed England imder the interdict and
at the close of 1212, after repeated negotiations had
failed, he passed sentence of deposition against
John, committing the execution of the sentence to
Philip of France in Jan., 1213. In May John
yielded and in July Stephen (who since his con-
secration had lived at Pontigny in France) and his
fellow exiles returned to England. His first epis-
copal act was to absolve the king, who swore that
unjust laws should be repealed and the liberties
granted by Henry I. shoiild be observed — an oath
which he almost immediately violated. Stephen
now became a leader in the struggle against John
and none of the barons did more than he to rescue
England from John's tyranny. At a coimcil of
churchmen at Westminster, Aug. 25, 1213, to which
certain lay barons were invited, he read the text
of the charter of Henry I. and suggested a demand
for its renewal. In the sequel, largely through
Stephen's efforts, John was forced to grant the
Great Charter (June 15, 1215). Since John now
held his kingdom as a fief of the Holy See the pope
espoused his cause and excommunicated the barons.
For refusing to publish the excommimication Ste-
phen was suspended from all ecclesiastical functions
by the papal commissioners and on Nov. 4 this sen-
tence was confirmed by the pope, although Stephen
appealed to him in person. He was released from
suspension the following spring on condition that
he keep out of England till peace was restored and
he remained abroad till May, 1218. Meanwhile
both Innocent and John died and all parties in
England rallied to the support of Henry III.

413

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Laziffnat

Stephen continued his work unremittingly and
effectively for the political and ecclesiastical inde-
pendence of England. In 1223 he again appeared
as the leader and spokesman of the barons, who
demanded of Henry the confirmation of the char-
ter. He went to France to demand for Henry
from Louis VIII. the restoration of Normandy ,
and later he supported the king against rebellious
barons. He obtained a promise from Pope Hono-
rius III. that during his lifetime no resident legate
should be again sent to England, and won other
concessions from the same pontiff favorable to the
English Church and exalting his see of Canterbury.
Of great importance in the ecclesiastical history of
England was a coimcil which Stephen opened at
Osney Apr. 17, 1222; its decrees, known as the
Constitutions of Stephen Langton, are the earliest
provincial canons which are still recognized as
binding in English church courts.

Stephen was a voluminous writer. Glosses,
commentaries, expositions, and treatises by him
on almost all the books of the Old Testament, and
many sermons, are preserved in manuscript at Lam-
beth Palace, at Oxford and Cambridge, and in
France. The only one of his works which has been
printed, besides a few letters (in The Historical
Works of Gervaae of CarUerbvry, ed. W. Stubbs, ii.
London, 1880, RolU Series^ no. 71, appendix to
preface) is a Tractatus de tranakUione Beati Thoma
(in J. A. Giles's Thomas of Canterbury, Oxford,
1845), which is probably an expansion of a sermon
he preached in 1220, on occasion of the translation
of the relics of St. Thomas (Thomas Becket); the
ceremony was the most splendid which had ever
been seen in England. He also wrote a life of
Richard I., and other historical works and poems
are attributed to him. It was probably Stephen
Langton who first divided the Bible into chapters
(see Bible Text, III., § 1).

Biblioorapht: Sources for a life are a Canlerbxiry Chron-
icle in Stubba's Gennue of Canterbury, ut sup.; Roger of
Wendover, ed. H. O. Coxe, 5 vols., London, 1841-49; the
works of Matthew of Paris (edited in RolU Seriea); Ralph
of Coggleshall, De moUbue Anolicanva eub Johanne, in
Bouquet, Reeueil, xviii. 59-120; and the L^e of Inno-
cent III. in MPL, ccxiv.-ccxv. Modem sketches (a oom-
plete Life is still lacking) are: M. Pattison, in lAvee of
Englieh Sainte, ed. J. H. Newman, vol. x., London, 1846;
W. F. Hook, in Livee of the Archbiahope of Canierburj/, ib.
1860-76; C. E. Maurice. London, 1872; R. C. Jenkins,
Canterbury, ib. 1880 (on the supremacy of Canterbury);
F. Phillips, in Fathere oftKeEnolieh Churdt, 1 ser., ib. 1891;
and DNB, xxxii. 122-128. Consult also J. H. Overton,
The Church in England, i. 220-231, London, 1897; W. R.
W. Stephens, The Enoliah Church {1066-1279), ib. 1901;
and in general the works on the history of England deal-
ing with his period.

LANGUET, lan"g6', HUBERT: French diplomat
and Reformer; b. at Viteaux (21 m. w. of Dijon),
1518; d. at Antwerp Sept. 30, 1681. He entered
the University of Poitiers in order to study law,
but he was interested also in theology, history, and
natural and political science. He visited the uni-
versities of Padua and Bologna, and traveled in
Italy and Spain. He was greatly influenced by
Melanchthon's Loci theologiciy which put an end to
his doubts. In 1549 Languet went to Wittenberg,
where he was kindly received by Melanchthon as
a guest, frequently accompanying him on his

travels and being on intimate terms with his friends.
Expelled from France by the persecutions of the
Protestants, he settled at Wittenberg, spending the
winters there, but making extensive journeys in
the summer and fall. In 1559 Languet, on the
recommendation of Melanchthon, entered the serv-
ice of the elector of Saxony as diplomatic agent,
which position he held until 1577. The elector sent
him to various courts: to Paris, Vienna, Prague,
Frankfurt, Cologne, and the Netherlands. As a
friend of Melanchthon he opposed the growing
party of strict Lutherans; but still he did every-
thing in his power to reconcile the opposing par-
ties, even trying to effect the recognition of the
French Huguenots at the diet of Frankfurt in
1562, but without success. In May, 1561, he went
to France in order to bring about a closer connection
between the German princes and the French Protes-
tants, and was present at the Religious Ck)nference of
Poissy (q.v.). In 1562 he was in Antwerp; the
following years were spent in diplomatic journeys
to France and back to Saxony. In 1571 the elec-
tor sent him together with the ambassadors of other
Protestant princes of Germany to King Charles IX.
of France to congratulate him on the peace of St.
Germain. On this occasion Languet advocated the
equal recognition of both confessions, but the an-
swer was the night of St. Bartholomew; having
narrowly escaped death, he left France in Oct.,
1572, and returned there only once more, shortly
before his death. From 1573 to 1576 he was at the
court of Emperor Maximilian II., whom he accom-
panied on his various journeys. With the death of
Maximilian II. in 1576 his connection with the
court of Vienna was dissolved. The bitter feelings
against him as the friend of Melanchthon and a
Calvinist caused him to ask for dismissal from the
court. The elector granted his desire, but con-
tinued his salary. In 1577 he went to Cologne in
order to be nearer to the Netherlands, as he was
greatly attracted by William of Orange.

The leading idea of his diplomacy was that of
religious and civil liberty for the protection and
expansion of Protestantism. He did everything
in his power to advance the union of the Protestant
churches. The correspondence with the Elector
August of Saxony and with Mordeisen were edited
by T. P. Ludovicus under the title Arcana secvli
xvi. (Halle, 1699). Other collections of letters are
Epistola politiccB et hietoricct ad P. Sydnaeum
(Frankfort, 1633); EpiatoUe ad J, Camerarium,
Patrem et filium (GrOningen, 1646). His chief
work is VindicuB contra tyrannoa (Edinburgh
[Basel?], 1579). The book is divided into four
parts, each of which proposes and answers a ques-
tion: (1) Must God in a case of dispute be obeyed
rather than a ruler? (2) May a ruler who violates
the law of God and devastates the Church, be op-
posed? (3) How far, and with what right may it
be allowed to oppose a ruler who suppresses or des-
troys the state? (4) Have neighboring rulers a
right to assist a ruler oppressed by his subjects?

(Paul Tschackert.)

Bxbuoorapht: Accounts of the life have been written by
Philibert de la Mare. ed. T. P. Ludovicus. Halle. 1700;
Treitaohke. Leipsic. 1846; H. Chevreuil, Paris, 1856;
J. Blaiel, Broslau, 1872. Coniult further: G. von Polens,

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

Oadiidile del /raniOtii^Ltu CalvinUinu. iii.. BeilBce S,
pp. 434 Htq.. fi voLi.. Gotbs. ISAT-eD: 1. F. A. GUM. Cralo
Mn CraffOuim, Fmokfort, 1B60; O, Boholi. Hubert Jmi-
gutl all kurttirAiitctter BeriiAlenlatter and OmoihUct in
FrankrtiA IseO-Tt. Halle. IBTS.

LAiriGAH, lan'i-gon. JOHH: Irish Roman Cath-
olic; b. at Cashel (13 m. e.n.e. of Tipperary) 1758;
<i. at KinglM (3 m. n.n.w. of Dublin) July 7, 1828.
After a brilliant career at the Irish College in Rome
he became professor of Hebrew, ecctesiaatical his-
tory, and divinity at the University of Padua in
1789. but returned to Ireland in 1796 and secured
the clmir of sacred history and Hebrew in the Royal
College of St. Patrick, Maynoolh. A dispute with
the biahop of Cork, who BUspected him of being a
JaoBcnist, soon resulted in his resigning his pn>-
fessorship. He was then engaged by the Royal
Dublin Society as assistant librarian, and was later
promoted to the post of librarian and general liter-
«ry HUpervisor. In 1813 he began to show symp-
toms of cerebral decay, and in 1821 he was removed
to a private asylum at Finglas. His principal
works are the unfinished ItwOitutioaet BiblieiB (vol.
i., Paria, 1793): and An ErcUnasHcai Hiatory of
Ireland . . . lo ihe Beginning of the TkirUftOh
Century (4 vols., Dublin, 1822; 2d ed., 1829).
BTBLiaaHAFBT: W. J. Fit UHlrick, /ruA WiU and WarUtiei.

iiuliulinD Dr. /.(initran. Atl Lift and rjmii, Dublin, 1ST3;

DNB. ixiii. 134-138.

LAHSDELL, HENRY: Church of England; b.
at Tenterden (17 m. s.e. of Maidstone), Kent, Jan.
10, 1841. He studied at St. John's College, High-
bury, 1865-67, and became curate of Greenwich
in 1807, metropolitan associate secretary of the
Irish Church Missionary Society in 1869, and was
curate of St. Germans, Blackheath, 1880-82. He
was honorary secretary of the Church Homiletical
Society 1874-86, curate of Si. Peter's, Eltham,
1885-86, and lecturer at St. James', Plumstead,
1890-91. Since 1892 he bus been chaplain of Mor-
den College, Blackheath, London. He has been
an extensive traveler, not only touring the worlil,
but also penetrating deeply into Central Asia, and
iiaa done amateur missionary work in northern
Europe, Hungary, and Armenia. He has written:
Through Sxberia (2 vols., London, 18S2); Russian
Central Asia, including Kuldja, Bokhara, Khiva,
and Merv (2 vols., 1885); Through Central Ama
(1887); Chinene Central Atia (2 vols., 1893); and
The Sacred Tenth: or. Stuiliai in Tithe-Gifing. An-
ient and Modem (1906).

LAODICEA, iS-od"i-M'a, SYNOD OF: A Phryg-
ian synod held about 360, its acts being placed
between those of Antioch in 341 and Constantinople
in 381. The date may be somewhat more closely
defined by the seventh canon, which mentions the
Photiniana between the Novatians and the Quur-
todecimans; compare the eighth, which alludes to
the Montanists. The number of those present is
aot given, but Gratian speaks of thirty-two bish-
ops, and names as the chief author of the canons
Theodosius. who is rightly identified with a, Euno-
mian or Semiarian bishop of the Lydian Philadelphia
in 363-^4 according lo Philoatoi^ius (viii. 3) and
in 359, according to Epiphanius (Haer, Ixxiii. 26).
The Laodiceao canons are conoented with penanoe

(i.-ii.), the conditions and requirements at il«
clerical office {iii.-v.; cf. xi.— xii., xL-xHv.. Ki.-
Iviii.). relations with heretics (vi.-x., xxxi.-xxxiT.I,
divine wofship (xiii.-xxviii.) , preparatioo for b»p-
tism and fasting before Easter (xlv.— Iii.). and Ibf
relation of Christians to Jews and Gentiles (nii.-
DOtix.). The mention of female elders in the
seventh canon and of " viaitors " in the Gfty-
seventh is also noteworthy. The repetitions in lit
canons (cf. xxxi. «ith 3C., xuciii, with vi„ Tliii
with xxii., and xxxiv. with ix.) show that they uf
a compilation or compend of an older collection.

(Eo.

I Hgi

le. Concitita^eacJtirJJt, i.

; T. ZKhu. GtaeAUhU da naiiatia^

1B3 sqq., Leipeic. 103 mn.l DCA. il

LAOS. See SlAM.

LAO-TSZE, la'6"-tse": The reputed founder ol
the Chinese religion called " TAoism. " He wu
bom about 604 B.C., near the present Kwei-te, io
Ho-nan province, China; d. at an unknown place
and time, probably at a great a^. Id 517 b.c. be
met Confucius, so that he was alive at that time.
He was keeper of the archives at the court of Chiu.
and it was to learn something about the andent
rites and ceremonies of ChAu that C-onfucius cam*
to him. Foreseeing the downfall of ChAu. L4o re-
tired to u far country, stopping, however, lonf
enough with Yin Hsfi. the warden of the gate, to
write for him the remarkable volume, in five thoo-
sand characters, on the subject of TSo (the " Way "I
and Teh (" Virtue "). called Tilo Teh King. Lio
was a philosopher, as his name (" the Old Pbilceo-
pher ") implies. His great work, THo Teh King, u
translated in Lcggc's Chinese Classics, in Chalmer'i
SpectUations of the " Old PhUoaopher " Lau-Ui€, and
in C^rus' Lao Tsze. It is, however, not throi^b-
out intelligible even to native Chinese scholars.
much less to other readers. It may be briefly de-
scribed as an ethical treatise, in which the dutie*
of the individual and the Stale are set forth. It
lays great stress upon humility and upon gentle-
ness, and, in one sentence at least, approacbet
Christian ethics. " It is the way of TAo not to act
from any personal motive, to conduct affairs with-
out feeling the trouble of them, to taste without
being aware of the flavor, to account the great ai
small, and the small as great, to recompense in-
jury with kindness." LAo seems to stand for ex-
treme simplicity, even for the restriction of leftm-
ing, since when people have too much knowledge
they are difficult to govern; even the use of knotted
cords as means of record seemed better than writ-
ten characters. Hss connection with Taoism is
supposititious. The founders of that religion sim-
ply used his name and part of the title of his book
to give their ideas and practise currency. See
Cbina, I., 2.

Bibliimhafht: S. Julicn. Le Livre dt la vait tt dt, la Vert».
Pnrix. 1842; J. ChBlmen, Thi SpiralalianM on M,U-
phl/ia, Folitu and Muralilv of Iht ''Old PMIotot*ir."
I^ndnn. 1868; T, Watlers. Ijio-Tm, o Shidi/ in Ckiiiim
I'hiUuopky, Hang Knng. 1S70; P. CBnin. Laa Tar. Cta-
caco. 1903; 1. W. HcysiuCBr. Lao Tiu, lite LkqIiI of Ckim.
Ptiladflphi*. 1B03,

LA PLACE, JOSUE DE. See Placetts, Josda.

416

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Lapsed

LAPPS: A people of Finno-iigric race, who
from very early time have wandered in the north-
ern parts of Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Rub-
sia. In the middle of the thirteenth century
Christianity began to be propagated among those
in Norway, most of whom, however, long retained
their heathen customs. More effective measures
for their conversion were taken in the seventeenth
century by Erik Bredal, bishop of Trondhjem
(1643-72), and at the beginning of the eighteenth
by Thomas von Westen (d. 1727; see Wbstbn,
l^OMAS von), called the apostle of the Lapps.
Toward the end of the eighteenth century the mis-
sion declined, but new interest was awakened by
the work of Niels Stockfleth (d. 1866), who trans-
lated the New Testament into Lappish (1840).
The religious and moral life of the Lapps improved
much from this time.

In Sweden (q.v.) the Lapps came in contact with
Christianity during the late Middle Ages. Several
of the Vasa kings took much interest in the attempt
to Christianize them, especially Charles IX. (1604-
1611), who laid the foundation of an ecclesiastical
organization in Lapland. In the records of the
riksdags during the eighteenth century debates
on the Lappish missions are often met with. By
royal ordinance of Oct. 3, 1723, it was enacted
that all the clei^ in Lapland should know the
native language, that a school should be opened
near all the lai^ger chim^hes, and that books should
be printed in Lappish at public expense. In 1739 a
special board was created to administer the Lap-
pish mission. Liberal grants from the riksdag
and private donations furnished a solid founda-
tion. About 1740 several itinerant missionaries were
appointed to teach the Lapps in their homes.
One of the first missionaries was Per Hdgstrdm
(d. 1784). Per Fjellstrdm, pastor at Lycksele (d.
1764) published a catechism (1738), a church man-
ual and hymn-book (1744), and the New Testa-
ment (1755) in Lappish. As early as 1735 a
special school-law for Lapland was enacted. The
zealous missionary work among the Lapps of Swe-
den during the eighteenth century bore good fruit
in better religious and moral conditions and an ad-
vance in civilization. Of the clergymen who
worked in Lapland during the nineteenth century,
the brothers Petrus Lsstadius (d. 1841) and Lars
Levi Lsestadius (d. 1861) are best known. New
regulations for the church organization in Lapland
were made Apr. 14, 1846, and Jan. 31, 1896. The
entire Bible was published in Lappish in 1811.

What has been said of the Lapps in Sweden ap-
plies also in essentials to those in Finland. Until
1809 the Kemi Lapps were subject to the Swedish
crown. Missionaries of the Greek Church began to
work among the Lapps in Russia in the sixteenth
century and continucKl in the following centuries.
Most of the Russian Lapps have adopted the Greek
faith, but their Christianity often consists merely
in an outward observance of the ceremonies of the
Church. Elof Haller.

Bibuoorapht: A. Meylan, Hitt. de VH>anoflU(Uion dM
Lapona, Paris, 1863; J. Vahl, Lappeme og den laptk* Mi*-
•ion, Copenhacen, 1866; G. Scott. T€U»tr6m and Lap-
land . . . xoUh Introductory Sketch of the Stockholm Mie^
eion, London. 1868; A. H. Keane, The Lappe; thmr

Orioin and Cuetome, ib. 1885; E. Haller, Sveneka Kyrkane
mieeion i Lappmarken, Stookholm, 1806.

LAPSED: In the broadest sense, Christians who
have fallen into mortal sin and are, therefore, lia-
ble either to exconmiunication or to penance.
Conmionly, however, the term is restricted to
Christians (or catechumens) who, in periods of per-
secution, either disavowed their faith publicly and
explicitly, or, by means not recognized by Chris-
tian morals, eluded their duty of profession. There
were different opinions in the ancient Church both
with respect to the definition of the act itself, and
with respect to its disciplinary treatment. The
question ran through a long development and was
not finally decided imtil long after the time of Dio-
cletian, but the controversy reached its climax in
the third century, especially in the years of the
Decian and Valerian persecutions.

Open profession is demanded in 'the Gospels,
and a verdict of condemnation is pronoimoed against
such as disavow their faith (Matt. x. 33; Mark
viii. 38; Luke ix. 26, xii. 9). The Epistle to the
Hebrews and the First Epistle of Peter, as well as
the messages to the seven churches in the Apoo-
alypse, exhort to constancy imder the

Apostasy sufferings of persecution. During the
under first century, however, the danger of
Penectttk>n. relapses into paganism or Judaism
was not great. Christian apologists
after Justin state that, in general, the Christians
continued faithful; and Roman and Greek writers
of the second century, such as Marcus Aurelius,
Lucian, Celsus, and others often speak of the fanat-
ical contempt of death evinced by the Christians.
Indeed, a passion for martyrdom grew up in the
congregations, but was regarded with dissatisfac-
tion by the more sober and self-controlled mem-
bers. That martyrdom might become a duty was
generally accepted throughout the Church, the only
difference of opinion being with respect to the
point at which the duty b^an. Some considered
it legitimate to flee from persecution and martyr-
dom, while the Montanists declared that every
true Christian should seek martyrdom. It must be
borne in mind that during the second and third
centuries the danger of relapse was augmented.
Many fell away, and their number increased with
each new persecution. The Shepherd of Hermas
contains many striking illustrations of the effect
which the persecutions of Trajan and Hadrian had
on the congregation of Rome, enumerating the
various motives of apostasy, and noting that re-
lapses also occurred in perfectly quiet times. The
persecutions of Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aure-
lius likewise had their lapsed, while Tertullian's
Defuga in pereecuiione^ De corona, and other works
were written with special reference* to the perse-
cution by Septimius. What a disorganizing influ-
ence the Decian and Valerian persecutions exer-
cised is apparent from the letters of C3rprian (q.v.)
and his treatise De lapsis. Eusebius throws a veil
over the lapsed in the persecution of Diocletian,
yet it is evident that the number of apostates was
large, and denial was only too frequent in the last
persecution, instituted by Julian, although the
lapsed were soon permitted to reenter the churches.

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

After 250, different claMes of lapfled were dis-
tingiJMhed: merijirjati, who had sacrificed to the
godn; tkvrificati, who had burned incense to them;
tibeUatieif who by bribery had procured a certifi-
cate showing that they had already
Claitetof fulfilled all requirementii; and tradi-
tht Laptcd. teres, who ha«i either actually surren-
Treatment dered their sacred books and vessels,
of Them, or had pretended to do so by substi-
tuting others for them. At the same
time a change took place in the disciplinary treat-
ment of the lapsed. In the second century it was
generally accepted throughout the Church that a
Cliristian who had relapsed into idolatry could not
be readmitted to the congregation. The most sin-
cere repentance was not sufficient; only open pro-
fession under a new trial and martyrdom could blot
out the guilt. In the middle of the third century
milder views were adopted. In 250 Cyprian and
the Roman clergy still felt uncertain about the
question, but gradually a more lenient practise pre-
vailed in the churches of Carthage, Rome, Alexan-
dria, and Antioch, and between 251 and 325 a com-
plete system of penitential rules was elaborated by
the bishops. Not only was a distinction made be-
tween sacrificali and libeUatici, but regard was paid
to the individual circimistanoes of each case, thus
gradually transforming the penitential system into
one of casuistry. The oldest and most important
of such penitential decisions are the Liber de pceni-
UrUia of Petrus Alexandrinus, the first four canons
of the Synod of Elvira (306), the first nine of the
Synod of Ancyra (314), the thirteenth of the Synod
of Aries (314 or 316), and the tenth to the four-
teenth of the Council of Nicsa (325).

(A. Harnack.)

BiBLiooRAPiir: C. Wesaely, Lea Pttu Aneiena MonumenU du
ehriaUaniame icrita aw papyrua, Paris, 1908 (contains at
th« beffinninff a series of documents of the highest value for
this subject; ; J. Marinus, De diaciplina in adminiatratione
aacramenti petnitentia, Paris, 1651; H. Klee, Die Beichte,
Frankfort, IH'Jl; M. J. Routh, Reliquia aacra, ir. 21-22.
116-116. 255. 256. 6 vols.. Oxford, 1846-48; J. Langen,
Oeachichte der romiaehen Kirche. i. 279 aqq., 300 sqq.,
Bonn. 1881; J. H. Kurtz, Church Hiatory, i. 82-83. New
York, 1889; Hef^le. ConcilienoeachichU, and Eng. trans].,
vol. i. passim; Noander. Chriatian Church, i. 226-246;
BchaflT, Chriatian Church, ii. 60 sqq., 76 sqq.; KL, i. 87-91.

LARDNER, lOrd'ncr, NATHANIEL: English
nonconformist; b. at Hawkhurst (42 m. s.e. of
London), Kent, June 6, 1684; d. there July 24,
1768. He studied in London, Utrecht, and Ley-
den, and in 1716 toured France, Belgium, and Hol-
land as the tutor of the son of Lady Treby, whom
he instructed from 1713 to 1721. After the death
of his patroness in 1721 he remained without a
position until 1729, his delivery being too dry and
lifeless to gain him the pulpit which he desired.
In 1729, however, he became assistant minister in
a Presbyterian chapel in London, and remained
there until 1751, when total deafness obliged him
to retire. The rest of his life was passed in seclu-
sion, although he maintained an active correspond-
ence with scholars at home and abroad.

Lardner's theological position may be defined as
rationalistic supematuralism, since it recognized
both the justification of reason and the necessity
of revelation. Believing that the original simplic-

ity of Evangelical doctrines had. been obscured
useless speculations, he sought to return to
and primitive truth. His primary object was i
proof of the truth of Christianity by historical cr
dsm, this being the basal concept of his chief wo
The Credibaity of the Gospel History (17 vob., U
don, 1727-57). This booic, at once profound a
unbiased, is divided into tvro parts, with a supp
ment as a third. The first divisicHi contains thi
facts mentioned in the Nevr Testament whidi i
confirmed by contemporary writers^ while in t
second portion, which is much tbe longer, the t
timonies of the Church Fathers of the first fc
centuries are collected and carefully weighed, I
sides being subjected to a thorough criticism whi
investigates their authenticity and determines th
date. The supplement discusses the canon of t
New Testament, which Lardner believed to ha
been settled long before the Synod of Laodio
He dated the synoptic Gospels and Acts in 64 a
the Johannine Gospel in 68. the latest book bei
Revelation, which he placed in d6. The date
the Epistles was relatively late, since they wi
¥mtten after the Gospel had been widely promi
gated. The Gospel of the Hebrews was a trai
lation of the Greek Matthew. Among his otl
works special mention may be made of the foUo
ing: A Vindication of Three of our Blessed Savum,
Miracles (1729); The Circumstances of the Jem
People (1743); A Large CoUection of Ancient Jr
ish and Heathen Testimonies to the Truth cf i
Christian Religion (4 vols., 1764-67); and partic
larly A Letter concerning the Logos (1759), whi<
brought upon him the charge of Socinianism.
Bibliographt: The baaal work on the life is the aDOO
moufl Memoir a of Lardner, London, 1760 (by J. Jenninir
Consult further the Life by A. Kippia. in toL L of t!
Worka of Lardner, London, 1788; L. Stephen, Hiat
Engliah Thought, passim. New York. 1881; and notk
listed in DNB, xxxiL 147-151.

LA ROCHELLE, CONFESSION OF. See Gaj

LiCAN Confession.

LARRABEE, lar'a-bi, WILLIAM HENRI

Methodist Episcopal; b. at Alfred, Me., Sept. 2(
1829. He studied at Indiana Asbury (now DePauw
University (B.A., 1845), and was admitted to th
bar, although he never practised. After ha\'ing beez
a teacher (1846-52), farmer, and clerk in the office os
the superintendent of public instruction in Indiana
he engaged in literary and editorial work. He wae
assistant editor of The Methodist (New York City)
1862-65 and 1870-77, of The Brooklyn Daily Union
1865-70, and of The Popular Science Monthly 1880-
1901. Since 1880 he has conducted the department
on " Life in the Churches " in The Christian Ad-
vocaie. He has likewise contributed to various en-
cyclopedias, particularly to Bishop M. Simpson's
Cyclopedia of Methodism (Philadelphia, 1878), and
has written Education through the Agency of Religious
Organizations (St. Louis, 1904); How the World was
Made (Plainfield. N. J., 1906); and Volcanoes and
Earthquakes (1906).

LA SALLE, JEAN BAPTISTE DE. See Chri».

TiAN Brothers.

LASAULX, la"86l', AMALIA VON: German

Sister of Charity known as ** Sister Augustine ";

417

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Xiapaad

b. at CobleDz Oct. 19, 1815; d. at VaUendar (3 m.
n.n.e. of Coblenz) Jan. 28, 1872. She entered the
mother-house of the Sisters of Charity at Nancy
1838, served in the hospital of Aiz-la-Chapelle
1842-49, and was mother-superior of the Hospital
of St. John at Bonn 1849-71. During the wars of
Prussia with Denmark (1864), Austria (1866), and
France (1870-71) she cared for the wounded and
displayed no slight organizing ability. Her theo-
logical instruction was received from disciples of
Georg Hermes (q.v.), and, like certain of the Bonn
professors, she refused to accept the decrees of the
Vatican (Council in 1870; she was deposed, 1871,
and transferred to Vallendar; when she died the
usual burial rites were denied to her remains.

Biblioorapht: Her life has been written by J. H. Reinkens,
Bonn. 1878. and H. Leooultre. Paris. 1879, Eng. transl.,
London. IS^. Consult also: Erinnerunoen an Amali€
von Ltuaulx, Qotha. 1878, Eng. transl., Sitter AuffuaHne,
London. 1880.

LAS CASAS, los ca'sOs, BARTOLOME DB:

Spanish missionary in the West Indies; b. at Se-
ville 1474; d. at Madrid July 31, 1566. He studied
the humanities and law at the imiversities of Se-
ville and Salamanca, and in 1502 accompanied the
Governor Ovando to Hispaniola. He remained
there eight years, administering the allotment (re-
partimierUo) which had fallen to his father, till
1510, when he entered upon the priest's vocation.
While in Cuba in 1512 he became familiar with the
harshness of the conquistador ea, and even then, as
throughout his life, he appeared as the protector of
the natives. That he might better fulfil this part,
he returned to Spain in 1515 and obtained a com-
mission drawn up in the name of the king empower-
ing him to " watch over . . . the liberty, the good
and proper treatment, the bodily and the spiritual
weal of the Indians " (text in Fabi^, p. 58), along
with the title of protector universal de todoa los
IndioB, Repeated opposition compelled him to
frequent journeys to Spain. From the University
of Salamanca he received a pronouncement to
the effect that it is capital heresy to deny the In-
dians' capacity for conversion. He hiniself won
the Indians' confidence to such a degree that at
his word alone they often volimtarily did what the
Spanish lords could not achieve by force. Las
Casas wrought subsequently as bishop of Chiapa
in Mexico 1544-47. Since his efforts, supported by
ecclesiastical means of discipline, encroached far
too deeply upon affairs as the conquistadores had
shaped them to suit themselves, opposition to Las
Casas increased; and at home it was even led by
the historian Sepulveda, in the atrocious tract, De
justis belli catisis (prohibited in Spain, but printed
in Rome). Against this. Las Casas retorted with
Brevisima relacion de la destruccion de las Indias
(Seville, 1552). With more detail he treats the ex-
periences of his own life in his main work, Historia
de las Indias (first printed in Collection de doccu-
mentos inidiios para la historia de EspaHa, vols.
Ixii.-lxvi., Madrid, 1875-76). It is not open to
proof that Las Casas is involved in the responsi-
bility for the introduction of negro slavery into
America (cf. Apologie de B.de las Casas in Mimoires
de la dasse des sciences morales . . , de VInstittU

VI.— 27

de France, vol. iv. (5 vols., Paris, 1798-1804).
There is an incomplete edition of his works, with
a sketch of his life, by J. A. Llorente (2 vols., Paris,
1822). K. Benrath.

Biblioobapht: The life of Las Casas has been written by
M. Pio, Bologna, 1618; by Llorente as an introduction to
the (Euvre9 de Lot Casas, Paris, 1822; A. Helps, London,
1868; C. Gutierres, Madrid, 1878; R. Baumstark, Frei-
burg, 1879; A. M. Fabie, in CoUeeHon de documerUoe inedi-
toe, with an appendix of hitherto unprinted writings of
Las Casas, Madrid, 1870-80; F. A. Mac Nutt, Bartholomew
Lae Caeae: hie lAfe, Apoetolatet and Writino; New York,
1909; KL, vii. 1437-1441. Consult also W. H. Presoott,
Conqueet of Mexico, book ii., chap, viii., appendix. New
YorlL, 1843 and often.

LASCO, las'c6, JOHANNES A JAN LASKI):
Polish reformer; b. probably at Lask (90 m. s.w.
of Warsaw), Poland, 1499; d. at Pinczow (120 m.
s. of Warsaw), Poland, Jan. 8, 1560. In 1510,
probably, the archbishop of Oracow, his uncle, re-
ceived him into his home, giving him an oppor-
tunity for pursuing humanistic studies at that
time flourishing in Cracow. In 1513 he accom-
panied the archbishop to Rome where a council
was to be held. He then entered the University
of Bologna, devoting himself to the study of the-
ology. In 1518 he returned to Poland where in
1521 he was consecrated priest and became dean
at the metropolitan church in Gneeen. But, per-
ceiving with dissatisfaction the deficiencies of his
church, in 1523 he gladly followed his brother on a
diplomatic mission which led them to Basel and
Paris. In 1524 he settled for some time at Basel,
where he became an intimate friend not only of
Erasmus, but also of other prominent men, who,
seized by the new intellectual and spiritual move-
ment, sooner or later joined the Reformation. He
became an enthusiastic humanist, seeing plainly
the deep-rooted defects of the Church and con-
vinced of her need of a thorough reform; but like
Erasmus he hoped that this might proceed from
within. During his absence the Reformation had
invaded Poland. By the king's order in 1526
Luther's writings were confiscated, and all men
suspected of importing them were seized. At this
critical time Lasco was called back to Poland; but
he labored ten years in vain, to bring order into
the confused conditions of the Church, imtil he
finally broke completely with the Roman Church,
resigning his offices and leaving the country. He
went first to Louvain and thence to Emden where
0)unte8s Anna, the regent of the country, en-
trusted him with the government of all the churches
in the country (1542). Lasco succeeded in im-
pressing upon the East Frisian Church the stamp
of his personality in such a way that Friesland for
a long time was called the northern Geneva. His
influence was felt also in neighboring territories, at
Wesel and thence up the Rhine to Heidelberg.
Although his success was obstructed by the vio-
lent opposition of the Lutherans, he remained true
to his convictions concerning the truth of the Gos-
pel. A few years later, in 1548, the Interim in-
duced him to leave Friesland. In 1550 he came to
England where the duke of Somerset, the lord-
protector, and Archbishop Cranmer, the primate,
took a decisive stand on the side of the Reforma-
tion. Soon his influence was felt in the Evangel-

I«a«oo

Xiatimer

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

418

ical development of the Church of England. The
king entrusted Lasco with the organization of a
congregation of all foreign Protestants in London.
It was acknowledged as a congregation independ-
ent from the government of the Church of Eng-
landy Lasco being its superintendent, assisted by
four clergjTiion. He wrote a confession (Confesaio
Londinerms) intended as a strong defense against
the sectarian tendencies of the foreigners, and this
was to be signed by every new member; for the
instruction of youth he used a catechism which he
had compiled in Enulcn and was not without in-
fluence upon the Hcidelbei^g catechism. Lasco ex-
ercised a decisive influence upon the English Church,
as well as upon his own, also by his highly impor-
tant work on the sacraments, Brevis et dilucida de
aacramentia ecclesice Chrisli tractatio (London, 1552).
But with the early death of Edward VI. in 1553
the whole work of Lasco broke in pieces. Mary
dissolved the congregation of foreigners and ex-
pelled them from the country. They wandered
from place to place, finding no rest, owing to the
dissensions between the adherents of the Refor-
mation. Even in Emden Lasco found no home.
He went to Frankfurt, where a part of the fugitive
congregation obtained an asylum, always and
everywhere taking pains to alleviate the dreary lot
of the fugitives' way to Ba^el, to defend the con-
fession of his brethren as well as their legal status
within the Church of the Reformation, and to warn
the whole assembly of Evangelicals to unite against
their conmion foe, the Roman Church. On an
urgent request from Poland he returned thither in
Dec, 1556, with the intention of devoting the rest
of his life to the service of the Evangelical Church
of his native country. During his eighteen years'
absence the Reformation had made rapid progress
among the nobility, not so much from Wittenberg
as from Geneva since the Calvinistic system of the
congregation and of the church government met
more readily the peculiar conditions of Poland.
But there was no prominent, energetic theologian
to bring order into the confused conditions of the
Evangelical congregations. Lasco, the fittest man,
was in exile. So it happened that the Evangelicals
of Poland at the Synod of Kozminek in 1555 united
with the Bohemian Brethren, adopting their con-
fession and church order. In 1556 Lasco arrived
in Poland. He immediately perceived that the
EvangeUcal Church in Poland needed her own in-
dependent development in order to guard herself
against the Roman Church in the country, and he
spared no efforts to destroy the connection with
the Moravians and to lead the Evangelical Church
of his country into genuinely Evangelical paths.
Until the last moment of his life he had to strug-
gle against great difficulties, on the one side from
a hostile party within the Church of the Reforma-
tion herself, and, on the other side, from the Uni-
tarians who had gained considerable ground in
Poland. His works were collected in two vols, by
Kuyper (Amsterdam, 1886). (H. Dalton.)

Biblioobapht: His life was written by P. Bartcls, Elber-
feld, I860: H. Dalton. Gotha. 1881; G. Pascal 1894.
Ck>n8ult further: M. Goebel. Oeschichie dea c?urUUichen
Ltbent in der rJieinisch-iDeatf&liachen Kirche, i. 324-368,
Coblents, 1862; H. Dalton, Lasdana, Berlin, 1808;

idem. Miscellanea, ib.. 1005; Kruake, Johann a Latnwd
der SakramenUetreit, Leipsic, 1901.

LASICIUS, lQ"si-si'us, JOHANlfES (JAH LAS-
CKI): Polish noble and author; b. in Great Po-
land or in Lithuania, 1534; d. shortly after 1599.
Of his life little is known, but about 1557 he vas
in Switzerland, where he left the Roman Cath(^
Church for the Reformed. He traveled extensivehr.
not only as a private tutor and private scholar,
but also as a diplomat, bein|^ appointed royal en-
voy by King Stephan Bathory. Later he seems
to have returned to his native country, where he
occupied himself with teaching and literary worL
He took an active part in the extension of Protes-
tantism, the union of the Lutherans, Reformed, and
Bohemian Brethren, and the war on Polish Jesuit-
ism and Unitarianism. In consequence of his in-
terest in the Bohemian Brethren he wrote his De
origine et institutis Fralrum Christianorum qui tvM
in Pruasxa^ Polonia^ Boemiaf et Moravia (writta
in 1568), later expanded into his Z>« originB d n-
bus gesiia Frairum Bohemorum . . . Itbri odo (writ-
ten after 1575). Neither of these have been put>>
lished. nor are even their manuscripts complete,
though the eighth book of the lar^r work was ed-
ited, with a summary of the other books, by J. A.
Comenius (Lissa, Poland, 1649) . His main source was
J. Camerarius's Historica narratto (Heidelberg, 1605;
written in 1573). The work of Lasicius is still not
without value, since much of the material at his
disposal is now lost. He also wrote De Rusaorum,
MoscouOarum et Tariarorum reltgtone, sacrificiis,
nuptiarum et funerum ritu e diversis acriptanbui
(Speyer, 1582), which, like his De dits SamagHanm
coBterorumque Sarmatarum et/alsorum Chrtsttanarum
(published, with his De religione Armeniarum, in
MichdUmia Lituani de moribus Tartarorum, Lituano-
rum et Moechorum fragmina decern, ed. J. Crasser.
Basel, 1615; also ed., W. Mannhardt, Riga, 1868)!
is of great value as one of the few sources for a
knowledge of the pagan religion of the Balto-Slnvic
peoples. (Joseph MCller.)

Bibliography: J. Lukaszewics, Geschichte der refanmrim
Kirche in Litauen, ii. 182 sqq., Lcipaic. 1860: E. W.
Croger, Geachichte der alten BrOderkirche, ii. 100 sqq..
Gnadau, 1866; J. GoU. QueUen und U ntermchunoen xv
Geachichte der bdhmiachen BrUder, i. 74 aqq., Prague, 187S;
H. Usener, GoUemamen, p. 82, Bonn, 1806.

LAST THINGS. See Eschatoloqt.

LATERAN CHURCH AND COUIICILS: The

church of St. John Lateran in Rome and the coun-
cils held in the palace connected with it. The pal-
ace was the official residence of the popes for over
a thousand years. It was originally the property
of the rich patrician family of Plautius Lateranus,
but was confiscated by Nero, and later became an
imperial residence. A portion of it, bestowed by
Maximian on his daughter Fausta, second wife of
Constantine, became known as the Domus Fausts,
and she lived there until her husband beheaded
her. Constantine then gave it (312) to Pope Mel-
chiades, confirming the donation to Sylvester, in
whose pontificate the first basilica was built here
and consecrated in 324. It was overthrown by an
earthquake in 896, and rebuilt by Sergius III. (904-
911). This second church was destroyed by fire

419

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

LatiTnar

in 1308, and a third in 1360. The fourth was
erected by Urban V. (1362-70), and still contains
remnants of the fourth- and tenth-century build-
ings. .The church of St. John Lateran is properly
speaking the cathedral of the Roman diocese; here
the pope is bishop of Rome, while St. Peter's is
the seat of his imiversal jurisdiction. Hence the
inscription on the west front, designating it " the
mother and head of all the churches of the city
and the world."

Of the numerous councils and synods convened
in the Lateran basilica five are designated as ecu-
menical by the Roman Catholic Church. These
are: (1) The first general council held in the West,
reckoned as the ninth ecumenical, under Calixtus

II. (1123), attended by over 300 bishops; its prin-
cipal purpose was the settlement of the investiture
controversy (see Investiture) by the confirma-
tion of the Concordat of Worms (see Concordats
AND Deumiting Bulls, I., § 1). (2) The tenth
ecumenical, under Innocent II. (1139), with about
1,000 members; to heal the schism caused by the
antipope Anacletus II. and to condemn the her-
esies of Peter of Bruys and Arnold of Brescia
(qq.v.). (3) The eleventh ecumenical, under Alex-
ander III. (1179), attended by 400 bishops and
600 abbots and other dignitaries; to end the schism
caused by Frederick Barbarossa and to condemn
the Waldensian and Albigensian doctrines. (4)
The twelfth ecumenical, under Innocent III. (1215;
see Innocent III.), attended by 412 bishops and
800 abbots and priors; for the recovery of the
Holy Land and the general improvement of the
Church, including the condemnation of the Cathari
and Albigensians (see New Manicheans, II.). It
is notable as containing in its decrees the first
official sanction of the term transubstantiation and
the requirement of annual confession. (5) The
eighteenth ecumenical, under Julius II. and Leo
X. (1512-17), with an average attendance of 100
to 150 members; the Pragmatic Sanction (q.v.) was
abolished and a concordat concluded with Francis
1. for the regulation of the status of the Galilean
Church (see Concordats and Delimiting Bulls,

III, 2 § 1). Other important Lateran synods were
those held by Melchiades in 313 on the Donatist
(|uestion (see Donatism); by Martin I. in 649
against Monothelitism (see Monothelites); by
Stephen IV. in 769 against the iconoclasts (see
Images and Image- Worship, II.); and several re-
forming synods in the Hildebrandine epoch, of
which that under Nicholas 11. in 1059 is noteworthy
for its regulation of papal elections and its imposi-
tion of clerical oelibaoy. See Councils and Synods.

Bibuoorapht: Thie BterAture on the councils is given under
the articles OouifcaLA and Synods; Calixtus II.; In-
NOCENCK II.; Alexander III.; Innocence III.; Jo-
Liutt II.; and Leo X. Cf. KL. vil 1408-1502.

LATIMER, HUGH: English reformer; b. at
Thurcaston (4 m. n.e. of Leicester), Leicestershire,
about 1480; burned at the stake at Oxford Oct.
16, 1555. He studied at Christ's College, Cam-
bridge (B.A., 1510; M.A., 1514; B.D., 1524), and
was at first a bitter antagonist of the Reformation,
o!)taining his baccalaureate of theology by a dis-
putation against the teachings of Melanchthon.

Among his auditors, however, was Thomas Bilney
(q.v.), who so influenced him that his antipathy
to the Roman Catholic Church equaled his former
enthusiasm for it. In his sermons he laid stress
on the utter corruption of man and on atonement
through the death of Christ, opposing indulgences
and the belief in tradition, and ui^ing the need of
a translation of the Bible. His opponents now
induced Nicholas West, Bishop of Ely, to forbid
him to preach in the diocese, but the Augustinian
prior Ilobert Barnes, whose monastery in Cam-
bridge was exempt, opened his church to him, and
a large number, including West himself, came to
hear him. At the request of the Roman Catho-
lics, Cardinal Wolsey examined Latimer, but ac-
quitted him and gave him permission to preach
anywhere in England. In 1530 he preached be-
fore the king, and shortly afterward received the
living of West Kington, Wiltshire. His sermons
caused excitement in his parish, and he was cited
to London, threatened with excommunication, and
freed only at the intervention of the king, who was
pleased with his attitude and talents. At the rec-
ommendation of Cranmer, he was appointed chap-
lain to Anne Boleyn and in 1535 was made bishop
of Worcester, where he actively promoted the Ref-
ormation. Four years later he resigned, since he
would not sign the Six Articles (see Six Articles,
Act of the), and then lived in retirement until
detected by the spies of Gardiner, when he was
confined in the Tower imtil the accession of Edward.
He declined an invitation *to resume his bishop-
ric and preferred to live in the archiepisoopal
palace, where a wide field of activity opened
to him, since he was now the confidant of
Cranmer, whom he assisted in the preparation
of the Book of Homilies (See Homilies). At
the same time he was conspicuous for his charity
and his justice, while he was untiring as a
preacher, sparing no h3rpocrisy and no tyranny.
His theology, though his sermons were drawn im-
mediately from the Bible, was Lutheran, but his
theory of the Eucharist later became Calvinistio
through the influence of Cranmer. His activity
was checked by the accession of Mary. While on
a preaching-tour he was cited to appear before the
council, and refused a profifered opportunity to
escape. On Sept. 13, 1553, he was imprisoned in
the Tower, being placed in the same room with
Cranmer, Ridley, and Bradford. In March of the
following year Latimer, Oanmer, and Ridley were
taken to Oxford, and on Apr. 18 Latimer was ex-
amined, but refused to dispute, basing his argu-
ments solely on the New Testament. After a jrear
and a half of imprisonment, he and Ridley were
sentenced to death Oct. 1, 1555, and died at the
stake in front of Balliol (Allege two weeks later.

(C. SCHOELLf.)

BiBLio<iRAPHY: Sources for a life are his SermonM and £•-
maina, ed. G. E. Corrie for the Parker Society, 2 vols.,
Cambridge, 1844-45; and Select Sermona and LetUn^ in
Britiah Reformer; vol. iv., London, 1830. Sketches have
been written by: J. C. Ryle, in BUhope and Clergy </
OtKer Day, London, 1854; idem, in The Biehop, the Pae-
tor and the Preadter, ib. 1854; W. Gilpin, ib. 1755; J.
Tullooh, in Leaders of the Reformation, Edinburgh, 1859;
W. Beck. London. 1861; J. J. Ellis. New York. 1890;
R. M. and A. J. Carlyle, London, 1890; R. Demaua. ibi

XifttitndlBarians
Land

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

4S0

1903. Consult also: J. Gairdner. The Bnoliah Churdt in
the teth Century, ib. 1003: Camtrridoe Modem History, ii.
538-541 et passim. New York, 1004; DNB, xxxiL 171-170;
and works on the Reformation in England.

LATirUDIN ARIAIIS, lat"i-tiQ"di-n6'ri-aM : The
name applied to a school of thought in the Church
of England, especially in the seventeenth century.
It is given somewhat indefinitely to men who dif-
fered widely in their theological opinions, but
agreed in a spirit of toleration toward dissenters,
and in laying stress only upon the fundamentals of
religion. According to its first representatives,
Hales, Chillingworth, and Taylor, attached as they
were to the " Church and king " side of the great
conflict of their period, the genuine basis of Chris-
tian communion was to be found in a common
recognition of the great realities of Christian thought
and life, not in any outward adhesion to a definite
ecclesiastical system. All who profess the Apos-
tles' Creed are, according to them, members of the
Church, and the national worship should be so
ordered as to exclude none who make this profes-
sion. The movement begun by these men passed
on into a higher and broader stream of thought
with the " Cambridge Platonists " (q.v.), espe-
cially Whichcote and Culverwel, who, in a philo-
sophical spirit, dealt with questions touching the
very essence of religious and moral principles.
They carried forward the cause of religious liberal-
ity, and took up and molded into a definite form
all the nobler intellectual tendencies of the time.
Ahnost all the influential English divines of the
Revolution period, when these principles had free
sway, were trained in the Cambridge school, and
carried its attitude into the regulation of Iheir
public conduct.

The spiritual apathy of the eighteenth century
in England has been attributed (as by Canon Perry,
History of the English Churchy ii., London, 1862,
514 sqq.) to the influence of the Latitudinarians;
but it may be truer to regard both as alike results
of a reaction from the fierce religious passions and
prejudices of the preceding age. The temper of
the Latitudinarians finds its modem representa-
tive in the so-called " Broad-church " party, whose
earliest distinguished members in England were
Coleridge, Whately, Thomas Arnold, Julius Charles
Hare, Frederick Denison Maurice, Charles Kingsley,
and Dean Stanley. The tendency to reduce the
number of essential doctrines to a minimum and to
lay stress rather upon the Christian temper of daily
life and earnest work for social betterment, helped
forward by the results of the " higher criticism "
of the Bible, has become very wide-spread in re-
cent years, in America as well as England, and not
only among members of the Anglican communion
but throughout all the Protestant bodies.
Bibliooraphy: W. J. Conybeare, Church Parties, London,
1854; J. Himt, Reliffious Thought in England, 3 vols.,
ib. 1870-73 (impartial); L. Stephen, Hist, of English
Thought in the 18th Century, 2 vols.. New York, 1881;
J. H. Overton, The Church in England, vol. ii. passim,
London, 1807; J. F. Hurst, Hist, of Rationalism, New
York, 1002; J. H. Overton and F. Helton, The English
Church {1714-1800), London, 1006; Cambridge Modem
History, v. Oil sqq.; KL, vii. 1604-06.

LATOMUS, laf'o-mxTs, BARTHOLOMAEUS (BAR-
THOLOMAEUS HEINRICI): Roman Catholic hu-

manist; b. at Arlon (16 m. w.ii.w. of Luxemlm'.
about 1485; d. at Coblenz Jan. 3, 1570. b
1516 he matriculated at the Univeraity of Frei-
burg, where be lectured three years later. Id lo2\
he accompanied Erasmus on a journey into Alsaee,
and in Sept., 1522, he was in Treves and defeodeti
the city against Franz von Sickingen (q.v.). H^
had already made himself knoven as a poet by his
Vita et chiius Maximiliani /. imperaiaris (Augsbmf .
1519) and an Epistola A%utri<B ad Carolum impera-
tarem (Strasburg, 1521), while he now wrote hk
Actio memorabilis Francisei ab Siccingen, cum Tw^
irorum obsidionSj turn exiius ejusdem (Cokpr.
1523). From Treves he went to Cologne as teadxr
of dialectics and rhetoric, and in 1590 he became a
teacher at Louvain, but soon accepted a call to the
high school of Treves. In 1531 he was in Paris as a
teacher at the Collegium Sanctae Barbarae. Thrn
years later he was appointed professor of rhetorieat
the College Royal founded by Francis I., and in 1539
visited Italy, settling for a time at Bologna. Thenee
he traveled to Rome, where his zeal for the YjAot-
mation seems to have abated. In 1542 he was ap-
pointed councilor at the electoral court of Treves,
with a residence at Coblenz. An attempt to in-
troduce the Reformation in Cologne occasioned a
controversy with Butzer, who accused him of in-
consistency, whereupon Latomus replied that he
had never taught the Lutheran doctrine (Respond
Bartholomcei Latomi ad epistolatn quondam M.
Buceri, Cologne, 1544). Butzer responded with
his Scripia duo adversaria (Strasburg 1544), which
was answered by Latomus in 1545. After aooom-
panying his elector to the diets of Speyer and
Worms in 1544-45, Latomus was summoned to the
conference of Regensburg as a Roman Catholic
scholar, where he seems to have written the anony-
mous Actorum coUoquii Ratisbanensis narratio (In-
golstadt, 1546). In 1557 he attended the coUoquy
of Worms, and when the Lutherans accused the
Catholics of having broken up the colloquy, be
wrote his Spaltung der augshurgischen Korifesnon
durch die neuen und streitigen Theologen. The
occasioned another dispute with Petrus Dathenus,
pastor of the Flemish congregation at Frankfurt,
and he also engaged in a controversy with Jacob
Andre& on the doctrine of communion in both
kinds. In 1569 Jacob of Eltz made him councilor
of his electoral court. In addition to his poems
and his controversial and occasional writings, the
works of Latomus include the following: Summa
ioiius raiionis disserendi (Cologne, 1527), Oratio de
studiis humanitatis (Paris, 1534), Oratio de laudibus
eloquerUicB (1535), as well as editions of Cicero, Ter-
ence, and Geoige of Trebizond. (G. Kawbrau.)

Bibliography: Hia letter of June 24, 1533, to Mebtncb-
thon, ed. G. Kawerau. is in TSK, Ixxv (1902). 140 sqq.
Consult: L. Roersch, in Bulletin de Vacadimie royale de
Belgique, series 3, xiv (1887), 132-176; idem, Biographis
nationale de Belgique, xi. 424-434, BrusaeLs. 1891; A. J.
van der Aa, Biographisch Woordenboek der Nederlanden,
pp. 191 sqq., Harlem, 1865; ADB, xviii. 14 (not particu-
larly valuable).

LATOMUS, JACOBUS (JACQUES) MASSON:

Roman Catholic theologian; b. at Cambron, Hai-
naut, in 1475; d. at Louvain, Belgium, May 29,
1544. He was educated at Paris, and in 1505 was

4di

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Xifttitiiilliuuriaiis
Land

called to Louvain, where he was appointed regular
professor of theology and canon of St. Peter's in
1535, becoming rector of the university two years
later. He protested against the Collegium trilingue
founded at Louvain by Erasmus in his De trium
linguarum et atudti theclogici raiione dicUogua (Ant-
werp, 1519) and was henceforth stigmatized by the
admirers of Erasmus as an enemy of the new learn-
ing. Melanchthon and the Lutherans contributed
to the general contempt and irony heaped upon
the theologians of Louvain and Latomus defended
them in his Articuhrum doctrina fratris M, Luiheri
per theologo8 Lovanienses damnatarum ratio ex sacris
Uteris et veterHms tractatoribua (Antwerp, 1521).
Luther inmiediately replied, and four jrears later
Latomus responded with his De primatu pontificis
advereua LuUierum. In the same year he attacked
(Ecolampadius and Beatus Rhenanus in his Z>e
con/easiane aecreta (Antwerp, 1525), and also wrote
against Tyndale. He was likewise the author of
treatises on various doctrinal problems, and in the
year of his death published his Duos epietola, una
in libellum de ecclesia, PhUippo Afelanchthoni ad-
Bcripta; altera contra orationem factioaorum in comi-
tiia Ratiabonenaibua habitam (Antwerp, 1544). He
was the object of the special antipathy of the Lu-
therans on account of his seal against heretics and
as the theological coadjutor of Franz van der Hulst,
the imperial inquisitor in the Netherlands, in 1522.

(0. Kawbrau.)

Bibuoorapht: Hia Opera appeared, Louvain, 1550. Con-
sult: Biographie nationaU de Belgique, xi. 434, Bnuaels,
1891; XL. vii. 1506-07; BiUiciheoa reformtUa Nedandiea,
iii.. 1905.

L ATRIA: See Dulia; Saints, Veneration of.

LATTER-DAY SAINTS. See Mormons.

LAUD, led, WILLIAM: Archbishop of Canter-
bury; b. at Reading Oct. 7, 1573; d. at London
Jan. 10, 1645. He was the son of a clothier, and
studied at St. John's College, Oxford (B.A., 1594;
M.A., 15d8; D.D., 1608), being a fellow at the age
of twenty. In 1601 he was ordained, and in 1603
became chaplain to the earl of Devonshire. His
ability was already winning attention, and his ad-
vance was rapid. In 1607 he was made vicar of
Stanford, Northamptonshire, and chaplain to
Richard Neile, later archbishop of York, who in
1610 presented him to the living of Cuxton in
Kent, and he resigned his fellowship to enter upon
his parochial duties. In 1611 he was elected head
of his college. His position there was difficult;
the Oxford of his day was thoroughly Calvinistic,
while Laud was equally hostile to Roman Catholics
and Pre8b3rterians. The Puritan antipathy to him
became intense. Robert Abbot, later bishop of
Salisbury, made a violent attack on him in 1614,
but his stanch friend Neile gave him the prebend
of Buckden in the same year and the archdeaconry
of Huntingdon in 1615, while in 1616 he became
dean of Gloucester. There, with most excellent
intentions, he roused opposition by his besetting
fault, lack of tact, when he directed that the altar,
placed through Puritan influence in the center of
the choir, should be restored to its ancient position
against the eastern wall. He increased his impop-

ularity in 1617 by wearing a surplice at a funeral
in Scotland. His favor with the king, on the other
hand, increased. In Jan., 1621, he was installed
as a prebendary of Westminster, and six months
later was consecrated bishop of St. David's. It is
characteristic of his rigid adherence to what he
deemed right, that he refused to hold the two
offices of bishop and head of St. John's, although
he had express permission to do so. In 1622 the
affair of the countess of Buckingham, who was in-
clining toward Roman Catholicism, required him
to define his position toward the Church of Rome,
which he acknowledged to be a true Church, al-
though neither at that time nor at any other did
he approach or accept its characteristic teachings.

With the death of James I. (Mar. 27, 1625)
Laud's real power in the English Church began.
Firmly convinced of the justice of his cause, he
sought to make the king an instrument in forcing
his own views on the entire body of the Church.
A firm advocate of the alliance between Chim^h
and State, he stressed the doctrine of the divine
right of kings until the Puritan house of com-
mons came to regard him as the enemy both of
civil and religious liberty. On the other hand,
Charles rewarded his fidelity richly. On June 20,
1626, he was nominated bishop of Bath and Wells,
and continued his attempts at reform in his new
post, notwithstanding Puritan opposition, which
he did not try to conciliate. In 1633, on the death
of Geoige Abbot, who had been his bitter oppo-
nent, Laud became archbishop of Canterbury.
About this same time an event happened which
was a puzzle at once to the Puritans and the Ro-
man Catholics; Laud, suspected by the Puritans
of Roman Catholic tendencies, received the offer
of a cardinal's hat, but refused, saying ** somewhat
dwelt within me which would not suffer that till
Rome were other than it is." He entered ener-
getically on his new duties, as head of the Church
of England. The use of the prayer-book was en-
forced, dignity of worship was insisted on, the
churches were repaired, the system of ** lecturers,"
by which sermons attacking Anglican principles
were fostered, was curbed, and aggressive Puritanism,
as exemplified by the polemics of the overzealous
William Prynne (q.v.) was checked. On the other
hand, his insistence upon bowing at the name of
Jesus, and the placing of the altar at the eastern
wall of the church, thus distinguishing it from the
conmiunion table of the Puritans, as well as his
plea for healthful recreation on Sunday as con-
trasted with Puritan asceticism, were violently
assailed. At the same time he incurred the hos-
tility of the queen, who was a Roman Catholic, by
his protest against the favoritism shown her co-
religionists. As he himself said he was " very like
com between two mill-stones."

In the first year of his inciunbency of the see of
Canterbury Laud attempted to force ritualism on
the Scotch churches, which were strongly Presby-
terian; the results were disastrous, leading to
riots in the churches, particularly in St. Giles',
Edinburgh (see Gbddes, Jenny), and ultimately
to the renewal of the Solemn League and Cove-
nant in 1638 (see Covbnantebs). The unfavor-

LMd

L»nt«

THE NEW BCHAFF-HERZOG

ftble trrmination of the two " bishops' wars "
against Ihe Scotch hastened the downfall of the
archbiahop, already hated for hiB activity in the
privy council, the court of high cominission, and
the utor chAmber. On Dec. 18, 1640, he was im-
peached of treason by the house of commons, and
'Was placed in conHncment, although he was not
Bent to the Tower until Har, 1 of the following
year, lie resigned the chanoeltoraliip of the I'ui-
vereity of Oxford June 2S, 1041, and lingered in
the Tower until May 31, 1643, Pryniie meanwhile
■eiiing the opportunity to print damaging extracts
from the archbishop's diary. The trial began Mnr.
12, Ift44, but the conunons perceived that they
could not count on the houne of lords as they had
hoped, and in October they resolved (o substitute
attainder for impeachment. Under threats of mob
violence and the claim that parliament could dt-
olare whatsoever crime it pleased treason, the lords
finally passed the ordinance, ami the archbishop
was beheaded on Tower Hill six days later.

Laud was a munifioent patron of learning, giv-
ing 1,300 manuscripts to OxfonI and founding a
ohAir of Arabic which is still in existence. His
complete works were first edited by W. Scott and
W. Bliss (7 vols., Oxford, 1847-60), According to
those of Puritan sympathies, he was narrow, cruel,
and an enemy of religion; according to adherents
of the Anglo-Cat holic branch of the Anglican
Church, he, like his king, was a martyr. In his
favor it may be said that his faults were those of
his age and his narrowness can readily find its
paralle] among many who opposed him. His sin-
cerity and adherence to what he believed to be
right are beyond question, and the same recogni-
tion should be accorded these qualities in him as
in his Puritan antagonists. He was persistent in
his warfare against the PuritaiiiHm which ho re-
garded as injurious to the Church, despite scant
hopes of success. He insisted on the doctrine of
Apostolic Succession (sec Apostolic Succbasion),
the importance of tradition, and the return to
the primitive Church of the flrst four crntiiries.
On the other hand, he rejected Roman Catholicism
as overladen with accretions not tecognixed by
early Christianity. His stress was laid on con-
formity in ritual, which, in his judgment, woiilil
lead to uniformity of heart, but, on the other
hand, he did not insist on abwiute hnmiony on
matters of mere opinion. In theology ho was
an Arminian, and postulated the necessity of
good works. Though not the first Anglican to
advance High-church views, Laud may not un-
fairly be r^arded as the moat prominent early ex-
ponent of this school. (T, Eolde,)

BiBuooBAPHi: The account □( llui Ljiud eommcmoralioD,
wiib a bibliogTBpby oF the liicnlun of tbs subject, eil.
W. E. CoUuii. appwed Londnn, I89G. The maia sourm
lot * life, ouliudc of Laud'x ll'urt:* (ed, W, (koLt and W.
BUM. 7 volt, Oxford, 1847-flO) « the biography by l-Mer
Heylyn. Cvprianui Anp/.i-ui, London. 16(» and oflc-n.
Modem hioRraphiea ate by W. H. Uuiton. LondaD, 1SB6^
J, Sanaa. Doilon. ISM; T, RoBem. in HUlonml Glean-
ina: »r. 2, London, 1870: P. Bayno. in Chirf AeUiTf in
Ihi Ponian AcvoluMon, EdinbuT«h. IS7S: FruicsB Phil-
lipa, in FalKtTM of On EimlM CKvrrli. ler. 2. London.
1802: C. H. i^intpkinxon, ib. ISM: A. C. Benwn, ib.
IBBB: and W, L. Hadunloab, ib. 1W7. Coiuult «Jeo: A,

A Wood. AlKma OmooiMi. mL P. BBm. &. IIT-.W.
4 voti.. London. 1S13-20; J. EL OmUB. 71* Owd .-.
KiV'oh'. vol. ii., ib. I8B7: W. EL Hnnca. TW C*»^
CKunJi {IBtS-ITH). ib. 1903 (TaIiHb4el: A. MKasK
Bnglith Church Hirt. USre-tetS). EiliBbiBck. ItM *
H. Pnra. TV EnvliA CkmA HeS9-i9ag\ Vamiat. IWt.
DNH. Kuii. lSfi-lB4. A new ed. of Uw Ktittitm ^M
Cimfmnct . . . (mlh) Mr. ^uAcr the J^miA. br C. a
SimpkiujfoD, appflared Loadoo, lOOI.

LAUDS: An office in the bre\-iary (q-T.) wtidi
originally was closely joined to mstina, but is !»■
frequently sepsj-Bted from it. See Hatdck.

LAXTRA. ^-e Mo.^asticism.

LAURENCE. Sec L^hubentics.

LAURENCE, SAINT: ChristUn tnmrtyr. v!k>
siiHered at Home in the Valerian petaecutiOD, Auf.
10, 2;iS. He was a disciple of Pope Sixtus II., who
made him one of the seven deacons of Rocne. and
his martyrdom fell four days after that of bis mas-
ter, whose fame he soon surpassed. According Vt
tradition, the Roman prefect, having hcanj that
the Church possessed great treasures, demanded
that Laurence should surrender them, wrhereupon
he gathered a crowd of the old, poor, and ^^
paupers and cripples, and said, " TliMe are our

UtBt,

LAURENCE OF CANTERBURY: Second arch-
bishop of Canterbury; d. at Canterbury Feb. 2,
619, He was one of the original companions of
Augustine (q,v,}, was sent back to Rome by the
latter probably in 598 with a letter for Pope Grt^-
ory, and returned to England in 001 nitb Mellilus,
Justus, and others. Augustine ordained him as tuj
successor and be succeeded to the see of Canter-
bury on Augustine's death (604 or 605), but never
received the pallium. He tried to win over the
bishops of the Celtic Church, both in Britain and
Ireland, finished and consecrated the church of
St. Peter and St. Paul at Canterbury (613), and
tran.slated Augustine's remains to its north chapel.
I'^bald, son and successor (GI6) of the pious
Ethelbcrt, was a heathen and Laurence was on the
point of giving up his work and joining his breth-
ren, Justus and Mellitus (qq.v.), in Gaul when he
opportimely converted the king (c. 618) and was
allowed to stay.
DiBLioanAPBT: Beds, HiA. Eal.. i. 27. 33, iL 1. 6, 7; BM-

dao and Htuhb>, CounciJi, iii. ei-70: DCB. iii. 631-033;

W. F. Hook, lAm of Ut» AtchbMap* of Canttthurv. L

19 Kiq., Loodon, 1800; DNB. L TS aqq,

LAURENTTUS; Antipope 498. He wns an
arcb-preabytcr in Rome, the choice of the imperial
party for the papal chair, and was elected Nov. 22,
496, successor of .^nastasius II. The Roman party
chose Symmacbus (q.v.). The decision was left
to Tbeodoric, king of the Oatro-Goths, who de-
cided in favor of Symmachus; and L^urentius was
made bishop of Nooera (468); but when he returned
to Rome, his partisans stirred up constant strife
until the Roman council of 501 deposed him.
Bmi-ionBiPHV: Librr pontt^co/ii, ed. Monunian, in StOH

Gat. pant. Rum., i 118M>, 120 sqq.i Bower. Popt4. i. 20«

i<q<|.i Miiman, iMin Ckrittanily, L 41G iqq.: and liteim-

tun under SvuiucHiis.

428

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Laud

LAURENTIUS VALLA. See Valla.

LAVAL-MONTMORENCY, lQ'v(ll"-m0n''m6"-
rOn^'gi', FRANCOIS XAVIER DB: First French
bishop in Canada; b. at Montigny-8ur-Avre, de-
partment of Enre-et^Loir, France, Apr. 30, 1623;
d. in Quebec May 6, 1708. He received the ton-
sure at the age of nine, and a canonry of Evrenx at
fifteen. Renouncing his rights as heir to the an-
cient name and estates of his family, he pursued
his ecclesiastical career, and was ordained priest
in 1047 and made archdeacon of Evreux. In 1653
he was chosen as one of three French bishops to be
sent to the Indies, and spent fifteen months in
Rome awaiting consecration, but the opposition
of the Portuguese government brought the plan
to nothing. In 1659 he was sent to Canada as
vicar-apostolic, with the title of bishop of Petraea
in partibuSf and from his first arrival there (with
the exception of three visits to France to regulate
the affairs of his mission and to obtain from the
government humane treatment of the aborigines)
was active until his death in pastoral and mission-
ary labors. In 1663 he founded the Seminary of
Quebec, to which the king assigned tithes that were to
be used in supplying clei^ for the whole province.
The see of Quebec, the first diocesan bishopric
in Canada, was founded in 1674, with jurisdiction
over all the French possessions in North Amer-
ica. Worn out by his arduous tasks, which were
made harder by conflicts with Frontenac and other
secular authorities, he resigned his see into the
hands of a younger man in 1684, but continued to
make himself useful in the afifairs of the seminary
and the mission until his death. Laval Univer-
sity at Montreal, founded in 1852, was named in
his honor. In 1878 his remains were transferred
from the cathedral to the seminary; and in pur-
suance of the investigation connected with the
process for his canonization, the cofi&n was opened
in 1901, when his body was found in a perfect state
of preservation.

Biblioorapht: H. J. Morgan, Skeiehss of CeM)r<Ued Carup-
dians and Persona Connected ipiih Canada, pp. 14 sqq.,
Montreal, 1865; H. T^tu, Monteigneur de Laval, premier
fvfqfue de Quibec, Paris, 1887; A. Goflselin, Le VhUrabU
Francois de Laval . . . : eavieetaee vertue, Quebec, 1890;
A. Leblond de Brumath, Bishop Laval, Toronto, 1906.

LAVATER, la-vQ'ter, JOHANN CASPAR: Poet
and theologian, perhaps best known as founder of
the " art of physiognomy," was bom at Zurich Nov.
15, 1741; d. there Jan. 2, 1801. He grew up in an
atmosphere of good breeding and earnest piety and

early displayed a decidedly religious
Life. nature. At the gymnasium in Zurich

he had as his teachers Johann Jakob
Bodmer and Johann Jakob Breitinger (q.v.), the
ardent standard-bearers of a poetical art that had
its wellsprings in refined sensibility. Bodmer
entered into close personal relations with Lavater
and awakened his enthusiasm for friendship and
virtue, for free political ideals, and for the poetry
of Klopstock and Young. His theological growth
and thought were greatly influenced by Bishop
Butler, Samuel Clarke, and their German devotees.
In the spring of 1762 he was admitted to the minis-
terium of Zurich. The same year occurred his ac-

tion against a certain district ruler, whom he ac-
cused before the council of oppression and fraud.
A trip to Germany and a sojourn of nine months in
the Pomeranian village Barth, where he studied
with J. J. Spalding, removed him from the agitations
which that legal action left in its train. On his
return to Ziuich in 1764 he busied himself in liter-
ary labors of a practical pastoral character. Under
the title Der Erinnerer he issued an ethical weekly,
which was lately a product of his own pen. Though
yearning for the spiritual calling it was not till
1769 that he received his first appointment as as-
sistant at the Orphan House Church, Zurich. He
succeeded to the pastorate in 1775. In 1778 he
was called as assistant at St. Peter's, Zurich; and
in 1786 he was made pastor of this famous church
and a member of the consistory.

Lavater assembled beneath his pulpit a laige
congregation every Sunday, attracted by his natu-
ralness of deUvery, by the direct and practical
matter of his sermons, and by the spiritiial afflu-
ence and personal conviction of the preacher.
With his warm interest in every individual, his
psychological delicacy of feeling, and his hearty
love of man, he was a pastor quite unique. Not
residents alone, but many strangers chose him as
counselor for their inner life; and his pastoral cor-
respondence grew to enormous proportions. He
seldom left Zurich, but he frequently offered hos-
pitality to old and new friends in his house. In the
summer of 1774, at Bad Ems, he met Goethe, Base-
dow, and Jung Stilling; in 1786 he accompanied
his son to Bremen; and in 1793 he acceded to an
invitation of Count Bemstorff to visit Copenhagen.
His closing years are interwoven with the great
events which brought on the downfall of the anr
cient Swiss Confederacy. At the outset Lavater
hailed the French Revolution as the dawn of pop-
ular freedom. Later, however, the ''liberators'"
deeds of violence fiUed him with indignation. An
act of great boldness was his Wort eines fieien
Schweizera an die framdsiache Nation (Eng., Fr.,
and Germ., London, 1798), a tract of arraignment
that he sent on May 10, 1798, to the French di-
rector Reubell. There was no procedure against him
immediately; but in the following year he was
banished to Basel. He was at home again, when
on Sept. 28, 1799, the French triumphed over the
allies near Zurich. The French entered the dty
and a soldier asked Lavater for some wine; but
hardly had he received it when he shot Lavater
through the breast, and this wound ultimately
caused his death. A few days after his departure
each of his friends received a memorial verse that
he had devised for them as a farewell greeting.

Lavater's intercourse with German scholars con-
firmed in him a tendency to abstain from dogmatic
forms of expression in religious matters. His own
point of view was distinctly that of a mystic, though
he held rigidly to the Bible. AU iUib-

Religious erality and petty disputatiousness was
Views, repulsive to him. It was this that set
him at odds with the Pietists and the
Moravian school. From the observation, made in
1768, that in the New Testament the divine com-
munications of power bear a sensibly supernatural

lAvater

I«aw and Gtospel

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

414

stamp, and that nowhere in the New Testament is
there mention of any ceasing of such sensible mani-
festations, Lavater inferred that perfect Christian-
ity should still rest upon experiences of this kind.
Thus, he acquired the habit of watching curiously
and longingly for manifestations of supernatural
divine powers. In the animal magnetism of Mes-
mer, in somnambulism, in Pastor Gassner's exor-
cisms, he was inclined to detect communications
from the silent deity; and to the last he believed
that the Apostle John still tarried on earth. His
predilection for occult phenomena subjected him
to considerable ridicule. However, Lavater recog-
nized the danger of his enthusiastic proclivities and
used discretion in the expression of his supernatu-
ral anticipations. Regarding Lavater's personal-
ity there was much discussion even in his lifetime.
Tlie unfriendly and unjust criticisms of Goethe,
particularly in the Xenien, have dominated gen-
eral opinion even to the present; but in other con-
nections Goethe spoke quite differently of Lavater
(cf. Wahrheit und DichtunQf III. 14). In practical
life Lavater manifested deep piety, trust in God,
and love toward man, and he fulfilled the duties of
his calling with the greatest fidelity.

Lavater was a voluminous author, and he in-
variably wrote with a view to '' general usefulness.''
Nevertheless, with his tendency to emphasize prac-
tical effectiveness he combined the
Writings, idealism conmion to the Sturm und
Drang period, characterized by a tend-
ency to contemplate and glorify the inner life.
Lavater was a prominent exponent of this move-
ment, though, in wealth of ideas and completeness
of form, his contributions to the movement fall far
behind those of Goethe, Herder, and others. At
least three works deserve special mention here. In
the case of the first the new style, for Lavater, ar-
rayed itself in the mantle of Klopstock. A lady
had besought him for a poem on the blessedness of
the glorified. As the task grew upon him, he ap-
pealed by letters to his friends for counsel. The
poem never took shape, but Lavater published his
letters as Aussichten in die Evngkeit (4 vols., Zu-
rich, 1768-78), being speculations as to the condi-
tions and powers of man after death. The guiding
genius of Lavater's ideas here is not imaginative
vision, in its proper sense, but psychological and
ethical intuition; though these ideas are neverthe-
less expected to withstand the judgment of physio-
logical and metaphysical science.

In Physiognomische FragmenU (4 parts, Leipsic,
1776-78; Eng. transl., Essays on Physiognomy, 3 vols.,
London, 1789-98), Lavater sought to portray the
greatness of human nature under the wealth of indi-
vidual characterizations. More independently than
elsewhere with Lavater, the esthetic interest stands
forth in this work — the esthetic in that higher sense,
wherein form is the symbol of an inner content.
At the same time, the physiognomic manner of
contemplation was to have for its object the Crea-
tor's wisdom and his peculiar working in genial
men, as the elect witnesses of his greatness. The
ethical individualism that reached its most com-
prehensive expression in this work stands in funda-
mental accord with Goethe's mode of thought, as

against the rationalistic ethics of the Enli^tes-
ment. In Pontius PUaius (4 vols., Zurich, 1782-
1785) Lavater gives a portraiture of humanity in the
mirror of Christ's passion history. The author es-
teemed this work his most important; but Goetbe
took offense at the form and substance alike; vA
from that time these two spirits parted. It his
even biu*dened more indulgent readers to find their
way through this whirl of ideas; and yet in thk
work the author's fundamental thoughts, which he
was fain to call his '' system," might be supposed
to appear most completely centered. Humanity,
according to Lavater, lives in individualities, wh«
particular manifestation is consonant with the di-
vine will, and who must mutually advance one an-
other. Each one can ** incite and enkindle the
slumbering or inactive powers in his fellow "; can
help him to become " livelier, freer, more positively
existent, more enjoyable, and more surely discen-
ing.'' Even God becomes enjoyable only through
men. Uppermost on the ladder of humanity stands
Christ, the " divine man " and the " Trninlilf#> God."
The infinite is enjoyable for us only in the finite;
God humanizes himself in Christ. As touching the
operations of Christ, Lavater loves the image of
the physician and healing: forgiveness of sins b
restoration of lost power. The fundamental thoughts
of Christian belief thus appear reduced and adapted
to the Gospel of the quickening, to the deification
of humanity, as advocated by the youthful spirits
of the sixties and seventies of the eighteenth cen-
tury. With Hamann, Lavater is the Christian
spirit of this circle.

Aside from Lavater's numerous collections of
sermons and many devotional compilations, there
are a number of other works deserving mentioo.
The more important of these are: SchtDcizerlieder
(Bern, 1767), a voliune of patriotic songs with
which Lavater achieved his greatest success as a
poet; Das geheime Tagebuch von einem Beobaehter
seiner scZ6s( (2 parts, Leipsic, 1771-73; £ng. transL,
jSccre^ Journal of Self-obsemer , 2 vols., London, 1795),
the first of those sentimental disclosiues whose more
distinguished parallels occur in Goethe's TTertAcr
(1774) and Rousseau 's Confessions ( 1 78 1 ) ; A braham
und Isaak (Winterthur, 1776), a Biblical drama;
Jesus der Messias (4 vols., 1783-86), a Biblical epic;
Nathanael (1786), an apology for Christianity and
the Bible; Handbibliothek fiir Freunde (24 vols.,
1790-94); Joseph von Arimaihia (Hamburg, 1794).
another Biblical poem; and Das menschliche Herz
(Zurich, 1798), a poem in six cantos. Lavater also
wrote about seven hundred hynms, the best-known
collection being Christliche Lieder (2 parts, Zurich,
1776-80). Of Lavater as a poet it may be said
that, while he had great facility in metrical expres-
sion, he lacked creative power.

G. voN Schulthess-Rechberg.

Bibliography: The life by his son-in-law, G. Gessner. 3
vols., Winterthur, 1S02-O3, is excellent as a source, but
uncritical in its use of the material. The best life is by
F. Muncker, Stuttgart, 1883 (those by F. I. Herbst, An»-
bach, 1832, and F. W. Bodemann, Gotha, 1877. are closely
dependent upon Gessner). Consult further: J, C. Mbri-
kofer, Die schtveizeriache LUeratur dea 18. Jahrhunderia,
Leipsic, 1861; H. Funck, Lavater und der Markipraf Karl
Friedrich von Baden, Freiburg. 1890; idem. Ooethe und
Lavater. Bnefe und Tagebucher, Weimar, 1901; G A.

REUGI0U3 ENCYCLOPEDIA

Mullor, A<u LavaUn BHt/loKhr:. Municb.
FinAlflT. LaiiUrrt BtiUhttngen £u Parii .
Zurich. 1S98: JokaTin Katpar LataUr, I

; J. C.

I-ISOI. ib.
The^l^ u a Life in EngUnh, London. 1840.

LAVIGERIE, la"vi"jihe-ri', CHARLES MAR-
TIAL ALLEMARD: French prelate, cardinal, and
promoter of African misBions; b. at Bayonne Oct.
31, 1825; d. at Algiers Nov. 26, 1802. He was ed-
ucalpd for (he priesthood at the Beminaries of St.
NicliotiLS and St. Sulpice and at the £)cole des
CamieB. In the last-named, after hia ordination
in 1849, he taught Latin literature, and was ad-
junct profesior of theoloj^ at tlie Sorbonne 1854-
1856. He was then appointed director of the French
Christian schools in the East, and in Syria came
for the firat time Into contact with the non-Chris-
ti&n world, recognising then hia niiBsionary voca-
tion. In 1861 he returned to Europe, and was
named auditor of the Rota at Rome nnd two years
later biahop of Nancy. By the influence of Mar-
shal MacMahon, then governor of Algeria, he re-
ceived tlie offer of the bishopric of Algiers in 1660,
and accepted it in preference to the coadjutoi^
archbishopric of Paris which was offered him at the
same time. Hia new see had just been raised to
the rank of an archbishopric. He took possession
of it in Mar., 1867, and at once plunged into mis-
eiomuy plans. In the next year he organized the
" Society of Algerian Misaionaries " (though it did
not receive its final constitution until 1874), and in
I86S the Propaganda gave him the oversight of the
prefecture apostolic of the Sahara. His " White
fathers," as the members of his society were com-
monly called from their habit, penetrated the in-
t«nor, and in 1875 and 1878 some of them at-
tempted to reach Timbuotu at the cost of their
lives. In 1878 the whole of equatorial Africa was
plac^ under their chaii!;e. From that j^ar La-
vigcrie waa prominent in antislavery agitation, and
it was by his efforts that the great congress on
Ihat subject assembled in Paria in 1890. He was
made a cardinal in 1882, His work in Tunis led
to the reestablishment of the ancient see of Cyprian
at Carthage in 1884, and from Jan. 25, 1885, he
bore the title of archbishop of Carthage and |)ri-
mate of Africa. The policy of toleration of the
French Republic adopted by Leo Xlll. was first
enunciated by him at a dinner wliich he gave to
the officers of the Mediterranean squadron in Nov.,
1800, and was confinned by a papal brief of the
following February. A selection of his works, con-
sisting principally of letters and aUocutions (2 vols.)
was published in Paris, 1SS4.

d-fpUcopal m Fratttt a n Afrigai. 3 Tola.. Alcien. 188S:
R, F. Clu-ke. CanlincU LangtrU and the African Statx
Trade. London. IBSO; F. Klein. U Cardinal Lavierrit ef
In miHion* d'Afriqur. Pnrii. 1800: idgm. U Cardtnal
laviarrit d •» mi-ru d'Afrupu. ih. 1397: E. L«ur Bud
J. A. Petit, tfiat. jwpulairt d€ . . , Ir cardinal CkarUt-
Martial-Aarma^ Laviorrit, ih.. IHQS; A. Pemud, L«
Cardinal Lavierrit, ib., 1BB3: F. Boumknd, San Bminrnai
It Canlinal LatigtTit, ib. 1S93: A. Ricuil, Lrt Cardinal
Lariarrii. Lilk, 1S93; X.ds Pi«nU«. t/n grand fivncai:
le tardinal Lavigtrit, ib., lfiQ4; L. B&uoftrd. Ij€ Car-
dinal iMi'iarrii. 2 vols.. Fnrim 1896; J. Simon, Qiuira
pariraiu, ib., ISM: L. d'Aonam. Lt Grand Apttrt dt
rAfrigut, Lyun^ 1H90.

LAW AHD GOSPEL.

«iCon«ptioM(ll).

The Conception of Ji

Tbo WriiinKi of John (i 3|.
Early and Medieval Church
Luiher (t 5>.

(M:

The history of these two coQceplions is the hiB-
lory of the generol conception of Christianity, be-
cause Christianity as a whole is based upon two
corresponding categories which form the standard
of the religion of redemption — that of the obliga-
tory demand which human activity is to fulfil, and
that of the saving grace which God bestowK. Juda-
ism t«aches that only he whom God declares justi-
fied upon the basis of the fulfilment of the law of
Moses partakes of the promised salvation to be re-
vealed in the Gospel. Apart from the ritualism and

national parti culorism of the Jews,
I. The this theory is defective in so far as the
Judaic and relation between God and man is con-
Pauline sidered. after the analogy of civil law,
Conceptions, as one of human service and a divine

equivalent for it. from which follow
irreligious self-dependence, hrtcronomy, and he-
donistic motives of morality. For Paul both law
and Gospel are revelations of God concerning the
way to eternal life, which to him is of a spiritual
nature, a life of justice, love, and sanctity. The
law, however, does not lead to eternal life, not only
because it consists merely of ritual provisions, but
also in so far as it demands virtues like justice,
love, and sanctity. Just because it merely demands,
it can not accomplish its aim over against the flesh;
it even increases the lust of the fiesh and incites
transgression. But, apart from the flesh, the law
can not give life, because it induces man to secure
his justification before God as a l^:al claim of re-
ward. Therefore it is not a permanent, but only a
transitory, order of God. It was to awaken knowl-
edge of sin and thus prepare the way for the per-
manent divine order, namely that of the Gospel,
an order of grace which pardons and gives gratui-
totudy and demands nothing more than faith,
which gives God his honor by humbly renouncing
the assertion of one's own will and trusting in
God's grace and omnipotence. What the new
order signifies may best be seen from the stand-
point of faith. On the basis of the assurance of
God's intention of grace in Christ, the believer
knows himself to be justified and adopted by God
and reconciled with him. He has the assurance
that he will escape the wrath of judgment, inherit
eternal life, and finally be endowed with perfection.
The cotiaciousness of his freedom from the law
leads him to the consciousness of the duty to con-
centrate his will upon the struggle against the luats
of the flesh and the earnest endeavor to fulfil the
will of God and the moral conditions of eternal
life. Paul does not consider Christians as freed
from the need of moral instruction and he expects
Christian tact only as a result of the Christian's
self-examination and self-education. But herein
he does not fall back upon the standpomt of the
law, because the reasons on which be bases his in-
dividual rules of life exclude the beteronomy of
ritualistic norms, and also all hedonistic motives.

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487

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Law and Gospel
Hebrew

duction from natural secret effects of grace, the
law practically gained the upper hand.
^ Luther put law and Gospel into the strongest
' opposition. The law demands and frightens, the
^ Gospel bestows and consoles; but they

5. Luther, belong together and exhaust the whole
^ content of Scripture. In order to un-

derstand this, we must distinguish in the law con-
' tent and form. Its content is the unchangeable
will of God ; without its fulfilment there is no salva-
» tion; but it is not to be fulfilled merely as a con-
' dition of salvation, but in the spirit of " a loving
delight in the law,'' contrasted with the common
: pleasure-seeking piety. Thus Luther advanced a
: step beyond Augustine and the mystics, since with
them hope preponderates, while for him eternal life
begins here on earth in reconciliation with the law;
and since their love of God is a retired, holy in-
difference, while his love of God manifests itself in
a trust in God which is elevated above sins and
death and governs the world and manifests itself in
the love of our fellow men. According to its form,
the law brings man before the " throne of judg-
ment." It is a demand and threat of punishment
against a contradicting will. In this respect it is only
temporary; for the thought that the favor of God
might be earned is not only impossible in consid-
eration of original sin, but '' a dream which is false
in itself," a robbery of the honor of God, idolatry;
God is not a ** huckster," it is his nature to give
everjrthing gratuitously. It is true, the content of
the law as humble trust in God and inclination
toward good conduct contradicts the form of the
law as a rule of retribution, but in this very form
it is a means of God to accomplish his purposes.
On the one side, it guards against external trans-
gressions and upholds public peace; on the other
side, by disclosing and magnifying our spiritual
transgressions it destroys our self-sufficiency and
awakens a feeling of guilt and longing after forgiv-
ing grace. After this has been accomplished, the
Gospel steps in — by assuring us of forgiving grace,
it awakens love to God which gladly fulfils the law
and thus experiences salvation already in this life.
The Gospel has three characteristic traits. It is
promise or attestation of the divine will of grace
to the consciousness, it is promise of the forgive-
ness of sins, it is promise of the forgiveness vouch-
safed in Christ for the awakened conscience. It is
the active cause of faith which supports conscience
without blunting it. With this faith the whole re-
demption is realized in principle; for it is the
moving power for the fulfilment of the law. By
extending over the whole life, it is the fulfilment of
the first commandment, and by becoming a prayer
of thankfulness and supplication, that of the sec-
ond; and the desire to pass on our blessings to
others produces in us an inclination to love our
fellow men, and by paralyzing the attraction of
worldly goods and evils by means of trust in God
it gives the power to realize this inclination. But
all these abilities Luther traces back also to a sec-
ond gift beside forgiveness, namely, the Holy Spirit.
As the unchangeable will of God, the law is also
the measure for the manner of the realization of
the order of grace. In this respect, the inviolabil-

ity of the divine will as expressed in the law must
be fully satisfied. This is the case in so far as the
forgiveness of sins in the penitent is the very means
of realizing its content. But Luther postulated
also the satisfaction of the law by the vicarious
satisfaction of Christ, in contradiction to his state-
ment that the law has only a pedagogical import.
The fulfilment of the law is to take place in a natu-
ral manner, without reflection on the law, just as
the good tree brings forth its fruits. The good must
spring from a good disposition; but by this compar-
ison Luther places himself in contradiction, not
only to Christ and John, but also to Paul, since it
excludes reflection on every objective norm and
the motivation of good-will by the thought of the
aim of eternal life. But since for Luther the new
life of the Christian is still in a state of growth and
maintains itself only by continual struggle with
the remnants of sin, he teaches that the Christian
still needs education through the objective law.
As he can think, however, of an objective order of
the law only in the legal norm of right which
threatens punishment, instruction and admoni-
tion by the law appear to him as something that is
in contradiction to the spiritual condition of the
new man; and thus Luther makes Christian life
dualistic, instead of showing how it stands imder
a moral law without losing the character of its
freedom. (J. GorrscHiCKt.)

Bibliooraphy: The literature on If 1-3 b given under
Biblical Theology; that on f 4 under Doctrines, His-
tory OF. On f 5 consult: J. K6stlin, LvUherg Theologie,
Stuttgart. 1863; T. Hamack. Luthert Theologie, L 475-
480, Erlangen, 1862; S. Lommatssch, Luthere Lehre,
Berlin, 1879; E. Trdltsch, Vemunft und Offenbarung bet
J. Gerhard und Melanchthon, pp. 127-143. G5ttingen« 1891.
On the general problem: S. H. Tyng, Lecturee on the Law
and the Ooepel, New York, 1848; J. M. Armour, Atone-
ment and Law, London, 1885. Consult also Atone-
ment.

LAW, HEBREW, CIVIL

I. Origins and Development.
Semitic Background (f 1).
Effects of Settlement in

Canaan (| 2).
The Hebrew Codes (| 3).
II. Administration of the
Law.
The Judges (| 1).
The Procedure (| 2).
III. Criminal Law.

AND CRIMINAL.

Development from Lex

Talionis (| 1).
Capital Offenses (| 2).
IV. Rights of Persons.
V. Rights of Property.
Real EsUte (f 1).
Debt (I 2).
Injury to Property

(5 3).
VI. Inheritance.

L Ori^rins and Development: According to the
ancients, law and justice came from God. The
Babylonian King Hammurabi received his man-
dates from the hand of the sun-god Shamash, while
Yahweh gave the tables of the law to Moses on
Sinai. Throughout their history Yahweh was the
source of law for the Israelites, his precepts (toroth)
being communicated to them by his

I. Sem- servants, the priests. Matters of little
itic Back- importance were not referred to him,

ground, but where the wisdom of man was in-
sufficient, or where no fixed law had
yet been established, the decision of the divinity
was sought through the priests. This ruling was
then regarded as a norm in similar cases and thus
became law, deriving its authority from the fact
that it was the will of God. This sanction gained
additional force in Israel, since there Yahweh was

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

regarded as a God who watched over righteous-
nes8 and justice and hated iniquity. When the
Israelites first emerged into the light of history,
they possessed neither a firm political organization
nor law. Instead of written law tribal custom pre-
vailed, and in place of an executive magistracy stood
the tribal deity, whose will was represented by the
customs of the tribe. It might, then, be supposed
that each tribe would create its own custom, with-
out regard to its neighbors, but it must not be
forgotten that since the dawn of history Arabia
and the Syro- Arabian desert had been under the
influence of Babylonian civilization, and that in
Babylonia as early as 2200 B.C. law had reached
a height in the Code of Hammurabi (q.v.) which
was not equaled even in the Hebrew Book of
the Covenant in the late regal period. Contact
with ancient Arabian culture, which attained a
noteworthy eminence among the Minaeans in the
second half of the second millennium B.C., is con-
firmed by the Israelitic narrative itself when it
states that Moses modeled his code according to
the counsel of the Midianite Jethro.

The settlement in the West Jordan country was
a momentous epoch in the development of law.
In its content law must have been widely extended,
since new conditions brought new legal problems;
but the independent development of Israelitic law
had not yet begun. Since the disco^'ery of the
Code of Hammurabi, it may be regarded as certain
that the Canaanites among whom the
2. Effects Hebrews had come and whose culture
of Settle- they adopted had a highly system-
ment in atized code. This Canaanite system
Csnian. was deeply influenced by Babylonia,
and this explains why Israelitic law,
even after being taken from the Canaanites and
worked over in the Book of the Covenant, shows
so close an aflinity with the Code of Ham-
murabi. This agreement is seldom verbal, but the
spirit and the basal concepts, except in religion,
are essentially the same, although the Babylonian
code deals with a far more highly developed and
more coherent political organization. The entire
system of l^al procedure was transformed by the
new home of the Israelites. Nomadic Bedouins
have no judges clothed with executive authority,
but fixed abodes change clans and families to local
conmiunities and territorial unions. The heads of
the communities, or elders, become the magistracy,
and behind their enactment stands the power of
the community. Thus a form of public law was
evolved, and the community assumed control of
the protection of individual rights.

The rise of the Israelitic kingdom resulted in a
definite system of law and in legal uniformity, in
so far as this had not already been achieved. The
date of the codification of the unwritten law is un-
known. It may have taken place at an early date
at the sanctuaries, but the most prim-
3. The itive document known is the so-called
Hebrew Book of the Covenant (Ex. xx. 24-
Codes. xxiii. 19). The Book of the Covenant
does not pronounce great principles of
law or abstract legal doctrines to be applied in indi-
vidual cases at the discretion of the judge, but it is

a collection of special instances and is restnrt«d
the problems of daily life. It deals with the rttf
of slaves, with injuries to life or limb, and vithi
juries to property, whether daughter or 4i
cattle or fruit. There is as yet no conmierdai ii
while the Code of Hammurabi is highly develop
in this respect. The Book of the Covenant i
evidently a compilation of existing customary li
and it is nowhere stated that it ever reoei^'ed sa
tion as official, nor is it knowm who compiled '
collection or who caused it to be made. It i
possibly not official, but may have been drawn
by private persons, or, in other words, by
priests. Far diflerent is Deuteronomy, whi^ i
officially proclaimed as the law of the State m
eighteenth year of Josiah (621 B.C.). Though s
lar to the Book of the Covenant in form uA c
tent, it marks an important step in advance
that it seeks to bring all civil and religious
within the scope of the point of view of the Um
racy. The characteristic of this code is its hums
tarianism in providing for the poor, for serra
for widows, and for orphans. The Priestly C
was introduced as the law of the State after
exile (Neh. viii.-x.). Taken as a whole, it i
tains only religious law, although it also consv
individual questions of civil life in so far as t
concern the hierocracy of the priestly code. I
is incorporated the independent ** Law of E
ness " (Lev. xvii.-xxvi.), which proceeds from
point of view of the sanctity of the people,
written law, as extant, concerns only a small
tion of civil life; imfortunately no other codifies
of customary law has been preserved. The T<
became the infallible basis for all further deve
ment of the law, its deficiencies being supplied
casuistic interpretation or by a codification of
law of custom. The law thus deduced was tcr
Halakhah, and with its recognition the scholars of
law became the actual legislators. The result
their activity are simuned up in the Mishnah
Talmud), which is based on an earlier work dai
from the time of Rabbi Akiba ben Joseph, i
flourished between 110 and 135 a.d., under wh
direction the Halakhah, which had been transmit
orally, seems to have been codified.

XL Administration of the Law: Legal jurist

tion was originally lodged in the family (G

xxviii. 24; Deut. xii. 18 sqq.), or in the *' elder

or heads of the clans and tribes (Ex. xviii. 13 sq

Num.xi. 16 sqq.; Deut. i. 13 sqq.). P

I. The allel with this was the decision of t

Judges, priest as the servant of God, wfa

Moses, according to the narrative, h

the most difficult problems before God (Ex. xviii. i

19) . The judicial power of the elders was only mor

they possessed no executive authority and with t

settlement in Palestine were superseded by t

heads of the local communities, who acquired exec

tive power, since a permanent community nat

rally had an interest in the maintenance of the la

This court of elders retained its judicial authori

in the regal period (II Sam. xiv. 4 sqq.; I Kin

xxi. 8 sqq.), while Deuteronomy recognizes the

as an organized body with full judicial powi

(Deut. xix. 12, xxi. 2 sqq., xxii. 15, etc.), and

429

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Xaw, Hebrtiw

the representatives of the ooxnmunity (Deut. xvii.
7). It must accordingly be assumed that though
the Book of the Covenant does not state it^ its
** judges " were the elders. The priests retained
tli^ir judicial power at all times. In the Book of
the Covenant (Ex. xxii. 9, R.V.) the decision of
God is sought at the sanctuary in cases of unusual
difficulty, while in Deuteronomy the Levites con-
irtitute an ecclesiastical court which decides also
secular matters. The tendency of Deuteronomy is
to enlai^ge their jurisdiction, and to leave the elders
the right of punishment only in those derelictions
which directly concern the family (Deut. xxi. 1 sqq.,
18 sqq., xxii. 13 sqq., xxv. 7 sqq.). At that period
the king was the chief judge (II Sam. xiv. 4 sqq.),
although his ruling might be sought at the very
first, especially in difficult cases (II Sam. xv. 2
sqq.; I Kings iii. 16 sqq.; II Kings xv. 5). This
right of the king was then transferred to his offi-
cials, who judged in the king's name. Unfortu-
nately it is not known whether or how the author-
ity of the royal officials was conditioned by the
elders and priests. The Chronicler ascribes to
Jehoshaphat the creation of a supreme court in
Jerusalem and the appointment of judges in the
individual cities (II Chron. xix. 4-11), but it is im-
posflible to assume that the high priest and the
'' prince of Judah " were the spiritual and secular
presidents of this court, although it would agree
with the statement of the (Ilhronicler that David
had given 6,000 Levites the office of judge (I Chron.
xxiii. 4, xxvi. 29). The local judges in the time of
Ezra were chosen from among the elders of the
city (Ezra vii. 25, x. 14). In the Greek and Ro-
man period such judges were found everywhere
(Judith vi. 16; Josephus, Wars, II., xiv. 1; cf.
Matt. V. 22, X. 17; Mark xiii. 9). In small towns
the council of elders exercised judicial functions
(Luke vii. 3), while lai^r places seem to have con-
tained special courts. In later times local courts
usually had seven members, and twenty in lai^r
cities.

Judicial procedure was oral, although the later
period seems to have known written complaints
(Job xxxi. 35 sqq.). The judges sat at the city-
gate (Deut. xxi. 19, xxii. 15; Amos v.
2. The 12, 15), while Solomon built a ** porch
Procedure, of judgment " at Jerusalem (I Kings
vii. 7). The plaintiff lodged his own com-
plaint; if he failed to do so, no one else brought the
matter to the attention of the court, for there was no
prosecuting attorney. Proof was by witnesses, the
^aw requiring the concordant testimony of two
witnesses, especially in cases involving capital pim-
tshment (Deut. xvii. 6, xix. 15; Num. xxxv. 30; for
an exception cf. Deut. xxi. 18 sqq.). According to
the Talmud (cf. Josephus, Ant. IV., viii. 15) adult
freemen alone were eligible as witnesses, slaves and
women being excluded; according to Lev. v. 1,
compulsory testimony was common. False wit-
ness was punished by the Ux talionis (Deut. xix.
18 sqq.). In cases where witnesses could not be
found, an oath was required (Ex. xxii. 6-11), and
in the older period the Ordeal (q.v.) was frequently
invoked as a means of proof (Ex. xxii. 8; I Sam.
xiv. 41; Joshua vii. 14), although later this was re-

stricted to the single case of the chaige of adultery
(Num. v.). Torture was first employ^ as a means
of obtaining testimony during the Herodian rule
(Josephus, WoTB, I., XXX. 2-5).

IIL Crimhial Law: In the Code of Hanmiurabi
criminal law is under the absolute control of the
State, while in the Old Testament it is still in proc-
ess of development from private to public law.
Private law belongs primarily to the
I. Develop- lex talionis ('* Eye for eye, tooth for
ment from tooth, . . . wound for wound,'' Ex.
the Lex xxi. 24-25). This principle dom-
Talionii. inated even public law, as is shown by
the Code of Hammurabi, although it
was originally the norm for private revenge. The
man who had been injured had the right to do to
his injurer the same harm as had been done him;
among savage peoples revenge is regarded as a right-
eous and holy sentiment. This appears most clearly
in the case of murder, where revenge was not merely
justified but sanctified, and was a kinsman's duty.
Absolute lex talionie, as is clear from Blood Revenge
(q.v.), makes all controversies eternal, and it there-
fore marks a long step in advance when the Israel-
ites at an early period substituted in certain cases
the wergild for blood-revenge. Such compensation
could not escape regulation by general custom, and
ancient Israelitic usage required such settlement
in personal injuries (Ex. xxi. 18), but paralleled it
with blood-revenge, except in the case of man-
slaughter (Ex. xxi. 30). A third stage is pubic
criminal law, in which society deprives the indi-
vidual of the right of punishment, which is then
executed by the authorities. Revenge thus be-
comes punishment, which is regulated by the in-
terests of the whole community. Punishment has,
moreover, a religious end. Sin, especially murder,
brought on the land a defilement which was purged
by punishment (cf. II Sam. xxi., xxi v.; Num.
xxxv. 33; Deut. xix. 19). This assumption of
guilt by the State involved a family in the punish-
ment of its members, and in aggravated cases chil-
dren suffered with their fathers (Joshua vii. 2-1;
11 Kings ix. 26; cf. also the general principle that
Yahweh visits the iniquity of the fathers upon the
children). The concept of blood-revenge is still
retained, and if the avengers are unable to seize
the murderer, his family is slain instead (cf . II Sam.
xxi. 6 sqq.), a principle found both in the Code of
Hammurabi and in modem custom among the
Bedouins, which was not abrogated among the
Israelites before Deuteronomy (Deut. xxi v. 16).
Punishment by retaliation occurs only in case of
bodily injury, and substitutional punishment, fre-
quent in the Code of Hammurabi, is mentioned but
once (Deut. xxv. 12). The death-penalty was by
stoning (Lev. xxiv. 14; Deut. xvii. 5), since such
cases as those described in II Sam. i. 15 and II
Kings X. 7, 25 were not the execution of a pim-
ishment ordered by the court. In certain in-
stances the penalty was increased by burning or
hanging the corpse, thus depriving the criminal of
the benefit of burial (Lev. xx. 14, xxi. 9), although
Deuteronomy (xxi. 22) mitigated this portion of
the punishment. Crucifixion and strangulation
(the latter, according to the Talmud, the usual

THE NEW SCHAFF-]

:i3i:^^i

form oi ponMhxiient) w«re mtradueed by the Bo-
iiutfM. Biimini^ to death seems to have been pne-
tined in the earlient period ^Gen. xxxviiL 24) but
in lat^r rimes it was restricted to gross iminoraiity
rLev. XX, 1 *, xxi. 9). while the Code of Hammurabi
etuiCtrf it an the penalty for incest. Punishment by
hftBtiT^ is first mentioned in Deut. xxv, 1-3, but
thie eriXMSR for which it wa* inflicted are taken for
granted, althoiigh the maximum number of blows
in fbied at forty (later forty less one; cf. II Cor.
xi. 24; Josephus, Ani., IV., viii. 21, 23). Im-
priHonment is first mentioned m the post-exilic
peri^j^l (Kzra vii. 26k but dimgeoos, stocks, and
jrofi collars were frequently employed by the Idniss
(Jtr. XX. 2. xxix. 26 sqq.; II Chron, xviiL 2.5). In
an other cases, m in the Code of Hammurabi, fines
alone were exact/^, and were regarded as a recom-
pen^ for plaintiffs rather than as punishments.
Xhe sense of liability is weU dereloped, as it is in
the f>xJe of Hammurabi A careful distinction is
drawn in the Book of the Covenant between mur-
der and manslaughter (Elx. xxi. 12 sqq.), and the
right of self-^lefense is recognised (Ex. tyii 2i,
while accifiental injuries are distinguished from
intentional.

In their details the punitive regulations which
have ^Jeen preserver] are very incomplete. Accord-
ing to tlie ancient view, death alone could atone
for murder (Oen. ix. .>-6;, and the later law was
thus obliged to recognize the right of blood-revenge
(Deut. xix. 1-13; Num. xxxv. 16-21),
2. Capital although the tendency to transform
Offensef. this into punishment inflicted by the
authorities was early manifested (II
8am. xiv. 4 s^iq.). The factor here at work was the
distinction between murder and manslaughter. In
Deuteronomy (xix. 1-13) previous hatred is consid-
ered a proof of the intentional character of the deed,
and in the Priestly Code the use of a deadly weapon
bears with it the same implication (Num. xxx\'. 16
sqq.). Murder was punished with death (Num.
xxxv. 31), yet the murderer had the right of asy-
lum at a sanctuary (Ex. xxi. 14), or, in later times,
at 8f>ecial cities of refuge (Deut. xix. 2-3; Num.
xxxv. 11 sfjq.). There it was to be decided whether
the fugitive was guilty of murder or manslaughter.
In the former case he was to be driven from his
asylum (Ex. xxi. 14; Deut. xix. 11 sqq.; Num.
xxxv. 11 sfjq.); in the latter eventuality the guilty
man was free within the city, although he could
not obtain full amnesty until the death of the high
priest (Num. xxxv. 25; post-exilic). In case of
malice, the lex talionia was employed, but in in-
juries inflicted in the heat of quarrel the defendant
liad f)nly to pay the expenses for the healing of the
plaintifT, and n^compense him for the time of his
ilhiPHH (for another case of fine, cf. Ex. xxi. 22).
Among offPHHCiS against morality, incest, pederasty,
and Ix'stiality wore puni8he<l with death (Lev. xx.
10 8(i(|.; Ex. xxii. 18), and the same penalty was
inflicted on both parties guilty of adultery, except
tliat, whcMi force had been used, the woman was ao-
c|uittcd (D(Mit. xxii. 25-26), the law agreeing herein
with tlio ('o<lo of Hammurabi. The seduction of
jin unlM*tr()th(Ml ^irl was regarded as an injury to
proiwrty (Ex, xxii. 15; Deut. xxii. 28-29), although

the daughter of a pHemt wss pimidied wiUidotii
(Lev. XXL 9). A g^gnffjrant trrnit of Hebrew hY£
the fiKt that it, in antithesis to the Code of Hi&
murabi, comprised crxmes agaunst lei^kn oak
dvil law. puniahinc not ocily idolatry and witchol^
(Ex. xxiL 18, 20) with death, but even, in D«a^
ronomy (xm. 6-lS), any temptatioo to theseoiiDfi,
while the Priestly Code waa atiU more severe (Lfr
XXIV. 16).

IV^ Rii^ o« Fnoos: Fufl righta were ei.
joyed only by aduh freemen who were cMuik
of bearing arms. Lists of the citisens seem lo
have been prepared at an earty period (Ex. xm
32), and are frequently mentioned in bter linw
(e.g.. Isa. X. 19). In Num. L 3 and Lev. xxvil 5
the age of twenty is taken to be that at whki
arms may first be borne, and it may be assumed
that thisrule held good at an earlier period. IT*
tegal ^om of women, on the other baud, «u
umited.

V. Ri^ of Property: The regulations comiog
under th» category are concerned with purch«.
debt, and mdemnity. The purchase and sale of
movable property, as wefl as many other commef.
cial matters regulated m the Code of Hammurabi.
« . "^ ^ controlled by Hebrew hw.

^iJ^ Pree^tc Israel was not a oommerml

Estate, people. In the sale of real esute.
custom laid restrictions on the owner
Thegrou^ m which father and grandfather w«.
bun«l (I Kings XXL 3) was sacred to the son and
fj*°f^?/*™? thelawsought to keep the propertyin
the family, giving those kmamen who had Se r4hi
of inheritance the privilege of preemption aiid\
demption (Jer. xxxu, 8 sqq.). The PtksUv Codi
enacted the right of redemption of real estate to
be exercised withm a year (Lev xxv 25 sqq)
The antiquity of this custom is uiiknown, but it b
a mere theory that every fifty yeara purchased
property was restored to its original ownere with-
out compensation (Lev. xxv. 13 sqq.). Certain
formahties were customary in purchase Wit-
nesses were summoned (Gen. xxiii. 7-20) and in
the time of Jeremiah it was usual to draw up a
deed (Jer. xxxii. 6 sqq., 44). An ancient symbolic
act m the transfer of real estate was the giving d
a shoe to the purchaser by the seUer in token of his
renunciation of the property, a ceremony no longer
clear in origin (Ruth iv. 7; cf. Ps. ht 8* Deut
xxv. 9, xi. 24?). ■ '

Debt receives less detailed treatment than in the
Ck)de of Hammurabi. Debts exist, even accord-
ing to the view of Deuteronomy, only because the
poor exist; the Old Testament knows nothing of
a system of credit in connection with trade. TTie
tendency of the laws, therefore, was to

2. Debt, protect the debtor against oppiessioo.
Usury was accordingly forbidden, but
unfortunately there is no statement respecting a
just rate of interest (Ex. xxii. 25). In ancient
Babylonia interest ran as high as forty per cent,
and averaged twenty per cent In the Israelitic
code the creditor received a pledge, but could re-
tain an upper garment, the covering of the poor,
only until sundown (Ex. xxii. 26). Deuteronomy
went still further, and prohibited the tjAinp in

481

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Law, Hetir«w
Law; William

pledge of any article necessary for livelihood (Deut.
xxiv. 6, 13, 17, XXX., xxiv. 10-11, and Code of Ham-
murabi, 241). In a like spirit interest was abso-
lutely forbidden (Deut. xxiii. 19-20; cf. Ezek.
xviii. 16-17), at least so far as compatriots were
concerned. In the case of insolvent debtors, as in
Babylonian law (cf. Code of Hanmiurabi, 64), the
levy seems to have included the person, but though
the creditor could not deprive the debtor of his
property, he was permitted, as in the Code of Ham-
murabi (116, 117), to sell the debtor into slavery
together with his family and property (II Kings
iv. 1; Neh. v. 5, 8; Isa. 1. 1; Jer. xxxiv. 8 sqq.),
although this servitude ended after the lapse of
six years (Ex. xxi. 2; cf. Code of Hammurabi, 117,
which enacts that a wife and her children shall
work only three years; on the bondage of the
daughter, cf. especially Ex. xxi. 7 sqq.). In Deute-
ronomy this law becomes a command to remit
all debt in the seventh year (Deut. xv. 1 sqq.),
although with little success (Deut. xv. 9 sqq.;
Ezek. xvii. 7 sqq.; Jer. xxxiv. 8 sqq.). To Rabbi
Hillel was ascribed the device of the pro^ml^ a dec-
laration before the court that the creditor reserved
the right to demand payment of the debt at any
time without regard to the year of release. In the
Priest Code the manumission was required to take
place in the year of jubilee, but kindly treatment
of the enslaved debtor was enjoined (Lev. xxv. 36
sqq.; cf. Code of Hammurabi, 116-116).

Indemnity for injury to property could be ex-
acted only where guilt was proved, as in theft and
embezzlement, wherein the Hebrew law was more
lenient than the Code of Hanunurabi, which here
frequently imposed the death penalty. The resti-
tution for theft was to be double the

3. Injury amount of money (comp. Code of Ham-
to murabi, 120, 124, 126), four times the

Property, number of sheep, and five times the
number of oxen (Ex. xxii. 1-3). Guilt
was also evidenced by gross carelessness (Ex. xxi.
29-36, xxii. 6, 12). If a man's guilt was proved
and he was unable to make restitution, he was
sold into slavery as a debtor, but where there was
no evidence of guilt, there was no compensation
(Ex. xxii. 7-8, 10-11, 13). Deuteronomy contains
no details on these subjects, but the Priest Code is
occasionally milder, enacting that one who con-
cealed anything entrusted to him, or an3rthing
stolen or found, make complete restoration and add
one-fifth of the value as a fine (Lev. vi. 20-24).

VI. Inheritance: The law of inheritance was
agnatic throughout. Unlike the Code of Ham-
murabi (172), Hebrew law denied the inheritance
to the wife, since she formed part of the heritable
estate of her husband. Daughters likewise were
incapable of inheritance, this being another point
of divergence from the Code of Hanunurabi (180,
183, 184). Lack of male offspring gave the in-
heritance to the nearest agnate, who also had the
duty of blood-revenge. The sons of different wives
had equal right of inheritance, although the first-
born son received a double portion (Deut. xxi. 17).
The father might, however, favor one son rather
than another, and might even transfer the inheri-
tance of the first-born to a younger son, as to the

first son of a favorite wife, although this was con-
trary to custom and was forbidden by Deuteron-
omy (Gen. xlix. 3, xxi. 1 sqq.; I Kings i. 11-13;
Deut. xxi. 16-17). It is unknown whether the
real estate was divided, nor is it certain whether
the inheritance of the sons by a concubine (Gen.
xxi. 11) was equal to that of the sons by a wife,
although much seems to have depended on the
good-wiU of the father. It was not until the later
period that the law allowed daughters to inherit in
case there were no sons (Num. xxvii. 4 sqq.), al-
though in such instances they were obliged to
marry a husband from their father's stock (Num.
xxxvi. 1-12), in order that the estate might not
pass to an unrelated family. It was an exceptional
act of favor to allow daughters to inherit together
with sons (Job xlii. 16), but even in case of a child-
less marriage the wife had no right of inheritance,
the heirs then being the kinsmen of her husband.

I. Benzinger.

Biblioqrapbt: J. Klein, Da* Oetetz Hber dot (ferichtiieKe
BeweiMverfahren naeh mo9ai9cK4almudi9d^em Recht, Halle,
1885; J. D. Michaellfl. MotaucKeM Recht, 6 vols.. Frank-
fort. 1775; Frenkel, Der geriehiliehs BetoeU, Berlin, 1846;
J. L. Saalflohuts, Dom motaitd^e Recht, ib. 1853; L. Diestel,
Die relioi&9en Delikte im itraelitiMchen Strafrecht, in Jahr-
backer for proteetantUdu Theologie, v (1869). 297 sqq.;
M. Duschak. Dae moeaieche Rechi, Vienna, 1869; A.
Kuenen, Religion of lerael, ii. 250-286, London. 1875;
idem. National Reliffione and Univereal Religione, pp. 82
sqq., ib. 1882; A. P. Bissel. Tfie Law of Aeylum in lerael,
Leipsic. 1884; Smith. OTJC, pp. 298 sqq., 428-430, and
lectures xi.-xii.; O. Wildeboer, De Pentateuehkritik en
het motaiache StrafredU^ in Tijdechrift vor Strafrecht, iv.
205 sqq., v. 251 sqq.; A. Biertholet, Die SteUung der
leraelilen und Juden tu den Fremden, Freiburg. 1896;
E. Day. Social Life of the Hebrewe, New York. 1901;
C. F. Kent. Student^e Old Teetament, vol. iv.. ib.. 1907;
8ch(lrer, Oeedtiehte, ii. 143 sqq., Eng. transl., consult
Index; DB, iii. 64-72; EB, iii. 2714-30; JE, vu. 633-
638; the literature cited under Hamiiurabi and Hu Code;
and the works on Hebrew archeology and antiquities by
DeWette, Ewald. Keil, Bensinger, and Nowack.

LAW, WILLIAM: English controversial and
devotional writer; b. at King's Cliffe (28 m. n.e.
of Northampton), Northamptonshire, 1686; d.
there Apr. 9, 1761. He studied at Enmianuel Col-
lege, Cambridge (B.A., 1708; M.A., 1712), and was
ordained and elected fellow of his college in 1711.
He was a fearless nonjuror, and, in consequence
of his refusal to take the oaths of allegiance and
abjuration on the accession of Geoige I., forfeited
his fellowship, and all prospects of advancement
in the Church. Subsequently he took up his resi-
dence at Putney as tutor to Edward Gibbon, father
of the historian. In 1740 he returned to King's
Cliffe, where he spent the rest of his life in literary
labors and works of charity. Law was one of the
most eminent English writers on practical divinity
in the eighteenth century. He was a genuine mys-
tic, although he lived in a worldly and rationalistic
age, and is best known by his Serums Call to a De-
vout and Holy Life (London, 1729 and often; new
ed., 1906). With the exception of The Pilgrim*8
Process, no book on practical religion in the lan-
guage has, perhaps, been so highly praised. Gib-
bon, Dr. Johnson, Doddridge, and John Wesley,
vie with each other in commending it as a master-
piece. At one time, Law was a kind of oracle with
Wesley, and his influence upon early Methodism

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOO

Waa of an almmt fartnative character. In hia later
yeare lie became an enthuatastic student of Jakob
Bochmu, but hU strong cburchly feeling and bis
aounU English sense kept him from the wild errors
and extravagances into which some of Boehme's
disciples fell. In The Spirit of Prayer (1760; new
ed., 1893) and The Spirii of Love (1754; new ed.,
1893), Law unfolds his myBtical views, and an-
swers the objections which had been made to them.
They are remarkable works, and abound in passages
of uncommon spiritual force and beauty. Other
well-known writings by Law are: Three Ltttera to
the Biahop of Bangor [17 \7-iQ; new ed., 1893), the
most forceful piece of writing produced by the
Bangorian controversy (see Hoadlt, Benjamin);
and A Fractiml TreoHae on Christian Perfection
(172«; abridged in part by J. Wesley, 1740; new
ed., 1902). AH of these maybe found inliis Work*
(9 vols., 1702; a beautiful reprint ed. G. B. Mor-
gan, 9 vols., Brockenhursl, 1892-S3.) Recent vol-
umes of Bclections from Law are: Cliaradert and
Charaeleristia ttf WiUiam Law (ed. A. Whyte, Lon-
don, 1893); WhoUy/or God (ed. A. Murray, 1894);
The Power o/ the Spirited. A. Murray, 1896); and
The Divine IndweUing (ed. A. Murray, 1897) ; Lib-
eral and Mystic Wrilingi (New York, 1908).
BiBLIOuntPH¥: J. H. OvBtton, IVilliam Laa. Noniuror
and Mu'lir, l.<indon. 1B81 lualinfutaryJ: |C, W>llun|.
Naif and malrrialM fur an ,lffiii;ual( Bioffrap^n of tFiUiam
Law. ib. 18.M ([.rivately prinl&il; I,. Hmphen. Hour, in
a IMnrv. 'i. Mr., ib. ]87«: J. H. Overton. Thm CIturrh
in Enolaml. ii, X-i^i, azg-^ai, £15. 2«i. ib. 1867: idem
uid F. Rcltun. Tin EnglUK C'Aurrfi HrH-ISOO), ib.
leoe: DNB. xsiii. 230-240; and tba litentura UDdEr

N05

tmbritii^t Alwtem Hiat-,

o! tf

LAWLOH, HDGH JACKSOH: Church of Ire-
land; b. at Ballymena (33 m. n.n.w. of Belfast),
County Antrim, Dec. II, 1861. He studied at
Trinity College, Dublin (B.A., 18S2; M.A., 1885),
was ordered deacon in 1885, and ordained priest in
3886. He was curate of Chrt-t Churrh, Kingstown,
DubUn 1885-03, and senior chaplain of St. Mary's
Cathedral, Edinburgh 1893-98. Since 1898 he has
been professor of ecclesiastical history in the Uni-
versity of Dublin, where he had already been aa-
Bistant to Archbishop King's lecturer in divinity
tn 1890-93. He was university preacher in 1898-
1905, and has been examining chaplain to the
bishop of Edinburgh since 1895, precentor of Trin-
ity College aineo 1900 and of St. Patrick's Cathedral,
Dublin, since 1902, and curate of Bray, Dublin,
Bince 1905. He haa edited: The Roeilyn Miesat
(Loudon, 1899); O. T. Stokes' Some Worthier of the
Irish Church (1900); and The Diary of Wiliiam
King , . , Kept during his imprisonment in Dub-
lin Castle. 1689 (Dublin, 1903); and boa written:
Chapters on the Book of Mulling (Edinburgh, 1897) ;
The Kilcormic Missal (Dublin, 1900); Thoughts on
Belief and Life (serraona: 1900); and The Manu-
aeripts of the Vita Sancti ColuTnbani (1903). He
haa also contributed lo the Pephgraphia Dubtinenr
ais (London, 1902) and The Paatmi of Israel (1904).

LAWRENCE, WILLIAM: Protestant Episco-
pal bishop of Masaachusell.H; b. In Bo^ilon May 30,
1850. He wa.'* graduated at Harvard in 1871 and
the Episcopal Theological School, Cambridge, Mass.,

in 1875. He was ordered deacon in IS7i auj
priested in 187S. He became r«etor of Gnn
Church, Lawrence, Mam., in 1876, profenor of
homiletica and pastoral tbeoloigy in the t^aatopii
Theological School at Cambridge in 1884 (dnu fino
1888), and bishop of UBssachuaetta in 1893. Hehu
written: L^e of Amos A \darna\ ZiauTcnoc (his father;
Boston. 1888); ViWorw and Serriee (1896); tiff
of Roger Wotcoa, Governor of MosaocAiucttf (1902);
and &tiidy i^ Phillips Bmoks (1903).
Bihuoghai-rt: W. S. Perry. T'ha Eviacopalm u lan«
p. 359, Neir York. ISBS.

LAY BAPTISM. See Baptism, III., 4.

LAY BROTHERS, LAY SISTERS. See Mosu-

LAY CLERK: A designation given t«i ceiuia
members of the estabUsbment of an English estbe-
dral, whose duty it is to take a regulaf part ic tlv
choral services; they are Bometimes known also u
lay vicars, or vicars-choral. As in the caae o{ tlic
parish clerk, the name cornea down from a tiDie
when these functions were performed by aetml
clerics; the qualifying adjective " lay," tJwc^
etymologically importing a coctradictioo. beiog
added to mark the difference in modem usa^

LAY COHHUHION (Lat. oommunio Icaa):
Originally the status of the lay members of lit
Church OS contrasted with the clergy, but restricted
after the differentiation between clergy and luir
to a deposition from the higher estate of the fonwt
to the lower rank of the latter. It ia mentioned in
this sense as early as the third century, eapedallj
as a punishment parallel with Deposition (q.v.).
The punishment implied that a clet^yman thus de-
posed resumed the status of a layman and had
henceforth only iny rights, so that he received cran-
raunion outside the cboir instead of within Ibe
sanctuary, like the clergy. In modern Rotnin
Catholic usage the development of the doctrine d
the "-indelible character " of bishops and priesu
has rendered absolute reduction to lay conumi-
nion impossible. A cleric of Dtajor ordera con he
released from the duties of his office, espedillj
from the vow of celibacy, only by dispensation dt
the pope. Those who hold minor orders, howevs',
may return to the estate of laymen, and if thfj
marry, they lose their beneficeia and all other priv-
ileges. (P- HmscHnjBt.)

LAY READER: A term applied in the AuglieM
Communion to laymen who are licensed to read
portions of the service, usually in the absence of a
clergyman. The system received its earliest widf
development in the United States, VFhei« the Dum-
ber of clergy was inadequate to the needs of mis-
sionary expansion, and the services of the Episco-
pal Church were in many places kept up for long
periods almost entirely by the ministrations of l»y
readers; but in recent years it has been adt^ted
to a considerable extent in England also. Id the
United Slates a lay reader is required to have s
license from (he bishop, which is granted for a year
at a time, and hia powers are minutely defined by

488

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Iiawlor

LAYING ON OF HANDS: A religiouB rite, both
Jewish and Christian. In the Old Testament, as a
prescribed act, it appears first in Lev. i. 4, for the
burnt-offering; in iii. 2 for the peace-offering; in
iv. 4 for the sin-offering; in xvi. 21 for the sending
away of the scapegoat on the Day of Atonement.
It was used also in connection with the setting
apart of priests (Ex. xxix. 10, 15, 19), and with the
solenm punishment of idolatry (Lev. xxiv. 14). In

Num. viii. 10, 12 the close connection
In the Old between the use of the rite in sacrifice
Testament and that in consecration of priests is

seen; whence it follows that it can
not be used to denote the designation of represent-
atives by the people, but rather signifies that they
belong to God. The laying on of hands in the case
of the scapegoat is a symbolic expression of par-
ticipation between subject and object, the latter
becoming or doing what properly belongs to the
former. In the punishment of idolatry a simi-
larly close connection is established between the
bearing of witness and the pimishment of the
crime. It is an easy transition to the setting apart
of Joshua as leader of the people by the laying on
of the hands of Moses (Num. xxviii. 18; Deut.
xxxiv. 9), in order to symbolize the participation
of the younger in the exalted mission of the elder.
From all these cases it appears that the act either
meant the marking out of a special destiny for the
object, expressed in the words which accompanied
the act (for some words were always used), or else
it signified transmission, either of an office, or of
a blessing, or of sin.

In the New Testament there is no express men-
tion of the rite as a part of the law. But Christ
performed a number of his miracles of healing by
the laying on of hands (e.g., Mark v. 23, vi. 5, vii.
32), and his blessing was conveyed by the same
act (Mark x. 13, 16). The same thing is related of
the miracles of healing performed by the disciples
(Acts vi. 6, ix. 12, 17, xxviii. 8). The expression

of the will to heal or bless by this act
In the New is so natural that there is no need to
Testament attribute any magical effect to the

mere touch, against which would be
the failure of the parallel passages to mention it,
and the same working of the word at a distance
(e.g., Matt. viii. &-13). The imposition of hands
is merely symbolic of the healing will; but in ac-
cordance with the new dispensation, the effect
closely accompanies the sign. It is not surpri-
sing to find the laying on of hands permanently
connected with the washing away of sin in baptism
and with the appointment to offices in the Church.
In the former connection it so appears in Acts viii.
17 and Heb. vi. 2, but not as a separate, substan-
tive act accompanying the baptism and with a
blessing of its own. According to Acts ii. 38, the
communication of the Holy Ghost is not a thing
separate from baptism, but follows upon it. The
separation of the laying on of hands from baptism,
and its elevation into a right reserved to bishops
in Confirmation (q.v.), is both contrary to Scrip-
ture and derogatory to the sacrament of baptism.

According to Acts vi. 6, xiii. 3, the appointment
to office in the Church is conferred by prayer and
VI.— 28

the laying on of hands, which here again is noth-
ing more than a natural symbol for the transmis-
sion of the power of the Holy Spirit necessary to
their exerdse. It is analogous to the Jewish
priestly consecration (Num. viii. 10), as also to the
ordination of readers or members of
In the the Sanhedrin in the post-Maccabean
Church, period. But once more the New-Tes-
tament symbolism differs essentially
from the Old; for as long as the service of the
Church had not developed into a hierarchical con-
stitution, the commissioning of a man with an
office was supposed to include the transmission of
the powers necessary to its exercise. Thus Paul
could write to Timothy (I., iv. 14, II., i. 6) of the
charisma which was in him through the laying on
of his hands and the hands of the presbytery, and
warn him (I., v. 22) to lay hands suddenly on no
man. For later development, see Clbrot, IV.;

Ck)NFIRMATION; OrDINATION. (H. CRBlfXRt.)

BiBUoaBAPHT: I>CA, L 82fr-82Q; DB, iiL 84-8A; BB, iL
1056.

LAYMAN'S MISSIONART MO

MOVBICBNT^ liATlfAN'B MlSaiOXART.

See

LAZARISTS: 1. A name sometimes given to
the Mekhitarists from their monastery on the island
of San Lazzaro (2 m. 8.e. of Venice). See Mbkhit-

ARISTB.

2. The common name of the congregation of
secular priests for missions founded by St. Vincent
de Paul from the old hospital of St. Lazare in Paris,
where they had their mother house. See Vin-
cent DB Paul, Saint.

8. The Knights of St Lazanss, organized for the
care of the side, especially lepers, probably at Je-
rusalem about the middle of the twelfth century.
The tradition that the order was founded by the
leprous King Baldwin IV. may be partially au-
thentic, in that he probably showed special favor
to a lazaretto in Jerusalem at that period, and
knighted the brothers in attendance at it. After
the thirteenth century, they spread throughout
Europe, chiefly in Sicily, Lower Italy, and Ger-
many, and most of all in France, where the laza-
retto at Boigni (near Orleans) became the seat of
the Grand Master. About 1490 the order was
suppressed in Italy by Innocent VIII., only to be
restored by Leo X. In 1572 they were united by
Duke Emmanuel Philibert of Savoy with the
Knights of St. Maurice (founded 1434 and foUow-
ing Benedictine rule), and the two orders now de-
voted themselves to the defense of Roman Catho-
lic doctrine against Protestantism. The Knights
of Saints Lazarus and Maurice still exist in Italy
as a secular order established by Victor Emmanuel
I. of Sardinia in 1816.

In France the Knights of St. Lazarus were united
in 1607 by Henry IV. with the Knights of Our
Lady of Mount (}arinel, and under Louis XIV. they
enjoyed special favor in 1672, receiving the estates
of all extinct or suppressed French orders. After
1691, however, these estates were withdrawn, and
henceforth the order slowly declined, being almost
annihilated in the Revolution and being formally
suppressed in 1830.

THE NEW eCHAFF-HERZOG

As speciaJ insignia both the Italian and French
bmnches bore a green cross with eight points, while
llie French division added lilies between the arms
of the cross and pictures of Our Lady of Mount
(Jarmel and Lazarus rising from the dead.

(O. ZOcKLBRt)
BiBLioiiRAPHT; Htlyot, Ontrel nomutiff, i. 32, M: Hsim-

bucher, Onim uwt Koneri/atuintn; G, Uhlborn, Die

rhritllicht LiebuOiaiiffktil im Mittrlaittr. pp. 272-274.

493^94; Currier, RtligiouM OrdcrM, p. 21S.

LEA, HEIfKY CHASLES: Hiatorian; b. in
Philadelphia Sept. 19, 1825; d. there Oct. 24,
1909. He was educated privately, and in 1841
entered the publishing- house of Lea and Blanchard,
in his native city, becoming a member of the firm
in 1851 and having sole control from 18S6 to 1880,
when be retired from active life. During the Civil
War he was a member of tlie Union League, and
always retained interest in municipal and civil re-
form. He is universally known by his studies of
medieval eccleaiasticul history, which comprise:
SuperalUion and Force: Easays on Wager qf Law,
Wager of Battle, Ordeal, and Torture (Philadelphia,
1866); HistcruxU Sketch of Sacerdotal Celibacy in the
ChrManChurch (Boston, 1867; 3ded., 2 vols.. New
York, 1907); Studita in Church History: RiaeofTem-
fMirat Power, Benefit of Clergy, Excommunication
(Philadelphia, 1869); History of the Inquisition of the
Middle Ages (3 vols.. New York, 1888); Chaptersfrom
the Religious History of Spain connected with the
Inquisition (Philadelphia, 1890); Famvlary of the
Papal PeniUntiary in the Thirteenth Century (1893);
History of Auricular Confession and Indulgences in
the Latin Church (3 vols., 1896); The Moriscos of
Spain, their Conversion and Expulsion (1901); and
Uislory of the Inquisition of Spain (4 vols., New
York, 1906-07) ; Inquisition in the Spanish Depend-
encies (1908).

LEAD (LBADE), JANE: English mystic; b. in
Norfolk 1623; d. in London Aug. 19. 1704. Iler
maiden name was Ward, liecciving the usual ed-
ucation of the well-to-do English girl of the period,
she heard, in her sixteenth year, a marvelous voice,
which so impressed her that she devoted herself
thenceforth to meditation. At the age of twenty-
one she married her kinsman William Lead, aiid
after his death in 1670 lived in retirement in
London. Her innate tendency to mysticism was
furthered by her study of Jakob Boelime and her
acquaintance with John Pordage (q-v.), an Anglican
clergyman, after 1652; but she was not content with
the visions of others, her vivid imagination speedily
producing phantasms of her own. These occurred
almost nightly and were recorded after 1670 in her
diary, A Fountain of Gardens; but her writings
made little impression until 1693, when one of
tbem was tranahited into Dutch. She now became
famous in an hour. An important event in her
lite at this period was her acquaintance with an
Oxford scholar Francis Lee, who became succes-
sively her adopted son. secretary, and son-in-law,
and gave her writinea their present literary form.
About the pair gathered a circle of mystics who
termed themselves the Phikdclphian Society and
kept in close touch wnth Germany and Holland. In
her latter years she had to struggle against poverty

and jealouay, though ahe was freed from Iht
mer by aD annual pension of 400 florini girtn
Baron Kniphausen. She regarded herself u
mere instrument of her visions; and her vo
though Ini-liiiig in originality and style. ei«t
a wide influence in limited circles. Their cbi
ter is sufficiently indicated by the titin:
HeaoetUy Cloud now Breaking- The Lord Chi
Ascension-Ladder Sent Down (Liondon, 1681);
Retmlation of Reoelalions, ete. (,16S3); The Enoo
Walks with God, Found out by a Spiritual Fran
whose Face towards Mount Sion above was ni.
(1691); TheLaweof Paradise, Given Forth by]
dom to a Translated Spirit (1695); The Wonde
Qod'e Creation Manifested in the Variety ^ I
Worlds as They mere made knotcm experimn
unto the Author (1695); A Memaage la the Phil
phian Society, Whitheraoever J>iapersed orrr
WhoU Earth (1696), followed by two simiUr
sages in 1698; The Tree of Faith or the Trte <f
Springing up in the Paradise of God, etc. (It
The Ark of Faith (1696); A Fountain of Gal
Watered by the Rivers of EHvine Fleasure andSp
ing lip in all the Variety of Spiritual PlaKti.
(4 vols., 1696-1701); A Revelation of the Em
1715 Gospel Message (1697) ; The Ascent to the Si
of Vision (1698?); The Si^ns of the Times: J
running the Kingdom of Christ and Evidencing f
it is to Come (1699); The Wars of David on
Peaceable Reign of Solomon, etc. (1700), with
tobiographical material; A Living Funeral 1
many, or Death Overcome and Drowned in the
of Christ (1703); and The First Aeaumtfrir
Christ (Amsterdam, 1704; dictated shortly l»
her death). (Armold RCeo

ItlBLIoaRAFHTi An kuMbiocnphy exuts in Stdis my
TraetiOein, pp. 413-423. AmatcrdBiii, 1600. On
DNB. xxiii. 312-313; I. W. Jucer, Hittoria tctUn
II.. ii. 90-117. Runburg. 1717: C. WkIu>ii. Nsla f
Aiapmlt Biegraphv of W. Law. Loodon. 18S4: C
Jenkins. Id BrUitti Quarttrly Review, July. IS73. pp.
187.

LEAGUE AND COVGNAIIT, THE SOLEMH.
Covenanters, { 4.

LEAHDBR, SAIFT: Metropolitan of Seville
at Cartagena, Spain, c. 550; d. Mar. 13, 6«
601. The brother of Isidore of Seville. Fulgen
bishop of Eeija, and Florentina prioress of a r
nery, he was for many years a monk, and evei
this early period seems to have exercised the
fluence on the Visigothic Prince Hermenegild.
of Leovigild, which ultimately converted him fi
Arianism to the catholic faith. Leander was ex
when Hermenegild rebelled against his father: :
between 579 and 582 he went to Bysantium to
duce Tiberius 11. to send troops to the aid of
catholic party headed by his convert. Despite
powerful influence of Gregory the Great, Lean
met with no success at Byzantium. After his
turn to Spain, he was consecrated bishop, or mel
politan, of Seville, probably in 584. In this cap
ity he not only confirmed Leovigild's succw
Recarcd in his conversion to orthodoxy (587). I
also aided materially in overcoming the opposit
of the Arlan bishops and in effecting the final c
version of the Visigoths from AriaDisDi. He (

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDU

LelsMtoB

sidcKl over the famous Synod of Toledo (589) which
marked this event, and was the chief agent in add-
ing the^toyM to the crcod of the Visigothic Church.
Hia activity in behalf of his Church ia also shown
in his correspondence with Gregory the Great, who
not only answered his questions carefully and cor-
dially, but also sent him tho pallium in 599 and
dedicated to him his Moralia in Jobum. The ex-
liint works of Leander are: Regula Mnctimomalium,
give HbeUus de iTUlituticne virqinum cL conlemplu
mimdi ad Florentincm sororem, and Homilia de
Irivmpho tcelesite ob converiionem Gothorum (de-
livered in the synod of Toledo). Both are printed
in MPL. hcxii. 873-8i>8. He also wrote two trea-
tises against Arianism, one a sharp polemic, the
other an orthodox catechism. In the ecclesiastical
art of Spain Leander is always represented with his
brother Isidore, (O. ZOcKLERf)

BiitLiaoRiFBT: Itiidoni of Berillt, D» tir. ia., cfasp. xli.;
ASB, March, ki, 27S-Z80; ASif, L 378-385: P. Gums,
KirditngadiirMt von SpanUrt. ii. 3, pp. 37 ■qi-. ^ '^t-
3 vols., Ki^emburg. ISBL'-TO: E, Oaim, in i'aridiufwen
lur dtuUchtn Geicliichte. 1872-73: idem, io ZHT. 1873.
pnrlii i., IT.; idem, in ZWT. ixr (ISSS). pan iiL. izvi
(1S8U), put i,. pp. 3e-G0: DCB, iil. 637-040; and Iba
lilcrature under Ibidorb of Ueville.

LEATHES, STAJILEY: Church of England; b.
nt EUesborough (20 m. e. of Oxford), Bucks, Mar.
21, 1830; d. at Much Hadham (7 m. n.e. of Hert-
ford), Herts, Apr. 30, 1900. He studied at Jesus
College, Cambridge (D.A., 1852; M.A., 1855), and
after serving various churches was appointed in 1863
profeeaor of Hebrew in King's College, London.
He was also perpetual curate of St. Philip's, Re-
gent Street, London, 18(19-80, and rector of CUffe-
at-Hoo. Kent, 1880-89 and of Much Hadham, Herts.
1889-1900. He became a member of the Old-Tes-
tament company of revisers in 1870, and from 1878
until his death was prebendary of Caddington Major
in St. Paul's Cathedral, examining chaplain to the
bishop of Lichfield after 1891, and examiner in
Scripture to the University of London after 1892.
Among his publications, special mention may be
made of his WUnas of the Old Te^ament io Christ
(London, 1868); The Wilnens of Si. Paul Io Christ
(1869): The Wilneat of St. John to Chritt (1870;
these three volumes the Boyle lectures for 1868-70);
The Stmdiire of the Old Testamenl (1873); 7'Ae
Cities Vitiled by St. Paid (1873): The Ootpel its
own WUnejia (Hulsean lectures for 1873; 1874):
The Religinn of the Chritt (Bampton lectures for
187-1; 1874); The Grounds of Christian Hope (18.77);
The Chriatian Creed, its Theory and PratUce (1877);
OW Testament Prophecy, its Witness as a Record of
Dirine ForeknowUdge (Warburton lectures; 1880);
The Foundations (^ Moraiity: Discoumes upon the
7'fnCommandi7iOT/»(1882); Charaeieri^cs of Chris-
tianity (ISa.'!); Christ and the Bible (1885); The
Lam in the Prophets (1891); and The Tettimoni/ of
the Earlier Prophetic Writers to the Primal Religion
t^ Israel 0898).
BiflLioaHAPRT: DNB. t^lupplemenl. iil. 85-86.

LEBAHON: The western port of the mountain
system of central Syria, starting near the sources
of the Jordan and stretching northeast about one
hundred miles. Over against it to the east is An-
tilebanon, while between the two ranges is the

plain of Cfflle-Syria (q.v.). The general character of
the entire system Is lliat of a mighty mountain wall
between the coast and the interior. Lebanon be-
gins at the south where the Litany breaks through
on its way to the sea; its southern lialf reaches
northward to the puna through which the railroad
from Beirut to Damascus crosses at a height of
4.870 feet, and its highest point is Jabal Baruk,
ai>out 6,870 feet above the sea; its northern half
extends to the valley o( the Nahr ai-Kabir where
the latter flows westward into the Mediterranean.
The northern half reaches a higher altitude and a
greater variety of form than the southern. Instead
of a single line of mountain crests there are numer-
ous extended plateaus, reminding of the Alpine
formation, though the Lebanon outlines are some-
what softer in outline. These plateau heights are
known as Jabal Sannin (8,060 feet), Munaitira
(8,680feet),Khaswani(c. 9,000 feet), " the Cedars"
(Arab. Arz Libnan, " C^ars of Lebanon "), and
Akkar (6,610 feet). An Libnan culminates in two
ranges of peaks rmitiiDg north and south, each row
having five summits, of which the highest is Dahr
al-Dubab in the western range, altitude 9,470 feet,
just a little below the line of perpetual snow, if the
observation of C. Diener be accepted. Yet there
are isolated places where in some years snow lies
continually in the hollows (Jcr. xviii. 14), and
reveal traces of the glaciers of former

The cedar groves near Bsharrah (40 m. n.e. of
Beirut) cover part of a somewhat hilly basin about
6.180 feet high, and are surrounded by a high wall
pierced by two gates which, however, continually
stand 0[>cn. Leo Anderlind counted on Oct. 23,
1884, 397 trees, of which eight were outside the
wall, none of them higher than seventy-eight feet.
The moHt vigorous trees are near the
The Cedars, little Maronito chapel, one of which at
the height of four feet from the ground
has a girth of about forty-Bve feet. Of trees like
this, which bespeak a great age, there are seven.
Rauwolf in 1573 counted otily twenty-four trees,
but Burckhardt in 1810 reckoned in all 375, show-
ing a very large increase during the last 300 years.
Modem investigation shows the timber not to be
especially durable and aromatic, but it was much
valued in ancient times (I Kings vi. 20 sqq.; Isa.
xiv. 8, wcxvii. 24, xliv, IA; Ewk. xxvii. 24, and
the cuneiform inscriptions).

The width of the strel^ between the mountains
and the sea varies from Eevent«en miles at Sidon,
to near eighteen and a half at Beirut and twenty-
six and a third at Tripolis. The valleys of drain-
age in the south arc largely the result of erosion in
their lower course, in the upper course following
geological cleavage. The nortbeni watercourses are
in general formed by gorges, the sides of which
by the varying color of the strata and the mixture
of vegetation present a beautiful effect. Some-
times these brooks have a subterranean channel,
that of the Dog River (Nahr al-Kalb) having been
followed tor nearly two-thirds of a mile.

The descent from the crest to the shore is acconi-
plished in great terraces, each of which has in pop-
ular usage its own name. The lowest is al-Sahil,

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

the aecond is si- Was! , while the highest is al-Jurd;
ID the latter the chBlky formatioD overlie* the tuid-
stone. The chalk formation is the conaerver of the
water from the melting snows, which percolate*
until it reaches the sandstone and is then brought
to the surface. The numerous springs thus created
have much to do with the fertiUty and consequent
population of the region below. Much snow falls
on the range during the snowy season, and the
lower limit of snowfall is between 1,550 and 1,850
feet above the sea.

The flora in consequence of these favorable con-
ditions is very rich, and the zones marked by the
terraces have each its own characteristic plants.
For those of the coast plain sec Phenicia. In the
middle region are found the mulberry, olive, and
fig, then come nuts, the apricot, peach, almond,
pear, apple, pomegranate, quince and pistachio.
Vineyards are productive at an eieva-

Flora and tion of 3,100-4,600 feet, at which ele-

Fkunu vation diligence has produced some
spots of singular fertility. The earlier
and native flora of pines and cypresses has been
superseded by the plane, maple, linden, arbutus,
and oak. Alpine Sora commences at an elevation
of 7,400 feet. The cone of the mulberry is fertile
also in fragrant plants such as the myrtle and the
lavender (cf. Hos. ziv. 6). Continued occupation
of the country and consequent despoilment has
cleared away the former rich growth of forest so
often mentioned m the Old Testament. Some
pieces of woodland still renudn and give shelter to
the panther, bear, jackal, hyena, wild boar, and
gazelle, though archeology shows that a much
larger fauna existed in the woods which once
reached nearly to the coast. There are indications
that the i»imitive inhabitants of the r^on were
cannibals.

The lofty and abrupt character of Lebanon as
well as the great number of gorges make access ex-
ceedingly difficult and fit it as a retreat not easy to
approach. It has consequently been the refuge
during the centuries of those in difficulties, who
found there security and freedom. Concerning the
inhabitants of Lebanon only too little
Inhabitants, is known. Possibly the earUest known
to history were the Amorites (q.v.),
since the Amor of the Egyptian inscriptions includes
this region. In the fourteenth century the Amor-
ites fought the Egyptians, in the next century they
broke out to the south, and nhcn Israel settled in
Canaan, they had founded two kingdoms in the
mountain region snd across the Jordan. Compare
with this the independent Dru.se principality,
1595-1634 A.o, Among ihr> biKlorical examples of
refugees to the region with achievement of com-
parative freedom is the cose of the Maronites and
the Druses (qq.v.). Present conditions are the re-
sult of the interference of Western powers, partic-
ularly of France. The region is now under a Chris-
tian governor who pays a yearly tribute to the
Sublime Porte.

To the east of Lebanon is the great valley of
Ccele-Syria, which begins at the Lake of Horns (al-
titude about \,Mh feet), and rises toward the south,
boimded on the east by the range of Antilebanon.

Its present name ia al-B^ka, " the Valley " (d.
" valleyof Lebanon " of Josh. xi. 17). The mi

and southern part has a beaii'y f<
Ccele-Sjiia. red-brown soil, though the clima

somewhat harsher than on tbewes

Litany toward the south. Antilebanon begin
the south with the mighty Hermon. North ol
post-road to Damascus the range spreads out
shaped into different spurs named by the inl
tants the " Eastern, Middle, and Weaterti U
tains," Damascus lies under the " eastern " r
and in this range rises the Amana of II Rinj
12, the modem Barada. In the cuiKifonn
scHptions the names Amana and Senir (cf, I
iii. 9) aie used for Antilebanon, Senir especial!}
the northern part. (H. Guthi

BiBLiaaBAni: K. Budaker. Patmtinm aitd S^ria, La
leOS; J. L. Portar, Fiv* Ykb-m in Anwucwa. 3 rA
ISU: U. C, A. Chuioliill. Mount l-ba„o^ * ml>
tseZ; R. F. Burton uil C. F. T. Dr&ke, Otuit
Suria. ib. IST2; O. Fnu. Drm MortaU an Libaneit. f
fit, 1878: O. Eben mnd H. Outhe. P^AMina n
und WtH, ii (1B84). 1 >nq.: C. Duiaer. iyiboium. V>
ISSS; Lao Andtrlind, in ZDPV, x (1SB7), SB hn.
Blanclunhom, fnAndwluiv dsm fTmiilmiiriim n il
unit NvrdSiriin. CuhI, 18M): K. von FriUeh, Zu*
HeUtnfumU in Libatun. Hklle. 1803; G. A. S
HittohaU Gtograjiky of dU Holji Liandy Ixukdon.
DB, iii. 90-S2; EB. iii. Z756-S0: JB. Til. SSS-OST.

LBBBAEDS, leb-bl'us (LEBBBTTS). See Jtr
LBBWIR (LIAFWIHB, LEBUHrnS}: Boj
missionary to the Frisians and Saxons in tl» e
part of Charlemagne's reign. He w«nt to Gi^
abbot and priest at Utrecht (d. 775 or 776;
Grbqory of Utrscht), who sent him with a
tain Marcellicus or Harchelm to what is now O
yssel, Uany of the people were already Christi
and Lebwin built a church at Deventer and
other on the west side of the Yssel. loroadi
heathen Saxons occurred, however, and accord
to Lebwin's biographer, Hucbald, hs followed tl:
to the heart of their country and appeared at tl
national assembly at Harklo on the lower Wa
clothed in his priestly vestments with a crucifii
one hand and the Gospel tu the other, and delivei
a threatening addreea. The infuriated warn'
prepared to slay bim with stakes which tbey t<
from the groimd and sharpened; but an old nol
took his part and the outcome was that Lebi
was allowed to return to Deventer and work thi
unmolested the rest of bis hfe. He is the patr
saint of Deventer and is honored on July 25 w
Nov. 12. The story of a missionary of the sai
name in Flanders, the patron of Ghent, who is n
to have died C. 660, is probably an imitation
Lebwin of Deventer by one Falsarius of the eleven
century. (O. ZOcKLKBt.)

BiBLioaRtrar: Alttrid, Vila S. lAndgwr ia MQH. Sai)
ii (1829). 406-40fl, Enc trmnil. ia H. P. Cnmy. Ckit
Hxilory g/ Sritlanir, 16«S; ASM, V. 21. 36: HitUrin i
Ifrairedtla FTana. yi (17*2). 210-221; RettbeiK. KD.
(1848), 40S, 536-fi3S: DCB. ui. 040-641; DtfB xs
333; HkUflk. KD. ii (1H»}, 348-34B,

LECHLER, leHler, GOTTHARD VICTOR: G<
man Lutheran; b. at Kloster Reicbenbach, ne
Freudenstadt (40 m. s.w. of Stuttgart), Worttei
berg, Apr. 18, 1811; d. at Leipsic Dee. 26, I8f

RELIGIOUS ENCVCLOPEDU

He atuiiieil at tbe gymnasium at Blaubeuren 1825-
1829 and al the L'nivereity of Tubingen 1829-34, and
became r^pcteni at Blaubeuren in 1S35. He was
tmnsterrod to Tubingen in the same capacity in
1836. He was appointed assistant pastor &t Waib-
lingen in 1841 and dean at Knittliugen in 1853,
vlience he u'ua called to Leipsic in 1858 as superin-
tendent and pastor at St. Tbomas' and professor of
theology at the university. He lectured on eccle-
eisAtical history, symbolics, canon law, and eccle-
siastical polity, and also on certain books of the
Hew Testament, especially Acts and the Epistle of
James. Later he became a member of the Saxon
diet, and iii 1880 privy ecclesiastical councilor. In
1883 he resigned hia superin tendency and pastorate
in order to devote his closing years entirely to hia
academic and literary work. Some of his more im-
portant books are: Geschichte des en^luchen Deitmua
(Stuttgart, 1841); Das apoitolUche und nachapoi-
iolitche ZeilalUr (Haarlem, 1851; Eng. transl., Apoa-
telic and PM-AjiogbAic Timet, 2 vols., Edinburgh,
1886); GeKhicMe der FredryUrial- unl Sj/nodaiver-
/asauTig (Leyden, 1854); and Johannn von Widif
und die VorgetchidiU der Reformation (2 vols.. Leip-
Bic, 1873i Eng. transl, John Widif and his English
Precuraors. 2 vols., London, 1878, new ed., 1884).
In collaboration with K. Gerok he prepared the
commentary on Acta for Lango's Bibelwerk (Biele-
feld, 1862; Eng. tranal., New York, 1869). Other
■works by Ijechler are, Dt Thoma Bradxmrdino
(Leiitsic, 1862); Der Kirchenalaal und die Opposi-
tion gegen den pdpsUichen Absoluiitmus im An/ang
lies xiv. JahrkundsTis (1870); Urkunder^unde des
ehrisUiehen AtUrlums (2 parla, 1885-86); and Jo-
hannes Hua (Halle, 1890). Thbodo* Fickbr.

BiBLioantrHT: C. MiukI. Kirchlidxe* HandUiikm. It.
201. LciiMin, ISM.

LECLEBC, le-clftrc', JEAR. See Clbhicus. Jo-

LECOT, le-o5', VICTOR LUCIEII SULPICE:

Cardinal; b. at Montescourt (40 m. n.w. of Reims),
Jan. 8. 1831; d. at Chambery Dec. 19, 1908. He
studied at ibe Petit Siiminaire of Compidgne and at
the Grand S^minaire of Beauvais, and was appointed
professor at the Petit S^minaire of Noyon (Oise).
During the Franco-German war, he was chaplain in
the French army, and after being parish priest of
St. Antoine de Compline 1872-86, was consecrated
fabhop of Dijon In the latter year. In 1890 he was
enthroned archbiahop of Bordeaux, and in 1893
was created cardinal priest of Santa. Pudcnziana.
BiDLiouKiPHTt Drr Paptl. du Stgixruno uwl die Cfrtml-
lupw dT htrUiae- Kirdu in Bom. pp. ISfi. 187, IBS. Mu-
nich. IBM.

LECTERN ; OriKinally a high, sloping deak.
either single or double, which atood in tbe middle
of the choirs of churches, and was used as a rest
for the anliphonanum and U^ionarium from which
the cantors sang the antiphons and Icsbodb. In
this shape it is retained in some Homan Catholic
«hurchea at the present day; but it occurs much
more frequently, usually in tbe shape of an eagle
-with outstretched wings and frequently of braas, in
Anglican churches oa a support for the Bible ttom
which tbe lessons are read at morning and evening

LECTOR ("Reader"; Gk. AnagnMi»): In tbe
early Church, an ecclesiastic in minor orders ap-
pointed to read to the congregation from the Scripi-
tures and other religious writinga. From the very
Rrst the oral reading of the sacred Scriptures occu-
pied a large place in religious services, and for a
long time it was the sole, or at least the principal
means of imparting Scriptural knowledge to the
congregation. Since during the first two centuries
Christianity diffused it«elf especially among tbe
poorer classes, and tbe congregations were fre-
quently small, it was not always easy to find a
competent reader of the sacred books, written as
they were without spacing between the words. The
position of the lector in the congregation was con-
sequently an important one. In addition to read-
ing, he often expounded passages of Scripture, es-
pecially as the sermon waa not yet an ofGoial duty.
AlphieuB, lector and exorcist at Cssorca (d. 303),
was " preacher and teacher of the word of God "
at that place, " and had great fortitude before
every one " (Eusebiua, De martjfribut Palettina, \.).
During the early centuries the lector appears to
have been reckoned with tbe spiritual leaders of
the congregations, with the prophets, evangelists,
and teachers who were accustomed to conduct di-
vine worship. Certain expressions in liturgies of
the later time reflect the ancient estimate of the
lector's ofhce; thus tbe Slatuta eccleeia anHqua
(viii.) observe of the prospective lector, " he ia to
have a part with those who minister the word of
God," consequently the lector occasionally took
precedence of the deacon and aubdeacon. The de-
velopment of polity in the Church catholic from the
second century downwartl was unfavorable to the
dignity of the lector's office. The bishop or tbe
presbyter was accustomed to appropriate the ser-
mon, and sometimes tbe preacher included the
Scriptural reading as a part of hia functiona, with
the result that the lector became auperBuoua. In
the ceremonially ordered public worship from the
fourth century onward, the reading of the Goapel
was regularly reserved to the deacons or presby-
ters, and the lector enme to be reckoned with tbe
deriei minores, being of the next to the lowest rank
in the order of ecclesiastical promotion (Siricius,
Ad Himerium, xiij.). In many church districts,
children and even catechumens were admitted to
the lector's rank, an impropriety which Justinian
sought to correct. The ritual for the installation
of the lector was furnished by the liturgies. It
usually consi.'ited in the delivery of the codeic of the
aaered Scriptures. In the Roman Catholic Church
the lector's tnvio still exists, but in a merely formal
sense. See Orders, Hoi-y. H. Achelis.

BinuoaniFBT^ Tbe euUR- litentun- a gtlfa in A. Hsr-
nack, UAtr dm Urt^rvno dti LtktaraU und dtr andtfsi*
KJHtovn IPfiAm. in TV. U. S <iseei. S7 (qq. Conmll:
Binsham, Orioints. I!!., v.; F. Wirland. Dii fmtisdm
ffniincfcilune dr . . . ordina mtnorri. Rnni>, 1893.

LEDABIBLB. See BtSLB Vihsions, B. IV., f 9.

THE NEW SCHAFF-HEHZOa

LEE, ASH: FoundrcHB of the sect oT Shakers
ill Arocrica; b. iu Mmichmter. Etig.. Feb, 2S. l"ati;
.1. at WfttiTvlifl. X. Y., Jd'pt. S. 17S4. Hit tallier
wiu a bbkirkMinilh miil i^vt- her do education, but
put her ut wiirk in n niiiiiii-fnciiiry: afterward she
wrvcil an i'iH>k ill till' MiiUFliMlor Iiilinnary. In
U!iS hIk' itumii'il Abniluim ^IiuidiTUi (so spelled in
111.' n'i<ip.t.i . Iini UMimlly Kiven »» Siniidiey or KtHn-
li-y), II Mjirlsihifli. I>v wliimi »!«■ hud tour chiklrcn,

wild ill- ■■ \ 111 ITSS ahc hiul joined the

MiiiK Ik iN'il I Im* " ttliakitif; I jiuikerH. "

wliii'li I ill liir Siioii<Iy of Frk'iids and

wua iiii.lu '.l,. I..,..Im-1,ij. i.f Jiiiiimi Wonlloy, B.-
iiiR luitiindly i-ai-i1iiI>1i', mIii- wiis (|uickly nffecli'd
by tlu' n-liniiniH I'xi'rriws iif llu' Hocii'ty, and UrRnn
li> |imcti»> mLMtcriliiv. tn have visions, and to uinkc
n'vi'lul iiilm. Hut it whs mil until 177U tlial slir hud
IIk> e|Hich-iniikinK rfvi'laliiin itftninHt niarringc, and
UitiDi Ikt " tcslinitiiiy aindiiitt all lustful gratifica-
tiuiiH iiM tlw luiiirtv and ruiindntiun uf huitian cor-
ruptiiiii and iiiim-ry," n coiirac which Inl to licr iiii-
priMinniFnt. It wiu tlu'ii lluil Clirut a|)|>FArei) to
hpr ill a vUioii, and ^l'Vl■all^l Iu liiT lluit alic wiw the
HKOiid incumatititi iif ClirUl. and thus the lioad of
all WMiwii, a» lu> wiu 1Ik> lirnd of all nicn. From
that tiiiii' forth h1h> wtm ndlml liy tuT followers
" UotliPr Aim," and U'lii^vwl by ilu'in to bt- per-
fectly Tigh(<<otui.

Iloncoforth hIw cliiimtHl to Iw din-ctnl by reveln-
tioiiH and viHioriH. In 177-4 hIh^ mint' with her fol'
lowura to AniiTini, and liiuilly M'llted, in the- spring
of 17TU, nt Mxki-ynnu, Inier Wntrrvliet, near Al-
bany, N. V. Ill 17Tii iir I77tt Mhi- niid her hiiKband
parted, tjhakiT diiennii-nls luwrliiift that he de-
•rrtuil herafttr linvinK Inh']) tenderly nursed Ihroii^h
•i danfteroiiH illiU'KM. I>urin(ttlu- Hovolulioiiary Wnr
she waa acciiHitl iif IreaHnnalile corn<!ipundrnee with
the British Biul cast inlii (irison, but was relcuijeil
by Gov. Clinton. 1777. At a. kler ixrioil (1780)
she was Bgniii iinpriHoniil for refiuiint; to tjdie Ilie
oath of altefcinnce Iu tlie Slutti of New York, which
she could not cuiiMcientiunnly do, but was n'leaiicd
without trial by tlie siiiiii' Rovernor. Persecution
had the UHUal effect of increaxinn the iiuinbcra of
the persecuted. TakiiiR iidvan(u|cc of a revival of
leliflioii [1770), she Kallieretl many converts, and
in I7b0 removed tlie coiimiimily to New Lebanon,
Columbia County, N. Y. Kroui 1781 to 1783 she
went through New England on a missionary tour.
Her influence ia atill tell by the Sliakora, who revere
her memory. See Comuitnism, II., 10.

Bibliogiiafiit: Annii WhilB anil Lsila ;«. Taylor, Shakir-

un, lit .Mranina arul Mr$iaiK. Pp. 13-67. tlolumbui.

Ohio, in04: T. DwwhI. Traitli if. i^™ Esfftanrf. iii. H9

K\ei-. Nrw York. 18^2; DN3, ixai. 343.

LEE, BEITJAHlIt FRAITKLIH: African Metho-
dist Episcopal bishop; b. at Bridgeton, N. J., Sept.
18, 1841, He was eduaited nt Wilborforce Uni-
versity (A.B., 1872), where he was professor of
homiletica (1S73-75) and president (1876-84).
From 1884 to 1892 he was editor of Thf Christian
Recorder, and in the loiter year was elected bishop
of his denominatioQ.

LEE, FREDERICK GEORGE: Church of Eng-
land; b. at Thame (13 m, e. of Oxford), Oxford-
ahire^ Jan. 6, 1832; d. at Lambeth, London, Jan.

23, 1902. He studied at St. Edmund
Oxford (D.C.L., 1864), wid w»« curate cisccjhi
well, Berks, 1854-56, then for aereni _
tic chaplain to tbe duke of Leeds mnd eaH at Mita I
while from 1867 altnoet until hi* dnth bera
of All Saints', Lambetb. He w*s a HiflMtrS
man, and shortly before his death wa» r«oi*l ;
tbc Roman Catholic Church. Be was a prolific:
thor, among his principal works beinc: Ttu Sa^
o/Z/iffineu (London, IS59); \otitia Liitirpoaily^
The Validity of Ike Holy Orders of tiie C*urtl (j' £«t
land Maii^ined and Vindicaled (\^mr, TJu lV>
lian Dodrine (^ Prayer far the Deparled (lsT2'; I^
Other World: or, Glintpaea e^ Uie Sttpematvti •■
vols., 1875): Hi^orical Sketeha </ f Ac RtfarmBm
(1878); The Church under Queen EliaJttlk [2iA.
1880); History and Antiquities of Ike Ciumi <"
Thame (1883); Reginald PoU, Cardinal AnUKmi
of Canterbury (1887); The Church t>f Haddnitt.
Bucki (1888); King Edward the SiHh. Su/fw
Head (1889); The SinUvt CoTxeption of the M'^-
of God (1801); and The Church of St. ilory. iMf
Crendon (1891). He compiled A Glottary ty'Iiv-
gieal and Ecdesiastical T^rma (London, 1S77>,*^
among the numerous works which he editel ^^
the second and subsequent edttiona of tbe [>atar
rium Anglicanum (London, 1865) and it£ ibri^-
ineut. Manuals Clerieoruax (187-4): AUar Svva
Book, according to the Use of the United ChutA'i
England ar\d Ireland (1867); and The
Ojfice of the Church qf Scotland (Aberdeen. \m
LEE, JESSE: Founder of Methodism in
England; b. in Prince George County, Md..
12, 17SS; d. ot Hillsboro, Md., Sept. 22, 1SI6. B«
removed to North Carolina 1777, preached )m £n>
xerinon in 1779, entered tbe itinerant rainisiry ■
1783, and during the next six years labored i>
North C«roUna, Virginia, Maryland, and Ne" Jer-
sey. In 1789 he was sent by conference to th
Stamford circuit, Conn. For llie next eleven yt"
he traveled throughout the New England Slaws.
preaching often in bams, private houses, or (■
highways. In 1796 he became assistant to Bishcfi
Asbury. He returned to the South in 1800.
Uisudobafht: L. M. !.«. Li/t ami Timet of Jaat Im,
RiFhmonil, IS4g; W. B. Spra«ue, Antmit of Am Aturvm
Fulpil. vii. 80-87. New York, 1861; J. M. Butklq,
American Church Hitlani Striea, vol. v.. ib. ISM.
LEE, SAMUEL: English Orientalist; b. t
Longnor (8 m. a. of Shrewsbury), Shropshire. S£»J
14, 1783, d. at Barley (16 m. n.n.e. of HerltoHt.
Hertfordshire. Dec. 16, 1S52. He received bis ek-
mentary training at a charity school, and at (be
age of twelve was apprenticed to a Shrewsburj
carpenter. While working at his trade he becaiM
interested in the study of languages, and befoit
he was twenty-five he hod learned, without a
teacher, Latin, Greek, Hebrew, Aramaic, Samari-
tan, Syriac. Persian, and Hindustani. To theM
languages be subsequently added a doien otben.
The accidental loss of hia t-ools compeUed him to
look for other means of a livelihood, and iu 1810 fat
became muster of Bowdler'a Foundation School,
Shrewsbury. In 1813, under the auspices of the
Church MLsaionary Society, he entered Quwo'i
CoUege, Cambridge (B,A., 1818; M.A., 1819; B.D.,

489

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

1827; D.D., 1833). In 1819 he was appointed pro-
fessor of Arabic at Cambridge, and from 1831 to
1848 was rcgiiis professor of Hebrew. He was also
a canon in Bristol Cathedral after 1831, vicar of
Banwell, Somerset, 1831-38, and rector of Barley,
Hertfordshire, 1838-52. His publications include
editions of the Scriptures in Arabic, Coptic, Per-
sian, Syriac, and Hindustani; A Grammar of the
Hebrew Language (London, 1827); Prolegomena to
Bagster's Polyglot Bible (1829); Six Sermons on
the Study of the Holy Scriptures (1830); A Brief
History of Uie Church of Abyssinia (in S. Gobat's
Journal f 1834); a translation of Job, with com-
mentary (1837); A Lexicon, Hebrew , Chaldee, and
English (1840); and An Inquiry into the Nature,
Progress, and End of Prophecy (1849).

Biblioqrapht: Alice M. Lee, A Scholar cf a Past Genera-
Hon; . . . Memoir of . . . Samuel L«e, London, 1806;
DNB, xxxii. 378.

LEE, WILLIAM: Church of Scotland; b. in
Edinburgh Nov. 6, 1817; d. in Glasgow Oct. 10, 1886.
His father was John Lee, principal of the Univer-
sity of Eklinburgh and professsor of divinity. He
was educated at the high school and the Univer-
sity of Eklinburgh, and in 1842 was chaplain to the
marquis of Bute, lord high conunissioner to the
General Assembly of the Church of Scotland. In
the following year he was appointed to the parish
of Roxburgh, where he ministered with much faith-
fulness and acceptance for over thirty years. Pas-
toral duties did not prevent him from engaging in
literary labor, or from taking an active part in the
general work of the church and in the business of
its Supreme Court. During his Roxburgh minis-
try he edited his father's Lectures on the History of
the Church of Scotland (2 vols., Edmburgh, 1860);
contributed to Cassell's Bible Educator, and pub-
lished The Increase of Faith (1867), and The Days
of the Son of Man (1874). In 1874 his learning and
ability led to his appointment by the crown to the
chair of church history in the University of Glas-
gow. He devoted himself with much zeal to the
work of his classes, and to the well-being of his
students, but found time also to continue his con-
tributions to literature, his most noteworthy wri-
tings during this later period being Scripture Biog-
raphies in the Bible Educator. Henry Cowan.

LEENHOF, l^n'hef, FREDERIK VAN: Dutch
Protestant; b. at Middelburg Aug., 1647; d. at
Zwolle (52 m. e.n.e. of Amsterdam) 1712. In 1670
he became pastor of the Flemish congregation in
Abbeville in Picardy; in 1672 he was called to
Nieuwvliet. In 1678-79 he was preacher at the
extraordinary embassy of the general states at the
court of Louis XIV., but returned to his native
country in 1679 as court preacher to Albertina
Agnes, the widow of the Frisian stadtholder. In
1680 he became preacher at Velzen, and in 1681
at Zwolle. He was an adherent of Cartesian Coo-
ceianism; and in the history of Dutch Protestant-
ism he is known in connection with the contro-
versy produced by his book, Den Hemel op aarden;
of een korte en klaare beschrijmng van de waare en
stantvastige blydschap (Zwolle, 1703), which he
wrote to refute thoae who sought the test of Chris-

tianity in a morbid gloom. He maintained that
the true service of God must lead to a pure enjoy-
ment of true happiness on earth. On being ac-
cused of Spinozism and Hattemism (see Hattbm,
PoNTiAAN van), he defended himself in another
work. Den hemel op aarden, opgehelderd van de
nevelen van misverstand en vooroordeelen (Zwolle,
1704). In the course of the ensuing controversy
the entire Dutch Church was thrown into a tur-
moil, and finally Van Leenhof was deposed by the
Synod of Overyssel in 1708. The consistory and
magistrates of Zwolle, as well as the estates of
Overyssel, did not acknowledge the legality of his
deposition, but to preserve peace Van Leenhof vol-
untarily resigned his charge Jan. 1, 1711. Other
works are, De keten der bijbdsche godgeleerdheid (2
parts, Middelburg, 1678); Kort onderwijs in de chr.
religie volgens d'ordre van de H. Schrift (4th ed.,
1680); De geest en conscience des menschen in hoar
eygen wezen en werkingen eenvoudiglijk verklaart (3d
ed., Amsterdam, 1683). (S. D. van Veen.)

Biblioorapht: G. F. Jenichen, Historia Spinonsmi Leen-
ho/iatU, Leipsic. 1707; A. Ypey and I. J. Dermout, G»-
BchiedenU der nederlandache hervormde Kerk, iii. 240 sqq.,
4 vols., Breda, 1819-27; E. J. Lorgion, De nederlamUehe
hervormde Kerk in Friealand, pp. 216-223, Qroningen,
1848; L. A. van Langeraad, De nederlandadu Ambae-
eade-Kapel te Parije, I 238-245. The Hague, 1893 (gives
sources and further literature).

LEFEVRE D'iXAPLES, le-fdvr' d6"ta'pl,
JACQUES. See Faber (Fabri) Stapulenbib,
Jacobus.

LEFFINGWELL, CHARLES WESLEY: Prot-
estant Episcopalian; b. at Ellington, Conn., Dec.
5, 1840. He studied at Union College and at Knox
College, Galesburg, 111. (graduated 1862). He was
vice-principal of a military school at Poughkeepsie,
N. Y., 1862-^5, and then studied theology at Nash-
otah Theological Seminary, Nashotah, Wis., being
graduated in 1867. He was ordered deacon and
ordained priest in 1867, and was curate of St. James',
Chicago, 1867-68. In 1868 he established at Knox-
ville. 111., St. Mary's School for girls, of which he
has since been rector, as well as of St. Alban's
School for boys, which he founded at Knoxville in
1890. Since 1879 he has been editor of the weekly
Living Church, an organ of the High-church party.

LEFROY, WILLIAM: Church of England; b. at
Dublin Nov. 6, 1836; d. at Zermatt (72 m. e.8.e. of
Geneva), Switzerland, Aug. 12, 1909. He studied at
Trinity College, Dublin (B.A., 1863), was ordered dea-
con in 1864, and ordained priest in 1865. He was
curate of Christ Chiu-ch, Cork, 1864-66 and perpetual
curate of St. Andrew's, Liverpool, 1866-89. After
1889 he was dean of Norwich, and also vicar of St.
Mary in the Marsh, Nor\i'ich, after 1903. He was
honorary canon of Liverpool 1880-87, rural dean of
South Liverpool 1884-87, proctor for the archdea-
conry of Warrington 1886, and archdeacon of War-
rington 1887-89. He was Donnellan lecturer at
Trinity ColL^ge, Dublin, 1887-88, and was regarded
as the founder of the Clergy Sustentation Fund.
Among his writings, special mention may be made
of his Lecture on Scepticism (Liverpool, 1868);
Plea for the Old Catholic Movement (London, 1875);
Pleadings for Christ (1878); The Christian Mini^-

jtem and IfanoioBy Papal
and, LagandTy

THE NEW SCHAFF-HER20G

440

<ry (1890); TAc C^rwrfian'« iStort (1890); The Chris-
tian'8 Duties (1891) ; 7^ Christian's Responsibilities
(1892); ilttt/ieCaurweZo/ God (1893); AgoniaChristi
(1893); Lectures on Ecclesiastical History (1896);
Hwtory o/ Norwich Cathedral (1897); and Christian
Science contrasted with Christian Faith (1903).
Biblioqrapht: B. B. Qould, In Memoriam: The Very Rev.
WiUiam Lefroy, London, 1900.

LEGATES AND NUNCIOS, PAPAL: Represent-
atives of the pope. These were present at all the
ecumenical councils in the East except the fifth
(Constantinople, 553), but neither held the actual
presidency nor exercised a really decisive influence.
What they were able to accomplish de-
Eaxly pended upon the position of their prin-
Papal Rep- cipal at the moment, and especially his
resentatives. relation to the emperor. Besides the
pope, they frequently represented Ro-
man synods also, or, in a word, the whole Roman
Church. In addition to these delegates for a
special purpose, from the pontificate of Leo I.
(440-461) until at least the end of the seventh cen-
tury, the popes, like other patriarchs, had perma-
nent representatives at the imperial court, known
as apocrisiarii or responsales (see Apocrisiarius) ;
but these were simply intermediaries, and had no
jiu'isdiction in the later sense. The canons of Sar-
dica (343) conceded to the pope a superior juris-
diction, which was fully recognized on the part of
the State by the constitution of Valentinian III.
(445). On the basis of this, from the end of the
fourth century the popes entrusted the exercise of
such jurisdiction to individual bishops (e.g., those
of Thessalonica and Aries), who were designated
as apostolic vicars. In the succeeding centuries
other representatives appear for the decision of
definite questions, both ecclesiastical and political.
These were known as missi or legati apostolicce sediSy
in a few cases as legati a latere. Their position be-
came more important with the rise of the papal
power from Gregory VII. onward. Gregory em-
phasized this by inserting in the episcopal oath of
fealty (where it remains to this day) the clause
*' I will treat with honor a Roman legate going or
coming and assist him in his necessities.'' Leg-
ates were now more frequently employed, some-
times empowered for whole countries, and endowed
with great powers, including even that of a concur-
rent jurisdiction as ordinaries, in the pope's name,
with the bishops.

The legatine system was formulated and devel-
oped in the decretab, and the different classes are
definitely distinguished. (1) The legatus natus was
one to whom the legatine authority
Develop- came ex officio as the incumbent of a
ment and special archiepiscopal see (e.g., Can-
Classifica- terbury). His powers were originally
tion. those of legates in general, especially
that of concurrent jurisdiction with the
bishops of all the dioceses in his province; he ap-
pears as ordinarius ordinariorum, competent to de-
cide in the first instance cases brought before him
by the parties. With the sixteenth century began
a gradual disappearance of these powers, which
finally left little besides the bare title. The king
of Hungary claimed the position of a legatus natus,

and a similar claim on the part of the king of Sicfly
was the foundation of the so-called monorchia Si-
cula. (2) The class called legati missi in the de-
cretals were sometimes entitled nuncii aposioUei
by the writers of the thirteenth century, and more
often in the papal briefs of the fourteenth, until the
title of nuncio became the regular one. They were
sent out on a special mission, exercising an ordinary
jurisdiction in the territory affected, and until the
sixteenth century concurrently with the bishops.
They had the power to decide many but not all re-
served cases (see Casus Reservati) without special
faculties, and to grant indulgences not extending
beyond one year. Red robes, a white horse, and
golden spurs were among their insignia. (3) Leg-
ates a latere^ sent ** from the (pope's) side," i.e., car-
dinals, exercised practically the authority of the
pope in person, on the analogy of the senators sent
out by the later emperors to represent them. Their
ordinary jurisdiction in a province enabled them
to suspend the entire authority of a bishop, to ab-
solve from all reserved cases, to confirm the elec-
tion of archbishops and bishops (even in the case
of exempt sees), to take precedence of all bishops
and preside at councib, and to use the insignia of a
cross carried before them and a canopy over them.
They were not, however, permitted to depose
bishops, to divide or unite dioceses, or to interfere
with elective dignities in cathedral and collegiate
churches. Distinguished from these plenipotentiary
legates a latere were certain extraordinary ones sent
on a special mission, as to convoke a council or
deal with a sovereign. Nuncios were occasionally
sent out with the powers of legates a latere.

Many complaints were made against the legates,
and led to a substantial alteration of the system.
Leo X. at the Lateran Council of 1515 ordered the

cardinal-legates to reside in the places

Modem to which they were sent and attend to

Modifies- their duties. The Council of Trent

tions. (session xxiv., chap. 20) liberated the

episcopal jurisdiction from legatine
interference, and the Congregation of the Council
subsequently, on the basis of this decree, decided
numerous cases against legates. The Council, how-
ever, allowed them to share with the bishops in
investigating the canonical requirements for cathe-
dral dignitaries and still conceded to them an ap-
pellate jurisdiction (ib. chap. vii.). The altered
conditions after the Reformation led to the estab-
lishment of permanent nimciatures. Such had
existed at the courts of Vienna and Warsaw from
the beginning of the sixteenth century, but here
they were political in origin. Others were now es-
tablished— ^at Cologne for the Rhine district in
1582, at Lucerne for Protestant Switzerland and
southwestern Germany in 1586, and at Brussels for
the Netherlands in 1600. Their work was to a
large extent the supervision of missionary efforts,
though their ordinary faculties permitted them to
concur with the episcopal jurisdiction in such parts
of their territory as had remained Roman Catholic.
In modem times the Roman Catholic Church re-
gards the system of the decretab as still legally in
force. Nuncios are now in practise sent much
oftener than legates a latere, and there is a consid-

441

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

X««ffat6s and Kunoios, Papal
Legend, Legendary

erable number of permanent nunciatures. Acconl-
ing to the order of precedence adopted at the Con-
gress of Vienna, legates and nuncios are considered
by secular governments to have the rank of am-
bassadors. This recognition of the pope's right to
send diplomatic representatives formerly rested, of
course, partly on his position as a temporal sover-
eign; since 1870 it has been based not upon his
still asserted claims to that position, but upon his
undoubted social importance as the absolute spir-
itual ruler of so many millions. The recognition,
however, extends only to the matters in which the
nuncio is accredited to the government, not to the
internal ecclesiastical matters for the regulation of
which he holds powers from the pope. In a word,
the attitude of modem non-Catholic governments
toward this matter is the same which has been as-
sumed in the making of Concordats.

(J. F. VON SCHULTB f.)

Biblioorapht: P. A. Gambanu, TraeUUut tU oiffleio €Uqtte
auctoriiaU UgaU <U laitrg, Venioe. 1521; 8. F. de la Torre,
De auctoriiaU, gradu ei terminia UgcUi a later; Rome, 1666;
L. Thomassin. Vetu% et nova eccleHm diaciplina, part i.,
book ii.. chape. 107-108. 117-118. 3 vols.. Paria. 1728;
A. J. Binterim, DenkufHrdiokeiUih iii. 162 eqq., Maini,
1826; P. Hinechius. Kirehenreeht, i. 498-409. Berlin. 1870;
J. F. von Sohulte. Die SteUung der Konsilien^ P&peU und
BiechOfe, pp. 64 eqq., Pracue. 1871.

LEOEND, LEGENDARY: In present usage
" legend ** denotes almost any fictitious narrative,
ancient or modern, or a recital of true history dis-
torted by the fancy or subjectively colored. It is
well, however, to confine the term to the religious
domain, as many recent literary historians have
done. Legends and saints belong together. Only
in so far as heroes, ancient and modem alike, enjoy
a sort of saint-worship, may one speak of legend in
respect to them; and since worship of saints is not
restricted to the Christian medieval era, one may
transfer the idea of legend to other religions. This
usage is modem. About 1180 Johannes Beleth {De
divinis officiis^ Ix., in MPL, ccii. 66; cf. William
Durand, Rationale divinorum officiorumf VI., i. 29)
calls the book " which treats of the life and death
of confessors and is read at their festivals '' a leg-
endary. This presupposes the term legenda (i.e.,
** things to be read "), which, however, first ap-
pears in the thirteenth century and more frequently
in the fifteenth. Originally distinguished from the
pasaionea of martyrs, legenda or legendarii later in-
cluded the entire aggregate of the lives and pas-
sions of the saints; and their ecclesiastical use in
public reading or chanting receded in favor of pri-
vate edification.

Christian legend is as old as Christianity itself.
Like a wild vine it soon encircled the Gospel and
created an apocryphal history of the apostles,
wherein they are heroes at once of asceticism and of
martyrdom. It transformed genuine martyrology
according to the taste of later times and created in-
credible monastic tales. The products of the fourth
and fifth centuries constitute the foundation story,
the common fund of Christendom's hagiography, but
legendary creation continued, finding new motives
in every new saint, in every translation of relics, and
in every church foundation.

Of literary afl^ty with fictiooi legend aims to

entertain, but likewiHc to edify along definite rti-
ligious and moral lines. The hero is supposed to
serve as a pattern of beneficence, renunciation, self-
sacrifice, constancy, and triumph over the devil.
The invisible is to appear tangibly — God's provi-
dence toward the devout, the hearing of their
prayers, the reward of the righteous, and the pun-
ishment of the impious. Miracle displays God's
intervention in its broadest light. In self-defense
the legend also appropriates rationalizing traits,
and seeks to enhance its cretiibility by proclaiming
the refutation and punishment of doubters.

Legend borrows its materials first of all from
historic reminiscence, but adorns the same and
combines it with motives of its own. The fancy is
ever creating new forms by transferring details
from place to place and from one person to another.
The same motive often occurs in an Indian myth,
a tale of the Thousand and One Nights, and a me-
dieval legend of the saints. From this fact Grimm's
school inferred a common Indo-Germanic origin.
Of late there has been talk of literary migrations.
Usener's theory of myths which have undeigone a
Christian transformation has been sharply criticized
by Delehaye; the points of contact are frequently of
a purely extemal kind, and the features really com-
mon are story-telling motives.

The legend was early incorporated into the lit-
urgy. Records of martyrdom were collected to be
read aloud as early as by Eusebius, and afterward
Palladius, Rufinus, and others gathered ascetic
narratives for the edification of monks. From
these beginnings arose the great collective works
(see Acta Marttrum, Acta Sanctorum). Leg-
ends were worked over into sermons (Symeon Meta-
phrastes, Sermanea de aanctie), and also largely util-
ized as poetry (Prudentius, Periatephanon; Paulinus
of Nola, Carmina natalicia). In the medieval era
the rhapsody of the Madonna and the praise of
heroic renunciation occur as the counterparts of
secular minstrelsy and chivalrous adventures. The
fourteenth and fifteenth centuries tumed the entire
Legenda aurea (see Jacobus da Varagine) into
verse and found edification in miracle plays. Graph-
ic art, especially church painting, considered its
most important task to be the illustration of
legend. Thus the legend enveloped the whole in-
tellectual life of the Middle Ages.

In the later Roman Catholicism legends still
have a place, though the critics have taken much
away from them. Luther defamed legends as LUr-
genden ("lie-gends"), yet he appreciated their
practical utility. Hence an Evangelical history
of martyrs could thrive on Lutheran soil, whereas
Calvinism assumed an attitude of gruff rejection.
While the Enlightenment saw nothing in legends
but superstition and priestcraft, romanticism found
in them the revelation of the deepest secrets of the
popular soul. Modern philological and historical
investigation has discovered rich mines in this field.
Indeed ecclesiastical history itself is taking more
and more note of the fact that the legend, with
ceremonial and custom, offers the best embodiment
of the popular theology. E. von DobschOtz.

Biblioorapht: J. Q. von Herder, Werke, ed. B. Suphan.
xvi. 387-808. xxviii. 167-246, 31 vols., Berlin, 1877-03;

I^SKLtH

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

K, G, Vognt. ID HUlontrh-lhtolointche Abhandlanetn. ui
(1824), 141-178; Wignr. Dicliannain da I*iwnd«. Psria.
ISJ^; idom, Dictior^nairr da opocryphtM. ib. IS5<1; U.
von Eieken. OttchickU iind SvMem der millilalterlichni
WiUaatehaauna. StultEvt. ISST; F. Ginai. in Hit-
lorUcht ZtilKhri/l. Ivii 11887), 312-221; J. J. I. Ton DOl-
lingcr. AkadmUdu TortrOge. i. ISO iqq.. Bonn. 1890;
A. Harnaok, in Praliilantitdur Jokrbudi, Ixv (ISOO),
249-2aS: Mrs. A. Jainuon. ■''afrtd and Ltvtr\dory Atl,
LonJuii, 1890; idem. Lro'ndt nj Ihr Madonna, I-mrndt a/
Sointt and Marlur; Ltetndi of Uir ManaiHc Order; 3
volt.. Lunilon. 1W)3; A. Ebrh&rd, AllrhniUirlit Liltratur.
L 639 nqq,. Freiburfl, 1894; A. Maury. CrnijatuxM ri It-
aenitai du mnuen-aat. PiuHh, 1896; E. Male. L'Arl rtlittitM
du liii.iiivltim Frana.ib. ISai; H. Aehelin. t>U Martyro-
Itvicn. iAn GadiicKlt und ihr Wai, G&lUngcD, 1900;
C. A. BBmoulli. Dw //nlw*it drr Mtrminga. TObingen,
I90D; (i. FariK. Po^mtt el liger\dtt du mautn^gt, Psri^,
1900; Uleio. LigendeM dit moven-aat. ib. 1003; P. Toldo,
in Sb^itn air vtrglriditTidert Lileralur-Gadiichlt, 1901-
1902; E. Luaat. £>ii An/ange da HeiliomlnilU. TQbiagKn.
1904' H DelcWe, LtM Uiimda haaianrapKiiiiut, Psri>,
1905; II. H. Gunler. Leatndtn^tuditn. Cologne. 1900.
The bent lists at livuiif Ui* laiau Kn to be ftmnd in thr
worlui^ued by the Bollandiale — Bibtiotheca haaiographa
aratca, firuBsels. IHOS sqq.. and BiblioUuiea haaiivrapha
Latina, ib.. 1898 sqq.

LE6ER, JEAN: French Prottstaiit; b. at Villa
Secca (in Ihe valley of San Martino, Piedmont)
Veh. 2, 1615; d., probably at Leyden, after I6()5.
At the age of fourteen he went to Geneva to study,
and remained there until 1639, when he went to
Turin. He found the eity in great commotion,
since the province of Piedmont waa overrun by the
French and Spaniards. Leger himself waa exposed
to peril anil was taken prisoner, but est»ped by his
preDeuce of mind. On Sept. 27, of the same year,
the sj^iod of San Germano appointed him pastor of
the two churchea of Prali and Rodoreto. In 1643
he succeeded his uncle Antoine as pastor of San
Giovanni in the valley of Luserna, and there came
into repeated confiicU with the monkn. His pop-
ularity was so great that hia opponents at first
Bought to win him over, but this failed, and (hey
then resorted to persecution. The valley of Lu-
serna was overrun with troops, who pursued tlie
fugitives to the teighta of Angrogna. l«ger him-
self escaped, and as the moderator of his church
gathered his coreligionists about him, urged them
to remain true to their faith and native land, and
liastened to seek aid and comfort for them in for-
eign courts. He stopped in Paris, where he issued
a manifesto addressed to all the powers, which
impressed even Louis XIV., while CromweU sent
Sir Samuel Moreland to the court of Turin to Lodge
an emphatic protest. About the same time Leger
returned to the Waldensian valleys, and a treaty
of peace was signed Aug. IS, 1655, reetoring the
Waldensians to their rights, but forbidding them
instruction in their religion. Leger refused to obey
thLi, and was condemned to death Jan. 12, 1661.
He was cited to appear at Turin and was resen-
tenced oQ Sept. 17. Once more he fled, and pass-
ing through Geneva settled at Leyden as pastor of
the Walloon Church, where he seems to have spent
the remainder of his life, and where he wrote hia
Hiatoire g&n6nle dea (gli»e« fvangHiijues de Pic-
numt ou ratidoises (2 vols., Leyden, 1669), the first
part treating of the Waldensian doctrines and dis-
cipline as preserved in purity and without inter-
TuptioD or the need of a reformation from the time

they emeiged from heathendom, while the oecotid
part gives a history of tiie persecutions which his
coreligionists endured from the establishnieDt of
the Inquisition to 1664. The work is marred by
partiaUty and lack of critical ability.

Leger had a noteworthy kindred. Hia imde
Antoine was pastor at Constantinople and a friend
of the patriarch Cyril Lukar, later becoming pastor
in the Waldensian valleys, whence he Bed to Geneva
and was appointed French and Italian preacher
and professor of theology. Two cousins of Jean
Leger wore abo preachers. (E. CoMBAf.)

BiBt4ooaAi'Hi: E. Benoit, Hitl. dt VidU dt Nanln. toL iu.,

Delft. 1693; A. Uuslan. L'lirafl dt* Alptt, vo\». a., iv..

Pnrie. 18S1: UchttnberBer. ESR. viii. 84-88; and the

LEGGE, AUGDSinS: Bishop of Lichfieki; b.
at Sandwell Hall, Staffordshire, Nov. 28, 1839.
He studied at Christ Church, Oitford (B.A., 1861),
was ordered deacon in 1864, and ordained priest
in the following year. He was curate of Hands-
worth, Staffordshire, 1864-66, and of St, Mary's,
Bryanston Square, London, 1866-67; vicar of St.
Bartholomew's, Sydenham, 1867-79, and of Lewis-
ham 1879-91. In 1891 be was consecrated bishi^
of Lichfield. He was chaplain to the bishop of
Rochesber and honorary canon of the same diooeae
1877-91. proctor of the diocese of Rochester 1885-
1891, rural dean of Greenwich 1880-S6 and of
Lewisham 1886-91. In theology he is a liberal
churchman, and has written MCoiYnoni t/>WGorf(a
book of instruction on confirmation ; lyondon, 1891).

LEGGE, JAHES: Enghsh Congregationalist; b.
at Hunlly (34 m. n.w. of Aberdeen), Aberdeen-
shire, Scotland, Dec. 20, 1815; d. at Oiford Nov.
29, IS97. He studied at King's College, Abenleen
(H.A., 1835), and the Highbury Theological Col-
lege, London, and from 1839 to 1842 was a mission-
ary of the London Missionary Society at Malacca,
where be was appointed principal of the Anglo-
Chinese College in 1840. From 1S43 to 1873 he
was pastor of the Union Church at Hongkong and
head of the theological seminary of the Loadon
Missionary Society at that place, the successor of
the Malacca Anglo-Chinese College. In 1873 he
returned permanently to Great Britain. From
1876 he was professor of Chinese at Oxford. He
was the author of many works in Chinese, and also
publbhed or translated: The Notions of thcCkinete
Concerning God and Spirits (Hongkong, 1852);
Chinese Classics (5 vols., 1861-72); Life and Teach-
tngs of Confvnws (London, 1867); The Life and
Teaching of Mencius (1875); The Book of Andent
Chinese Poetry in EnglUh Verse (1876); The Texts
of Confucianism (4 vols., OxfoftI, 1879-82); The
Rcligione of China: Confucianism and TAoiam de-
scribed and compared with Christianity (London,
1880); The Texts of TOoism (2 vols., Oxford, 1SS6);
Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms: Travels t)f the
Buddhist Pilgrim Fa-hsien in India (London, 1886);
and The Neslorian Monument of FIsi-an FH in
Shen-Hst, China, relating to the Diffusion, of Clm».
lianity in China in the. Seeenih and Eighth Centuriet

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDLV

ilS^ti

LBHlflR PROPHECY: A poem in tOO leonine
verses, preserved in manuscript in Berlin, Breslau,
Dresden, (lijttingen, Greifswald, and elsewhere,
prophesying; the fortunes of the House of Branden-
burg until uflcr 17U0. It is ascribed to a monk
named Her:nii[i, who is said to have lived in the
Cistercian ftbl)ey of Leluiin (14 m. w.s.w. of Pots-
dam) in the Ihirteenlh or fourteenth century; but
the pHMt-medieval Latinily and the content of the
poem forbid its attribution to either Herman II.
(1257-71?) or Herman JII. (1335-12), both of whom
were abbots of ihe monastery. The prophecy be-
(Cina with a lameiil on the early fall of the Aakaninn
<lyna^ty, touches briefly on the Wittelsbachs and
Luxemburgs ruling Brandenburg, recounts the
transfer of power to the burgraves of Nuremberg,
sketches briefly the firBt four of the HobenEollems,
and then pauses to express hostility to the favor
shown Lutheran doctrines by Joachim I. and to the
secularization of Lehnin by Joachim II. The five
following electors are also clearly indicated, but
here the author loses sure historic ground. Fred-
erick I. does not win a crown; Frederick William
I, resolves to enter a monastery; and Frederick the
Great is drowned aff«r a reign of misfortune. The
HolM-nzollem line ends with Frederick William
III., when Germany receives a Roman Catholic

The poem's hostility to Prussia and its ultra-
montaniam are self-evident, but its authorship is
still a problem. It has been assi^ed to at least
six: an unknown monk or priest between 1688 and
1700; Andreas Fromm (d. 1685), Lutheran abbot
at CoIogne-on-the-Spree, but deprived of office in
1666 because of hostility to the Reformed Church,
and a convert to Roman Catholicbm at Prague in
1668; Friedrich Seidel (d. 1693), councilor of the
supreme court of judicature and consistorial as-
sessor at Berlin; the adventurer and catholicizing
pseudoprophet Oelien (d. 1725); the Jesuit F.
Wolf, chaplain, tor a time, of the Austrian embassy
at Berlin during the last years of the great elector
(1635-86); and the Roman Catholic convert Niko-
laus von Zilzewitz, abbot of Huysberg, near Hal-
beratftdt (1692-1704), Even after the spurious
nature of the Lehnin prophecy was known, it was
repeatedly used in anti-Prussian polemics. Thus,
in the crisis of Prussia after the disasters of Jena
and Auerstftdt, the speedy tall of the Hohenzol-
lems was proclaimed in various anonymous pamph-
lets bnseil on this document; and in like manner
the period imnwdiatcly preceding and following the
Revolution of 1K48 called forth an abundance of
literature of similar character. (0. ZOcxLERf.)
ItiBi.KHiBAPHT^ Thx edUion prinrep* wu publiihed In Dot
atlthrlt rreaiien, vol, ii.. Tham. 1722^ na BditinD in Lsl.
and G«nn. s^pesred. KcgeimburB, 1B73. For th> litera-
ture on il «in.ult E. W. Sabt.!!, Dit Liltralur drr . . .
Uiniiuthen ffrittagung. Meilbronn, IBT9, and Briliik
Mamim Catai'vut. " HermuiDtui. Abbot of Lahuic"
Conmitl kiw: B. Schmidt, Di* K'nuoflund 4m . . .
Htrmanit tun Lt/.nin, Bcriin, 1820; C. L. GwmIbt. Dit
Uhninidit WtiHagwv. Erfurt. ISM: O. Wolff. Dit birtlAmte
MiTiinatAe irn«*wiin0. Grflah^TK, 18A0; A. Hllcvi>f*ld,
f>i> Irhninietit Wei— agune Bbtr dit Mark BmUiUnirs,
Laiinuc, l)tT5: J, Sehrammen, Dtt . . . lltrwuanu nu

Lthnin

LEIBRITZ, Uiib'niid.

Eariy Life mnd Workc (| 1).
Hetapbyaickl Doctnue (f 2).
Kilicioiu Vlen () 3).
Efforts for Church Umon (f 4).

Gottfried Wilhelm (after 1709 Freiherr von)
Leibnitz, one of the most distinguished of German
philosophers, was bom at Leipsic July 1, 1646, and
died at Hanover Nov. 14, 171S. After studying
jurisprudence, mathematics, and phi-
I. Eaily losophy at L«ipsic and Jena, be en-
Life And t«red the service of the elector of
Works. Mainz in 1666, in which he held vari-
ous positions, being occupied chiefly
with jurisprudence. In 1672 he went to Paris,
ostensibly as tutor to Baron von Boyneburg's
sons, but his real purpose was to divert the
attention of Louis XIV. from plans against Ger-
many. After a visit to London he settled in Paris
till 1676, occupying himself principally with mathe-
matics and natural science. His great mathemat-
ical discovery, the differential calculus, dates bock
to 1676, though it was not published tiU 1684. In
1676 he accepted an offer from the Duke of Bruns-
wick to settle at Hanover as librarian and historiog-
rapher. Here he resided during the remainder of
his Ufe. Charged with writing the history of the
house of Brunswick, he made various journeys in
Germany and Italy and gathered an inmtense
amount of material. The fruits of these labors
were, Codes juris gentium diplomatieue (2 vols.,
Hanover, 1693-1700), Aaxsnona hUtoriea (2
vols., 1698-1700), Scriptores renim Brunavicen-
stum (3 vols., 1701-11), and the unfinished An-
rtalti imptrii occidtntii Bniiwviceiuea (ed. G. H.
Perz, 3 vols., 1843-46). Along with these histor-
ical studies be wrote a large number of mathemat-
ical, philosophical, and theological treatises, pub-
lished mostly in Aeia eruiJttorum, Journal liet Sa~
vault, and MUetiianea Berolinentia. He also car-
ried on extensive etymological investigations and
published CoUedanea etymoloffiea (1717).

It was through Leibnitz that German philosophy
first came into it« own. The starting-point of hii
speculations was the conviction that
a. HetB- the world is not to be explained in the
physical last analysis as a mechanism. Things
Doctrine, in nature do not act upon one anotW
through the mediation of some ex-
ternal force, but arc ultimately self -determining.
Reality is spiritual, and consists of a plurality ol
simple, independent monads, whose activities and
relations to one another were predetermined by the
wisdom of God. To use his form of expression, the
monads have no windows through which they may
receive external impressions. On the contrary,
each monad, as a psychical entity, and center of
intellectual activity, is a mirror ot the universe.
The human body is an aggregate of monads; the
soul is the dominating central monad. God is the
monad monadum. By regarding ultimate reality
as entirely spiritual in essence, LeibnitE overcame
the difficulty oF Descartes' dualism, involving the
relation of mind to body; and for the cumbersome

Iiatpale, Oolloqny of

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOO

cvncurxM dei he substituted hia fainou« doctrine of
preeatabliabed harmony. From his view-point de-
velopmeot, or evolution, becomes a. progressive
growth of what already existed in embryo. There
U nothing radically evil; and moral life is gradually
advancing toward perfection. At all times the
aonte reaaon dominates this process, but it too is
caught up in this prooew of development. In this
historical process nothing is lost. The present is
" laden with the past and pregnant with the fu-
ture" (cf. also loEAuau, II,, {2). Leibnitz left no
single work that adequately presents his philoso-
phy. The liest exposition of the monadology is a
mere summary which he prepared for Prince Eugene
of Savoy in 1714. His largest philosophical work
was the Nouveaux essais *ur VmteTidemeni kujrtain
(ed. R. E. Baspe, in (Eurret philotophiquei, Amster-
dam, 1706; Eng. transl.. New Etaayt eoneerning
Human UnderHanding, New York, 1896), which was
written against Locke in 1704, but not published,
owing to Locke's death.

The same intellectualism which Leibniti exhib-
its in his metaphysical doctrine also dominatea his
religious views. While the core of all
3- Relig- religion is love toward God, this must
ioni Views, be reached by a process of cognition.
For Leibniti religion is not a matter
of feeling but of the intellect; though it may be
added that hb desire for the immediate presence of
God Id the soul often brings him close to myaticiam.
He expressed himself frequently on religious ques-
tions, but his principal religious work is the Thtodie^e
(a word coined by Leibnitz himself), which is an
attempt to demonstrate the agreement of reason
with faith. The fuU title is, Eggaia de thiodicie tur
la h»nti de Dxeu, la hbeiit de I'hommt et I'oriffine du
mtU (2 vols., Amsterdam. 1710). The work orig-
inated as a polemic against Bayle'a dictionary and
was occasioned by the request of Queen Sophia
Charlotte. In many ways it reflects the author'a
metaphysical doctrines, his optimiam, and deter-
minism. His doctrine, that this world is the best
world which could poasibly exist, leads him to a
conception of evil which is easentially different from
that held by the religious consciousness. Evil is to
his mind the simple and natural result of the neces-
sary limitation of every thing created : it is conse-
quently something metaphysical, and not ethical.
He does not reduce evil to the status of mere ap-
pearance, but seeks to prove that the world is bet-
ter with evil in it that it would be without it. The
world can not be rationally condemned on the basis
of the very small portion of it actually known to
us. It is to be viewed as an intelligent whole.
Just as the astronomer, by taking the Eun as his
view-point, brought forth a beautiful solar system
out of chaos, so the philosopher of the universe
will transform it into a kingdom of reason, as soon
as he learns " to put his eye in the sun." In a simi-
lar way, hia doctrine of p reestablished harmony
leads him into a kind of determinism, in which the
freedom of the will becomes lost in the metaphysical
oeoessity, or at least loses its true ethical point. In
general he considers Christianity only as the purest
and nobleet of all religions, aa the religion of the
wise made by Christ the religion of all, as the natu-

ral religion raised bj Christ into a law. Ne^-ertb
less the book is written with great vigor and wtmli
nor did it fail to make s wide and deep impreain

Another interesting side of Leibnitz's tbcolo^

icol activity is hia participation in the endesvn

then otode for the purpose of luuliD

4. Blferti the di&ereat Christian denominatioQ
(or Church The general feeling prevalent after il
VaiotL end of the Thirty Yeara' War wu ti
vorable to such plans; and the subjn
was ably broached by Bossuet's Expoaitioti di\
doctrine de I'iglite eatholique (Paris, 1671), a i
fense of the Church of Rome, but conciliatory iu ii
spirit, and very guarded in its expressions. Roji
de Spinola, a Franciscan monk of Spanish descm
and confessor to the Emperor Leopold, was a us
ous champion of the project. He visited Hanon
several times, at the instance of the emperor; um
OS Duke Ernest August was willing to enter int
n^otiations, a conference was arranged betm
Rojoa de Spinola on the one side, and Molanua sd
Leibnitz on the other. The results of the code
enoe were received with great hopes, both in Hu
over, and in Vienna and Rome. About 168M
Leibniti outlined his plan of church-union in shi
is known as SytUma theologicum (Paris, 1819; En;
transl., A Syttem of Theology, London, 1850). whii
was really a philosophical defense of Roman Catbc
icism. In 1691 he entered upon a long corteapooi
ence with Bossuet; but ultimately the authority
the Council of Trent, absolutely insisted upon I
Bossuet, and absolutely rejected by Leiboitx, pron
the rock on which all the plans and negotiations f
a union between Romanism and Protestantism ire
wrecked. In the attempts of the courts of Berl
and Hanover to unite the Lutheran and the R
formed Churches, Leibnitz also took a promine
part. The agitation for union was be^un in 169
and in 1698 a conference was held at Hanov-er fc
tween the Pruaaian court-preacher Jablonsfci. <
the one side, and Leibnitz and Molanus on the oiht
The plan for union was effected in outline, and t!
common name " Evangehcal " was adopted; b
political changes now caused the ardor of the stale
men to cool. In 1703 Frederick I. of Prussia to<
a further step by establishing at Berlin a CoU^u
Irenicum, consisting of Lutheran and Reformed tb
ologians; but gradually interest in the plan dit
out, and Leibnitz himself withdrew from it. T
ward the close of his life he became involved in
controversy with Samuel Clarke (see Clarki
Samuel, 4), who published the correspoDdence bi
tween them (London, 1717).

At present there ia no complete edition of tb
works of Leibnitz, though an edition is in course t
preparation under the auspices of the Intemalion:
Association of Sciences. The best collected edition
are those of L, Dulens (6 vols., Geneva, 1768), G
H. Pertz (12 vols., Hanover. IS43-63), and the un
finished edition by O. Klopp {lS(>i-84). The phii
osophical works have been edited by J. E, Etd
mann (2 vols., BerUn, 1839-40), by P. Janet C
vols., Paris, 1866), and by C, J. Gerhardt (7 vols.
Berlin, 1875-90). Editions in English are, Tk.
Phiiotophic(U Works of Leibnitz . . . TranelaUi
. . . wUh Notes by G. M. Duncan (New Ha^-en

RELIGI0U8 ENCYCLOFEDU

fcffij:

OoUoqay of

1890); and The Monadology and Olhtr Philotoph-

icat Wrilingg, TrantUiltd with inlroducHon and
NoUg by R. latla (Oxford, 1808).

(Rudolf Euckbn.)

BiBUooRAi-Rr^ Dills nKUdinic the ediiiaiu uul tnniiU-

\aa tum an in J. M. Bsliivin, DicUormrii i4 PAiJouMv
onif Ptucluilaev. iii. 1. PP- 330-338. MkUrisls lor m lile
kre [ouad in his leltan. tlw various ooJIcclioni of which
■re Dolwl in tialdwin. ut sup., pp. 331-332. Live, and
■ksldieg of hia lih have b«n written by B. de FantcHlle.
Parii, 1718 (u«d tbe biosrapbinl notlnn of J. Q. voD
Eckhan. Leibnlti'n ascreUry); Ci. E. Gulirawr. 2 vo1>.,
llrcHlau. 1840 tpprhapa (he berit; on the baue of thu was
wrilteD tbe Lift by J. U. Macliie. Boalon. I84G); L. Grate,
Haaover. 1866; E. Paeideni, Lelpdc. IS70; E, Bode-
maun. Haoorer. IBTB; F. Kirelmer, COtben. 1ST7; J. T.
Urn. London, IMI; ADB. iviiL US-sm, and the ao-
oounli io tbe works on Ibe hint, of phiJoHiphy by Windel-
band. ErilnLano, and Ueberweg, eapecially In thbC of K.
FiKher. OaeKicMe dir nnwrn FhilBtapllie, Bndelberc.
1W2.

DJKiiuionB of hia phlLoeophy or of pbaaBa of it are:
C. HcFr^tan, Lo Philonphie dt Liibnili. Laiuanae, 1S40;
L. Feuerbanh, OtdiidiU drr neuirn PXUowi^ii, AnibBch.
1844; A. Helfferich. Hpiiuiia und tfibniU. attr dot Watn
Ja Idraiumut und du Kailitmia. Berlin, 1846: R. Kiin-
mermann, LeibnU'a MorvidoUiffig. Vienna. IM7; J. F.
Nuurimon, Lo PkUotopku dt Ltilmili. Paru, ISSO; A.
Pichlec, Dit Tlualaoie da I,rAnilt, 2 vols., Munich. ISSS-
1870: C. H, Platta. LMmitit M itiontindanlm, Berlin,
[808: G. Qaini, Dii melapAvHHAm Varau«<Ciun«>n d«
InbnuucAin Dclrrminiimut. Tubingen, 1874; E. Second.
La Monadolaoit. Paria, 1883; J. Dewey, Lcibn.iU-» Nrta
BHauinmcrrmrui Uu Human Vidmlandiil). Chicago, IS88:
B. R. Martin, LribnU'i Elhik. Eriangen. 18SV: U. F. Heneke.
Uibnii 1^ KIMIitr, Erlangen, 1801: E, DillDUtDD. £inc tme
DoTMltllaTiBdrrlribniiiMcSrft MonadtTMirt. Leipaic, I8B1: P.
OeKhe. Dif EO.ik Lribnii-i. Hal1i>, 1891; F. O. F. Wemlgk,
Dtr BrariS dtr Malrrie bti /.nlrnu, Jena. 1803: A. Niet-
back, Uiinii- Leiire gun dtr WHudUicAtn Wahlfrtiheit,
Halle, 1804: B. HuhtII. CriiUal Bipamtliof, of Oir Philot-
oplil/ af Ijnbnili. Cunbridfle. 1000; E. rae^rer, Ltibniti'
Svtirm in inun viutniehafllielitn GruniUacm. Marburg,
1»02.

LEIGH, 11, EDWAKD: EngUab Puritan; b. at
Shawell (15 m. a. of Leicester), Leicesterahire, Mar.
24. 1C02; (1. at Ruahall (15 m. a.s.e. of StaSord),
StafTonlHhire, June 2. 1671. He studied at Mag-
dalen Hall, Oxford (B.A,, 1620; M,A„ 1623), and
■ftemunl studied Ian at the Middle Temple. In
1040 he van elected a member of Parliament for
StafTonJHhire, but waH expelled for voting tor the
kiriK in Dec., 1548. His reputation reats upon two
compilattonn. Crilica sacra . , . Obnenations upon
all iAe Orerk Wardt of the Neu! Testament (London,
1639), and Critu^ tarra. ObMrvalums on all Che
Raditeii or Primilioe Hebrew Wordt of the Old Tetta-
mtM (1542). Both works were published together
as a third edition in 1660 (4lh ed., 1062; Lat.
transl., Amsterdam, 1696). Other works are: A
Trealuie of Dirinily (London, 1647); Annotationt
vpon all the Nr^e Ttftamrnt (le-W; Latin traiul.,
I*ipHic. 1732); A Syttem or Body o/ Dinnity {leSi);
A Treatise of Religion and Learning, and of Relig-
ious and Learned Men (1666).
BinMOOIArHT: A. K Wood, AlAtna Oioaiirteet, ed. P.

Blin. iii. 020-031. 4 voIm.. London. 1813-20; John Nichola.

LilTory Anraloln. iii. IM-lSfl. 9 voli.. London. 1812-15:

ONO. xiiii. 132-433.

LEIGH, SAHUEL. See MRTHODiara. H., i 1.

LEIGHTOH, 16'tnn, ROBERT: Archbinhop of
Glasgow; b. (probiihly in Ijondon) 1611; d. in
London June 2h. I6A4. Hia father, Alexander

Loightou, a PresbyleHaD clergyman and physician
who was cruelly persecuted by the Star Chamber,
sent him to the University of Edinburgh (M.A.,
1631), and afterward to travel on the continent.
He spent several years in France, where he was
strongly attracted to the JanBciitota. On bis re-
turn to Scotland, in 1641, he was licensed by the
presbytery of Edinburgh, and on Dec, 16, 1641, was
ordained and inducted into Ihc pariiih of Newbattle.
In 1652 he was sent to London by tlic Synod of
Lothian to negotiate the liberation of the Scottiib
ministers imprisoned there. Finding himself out of
sympathy with tbe political zeal of his colleagues
he resigned his charge in 1652, and in 1653 became
principal and professor of divinity at the Univer-
sity of Edinburgh. This post he retained till the
Restoration. When episcopacy was establisbed
in Scotland in 1661 lie remained in the reconsti-
tuted church, became bishop of Dunblane, and
was consecrated with Sharp and two others, in
Westminster Abbey, Dec. 16, 1661. With two or
three exceptions all the clergy in his diocese eon-
Formed. In other dioceses many clergymen re-
fused to conform, and the persecution began.
LeighCon pleaded with Charles II. for milder meaa-
ures, and in 1669 got the first Indulgence. In
1670, Archbishop Bumet having been deprived for
opposing this clemency, Leigbton was mkde arcb-
bisbop of Glasgow, accepting the position on con-
dition that he should be assisted in his efforts to
secure the comprehension of the Preabyterians.
Failing to gel the support ol his colleagues he re-
tired from tbe archbishopric in 1674, and, after ft
short resideuce at Ediobutgh, went to hve with his
aiater at Broadhurst in Horsted Keynes, Sussex.

Leighton published nothing during his lifetime,
and requested that hia papers should be destroyed.
His writings were first edited by his friend Dr.
James Fall. The principal are: Sermons (London,
1692); A PradiaUCommmlary upon the . . . First
EpiMle Gentnd t^ St. Peltt (part i., York, 1693;
part ii.. London, 1694); Prelectiones thtologiece
(London, 1693); and Three Posthumous Tract*
(1708), including the well-known Rules and titr-
structicmfor a Holy Life (now ed., Oxford, 1905).
There are several more or lesa complete collected
editions of hia works, the best that of W. West
(vols, ii.-vii.. London, 1869-76; vol. i. was never
published).

BiBLiooBAPHT: Lim were pnGited to the editiou of hia
works by J, N. Pearun. London. 1S2S, and J. Afkman.
Edinburgh. 1830. CoDnult al»: T. Murray. Lift qf
ft. Ltiohlmt. Edinburgh, 1828; C. F. Secretan. riU TVmi^
M Timet and Holu Lift of A frhbithop Ltij/hlon. London,
186a; W, IlUir, Stl^lioni fron Ote ICritin^f of Ardibithap
Uigklon. vilh Memcir and Nola. l.<indon, 1883; Idem.
B*orl SiooropAv i>/ ArdibiAap LngkUm. iritt SwiKlions,
ib. 18S4; O. Buroei, HM. of mv own Timtt. ed. O. Airy,
i. 230 K|q., Oifonl, 1900 (aulhoritalive); D. BuUer. Lift
and LMrri of Rabrrt LeiglUon. London. 1903; DSB, xxxUL
4-7,

LEIPSIC, COLLOQUY OP: A conference b«-
tween German Lutherans and Calvinista held in con*
nection with a convention of Protestants of the
empire at Lripsic in Feb. -Mar, 1631. called for tbe
purpose of securing united action to prevent the
execution of the Edict of Beatitutlon (see West-
PBAI.IA, Pkace or). The elector of Brandenburg

L«1h1i), OolloaBT of

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOa

was accompanied by hin court praacher, Johannes
Bergius; and the landgrave of Heaac bj his court
preacher, Tbeophiliw Neuberger, and ProfeBsor
Johftonea Crociua, These theologians, who be-
longed to the Reformed faith, Invited certain Lu-
therana of Saxony, MalthiBn Hoe von Hotaegg,
Polycarp Leyaer, and the court preacher Heinrich
H^JpfTner to a co11oi(tiy on the points of difference
between them. It began Mar. 3, and continued till
Har. 23, the Augsburg Confeaaion being taken as
basis. An agreement was aoon reached with re-
spect to articles i.-ii., v.-ix,, ni.-xiviii. The third
article, on Christology, proved more difficult; the
Lutherans upheld the Caminunieatio Idiomatum
(q.v.) which the Iteformed denied, and it was finally
decided to attempt no more than a definite state-
ment of pointfi of agreement and difference. In re-
(tard to the fourth article the Reformed declared
that they taught the universality of the divine will
of salvation. The tenth article, on the Lord's Sup-
per, occasioneii the same difficulties as the third,
and vnm passed in the same way, since an actual
Bgreement was impoeaible. The Reformed hoped
for an agreement in order to oppose Romanism
more effectively, but the Lutherans dreaded to
Inake conce.^ions. After the Augsburg Confession
hod been discussed, it was felt that not all dis-
pul4?a had been settled, and the doctrine of pre-
destination was specially debated. Here again a
divergence was revealed, as the theoloRiana of
Brandenburg and Hesse upheld the election of a
limited number and excluded divine foreknowledge
from aalvation, while the Saxon theologians con-
sidered election as conditioned by a faith which
God foresaw. The tone of the colloquy was
friendly, oven in cases where concord could not be
attained. .\a it was private, only four copies of the
protocol were made — one for each of the princes,
and one for the faculty of Leipsic: but general re-
porlB were soon published in Germany, Holland,
Frniicc, and England. (A. Hadck.)

HinuoQBAPnT: HouroM are the pratoeoi, reprinted in Cor-
pnt librurum tymhnlimrum. cd. J. C. W. AuBmtl. Pp. 3SB
Ml')., Kllwifetil, IHLfl, and in Colltelia roFi/ruianun. rd,
II. A. Niemeyer, pp. fl53 mq.. Leipolc, 1840; J. Bireiiu.
Rflali.m dtr I'rivat-ConfrriTii . . . in I^jmr, ISSl, Ber-
lin. ItnS. Cnnsult^ J. K. Bridemann. Dit Liipciger Dii-
pubf'JOH, Dn»«len. Ift43 {bent, containii docuniflnt*);
C W. Henna, arKhu-hle der kIreliluAen Unimtvtnueht.
i. 3'XT -qq.. Lcipnic. 1830; A. G. Rudelbach, Rafarmalion.
l-HlhrrtMrn und Unian. pp. -107 kw,, ih. 1839; Scbaff,
ChrMian Charrh, ri. ITR nqq.; nnd in senenl Uw lileni-

LEIPSIC INTERIM. Sec Iktrhim. 3.

LELAKD, lej'and, JOHN: N.iToe of two divines.

1. EuKliah nonconformist divino and polemical
writer; b. at Wigan (1.5 m. w.n.w. of Manchester),
Lancashire, Oct. 18, 1091; d.in Dublin Jan. 18, 17G6.
At nn early age he was taken by his father to Dub-
lin and there educated for the ministry. From I7I6
till his death he was pastor of a Preabyf«rian congre-
gation in Dublin. He distinguished hiniaelf by his
writings against the deist-t, particularly Tindal,
Thomas Morgan, Henry Dodwell, and Bolingbroke,
Hia most important work ib A Viewqf Iht Principal

Deitlieal Writerg that have Appeared in Engiai^ it
the Laxt and Pretenl Centuries (2 Tola., Loila,
1754-56; best ed., 1837). Thia work is still viS-
uable for the facta it gives about deistic viitfn.
though its arguments against deism are now uiv
quated. Other works arc: The Divine A^iikar^^i
the Old and New Teatament (2 vols., 1739^0); J
Defence of ChritHanity (1740); The Admnlageaii
Neeeuity of the Chrittian Revelation (2 vols., 17Mi;
and the poathumotta Diacourset (4 vols., 1768-69^
2. American Baptist; b. at Grafton, Mass., Uir
11, 1754; d. at Cheshire, ilaaa., Jan. 14, Iftil. Coo-
vert«d at twenty, he began at once to preach n
an evangelist and soon made his way to ViifinU
(1775), where he became a leader of the Vitpnii
Baptiats in their struggle for liberty of MmfOnM,
In 1789 he introduced a resolution which m
adopted by the Baptist general association of Vi^
ginia to the effect that " slavery is a videcl i-
privation of the rights of nature, and inconsislnl
with a republican government," and r^conuneoi-
ing that Baptists " moke tise of every legal ineiiu
to extirpate this horrid evil from tte land." 1=
178.S, as a member of the Baptist general commitwt
on religious liberty, he addressed a aoble letter w
President Washington in which he pointed out tb?
lack of sufficient security for liberty of contdenff
in the United States' constitution as it was bein;
presented to the States for ratification. Washia;-
ton responded oourteausly and sympatheticallT.
and article I. of the present constitution was in-
troduced. He returned to Massachusetts in ISOO
and continued active in his minLstry almost to llw
end of hia long life. He published The RighU t/
CoTucience Inalienable (Richmond, 1793),

A. H. NEWji.i.\

BiBUWiaAi^T; 1. Tbe Ducvarm, ut aup.. ooDtaliu a Lil<
by tlie editor, t Weld. Consull: L, 8t«pheni. E'npbJi
Thouaht in lAf latk Cnfurv. vol. L. New York. ISil-
D.fB, uiii, 17-lB; KL, vii, 1711, 2. A H Newnat
Hilt, of At BapCiiC CAurcAn in rAe UniUd Slatrt Sn
Yorli, 18B8; W. CaUieart. BapHit Ejicudopxdia. PhilnM-
phia, tgS3.

LELOHG, le-lan', JACQDES: French bibbos-
rapher; b. in Paris Apr. 19, 1665; d. there Aug.
13, 1721. At an early age he was sent to Malu to
be educated by the Knights of St. John, but rctumevi
to Paria in 1676 and entered the Congregation of the
Oratory in 16S6. He was librarian of the Ora-
tory of St. Honors at Paris from 1699 till his death.
His principal work is the valuable Bibliotheta mam
(2 vols., Paris, 1709; 2d ed., much enlsr^. 3
vols., 1723). Enlarged editions were published by
C. F. BOrner (2 parts, Leipsic, 1709) and \. G.
Masch (5 vols., Halle, 1778-90). Other works are:
SuppUmenl il I'histoire de» dictionnairta hibrrai de
Wdfiva (in Journal detSatvnta, Paris, 1707); Di*-
cours kislorigvea atir les principalirs MiHo^ da
Biblee polyglotUs (1713); and Bibliolhhjiie hiatariqar
de Ui France (1719; augmented by F^vret de Fon-
telle, 6 vols., 1768-78).

BiBLTOOBArHT: TlMi life wax written by P. N. l>«n,oQl,->
Mid prefinKi (o hia (2iidl edition of tha BibliaOiera Sam.
Paris. 1723. Gowillt KL. viL 1712-H.

LEMAISTRE DE SACY, le-mfi'tr de sfl-'d', LOUIS
ISAAC: Janseniat; b. in Paris Mar. 29, 1613; d.
at the Chateau of Pomponne, in Brie, Jan. 4 1681.
He added to his iia;iie " Socy," or " Soci " an ana-

REUGI0U8 ENCYCLOPEDIA

Xi«lMt«( OollcNiny of

({ram from hiit ChriBtiaii imniit Igoac, anil is ofton
referred to iiiider thU title. He sLudied at the
Collofce or Bcuuvnis with his uiicic, Antoine Arnauld
(i^.v.). wttH ordainnl prical in 16-tH, and in I6A0
liceame H|iiriluiil director of the reeliuiea at I'ort
Itayal. DuriiiK the pentcciitioh of the Janseriints
Iks wftH expelled from the monastery (IGtil) and
on May 111, 1000, he wan impriHoneil in the Uas-
lilc. Aft<T hix liberation, Oct. 31, 1008, he lived
furn time willi hiii ooiuiiii, the Marquin of Pomimnne,
in Brio. I>uUt he went to Pnris and relunied to
Port HojrnI in 1075. On having to leave tlic mon-
UMtiry u M^oiid time in 1070, Ik retired to Pom-
ponnc, where he spent the rent of hin life. He waa
buri<-<I in tlio church of Port Royal.

Under vnrioua pen-namcii Lcmai^itre de Sacy waa
a proline writer and waa particularly aucoeMful aa
n traiwlulor, both of vcmo and prose. He is prin-
cipally known for hin French tranHlations from the
Bible. He coliaborBtcd with hm brother Antoino
l^miiiatre on hin Noui-rau Talameni (2 vola,, Am-
Hterdam, lOW), lonfc known aa the Nouveau Tula-
mrnt de Mora. ThiH work wan vehemently a(-
tucked by wveml biNhopfi, condemned by Clement
IX., defended by Amnuld and Nicole, and caused
ft conlrovcrHy that Wu.il twenty years. The first
itixtiilmcntH of a tranHlation of the entire Bible,
nliich LemuJHtro de Sacy hod he^un while in the
itiiHiilc, appearcdin 1672. Aflerhifldeath the work
wad comptetnt by Thomas du PohmS and C. HurA
(:)2 vdIh., PariN, 1Q72-17O0). Sec Bible Virbionh,
It, VI., S A. AmonK other tranidationit of Leroaiatre
deHacyarp,f«W«,to/»AW™(Pariii,l647); Comedia
■leTirenee(\Mly,L-tmibaim<ieJaiii-ChniH,\m2),
which puMed through more than inOeditionn.

Hiwjo'1S*i-ht; Comuli ihe llMmium under Poar-RoTAL.

LE Ha!tRE, le inf^'tr (MEISTER, HAISTER),
JEAN HENRI: .Swiiw ProtcMtant; h. at Zurich c.
lOIXI; d. lit Klt.Hsitaeht (7 m. c.n.c. of Lucerne),
1774. He Miudieil ihuoloKy and philoaophy at Zu-
rich, FspouwHl the cause of the HuRuenotA and bc-
ciiinc presclier of the I'^rench colony of HuKUenota
ill Baircuth. In 173:1 lie wan called to Blickcburg
n,« nmiiitftnt of Pierre Cr^jfut, Iho court preacher and
director of tho Huguenot colony, whom ho huo-
oeetled in 173H. Ho rendered vahiablo service to
the gif[4Ml coinitH of BUckoburR, Friedricb Ludwig
Karl and Allirecbl Wolfgang, the sovereign of
Schnumbiirg-t.ippe, by introducing tliem into the
lihiloHni>hy of Halelimnelie, Pierre Bayle, Chruttian
WolfT, Kpinoin, and othcm, and by amiuning the
n-liginufl and scientific education of tho two sons
of ('oimt Albreclit Wolfgang— Wilhelm and Georg.
On neroiiiit of (lie rigid church dincipline which he
inlrofjuccd in tlie Huguenot colony, after tho model
of ihi' Iteformed Church in Fmncc, lie Haltre wo*
M'cn-tly attncked ami HlnndGrcl, ao that about 1747
III- left lliickeburg and accepted a call to Eriangen,
ImU'T lie n>tumi>d to his native country and acted
111 prenclMT at Kilwinneht, but hiH retationi with hi*
former pupil. Count Wilhelm, who in 17'17 ascended
the throne, always remained cardial.

(F. H. BRANDE8.)
llnii.iiKiHtPiiT: Braniln. in Die fnvMinrli' KfUmlt. IMS.
IHR. I(y 13; \Atm. In tIndiidiijMUIfr du dnUdtm Hu-

LBHME, LDDWIO: Germiin Protestant; b. at
Saliwedel (1 10 m. a.e. of Bremen), Aug. 8, 1847.
He studied philosophy and theology in Berlin
1806-09, wai private tutor, and then tutor at Got^
tingen 1872-74. lu 1874 he waa ordained, and
waa ttien aasiatant preacher at the cathedral and
second inspector of the seminary for canons at
BerLn for two years. From 187C to 1S88 he wm
inapector of tlie Johanneum at Brealau, and from
1870 until 1881 also prival^ocent at the University
of Breslau, where he waa appointed associate pro-
fessor in 1881. In 1884 be was caUed to Bonn aa
profesaor of syat^nmtio theology, and since 1891
has occupied a similar poution in Heidelberg. In
theology he maintains a positive position, allied
to that of I. A. Domer and R. Rothe. He baa
written: DaaVerhaltniuidtT Dogmaliknt Kritikvnd
AutUigufig der heiligen Schrift nach Schieiermather
(OOttingen, 1874); Dit drti grouen Reformationt-
tchrifun Lulhert vom Jahn I6t0 (Gotha, 187fi);
Da* mvangelium in Blihmm (1877); Dit rtligion*-
geachirhUicke Baleulang de* Dekalogt (Brealau,
1880); Dit N{ieh»Utdiii)e il^i); Dwi ente ErmoJin-
ungtichrriben det Patdia an dm Timotheus (1882);
Die SUn^e u'iiler den heiiigen Getit (1883); Di»
PJIege der EinbU-langtkrafl (1884); i>iii Machl dn
GrbcU mil betomierer Betiehung auf Krankenheil-
unff (Barmen, 1887); Dtr ET/olg lifr Pndigt (,\StiS);
Die Priruipien der Ritichl'trhen Theologie und ihr
Wert (Bonn, 18B1); OrvwUage, Ziel und EigeTi-
tiimliehkeit det theologiechen Sludiume (Heidelberg,
1891): Der Wert dea OebeU (1892); Dm Recht da
apottnliachen Olaubentbekennlmuei und mine Geg-
ner (1803); Die Kirche die GemrinMchaft der Hei-
iigen (1893); HeUflaUaehen unif Olaubeiuerfahniiig
(1894): Die FreumUehafl (Heilbronn, 1897); Die
Endlangketl der Verdammmt wtd die aUgeneiiM
IFi«fcrtn'nff«nfl(Gross-Lichterfelde, 189fl); Richard
BolheM Uundertjahrfeier (Heidelberg, 1890); Zevg-
nitie vom HrU in Jem ChritU, (sennons; 1809);
Der gegenwanige Stand der Elkik (Carlsruhe, 1900);
Dim We»en det Chrielentumt und die Zukunft»-
refi^ion(Grons-Lichterfeldc, IDOI); Die Buite naeh
Sehrifl. Bekenntnia und Er/ahrung (Herbom, 1001);
Reliffion*gegrh\chlliche Eniwirklung oder gSUtiche
Offenbaningf (Carlsruhe, 1901); CkriMiehe Elhik
(2 vols., Groas-Ijchterfelde, 100.^); IPer imr JtmteT
(Berlin, 1905); and Thcalogitche EruyktopOdie (1909).

LENFAnT, lnn"fan', JACQUES: French Prot-
estant; b. at Baioches (.W m. a.w, of Paris) Apr.
13, 1001; d. at Berlin Aug. 7, 1728. He studied
theology at Saumur and Geneva, and in 1S84 he
became preacher to the French congregation at
Heidelberg. In 1088 Elector Frederick of Bran-
denburg (the lint king of Prussia) appointed him
pastor of tho French church in Berlin, where ha
labon^d nearly forty years. He was a member of
the (upremo consistory and of tho committee for
the regulation of French emigration, and In 1724
became a member of the academy of sciences In
Berlin. Ho was n prolific writ«r, but is promi-
nent chiefly aa a church historian. His principal
works are; Uiitoire de la papeite Jeanne (Amstor.
dam, 1694); Aiitoirs du Concilr de Conelance (1714;
2d ed., 2 vols., 1727; Eog. tranal., 2 vols., London,

Zi6 Vouiry
Leol

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

448

1730), the most important of his works; Hiatoire du
Concile de Pise et de ce qui 8* est pciss^ de plus me-
morable depuis ce Concile jusqu'au Concile de Con-
stance (2 vols., Amsterdam, 1724); and Histoire de
la guerre des Hussites et du Concile de Basle (1731).
With Beausobre he wrote Le Nouveau Testament de
notre Seigneur Jesus Christ traduit en frangois sur
Voriginal grec, avec des notes lit&rales (2 vols., 1718;
Eng. transl., in part, London, 1726). Lenfant is
the author of the first volume, which contains the
four Gospels and a comprehensive introduction.
Other writings are : the polemical Pr^servatif contre
la reunion avec le sibge de Rome (4 vols., Amster-
dam, 1723); and Seize sermons sur divers textes
(1728; Germ, transl., Halle, 1742). Lenfant was
also one of the founders of the Bibliothkque Ger-
manique. (C. Pfender.)

Biblioorapht: E. and £. Haag, La France proteatante, ed.
H. L. Bordier. vol. vi., PariB, 1889; Lichtenberger, ESR,
viii. 130-138.

LE NOURRY, le nQ'M', DENIS NICOLAS: A
member of the Benedictine congregation of Saint-
Maur and a participant in their learned works; b.
at Dieppe in 1647; d. at the abbey of Saint-Gei^
main-des-Pr^s, Paris, Mar. 24, 1724. He was edu-
cated by the French Oratorians, and entered the
Benedictine order at Jumi^ges in 1665. He wrote
the introduction to Garet's edition of Cassiodorus
(2 vols., Rouen, 1679), and collaborated with
Duchesne and Bellaise in the edition of Ambrose,
which he completed with Du Friche (2 vols., Paris,
1686-00). He edited also the treatise De mortHms
persecuiorum (1710), attempting to prove that it
was not written by Lactantius. His chief work,
however, was his Apparatus ad bvbliothecam vet-
erum patrum (2 vols., 1694-97; 2d ed., enlarged,
2 vols., 1703-15), a historical and critical treatment,
to the end of the fourth century, of the authors
comprised in the Maxima bibliotheca veterum patrum
(27 vols., Lyons, 1677). (C. Pfender.)

Biblioorapht: Nioeron, Mfmoires, i 276-278; J. C. F.
Hoefer. Nouvelle bioffraphie ghUralB, xxxviil 680, 46
vols.. PariB. 1856-56.

LENT: The forty days' fast preparatory to the
celebration of Easter. The name appears in Mid-
dle English as Lenten, which goes back to Anglo-
Saxon lencten, " spring " (cf. German Lem). The
Latin name is Quadragesima, from the fortieth day
before Easter, when it was approximately supposed
to be^in. By a similar loose calculation, the three
preceding Sundays were known as Septuagesima
(seventieth), Sexagesima (sixtieth), and Quinqua-
gesima (fiftieth). Traces of the ancient variations
in the length of the season still appear in the Ro-
man Catholic practise of beginning from Septua-
frcsima to wear vestments of violet, the Lenten color
of mourning, and to omit from the services the Alle-
luia as an ejaculation of joy. For the history and
observance of the fast, see Fasting, II.

Bibliography: Bingham. Originen, XXI., i (best); E.
Mart^ne, De antujuis eccleaux ritibua, iii., chaps. 18-10,
Antwerp, 1737; H. Liemke, Die Quadragesimalfasten der
Kirche. Padnrbom. 1853; J. H. Blunt, Dictionary of Doc-
trinal arid Historical Theology, pp. 407-408, London, 1870;
W. E. Atltlis and T. Arnold, Catholic Dictionary, pp. 558-
560, ib. lya^; DCA, ii. 972-977 (gives early literature).

LENTULUS, EPISTLE OF. See Jesub Christ,
Pictures and Images of, I., { 3.

LEO: The name of thirteen popes.

Leo L, called the Great: Pope 440-461. Ac-
cording to the Liber pontificalis he was a native of
Tuscany. By 431, as a deacon, he occupied a suf-
ficiently important position for Cyril of Alexandria
to apply to him in order that Rome's influence
should be thrown against the claims of Juvenal of
Jerusalem (q.v.) to patriarchal jurisdiction over
Palestine — unless this letter is addressed rather to
Pope Celestine. About the same time Johannes
Cassianus (q.v.) dedicated to him the treatise
against Nestorius written at his request. But
nothing shows more plainly the confidence felt in
him than his being chosen by the emperor to settle
the dispute between Aetius and Albinus, the two
highest officials in Gaul. During his absence on
tlJs mission, Sixtus III. died (Aug. 11, 440), and
Leo was unanimously elected by the people to suc-
ceed him. On Sept. 29 he entered upon a pontifi-
cate which was to be epoch-making for the central-
ization of the government of the Church.

An uncompromising foe of heresy, Leo found that
in the diocese of Aquileia, Pelagians were received
into church communion without formal repudia-
tion of their errors; he wrote to rebuke this cul-
pable negligence, and required a solemn abjuration
before a synod. Manicheans fleeing before the
Vandals had come to Rome in 439

Zeal for and secretly organized there; Leo be-
Ortfaodozy. came aware of this and proceeded
against them (c. 443), holding a public
debate with their representatives, burning their
books, and warning the Roman Christians against
them. The edict of Valentinian III. against them
(June 19, 445) was brought about by his efforts.
Nor was his attitude less decided against the Pris-
cillianists. Bishop Turrubius of Astorga, aston-
ished at the spread of this sect in Spain, had ad-
dressed the other Spanish bishops on the subject,
sending a copy of his letter to Leo, who did not let
slip the opportunity to exercise influence in Spain.
He wrote an extended treatise (July 21, 447) against
the sect, examining its false teaching in detail, and
calling for a Spanish general council to investigate
whether it had any adherents in the episcopate —
but this was prevented by the political circum-
stances of Spain.

Leo enforced his authority in 445 against Dios-
curus, Cyril's successor in the patriarchate of Alex-
andria, insisting that the ecclesiastical practise of
his see should follow that of Rome, since Mark, the
disciple of Peter and founder of the Alexandrian
Church, could have had no other tradition than
that of the prince of the apostles. The fact that
the African province of Mauretania Csesariensis had
been preserved to the empire and thus to the Nioene
faith in the Vandal invasion, and in its isolation
was disposed to rest on outside support, gave Leo
an opportunity to assert his authority there, which
he did decisively in regard to a number of questions
of discipline. In a letter to the bishops of Cam-
pania, Picenimi, and Tuscany (443) he required the
observance of all his precepts and those of his pre-

449

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

xj9 Aourry
Leol

deoessors; and be sharply rebuked the bishops of
Sicily (447) for their deviation from the Roman
custom as to the time of baptism, requiring them
to send delegates to the Roman synod to learn the
proper practise.

The assertion of Roman power over Illyria had
been a strong point with previous popes. Inno-
cent I. had constituted the metropolitan of Thes-
salonica his vicar, in order to oppose the growing
power of the patriarch of Constantinople there.
But now the Illyrian bishops showed a tendency to
side with Constantinople, and the popes had dif-
ficulty in maintaining their authority. In 444 Leo
laid down in a letter to them the principle that Peter
had received the primacy and oversight of the
whole Church as a requital of his faith, and that
thus all important matters were to be referred to
and decided by Rome. In 446 he had occasion
twice to interfere in the affairs of Illyria, and in
the same spirit spoke of the Roman pontiff as the
apex of the hierarchy of bishops, metropolitans, and
primates. From the end of the fifth century, how-
ever, the influence of Constantinople was again pre-
dominant here.

Not without serious opposition did he succeed in
asserting his authority over Gaul. Patroclus of
Aries (d. 426) had received from Pope Zosimus the
recognition of a primacy over the Gallican Church
(see Arles, Archbishopric of), which was strongly
asserted by his successor Hilary (429-449). An ap-
peal from Celidonius of Besangon gave
Asserts His Leo occasion to proceed against Hil-

Authority ary, who defend^ himself stoutly at

in GauL Rome, refusing to recognize Leo's ju-
dicial status. But Leo restored Celi-
donius and restricted Hilary to his own diocese, de-
priving him even of his metropolitan rights over
the province of Vienne. Feeling that his domi-
nant idea of the Roman universal monarchy was
threatened, Leo appealed to the civil power for
support, and obtained from Valentinian III. (q.v.)
the famous decree of June 6, 445, which recognized
the primacy of the bishop of Rome based on the
merits of Peter, the dignity of the city, and the de-
crees of Nicsea (in their interpolated form); or-
dained that any opposition to his rulings, which
were to have the force of law, should be treated as
treason; and provided for the forcible extradition
by provincial governors of any one who refused to
answer a Rummons to Rome. Hilary made his sub-
mission, although under his successor, Ravennius,
I^o divided the metropolitan rights between Aries
and Vienne (450).

A favorable occasion for extending the authority
of Rome in the East offered in the renewal of the
Christological controversy by Eutyches (see Euty-
chianism), who in the beginning of the conflict ap-
pealed to Leo and took refuge with him on his
condemnation by Flavian. But on receiving full
information from Flavian, Leo took his side de-
cisively. At the ** Robber Synod " of Ephesus
Leo's representatives delivcre<l the famous " tome "
or statement of the faith of the Roman Church in
the form of a letter addressed to FIa\'ian, which
repeats, in close adherence to Augustine, the for-
mulas of western Christology, without really touch-
VL— 29

ing the problem that was agitating the East. The
council did not read the letter, and paid no atten-
tion to the protests of Leo's legates, but deposed
Flavian and Eusebius, who appealed to Rome.
Leo demanded of the emperor that an ecumenical
council should be held in Italy, and in the mean
time, at a Roman synod in Oct., 449, repudiated
all the decisions of the *' Robber Synod." With-
out going into a critical examination of its dogmatic
decrees, in his letters to the emperor and others he
demanded the deposition of Eutyches as a Mani-
chean and Docetic heretic. With the death of
Theodosius II. (450) and the sudden change in the
Eastern situation, Anatolius the new patriarch of
Constantinople fulfilled Leo's requirements, and
his ** tome " was everywhere read and recognized.
He was now no longer desirous of having a council,
especially since it would not be held in Italy. It
was called to meet at Nicaea, then transferred to
Chalcedon, where his legates held at least an hon-
orary presidency, and where the bbhops recog-
nized him as the interpreter of the voice of Peter
and as the head of their body, requesting of him
the confirmation of their decrees. He firmly de-
clined to confirm their disciplinary arrangements,
which seemed to allow Constantinople a practically
equal authority with Rome and regarded the civil
importance of a city as a determining factor in its
ecclesiastical position; but he strongly supported
its dogmatic decrees, especially when, after the ac-
cession of the Emperor Leo I. (457) there seemed
to be a disposition toward compromise with the
Eutychians. He succeeded in having an orthodox
patriarch, and not the Monophysite Timotheus
iEliurus (see Monophtsites, §§3 sqq.), chosen as
patriarch of Alexandria on the murder of Proterius.

The approaching collapse of the Western Empire
gave Leo a further opportunity to appear as the
representative of lawful authority. When Attila
invaded Italy in 452 and threatened Rome, it was
Leo who, with two high civil functionaries, went to
meet him, and so Impressed him that he withdrew
— at least according to Prosper, although Jordanis,
who represents Leo's contemporary Priscus, gives
other grounds. His intercession could not pre-
vent^ the sack of the city by Genseric in 455, but
murder and arson were repressed by his influence.
He died probably on Nov. 10, 461.

The significance of Leo's pontificate lies in the

fact of his assertion of the universal episcopate of

the Roman bishop, which comes out in his letters,

and still more in his ninety-six extant orations.

According to him the Church is built

Leo's Sig- upon Peter, in pursuance of the prom-

nificance. ise of Matt. xvi. 16-19. Peter partici-
pates in everytiung which is Christ's;
what the other apostles have in common with him
they have through him. The Lord prays for Peter
alone when danger threatens all the apostles, be-
cause his firmness will strengthen the others. What
is true of Peter is true also of his successors. Every
other bishop is charged with the care of his own
special flock, the Roman with that of the whole
Church. Other bishops are only his assistants in
this great task. Through the see of Peter, Rome
has become the capital of the world in a wider sense

THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZ0G

than before. For this reason, when the oartb was

divided among the apostles, Rome was reserved to

Peter, that here, at the very center, the decUtve

triumph might be won over the earthly wiadom of

philosophy and the power of the demons; and thus

from the head the light of truth streama out through

the whole body. In Leo's eyes the decrees of the

Council of Chalcedon acquired their validity from

his con fin nation. The wide range of this theory

justiRcH the applicSition to him of the title of the

first pope. (N. Bonwbtbch.)

DiBLioaRiPiiTt The Optra were edUwl by P. Queniel. 2

voliL. Paris, 167S (dafended Hilary mtninit Lsa. ttwrefi>n

put on eIh! Indei); uid by P. sail H. Bsllerini, 3 vol.*.,

Venice, 175.^-37 (oontain worlu o[ doubtful BulheDlii--

lly), Irom which they were reprinled in MPL, liv,-lvi„

with Ufe by AnmlaHu. BibliathBcarim (([irati with mm-

□wntary in MPL. ouviii. 299 sqq.) uid Quemcl'i Dir

KrbMo, Fifly Klscied loitoni ve prinUid in H. Hurler.

Inrubruck. IS74. An Knc. tmnBl. of gelecW bllen and
KtTDDiu !■ siven in NPNF, 2 ■er,, vol. xii., together Kith
a life and prolsKoioena.

Data ooncernins Laa'a life may be eousht in: Libtr
pnnHflcolia. rd. Momnuen in MQH, Gal, poHl, Hon., i
(1898). 101-106; TiHemniit, Mfmoirrt. tv. 411-S3Z (ac-
curate, impartial): JafF^, Reattta. pp. 34 aqq,: W. A.
Anndt. Lte dir OroKK umf Mi« ZtU. Maini. 1B3S (Ro-
man CaUuilio, apoloitatic); E. Perthcl. Lta'M I. Ubtn uiuf
Ldtren, Jena, 184.1 (Proleetant and depreeialory): T.
Greenvood. Calkedm Petri, i.. book Ti., chaps, iv.-vi.,
London, 1866: F. Buhringer, Dit Kirdit CImiti und Hire
Ze^en, vol. xii., Stulltort. 1B79; C. H. Gore. In Fallurt
far Bfialith Rradtri, London, ISSD: DCB, iii, OGZ-STS
(minute); F. Gregorovliu, Hitt. of Oie Cilv of Rome, i,
18V-2Z8, London, IBM. Viem of hii aotiviliea an given
fay P, Kuhn. Dit CkrMaloait Leot I., Wilrabiira. 1894;
Hetele. Conci'lMniMiutAiiAli, ii. 302-300. 664. Eo«. trvnal..
voU. iil-iv,; O. Dardenhewer, Patnioiiif. pp. 460 iqq..
FnibwB. IBOl: Hamiuk. Dtaina. volx. ii.-v.. paenm.
OoDault also, Caillier, Auteiiri eoer^, x. lSe-Z7S; Bowar,
Pop—, i. 180-Z4S: Uilman, ZdJin Cb-iifianilv. i. 263
■qq.; Neander, ChriHian ChurA, toI, ii„ pajaim; Behafl,
Ciriituin Ckvdt, iii. 311 iqq. et panim.

Leo n.: Pope 682-C83. The importance of his
brief pontifical* lies in his action in conflrming the
acts of the sixth ecumenical council, which con-
tained the inclusion of his predecessor Honorius
•inoDg the condemned leaders of Monothelitism
tq.v.). Similarly, in sending the acts of the coun-
cii to the Spanish bishops, he includeti Honorius aa
one " who did not. as became his apostolic author-
ity, extinguish the flame of heretical doctrine, but
by his negligence fostered it." Macarius of Antioch
and his Moaothelite Friends, who had been eeot to
Rome, were (according to the LAer ponlificalia)
imprisoned in various monasteries, with the excep-
tion of two who recanted. The aame authority
describes Leo as learned in the Scriptures, Greek,
and ecclesiastical music, and as charitable. The dale
of his burial is July 3, 683. (N. Bonwetsch.)

BlBLiooa*pmr: The Bpirtofa are in UPL. icri.. rl. NA.
viii. 303-364. Conjult: Li6<r mm^/lcolii. ed, Mommien
in MGH. Gat poni, Rom., i (1808). 300-202; ASB. June.
V. 37S; R. Bannann, Dit PalWIi tier PflpiV, i. ISS pqq.,
Elberfeld, IRSB; J. Tjingen. Garhirhlf ifrr rAmucAcn
Kirdir. ii. 568 K|q., Bonn. 1S8fi; Ceilli^r, AulruTt toerft.
V. 7S4-78S, jiii. 95.1-9.%; H-fele. ConrilienfffmAirAle,

«8-«7: iiWman. l^t'n'rhrUlianitii'.'n. 2S7; ' Of 8. iii!
673-674.

Leo m.: Pope 795-816- A Roman hy birth.
tie was elected Dec. 2B and consecratpd thp next
day. JTl? eJecIion is said by the Liber pontijicalis

to iiave been unanimous; hut (he Roman aristoc-
racy was certainly hostile to him at the start, which
drove him to rely on the support of Charlemagne.
He sent word of his election to the king, asBUring
him of his fidelity, and Charlemagne's answer ex-
pressed his readiness to renew the alliance between
the Frankish kingdom and the Church. At first
thia relation was useful to Leo, and soon enough
was absolutely necessary, owing not only to the
danger of Saracen attack but even more to the hos-
tile attitude of Leo'a personal opponents in Rome,
the men whom his elevation hiul robbed of their
power. At the customary procession on St. Mark's
day, 799, he was attacked and maltreated; and a
tumultuous gathering judged him on various grave
charges and declared him deposed. His pnrtizans
rallied and released him in the night. He fied to
Germany, where Charlemagne received him as the
lawful pope, and in November he was restored by
the Frankish power. In Charlemagne's mind, how-
ever, the duty of protection involved the right of
oversight. His commissioner was directed to make
a full investigation as well of the charges against
Leo as of the violence of his opponents. Difficul-
ties stood in the way either of judging a pope or of
allowing his sacred office to be filled by a man imder
suspicion of serious misdoing. The suggestion of
Leo's voluntary retirement to a monastery was
mode, but not so easily carried out. Charlemagne
decided to take the matter up in person, and ap-
peared in Italy in the autumn of 8<». The inves-
tigation ended not by a judiciid condemiuition or
by a jddicial acquittal, but by Leo's taking a solemn
oath in Charlemagne's presence that he was inno-
cent of the charges, after which his opponents were
condemned to death as rebels, though the sentence
was commuted to baniahmenl. Two days later, on
Christmas day. Leo crowned Charlemagne as em-
peror, apparently (though the question has been
much debated) without any preliminary knowledge
or desire on the king's part, and to the profit rather
of Leo's own importance.

Cliarlemagne deduced from the new title the con-
clusion that Rome was to be treated as an Integra!
part of his empire, and thenceforth little essential
difference can be observed between ils bishop and
the other metropolitans of the empire; the pope
was considered a subject of the emperor. The ex-
tent to which this was carried may be seen from
the small part assigned to I»eo in the settlement of
the controversies of the time. The Adoptionist con-
troversy was taken in hand by Cbarlem^ne him-
self, and Leo hod nothing to do but to repeat at a
Roman synod Oct. 23, 798, (ho condemnation al-
ready pronounced in Germany, In the n^otia-
t.ioiis OS to the FUioqur he ventured, indeed, to dis-
soniate himself from the conclusion of the Frankish
Church, but his solemn exposition c)f the ancient
text of the creed, enprai-ed on silver tablets, in St.
Peter's made no imprewion on Charlemagne and
his theologians, and the FUioqjie was accepted bo(h
in the Frankish Church and tacitly in Rome. Even
in his relations with the Greek Church Leo was ham-
pered by his relation to Charlemagne. When I be
emperor died (Jan. 28, 814), Leo neglected to hav
the Roman people do homage to hia Buccessor Louii

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

the Hous. Thinking to get revenge on his old
enemies, he had some of them imprisoned or exe-
cuted. Louis took notice of this trespass on the
imperial rights, and sent hi»i nephew Bernard to in-
vestigaU; it; but Leo succeeded in pacifying him
bj an embassy. He died June 12, 816. He was a
man of small capacity, unduly magnified in later
times by the importance attached to his coronation
of Charlemagne. {A. Hadck.)

BiBuoa kaput: The Epitlola tn in JaSf. BRQ, iv. SOS-
SSI, &nd Bouquet. Rtcunt, v. GST-ttM. Saurcei are;
Liber pontiflealit, td. Ducbenne. ii. 1 aiiq., Parii, 1892:
ui<I the uiDols collected in MOH. Script., i. 1826. Coa-
suit: F. Gregorovius, Hitl. of Uu Cily of Romt, U. 460-
403, Loadan, 18M: J. A. KctUrer, Karl dtr Grant uwf
die Kirdu. Munich, 1898; Hsuck. KD. ii. paasiin: He-
fele, CottdlitngaehiiMt, vol. iii. puvm; Celllier, Auleurt
trtcrlt. lU, 3B9-401 et pBKdin; Bower, Popei. iL 173-lfl2;
Uilmui, /.ofin CAnilianilv, ii. 4M gqq.: Neaoder, Chrit-
lian Church, vol. iii. puam; 8ch>S, ClirMian Ckureh,
iv. MS: DCB, iU. Q74-Q70: >nd atso much of Ibe litcn-

Leo IV. : Pope 847-855, He waa elected at the
end of January and consecrated Apr. 10, without
waiting for imperial confinnation, on pretext of
danger from the Saracens, For the same reasoa he
zealously pushed the new fortifications of Rome,
and thus strengthened the papal independence. The
legal relations with the empire were not, however,
substantially altered; Leo acknowledged the theo-
retical supremacy of the emperor in both temporal
and spiritual matters, even while he endeavored to
efface the recollection of its past exercise. In
purely spiritual questions be acted unhesitatingly
as the supreme head of Christianitjr. He showed
his conception of his se« as " mistresa and bead of
all churches " (Jaff^, Rtgetia, 2847) by refusing his
assent to the decrees of the Synod of Soissons (853)
and requiring a new one to be held in presence of
his legate (see Hinchar op Reiub), as well as by
reproaching Ignatius of Constantinople for holding
a synod and deposing certain bishops without his
sanction, and finally summoning both parties to
Rome (see Photittb). He died July 17, 856.

(A, Hauck.)
BiBLiooiupnT: Tha E^loUt tt dtcnU mrs in MPL, cxr.
eU-671. a. emix. 909-1002. Soutoh for » lift «re Ihe
Vila with oomnunlBfy in ASS, July. iv. 302-326; Liber
ponkjlatlit. ed. Duchesne, ii. 106 aqq.. Puis, 1892; uid
Ibe vinali «>ll«ted in MQH. Srripl.. i. 1826. CoiuuJi:
F. Gn«oroviug. HM. of Ik* Citu of Roma, ilL 91-111.
London. 1S96; CeiUier. AiUturi tacri,. xii. 406-409;
Bower. Pope4. ii. 217-220; Hilnum. Lalii Chriiliatrilu.
iiL 18-20; Schsll. Chriitian Churi*. iv. 4fi9. Uuch ol
the literalun cited under Qbeooit IV. is pertinent.
Leo v.: Pope 903. He ruled only a month
from his consecration in August, was then over-
thrown and imprisoned, and soon died.

(A. Hacck.)
BiBuoaaAPHT; BoorcM tor * lite an: X.iAtr pimtifhaliM,
ed. Duchwo*. ii. 234, Puin 1892: l^t. lUaala. i. 444:
J. U. WBtlerich. fismaiwnin jumUJIrum . . . vila. i.
32. LeipMC 1802. Commit: F. Oiecoroviui, HiM. of Ihe
CUy bS Home, iii. 212, London, 180E; C. DOmmler. AutH-
iui and Sulporiiu, Leipnc 1866: CeilHar, Aulmrt eatrft.
Iii. 743: Bower, Popet. ii. 306: Milnuui. LaUn O-ritHan-
iN, iii. IS5.

Leo VL: Pope 928-020. He was the son of
the Roman primiceriut Christophonis, All that is
known of him is that he was elected in June, 938,
and died probably in the following February.

(A. Hadck.) ,

iiBLioompHT: Source! are: i.i6fl- panfiAnJt*, ed. Dueheane,
ii. 342, Puis. 1892: JalT«, Regetla. i. 4S3; J. U. Wat-
taricb, fiomoBoruni pontifleam , . . i-iln. i. 33, Leipne.
1S62. Connilt: F. Orecnroviui, Hiel. of Ihe CUu of
Rome. iii. 282; Bower, Pdp«, ii. 311.

Leo VTL: Pope 936-939. He was consecrated
early in Jan., 936, presumably the choice of the
younger Alberic, then in power. He was a pious
monk, allied with the Cluniac movement, and what
is known of his papal acts is principally confined to
efforts for monastic reform. He died in July, 930.
(A. Hadck.)

Biblioqrapht: Hii Epiitola are in Bouquet, Kecual, vol.
ii. CoQBult: Liber potUiJIcalU, ed. Ducheanr. ii. 244,
Paris. 1S9Z: JbIT<^, RtgrMla, i. 4S5-4S6; J. M. Watterioh,
RBmanorum ponliflcum . . . vila. I 33, Leipaic, 1862;
E. Backui. Die CfuniocetiKr, Halle, 1B92; F. Greconv
vius, Hielor), of the Citu of Rome. iii. 306-317, London,
1806: Bower. Popee. ii, 312-313: and the iileralure under
JoHH XI,

L«o VIIL: Pope 963-965. He was elected Dec.

4 to replace John XII., who had been deposed by

Otto I. For a time he was driven from Rome,

but was restored by Otto after John's death, and

his new rival, Benedict V,, was deposed in June,

964, at a synod held in the emperor's presence (see

John XII.; Benedict V.). Leo died, however, in

the following spring. (A. Hadck.)

BiBLioaii:ipRT: Librr pontiflcalii, ed, Duchenae, ii. ZGO,

Paris, 1892; JaRf, Reoeela, L 467-408; J. M. Watterioh,

ffomonoruBi pontificam . . . Vila, \. 42-43; A. EOB.

Pulhaoona novvt trcutitu, Li^, 1767; Ceillier, Auteui-i

•acTim. ni. 831-833: F. GrpKoTDviui!, Hitt. of the Citg </

Rome, iii, 348-367, London, 1895: Bower, Pope*, a. 319-

320; Milmui. Latiyt ChnUianili,. iii, 183-186: Neander.

C/irittian ChurA. iii. 368: Scba«. Chritlian Ckwdi, it.

290.

Leo IX. (Bruno, son of Count Hugo of Egisbeim
in Alsace, a cousin of the Emperor Conrad II.):
Pope 1048-54. He was born at E^heim (2 m. w.
of Colroar) June 21, 1002, and hod already dis-
tinguished himself by a model administration as
bishop of Toul when, by command of Henry III.
and on request of the Roman delegates, he was
chosen pope at the diet in Worms early in Dec.,
1048, succeeding Damosus II. Talented, ener-
getic, lovable, experienced, and in close touch with
the movement for a reform in church life emanating
from Cluny (q,v.), he was highly qualified for the
office tendered to him. His reception in Rome was
brilliant, and, at his own request, he was there again
elected and then assumed the pontifical government,
being enthroned on Feb. 12, 1049. Hikiebrand
(see GaBaoRT VII.), who ui 1046 had been obliged
to accompany Gregory VI. to Germany, returned to
Rome in Leo's retinue, and was now received into
the body of cardinals. Of still greater significance
was the importation of other forces. The epiwo-
pal see of Silva Candida was assigned to the monk
Humbert (q.v.); Hugo the White (q.v.) waa pro-
moted as cardinal priest of St, Clement in Rome;
Stephen of Lorraine obtained an abbot's post io
Rome; and Archbishop Frederick, brother tif Duke
Godfrey o[ Lorraine, was called from Li^.

Leo held his first Roman synod In the L«t«ran
Apr. 9-12, 1049, and there laid the foundation and
outlined the policy of his whole admin iirt ration.
His first attempt at reform aimed to supprem alni
ony. The synod approved thedeposition of Himnril
acal bishops, but, trith okmoroua proteat. refuwl

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

4&8

the pope's demand for the annuhnent of all ordina-
tions of simonists on the ground of its practical in-
expediency. A law was also passed
Leo's concerning compulsory celibacy in the

Refonns. priesthood, which involved little sub-
stantially new but proved of great
consequence as it initiated the reformed papacy's
warfare against the marriage of priests. Soon aftei^
ward, Leo started on a journey to Germany, ovei^
taking the emperor in Saxony, and attending him
by way of Cologne to Aix-la-Chapelle. At Reims,
Oct. 3-6, he held the great synod which has peculiar
interest both by reason of the preceding situation
and of its enactments. There was but small at-
tendance from France, and Leo exercised great re-
serve. The celibacy question did not at this time
come up for discussion at all, and the examination
of charges in case of the bbhops under suspicion of
simony was conducted in a lukewarm way. Leo
also forbore to press his rigorous conviction in re-
spect to simoniacal consecrations. On the other
hand, he pursued all the more energetically his aim
of bringing out in clearly expressed terms the au-
thoritative position of the papacy. The archbishop
of Santiago in Galicia, northern Spain, had as-
sumed the title Apo8tolicu8f and was therefore ex-
communicated. Many French bishops and abbots
who had stayed away from the synod were likewise
sentenced with the ban, while others were sum-
moned to Rome. At the close of the synod the
first investiture law by the reformed papacy
was promulgated (see Investiture). Two weeks
later, about Oct. 19, Leo opened, in presence
of Emperor Henry III., a brilliant synod at
Mainz, which likewise took measures against
simony and the marriage of priests. He then
returned to Italy.

In the spring of 1050 Leo was in southern Italy,
where he convened a sjmod at Salerno and at Si-
ponto, southward of Monte Gargano. The Roman
synod which met under his presidency on Apr. 29
continued the activity for reform. A few weeks
later, however, he was again in southern Italy,
where the advance of the Normans was inaugurating
new political combinations. The synod at Vercelli
then recalled him to the north. This belongs to
the conventions under Leo IX. which are of great
moment in the history of dogma, for here Berengar
of Tours (q.v.) was condemned anew. Here again
the difficult question came up as to what course
should be observed in the matter of ordinations
by simonists, but once again the pope failed
to have his policy adopted; namely, that the
actual proof of a simoniacal ordination required
the revocation of the sacrament thereof. In the
autumn Leo journeyed across the Alps once
more to France.

Early in 1051 he was present in Germany, and
had interviews of political importance with Henry
III. at Cologne, Treves, and Augsburg. On return-
in*; to Rome, Leo finally resigned his bishopric of
Toul. The third of the Roman synods convened
by him sat in April, after Easter. Once again the
administration of the sacraments by simonists was
discussed without any understanding being reached.
During the following months all the pope's energy

was called forth in southern Italy, where the mot

was to meet the dangers of the Norman invasioD.

Leo first attempted, by alliance with

The Nor- Prince Weimar of Salerno and Count

man In- Drogo, chief of the Apulian Normaitt,
vation. to secure the acquisition of Beneveoto
by pacific means, but did not succeed.
Claims on Benevento could be made effectual by
force alone, and to this end the pope sought help
from King Henry I. of France and Elmperor Henry
III. of Germany. Later, in the early sunmier of
1052, Leo attempted to lead the conflict with the
Normans in person, but was unable to keep his
army together. In this difficult situation he de-
sired a personal understanding with the German
emperor, and being appealed to at this very time
by King Andrew of Hungary as mediator in the
war with Henry III., he hastened to the imperial
camp at Pressbuig. Although his intervention
brought no advantage to the German empire, and
though the Hungarian expedition issued unfavoi^
ably, the good understanding between Henry and
Leo was not impaired and they returned together
to Germany. While pope and emperor were cele-
brating the Christmas festival together at Worms,
they came to the important agreement that Hemy
ceded Benevento and other imperial tenure in
southern Italy to the pope, in return for which Leo
renoimced the rights of the Roman Church to a
number of foundations and cloisters in Germany
(the bishopric of Bamberg, abbey of Fulda, etc.).
The value of this bargain for Leo, however, de-
pended on whether the German emperor would also
vouchsafe him the help of the empire to TnaintAJn
these territories against the Normans. At the out-
set Henry intended this, but Bishop Gebhard of
Elichst&dt brought it about that the army, already
started on its march to Italy, was recalled. Never-
theless a good many German troops, especially from
Swabia, were in the pope's train when he returned
to Italy in Feb., 1053.

Leo's time of successes was past. When he con-
vened the Lombard episcopate, which had proved far
from responsive to his reforming efforts, in synod at
Mantua on Feb. 24, 1053, turbulent scenes ensued
rendering all business impossible and even men-
acing the pope's life. After the (fourth) Roman
Easter synod, in April, Leo made preparation for a
decisive blow at the Normans. The battle at Civi-
tate in Norman Apulia, June 18, brought the de-
cision— the papal army was almost annihilated, and
Leo himself fell into the hands of the enemy. He
was detained nearly nine months at Benevento as
captive of war, but without being subjected to re-
strictions of open communication. Unbroken by
his misfortime he urged the Eastern Empire and
Germany to a great action against the Normans,
but did not achieve his object. Upon his falling
dangerously iU, he was allowed to return to Rome.
He left Benevento on Mar. 12, and died at Rome
on Apr. 19, 1054.

The pontificate of Leo IX. covers few years, but
in this brief span of time he managed to win a posi-
tion of conunanding respect for the Roman primate
in western Christendom, indicated new and uin-
vcrsal tasks for ths same, and by adoption of the

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDU

pseudo-Iflidorian code {see Pbecdo-Isidorian Db-
t'liETAi^) in the practical life of the Church, paved
the way for the ktcr mipreme domina'
Leo's tion of the papacy under Gregory VII.
Achieve- His extensive journeyH were a well-
ments. chosen means of coming into personal
contact with the various parts of the
Church; and his plsu of combining with his visits
church consecrations and translations, in so far as
these festivals afforded opportunity for the vast
multitude to gee the head of the Church, not only
rnhanced the popularity of Leo bimself, but like-
wise the prestige of the papacy as nn instilution.
Of no smaller significance was the revival and
further development of church sytiods. Under Leo
the Hynods again became vehicles and centers of
ecclcHiaatical life, at the same time proving an
available arm for i^trengtheniiig, or at least reviving.
the connection between the episcopate and Peter's
throne. This result was also effected through the
manifold honors which Leo was wont to bestow on
occasion of his journeys; and no less so by his man-
ner of having himself escorted by devoted prelates,
Buch as Archbishop Halinard of Lyons, Archbishop
Hugo of Besan^n, and Abbot Hugo of Guny.
7here can be no doubt that these measures were
part of a systematic policy on the part of the pope.
Nevertheless this tendency toward centralisation
of the church life had no disquieting effect upon
Leo's contemporaries, as it was associated with an
energetic proc^ure against the vice of simony and
the custom of sacerdotal marriage, wherein the
circle of the Cluny reform party discerned the great-
est perils to the life of the Church. When Leo as-
cended the throne, he was the trusted advocate of
this group, and he thoroughly fulfilled the hopes
that were entertained of him from that quarter.
There could be no question, again, of a real jeop-
ardizing of the independence of the episcopate
under Leo IX., or of an aggressive movement
against the t«mporal State, although some attempts
in this direction and the germs of complications
may be remarked; but they did not, aa y«t, ma-
ture, nor was the situation with reference to Henry
III. clouded by the recognition of a fundamental
antagonism. It is true that Leo's acluevemeDte are
offset by too decided attention to Italian terri-
torial politics, and by the initiation of the great
Bchism of the Eastern Church (see C^RrLjiBius,
Michael; Eabtbbn Chchch, II., ( 4). However, it
must not be overlooked that this catastrophe was
the culmination of <levelopments embracing hun-
dreds of years; and in so faraa the personalities then
on the stage can be made accountable for the same at
all, it is not so much Leo IX. who incurs the bur-
den of blame as liu representatives. Cau. Mirbt.
Bebuoghapht: For (ho EpMnla, diplomala tt detrtla ntn-
•uti: MPL. cxJiii.; MOH. Epit.. iii (1SS3), 261-728:
flA. iv. tfi2-IBS: Jiifl^, RtmUa. i. £30-540. ii. 740^ Ta-
balarium Cotintntt. i. 378 tqq.. UddU Cuino, 18^7;
P. Kehr, NmiiriAltn nin drr kiuiatirhm OemiUKkaSI drr
Wittemdu^ltn lu GaUint/m, pliilniipkitdt^itlariidu
KloMK, IS9B. part I p. 311. ISOQ. put i. pp. 210-218.
1900, p«rt ii, 142-148, p»rt iii. 300-310. IBOI, p«rl i. i
pp. S3-84. Bibliocnphisi ue found in F, Csmiti. Biblio-
vni^dt Aumamciliniabe i«d(nu. 1.353 Kja.. Rome. 1S93:
tl. Chevftlii^r. Rfperlmrt dtm wcnirrtt hiMtoriqutt dtt moytn
<I<W. p. 13T3. ud SuppUmtnl. p. 2708. Pane. lS77-lSBa |

Aji parly BnoDymoiu Vila la reprodund in 8. Borgia,
Mman€ itlaridu dtOa ptmUflna, ii. 298-348. Rcmie. 1761
Olher liven, includina thoge by Bruno Bad Guibert, with
BcrouDta of hia death uid mireclci. are found in UPL,
EiliU. 485-M8. flliv. 1109-1132, aad in ASB. April. iL
642-674. A Gsnn. transl. of Guibert waa iHucd by
P. P. Bnicker, Btmbuix, 1902: cf. J. May. Zur KrUOi
•nilUlnUtrlicher OathiekUitueUm. OHenburg, 1SS9. Mod-
em lives are: I^ Spacli. Straaburg. 1864; O. Delaro,
Paris. 187S; I., Winterer. Riibeim. 1886: W. Martona,
2 vob., Leipnc 1SB4; KL, vii. I7S7-9S. On the plaoe
of hia birth tnnmilt: Fiicher, RtehrrifLtt lur U lieu di la
fiduHwa rfu . . . LAm IX.. Nanlea, 1873; P. P. Dexan,
Oialni . . . Leon IX.. StraabuTB, 1SS4: L. Q, Qlfioklor.
I . . . Ua IX.. ib. 1SB2. Further maUrial
] subject will be found in C. Will. Die An/lta«r
ion cfor Kirche im It. JtArhundrrt, UarbuTK,
n#L L^n JX. et let jnenJuUra de Lorraine^

der Ratal

Epina]. 1809: IL Baimann, Die Polilik dtr Pdpito. L
213 aqq.. Elberfeld, ISOS: J. UergenrOIher. Pholiut. iiL
735 sqq.. ReKensburg. ISOS: W. Marleas. Die BueUitng
da paptUidim StiMa unter , , . Heirairh III. uiuj IV„
pp. 25 Miq., Freiburg. 1887: W. BrOcluDg. Die ftantieiedn
■ Papil Leu* IX., StuKgnJt, 18B1; J. Langen, Ot-

KJlic)

. 1893;

C. Mirbt, Die PublUulH im Ztilaller Gregor XII.. Leipno,
1894; F. aregoroviue. Hitt. aS the Cilv of Rom, iv. 74-
00. LondoD. ISBO: H. Gerdoa. OackidiU der laiiecliem
Kaiirr and iSrtr ZeU. pp. lOO-llI. Leipnc, 1S98; J. von
Pflugk-Harttung, Die BuUen drr Paptlt. pp. 160 «Qq..
Goths. 1901: J. DrehmuiD. Papa Leo IX. und die Bi-
monir, LeilHie, 1908: Ceillier. AuUurtiaeri: xiiL 190-211;
Hefele. Conciitengtichicltle, iv. 716 niq,; Neuder. Chrie-
tian Ckwdi. iii. 378-380; Moeller, CArufian CAunA. 11.
229-230; Bower. Popet. iL 343-301: HllmaD. Latin
Chriiiiaiiilu. iii. 240-283: and the literature under Bcs-
inqah: GKEaoBT XII.

Leo Z. (Giovanni de' Medici, second son of Lo~
renio the Magnificent): Pope lfil3-21. He waa
bom in Florence Dec. II, 1475, and was destined
by his father for the spiritual career with the in-
tent that bo should eventually attain to the high-
est office in the Church. This was anticipated in
14S9 when Innocent VIII. on Lorenzo's motion
nominated the bid of fourteen cardinal in petto.
Four years later, when Giovanni's humanistic edu-
cation, directed by Aiigelo Polisiano, Mirsiho Ficiuo,
Pico della MirandoU. and the author (subsequently
Cardinal Bibbiena) of the immoral play It Corli-
giano, waa completed, and afl«r a aupp!°menlary
course of theology and canon law at Pisa, he put
on the cardinal's insignia, and became occupied in
affairs of the Curia. He also took part in the con-
clave which, very much against hia wish, chose
Alexander VI. to succeed Innocent VIII. after the
unexpected death of the latter in 1492. Rome had
now little attraction for Giovanni and be scarcely
visil«d the city until 1500, spending his time in
Venice, Germany, and Flanders. His ascendency
with the Curia did not set in till the time of Juliiu
II., in L503, when the pope's eagerness to aggran-
diiK his family ran parallel with like interests of the
Medici, and on both sides a comprehensive culture
of humanistic and artistic endeavors appeared as a
matter of course. The Mediccan cardinal gained
important political influence in 1509, when ap-
pointed governor in Bologna, though this was ended
by the defeat of the papal power at Ravenna Apr.
11, 1612, when the governor himself was captured.
While being transported to Milan, however, he
escaped the French and reached Florence, where
the pope also was present.

When Julius II. died in the euly part of IS13,

Leo X-Xni

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

454

after a brief conclave Giovanni was elected. His
family now stood doubly high, since in Florence,
too, the leader of a conspiracy against them had
just been seized and executed. In Rome the elec-
tion was hailed with jubilation. The " Holy "
League against France was concluded by Henry
VII. of England with Ferdinand the Catholic and
Maximilian Sforza. though Leo X. had as little part
in it as in the matter of accepting an offer of alli-
ance with LfOuis XI. of France. The defeat of the
French at Novara, however, in June, 1513, served
the pope's cause. Meanwhile the Fifth Lateran
Council was in session at Rome; this was to in-
stitute " reform,'' and it has been affirmed by
some later Roman Catholic historians, conceding
the corrupt state of contemporary church affairs,
that even without Luther, and better than he, the
council would have attained this object, had it only
been allowed complete operation. But there was
no suggestion of thoroughgoing reform; the sole
consequence of weight, and that important only
for the Curia, was the fact that the schismatic
Council of Pisa (see Julius II.) suffered its death-
blow, in that the leaders of the schismatic prelates
submitted to the Curia. At the eighth and ninth
session, the reform question was treated, and cer-
tain amendments in respect to the filling of eccle-
siastical offices were introduced; there were also
some further ameliorations in particular points;
but touching what constituted the very fulcrum
of the Lutheran Reformation, that is, a religious
renewal and quickening, there was no discussion
whatever — at the utmost, a speaker here and there
suggested the necessity and manner of laboring
toward that end.

After the dark clouds of the political situation
had been dispelled, Leo X. felt hiinself at the sum-
mit of his power; the Turks were to be actively
resisted, funds for a crusade were to be collected,
and a fleet made ready. While he was planning
all this, likewise collecting money for continuation
of the building of St. Peter's and other objects, an
event occurred in Germany which was to shake
the position and power of the papacy most pro-
foundly— the beginning of the Reformation. Un-
doubtedy Leo X. against his will promoted its
progress, because he failed to understand its nature
and aim; and that he did not understand is ex-
plained by the fact that his whole interest was
directed upon other matters than the question as
to how religious life could be reawakened. He did
not discern that the Reformation was ushering in a
new era, and his bull of excommunication against
Luther (1520), as well as his cooperation in the
Edict of Worms (1521) were vain attempts to re-
tard the movement. Leo died in Rome, Dec. 1,
1521. K. Benrath.

Bibliography: Sources are: P. Bembo, EpUtoUt . . .
gxiarum libri 16 Leonid X. . . . nomine acripH aunt, Basel,
1539; Leonia X. tegeata, ed. J. Hergenrdther, 8 parts,
Freiburg. 1884-91 (reaches only to 1615); the VUa by
P. Giviro, in Latin, Florence, 1548, in Italian, ib. 1649,
in French. Paris, 1675. The best life is by W. Roscoe,
London, 1805, reissue. 1886 (was translated into Fr. and
G^rm.). A work of distinct value is H. M. Vau^ian, The
Medici Papea, New York, 1908 (deals principally with Leo
X.). Other lives are: A. Fabroni, Pisa, 1797; Audin,
Paris, 1844; and Life and Timea of Leo X., London* 1850.

Conmilt alno: T. Dandolo, II Secolo di Leone X., 3 tqI<.
Milan, 1861; Cambridge Modem Ilietory, vol. ii., chap. L
New York. 1904; Ranke. Popem, i. 57-68. ill. 11-22.
Creighton, Papacy, v. 203-vi 213 (essential ); Bover,
Popea, iii. 291-299; SchafF, Christian Church, voL tl-
vii.; Pastor, Popea, vol. iv.; and much of the literature oa
Luthjer; Rkfobmation.

Leo XL (Alessandro Ottaviano de' Medici):
Pope Apr. 1-Apr. 27, 1605. He was bom in Flor-
enoc 1535, and was archbishop of his native city,
when chosen to succeed Clement VIII. by a com-
bination of Italian and French cardinals and against
the wish of the king of Spain. The French tri-
umph, however, was frustrated by his death after
a pontificate of but four weeks. K. Benrath.

Bibuoobaphy: F. Petnioelli della Gattina, Hist diplo-
maHque dea conclavea, ii 404 sqq.. Paris, 1864; M. Broach,
Oeachichte dea Kirehenataatea, Gotha. 1880-82; Ranke.
Popea, ii. 106; Bower, Popea, iii. 327.

Leo Xn. (Annibale della Genga): Pope 1823-
1829. He was bom at the castle of the Genga,
near Spoleto, Aug. 22, 1760. Pius VI. and Pius
VII. employed him in various missions in Germany,
the latter particularly in the negotiations for con-
cordats in the early years of the nineteenth cen-
tury (see (Concordats and Delimiting Bulus.
VI., 2, § 1). Pius VII. made him cardinal in 1816.
He was chosen pope to succeed Pius VII. after a
five weeks' conclave on Sept. 28, 1823, and forth-
with transferred the high office of secretary of
state, till then held by Cardinal Ercole Consalvi
(q.v.), to one of the Zdantif the octogenarian Car-
dinal della Somaglia. The government and ad-
ministration of the States of the Church now as-
sumed a narrowly ecclesiastical character which
disordered the finances and irritated the adherents
of the party of progress. The episcopal jurisdic-
tion was extended into civil affairs; the compe^
tency of the provincial courts, as well as the right
of women to inherit, was restricted; and vaccina-
tion was forbidden. On the other hand, the need-
lessly large corps of public servants was reduced,
better training of officials was required, and stricter
surveillance was exercised. The segregation of the
Jews in ghetti — ^a practise which had been done
away during the French control — and restraint of
their mercantile activities was again enforced.
The secret revolutionary leagues in the Romagna
were summarily dealt with; in the course of three
months Cardinal Rivarola, who was disp>atched to
Bologna in 1825, passed 507 sentences, condemn-
ing seven to death, the others to hard labor for
life or long terms of imprisonment. A murderous
attempt on Rivarola moved him to flight, and the
pope then commissioned Monsignor Invemixzi in
his place, who piu^ued the same object, with re-
course to denunciation, false promises of indemnity,
and the like. Leo's administration of the Church
was characterized by the same extreme reactionary
policy, shadowed forth in his very first encyclical,
May 3, 1824, wherein he issued the invitation to
the next jubilee festival at Rome. The same spirit
was also operative in connection with the concor-
dats concluded during his pontificate with Hanover,
the ecclesiastical province of the Upper Rhine, and,
especially, several of the South American govern-
ments (see CoNCORDATB AND Dbliiiitinq Bullb,

455

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Leo X-XTTT

VI. 2, §§ 4-5). In France, Lamennais (q.v.), who
embodied all the neo-Catholicism and Ultramon-
tanism just then in vogue, evoked the pope's ap-
proval. He came to Rome in 1824 and Leo offered
him a cardinal's hat. The pope's relations with the
French government were not cordial. He carried
on tedious negotiations with the Netherlands over
the que.stion of the nomination of bishops and the
closing of the clerical seminaries, which came to
nothing because of the revolution in Belgium (cf.
O. Mejer, Die Propaganda^ ii. 98 sqq., Gdttingen,
1853; F. Nippold, Die romiach-kathoHache Kirche
im Konigreich der Niederlande, Leipsic, 1877, 149-
151). K. Benrath.

Biblioobapht: A. de Montor, Hiat. du Pape Lion XII., 2
vola.. Paris, 1843; J. G. Kdberle, Leo XII. und der QeUt
der r&tnischen Hierarchie, Leipsic, 1846; N. P. 8. Wise-
man, RecoUecHoru of the Laet Four Pope9, London, 1850;
A. von Reumont, O—ehichte der Stadt Rom, iii. 2, p. 679,
Berlin, 1870; L. von Ranke, HiatoriMMnooraphiaeke
Studien, pp. 143-157, Leipsic, 1877; M. Brosch. OeBchiehte
dee Kirchenetaatee, ii. 308 sqq.. Gotha, 1881; F. Nippold,
Handbuch der neueeten KirchengeechidUe, ii. 70-79, Elber-
feld, 1883; F. Nippold, Papacy in the 19lh. Century, pp.
71-81, New York, 1900; F. Nielsen, Papacy in the 19th
Century, 2 vols., ib. 1906; Bower, Popee, iii. 434-464.

Leo Xin. (Joachim Vincent Pecci): Pope 1878-
1903. He came of a noble Siennese family, and
was born at Carpineto (42 m. s.e. of Rome) Mar.
2, 1810. At the age of eight he was sent to the
Jesuit college at Viterbo where he remained six
years and then entered the famous Roman College
in 1825. He proved himself a dili-
Early gent as well as a brilliant student and
Life and developed early an extraordinary apti-
Training. tude for the Latin classics. In 1830
he matriculated for divinity in the
Gregorian University at Rome and received his
doctor's degree two years later. Having decided to
prepare himself for a diplomatic career, he entered,
in 1833, the Academy or College of the Nobles at
Rome where he remained until 1837, devoting him-
self to the study of canon and civil law, taking
courses in these branches at the University of the
Sapienza. In 1837 he was made a domestic prelate
by Gregory XVI., who also appointed him to the
office of Referendary of the papal signature, and
at the end of the same year he was ordained to the
priesthood. The following year, being only twenty-
eight years of age, he was appointed to the diffi-
cult post of governor of the province of Benevento,
which for some time had been in a very disturbed
condition, being infested by smugglers and brigands,
but the young prelate at once asserted his authority,
and by severe and decisive measures speedily sup-
pressed lawlessness and restored order to the prov-
ince. In 1841 he was recalled and appointed to the
more important charge of delegate of Spoleto,
having his administrative headquarters in Perugia.
He filled this position until 1843, when he was con-
secrated titular archbishop of Damietta and ap-
pointed papal nuncio to the court of Brussels.
This post he occupied three years, and in the mean
time he became quite popular in academic as well
as in diplomatic circles. In 1846 he spent a few
months in England, and, returning the same year
to Rome, then to Paris, was appointed bishop of
Perugia. His episcopate in this diocese lasted thirty-

two years through a period of much political and
religious disturbance connected with the various
movements set on foot for the unification of the
Italian states. As a bishop, besides taking an
active part in the social and religious movements
of the day, he showed more than ordinary zeal for
the reform of abuses, and paid special attention to
the hitherto much neglected education of the peo-
ple in secular as well as religious matters. He was
created cardinal by Pius IX. in 1853, and he re-
mained in charge of his diocese until 1878, when,
on the death of Pius IX., he was elected pope and
took the name Leo XIII.

During his pontificate, which was one of the long-
est and most distinguished in the history of the
papacy, he continued to display marked diplomatic
and administrative ability. A lover of peace and
unity, he applied himself with much tact to im-
prove the rather strained relations between the

papacy and the various powers, which

His Pon- had resulted from the reactionary ideas

tificate. and policy of his predecessor. While

he has been criticized for having shaped
much of his diplomacy with a view to bringing about
a restoration of the temporal power, it must be ad-
mitted, in view of the far-reaching results achieved,
that his motives and policy far transcended this
secondary object. It was mainly through his dip-
lomatic ability that in Germany an end was put
(1886) to the famous religious strife called the Kul-
turkampf which had lasted for nearly twenty years.
In harmony with his general policy of conciliation
he early favored a loyal acceptance of the repub-
lican form of government on the part of the French
people, and though he was not a little blamed for
this attitude by the royalists who were then coimted
the most enlightened and influential of French
Catholics, he remained firm in his convictions which
he set forth in an encyclical to the French people
in 1892. As a churchman he was characterized by
broad, tolerant and irenic views, and his policy was
shaped not only with a view to the uplifting of
those within the Church, but also to the ultimate
reunion of all Christendom. Thus he evinced a
lively and efficient interest in the religious welfare
of the Slavonic races, and in the reimion with
Rome of the various eastern churches. It was in
a great measure through his efforts that the Ar-
menian schism was extinguished in 1879, in con-
nection with which event he issued in 1881 a bull
decreeing the foundation of an Armenian college
in Rome. His appeal in 1895 to the ** Illustrious
English Race " was dictated by the same irenic
spirit and desire for unity, but whatever effect it
might otherwise have produced was counteracted
by his bull on Anglican orders issued the following
year, which denied their validity. A fitting recogni-
tion of his zeal for peace as well as of his diplomatic
ability was his appointment in 1885 to be arbiter in
a dispute between Germany and Spain concerning
the Caroline Islands. He took a deep interest in the
intellectual and social problems of the day and did
much for the promotion of learning. In this con-
nection may be mentioned the publication of an
encyclical on Christian philosophy in 1879; the
foundation, shortly after, of the Academy of St.

Montiiui of BjMhntium

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

456

Thomas Aquinas in Rome, together with the creation
of a Congregation of Studies; the [partial] opening
of the Vatican archives (1884) [Protestant sdiolars,
however, are debarred from examining the papal
archives in the period immediately prior to, in, or
since the Protestant revolt]; the encyclical " Provi-
dentissimus Deus " on Scripture, and the appoint-
ment of the Biblical Commission in 1902. His inter-
est in social questions and his zeal for the betterment
of social conditions were manifested not only in his
encyclical on Socialism issued in 1878, in his letter
to the bishops of Brazil, and his encyclical on the
condition of working men, but also in his attitude
of tolerance with regard to the Knights of Labor,
and in the encouragement and support given to
Cardinal Lavigerie (q.v.) in his campaign against the
African slave-trade.

Among the more important official acts of his
administration besides those already mentioned are
the following: In 1878 a bull reestablishing the
Roman Catholic hierarchy in Scotland; in the same
year the encyclical " Inscrutabili " dealing with the

evils which beset society in Christian

Official countries; in 1880, the encyclical '' Ar-

Acts. canum " on Christian marriage; in

1881 the encyclical " Diutumum " in
defense of the principle of rightful authority in the
Church; in 1884 a bull authorizing the assembly of
the third plenary Council of Baltimore; in 1893,
sending of the first apostolic delegate to the
United States. During his pontificate he remained
always within the precincts of the Vatican, and in
his private life he was simple, studious and devout.
He was exceptionally well versed in scholastic phi-
losophy, and his Latin poetry, written by way of
pastime, is quite classical in its ease and elegance.
Among his favorite devotions was that of the ro-
sary, which by official letters he did much to pro-
mote throughout the Church. He passed away
after a long and fruitful pontificate on July 20,
1903. James F. Driscoll.

Bxbuoobapht: Leo's Oreai Encvelical LeUer§ have been
tranalated, New York, 1003; also his Poem; Charade*
and InacripHtma, ib. 1902. Among the many lives which
have been written, mention may be made of J. McCarthy,
London. 1896; J. Oldcastle. ib. 1887; B. O'ReiUy, ib.
1887; J. de Narfon. ib. 1899; G. Freund. MOnster. 1902;
B. D'Agen. Paris, 1907; De T'Serclaes, Bruges, 1907. Also
cf. F. Nippold. GeaehichU dea KatKolitiemua, pp. 155 sqq.*
Berlin. 1901.

LEON (PONCE DE LEON), LUIS DE: Spanish
poet and theologian; b. at Belmonte (90 m. s.e. of
Madrid) 1527; d. at Madrigal (50 m. e.n.e. of Sala-
manca) Aug. 23, 1591. He joined the Augustinians
at the age of sixteen, having already begun the study
of theology under Melchior Cano at Salamanca,
where he became professor in 1561 and proved a
brilliant expounder of systematic theology. His
method of always going back to the sources, espe-
cially the Scriptures and the Fathers, furnished oc-
casion to two envious colleagues and other enemies
to accuse him falsely of inclinations toward the Ref-
ormation and he was committed to the prison of the
Inquisition at Valladolid in 1572, charged with ex-
pressing offensive and heretical opinions in his lec-
tures and in an attempt to correct the text of the so-
called edition of the Vulgate of Franciscus Vatablus

(q.v.) and in a commentary on the Song: of Soogs.
After weaxy waiting he was acquitted on Dec 15,
1576, and restored to his professorship. He began
his first lecture after his long imprisonment with the
words, Heri dicebamus (" As we were saying yester-
day *'). The acts of his trial are printed in Docu-
merUos inediioSf vols. x. and xi. (Madrid, 1847).
His Spanish writings, which include his poems, were
issued by the Augustinian Antonio Merino (6 vob..
Madrid 1804-16), and recently the Augustinians
have edited his Latin writings (7 vols., Salamanca,

1891-95). K. B£NRATH.

Biblioobapht: Sources are the I>oeumenU>m inedUo; vx
sup. Consult: Jos6 Gonsales de Tejadii, Vida de Frea
Lw» de Leon, Madrid, 1863; C. A. Wilkena, Jfruy Luu da
Leon, Halle, 1806 (cf. H. Reuach, in TLB, 1867. pp. 478
sqq.); F. H. Reusch, Lum de Jjean und die epanioAe /••
quiaiHon, Bonn, 1873; G. Ticknor. f/isf. of 3paniA Litera-
ture, ii. 75-67, Boston. 1864.

LEONilRD, len'ord, DELEVAN LEVAHT: Con-
gregationalist; b. at Pendleton, N. Y., July 20,
1834. He was graduated at Hamilton Colk^ in
1859 and Union Theological Seminary in 1862. He
was ordained in 1863, and held pastorates at New
Preston, Conn., 1863-65, Darlington, Wis., 1865-
1870, Normal, lU., 1870-74, Hannibal, Mo., 1874-
1875, and Northfield, Minn., 1875^1. He was then
superintendent of home missions in Utah, Idaho,
Montana, and adjacent territories 1881-87, after
which he was pastor of the Congregational church
at Bellevue, O., until 1892. Since 1893 he has been
associate editor of The Missionary Review cf ike
World. In theology he classes himself " among the
liberal-conservatives, not caring for mere novelties
in speculation, but ready to accept new statements
of Christian truth if seemingly established by evi-
dence, even in the realm of higher criticism." He
has written: The Story of Oberlin (Boston, 1895);
A Hundred Years of Missions (New York, 1895);
Missionary Annals of the Nineteenth Century (Cleve-
land, O., 1899); and HieUjry of CarleUm CoUege
(Chicago, 1904).

LEORilRD, WILLIAM ANDREW: Protestant
Episcopal bishop of Ohio; b. at Southport, Conn.,
July 15, 1848. He was educated at St. Stephen's
College, Annandale, N. Y., from which, however,
he was not graduated, and Berkeley Divinity School,
Middletown, Conn., from which he was graduated
in 1871. He was curate of Holy Trinity, Brooklyn
(1871-72), rector of the Church of the Redeemer,
Brooklyn (1872-81), and of St. John's, Warfiing-
ton (1881-89). In 1889 he was consecrated bishop
of Ohio. He was chaplain of the Twenty-third
Regiment of the New York State National Guard,
and from 1897 to 1906 was in charge of the Ameri-
ican Episcopal churches on the continent of Ehurope.
In theology he is a High-churchman. He has writ-
ten: Via Sacra (New York, 1875); Hisiory of the
Christian Church (1883); and Witness cfthe Amer-
ican Church to Christ (New York, 1895).

Bibliography: W. S. Perry, The Epiaeopate in Awuriea,
p. 317, New York. 1896.

LEONTIUS, le-en'shtus, OF BYZANTIUM: One
of the most important Greek theologians of the
first half of the sixth century; d. about 543. So
many points in regard to his life and works are still

467

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Leontius of Bysaatiiim

open questions that it is impossible to do more
than give a somewhat disjointed account of the
present state of knowledge concerning both. Among
the works in MPG, Ixxxvi. 1185-2100, under the
name of *' Leontius of Byzantium or of Jerusalem/'
there are four of unequal length which occur in
manuscript collections earlier than the year 1000
among the works of *' Leontius the Monk " or '' the
Hermit." These are: (1) the tripartite work
'' Against the Nestor ians and Eutychians "; (2) the
** Solution of the Syllogisms Proposed by Severus ";
(3) the " Thirty Chapters against Severus "; (4)
the treatise " Against the Frauds of the Apollina-
rians." The first two undoubtedly belong to the
same author, who wrote the first between 529 and
544. He had been a Nestorian in his youth, but
had seen the error of his ways and become a zeal-
ous opponent of both the Monophysites and all
whom he called '' concealed Nestorians," meaning
the adherents of Theodore of Mopsuestia and Dio-
dorus of Tarsus. The '' Thirty Chapters" are also
by the same author, but do not seem to have been
published as a substantive work. The last-named
treatise is a masterpiece of patristic learning, pos-
sibly though by no means certainly from the same
hand. The treatise De aectis, the longest known
of the works ascribed to Leontius in Migne, was
formerly thought to be, according to the Greek
title, a work conceived on the basis of utterances of
the Abbot Theodore, and, according to the time
of the work as a whole, the date of Leontius was
frequently put as late as 600. It is now, however,
generally admitted that it contains genuine Leon-
tian material in a later recasting, made between
579 and 607. In spite of much recent discussion, it
still seems safe to regard it as based upon a sub-
stantive work by Leontius, and not (as with Moller)
upon mere lecture-notes of his worked into literary
shape by his disciple Theodore, or (as with Zahn)
the conception of a third writer from information
given by Theodore. It may be taken as demon-
strated that the treatises of a Leontius of Jerusa-
lem Contra Nestarianoa (MPG, baacvi. 1396-1768)
and Contra Monophyaitas (ib. 1769-1901) offer in
some way indubitably Leontian material — perhaps
they also are a recasting of the treatise on which
the De Bectis is based. One thing seems sure, viz.,
the Dodrina antiquorum pairum de verbi incamatione
edited by F. Dekamp, MOnster, 1907, compiled in
the seventh century, quotes this fundamental work,
not the De Bedis; all that appears in the latter to
suggest a date later than that of Leontius is absent
in the Doctrxna quotations. It is not possible to go
further into detail as to the nature of this funda-
mental work until more textual investigations have
been made; but the hypothesis that the '' Solution "
and the " Thirty Chapters " originally formed part
of it still seems not improbable. It may have been
a dogmatic-polemical treatise directed principally
against Arians and Sabellians, Nestorians and
Monophysites, perhaps consisting of separate chap-
ters against particular heresies, in which the pa-
tristic citations were followed by explanations in
the nature of dogmatic, polemical, and historical
scholia, thus accounting for the quotations '' from
the scholia of Leontius/' of which five exist in the

Doctrina, and for the use of the word scholia in the
Greek title of the De Bectis,

Whoever Leontius may have been, it is clear that
he was not merely an accomplished theologian but
an influential man. The proposition Xhat one of
the Trinity suffered in the flesh, on the orthodoxy
of which Justinian insisted, was evidently defended
by him; the edict of the Three Chapters con-
demned Theodore (and Diodorus), whom he ]abore<l
to confute; Justinian's policy followed the path of
the orthodoxy of Cyril and of Chalcedon, which
Leontius represented; the later orthodoxy took
up many Leontian thoughts; and his Aristotelian-
ism was the parent of scholasticism. Yet, strangely
enough, tradition tells nothing certain of his life.
The most one can do is to attempt to identify him
with four bearers of the name in the reign of Jus-
tinian. (1) The Leontius, a relation of the influen-
tial Comes Vitalian, who came forward at Constan-
tinople in 519 with the Scythian monks led by
John Maxentius, resisted the ** Nestorianizing "
tendencies of the Roman legates then in Constan-
tinople, and went to Rome to obtain a confirma-
tion of the proposition just cited and a condenma-
tion of Faustus of Riez, disappearing in 520. (2)
The Leontius who in 531 (or 533), together with
Hypatius of Ephesus and a certain Eusebius, ap-
peared as an orthodox participant in the confer-
ence with the Severians arranged by Justinian.
(3) The Leontius who in 536 appeared among the
monks of Jerusalem before the council held in Con-
stantinople, together with Domitian, later bishop
of Ancyra, and Theodore Ascidas, to obtain the
condemnation of Anthimus for Monophysite tend-
encies. (4) The " Origenist " Leontius, " a By-
zantine in race," of whom Cyrillus Scythopolitanus
recounts in his Vila Sabcs that he was received into
the ** new laura " between 519 and 521, went with
Sabas in 531 to Constantinople, was there convicted
of Origenism, returned later to the monastic settle-
ments under Sabas and became a leader among the
opponents of Theodore of Mopsuestia and his ad-
mirers, went again to Constantinople in 541 in the
interests of his cause, and died there not long after.
The last three of these are easily connected, and
harmonize with the theological position of the
writer Leontius, while the second is closely related
to the first. The fourth identification alone offers
positive difficulties — although the fact that the ex-
tant works of Leontius do not portray an *' Origen-
ist " in the sense of the Vita Sabce is not an insu-
perable objection; and the silence of tradition as
to the career of Leontius is most easily explained
on the assumption that he was held to some ex-
tent to have compromised himself. If these iden-
tifications are accepted, the only period of his life
left dark is that before 519; and the '' Byzantine
monk " of the Doctrina receives its confirmation
from the '' Byzantine in race " of the Vita Sabas,

(F. LoofS.)

Bibuoorapht: The earlier information is mmimed up ia
J. Feealer, imtUutionM patrolooim, u. 034-035. Innsbraek,
1851, ed. B. Jungmann, consult ii., part 2. 1806. For
later studies consult: F. Loofs, in TU, iii. 1-2. Leipsie,
1887, cf. T. Zahn, in TheolooitdteM LUeraturblaU, 1887,
pp. 80-02, and W. M6Uer, in TheoU)oi$dte lAUraturaeU-
mg, 1887, pp. 330-330: F. Loofs, Shidisn HUr di$ dtm

L«ontius of Heapolls
Leprosy

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

468

JoKannM von DamaAua xuoeachriebenen ParaUden,
Halle. 1892; W. ROgamer, Leontiua von Bytafu, ein
PolenUker aut der Zeit Juttiniaru, WOrsburg. 1894; V.
Ermoni, De LeorUio Bj/Mantino et de ettw do€trina ekritto-
logica, Paris, 1895; K. Holl, Die Sacra paraUela de% Jo-
hanna Damatcenut, in TU, xvi.. 1, Leipdc. 1896, dF.
XX.. 2, pp. xii. sqq., 1900; Krumbacher. (TMcAicAle, pp.
54 aqq., et passim; F. Diekamp, Die orioeniaHaehen Sirei-
tUfkeiten im 6, JaJurhundert, MOnster, 1899; O. Barden-
hewer. Patroloffie, Freiburg. 1901; J. P. Jun^Uw, LeoniUu
von By tarn; SttuHen zu eeinen Scknfien, QuMen^ und An-
achauurmen, Paderbom, 1908.

LEORTIUS OF NEAPOLIS: Bishop of NeapoUs,
Cyprus; flourished in the seventh century. Of his
life little b known, except that he was bom in
Cyprus and was educated by his fellow country-
man, John, archbishop of Alexandria (611-619).
He was alive in the reign of Constans II. (642-
668). He was a prolific author, and at the Second
Council of Nicsea (787) his compatriot Constantinus,
bishop of Constantia, spoke highly of lus eulogies.
Two homilies of this class have been published, one
on the presentation of Christ in the Temple and
the other on the feast of Mid-Pentecost. More in-
terest attaches to a work in five books against the
Jews, of which two fragments have been edited,
two others being extant in manuscript. In 614
Jerusalem was betrayed to the Persians and the
Holy Cross was carried away. The consequent
excitement called forth a wide-spread persecution
of the Jews, and Leontius' book was apparently
evoked by disturbances in Alexandria. His most
important works, however, were biographies writ-
ten in popular style for readers of general culture,
such as his life of Spyridion of Trimithus, extant
only in a revamping by Metaphrastes, but appar-
ently comprising originally a naive collection of
marvels. He also wrote a biography of Johannes
Eleemon, archbishop of Alexandria (q.v.)i which is
of value for its portrayal of Alexandrian life just
before the Arab conquest. It was extremely popu-
lar and was translated into Latin at the instance
of Pope Nicholas I. Leontius' biography of Sym,-
eon of Emesa is likewise valuable for its presenta-
tion of current ideas, but otherwise historically
worthless. It is based on the Oriental belief that
madmen are divinely blessed, and did much to
spread this conception among the Greeks and Rus-
sians, whose monasteries in succeeding centuries
presented numerous examples of '' inspired idiots."
Many other works still extant in manuscript are
ascribed to this Leontius, but he is frequently con-
fused by scribes with others of the name, such as
Leontius the Presbyter, Leontius of Byzantium,
and Leontius of Jerusalem. (H. Gelzer f.)

Bibltoorapht: The Opera are in MPO, xciiL His " Life
of John the Merciful " was edited by H. Qelier, Freiburg,
1893. Consult: F. Loofs. Leontiaa von Byxans und die
gleidinamioen SchrifUteller der griechiecKen Kirche, Leipaio,
1887; Krumbacher. Oeachidite, pp. 112. 389, 468; H.
Gelzer. in Historiache Zeilachrift, Ixi (1889). 1-32.

LEONTOPOLIS: The name of a place m Lower
Egypt important in connection with Jewish his-
tory as the site of the temple built
Reports of by an Onias (III. or IV.) either c. 170
Josephus. or c. 154 b.c. The place mentioned is
apparently located by Josephus (War,
VII., X. 3) 180 stadia (about twenty miles) from
Memphis, in the nome of HeliopoUs. The sources

of information are Josephus, War, J., L 1, \1I..
X. 2 sqq.; ArU., XII., ix. 7, XIII., iii. 1-3, cf. XII..
V. 1. According to War, I., i. 1 ** Onias the high
priest '' was compelled under Antiochus Epiphanes
to flee from Jerusalem and took refuge in f^ypt
with Ptolemy Philometor, who gave him a location
in the nome of Heliopolis. where he ** biiilt a dty
resembling Jerusalem, and a temple that was like
its temple.'' In Ant., XII., ix. 7 Josephus says
that it was the son of '' Onias the high priest "
who, being " left a child when his father died . . .
fled to Ptolemy," and received the gift in the nome
named wherein he built a temple like that at Je-
rusalem. With this agrees ArU., XII., v. 1, which
says that the son whom Onias left ** was yet but
an infant." Ant., XIII., iii. 1-3 afl^rms that Onias
" the son of Onias the high priest ** fled to Ptolemy
Philometor, and that, stimulated by the prophecy
of Isaiah (xix. 19) uttered 600 years earlier, tbi*
Onias wrote a letter to Ptolemy and Cleopatra,
which letter Josephus professes to give. In this
Onias asks that a ruined sanctuary be g^ven him
that he may purge it and erect on its site a temple
which may serve as a place where the Jews may
meet, implying that this will gain for the king the
favor of the Jews against the Syrian king. The re-
ported reply of the two sovereigns grants the
ruined temple at Leontopolis, " named from . . .
Bubastis." The second of these letters, at any
rate, is generally recognized as spurious. In War,
VII., X. 2 Josephus affirms that *' Onias, son of
Simon, one of the Jewish high priests " fled from
Antiochus, was received kindly by Ptolemy, ob-
tained leave to build a temple, saying that '* the
Jews would be readier to fight against Antiochus,"
built the temple not like that at Jerusalem but to
resemble a tower, sixty cubits high, furnished it in
the same manner, only substituting a suspended
golden lamp for the candlestick, and surrounding
the structure with a wall of burnt brick, though
the gate (ways) were of stone. The king uiso gave
a large endowment in lands to furnish the requisite
revenues for the support of the temple. In § 4 of
this chapter Josephus reports that Lupus, governor
of Alexandria, and his successor PauUnus (which
places the date at 70-78 a.d.) stripped and dosed
the temple after it had been open for worship
" 343 years."

These accounts by the same writer raise three
difficulties. (1) Who was the Onias who built the
temple? Two of the accounts distinctly imply
Onias III., especially Ant., VII., x. 2,
Three which calls him ** son of Simon." With
Difficulties, this goes War, I., i. 1, *' Onias the high
priest," since the son of this Onias
never served as high priest, at least in Jerusalem,
being, as Josephus says elsewhere (Ant., XII.. v.
1), left an infant. But the other passages cited
oppose this, stating that it was the son of Onias
the high priest, commonly known as Onias IV.
This latter position is supported by the testimony
of II Mace. iv. 33-34, according to which Onias III.
was slain after being enticed from the well-known
sanctuary of Daphne near Antioch. (2) The sec-
ond difficulty concerns the date of the building of
the temple, and its solution depends upon the so-

450

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDU

lieontius of Neapolis
I<apro«y

lutiori of the first difficulty. If Onias III. was the
builder, 170-163 muat be the period of erection; if
Onias IV., then c. 154 must be accepted. The
statement in Anl., VII., x. 4 that the temple was
open for 343 years is usually regarded as a mistake
for 243, which would place the founding of the
structure c. 170 B.C. But this calculation may be
bound up with Josephus' evident confusion as to
ttie person of the founder, and the later date may
be regarded as correct. (3) The site is by the
statements of Josephus and all earlier indications
left a matter of doubt. Ant.f XIII., iii. 2 seems to
fix it definitely at '' Leontopolis, in the nome of
Ileliopolis . . . named from the country Bubastis.''
This can not be the well-known LeontopoUs, which
was the capital of a province north of that of Heli-
opolis. Moreover, in War, VII., x. 3 the location
is given as 180 stadia (about twenty miles) from
Memphis. But a Leontopolis is not known in the
region, apart from the capital already mentioned.

In the Itinerarium ArUonini (ed. G. Parthey and
M. Finder, Berlin, 1S48) appears mention of a
Vicus Judceorum, which is placed thirty-four Ro-
man miles northeast of Heliopolis. £. Naville
finds that in this neighborhood a temple to Bast
(the lion-headed goddess from whom Leontopolis
took its name) once stood, and that near by is a
Tel al-Yehudiyeh, "Mound of the
The Jew,'' though at the time he investi-
Temple gated (1887) he found no traces of a
Found. Jewish temple there (The Academy ,
Feb. 25, 1888, pp. 140-141; Egypt Ex-
ploration Fund, Seventh Memoir, pp. 20, 22). An-
other place of the same name is found farther south,
where a sepulchral inscription, Oniou paUr, was
discovered (The Academy, 1888, pp. 49-50, 140-
142, 193-194; Egypt Exploration Fund, ut sup.).
The Notitia dignitatum orientis, chap, xxv (ed. E.
Bocking, Bonn, 1839), knows a Castra Judceorum,
possibly identical with the more southern of the
two places. Finally, in 1905, near the station Shi-
bin al-Kanater, 20 miles from Cairo (Baedeker's
Egypt, p. 166, 1908), investigation at a mound called
Tel al-Yehudiyeh t^O miles from Cairo) found
the traces of the temple in question. The ground
showed a settlement roughly in the shape of a
triangle, on the east side a wall of stone 767 feet
long, with the entrance to the enclosure at the
west acute angle, while the temple ruins were at
the south point. The entire enclosure covered be-
tween three and four acres. The temple showed
a structure of which tlie inner court was sixty-
three feet long by thirty-two to twenty-seven feet
wide, and an outer court forty-four feet long by
twenty-seven to twenty-one feet wide; the archi-
tecture was Corinthian in style with Syrian fea-
tures; the area was proportioned like that of the
temple at Jerusalem. The traces of sacrifice were
present in the shape of huge sunken cylinders of
pottery which show that they were used for sacri-
fice, alternate layers of earth and burnt material
shoaling that fresh earth was thrown on each sac-
rifice of fire so as to deaden it. The pottery of
the mound outside the old town belongs to the
second century B.C., the coins are of the period of
Ptolemy Philometor, and sherds show Jewish names.

These data, reconciling differences and agreeing

with the conditions required, set finally at rest the

question of the fact and the place of this interesting

episode of Jewish history. Geo. W. Gilmore.

Bibliography: Egyptian Research Account, vol. xii., W.

M. Flindeni Petrie, Hyksoa and Israelite Cities, London.

1906; SchQrer. Oeschichte, iii. 97-100, Eng. trans!.. II.,

ii. 286-288 (contains older literature): A. BQchler. Die

Tobiaden und die Oniaden in II. Makkab&erbuch, Vienna,

1899; Jew' College Jubilee Volume, pp. 39-77. London,

1906 (collects dii«cussions of the Onias Temple); C. H. H.

Wright. LUffU from Egyptian Papyri before Christ, ib.

1908; J. G. Duncan. Exploration of Egypt and the O. T.,

New York, 1909; EB, iu. 3507-11.

LEPROSY.

Geographical Distribution (§1).

Biblical Conception (§ 2).

General Treatment of Lepers (§ 3).

Lepra Mosaica (§ 4).

Lepra Tuberosa (§5).

Lepra Maculova, Lepra Aniesthetica (§ 6).

This disease has existed from times preceding the
ages of which history takes cognizance in its back-
ward sweep, has spread widely over the civilized
and barbarous world, and still exists endemically
in some regions. The Hebrews were
I. Geo- sorely afflicted with it before leaving
graphical Egypt (indeed, the banks of the Nile,
Distribu- with their humid atmosphere, seem to
tion. have been a cradle of the disease) ; so
much so, that, according to the histo-
rian Manetho (Josephus, Apion, i. 26), the Egyp-
tians drove them .out on account of this plague of
leprosy. It probably existed in Syria before the
Hebrews came bringing it with them into that
country. From Egypt and Palestine it spread to
Greece and Italy, and other countries bordering
upon the Mediterranean. It appears to have been
introduced into Central and Western Europe some-
where between the twelfth and thirteenth centuries,
probably through the agency of the returning cru-
saders, and spread with alarming rapidity. Toward
the end of the fifteenth century it had almost dis-
appeared from those sections of Europe. At pres-
ent, leprosy, or Elephantiasis Grecorum, is found
on the coasts and islands of the Mediterranean,
Black, and Caspian Seas, in Norway, Asia Minor,
Syria, and Palestine, on the coasts of the Indian
and China Seas, in the islands of the Australian
Archipelago, in South and Central America, in
Hawaii, in some parts of the United States, and in
Iceland.

By almost all peoples and races, leprosy has been
regarded as a visitation of God on account of some
sin, and the lepers have been kept apart from the
rest of the people. The Jews were told that it
came upon a man for idolatry, blasphemy, un-
chastity, theft, slander, false witness, false judg-
ment, perjury, infringing the borders of a neighbor,
devising malicious plans, or creating discord be-
tween brothers. Lepers were considered unclean
(Lev. xiii. 44-46), had to rend their garments (ex-
cepting in the case of the women), cover
3. Biblical their faces, go with unkempt hair,
ConceptioiL and cry, '' Unclean, unclean! " They
had to live without the camp or
city; had a special part of the synagogue reserved
for them; and any thing they touched, or any house

Leprosy

THE NEW SCHAFP-HERZOG

460

into which they entered, was declared unclean.
An elaborate ceremonial was prescribed for the
cleansing of the leper when the disease had left
him (cf. Lev. xiv., and see Diseases and the Hsai/-
INO Art, Hebrew). Among the Jews, not only
was leprosy considered as attacking himian beings,
but also it was declared to be in garments, houses,
and vessels (Lev. xiii. 47-59, xiv. 33-53) ; and cere-
monies were prescribed for their cleansing. The
exact nature of this leprosy of garments and houses
is not known. Its distinctive signs were, in a gar-
ment, greenish or reddish spots which spread; in a
house, greenish or reddish streaks lower than the
surface of the wall which spread. This was, prob-
ably, in either case, a species of mildew, or else in-
dicated the presence of some fungus, which, by con-
tact, would generate disease in the hmnan (see
House, The Hebrew, and Its Appointmentb).
The Jerusalem Targum regarded it as a visitation
on a house built with unjust gains.

The Persians went even further than the Jews,
and excluded foreign lepers from their country.
The Greek writers thought leprosy was a punish-
ment for some sin against Phcebus. The Arabs
will neither sleep near nor eat with
3. General lepers, nor marry into families known
Treatment to be leprous. By the Church of .Rome
of Lepers, in early ages, lepers were regarded as
dead, and the kust rites of the Church
were said over them. In 757 a.d. it was declared
a ground for divorce, and the sound party could
marry again. In France, at different times, laws
were passed forbidding lepers to marry. The leper
lost all control of his property, and could not in-
herit any; he could not act as a witness, nor chal-
lenge to a duel. Oddly enough, while, in general,
leprosy was regarded as a punishment, in some
parts of Europe it was held to be a sign of divine
preference for those attacked; as, in a woman, it
was to preserve her chastity. Lepers were regarded
as saints, and received much honor and alms. All
over Europe the lepers had to live apart, and had
special churches, priests, etc. In the fifteenth cen-
tury a special dress was prescribed for them. The
houses in which these unfortunate ones lived were
called " lazar-houses." They were generally lo-
cated just outside the gates of the cities, in close
proximity to some body of water, so that the in-
mates could bathe. They were usually religious
in character. The inmates had to be silent, and
attend morning prayer and mass; and in some of
the houses they had to say so many prayers each
day that they had very little time for anything
else. No woman was allowed to enter the male
lazar-houses, excepting the washerwoman; and she
had to be of sober age and good manners, and must
enter the house at a fixed time of day, when she
could be seen of all. A female relative had to ob-
tain special permission before she could speak to
a male leper. These houses were supported largely
by begging, entirely by alms.

Between what is called " leprosy " in the Eng-
lish Bible, and the leprosy as described by the best
authorities on skin diseases, there is very little
correspondence: indeed, the writer is inclined to
adopt the theory advanced in the article on lep-

rosy in Smith's Dietumary of the Bible (Ameiiem

edition, ii. 1630), that the leprosy of the Mosaic

dispensation {Lepra Moaaica) is not

4. Lepra one disease, but an enumeration d
MAfwifn. certain symptoms, w^hich, on acooQnt

of their frightful character, and tend-
ency to spread, would render the individual an ob-
ject of aversion, and demand bis separation It is
certainly but in few points akin to Elephantiagit
Grecorum, the modem leprosy. The symptoms of
leprosy, as in Lev. xiii., and the expressions used
there and elsewhere, " leprous," " white as snow,"
lead one to conjecture that Lepra Mosaica is analo-
gous to Lepra vulgaris, more commonly called Ptori-
asis. Of Lepra Mosaica (Heb. zara'ath), the lep-
rosy of Lev. xiii., xiv., the most marked symptocts
were " a rising, a scab, or a bright spot," " in the
skin of the flesh " (Lev. xiii. 2), with a hair turned
white in the rising, scab, or bright spot, these being
deeper than the scarf-skin (xiii. 3), and spreading
of the scab, etc. (xiii. 7, 8). As a more advanced
case " quick raw flesh in the rising " (xiii. 10) is
noted. Verse 18 implies that the disease may
take its origin in a boil, with the same symptoms.
In verse 29 the disease appears in the beard, or
hair of the head, coming in the form of a scall,
with thin yellow hairs in the patches. These are
all the symptoms; they are probably given merely
as initial symptoms, so that the priest might recog-
nize the onslaught of different diseases in their
earliest stages. The ** rising " may correspond to
the tubercles of Lepra tuberculosa, or the bulks of
Lepra ancuthetica of recent authors. The scall of
the head may be the Morphcta alopeciata, or Fox-
mangCf placed by Kaposi {Hautkrankheiten, Vienna,
1880) as a subdivision of the second form of lep-
rosy. Lepra maculosa. Verses 12-17 state that if
the patient is white all over he is clean, no doubt
because the disease had then run its course. In
this case it is probably a general Psoriasis.

Modem leprosy. Elephantiasis Grecorum, is di-
vided into three varieties: (1) Lepra tuberosa, the
tubercular form; (2) Lepra maculosa, the spotted
or streaked form; (3) Lepra aiuesUietica, the an-
esthetic form. For months or years before the
outbreak of the disease, the patient may have
vague prodromal symptoms, as weakness, loss of
appetite, sleeplessness, lassitude, slight fever, diar-
rhea and sometimes pemphigus hld>s (little blisters).

In Lepra tuberosa the disease begins with the out-
break, on the general surface of the body, of irregu-
lar or roimd-shaped spots, in size from a finger-nail
to the palm of the hand; at first red, and disap-
pearing under pressure; soon becoming gray to
sepia brown or bronze color. Over the spots the
skin is smooth and glistening (as if painted with oil),
or bronzed and thickened, or slightly prominent,
and painful on pressure. The spots are distributed
over the trunk and extremities, face, hands, and
feet. In some situations they become confluent;
in some, disappear; in others, disappear

5. Lepra in the center, while the peripheries ex-
Tuberosa. tend, thus forming ring shapes. The

tubercles, the distinctive type of this
form, appear after the disease has lasted months
or years; are of various sizes, up to that of a hazel-

461

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Zi«pro«3r

Dut, and are either slightly raised above the level
of the skin, or quite prominent; dirty-brown-
red in color and glistening; hard-elastic to soft
to the touch; covered with epidermic scales; dif-
fused or closely pressed together, and forming
either irregular uneven plaques, or regular circles.
They are principally located on the face and ears.
On the eyebrows they form thick parallel rows,
projecting over the eyes; on the cheeks, nose, and
chin they are massed into irregular heaps. The
lips become thick, swollen, and protruding; the
under lip hangs down; and this, with the promi-
nent, overhanging, knotty eyebrows, and the deeply
wrinkled forehead, gives the countenance a morose
and stupid appearance. Sometimes the eyelids
are everted, and the lobes of the ears hang down
in thick masses. Consequent upon the eversion
of the eyelids, disease of the eye sets in. The ex-
tremities also become tuberculated, though not so
much as the face; and the presence of tubercles in
the palms of the hands and soles of the feet render
handling and walking very painful. Tubercles appear
in the mucous membrane of the mouth, pharynx,
and upper part of larynx; the tongue becoming
thick and cracked, with loss of taste ensuing; the
larynx becoming narrow, with loss of voice; the
breath becoming sweetish. After many months,
these tubercles may be absorbed, leaving behind
dark pigmented atrophic places; sometimes they
soften centrally, and spread out peripherally;
sometimes break down, and form leprous ulcers,
which tend to skin over, only to break down again.
Sometimes the ulceration goes deeper; necrosis
joins itself to it; a diffused inflammation sets in,
leading, in the under extremities especially, to deep
excavation, and finally opening of joints, and self-
amputation of entire members {Lepra mutilans).
Earlier or later anesthesia develops in different
parts of the body, and the ulnar nerve will be
found enlarged and cord-like. The disease is gen-
erally chronic, lasting some eight to ten years, the
patient dying of specific marasmus, or some com-
plicating disease of internal organs. Or the disease
may be more acute, with high fever, and reaching
in a few months to a state which in other cases is
not reached in years.

Lepra maculaea is characterised by the appear-
ance on the skin of a large number of red or brown
glistening spots, or by diffuse dark pigmentation,
intermixed with which are white points, spots, or
stripes; so that the body seems streaked. This
frequently changes into the former variety, or into
Lepra ancuthetica, in which anesthesia is the
marked feature. It succeeds to the preceding
forms, or else begins with an outbreak of pemphi-
gus buUa (water-blisters), which, on healing, leave
white, glistening, and anesthetic places, or, break-
ing, leave ulcerations. Sometimes
6. Lei>n anesthesia appears on fully normal
Maculosa; places; sometimes the spot has been
Lei>n red and hyperesthetic for months
Anssthet- before. Over the anesthetic spots
ica. the skin often becomes wrinkled, the
wrinkled places being bounded by a
red, hyperesthetic border; the wrinkling only taking
place where the anesthetic spots have become

stable, for at first they tend to change their loca-
tion. The anesthesia is complete, the patient not
feeling a needle thrust deep into the muscles. The
chief nerve-trunks become swollen, and painful to
pressure. Sometimes hyperesthesia precedes an-
esthesia to such a degree, that the patient is not
able to sit or lie for any length of time in one place,
can not take anything in his hands, and walking
and standing give him the greatest pain. The an-
esthesia is followed by atrophy of muscles, and
wrinkling; the sphincter muscle of the eye becomes
lamed; the under eyelid and the under lip hang
down; the tears flow over the cheeks; and the
saliva runs dribbling out of the mouth; and thus
the face oftentimes, already swollen and out of shape
by the presence of the tubercles, assumes a peculiar,
old, idiotic, or foolish expression. The flexor muscles
of the hand not being atrophied so much as the
extensor, the fingers become half bent, the hollow
of the hand becomes convex and pressed forward,
the back of the hand bent in; the finger-ends be-
come clubbed, finger-nails thinned; the hair falls
out. Ulceration finally sets in at the anesthetic
places, or the tissues gradually atrophy away till
the sldn, fasci» and tendons disappear, one or an-
other joint is laid bare, when suddenly a whole
foot, hand, or extremity falls off. The patient grows
foolish and apathetic, and dies after some years.
Treatment is largely symptomatic. The best is to
remove the patient from leprous regions.

The lepers whom our Lord healed were probably
not afflicted with Elephantiasie Grecorumf but with
ElephatUians vtdgarie (Psoriasis).

The cause of leprosy is the invasion of the skin

by the badllue leprae an oi^nism discovered by

Hansen in 1874. The disease is contagious, and

not hereditary. It occurs in both sexes, but rather

more frequently in men. Its period of incubation

is very long. While it is wide-spread over the world

it is endemic in certain regions. It seems that

either a damp and cold climate, or a hot and moist

one, favors its development and spread, and that food

bears no relation to it. Some, however, insist that it

is due to the eating of fish. G. T. Jackson, M.D.

Bibuoorapht: K. Wolff. Leprathidisti, Leipsio, 1885; H.
Lelois, TraM , , . d« la Ikprt, Paris. 1886; A. Luis. Zwr
MorpKolooi0 iU§ LeprabaeiUus, Hamburs. 1886; G. Thin,
Leproty, London, 1801; E. A. Senft. Soixant^ifue an-
ni§$ parmi 2m Upmue, NeuchAteL 1803; G. A. Hansen
and C. Looft, Leprosy in its CUnioal and Pt^holoffieal As-
pects, Bristol, 1805; E. Besnier. Sur Is lipre; rdls itio-
looiqus, Paris, 1807; V. Babes, UnUrsuekunosn Hbsr den
LeprabadUus und Hber die Histologis dsr Lepra, Berlin,
1808; J. Hutchinson, Leprosy and Fish Eating, Chioago,
1006. An important pamphlet, Becbachiunoen iAer den
AuBsaUimkeaigenLande (Herrahut. 1008), is by Dr. Eins-
ler, for neariy twenty years head of the Jesus Hilfe Hos-
pitol for Leprosy in Jerusalem.

For the Biblical side consult: J. R. Bennett. Diseases
t4 ^ BQAs, London, 1887; G. N. MOnch, Dis ZaraaOi der
hebroiscksn Bihel; EinUUuno in die GesehidUs dee Aus-
sateee, Leipeic 1803; W. M. Thompson, The Land and
the Book, iL 516-520, 200. New York, 1850; E. C. A.
Riehm, Handtoerierhudi dee hiJblischen AUertums, pp. 155-
150. Leipsic 1803; J. F. Sohamberg. The Nature of Hks
Leprosy cf iks BibU, in PhUaddphia Polydwome, yfi (1808),
nos. 47-<48; Bensinger. ArtMologie, pp. 481-482; DB,
iu. 05-00: EB, iii. 2763-68; and literature under Dui-
EA8BB AND THE Hbauno Art, Hebrew. On the Bib-
lical prescriptions resardins it the one book is A. Dill-
mann and V. Rsrssel, Die Bikhsr Exodus und LssilHeus,
pp. 553 sqq., Leipsic, 1807.

Le Allien

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZCXi

For the historical side of the medical praetise consult:
E. Vignat. Let Lipreux el U§ chevaLier9 d« 8. Leuare de
Jiruaalem, Orleans. 1884; R. H^, Lm Ltproeeriu datu
Vaneienne France, Paris, 1806; E. N^ret, La Prophylaxie
de la thpre au moyen^&oe, ib. 1896; L. Le Grand, Lea
Afaieone-Dieu et Uproeeriee . . . de Parie, 14. eiide, Paris.
1898; E. Ehlera, Danieh Lautr Uoueee in the Middle Aoee,
London, 1901.

LE QUIEN, le ki^'dn', MICHEL: French Do-
minican; b. at Boulogne Oct. 8, 1661; d. at Paris
Mar. 12, 1733. He became a Dominican at the
age of twenty, and throughout the long period of
his literary activity was librarian of the monastery
of his order in the Rue St. Honor6, Paris. His
principal polemical works, which are of minor in-
terest, are Defense du texU h^breu et de la version
vulgate (Paris, 1690); Stephani de AUimura pan-
oplia contra schisma Gr cecum (1718), a defense of
the papal claims to supremacy against Nectarius,
patriarch of Jerusalem; La NtdliU des ordinations
anglicanes (2 vols., 1725); and La NuUiU des or-
dinations anglicanes demontr^e de nouveau (2 vols.,
1730). Far more important was his edition of
John of Damascus in Greek and Latin (2 vols.,
Paris, 1712; reprinted, with additions, MPG,
xciv.-xcvi.) ; and, above all, his Oriens Christianus
in quatuor patriarchatus digestus (3 vols., Paris,
1740), modeled on D. de Sainte-Marthe's Gallia
Christiana, and treating in the first volume of
Pontus, Asia, and Thrace as dioceses of the patri-
archate of Constantinople, in the second of Illyri-
cum (as the fourth Constantinopolitan diocese) and
the patriarchates of Alexandria and Antioch, and
in the third of the dioceses of the Chaldean and
Jacobite Churches. (O. ZdCKLERf.)

Bibliographt: J. Qu^tif and J. Echard, Scriptoree ordinie
pnedicatcrum, ii. 808-809. Paris, 1721; H. Hurter, No-
mendatar literariite, ii. 1064-66, Innsbruck, 1893; KL, vii.
1827-28.

LERINS, l^^ran (LERINUM), MONASTERY OF:

An old monastery on the island of Saint-Honorat
(one of the L^rins group), off the coast of southern
France, opposite Cannes, founded by St. Honora-
tus about 400. Honoratus was of Gallo-Roman
origin and appears to have belonged to an aristo-
cratic family. In early youth he began a monastic
routine on an island near Marseilles; later he trav-
eled in the East, and on his return he visited Italy
and contracted a friendship with Paulinus of Nola
(q.v.). He then settled on the island of Lerinum
(now Saint-Honorat). The number of his com-
panions soon increased, and, though great free-
dom prevailed in the manner of life, Honoratus
continued general superior. Johannes Cassianus
(q.v.), founder of the slightly younger monastic
community at Marseilles, dedicates to him a
portion of his Collationes patrifm, and styles him
president of the great cloister of brethren. As
presbyter, Honoratms also discharged the spiritual
functions.

It is doubtful what cloistral rule was in force on
Lerinum before the introduction of the Benedictine
rule about 661. Arnold has demonstrated that the
founder composed no rule, but that the order of
living which he had established after Egyptian
precedents was transmitted by tradition. The
spiritual exercises included fasting, singing of

hymns, and prayer at appointed houra. The moob
also tilled the soil and attended to the education d
youth. It is probable that the monastic stu&s
consisted mainly in the introduction of auxiliary
means for the imderstanding of the Bible.

The foundation of Honoratus quickly attained
great renown, becoming the hearth of rejuvenatioD
for the secularised Gallic Church and filling tlie
bishops with a more earnest ascetic spirit. The
island of Lerinum came to be the nursery of the so-
called Semipelagianism. Eucherius of Lyons, Vm-
oentius, and Salvianus, spent some time as monks
of Lerinum. Honoratus himself became bishop d
Aries in 426, but died in 429. Biaximus and Faus-
tus of Riez were his able successors, the latter being
one of the most eminent upholders of Semipela-
gianism. Cssarius of Aries sp>ent <x>nsiderable time
at Lerinum under Abbot Porcerius. Amid the
ravages of the sixth century (Provence fell into the
hands of the Franks in 537) the discipline of the
cloister declined. Abbot Marinus desired to in-
troduce the milder Agaunensian rule; and under
Abbot Stephen, who entertained St. Augustine d
Canterbury on his way to the Anglo-Saxons, there
set in a total decay of discipline. About 661 Aigulf,
of the cloister of Fleury (Saint-Benoft-stU'-Loire).
reformed Lerinum according to the Benedictine
rule; but the ardent Benedictine was assassinated
by an opposing faction. By 690, however, Lerinum
had again reached such a flourishing state that
St. Amandus, then abbot, is said to have had imder
him 3,700 monks.

About 730 the wealthy cloister was plundered by
the Saracens. It indicates a depressed state d
affairs again, when in 964 the Burgimdian King
Conrad ceded Lerinum to the abbot of Mont-Majeur
in behalf of the restoration of order. Soon after-
ward, however. Pope Benedict VII. made over
Lerinum to Abbot Mayolus of Cluny. Afterward
Odilo of Climy appears as abbot of Lerinum, which
he visited in 1022. Then followed local abbots;
but with the union with the congregation of Cluny
there began for Lerinimi a new period of splendor.
At aU events, the wealth and influence of the mon-
astery were still growing in the thirteenth century.
In the fourteenth century the monks were no
longer disposed to be fratreSf but desired to be
dominif and at a general chapter in 1319 they re-
solved that it be left free to every monk, prior, and
conventual, to acquire and administer property.
Urban IV. and the popes of Avignon, John XXII.
and Clement VI., bestowed the rich benefices in
commendam. Attempts at reform, in connection
with the efforts of Benedict XII., proved of little
avail.

During the Great Schism the cloister stood on the
side of the Roman obedience. After having again
been consigned in the second half of the fifteenth
century to commendatory abbots, the monastery
entered upon a new period in 1515. To speed the
cloister's reform, the incumbent at that time, Au-
gustus of Grimaldi (later bishop of Grasse), im-
ported some monks of Cluny and contrived the an-
nexation of Lerinum to the Italian Benedictine
congregation of St. Justina of Padua. After his
death, however, Francis I. again bestowed the

468

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

isA^

»ui6n

abbey in commendam, Du Bellay was the first in
tenure; Cardinals Lavalette and Mazarin were in
possession in the century following. When after
the death of Philip of Venddme, in 1727, the monks
promised the bishop of Grasse a pension of 4,000
livres if he would effect, with Canlinal de Fleury,
the restoration of free abbatical election, the latter
prelate preferred rather to appropriate the monas-
tery outright; and in 1732 he procured a royal
brief, by the terms of which, on condition of the
bishop's obtaining confirmation thereof by the
pope, the monastery was to be conveyed in per-
petuity to him and his successors. In 1788 the
monastery was secularized, and in 1791 the island
of Saint-Honorat was sold at auction for 37,000
livres. In 1853 the bishop of Fr6jus bought back
the island; and in 1859 the church was restored to
divine service and monks from Saint- Pierre de Mar-
seille were stationed on the premises.

G. GRtyrZMACHER.

Bibliography: Hilary of Aries' Sermo de vita 8. Uonorati
is in ASB, Jan.. ii. 17-24. and in MPL, 1. 1240 sqq. Con-
sult: L. Piemigues, Vie de S. Honarai, Paris. 1875; Sil-
fersberK. Hiatoria monatterii Lerinerma, Copenhagen,
1834; Kerengier. in Revue de Vart chritien, 1870. pp. 176
sqq.; F. Arnold. Cdaariuevon Arelate und die . . . Kirche
Beiner Zeit, pp. 94 sqq., Leipsio, 1894; A. Malnorg, St.
Ceeaire, pp. 5 sqq., Paris, 1894; Ceillier, Auteura aacrft,
viu. 433, 439-^442, 452, x. 377; DCB. iii. 138; Helyot,
Ordree vnonaatiqueB, v. 116 sqq.; Heimbucher, Orden und
Kongrtgationen^ i. passim.

LESLIE, CHARLES: Nonjuror and contro-
versialist; b. at Dublin, Ireland, July 17, 1650; d.
at Glasslough (70 m. n.n.w. of Dublin), County
Monaghan, Apr. 13, 1722. He studied at the En-
niskillen school and at Trinity College, Dublin
(M.A., 1673), and began the study of law at the
Temple, but took holy orders in 1680. He was pre-
ferred to the chanoelloi^^hip of Connor July 13,
1686. Though a zealous Protestant he was a
stanch supporter of the Stuart dynasty, and for
refusing to take the oath of allegiance to William
and Mary was deprived of his benifice in 1689.
He then removed to London and entered upon a
period of controversial writing that extended over
some twenty years. He attacked the king. Whig
divines, Jews, Quakers, Papists, Dissenters, and es-
pecially the Deists. In 1693 he visited St. Ger-
mains and obtained from the pretender the congi
d'Hire for the consecration of the nonjuring bishops.
When in 1710 his Jacobite zeal had led to the issu-
ing of a warrant for his arrest, he secluded himself
at White Waltham, Berkshire, and in Apr., 1711,
fled to St. Germains. Later he returned to Eng-
land and pa8.<ied under the alias of Mr. White, but
in Aug.. 1713, he repaired to Bar-le-Duc and took
up his residence in the household of the pretender.
After the failure of the Jacobite rebellion of 1715
he accompanied the pretender to Rome. In 1721
he returned to Ireland. He is now remembered
principally for one book, A Short and Easy Method
with the Deists (London, 1698, and often). Other
works arc: Gallienus rcdivivus (Edinburgh, 1695),
an attack on William III.; The Snake in the Oraes
(London, 1696), an attack on the Quakers; A
Short and Easy Method m'th the Jews (1698); The
Case of the Regale and of the Pontificate (1700; new

ed., 1838); and The Truth of Chrietianity Demonr
etrated (1711). He expounded his political phi-
losophy in a periodical founded by him called The
Rehearsal (1705-09; reprinted, 4 vols., 1708-09;
also 6 vols., 1750). Before his death he collected
his Theological Works (2 vols., 1721; reprinted, 7
vols., Oxford, 1832).

Bibuooraprt: R. J. Leslie, Life and Writino$ of Charlee
Leelie, London, 1885; the Life, prefixed to the Oxford
ed. of his Theotogical Work; ut sup.; L. Stephen, Engliah
Thought in the 18th Century, i. 196-201, 241, New York.
1881; DNB, xxxiil 77-83 (contains a good list of author-
ities). Consult also T. Lathbury, Hiatory of the Non-
jurora, London, 1862.

LESLIE (LESLEY), JOHN: Scottish Roman
Catholic historian and statesman; b. in Scotland
1527; di at Gurtenburg, near Brussels, May 30,
1596. He studied in Aberdeen, Paris, and Poitiers,
was appointed canon of the cathedral church at
Aberdeen, 1547, canonist in King's College, Aber-
deen, 1553, official of the diocese of Aberdeen 1558,
and in 1559 was inducted into the parsonage,
canonry, and prebend of 03me. At the Reforma-
tion he became a champion of the Roman faith.
He was one of Knox's opponents at the disputation
in Eklinburgh in 1561 and also one of the commis-
sioners sent to France that year to bring over Mary
Queen of Scots. He returned in Mary's train and
became her principal ecclesiastical adviser. He was
named professor of canon law at King's College and
University of Aberdeen in 1562, and in 1565 he was
made privy councilor, judge of the court of session,
and bishop of Ross. He was Mary's chief commis-
sioner at the conference at York in 1568, and later
he was her ambassador at the court of Elizabeth.
He was the chief means of communication between
Mary and her supporters, and was the prime mover
in numerous intrigues in her behalf. It was he
who originated the scheme of a marriage between
Mary and the duke of Norfolk, which ended with
Norfolk's execution. For his part in the Norfolk
conspiracy he was imprisoned in the Tower of Lon-
don. Afterward he was transferred to Famham
Castle, and at the close of 1573 he was set at lib-
erty, on condition that he leave the country. On
the continent he continued his effoHs for Mary and,
after a year's sojourn in Paris, went to Rome to
represent her interests at the oapal court. He was
sent by the pope on various missions in Mary's be-
half. In 1579 he was made suffragan and vicar-
general of the diocese of Rouen, and in 1593 he was
appointed bishop of Coutances in Normandy.
Unable to obtain possession of his see, owing to the
unsettled condition of the country, he retired to a
monastery of Augustinian monks at Gurtenburg.
His literary fame rests upon his De originCf mori-
6u«, el rdms geetis Scotorum (Rome, 1578), which
extends from the earliest times to the 3rear 1562.
An earlier Scottish version, written by Leslie in
1568-70 and presented to Queen Mary in 1571, was
edited for the Bannatyne (Hub by T. Thomson
under the title. The History of Scotland from the
Death of James /. in the Year USB to the Year 1561
(Edinburgh, 1830). Leslie wrote much in defense
of Mary, and composed for her Pia afflicti animi
consolaiiones . . . antmt tranquUli munimentum el
conservatio (Paris, 1574).

LoTelltor

THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZCX5

464

Biblioorapht: An important and eztenrnve list of sowom
is given at the end of the sketch in DffB^ xxxiii. 93-09.
Leslie's Diary was published by the Bannatyne Club in its
MiteeUany, vol. iii, Edinburgh. 1827. An early life is
republished in vols, i., iii of James Anderson's ColUcHonB
ReUtHng to th€ Ui»t. of Mary Queen of Scotland^ A vols.,
ib. 1727-28. Consult also: Life and Time* ofRt. Rev. John
Leslie, London, 1885.

LESS, GOTTFRIED: German Lutheran theo-
logian; b. at Konitz (65 m. s.w. of Danzig) Jan.
31, 1736; d. at Hanover Aug. 28, 1797. He was
educated at the Collegium Friedericianum in K5nig»-
berg, and then studied theology at Jena and at
Halle, where he was the pupil of S. J. Baumgarten.
In 1757 he removed to Danzig where in 1761 he
was appointed extraordinary professor of theology.
After a scientific journey to Holland and England
in 1762, he was appointed professor and preacher
of the University of Gdttingen (1763). In 1791
he was called to Hanover as court preacher, coun-
cilor of the consistory and general superintendent.
His theological standpoint was that of a rationalistic
and sentimental religion that conceded one point
of the positive faith of the Church after the other
to the spirit of the time, always believing that by
the sacrifice of external matters there could be
saved the principal point — " Christianity as the
moral religion of nature." His numerous works
belong mostly to the departments of apologetics,
dogmatics, ethics, and practical theology. His
principal work in apologetics is Beweis der Wahr-
heit der christlichen Religion (Bremen, 1768; Eng.
transl.. Authenticity , Uncorrupted Preservation, and
Credibility of the New Testament , London, 1804).
The sixth edition (Gdttingen, 1786) was to form the
second part of a larger unfinished work entitled
r/e6cr die Religion, ihre Geschichte, Wahl und Be-
stdtigung, of which two volumes appeared (Gftttin-
gen, 1783). Less was, however, recognized chiefly
as an authority in ethics, on which he published
Ausfahrliches Handhuch der christlichen Moral und
aUgemeinen Lebensthedogie (1777). In the sphere
of dogmatics he wrote, Handhuch der christlichen
Rdigionstheorie fiXr Aufgekldrtere (1789). Of ser-
mons he published besides other collections Pas-
sionspredigten (1778-84). Besides his chief works
he wrote a great number of monographs and trea-
tises on special topics in the various departments of
theology. (Paul Tschackbrt.)

Biblioorapht: Holseher, O. Less, ein hiographisches Frag-
menl, Hanover, 1797; G. Frank, OeschidUe der protestanti'
schen Theologie, iii. 100 sqq., Leipsic, 1875.

LESSIN6, 60TTH0LD EPHRAIM: German
critic and dramatist; b. at Kamenz (20 m. n.e. of
Dresden) Jan. 22, 1729; d. at Brunswick Feb. 15,
1781. His father was a learned and respected
Lutheran pastor, and his ancestors for generations
had been clergymen. He attended the Ftirsten-
schule, St. Afra, at Meissen, and while there b^an
his comedy, Der junge Gelehrte. In 1746 he began
to study theology at the University of Leipsic; his
interest, however, lay more in the direction of
literature and the drama. Later he took up the
study of medicine and philology, but again busied
himself with literature and the theater. In Janu-
ary, 1748, the Actress Neuber produced the play
already named. Between 1748 and 1751 he was at

Berlin, nominally a student of medicine, but uti}-
ally earning his living by writing. He made tiaas*
lations, edited a supplement of the Vossisdu Zt^
ung, and b^an his critical and scholarly worki
He translated Voltaire's defense in the suit wh^
Abraham Hirsch and corresponded with the French-
man, but later lost his respect for him. At the ^^
quest of his father he resumed his studies at Wit-
tenberg for a few months, where in 1752 be Uxk
his master's degree. His ReUungen was writta
during those months. He returned to Berlin Id
October, 1752, and continued to work on the Fom-
sche Zeitung, publishing his writings in six vohnoes
1753-55. His Miss Sara Sampson was the fim
German tragedy of every-day life. He won ihe
recognition of eminent scholars and the friendsh^
of such men as Nicolai, Mendelssohn and Michaels.
He then took part in writing the Brief e die neveik
Litteratur hetreffend. In 1760 he accepted a poa-
tion as secretary to General Tauentzien. at Brps-
lau, which gave him a feeling of security as to his
livelihood while leaving him time to pursue his lit-
erary plans. He worked at his lAiokoan, and Minm
von Bamhelm, and studied Spinoza and the Chureh
Fathers, but resigned his position in 1765. In 1767
he went to Hamburg to become dramaturg to the
newly foimded theater of Johann Friedrich Loewe.
The theater did not last long. A printing and pub-
lishing business in which Lessing became inter-
ested was also a failure. At Hambuig he was in-
timate with Klopstock, Hagedom, Claudius, and
many other important persons. The crown prince
of Brunswick, on the recommendation oi Ebert.
offered him a position as librarian at Wolfenbuttd.
which he took in April, 1770, but the life there
soon lost its attraction for him. In 1777 he began
a series of theological polemics, which continued
until the end of his life. He had been drawn into
the strife by the publication of a manuscript of
Berengar of Tours bearing on the controversy con-
cerning the Eucharist (see Berengar of Tours.
§ 2). His connection with the library occasioDeda
number of scholarly investigations, the results of
which he published in his Beitrdge zwr Geschichte
und Litteratur. His Nathan der Weise, which was
to some extent the outcome of his theological con--
troversies, was finished in 1779. EmH und Folk
appeared in 1778-80, and Erriekung des Men-
schengeschlechtes in 1780. To the year 1778 belongs
a work published by his brother after his death:
Neue Hypothese uber die Evangdisten als bios*
menschlidie Geschichtsachreiber betrachUi, in which
he assumes the existence of an Aramaic original of
Matthew which Matthew followed and condensed,
and Mark and Luke supplemented with fresh mate-
rial. Some features of this theory have proved
permanent.

Lessing stands beside Goethe and Schiller as one
of the German classical writers who is read by all
educated persons as well as by mere students of
literature. This fact is due in large measure to the
perfection of form of his masterpieces, and also to
his truthful, manly qualities. His influence on the
German language has been very considerable.
Various opinions have been expressed upon Les-
sing's attitude toward Christianity. Those who

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

I.«T«lll«r

still diatinguish between the religion of Chri.<:t and
the Christian reli^on, holding to the [ornipr alonr.
amy Kgatd Leasing as the inaugiirator of a now em
in theology. But if it be maintained that the es-
sential thing in Christianity is one's attitude toward
the Savior, considering him as the object of Chris-
tian worship and not merely its teacher, Lessing's
position can hardly be called a Christian one.
Nevertheless, it can not be denied that his ethical
views, and even his religious conceptions, were
rooted in Christittn soil. Hiit religious opinions did
not radically change, as some have suggested, to-
ward the end of his life; nor was he a Spinosist, he
was mther a follower of Leibnitz. He believed in
a conscious God, who ruled above the world. In
the revealed religions he saw preparatory stages to
the truths of natural religion. He expected a third
Htage in religious history, following Judaism and
Christianity, in which a new and everlasting evan-
gel should be promulgated, a period in which every
man would do right for right's sake.

(CaHI, BBRTHKAr.)
BinLinaBArHY: The edilioiu of Lemung's irorlu an very
nuiDcrous and euily scceenbJe: Eos. iniiBlH. of hi* warki
STB aba nuingnnu, e.g.. Loocom. by Sir. R. Phillimare.
London. ISTS; Rdtrlid Pnm Work,, by E. C. BwfJey
and Helen Zimmem. ib. 187B; £>rainalir Warki. in Bohn'ii
Library, 3 volx.. ib. 1B7G-T8; EdaeatioH of Oa Human
Oaa. by P. W. Robemoo, ib. 18£8. Amoos tbe Kiiny
bioKTAphieH may be nsiaed: T. W. Dftnul &nJ G, E.
Guhrftuer. 2d sd. by W. van Ualtuhn and R. Boibergrr.
2 vols.. Herlin. 1S84; A. Stahr, Bonlon. 1S6B^ H, Zim-
mem. LoDdnn. IS78; J. Litno, 2 voLi., Loodon. 1876:
E. Bcliiuiiit, -2 vols., Berlin. ieS4: T. W. RolkgloD. Lon-
don. ISSfl; \. W. KniBt. Slullpin. 1903; and ADB,
xii, 75U-S02. VarioiuL phaMS of bin literary and ttaeo-
logical utiviliei are dineiumd int U. Rider. Utbe- Lf-
tino'a phitatopkiKhe uni nliffio4e GrumUAiie, GAtlio^n.
1847: W, Beyuhlac. Laiintf Nathan itr Wtitt vnd doM
ixmlire rhritUntlKum. Berlin. 1803: J. W. Loebfll. G. E.
Uninc. HraniiwicV. 1885 (demli iritb his relalions to Ger-
man literature): I. A. Domer. QeKhiAtt dtr protrttanti-
tthm Theoiotit. pp. 721 sqq.. Munich. 1897, Eng. (rsnal..
Hill, of pTQtrttant Thailoaii, 2 vah.. Eduiburgh. 1871:
E Niemeyer. Uiber Latingt POdagoaik. Dnwlen. 1874:
T. W. H. Rolledon. Lt*Mma and MdJwb Qtrman Lilera-
(un. Londao. 1000: C Hell. Dia Jidvion unww Klotii-
lur. TQbingen, IIKH; L. ZBohamBk. Laiitm und Srmler.
Gieweo. I BOS.

LBS5IUS (LEYS), LEONARDUS: Jesuit theo-
logian; b. at Brecht (14 m, n.e. of Antwerp), Bel-
gium, Oct. I, l.'i.M; d. at Louvain Jan. 15. 1623.
Ue studied at Louvain and entered the .Society of
Jesus in 1572. After teaching philosophy in the
Jeiuit College at Douai for seven years (1574-81)
he devoted himself for four years to the study of
theology in Rome and in 1585 became professor of
theology at the Jesuit college at Louvain, remain'
ing there till hia death. In 1587 the theological
faculty at Louvain attacked Lessius and Jean du
Hamel, hia colleague, censuring thirty-four theses
extracted from their lectures, especially on the doc-
trines of inspiration, and grace and hberly, Lessius
defended himself in Stx antitheit* and Reiponmo
ad ArUapologiam. Against the Augustmian doo-
trine of grace, which was still upheld by the faculty
of Louvain, Lessius denied the sole efficacy of grace.
He also discarded the doctrine of inspiration and
based the canonicity of the books of the Bible upon
the subsequent testimony of the Spirit. But in
•pi(« of his liberal views he had no sympathy with
VI.— 30

any tendency or creed outside of the Roman Catho-
lic Church. He waa a versatile and prolific writer,
and owed his chief fame to his compteheaaive work
on ethics, De jure et inslHia relerisque viHutUnta
caTdiTiaiibwi tibri Ci; (Louvain, 1605). Here he
treata In the scheme of the four cardinal virtues all
questions of ethics, political economy, natural law,
etc.. after the manner of Jesuit morals. He wrot«
also: Dejensio potentali* mimmi -ponUficis (Sara-
gossa, 1611); Digcugsio dareti magni consiUi Lalt-
ran^n^'s et guaruttdam ratiomim anttemnan d«
polealale ecdesim in temporalibiie (Maim, 1613);
Hygiaslicon seu de vera Toiione valetiuiinii bona: et
vil!£ una cum *ensuum iudicii et memarits irUegritale
ad ejiremam aenectutem eoruervanda (Antwerp,
1613; Eng. transl.. Cambridge, 1634). A collected
edition of his works was published under the title
OiniBcuia quibu» pleraque nacrtt Iheologia mytttria
eiplicanlur el vita reele imtituendcE praxtpla Iraduf^-
tuT (Antwerp, 1623). (R. Sebbbrg.)

BiBLTooniFar: H. Hurtcr. Ifirmenclalor litenirjw, i, 346
eqq.. Innabruek. 1803: F. X, LiDaenniKaii. M. Baiut und
dit Oru'tiHrffum; del /onHnimui. Tubingen. 1807; O.
Schneemann. Enlitfliuno uwf Bntu^dcrlung der Aonii-
liich-miiliniiliirhtn Knnbwerie. Freiburg. 187D-80; idem.
Conirovrriiamm de divirta ffraHa tib^ arbitrii ctmcardia,
ib. 1881; KI. vii. 1844-61.

LESSOR FOR THE DAY. See Pericope.

LESTINES, SYNOD OF. See Lifting, Stnod op.

LE TELLIES, le teVlyS'. HICHEL: French
Jesuit and confessor of Louis XIV.; b. near Vine (36
m. 8.W. of Caen) Dec. 16, 1643; d. at La FIScbe (24 m.
S.S.W. of Le Mans) Sept. 2, 1719. He studied at the
Jesuit college of Caen, and in 1661 entered the So-
ciety of Jesus, While teaching at the College Louis-
If-Grand he became distinguished as a polemic the-
ologian, especially against the Jausenlsts. In 1672
he published at Rouen his ObKrvationt sur la ver-
ition Jran^ite du Nouveau Teslamenl impriTofe a
Mona (ef. Bible Vehbionb, B, VI., { 4), and as-
sisted Dominique Bouhours in translating the New
Testament into French (1697). In support of the
Jesuit principle of making certain concessions in
order to convert the heathen, especially in China,
he wrote Defence dea nouvea-ux chrftiena rf das mi»-
gionairea de la Chine, du Japan A dea India (2 vols.,
Paris, 1687); in his Hiatoire de» cinq propotitioni
de Janainiut (Lidge, 1699), written under the pseu-
donym Dumas, he assailed Jansenism; and- in hia
Le Pcre Q^anel aiditieui et hfrftique (Paris, 1705)
he attacked Pasquier Quesnel (q.v.). Among his
other works special mention should be made of hia
Recuvil dea buUea sur lea erreura de» deux demien
tiicUa (Mons, 1697).

The services of Le Tellier won him the rank of b
provincial of his order, and in 1709 he became the
confessor of Louis XiV., over whom be exercised
a profound influence against the Jansenists. To
him the destruction of Port Royal was ultiDiAtel]r
due, as was the resumption of efforts to aupprcM
Protestantism. He was also a patent factor in
securing the promulgation of the bull Vnigenitui,
With the death of Louis XIV. (1715), however, his
influence was at an end, and the r^jency banished
him from court, fint to Amiens and later to Ia
Fldche. (EuoiN Lachknhuin.)

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

BiBLioamAPHT: H. ReuobUo, OrtchiehU rtn Pari Royal, ii.
68B, £93. Hunburs, IS44: A. Dorunne. Jounut. 2 Toll.,
Rome, 1763; H. J. V. d« Snint-flinion. Mtmoirwi, Piria,
18»: lUnke, Fopf. Ei, 437-*38.

LETTERS DOnSSOSy (.lUertn dimi»»ona or
dimiaaorialet): Thn imme of a documeDt hj which
a person belongiDg to a certain cccleHiastiefJ jiiris-
dictioD (diocese, coDgregation, etc.) ia formally per-
mitted to withdraw from the proper authority,
either forever (filerai dimiiaoria prrpetua), or (or a
particular purpose, such as ordination (IiJ«riE dimis-
toria lanporoiet).

LEUSDEH, luB'der. JOHANHES; Dutch Biblical
scholar: b. at Utrecht Apr. 26, 1624; d. there Sept.
30. ISSg. He studied philoaophy and theology,
aod especially Oriental languages at Utrecht, and
then went to Amaterdam to perfect his knowledge
by intercourse with Jews. In 1650 he became pro-
fessor extraordinary of Oriental languages at
Utrecht, and in 1653 ordinary professor. He was
highly esteemed as an Orientalist, and as an aca-
demic teacher. Of bis works may be mentioned:
PhUologua Hebrinui (Utrecht. 1652); Jonat iHus-
tratut (1666); Joil txptiaUua . . . adjunetu* Oba-
dja iUuatratut (1657); PhiUAogua HArao-mixtaa
(1663); PmUerium H^n-aum (Amsterdam, 1666);
Clavia Oraica Nori Tfslanumti (Leyden, 1672);
Clavit llAraua VeterU Te»lamenti (1673); and
Kortt Hdyrewiche en Chaldeiuche taalkonti (Utreeht,
1586). Leusden rendered valuable service to later
editors by his edition of the Old Testament (Am-
sterdain, 1660; 2d ed., 1667), which he published
in collaboration with Joseph Athias, a rabbi and
printer in Amsterdam. His ^oi<um TtMtamenlum
Qr<rcum (Utrecht, 1675) has little scientific value.
(S. D. VAN Veen.)

dadnna in/Mfrtum. pp. 186-lBl, Uirechi, I738;'j. Fabri-
diu, Hittorut bibiiotttifa Fabrieiana. i. 244 sqq., Helm-
(rtidl, 1719: B. GlMug, Oododrrrd Ntdrrland, ii. 3Bfl-
307, 3 VDt>., -B HeitogenlwiMta, ISfil-SS: C. Sepp, Jlet
Oodgelterd Onderwijt in Nedtrlaivl. ii. 173-174. Loyden.
1874; LichlaDberger, ESR, viii, IfiG-lDS.

LEVELLERS: A faction with radical religious
and political tendencies which appeared in Crom-
well's army at the time of the break between the
Independents and the Long Parliament (1647).
Their aims were set forth by one of their number in
The Leveller, or tlie Prijidpleg and Majrimg concern-
ing GovernmeiJ and Rdigion of tliost eommonly
called LeveUera (London, 1658). These were in
politics the supremacy of the law without regard
to parly, the legiHlative power of Pariiamenl, the
.absolute equahty of all before the law, and the
right of bearing arms; in religion they sought free-
dom of conscience, liberty for each individual to
act according to his best judgment, the recognition
of two aspects of relipon (one the correct unde[^
BtiiiidinB of revelation and a private niatl«r, the
other works of mercy and justice subject to the
approval of mankind and the authorities), and the
condemnation of all controversy on religious faith
and proctiae. The sect vanished with many others
at the Restoration. (C. ScHOEu-t.)

BiBMonBAFm H. H. Church. OUrrr Cnmvtll. pp. 277-

278. 30fl. 328. Nfw Yurk, 1807: Enrurlnpad^ Brilannica.

i. fIZ. vi. eoa 603; aai the lilenture on Cnimvell.

LEVI, LEVITES.

OritfM (f 1).

Levitss Id the frimlly Doounent (| S>.

Ch»ractrr of Thmi Sorviee (J 3).

L«ter HinoriaJ NoIicB* (| 4).

Uodcni ChticiBm (f G).
In all sources Levi appears as one of the sont d
Jacob, and in Gen. xxix. 34, xjtxv. 23, and ^1"
as the third son of Leah. Of Levi peraonally little
is related outside of bis union with Simeon in the
cunning and cruel vengeance upon, the Shecbemita
for dishonoring his sister Dinah aod his consequent
dispersion among the tribes aocording to the lut
oracle of Jacob (Gen. xxxix. 25 sqq., xlix. 5 Ktq)-
The fact that he had no inheritance
). Origins, among the tribes goes with his prieslh
calling and the high distinction he le-
eeived under Moees. The question has been rsiaed
whether Levi was originally an individual and pw-
sonal name (cf. Gen. xidx. 34, R.V. margin), uii
some modem scholars do not regard it as a tiibd
or local name but as derived frocn the vocatioo—
" joined [to a sanctuary or a divinity]," " one de-
voted." Hominel cites such a uaage of the word
in Minsan inscriptions in connection with the god
Wadd. But this usage is alti^ether foreign to He-
brew, and such a connection ia absent in the un-
favorable utterance of Jacob's last words, vitie
there ia no reference to the later honorable caOii^
of the tribe. Wellhausen's view that Jacob's wonli
refer to a tribe (not an individual) which eulj
sank into insignificance while Deut. xxziii. 8 sqq.
blesses its priestly position is (apart from tlK othir-
wise unexplained naming of an unprieatly tribt)
not so satisfactory as that under the same nuw
quantitatively different conceptions are treated,
since the Jacobic and Mosaic blessings are eloGrijr
related. In Mosaic limes the tribe came into s
clearer light, inaamuteh as Moses (q.v.) belonged to
it and during the wandering it became the priesllf
tribe. This last is ascribed to two circumstances:
firet Moses made his brother Aaron priest of tl»
sanctuary, and, second, for fidelity to the covensnt
the Levites received priestly consecration (Ex.
Tijjai. 29). The iiereditary character of the Aarooie
priesthood not only depends upon the setting apsn
of his sons as his helpers at Che sanctuary and the
promise of an everlasting priesthood in come-
quence of the faithfulness of the tribe (Ex. jontiL;
Num. XXV. 11 sqq.), but is in accordance with the
uijBfw which sets apart certain families for

thee

The priestly document describea the service d
the tribe during the wandering as definitely tn-
dered for the care of the sanctuary and its be'loog-
inga. The period of service is given in Num. it.
23", 30, as from the age of thirty to fifty, but ia
Num. viii. 24 sqq. as from twenty-fi\-e to fifty.
Tradition regards this its dciiling only with ttc

period of the wandering, and affinm
3. Levites in that at the age of fifty service did tM
the Priestly cease, as at the sanctuary of Shiloli.
Document The express statements of the priestly

document concerning Levitical serv-
ice deal in general with the time of the wanderin?-
In this the consecration of the Levites, analogous

467

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Letter* Dlmieeory
Levi, I<evltee

to that of the priests, was to a lower grade of serv-
ice, but signified a setting apart to Yahweh, and
consisted of a sprinkling with water of expiation,
a shaving of all hair from the body, and the wash-
ing of the clothing. Then followed the laying on
of hands by the elders, the offering of the wave
offering by the high priest and of a sin and burnt
offering. A special clothing does not seem to have
been appointed for them as it was for the priests
(but cf. I Chron. xv. 27; II Chron. v. 12). There
is lacking a description of their personal business
and manner of life as opposed to the definite regu-
lations for priestly living (Lev. xxi.), except that
they were not possessors of land, in lieu of which
they received part of the tithes of the people and
of the booty of war (Num. xviii. 24 sqq., xxxi. 30;
see Tithes). For tl]^ir dwellings forty-eight cities
were set apart, according to Num. xxxv., with
definite dimensions in order that ground should be
available for pasturage and support, a provision
which does not do away with their exclusion from
possession of land, since the cities were not inhab-
ited exclusively by Levites (but cf. Lev. xxv. 32-
33). The carrying out of this provision ia given
in Josh. xxi. (P), together with the setting apart of
thirteen cities for the priests; of these cities six
were cities of refuge. The idea of the systematic
distribution of a tribe among all the other tribes
presents that of a bond admirably adapted to pre-
serve the conceptions of the theocracy, but seems
rather ideal than real. The cities named were not
in Israelitic possession till long after, and in the
time of the Judges the Levites were in the position
of strangers and guests.

The tribe consisted of three families, those of
Gershon, Kohath, and Merari (Gen. xlvi. 11; Ex.
vi. 16), the sons of Levi, and these divided into
eight branches. In Mosaic times the number of
licvites is given as 22,000 (Num. iii. 39) or 23,000
(Num. xxvi. 62). The Chronicler traces a new ar-
rangement for the Levite service back to David,
who in connection with the placing of
3. Charac- the ark in Jerusalem is said to have
ter of assigned to special duties the different
Their faniiliee (I Chron. xxiii.-xxvii.), and
Service, the impression is given that this was
in accord with prophetic direction.
The objections made to this statement as a merely
fanciful construction are answered by the fact that
it has all the appearance of truth; the Chronicler
might have attributed the assignment to Moses or
Solomon were the representation purely hypo-
thetical. It is evident that David and Solomon,
the projector and builder of the temple, and the
monarchs who organized the kingdom, must have
given special attention to the Levites. It is wholly
possible tkit at that time suitable persons from
other tribes were incorporated among the Levites,
though the tribal descent remained the basis of
assignment. In David's time the number of Le-
vites was 38,000 (I Chron. xxxiii. 3), of whom
24,000 were assigned to sanctuary service, 6,000
became officers and judges, 4,000 doorkeepers, and
4,000 were assigned to musical service. The daes
first named acted as assistants to the priests,
cleansed the temple, prepared the offerings, and had

general supervision of the sacred precincts. To
this end a further division was made into twenty-
four courses, corresponding to the same number of
priestly courses. The officers and judges, taken
from the family of Kohath, served outside the sanc-
tuary and in great part outside Jerusalem. The
musicians were also divided into twenty-four choirs,
and among their leaders are mentioned sons of
Asaph, Jeduthun, Heman, and Kohath. The door-
keepers, one of Korahitic descent and the rest of
two families tracing their origin to Merari, guarded
the four sides of the temple at twenty-four posts.
The Nethinim (the word means " given over," tra-
ditif cf. the hxeroduLoi of Josephus, Ard, XL, v. 1;
III Ezra, i. 3) were assigned to a service different
from that of the Levites ; in postexilic times they
performed the menial services of the sanctuary, in
preexilic times the heaviest duties, and their insti-
tution appears to have been one of high antiquity
(compare the general service of the Gibeonites, Josh,
ix. 21 sqq.). Prisoners of war under the kings who
followed David were often assigned as temple
slaves (Ezra viii. 20), and Solomon seems to have
devoted to the same service some of the Canaanites
(I Kings ix. 21; cf. Ezra ii. 58). During the con-
tinuance of the kingdom the service of the temple
seems to have been in part performed even by un-
circumcised persons (cf. Ezek. xliv. 7-8).

At the division of the kingdom, according to
II Chron. xi. 13 sqq., many Levites flocked to
Judah and Jerusalem from the kingdom of Israel.
Levites accompanied the host on a war expedition
under Jehoshaphat, and served at the same time
as judges and teachers of the people

4. Later (II Chron. xvii. 8, xix. 8, xx. 19 sqq.).

Historical Jehoiada employed them as an arm^

Notices, guard at the overthrow of Athaliah
(II Chron. xxiii. 1-11, an office as-
signed in II Kings xi. 4-12 to the royal guard).
To the Levites the Chronicler gives an important
part in the reformation of Hezekiah (II Chron.
xxix.), and tells of their services in the time of
Josiah as slaughterers of the paschal lamb (II Chron.
xxv. 11). Hezekiah is said to have reinstituted
the giving of tithes, which had fallen into disuse,
for the benefit of priests and Levites (II Chron.
xxxi. 4), and the Chronicler gives a better charac-
ter to the Levites tlian to the priests in that reign
(II Chron. xxix. 34). Ezekiel (xliv. 9) expressly
excludes them from priestly service on the ground
that they had confirmed Israel in idolatry, and
allows them to perform only the lower sanctuary
services, assigning the altar service to the Zado-
kites. The effect of EzekiePs legislation is that of
an entirely new arrangement. That the Levites
had fostered the high places is suggested by their
fewness at the time of the return (Ezra ii. 40);
only seventy-four Levites as against 4,289 priesta
were repatriated under Zerubbabel, though there
appear 128 singers and 139 doorkeepers. These
latter had been more closely attached to the temple,
hence their greater interest in the retiun. Under
Nehemiah the number of Levites in Jerusalem in-
creased (Neh. xi. 15 sqq.). The Levitical cities
are not mentioned in the period of Ezra-Nehemiah.
Nethinim, regarded as a lower caste of the lievites.

Z«0Ti, Lovltes

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ

are mentioned as returning exiles, and they dwelt
mainly in Jerusalem (Exra, ii. 58, vii. 7, 46). The
Mishna (Shekalim, Middot, Tamid) preserves the
tradition of the regulations affecting the service of
the Levites at the second temple. After the de-
struction of the temple, the Levites and the priest-
hood lost their significance, since the synagogue did
not need them, though in the ministrations of the
synagogue Levites enjoyed a certain distinction.
The employment of the name does not, however,
involve descent from that tribe, since it was given
to members of other tribes.

Modem criticism has brought under review the
prevalent tradition regarding the development of
the Levites and their service. Since the sharp dis^
tinction between priests and Levites found in the
priestly legislation does not appear in Deuteron-
omy, one school throws the latter book into a
later time than the other sources of the Penta-
teuch, on the ground that the distinc-
5. Modem tion had worn away. Another school,

Criticism, working upon the same distinction be-
tween priests and Levites and holding
that in prophetic times this distinction was not
existent, places the separation between the Aaronic
priesthood and the liturgical Levites in the post-
prophetic period. A separation indicated in II
Kings xxiii. 8 sqq. is carried farther by Ezekiel
and placed upon moral groimd, when he reduces
to the rank of serving Levites those who had en-
gaged in idolatry (Ezek. xliv. 10). Then, accord-
ing to this school, the priestly regulations were com-
piled in Babylon, brought by Ezra to Jerusalem,
and there promulgated. In this the separation
made between the priestly class and the Levites
was dated back into Mosaic times. The Chroni-
cler took up the matter and developed his history in
accordance with the scheme of the priestly legisla-
tion. And the school whose teachings are here
summarized finds these results illuminative of doc-
umentary history, and places the development in
the order Deuteronomy, Ezekiel, the priestly legis-
lation, the Chronicler.

If ail historical worth is denied to the ordinances
of the priest code, if the same position is taken in
respect to the reports of the Chronicler and to such
passages as I Sam. vi. 15, II Sam. xv. 24 and I
Kings viii. 6, then there remains little concerning
the Levites of preexilic times except subjective hy-
pothesis. Of a priestly Levitic stock in early times
nothing remains. In the time of the Judges and
early kings there is no separation, so far as the cul-
tus goes, between sacred and profane — Gideon, Ma-
noah, and Saul sacrifice, and the Ephraimite Samuel
becomes a priest, and so do David's sons (II Sam.
viii. 18 R.V.). A numerous liturgical personnel,
such as according to P the tribe of Levi must have
had, nowhere appears in early times. Individ-
uals assumed the functions of divine service, and
later came to their exalted position as in Deut.
xxxiii. But these are in part arbitrary assump-
tions. The sources indicate that the tribe of Levi
belongs to the Mosaic period and was even then in
sacred service. It is inconceivable that between
this tribe and the priesthood there should have
been no line of separation. The union between

people and God depends upon a well-attested
union of the cuHus with one sanctuary and oop
priesthood, and the priesthood is traced in the
Pentateuch to a family and not a tribe, though to
the tribe during the wandering something of priestlj
consecration was given because of its fidelity to
Yahweh. This does not involve that the Mosaic
basis of the priestly legislation did not imdeifo
in the course of time some modifications, wfafle
practical variations appeared from time to time,
as has been indicated above. In quite early times
the separation between sacred and profane began
to fade out while the idea of a universal priesthood
spread. So Judges xvii. furnishes an example of
consecration of a profane pierson, who is later re-
placed by a Levite. Many sanctuaries may have
existed without Levites in attendance. The sp-
tematic ordering of the temple service reintro-
duced the separation between sacred and profane,
and Levitical priests were entrusted with the sane-
tuary service. In the popular view each Levite
had the reversion to the priestly office. The Le-
vites of the temple were so distinguished that for
ordinary menial functions lower servants were pro-
vided, and were brethren of the priests. This is the
Deuteronomic position. The conclusion so fre-
quently drawn from II Kings xxiii. 9 and Deut.
xviii. 6 sqq. that the priests of Jerusalem resisted
the attempt of Josiah to install there the priests of
the high places is not justified; all that is dedudble
is that Levitic origin alone was not considered suf-
ficient ground for their serving as priests.

C. voK Orelu.

Biblioobapht: The subject is so essentially invohrod in the
oritidsm of the Pentateuch that, at least for the crittesi
side and largely also for the historical data, referraoe to
the literature on the Pentateuch (Hexateuch) is DeeB»-
sary. It is also discussed in treatiaee on the history of
Israel (see under Ahab), on Hebrew archeology and the
theology of the O. T. Consult also: E. Riehm, Die Gt-
•eUfjebuno Mo9i» im Lande Moab, pp. 31 sqq., Gotha, 18M:
J. J. St&helin. in ZDMO, ix (1855). 706 sqq.; J. Orth, in
Nouvelle Revue de theoloffie, iii (1860). 384 sqq.; K K
Graf, in Archiv far . . . Erforediung dee A. T., i (1867-
09). 68-106. 208-236; A. Kuenen. OodedienH van lend.
ii. 104 sqq., Harlem. 1870. Eng. transl.. London. 1875;
S. I. Curtiss, The LeviHeal Prieete, Edinburgh, 1877; &
Maybaum, Die EtUwidcelung dee aUisr€ielUieehen Prirnkt-
tuma, Breelau. 1880; R. Smend. Die Lieien der BuAer
Eera und Nehemia, Basel. 1881; W. H. Green, Moeee and
the Prophete, New York, 1882 (maintains the traditional
view); W. W. von Baudissin, Die OeeehidUe dee ottfeite-
mentliehen Prieeterihume, Leipsic, 1889; C. Piepenbring, in
RHR, xdv (1891). 1-60. 133-186 (summarises the Reuss-
Wellhausen theory); E. Meyer, Die EnteMiung dee Judem-
tume, pp. 168-183, Halle. 1896; A. van Hoonacker. U
Saeerdoce levitique, Louvain, 1899; F. von Hummelauer.
D<ie varmoeaiecAe Prieeterihttm in lerael, Freiburg. 1899: J.
K6berle, Die TempeUHnoer, Erlangen, 1899; J. £. Oarpenter
and G. Harford-Battersby. The CompoeiHon e^ tfbe Hezo-
texuX, London. 1902. Smith, OTJC; SohQrer, GesdkidUr,
ii. 237-242. 271-279, Eng. transl., IL, i. 22ar-22d, 265-273:
DB, iii. 99-102, iv. 67-^7 (not to be overlooked); SB, iiL
2770-2776. 3837-47; JE, viii 19-21, 40-50.

LEVIRATE MARRIAGE. See Familt and MaBt
RiAGE Relations, Hebrew, § 12.

LEVrriCUS. See Hbxateuch.

LEWIS, ABRAM HERBERT: Seventh Day
Baptist; b. at Scott, N. Y., Nov. 17, 1836; d. at
Watch Hill, R. I., Nov. 4, 1908. He studied at
RipoQ College, Ripon, Wis., Milton College, Milton,
Wis. (B.A., 1861), Alfred University, Alfred dentin,

:.f

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

N. Y. (H.A.. 1863), Alfred Theological Seminary
(graduated 1863), and Union Theological Semi-
nary (1870-71). He wm pastor Bt Westerly, R. I.,
1864-67 and New York City 1867-69; general agent
of the American Sabbath Tract Society 1869-73;
pastor at Sbiloh, N. J., 1873-76; proteaaor of church
history and bomiletics at Alfred University 1876-
1880; pastor at Plainfield, N. J., 1880-96. From
18W until his death he was corresponding secretory
of the American Sabbath Tract Society and editor
of The Sabbath Recorder. He was editor of The
Outlook and Sabbath Quarterly 1882-94, and was
corresponding editor of The PkQanthropat. In
theology he was a liberal orthodox adherent of bis
Church. He wrote: SMxiih and Sunday (Alfred
Centre, N. Y., 1870); Biblical Teachings concerning
the Sabbath and the SiinAiy (1884); Critical Hia-
tory a/ the Sabbath and the Sunday in the Chris-
tian Church (1886); Crilical Hiitory of Sunday
Legislation from 3tl to /**S-4.D. (New York, 1888);
Paganiem Surviving in Chrittianity (1890); Sunft
Decadence of Sunday; What NextT (F]B.\alui\d,li. J.,
18i)9); and Letters to Young Preachers and (heir
Readers (1900).

LEWIS, TAYLKH: Reformed Dutch lay BibUcal
Bcholar and author; b, at Northumberland, Saratoga
County, N. Y., Mar. 27, 1802; d. at Schenectady,
N. Y., May 11, 1877. After graduating from Union
College in 1820 he studied law and began to prac-
tise at Fort Miller in 1824. Having become mler-
rsted in Biblical and classical studies he gave up
the law and in 1833 opened a classical school at
Watertord, N. Y., which he moved to Ogdensburg
in 1835. He was professor of Greek in New York
University 1838-49, and from 1840 till his death
professor of Greek and instructor in Oriental lan-
guages and Bibhcal literature at UniiHi Collie. He
was a member of the Dutch Reformed Church.
He was an able apologete and a prominent exponent
of Oriental and classical studies. His more impor-
tant works are: Plato contra Atheos (New York,
1845), being the Greek text of the tenth book of
the dialogue on laws, with luminous notes and dis-
cussions; An Biaay on the Ground and Reason of
Punishment with Special Reference to the Penalty of
Death (1846); The Six Days of CreeUion (Schenec-
tady, 1865); The Bible and Science (18fi6); The
Divine Human in the Scriptural (New York, 1860);
StaU Rights, a Photograph from the Ruins of A ncient
Greece (Albany, 1864); and The Light by which tee
see Light (Vedder lectures. New York, 1875). He
also translated and supplemented the notes on
Genesis for Schaff's edition of Lange's commentary
(1868), and prepared for the some work metrical
versions of Job and Ecclesiastea.

BiBuoaiiAFHT- W. Well*, in tba MtOudit Qvartertv.
unui (1STS). e04 .qq.

LEWIS, WILSOn SEELEY: Methodist Episco-
pol bishop; b. at Russell, N. Y., July 17, 1857.
He was educated at St. Lawrence University, N. Y.,
and Cornell Totlege, Mount Vernon, la. (B.A.,
1889), after which he was principal of Epworth
Seminary, Epworth, la., until 1897 and president
of Momingside College, Sioux City, la., until 1908,
in which year he was elected a bishop of his de-
nomination.

LEYDECKER, lai'dek-er, HBLCHIOR: Dutch
Protestant; b. at Middelburg Mar. 11, 1642; d. at
Utrecht Jan. 6, 1721. After serving for fifteen
years as pastor in different places of Zealand he
became professor of theology in Utiecht in 1670
and labored there till his death. He was perhaps
the last representative of strict Reformed ortho-
doxy. From his orthodox standpoint he wrote
polemical works against Balthasar Becker, the
Cartesians, Hermann Witsius, and especially against
the federal theology of the Cocceians. His princi-
pal works are: De aconomia tn'um personarum in
negotio taluti* humana (Utrecht, 1682); Synoptis
coiUrovertiarum de fadere ei tegmenta Dei (1690);
Commentariu* in Caiech. Heidelberg, eive de veriiaie
el aanctitate fdei Reformata (1694); and De repub-
lica Htbrceorum (2 vols., Amsterdam, 1704-IO).
(E, F. Kabl HOixKR.)

BiBLioaBAFnr: A. J. van der As, BiovrajAiMA WooriUr^
boek dtr fftivlaodm. ml 387 Riq.. Hurlem. 1SS2 Mtq.:
Sammtunff «rm aUtn und ntuan lAeoiogitt^ien Sa^tn, pp.
101^ xqq.. Leipoic. 1721: F. W. J. H. Gug. Oudiiditi dtr
pra«HlanH*iA«n Doematik, iu. 200, Barlin, 18(12.

LEYSER, Idi'ier (LEISBR, LYSER) : A family
of Lutheran theologians and learned men, which in
the sixteenth century removed from Swabia to North
Germany, where its descendants are still flourishing.

1. Cupftr L«rser: The oldest known member of
the family, was bom at Winnenden (12 m. o.e.
of Stuttgart), Wflrttemberg, c. 1527; d. at NOrt-
ingen (13 m. s.s.e. of Stuttgart) 1554 or 1555. He
entered the Univerrity of Tubingen m 1541, in
1550 became pastor in his native city, and in 1553
at NUrtingen. He joined his brother-in-law, Jakob
Andreft, in a proposal to Duke Christopher of WUrt-
temberg to introduce a church discipline modeled
after Calvin's and " presbyteries," i.e., church courts
for the correction of offenders. The duke received
the proposal favorably, but Breni and the secular
councilors opposed it, and it was not carried into

2. Polycarp Leyier (the Elder): Only son of
Caspar Leyser, was bom at Winnenden Uar. 18,
1562; d. at Diesden Feb. 22, 1610. In 1570 he
became master and repetent at Tubingen, and in
1673 preacher at Gellersdorf in Lower Austria,
whence he was frequently called to pieoch at Vienna
and thus became known to Emperor Maximilian
fl. After declining a call to Grai, in 1577 he
became pastor, superintendent, and theological
professor at Wittenberg. Here the ungrateful task
devolved upon him of pacifying the excitement pre-
vailing since the overthrow of the Cryptocalvinists
in 1574 and of assisting in the introduction of the
Formula of Concord aa well aa in the reorganisation
of the university. His modesty, amiability, and
oratorical talents soon won the respect and love of
his congregation, of the university, and of the elec-
tor. He was active in the final arrangement of the
Book of Concord (1577-80), in the reform of the
university, and the revision of Luther's translation
of the Bible. In 1582 be attended the colloquy erf
Quedlinburg (see Ckehnity, Martin, { 3), in 1583
a synod at Dresden, in 1584 and 1585 conventions
at Magdeburg, Leipaie, and Henberg. When the
Philippiste repuned the ascendency after the death

X<eys«r
laber ]

Pontiiloftlis

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

470

of Elector Augustus in 1586, Leyser went to Bruns-
wick as vioe-superintendent. Here new struggles
awaited him since Superintendent Heidenreich
confuted the doctrine of Ubiquity (q.v.) as laid down
in the Formula of Concord. The majority of the
congregation and preachers took Leyser's part and
Heidenreich was deposed to make way for Leyser
(1589). Professor Daniel Hoffmann of HelmstAdt,
however, renewed the attack, and vehement dis-
cussions ensued until Leyser was recalled to Wit-
tenberg (1593) after the death of Elector Christian
I. and the rapid overthrow of Cryptocalvinism.
He at once became involved in the controversy
there over the teachings of Samuel Huber (q.v.).
In 1594 he went to Dresden as court preacher and
councilor of the consistory.

Leyser's most important works are the edition
of the Loci theologid of Martin Chemnitz (Frank-
furt, 1592) and his continuation of the same au-
thor's Harmonia evangdica (1593). He also wrote
commentaries on Genesis, Daniel, the minor proph-
ets, and other books of the Bible. The greatest
sensation was stirred up by his polemical treatise
against the Calvinists, 0&, wie, und warum man lie-
her mil den Papisten Gemeinacha/t haben . . . soil
(lenn mU und zu den CcUvinisten, originally an in-
troduction to his ChristianismuSf Papismus el CciL-
vimsmu8, das ist drey unterschiedliche Atislegungen
des Catechismi Lutheri (1595; republished by Ley-
ser's successor, Hofi von Ho^negg, 1620; cf. Tho-
luck, pp. 115 sqq.).

8. Polycarp Leyser (H.): Elder son of Polycarp
Leyser (the Elder), was bom at Wittenberg Nov.
20, 1586; d. in Leipsic Jan. 15, 1633. He was pro-
fessor at Wittenberg and Leipsic and later was en-
trusted with high ecclesiastical positions. He took
part in various theological proceedings and dis-
putes and wrote commentaries on Galatians, on the
Augsburg Confession, and on the Formula of Con-
cord; also polemical treatises, sermons, and dis-
putations.

4. Wilhclm Ltjstr: Younger son of Polycarp
Leyser (the Elder), was bom in Dresden 1592; d.
in Wittenberg Feb. 8, 1649. He was superintend-
ent at Torgau and professor at Wittenberg, and
wrote a Summarium locorum theologicorum, a Sys-
tema thetico-exegeticuin, a Trifolium vera religionis
veteris testamenti Adamiticoe, AbrahamiticiBf Israeli-
ticcB, and other works.

5. Johannes Leyser: Son of Polycarp Leyser
(II.) was bom at Leipsic Sept. 30, 1631; d. near
Paris, 1685. He was for a time pastor and inspec-
tor in Schulpforta, Prussian Saxony, and in several
writings defended polygamy, which cost him his
position.

6. Polycarp Leyser (HL): Grandson of Poly-
carp Leyser (II.), was bom at HaUe July 1, 1656;
d. at Celle (23 m. n. of Hanover) Oct. 11, 1725.
He was assessor of the philosophical faculty at
Leipsic, later pastor at Magdeburg, superintendent
at Wunstorf and after 1708 general superintendent
at Celle. He rendered great services to the mem-
ory of his great-grandfather.

(JOH.VNNES KUNZE.)

Bibuoorapht: 1. C. F. Sattler, GeachichU de» HerxogthumM
WUrUtmbmv, iv. 74. and appendixes 29-30, 10 vola..

Ulm, 1700-70; C. F. Schnurrer. BriAuterumoei^ 4tr nn-
tembergitehen Kitrdun'Reformations- und Geidkrfes-Gf-
•chichU, pp. 234 sqq.. Tabingen. 1798; C. F. too Scik.
WitrUemberoi9di€ OtuihiehU, iv. 73&-730. Stuttgart IKti
2. One of Lesraer's own tracta, useful ms material, mtpm.
by his sreat-srandson W. E. Tenta^ in Cvrieiw fizv
liotkee, 1705, ii. 875-735: a selection of his letten nt
issued by another great-srandson, P. Leyser III.. iW-
loge epittolarum Leyter, L 1706; and oontemponry q>-
terial was used by M. Adam, in VUae theologorvm, pf
370-381, Frankfort. 1706. Consult P. J. R«thme>7r
BrauntehvfeiffU^e Kirehenhi9iarie, iv. 23 sqq.. 5b~\1k.
Brunswick. 1715; A. Tholuck, Der GeUt der luAtrudtn
Theohgen WittenbergB, pp. 4-14. Gotha. 1852; a orefd
sketch, founded on early data, is given in J. A. Gledi
Annale* ecdenauHci, i. 430-600, I>resden. 1730.

L'h6pITAL I6"pl"tal' (L'HOSPITAL), MICHIL
DE: Chancellor of France; b. at Aigueperae (SO
m. n.w. of Lyons), Auvergne^ 1504; d. on his
estate at Vignay, near ^tampes (30 m. s.s.w. ot
Paris) Mar. 13, 1573. L'H6pital, who was of &
noble family from Auvei^gne, studied law at Padm
(1525-31), where the last year he lectured on dvi]
law as professor eztraordinarius. After spending
a 3rear m Rome as member of the papal court of
justice called ** Delia Rota," he came to ParU
where for three years he worked hard as a barris-
ter and (1537) gained a seat in the Paris parlii-
ment. Henceforth his career became more and
more successful. He was sent (1547) as a delegate
to the Council of Trent which had been transferred
to Bologna. He was appointed (1553) by Mar-
garet, the future duchess of Savoy, first as chan-
cellor of the duchy, then (1554-59) lord of the ex-
chequer. At last (1560) he became chancellor and
keeper of the seal in France. In the first-men-
tioned office he had distinguished himself as a
fair, imp>artial judge, and as chancellor (1560-68),
in the midst of the most confused period of the hk-
tory of France, he displayed the talents of a states-
man. He became the leader of the *' Mod^r^ "
who then were very few and he followed inflexi-
bly his own ideals. He formulated the edict (Jan.
17, 1562) by which, although it forbade the Prot-
estants to build churches, they could hold their
meetings outside the walls of cities under the pro-
tection of the law. This restricted toleration,
became the fundamental law, and decided the legal
position of Protestants as affected by all other
edicts.

He could not prevent the outbreak of the civil
war (which b^an with the massacre of Vassy.
1562), but in the frequent negotiations, as for in-
stance in the Treaty of Amboise (Mar. 19, 1563),
his influence was felt. The same influence re-
mained powerful till the Council of Trent, which by
its decrees separated definitely the two denomina-
tions. But through his advice, these decrees were
not .accepted in France (Feb., 1564) and once more
his conciliatory spirit can be traced in the Treaty
of Longjumeau (Mar. 23, 1568). From that date be
withdrew from his charge as councilor and left the
court for Vignay. He was formally discharged
from his post as chancellor (Feb. 6, 1573), but all
his titles with their income were left to him. Faure
and others edited his Epistola (Paris, 1585); and
Dufey his (Euvres (1624-26, 5 vob.).

G. Bonst-Maurt.

BELIOIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

BiBUoaBApuT^ p. Dayls, Dictionarv. HUtoriaU and Cril-
irat. uL SOS-SIT, Loodon, 1T3S: M, J, A. N. CnriUt,
Slom dt M. CHipilai, Psrii. 1777, of. his Siofa da Aca-
dtmidtnt. voi. v„ ib. 1790; E. DupftUs»llB, in Lt
Droit. March and June. 18S8: idam. Midicl dt rUotpilal,
Paru. IBOO: A. B. TnUlBndicc. NmvtIUt rtdiercha hit-
toriaua HIT lavit di . . . UHSpHiU. Parin, 18B1; A. F.
Villemaia. Studa d'hitU maitrnt: vit dt L'HSpHal. ib.
1S82; P, D, L.. ^cbHTciunncnl hiilarujvt el ginialoitiqvt
tuT L'Hdpilal et ta famiiU. Clarmont-Fetmid. 1882: H.
Ampfaoux. .V. de L'Hdpilal tl la libtrti dt coiudtna au
Bii. tiicU. Paris, 1900; liohtenberi^r, BSR. vi. 30fr-374.

LIAFWItlE. See Lbbwin.

LIBAniUS li-M'ni-us: Ooe of tbe laUst and

most impoftunt of the Greek sophiate; b. ut An-
tioch 31-1; d. there c. 396. He studied for four
y^a,Ts at Athens, then opened a school at Cooatan-
tinople, where bis lecturea became so popular that
in 343 rival teachers of rhetoric secured hia expul-
sion from the city on a charge of " magic." After
teaching for five yeara in Nicotnedia he returned to
Constantinople, but, finding bis adversaries in the
aacendency, he finally settled in Autioch in 354.
He waa au intiniat« friend of the Emperor Julian,
who corresponded with him. He was a teacher of
Baail the Great and Chrysostom, and maintained
friendly relations with them throughout lite. His
works conaiat of declanifltiona, orations, a Ufe of
Demoathenes, an autobiography, and lettera, of
which there are no less than 1,007 extant. The
letters were edited by C. H. Wolf (.Anwterdam,
J73S), tbe declamations and orations by J. J.
Beiake (4 vols., Altenburg, 1791-97). A few of
liis writings, including sixteen letters to Julian,
were translated by J. E>uncombe and published in
S<iai Work* of the Emperor Julian {2 vols., Lon-
don, 1784), Hia funeral oration on Julian, in Eng-
lish translation, is in C, W. King's Julian the Em-
peror (London, 1888).

: L. Peti

I. Parif, 188fl; O.

:. Sieve

t. Garduer. Julian
IBS; O. Neeri. JuJian,
Uir Apmtal^, pniuuD. n«n York. IV03 (vuliutble).

LIBELLATICI. See Lafsed.
LIBER COmcDS. See Pericofe, {{ £-S,
LIBER DIDRflOS ROHARORUU PONTIPICUU:
A collection of forroularies used at Rome in con-
nection with the principal ecclesiaatical functions,
such aa the coronation of a pope, tbe consecration
of tbe Buburbicarian bishops, the granting of the
pallium or of special privileges. Based mainly
upon the lettera of (lelasiua T. and Gregory I., the
book took shape between 686 and 751. It was
used down to the eleventh century, in fact individ-
ual fomiulariee are found from it in the collections
of canons made in the twelfth, as in Gratian: but
after that period, being no longer appUcable to the
altered position of tbe Roman see, it fell into dis-
use and oblivion. It woa rediacovered by Lucas
Holste (q.v.) in a manuacript belonging to the Cia-
lercian library of Santa Crooe in Gerusalemme at
Rome, He was preparing to publish it in 1650,
after collation with another version sent him by
Sirmond from the College de Clermont, when the
Roman cenaomhip forbade him, and be died in
lOtil without gaining penniasion. The ground of

this refusal was the "profession of faith" con-
tained in it, to be made by each pope on taking
office, which included a declaration of assent to the
decrees of the sixth general council and a repudia-
tion of the heresies condemned by it, mentioning
Honorius I. among the supporters of the latter.
Tbe book was published by the Jesuit Gamier in
1680 at Paris, and Mabillon, who on his visit to
Rome examined the manuscript found by Holste,
and gave extracts from it in his Af tueum Italicum.
Gamier's edition was reprinted by Hofmann (Leip-
sic, 1733) and Rieggor (Vienna, 1762): and an edi-
tion meeting the requiremeiits of modem scholar-
ship was published by Eug&ne de Roiifre (Paris,
1869), including the necessary textual apparatus
and the notes of Ganiier, Baluze, and Zaccaria.
This edition is ba:«>l on a collation by Daremberg
and Benan of the Vatican manuacript, tlien still
supposed to be the only one extant, which accord-
ing to Mabillon belongs to the latter ball of the
ninth century. Von Sickel then published another
edition (Vienna, 1889) which contained important
new results, denying the unity of the compoeitioa
and taking somewhjtt different views as to its date.
But he waa unaware that the Ambrosian Library at
Milan contains another manuscript, so that his con-
clusions can not be accepted as final. In the centu-
ries following the eleventh, attempts were mode to
supply the place of the old book, which was now
no longer seriiceable. and collections are extant in
manuscript under the titles LUerm ijutr: in curia
ilomini papa dari cormuirerunt and Siylva acripto-
ram curia Romana, extending from John XXII. to
Gregory XII. and John XXIII.

{J. F. VON SCHULTB,)
Biblioqiupht: Consult, beaidea tha prolegomena and dk»-

unotberidile dtr Wiener Akademie, pkHiMophiBeh-hiilarisehM

Klatie. vol. civii.; KL. rii. 1881-8S: P. Palaok^, Veber

FomtUnichfr, Pncue, 1S42.

LIBER POnriFICALIS: The Liber pontificalia
contains the history of the popes from St. Peter
down, in the form of biographies. Tbe oldest work
bearing this title, to which it is most properly ap-
plied, comes down to Stephen V. (885-891), with
the omi.saion of the three predecessors of this pope,
John Vlll., Marinus II., and Adrian III.; tbe text
of tbe extant manuscripts stops mid-
Original way in the life of Stephen V., so that
Form. it is not possible to say how it origi-
nally terminated. As to its origin va-
rious opinions have been entertained. In the Mid-
dle Ages, on the ground of the letters of Damasus
and Jerome appended to it, Damaaus was supposed
to be tbe author. The Humanbta (e,^,, Onofrio
Panvinio) were more critical, and conjectured
Anostasius, librarian of Nicholas I.; though this
hypothesis woa refuted by the Vatican liE>rariaa,
Emanuel Schelstrate (in his Di»»ertatio de ontiquiw
Romanorum ponlificum calologia, Rome, 1692), aa
well OS by G. G. Ciampini (Eiamen libri ponllfi-
colin, ib. 1688) and by F. Bianchini in his edition
of the Liber pontificalii (ib, 1718 sqq.). Duchesne
has proved thot the lives were the products of a
gradual evolution; and the only debatable ques-
tion is now as to tbe date of its original canipil»-

Zitber PontiftoaUs
Liber ViU»

THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZ0G

479

tion. The decision depends on the question of its
sources.

The names and dates of the lives are drawn

demonstrably from two sources. One is the Cata-

logus Liberianua, a list of popes ending with Li-

berius (352-366). This is a part of

Sources the Chronographus anni SS4, the well-

and Date, known Roman state calendar, and is
taken, down to 235 (Pontianus), from
the Liber generatiania of Hippolytus, and later from
church calendars.

The second list is handed down in different forms
of various length, but these may all be traced back
to a single clearly distinguishable archetype (desig-
nated by Mommsen as Index), The first compiler
adhered in the main to the CatoLogxAS Liberianua^
because this is more explicit in relation to the ear-
lier times; and only from Liberius down is the Inr
dex the sole source for the dates. At all events, a
collation b possible down to Sixtus III. (d. 440),
through data from Prosper's Chranicon, which ex-
hibits an agreement in dates. The student of papal
chronology will naturally turn, not to the Liber
pontificalia but to its sources, as the former is
merely a secondary authority. Indeed, even the
other historical matter of the older portion is de-
rived from other works. Their number is very
great, their value generally very small; so that the
historical statements are untrustworthy down to
about the time of Anastasius II. (496-498). A
single exception may be made in favor of the enu-
meration of buildings erected and gifts made by
the popes, doubtless dating back to the substance
of papal archives, and constituting the best feature
of the oldest portion. From Anastasius II. the
accounts of the political history of the popes be-
come more trustworthy. In this way there is ob-
tained a criterion for deciding the question as to
the age of the first compilation. It is safe to con-
clude with Duchesne, against Mommsen, that the
oldest form of the Liber pontificalia dates from the
beginning of the sixth century; a deduction fa-
vored not only by the fact that the lives of the early
sixth century afford superior historical matter, but
also by the existence of an extract, ending with the
life of Felix IV. (526-530), the so-called Catahgua
Felicianua, Possibly this may afford ground for
referring the original compilation to the time of
Boniface II., successor to Felix IV. This first edi-
tion then came to serve as pattern for a whole
series of others, e.g., an edition closing with the life
of Conon (d. 687), the existence of which is attested
by an abstract, ending with Conon (Catalogua
Cononianua), and by the list of popes, likewise end-
ing with Ck)non, of the earliest manuscript of the
Liber pontificali8f dating from the dose of the
seventh century. Another recension closed with
Constantine I. (d. 715), and still others with Stephen
II. (d. 757), Stephen III. (d. 772), and Adrian I.
(d. 795). From the sixth century down, the biog-
raphies were for the most part begun in the life-
time of their subjects. Specially noteworthy in
this respect are the lives of Gregory II. (71&-731),
Valentine (827), and Sergius II. (844-^47). The
life of Gregory II. was used by Bede (q.v.) as a
source for his chronicle, and thus must certainly

have been begun before the death of this pope.
The life of Valentine contains very full particu-
lars of his birth, education, election and virtues;
but as he died only a few days after his election,
it must have been written immediately upon his
elevation. The life of Sergius II. begins with ful-
some praise of his virtues, then suddenly breab
off: the virtuous pope becomes the direct oppoote,
and exaggerated praise turns to vehement cen-
sure; so that we may suppose that the first po^
tion was composed in his lifetime, the second after
his death. Owing to this contemporary composi-
tion, the Liber pontificalia is one of the most val-
uable sources for the history of those centuries.
It is true that in consequence of the official charac-
ter of the compilation — the biographies are all
composed by officers of the papal household— a
certain fixed terminology is noticeable, especially
in the later lives, which notably prevails in the
forms of introduction and conclusion, as well as in
stereotyped phrases for describing the pope's per-
sonality; but still the careful student will know
how to appreciate the work, despite its defects, as
an excellent witness respecting the conceptions
and standpoint of the papal court. In this period,
if at all, the work of Anastasius BiblioUiecarius
(q.v.) must have been done.

The old Liber pontificalia stop>s at the close of the
ninth century. For the tenth and eleventh, there
exist only meager lists of popes. The Hildebrand-
ine epoch produced the great biographies of Leo
IX. and Gregory VII. Bonizo of Sutri, in his
Liber ad amicum, interweaves the history of the
popes from Leo IX. to Gregory VII. in the style
of the early Liber poniificaliat sununarizes, in the
foiu-th book of his Decretals, the papal
Continua- history to Stephen V., and gives an
tions. outline as far as Urban II. Cardinal
Beno writes the history of Gregory
VII.; the compilers of AnnaUa Rotnani give the
history of the years 1044-73, 1111, 1116-21. But
none of these are continuations of the early Liber
pontificalia. It was not till the twelfth century
that definite continuations were undertaken. One
of these, described by Duchesne as the Liber pon-
tificalia of Pierre Guilla\m[ie (though more correctly
termed of Pandulph from its author, a cardinal of
the party of the Antipope Anacletus II.) is a par-
tizan tract in favor of Anacletus. From Peter to
Adrian II. he copies the old Liber pontificalia;
from John VIII. to the end of the eleventh century,
a papal catalogue. He takes the biographies of
Gregory VII. and Urban II. from the records of
these popes; and only with Paschal II. does he
begin a vivid portraiture of his contemporaries:
it is probable that the life of Paschal II. is by an-
other (unknown) author, as it shows a different
style from that which follows, and especially lacks
the peculiar cadence of the papal documents, the
so-called Curaua Leoninuay conspicuous in the sub-
sequent biographies. On the other hand, the lives
of Gelasius II., Calixtus II., Honorius 11., are cei^
tainly Pandulph's. Written as a partizan tract,
this work fell into oblivion after the death of Ana-
cletus II.; nor was it employed until the end of
the fourteenth century, when a Frenchman^ Pierre

478

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Liber PontiiloaUs
Liber ViU»

Bohier, transcribed and glossed it, and dedicated
it to Charles V. of France. Of greater literary im-
portance is the second continuation, Cardinal Boso's
Liber pontificalis, written c. 1 178. This begins where
the older one stopped, with Stephen V., and thus
stamps itself as a direct continuation. By way of
introduction, Boso utilizes the brief outline of the
papal history which Bonizo of Sutri included in the
fourth book of his DecreUds, He takes the first part,
from John XII. to Gregory VII., word for word from
Bonizo's Liber ad amicum, omitting Urban II. and
Victor III. In the case of Paschal II. he draws on
the archives; from Gelasius II. he gives his own
narrative, employing a wealth of documents easily
accessible to him as camerarius of the apostolic
see. This continuation, because incomplete, was
not fused with the early Liber porUificaliSf but
gained significance in connection with the Liber
censuum of the Church of Rome; for since Boso
had most probably undertaken to write a Liber
censuurrif it was a natural supposition that his col-
lection of biographies was designed to serve as in-
troduction to that work. In this connection, the
work was repeatedly copied, the best-known edi-
tion being that of Cardinal Nicholas Roselli, in the
middle of the fourteenth century, which was dif-
fused in countless manuscripts all over the world.
In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, al-
though private works in the sphere of papal his-
tory for this period are conmion enough, including
lists of popes, particular biographies (Innocent III.,
Gregory IX., Innocent IV., Gregory X., Celestine
v.), papal chronicles (Bemardus Guidonis, Ptol-
emy of Lucca, Amalricus Augerius de Biterris, Pe-
trus de Herentals, etc.), there was no thought of
continuing the Liber porUificalis. Not until the
beginning of the fifteenth century, and anony-
mously, was the attempt made; but the author is
thoroughly dependent, copying the work of Pan-
dulph, with a continuation taken word for word
from the chronicle of Martinus Polonus, while
from Martin IV. (1281) to John XXII. (1328) he
copies the chronicle of Bemardus Guidonis. A
more meritorious continuation, likewise anony-
mous, dates from the middle of the same century.
In general the author copied the work just men-
tioned down to 1328; he took the last part of the
life of John XXII. and those of the three follow-
ing popes (Benedict XII., Clement VI., Innocent
VI.) from a continuation of Bemardus Guidonis,
and wrote an independent continuation from
Urban V. to Martin V. (1362-1431). This, how-
ever, is rather a history of the great schism than a
Liber pontificalia. This edition was soon after-
ward copied again, and expanded by extracts from
Martinus Polonus and Bemardus Guidonis. Two
other continuations of the fifteenth century were
never combined with the Liber pordificaliSf though
their entire scope entitles them to be regarded as
continuations. One extends from Benedict XII.
to Martin V. (1334-1431), and contains, especially
in respect to the history of Boniface IX., Innocent
VT., and Gregory XII., more ample information
than the continuation dating from the middle of
the fifteenth century, as well as more candid ver-
dicts upon the personal characters and transactions

of the popes described. It appears in a Vatican
manuscript with the additional biography of Eu-
genius IV. The second continuation begins with
Urban VI. and extends to Pius II. (1378-1464),
evidently an unfinished work.

Of all these later works, the only ones of literary
importance toward the close of the Middle Ages
were the continuation dating from the middle of
the fifteenth century, and that of Boso. Both
works were soon supplanted by the Liber de vita
Christi ac de vitia tummorum pontificum Romanorum
of Platina, librarian of Pope Sixtus IV. (Venice,
1479). He transformed the early Liber pontificalia
and its continuations into a book which even Hu-
manists could read with pleasure, and thus drove
the other continuations from the field. It was not
until the beginning of the seventeenth century that
attention was again turned to the old Liber pon^
tificalia. At this time it was first printed, and has
since, in its turn, caused Platina's book to be for-
gotten. A. Brackmann.
Biblioobapht: The two editions which are of superlative
worth are (1) L. Duchesne, 2 vols., Paris, 188&-92, and
(2) T. Mommsen, in MOU. Oft. pant. Rom., vol. i. Ber-
lin. 1898. Other editions are mentioned and a list of the
best literature prior to 1896 is given in Potthast, W^f-
tDeiser, pp. 737-739 (not to be overlooked). Further
matter of importance is to be found in: I. Chapman, in
Revue bhiSdictine, xviii (1901), 399-417; T. Lindner, in
Forediunoen tur deutecKen Geechichte, xii (1872), 235-250,
656 eqq.; P. Fabre. in Mflangte d*arctUolooie et d'hie-
toire, vol. vi., Rome, 1886; idem, 6tude nar le Liber een^
9uum de Vigliee romaine, Paris, 1892; J. B. Lightfoot, 7Ae
Apoetolic Fathert, part I., S. Clement qf Rome, I 201-345,
London, 1890; F. H. GlasssohrOder, in ROmieehe Quar-
talachriftfUr AUerthumekunde, iv. 125 sqq., v. 178; idem,
in Hietorieehee Jahrbueh der OOneegeeelUchaft, id (1890),
240-266; T. Mommsen, in NA, xix (1894), 285-293, xxi
(1896). 333-357. xxii (1897). 545-^553; SScmaller, in
HUtoriachee Jahrbueh der O&rreaoeeelUchaft, xv (1894),
802-810; F. G. Rosenfeld, Utber die KompoeUion dee
Liber pontifiealie, Marburg, 1896; I. Giorgi, in Archivio
delta aocietit Romana di etoria patria, xx (1897), 247 sqq.;
A. Hamack. in Sitxunoeberichte der Berliner Akademie,
1892, pp. 761-778; H. Griser, Analeeta Romano, Rome.
1899.

LIBER SEXTUS. See Canon Law, II., 6, { 3.

LIBER yUM (DIPTYCHS): The official register
of the members of the congregation, also a list of
the clergy, and others. The establishment of such
a register was inseparably connected with the rise
of the ecclesiastical organization. Baptism, which
consunmiated the entrance into the congregation,
occasioned at once the necessity and the right of en-
rolment; death, voluntary withdrawal, or expulsion
by way of discipline, caused erasure. Besides this
there were special lists of the clergy and of other
persons in the service or under the care of the
Church. The more complicated the apparatus of
ecclesiastical government and administration be-
came, the more these registers increased in number
and in size. A special group was formed by the
lists, with the names of the spiritual and temporal
rulers, which were read aloud during the supplica-
tions, and also by those containing the names of
persons who participated in the eucharistic offer-
ings or who deserved mention for some other rea-
son. These may all be included under the general
designation " book of Ufe," " book of the Hving,"
in which may be seen a oonnection with expressions

Liber "^tw
LilMriiis

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

474

in the Bible (cf. Rev. iiL 5, zili. 8; Phil. iv. 3; Pb.
Ixix. 28). Purely external considerations gave rise
to the opposite designation " book of the dead/'
originally referring only to those whose memory
was recalled at the communion service. The de-
velopment of worship, both in the Eastern and in
the Western Church, combined with the growing
length of the lists, led to the abandonment or the
restriction of the older custom.

As to the form of this register, the Greek name
diptychon implies a connection with the wax tab-
lets used by the ancients. Two or more of them
were bound together, in the form of a book, the
exterior being of some firm material and forming
the covers. At the same period papyrus rolls were
also used. These covers were probably in most
cases of wood. Nevertheless, in the fourth cen-
tury and probably earlier, ivory was used and or-
namented with reliefs.

Probably the oldest (fourth to fifth century?)
Christian example which has been preserved is the
Carrand diptych in Florence with the naming of the
beasts of the field by Adam; but, in general, scenes
from the New Testament predominate.

The use of diptychs continued in the Blast far
into the Middle Ages, and the same is true of the
West, especially in the period of Carlovingian art.
Some of the diptych tablets have been preserved
as ornamental parts of book-covers; for the artistic
ecclesiastical bindings of the Middle Ages were in-
spired by the diptychs.

From these diptychs, with religious representa-
tions, in ecclesiastical use must be distinguished
those of the officials, of the emperors, and of pri-
vate persons. These should not, however, pass un-
noticed since some of them show Christian types,
while others were taken for ecclesiastical use and
were altered for that purpose. In this group the
first place is occupied by the diptych of the Cbnsul
Anicius Probus, from the year 406, in the possession
of the Cathedral of Aosta. One tablet shows the
emperor holding in his left hand the imperial orb
with a winged Victory, and in his right the labarum,
inscribed with the words " In the name of Christ
conquer thou ever." Another important example
is the Barberini diptych in the Louvre, with the
equestrian figure of Justinian. On one leaf of a
diptych in Monza the costume of the consul has
been changed into a priestly vestment and the head
has been given the tonsure; an inscription has also
been added indicating that the figure is that of
Gregory the Great. On the other leaf, the original
figure is \mtouched and it has been given another
meaning only by means of the inscription ** King
David." There is in Bologna a private diptych
Christianized by the addition of an inscription des-
ignating the principal figure as Peter and a bust
above this figure as Mark.

It may also be remarked that the various forms
of the altar-piece are called diptych, triptych, etc.

Victor Schultze.

Bibliographt: Earlier works still of value are: C. A. Salig,
De diptychia veterum, Halle, 1731; A. F. Gori, ThMaurua
veterum diptychorutn, 3 vols., Florence, 1759; J. O. West-
wood. Description of the Ivoriea, Ancient and Afediaval,
in the South Keneington Muaeum, London. 1876; R.
Gamiooi. Storia deUa arte criitiana, vol. vL. Prato, 1880:

T. G. Brightman, lAturgiea BoMtem and Weaiem, ^oaan^
a. Y. ** diptychs." Oxford, 1896; H. Gneven. FriJukriM-
Ueke und $mttdaUerU<^ Elfenbeinwerke, Rome. 1896 iqq.:
G. Rietschl, Lekrbueh der Litiiraik, L 231 sqq.. Beria,
1900; DCA, i. 560 sqq.; and for the secular oae. W.
Smith, W. Wayte. and G. EL Marindin, DicOomrv 4
Greek and Roman Antiquitiee, i. 643-644, London, 189a

LIBERATUS: Deacon at Antioch and ecdesbft-
tical writer; fl. about 560. He was the author d
a work which is an important source for the his-
tory of the ecclesiastical controversies of the fifth
and sixth centuries Breviarum causa Nestano'
norum et EtUyckianarum (ed. J. Garaier, Paris, 1675;
reprinted in AfPL, bcviii. 963-1052). The book
utilizes the history of the preceding century to dem-
onstrate that Justinian's condemnation of the
Three Chapters (see Three CHiOTER Contbo-
versy) is false and untenable. The history begim
with the ordination of Nestorius, and comes doini
approximately to 560. The date is shown by tht
mention of the death of Pope Vi^^us (555) and bv
the fact that at the close of the last chapter Patri-
arch Theophilus of Alexandria (d. 566) is referred
to as yet alive. The work mentions as sources the
Historia ecdesitutica tripartita of Cassiodorus (q.v.),
Gesta synodaliay Epi^olct sanctorum patrutn, a Geda
de nomine Acacii of Pope Gelasius I. (q.v.), and
finaUy a Gnxcum Alexandrice scripium, which some
have identified with the ecclesiastical historv of
Zacharias Scholasticus (q.v.). The style is concise
and not alwajrs clear, the tone judicious, and the
general treatment trustworthy, notwithstanding its
partisan attitude as against the Monophysites.

G. KRt^GER.
Bibuoorapht: Fabricius-Harlea, Bibliotheca Oraea. xn.
685-602, Hamburg. 1809; DCB, iiL 71ft-717; KL, rii
1044; Oeillier. Auieure eaaria, xL 303-3O5.

LIBERIA, loi-bi'ri-a: A republic on the west
coast of Africa, having a coast line of about 350
miles from Sierra Leone to the French colony of
the Ivory Coast, and stretching inland to a dis-
tance in some cases of 200 miles. The total area
is about 45,000 square miles; the population is es-
timated at 2,000,000, all of African race, the few
whites being considered foreigners. It was foimded
as a colony in 1822 by free blacks sent out by the
American Colonization Society. According to the
constitution adopted in 1847, when Liberia was de-
clared an independent government, electors must
be of negro blood and owners of land. The Amer-
ico-Liberians, numbering about 20,000, hold the
chief power, the native races, while not excluded
from the franchise, taking little part in political
life. At one time it was thought that the Americo-
Liberians were dying out, but intermixture with
the more civilized aborigines and some immigra-
tion from the west has strengthened them. They
are all Protestants, connected chiefly with the
Methodist, Presbyterian, Episcopal, and Lutheran
Churehes. There is a Roman Catholic Mission,
statistics for which are not available. The earliest
missionary work, apart from that connected with
the Colonization Society, was begun by the Meth-
odist Episcopal Church in 1831, followed by the
Presbyterian in 1833, the Protestant Episcopal in
1836, and the General Synod of the Lutheran
Church in 1859. The Presbyterian Boacd of For-

475

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Liber ViUb
Liberius

eign Missions withdrew in 1899, transferring all its
property and churches to the presbytery of West
Africa. Educational work has been pushed by all
these Churches, some of their schoob being of high
grade. Apart from these, elementary schoob are
nupierous, and there are a few of secondary grade.
Considerable attention b paid to industrial train-
ing, notably in the Lutheran Muhlenberg Mission.
It was in Liberia that the Methodbt Bishop Taylor
inaugurated hb scheme for African industrial mis-
sions. The fact that only a comparatively narrow
strip of land along the coast b effectively adminis-
ter^, and that the inland territory b occupied by
some of the fiercest African tribes, has given much
prominence to the missionary enterprises in the
country. The work b conducted for the most part
by the negroes, on account of the climate and the
general type of life, although there b a considerable
force of white missionaries on the coast. The four
societies report over 5.000 communicant members,
nearly one hundred schoob with 5,000 pupib, a con-
siderable portion of whom are from the inland tribes.
See Africa, II. Edwin Munsbll Bliss.

Bibliography: See the literature under Africa.

LIBERIUS, lai-bi'ri-us: Pope 362-366. He was
of Roman birth and parentage, was the choice of
both factions in the Arian controversy and of the
Emperor Constantius as successor to Julius I., and
was probably consecrated May 17, 352 (cf. Liber
pontificalis, ed. Duchesne, p. ccl.). The favor of
Constantius was due to hb purpose,
First steadily entertained since he had be-
Period, come the sole ruler (353), to achieve
till Hb the peace of the Church by disavowal
Exile. of Athanasius and abolition of the
Nicene Creed (see Arianism, § 5), a
result which obviously hinged on the type of occu-
pant of the Roman see. At a synod at Rome con-
vened by Liberius, the majority of the bbhops de-
clared for Athanasius; but, at the synod called by
the emperor at Aries (353), the pope's delegates,
Vinccntius and Marcellus of Campania, as a peace
measure, consented to support the decbion of the
£ast against Athanasius. Liberius, dissatbfied
with the action of hb own representatives, ad-
dressed a letter of urgent remonstrance to the em-
peror (Ejrist. ad ConstarUium) , and furthermore
managed to engage Eusebius of Veroellse to sup-
port him. Nevertheless, the Synod of Milan (355)
completed the victory over Athanasius, and the
bbhops who had continued steadfast were driven
into exile. The same fate awaited the pope unless
he yielded. The imperial eunuch Eusebius, who
came to confer with him at Rome, attempted to
move him by argument to subscribe adversely to
Athanasius and to accept ecclesiastical fellowship
with hb opponents. Liberius resbted, possibly
relying upon the sentiments of the Roman popu-
lace, which ran counter to the imperial endeavors
(Ammbnus Marcellinus, XV., vii. 10). Hereupon
the pope was apprehended by night by the prefect
of the city and removed to the imperial court. Id
an audience with the emperor, reported by Theo-
doret (Hi8t. eccl, ii. 13; NPNF, 2 ser., iii. 77-79),
he made a spirited appeal for general acceptation
of the Nicene Creed, recall of the ezilee, and con-

vention of a synod in Alexandria to examine the
charges against Athanasius. The one consequence
was hb own exile to Bera^a in Thrace, in 355, when
Constantius had the Roman archdeacon Felix con-
secrated as pope (see Feux II.).

The new pope encountered great opposition, not
because of any doubt as to hb personal orthodoxy,
but rather because people believed him tainted with
irregular ordination and ecclesiastical fellowship
with the contrary party. While the emperor was
in Rome in May, 357, in answer to an appeal by
some ladies for the return of Liberius (Theodoret,
II., xiv.), the emperor let it appear that negotia-
tions with the exiled pope had led to
Acceptance the desired result. Liberius did not
of Homoi- return to hb congregation, however,
ousianism. till the sunmier of 358. The emperor
wbhed that he and Felix superintend
the Church in common; but thb was found impos-
sible, and Felix had to yield. Various explana-
tions have been given of the emperor's change of
mind. Some speak of a collapse on the part of
Liberius, and assert that he reversed his dogmatic
position. But thb b not borne out by the report
of Sozomen (Hist, ecd,, iv. 15), who alone reports
on the subject. The sole fact apparent b that,
after somewhat prolonged negotiations, in the spring
of 358 Liberius expressed his willingness to waive
the term homoousioa. He had been convinced that
the formula at issue was liable to mbimderstand-
ing, and declared himself in harmony with the the-
ory of the Homoiousians, according to which the
Son b '* like " to the Father (of like essence and
attributes). That he rejected the term homoou9io8f
or that he consented in any degree to the thought
of designating the Son as unlike the Father (an-
omaioa), Sozomen pronoimces a malicious inven-
tion. Yet it b open to question whether the tone
of Sozomen adequately accounts for the sharp ut-
terances of Athanasius (Historia Arianarum, xli.;
NPNFf 2 ser., iv. 284) and Jerome (Chronicon,
and De vir, ill,, xcvii.) against Liberius, in which
Athanasius states that Liberius grew languid in
exile, and subscribed in dread of threatened death,
while Jerome reproaches Liberius with heresy.
Athanasius and Jerome are supported by four let-
ters ascribed to Liberius, preserved in the so-called
Fragmenta ex opere kUtarico of Hilary of Poitiers;
if these letters are genuine, their contents put the
result in a light unfavorable to the pope, showing
that Liberius acquiesced in the condemnation of
Athanasius and accepted a homoian statement,
the second Sirmian formula of 357. But the gen-
uineness of the letters is doubtful, since it b almost
imiversally conceded that the four letters are not to
be separated one from the others, in which case the
weight of evidence turns against the genuineness
of aU the letters by the fact that certain particu-
lars in one of the letters (the one which begins:
Slxtdens pact) totally contradict well- attested his-
tory. There b the possibility that during hb exile,
imder the stress of constant pressure, Liberius may
have used some utterances which seemed to give
occasion to the charge against him. But that he
directly belied hb earlier position can be asserted
only on the ground of doubtful documents.

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOO

474

Liberiufl took no part in the S3mod of Aiiminum,

350. Several years elapse without note of him in

public life. In 363, however, he put forth a brief

(EpiH, ad catholicon epitcopot Italia) dispensing

pardon to all those who repented of

Later Life; their action at Ariminum and re-

Achiere- nounoed Arian doctrine. These terms
ments. inrleed were not agreeable to a more
auHtere school of ecclesiastics, even at
Rome; and the resultant opposition led to cleav-
a^f^ which were anything hut salutary (see Hila-
• Hif jh; and Lucipkk of Calabib). In 366, as the
ntprnsentative of orthorloxy, the pope accorded
frat«>nial nsoeption to the envoys of the Macedo-
nians intH* Mackikiniuh and the Macedonian Sect)
of Asia Minor, on the ground of subscription to the
Nio^fie Crtiisl; arid returned greetings of peace to
those who had authorized their errand (Episl. ad
univfrmm Orientui orihodoxou episcopon). After the
df»ath of Felix (Nov. 22, 365), Liberius readmitted
the clerics of his party to their former stations.
His death (Sept. 24, 366) nevertheless gave the sig-
nal for fieroe factional conflicts, accompanied by
horrible bloodshed (see Ursinus). According to
tlie lAber jHtntiftcalinf Liberius was laid to rest in
the (UmicUify of Priscilla, along the Via Salaria.
It is hardly probable that the poem of eulogy dis-
co venxl by lie Kossi, on the subject of an unnamed
bishop, n;fers to Lilwrius (De Rossi, in BtUletino di
Arrheologia Crittiana, 4th ser., vol. ii., 1883, pp. 5-
5U); but rather to Martin I. (cf. Funk, Kirchenge'
nrhichUiche AbhaiuUungen, i. 391-420, Paderbom,
1887). LilN'riuH create<l a lasting memorial for
himself at Konu* by founding the Basilica Liberiana
(Santa Maria Maggiore), which, even to-day, is
important luHtorically in the office for Christ's na-
tivity and t he Hoason of Advent (cf . H. Usener, Rdi-
ffiomigenchichUirJie UnterBuchungen, i. 266-203, Bonn,
1889.) It wiM probably here in the year 354 that
the birth of ('hrist was celebrated for the first time
on Dec. 25. So late as the preceding year Liberius
had consccraUnl Marcellina, sister of Ambrose, as a
nun on Jan. 6, still observed as the day of the nativ-
ity. The pofM^'s address delivered on this occasion
was pn'served by Ambrose in a free transcript (De
virginet iii. 1 s(|q.). In the M artyrologium Hierony-
mianum Lil)criiis is celebrated on September 23;
but his name docs not appear in the Martyrologium
Ronumum. l^^ver since the sixth century his repu-
tation has sufTcrcd distortion through apocryphal
tradition, exhibiting him in league with Constan-
tiuH OB a bloody i)er8ecutor of the true faith; while
Felix is portrayed as a holy martyr (cf. J. J. I.
von Dollinger: Die Papstfabelndes MiUelaUer8f ed.
Friodrich, pp. 120-145, Munich, 1890; Eng. transl.,
of first od., Fables Respecting the Popes of the Middle
Ages, New York, 1872). G. KrCger.

HinMOORAPiiY: Librr ponHfioMlia, ed. Duchesne, i. pp. czx.-
cxxvii., ccl. 207-210. Paris, 1886. ed. Mommsen in MOH,
Ge»t. pont. Rom., i (1898), 77-79; Jaff^. Regeata, i. 32-35;
H. Junffmann, DiaaertcUionet aelecia, ii. 31-33, ReRens-
burff. 1881; J. LanRen, Oeachichte der rdmiachen Kirche,
i. 460-494. Bonn, 1881; G. KrtUcer. Luci/«r von Calari$,
pp. 12 sqq., Loipnic. 1886; H. M. Gwatkin, Studies of
Arianiam, pp. 192 sqq., Cambridge. 1900; C. de Feis,
Storia di Liberia pajta e dello aciama dei Seminarianit
Rome, 1894; F. Grefcorovius, lliat. of the City of Rome, i.
108-109, London, 1894; T. Mommsen, in Deuttche Zeii-

Helele. C^meOiemm'dbiekim, L %C
traiML, L 199 mm.; ^^rmex, /».
LaAn CkriMimmiw. L lQ2-ia8L
nesB at tht four lettcn of
L. TTiirtifw. in ffffinjis 4
( 1908). 31-78, and opptaed by
dieUne, zbt (1907). 293-^317.
SlwH ewOa qmuHam di Pi

UBERMAHH, JACOB. See Holt G

AND CONGRKGATIOXS OF THE. IL, 6l

LIBERTIHES: A word oaed in

1. The members of a Jewish syna^qgoe mt Jeru-
salem mentioned in Acts vL 9. They probabhr po^
sessed a synagogue of their own, though soaie kar?
held that they worBhq)ed with the CVrenia::?,
Alexandrians, Cilidans, and Asimtios, or at lea^;
with the two first named. The ^w^^^r%W\g of tb?
name is not entirely certain. As there is no cpr-
tain record of an (African) city or district frot&
which they could take their name, it seems prob-
able that the word denotes ** freedmen " (La:.
Ixbertim), meaning the descendants of Jews taken
captive to Rome by Pompey, and there later re-
leased because their stubborn adherence to their
national customs rendered them ii«i*l<»M« as slaves.
While the majority of these freedmen remained in
Rome and settled in the neyib Trantiiberina (Sue-
tonius, Tiberi'M, zxxvi.; Tacitus, Annates, ii. 85i.
others seemed to have returned to Jerusalem and
to have formed a synagogue where the name of
Libertines, or Roman freedmen. Unbred.

(F. SlEFFEBT.)

2. A political party led by Anoi Perrin, hence
known also as Perrinists, which opposed Caliin in
his efforts to reform the morals of Geneva. Before
the Reformation they had striven for the liberty-
of the city against the Roman Catholic bishop and
the duke of Savoy, and under the rule of Calvin
they especially opposed the excommunication by
the consistory of those deemed by it unworthy to
partake of the Lord's Supper. They also con-
tended against the admission of French refugees as
buighers of the city, and in May, 1555, endeavored
in vain to lead a violent protest against the influ-
ence of these refugees and the French preachers.
Some of the leaders fled, others were sentenced to
death, and thus the party was completely dis-
rupted. Their significance is in their attitude as
liberals opposed to the strict Calvinistic Puritans.

E. Choibt.
8. A pantheistic antinomian party which flour-
ished about the time of the Reformation. It ap-
peared first in the Netherlands and from there spread
into France. Its roots may perhaps reach into
the soil of the Brethren of the Free Spirit (see Free
Spirit, Brethren of the), a sect which had not
entirely died out, and there may have been connec-
tions also with the Anabaptists [i.e., with such pan-
theistic antipedobaptists as David Joris, q.v. — a.
H. N.]. The adherents gave themselves the name
"Spirituab"; "Libertines" being the title given by
the opponents of the party. The founder appears
to have been named Coppin, who preached at Lille
about 1529, whence his teaching was carried into
the French-speaking part of the country, uid thence
into France by a certain Quintin, by Antoine Poc-

477

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Libariu*
Liberty

quct, onoe a Roman Catholic priest, and by others.
Their teaching was to the effect that aU visible ex-
istence is but a manifestation of the one Spirit;
hence nothing can be essentially bad; the regener-
ate man is he who recognizes that the distinction
between good and bad is baseless, and consequently
has attaine<l the innocence which Adam had before
he knew good and evil. In France those who held
these views found protection under Margaret,
Queen of Navarre, at N^rac; but they met a steni
opponent in Calvin, whose influence with Margaret
and other measures probably brought about the
extinction of the party. In 1547 Calvin warned
the Christians of Rouen against a Franciscan monk
who expounded the dogma of predestination after
the method of the Libertines. The latter replied
in Bouclier de dtfence, which Farel answered in
Glaive de la parole veritable (Geneva, 1550). Calvin
speaks of two anonymous French writings which
he ascribes neither to Quintin nor to Pocquet; which
seem to be of a mystical Libertine cast. Some
writings of this character were collected by C.
Schmidt, TraiUa mystiques Merita . . . 16J^7-Jfi
(Geneva, 1876), and by E. Picot, Thmre mystique
de Pierre Du Vol et dea Libertine apirUueU de Rouen
au 16. aihcle (ib. 1882; cf. G. Jaujard, Eaaai aur lea
Liheriina apirituda de Gerih)e [?], Paris, 1890). See
also LoisTB. E. Choisy.

Biblioorapht: On 1: SohOrer, G—AiekU, ii. 66, 431. iii.
84. Enic. trand.. II.. i. 49. u. 56-67. 276; EB, iil 2703-
2794; DB, iii. 110; and tbe oommentaiies on the pan-
MMpe. On 2: A. Rofpet. HUt. du peupU de Oenhje, vo\».
ii. iv.. 7 vols.. Geneva, 1871-84: E. Choisy, La Thio-
cratis h Oenh>e au tempt de Calvin, Geneva, 1897. On 3:
CR, vU. 146. 341; Calvin, InaHtutee, III., iii. 14; F.
Trechael. Die proteetarUiechen AtUitrinUarier, i. 177. Hei-
delberg. 1839; Hundeiihacen, in TSK, xvUi (1846). 866

. .nqq.; A. Jundt. Hiet. du panthHeme populaire, Strasburg.
1875. For further information on 2-3 consult also the
works on the life of Calvin given under Calvin, John,
e.g., W. Walker, pp. 293-295, New York, 1906.

LIBERTY, REUOIOUS.

I. General Development.

Historical Survey (f 1).

The Evangelical Spirit.
Especially in England
(I 2).

In America (f 3).

Hiunanistic Influences
(I 4).
II. In Germany.

The Theory of Non-Tolera-
tion (f 1).

The Situation at and During

the Reformation (f 2).

Toleration of Roman Cath-
olics, Lutherans, and Re-
formed (i 3).

Change in the Political The-
ory of the Church (f 4).

Present Legal Status of
Churches (i 5).

Roman Catholic Attitude
(§6).

L General DeYelopment: Religious liberty is,
in the fullest sense of the term, unrestricted freedom
to believe, practise, and propagate any religion
whatever or none.

The Edict of Milan (see Constantine the Grbat
AND HIS SoNB, L, ( 4) issued by Constantine and
Licinius in 313 seems to be the only ancient proc-
lamation by a civil i^ovemment of absolute relig-
ious liberty. The edict grants " both to the Chris-
tians and to all men freedom to follow
I. His- the religion which they choose," *' each
torical one should have the liberty of wor-
Survey. shiping whatever deity he pleases."
" This has been done by us in order
that wo niif^ht not seem in any way to discriminate
against any rank or religion." This action was taken

in the interest of Christianity and the edict contains
instructions for the restitution of all church property
taken from Christians in the Diocletian persecution.
Constantine's later policy in relation to non-Catho-
lic Christian parties and paganism was inconsistent
with the declarations of the edict. From this time
onward nothing more liberal than toleration ap-
pears in civil legislation until modem times. Pleas
for religious liberty were frequently made by per-
secuted minorities; but neither civil governments
nor dominant ecclesiastical parties paid heed to
them. Luther pleaded for liberty in the most thor-
oughgoing way (1519-20); yet when confronted
with religious radicalism (1521 onward) he became
convinced that only drastic measures of repression
could save the situation and urged the rulers to
spare not. Humanists and Socinians argued for a
broad toleration, and some of them no doubt would
have rejoiced to see absolute liberty of conscience
incorporated in the civil constitutions and in the
confessions of faith; but they were not optimistic
enough even to hope for such a consummation.
Balthasar Huebmaier (q.v.), when his life was be-
ing sought by the Austrian government and he was
in imminent danger, wrote in 1524 a tract *' Con-
cerning Heretics and their Burners " (cf. H. C.
Vedder, BaUhaaar HUbmaier, pp. 84-88, New York,
1905) in which he sought to show the heresy, anti-
christian character, and futility of persecution for
conscience's sake. Calvin was from the beginning
an avowed antitolerationist. Regarding the Old-
Testament theocracy as in an important sense a
model for the Christian state, he thought it the
duty of the church authorities to detect, convict,
and denounce heretics and open sinners of every
type, and of Christian magistrates to execute
Church censures even to the extent of inflicting cap-
ital punishment in extreme cases. For the Chris-
tian minister or magistrate to allow a heretic to dis-
seminate his errors was as little allowable as it
would be to permit a miscreant to go about spread-
ing the pestilence. Calvin had the full sympathy of
Melanchthon, Butser, Bullinger, Knox, and other
leading reformers in his antagonism to religious
liberty. In this he was followed for more than a
century by English and American Puritans, Scot-
tish Presbyterians, and by Reformed and Lutheran
Churches in general. The progress of religious lib-
erty has been greatly impeded also by the general
conviction that the divergent religious opinions of
minorities are malignant and inspired by the devil
and that no treatment is too severe for the dissem-
inators of diabolical error; that two forms of re-
ligion can not exist in the same state without disas-
trous consequences; that civil rulers have a right
to determine the religion of their subjects (see Ter-
ritorialibm); that the established order is of
divine right and that innovation is tpao /ado evil.
The Peace of Augsburg (1555; see Auobburg,
Religious Peace of) and the Peace of Westphalia
(1648; see Westphaua, Peace of) each in turn
confirmed the states of Europe in territorialism.

The two lines of influence already mentioned
wrought mightily for the breaking down of the in-
tolerance of conservatism, for a long time sepa^
rately and at last cooperatively, namely the old

LllMrty, BeUgious

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

478

Evangelical and the Humanistic. The old Evan-
gelical spirit (represented by the Waldenses [q.v.],
Peter of Chelcic, and the Bohemian Brethren Lq.v.],
in the Middle Ages, and by the Anabaptists and
the Society of Friends in more recent times) made
a sharp distinction between the Old
3. The Testament and the New Testament,

Evangelical making the latter alone an authorita-

Spirit, tive guide in doctrine and polity and

Especially laying chief stress on the very words

in England, and acts of Christ. Most of them as-
sumed an attitude of passive resist-
ance toward civil governments, denying the possi-
bility of a Christian state (if all were Christians
there would be no need of civil government), and re-
jecting magistracy, oaths, warfare, and capital pun-
ishment as inconsistent with the spirit of Christian-
ity and with the precepts and example of Christ
and the apostles. To use coercion in connection
with religion seemed to them monstrous. Inter-
preting the Sermon on the Mount literally they
thought it wrong to resist evil or to defend them-
selves. Only when fired by chiliastic enthusiasm
and convinced that it was the divine will that they
should smite the imgodly and become instruments
for the establishment of the kingdom of Christ on
earth (see Tabgrites; Muenzer, Thomas; Fifth
Monarchy Men) did they trust in the arm of flesh.
This quietistic form of Christianity, while it pro-
duced the noblest examples of self-sacrificing devo-
tion and of evangelistic zeal, was too much out of
accord with the life and thought of the times to
exert a strong influence in favor of religious liberty;
though the Mcnnonites in the Netherlands became
numerous and wealthy enough to gain the coop-
eration of the government in efforts to secure tolera-
tion for the persecuted in other lands. It was only
when the old Evangelical type of New-Testament
Christianity became blended with Calvinistic Piui-
tanism thiit it was able powerfully to influence the
Christian world in favor of liberty of conscience.
Robert Browne (q.v.) reached the conviction, prob-
ably under Mennonite influence (1580-84), that
civil magistrates ought not to punish religious de-
li iiciuencies or in any way to interfere with the
rights of conscience. His immediate Separatist fol-
lowers failed to grasp the principle and he himself
soon abandoned it. About 1609 a party of English
Separatists led by John Smyth, exiled in Holland,
reached antipedobaptist convictions and at the
same time adopted the old Evangelical principle
of separation of Church and State and liberty of
conscience in the most absolute sense (see Baptists,
I., §§ 1-4). A portion of the company imder the
leadership of Helwys and Murton returned to Eng-
land (1611 or 1612) and members of this Arminian
antipedobaptist party addressed to the govern-
ment and published a series of pleas for absolute
liberty of conscience (1614, 1615, 1620) that influ-
enced wide circles of readers (see Baptists, § 9;
cf. Tracts on Liberty of Conscience^ Hanserd Knollys
Society, London, 1846). The triumph of the Inde-
pendents (Baptist and Congregational) first over
established episcopacy and then over Presbyterian-
ism, which sought to become the established Church
and purposed the suppression of all forms of dis-

sent, led to a meafl^lIe of religious equality nods
Cromwell (1649, sqq.) for such CongregatioDalisU.
Baptists, and Presbyterians as were friendly to the
government and of suitable education and cbir-
acter, all alike being admitted to endowed pastor-
ates when invited by the parishioners; but the:*
was no thought of tolerating Roman CathdKs.
High-church Episcopalians, or Unitarians. Tolera-
tion of Evangelical dissent has prevailed in Eng-
land from 1689 and dissenters' disabilities have
been gradually, diminished; but even now the free
Churches of England are struggling valiantly for
religious equality which means the disestablishme&t
and the disendowment of the established Church.

In America the early British colonies were
formed on an antitolerationist basis, the Calvimstie
theocratic idea prevailing in Massachusetts and
Connecticut and the Anglican establishment taking
control in Virginia and other Southern colonies and
in New York after it was taken from
3. In the Dutch (see Unfted States or

America. America, Reljgioits History ofj.
Roger Williams (q.v.; also Baptists,
XL, \\ 1-2), having been banished from Massachu-
setts, estabUshed a small colony at Providence on the
basis of liberty of conscience (1636) and, in coopera-
tion with John Clarke (q.v.; also Baptists, XL, § 3),
the larger colony subsequently known as Rhode In-
land (1647). The pubUcationof the pleas for liberty
of conscience by Williams and Clarke, and their as-
sociation in England with the leading statesmen of
the Cromwellian time no doubt greatly influenced
opinion there. In Maryland I<ord Baltimore, the
proprietor, tolerated and encouraged a body of
I^uitans who had been driven from Virginia 00
accoimt of their non-conformity (1643). Xn Vir-
ginia the Baptists, supported to some extent by
Presbyterians and freethinkers (Jefferson, Madi-
son, and others), waged an uncompromising war-
fare against the established Church (1776-99) and
succeeded in securing its disestablishment and dis-
endowment, and absolute religious equality (see
Baptists, XI., § 6). They were also influential in
securing the insertion of the clause in the Constitu-
tion of the United States that guarantees religious
liberty. The triumph of religious liberty in Vir-
ginia and the provision for it in the national Con-
stitution led to the removal of all restrictions to the
free exercise of religion in Connecticut (1820) and
in Massachusetts (1833). The successful experi-
ment of religious liberty on so large a scale soon
made its influence felt throughout the Christian
world. American influence was a factor in the
French Revolution . After the abolition of Christian-
ity by the Terrorists, Napoleon put Homan Catholi-
cism, Lutheranism, Calvinism, and other recognized
forms of religion upon the same basis of state support
and state control in France, the Netherlands, and
other parts of his empire. Complete religious liberty
has recently come about in France through the
separation of Chiux;h and State (see France).

Side by side with the influence of the old Evan-
gelical New-Testament (^Christianity, the advance of
liberal thought under the influence of Humanism
has wrought for freedom of thought and liberty of con-
science. Skeptical minds not only demand toleration

470

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Liberty, Belifflou*

for themselves; but are not so absolutely sure that
their own views of religion are exclusively valid as
to consider it necessary to force them
4. Ha- upon others. The growth of scientific
manistic study and the application of the his-
Influences. tori(^ method to the study of religion
have tended to break down dogma-
tism and intolerance. The French freethinking
of the eighteenth century not only prepared the
way for the French Revolution, but covered Europe
and America with it^ influence. French freethink-
ing cooperated with Baptist insistence on separation
of Church and State and equality of rights for all
religious parties in the American struggle. See
Conventicle Act ; Corporation Act ; Five Mile
Act; Test Act; Toleration Act op 1689; Uni-
formity, Acts op. A. H. Newman.

n. In Germany: There is now no German State
which does not grant freedom of conscience, both
to individuab and to commimities which are united
by common religious interests. In itself toleration
may be observed toward non-Christian as well as
toward Christian bodies, as in Germany toward the
Jews; yet in Germany the legislation concerning
the Jews has not arisen from motives of toleration
but of alien laws, and as it still retains this chara<y
ter it falls outside the limits of the present discussion.
A Church, as such, while loving and patient in pas-
toral care, can not be tolerant either in dogmatics
or ethics. For since an individual Church exists
simply because it recognizes a certain concept of
Christian revelation as the only correct one, it can
not permit divergent concepts within
I. The its fold. This was the actual attitude
Theory assumed before the Reformation, espe-
of Non- daily as the Church then not only con-
Toleration, trolled both her own members, so that
she could exclude irreclaimable heretics
from her communion, but also had such power over
the State that the latter would pimish such here-
tics, if necessary, with death. The constitution Ad
decu8 of Frederick II. (1220), requiring the death
penalty, repeats almost literally the third chapter
of the fourth Lateran Council (1215), and is ren-
dered still more strict by the same emperor's con-
stitutions Catharoa (1232) and Patarenos (1238).
The enforcement of the death penalty by burning,
prescribed also by the Sachsenspiegel (Landrechtf
II., xiv. 17) and the Bamberg criminal code of 1507
(art. 30), is illustrated by the proceedings against
Huss at 0)nstance and by the action of the Ger-
man princes against the Hussites. This use of
power of the pre-Reformation Church is fully ex-
phcablc from her point of view. If, as she believed,
she was the one visible Church founded by Christ,
if every one baptized belonged to her, if she was
responsible for their salvation, and if this salvation
depended on the obedience of each individual to
her authority, there was no reason for her to hesi-
tate to use her influence with the State to gain her
such obedience. The Church had developed into a
dogmatic system her claim to control the executive
means of the State in given cases to her advantage;
and as long as this principle was acknowledged by the
authorities of the State, its powers were in a sense
her own, to be employed when conscience dictated.

When Luther, at the Leipsic disputation, rejected

the doctrine that the interpretation of the Bible was

to be conditioned by the authority of the Church,

the latter appealed to the laws against

2. The heretics. But these were ignored by

Situation those princes who held that the Church
at and must be reformed and who were in sym-

During the pathy with Luther's views. On the

Reforma- other hand, the ban against Luther and
tion. the bull Decet Ramanum pontificem
(Jan. 3, 1521) led to the Edict of Worms
(Jan. 26, 1521; antedated Jan. 8), which followed
the laws against heretics, declared Luther an out-
law, and required the local authorities to imprison
him and his adherents. Other princes, however,
refused to execute the edict, declaring that they
could not reconcile it with their duty to their sub-
jects and their land; and in view of the wide-felt
need of a religious reformation, and in considera-
tion of the unsettled religious conditions, the Diet
of Speyer (Aug. 27, 1526) declared that, until a
coimcil should have been held, no prince should be
obliged to obey the edict. This enactment at
Speyer was the first German law of toleration, al-
though primarily it was merely a provisional sus-
pension of a law which was by no means abro-
gated. The next step in advance was the religious
peace of Augsbuig in 1555 (see Augsburg, Re-
ligious Peace op). The most promising, though
unsuccessful, attempt to force the German princes to
obey the Edict of Worms was made in the Schmal-
kald War, and the proviso of 1526 now became
definite. Although the old laws against heretics
were still in force, it was no longer possible, by the
laws of the empire, to secure their obedience from
such princes as would not maintain them in their
dominions. A second fruitless attempt to have the
laws against heretics enforced was made by the
Roman Catholics in the Thirty Years' War (q.v.),
but with the Peace of Westphalia (Oct. 24, 1648;
see Westphalia, Peace of; and below) the re-
ligious peace of Augsbuig was confirmed by im-
perial law. Nevertheless, this merely gave the
German princes a right which they had not legally
possessed before, permitting them, in so far as they
were unfettered by agreements with their estates,
to enforce or ignore the old laws against heretics.
The empire was accordingly divided, in the eyes of
the Curia, into States ** in which the Holy Office is
exercised," and those '* in which heretics rage un-
punished." But it must be borne in mind that
anything like the modem concept of toleration was
equally unknown to the Protestants as well. The
theory of the Reformers was that the State had re-
ceived authority not only to maintain the law in
general, but the law of God, especially as set forth
in the Decalogue, in particular. In virtue of the
First Table, therefore, the State was divinely re-
quired to permit only the right worship of God.
The pre-Reformation relation of Church and State
thus received a theological foundation. Tolera-
tion of any worship which was ** not right " was
accordingly excluded, and its prevention was a duty
for which the State was responsible to God — the
only change was the abolition of the criminal pro-
ceedings against heretics, and the substitution of

Llchfnberggg, VrMerie

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

police regulation. Since, however, neither Roman
Catholic nor Protestant would admit that his op-
ponent also taught true doctrine, it became prac-
tically necessary merely to recognize the power of
the authority of each country as purely personal,
a concept later expressed in the phrase " whose is
the land, his is the religion." Nevertheless, the
Protestants gained the one point that those who
adhered to the Augsbiug Confession coiild only be
banished by Roman Catholic princes, and not
brought before a criminal court.

A further step was made in the Peace of West-
phalia, which, taught by the bitter lesson of the
Thirty Years' War, proceeded to real tolerance,
and first officially employed the term.

3* Tolera- It enacted that Roman Catholics in
tkm of Protestant lands, and Lutherans and
Roman Reformed in Roman Catholic lands.

Catholics, should be " tolerated patiently " (pa-

Lathenms, tierUer ioUrerdur) if they rendered due
and obedience to the civil authorities

Refonned. and caused no disturbance. They
were likewise granted the right of
simple private worship. No other religions than
those just mentioned, however, were to be
" received or tolerated " in the Holy Roman Em-
pire. Thus arose the distinction long maintained
between " received " and " tolerated " religion.
The Roman Catholic Church declared these en-
actments of toleration in the Peace of West-
phalia null and void by the bull Zdo damus
Dei (Nov. 20, 1648), and in consequence of the
strict Lutheran insistence on the " guardianship of
the First Table " likewise had cause to refuse obe-
dience, especially as the Protestants came to hold
that Roman Catholicism could be tolerated only
when civil authority was insufficient to repress it,
or when the State was in such condition that the
repression could not be effected without civil war
and effusion of blood, or when its repression would
lead to greater harm than its toleration. This
rigid adherence to the '' guardianship of the First
Table," however, could be carried out only in the
narrow domains of the old empire; in lands of more
diverse interests a larger spirit was needful. This
was first shown in Holland, whence the new move-
ment spread to Germany, especially the rising State
of Prussia. When the Lutheran princes of the
Palatine Electorate (1560), Bremen (1568), Nassau
(1577), Wittgenstein, Solms, and Wied (1677-86),
Tecklenburg and Steinfurt (1588), Anhalt (1596),
Hesse-Cassel (1604), and Lippe (1605) entered the
Reformed Church, they obliged their subjects to
follow them; but when, in 1614, the Elector John
Sigismund of Brandenburg did likewise, he merely
permitted the coexistence of the Lutheran and Re-
formed Churches in his territories. This precedent
of two " received " Churches side by side was taken
by the seventh article of the Osnabriick treaty of
1648 as the model of general regulations on the
mutual relations of Lutheran and Reformed
Churches in one and the same territory. This
marks a change from a principle of intolerance to
one of tolerance, and of the substitution of a
purely political concept of the State for a theo-
logical theory.

Since the weakness of the empire and the VBiier

of conditions in the individual States werefatilfi

any national basis for the State in Gennany, th

social theory, largely represented at the time b

Dutch views, and aided since the Ba

4. Change aissanee by the trend of juristic sd

in the political tenets, formed the neoeasu

Political substitute. The State being regsnk

Theory as a congeries of interests united bys
of the dal contracts, and its authority im

Church, derived from a contract to obediae
two theories of the Church bean
possible. Either it might be assumed, with Hu|
Grotius, that the maintenance of the Churdi
an institution was a function of the State, and th
the administration of the Church was essentially i
ministration of the State, this being Territcmafii
(q.v.). Or it could be supposed that the oooditic]
of religious freedom which had preceded the r
of the State had not been abrogated by the a
tract of the State. By the latter h3rpothes
termed Collegialism (q.v.) , first developed by Sami
Pufendorf (q.v.), religion remained a matter of ixM
vidual freedom, even under the State, and entitl
to the protection of the State. Territorialism h
been in use for ages, with the substitution of pol
ioal for theological premises. Collegialism was t
way in which the State began the restoration
the social independence inherent in both the R
man Catholic and the Protestant Church. Viei
ing both Churches as unions of religious interest
the State could without prejudice determine und<
what conditions, based on its general interests,
could and would permit a plurality of such unioK
of religious interests to coexist. Thus the Stat
reached the standpoint of modem tolerance, as i
now prevails in Germany. Yet this point of viei
was .reached only gradually. The Elector Joh
Sigismund of Brandenbuig, mentioned above, pei
mitted the Arminians to hold private worship h
1683, and three years later allowed the Reformet
refugees from France to have public religious senr
ices. But what was allowed by the empire t<
Prussia was forbidden in the smaller States. Thui
when Count Ernest Casimir of Runkel and Isen
burg promised religious freedom to all who should
settle at Badingen (Mar. 29, 1712), even thougi
they might not be either Roman Catholics, Lu-
therans, or Reformed, he was fined and obliged tc
retract his offer. Prussia, however, continued a
her course, and Frederick the Great granted relig-
ious freedom to Mennonites, Sodnians, Arians,
Schwenckfelders, and other sects. On the othei
hand, he never issued any law of toleration, nor did
even the Roman Catholic Chureh gain full equality
with the two Protestant bodies during his reign.
The example of Frederick, who was more influenced
by Voltaire and the Encyclopedists than by Pufen-
dorf and Thomasius, was followed in the edict of
toleration promulgated by Joseph II. of Austria
(Oct. 18, 1781) and by the Elector Clement
Wenzel of Treves in 1783. Finally, by the re-
ligious edict of 1788 and the general Prussian
statute of 1794 the Roman Catholic Chureh
received equal privileges with the Lutherans and
the Reformed.

481

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

LibartYt Baliffioo* ^ ^
liiohtenbarffer, Fr«derio

In France Protestantism was again recognized
by Louis XVI. in Nov., 1787, and two years later
the French Revolution declared for entire liberty
of worship, a position retained under Napoleon.
As a result of the extension of this legislation to the
German territories west of the Rhine which had
come into the possession of France in exchange for
districts east of the same river, religious toleration
was granted to the Protestants in the archdiocese
of Cologne and the dioceses of Milnster and Pader-
bom. A like course was followed by Bavaria (Aug.
21, 1801), and by Cleve-Berg, the grand duchy of
Frankfort, and the kingdom of Westphalia. But
while the German Act of Confederation (Jan. 8,
1815) granted toleration to Roman Catholics, Lu-
therans, and Reformed, it referred everything re-
garding the development, administration, and or-
ganic life of the Churches to special legislation.
Accordingly, in the legislation of both Bavaria
(May 26, 1818) and Baden (Aug. 22, 1818) the right
of private worship was extended to others than
members of the three great ecclesiastical bodies.
The only further step now possible was the exten-
sion of this privilege to public worship; and this
was granted by laws of Baden (Feb. 17, 1849) and
Prussia (Jan. 31, 1850), these and similar laws fol-
lowing the Frankfort statutes of 1848. The last
vestige of religious discrimination was removed by
the law of the German Confederation of July 3,
1869, which granted complete civil equality to the
various confessions.

Since the beginning of the nineteenth century the

German theory of the legal status of the Church

passed through the entire revolution possible from

the stage after bare existence. Begin-

5. Present ning with the exclusion of adherents
Legal of unfavored religious bodies from full

Status of civil rights, it advanced to the per-

Churches. mission of private worship, either with-
out clergy (" simple ") or with them
(" qualified "). The next step was the right to hold
public worship, which was ** private" when the re-
ligious community in question was not essentially
privileged, and "public" when it was so privileged
by the State. This later came to be construed as the
granting of corporation-rights to a Church, which,
in such States as Oldenburg, Waldeck, and Prussia,
can be done only by the passage of a law, as was
done in Prussia in 1874 and 1875, for example, for
the Baptists and Mennonites. Religious communi-
ties can secure the rights of a corporation, unless
objected to by the State, by being entered in the
register kept by the local authorities; though where
a special law is necessary for the acquisition of such
rights, the need of such laws is not thereby abro-
gated. The Imperial Criminal Code (§166) grants
any religious body with corporation-rights within
the empire special protection against public insults
to its institutions and usages; and special priNn-
leges are also acconlod the clergy of such bodies.
Since the Peace of Westplialia, therefore, tolera-
tion has been extended from the Roman Catholics,
Lutherans, and Reformed to all religions, so that
the minimum acconled to any religious body is
now " private " public worship.

The Roman Catholic Church maintains her pre-

VI.— 31

Reformation attitude toward toleration by the
State, as protested against both by the papal
nuncio Chigi (Oct. 26, 1648) and the
6. Roman bull Zelo domus Dei (Nov. 20, 1648),
Catholic on the ground that the State has no
Attitude, authority to issue such regulations.
Similar protests have repeatedly been
made by the Curia, as by the briefs of Pius VII.
against the toleration of Protestants in Bavaria
(Feb. 13 and Nov. 19, 1803), the encyclicals
Mirari vos of Gregory XVI. (Aug. 15, 1832),
Pius IX. (Dec. 8, 1864), and Leo XIII. (Nov. 1,
1885). Nevertheless, this church does not con-
demn those who, for the promotion of great good
or the avoidance of grave scandal, tolerate the ex-
istence of various cults in the State. At the same
time she insists that no one may be forced to accept
the faith against his will, although this is construed
as applying to non-Christians, and not to baptized
Protestants, the latter being regarded as heretics,
and hence subject to compulsory conversion by
the secular arm. Leo XIII., while maintaining this
position, declared that a State tolerating heretics
should not be incontinently condemned, but should
be temporized with as circumstances should de-
mand. The official Roman Catholic rejection of
the principle of toleration accordingly remains un-
changed in essence, and it is, therefore, her endeavor
and hope that the State may some time be con-
vinced of the justness of her attitude, and again
adopt the policy of non-toleration.

(E. Friedberg.)

Bibuographt: A large number of documents dealing with
the progress of the idea in England are contained in Gee
and Hardy, DocumenU, Consult: J. Locke, Three IM^
tere on Toleration^ reprint, London, 1876 (on the act of
1689); J. Milton, Eetay on Toleration, in his Worke, 8
vols., London, 1867, etc.; J. L. Balmes, European Civilr-
itation; Protettantiam and Catholidtm, chaps, xxxiv.-
xxxvii., London, 1855 (Roman Catholic); A. Hess, Ueber
religiOee und eittliche Toleranx, St. Gall. 1884; P. Brooks.
Tolerance, New York, 1887; E. Lefbvre, La Liberti re-
lUfieuee, Verviers, 1888; P. SchafT, Progre— of Reliffioue
Freedom aa Shown in the Hiat of Toleratidn Acta, New
York, 1889; F. Hement, Entretiena aur la liberU de con-
aeience, Paris, 1890; L. Marillier, La LiberU de conacience,
ib. 1890; F. Pollock, Reliffioua EqualUy, in Oj^ord Lee-
turea, London, 1890; G. Canet. La Libert^ de conacience,
aa nature, aon hiatoire, Lyon, 1891; H. FOrstenau, Daa
Grundrecht der Reliaionafreiheit, Leipsic, 1891; J. J. I.
von DOllinger, in his Eaaaya on Hiatorical and LUerary
Subjecta, London, 1894; M. Creighton, Peraecution and
Tolerance, ib. 1895; A. D. White. Hiat. of the Warfare of
Science and Theoloffy. 2 vols.. New York. 1896; F. M.
Holland. Liberty in the 19th Century, ib. 1899; G. Bonet-
Maury, Hiat de la liberty de conacience en Prance depuia
I'idU di Nantea juaqu'au 1870, Paris. 1900; H. Hello, Ua
LibertSa modernea d'apr^a lea eneycliquea, ib. 1900; F.
RuflSni, La libertii religioaa, Turin, 1900; R. Oertel. Ent^
wickelung dea Grundaatxea OMttbifferbefriediguno, Leipsic,
1901; S. H. Ck>bb, Riae of Reliffiotu Liberty in America,
New York. 1902; H. M. King. Relioioua Liberty, Provi-
dence. 190S; £. S. P. HaynM, Reliaioua Peraecution,
London, 1904; A. Matagrin, Hiat. de la toUrance reli-
ffieuae, Paris, 1905; J. Mackinnon, A Hiat. of Modem
Liberty, vols, i.-iii., New York, 1906 sqq. (to be in 8 vols.);
E. Rousse. La Liberty relipieuae en Prance 1880-18H,
Paris, 1904; Cambridge Modem Hiatory, v. 324 sqq.. New
York, 1908; and the literature under the articles referred
to in the text.

LICHTENBERGER, llH'ten-b&rg^er, FREDERIC
AUGUSTE: French Protestant theologian; b. at
Strasburg Mar. 21, 1832; d. at Paris Jan. 7« 1899.

lAohtenbwvtr
liiebner

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

488

He was the defioendant of an old Alsatian family;
attended the Protestant gymnasium of Strasburg;
studied theology there and at several German uni-
versities; spent considerable time at Paris; re-
turned to Strasburg where he became bachelor of
theology (1854), licentiate (1857), and doctor (1860).
In 1864 he was appointed professor of systematic
and practical theology in the theological faculty of
Strasburg, but his activity was interrupted by the
war of 1870. His sympathies were on the side of
the French, and he nursed the sick during the siege
of his native town. After the war, the German ad-
ministration offered him as well as his colleagues a
place in the newly organized university, but while
most of his colleagues accepted the offer, he to-
gether with Colani and Sabatier declined. Lich-
tenbcrger went to Paris where he was at first em-
ployed by the Lutheran consistory as assistant
preacher of the Church of Redemption, then he
worked six years with great devotion in the service
of the ^lise libre in the Chapelle Taitbout. Chiefly
owing to the efforts of Lichtenberger and Auguste
Sabatier, Gambetta finally (1877) fulfilled the
promise to renew the Strasburg theological faculty
in Paris, and for seventeen years Lichtenberger was
the efficient dean. During the time between 1871
and 1877 Lichtenberger found ample time to de-
vote himself to his literary works. His was not an
original mind, but he could clearly and forcibly re-
pr^uce the thoughts of others. His principal
works are: Histoire des ttUea religieuses en AUe-
magne deputs le milieu du dix^huitihne Steele jusqu^h
nos joura (3 vols., Paris, 1873; Eng. transl.. His-
tory of Oerman Theology in the 19th Century, Edin-
burgh, 1890), and the French Protestant coimter-
part to Herzog, Encydopidie des sciences religieuses
(Paris, 1877^2, 13 vols.). It was also owing to
his efforts as Conseil g^n^ral des facult^s and as
member of the Conseil sup^rieur de rinstruction
publique that the bond between the Protestant
faculty and the other faculties of the university
became so close that all attempts to sever it failed.
Lichtenberger's personal views on theology and
the Church were influenced by Alexander Vinet.
As a thorough individualist he inclined toward the
ideas of a free Church combating conventionalism
in church and theology. In 1895 a chronic disease
permanently laid him aside. His valedictory eev-
monL' Alsace en deuil (1871, 10th ed., 1873) preached
at Strasburg after the war of 1870, achieved an un-
precedented popularity.

(EUGEN LaCHENMANN.)

Bibliography: The funeral addresa by Sabatier is in Revue
ckrHienne, 1899, pp. 122-127. Consult Lichtenberger,
ESR, xiii. 120-121.

LIDDON, HENRY PARRY: Church of England ;
b. at North Stoneham (7 m. s.w. of Winchester)
Aug. 20, 1829; d. at Weston-super-Mare (20 m.
B.w. of Bristol) Sept. 9, 1890. He was educated in
the school at Lyme Regis, continuing at King's Col-
lege, London, and Christ Church, Oxford. He
graduated B.A. in 1850, and the next year won the
Johnson theological scholarship, and was made a
student of Christ Church. In 1852 he was ordained
deacon, in 1853 priest. For the first two months
of 1852 he was curate at Wantage (21 m. n.n.w.

of Reading), then for a little while did duty st
Finedon (12 m. n.e. of Northampton). In 1864 he
became first vice-principal of the theological college
at Cuddesdon (6 m. s.8.e. of Oxford), which had
just been established by Samuel Wilberforoe, bishop
of Oxford, but his High-church views excited so
much opposition and exposed his bishop to so mudi
criticism that he was compelled to resi^ on Dec
29, 1858, and he left the following Elaster. Almost
immediately be became vice-principal of St. Ed-
mund's Hall, Oxford. There his position was more
congenial by far, and he quickly became a poirer
in the imiversity by the Sunday-evening lectures
on the New Testament, which be carried on with
great success imtil 1869 and again from 1883 till
the close of his life. But in 1S62 illness forced ha
resignation of the vioe-principalship. In 1864 he
became examining chapLun to Walter Kerr Hamil-
ton, bishop of Salisbury, with whose Anglo-CathoBe
views he was in full accord. In 1865 be was chosen
Hampton lecturer, and produced the volume by
which he is best known, The Divinity of our Lord
and Saviour Jesus Christ (London, 1866, 14th ed
1890). In 1870 he became Ireland professor of
exegesis of Holy Scripture at Oxford, and so re-
mained till 1882, when he resigned because, as he
said, he could not do justice to the office and at the
same time meet his other engagements. In 1870
he became a canon of St. Paul's, London. He was
now a preacher of established repute, and held the
attention of vast crowds, although his sermons were
inordinately long. He was always tremendously in
earnest, full of spiritual fervor, simple in his lan-
guage, and clear in his argmnentation. He read
his sermons closely because the strain of addressiDg
such large audiences was felt by him and he did
not wish to be imder the additional strain which
extempore speech would have entaUed.

He maintained some extreme positions. Thus
he defended John Purchas, who had been con-
demned for ritualism, and likewise the Reverend
Thomas Pelham Dale and the Reverend Richard
William Enraght, the ritualists who had refused
to obey the judgment of the court of arches,
going so far as to question its authority. His
conservatism came out in his defense of the
continued use of the Athanasian Creed; in his as-
sertion that the higher criticism of the Old Testa-
ment impugned the infallibility of Jesiis Christ and
was, therefore, to be rejected; and in his contention
against the archbishop of Canterbury, that the
presence even of a bishop of the Church of England
in Jerusalem was an intrusion on the diocese of the
patriarch of Jerusalem.

Christ College, Oxford, was his home when not
in residence in St. Paul's, and to that university he
gave much of himself. In 1866-70 he was active
in the founding of Keble College, and in 1883-84
of Pusey House, both at Oxford, and both estab-
lished by the friends of the High-church party.

His preaching was practically limited to the uni*
versities of Oxford and Cambridge and as canon of St.
Paul's, London, and his publications were almost ex-
clusively sermons and a large part of the life of Pusey.
He was asked on several occasions to accept an epis-
copal appointment, but he would not consider it. In

488

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Liohtenberffer
liiebner

1886 he did accept the chancellorship of St. Paul's ca-
thedral. He was, as might be expected, deeply inter-
ested in the Old Catholic movement, and attended
the Bonn conference of 1875, took a leading part
in it, and translated the record of its proceedings.

Bibuoorapht: The principal biography is by J. O. John-
ston. lAft and Lettera of Henry Parry Liddan, London. 1904.
Others are by A. B. Donaldson, ib. 1905; G. W. E. Russell,
ib. 1909. and in DNB, xxxiit. 223-228.

LIDWINA (LIDWIGIS, LIDIA), SAINT: Dutch
virgin; b. at Schiedam (4 m. w. of Rotterdam)
Mar. 18, 1380; d. there April 14, 1433. Bom of
prosperous parents she was of so great beauty that
she was besieged with suitors from her thirteenth
year. She had no desire for marriage, however,
and prayed to God that he would make her so
loathsome that no man could look upon her with
pleasure. Coming from church on Candlemas day,
1394, she slipped on the ice and broke her hip, and
for the rest of her life underwent terrible sufferings,
which she endured with such incredible patience
that she has been said to hold the same place in
the dispensation of the New Testament that Job
does in that of the Old. She had an altar erected
in her chamber and during the last years of her life
partook of holy communion every few days. She
had many ecstatic \n5ions, beholding hell, heaven,
and purgatory. Pilgrims flocked to her bedside
and many wonderful cures were said to have been
performed. Her day in the Roman Catholic calen-
dar is Apr. 14.

Bibliography: The early Ftto are collected in ASB, Apr.,
ii. 270-365. One of them is in Fr. transl. by J. Bnich-
man. Besancon, 1840, and in Dutch by G. A. Meyer.
Nimetnien. 1890. Consult: W. Moll, J. Bruomann en het
godadienetio leven . . . in de 16. eeutp, Amsterdam, 1854;
KL, vii. 1974-79 (where other literature is given).

LIE: Any false statement made with intent to
deceive, also any reservation, equivocation, or con-
cealment of the truth for the purpose of misleading
our neighbor. It is in this comprehensive sense
that the divine command, ** Thou shalt not bear
false witness against thy neighbor,'' is to be inter-
preted. Christ designates the devil as the source
of the lie and as the father of liars (John viii. 44);
and after he had established the kingdom of truth
upon earth (John xviii. 37) his disciples combatted
falsehood with might and main (cf. Eph. iv. 25;
Tit. i. 12-14). John expressly states that liars are
excluded from the city of God (Rev. xxi. 8, xxii.
15). Attempts have been made to adduce Bib-
lical examples of the ** white lie," or " necessary
lie " (NoUuge), but the prevarications of Abraham
about Sarah (Gen. xii. 11-13, xx. 2), and the de-
ceptions of David (I Sam. xxi. 2, 13, xxvii. 10) do
not come under this category, not to speak of the
lies of Sarah (Gen. xviii. 15) and Jacob (xxvii. 19).
However, the Old Testament seems to endorse to
a certain extent the kind of necessary deception
employed by Rahab to save the spies in Jericho
(Josh, ii.), and in a similar case by Michael (I Sam.
xix. 13-17). Perhaps such deception is justifiable
where a human life is at stake, or where a lie seems
necessary to the accomplishment of some higher
good; but even then it should be possible to sur-
mount the difficulty without lying.

(KaKL BURGERf.)

LIEBNER, Ub'ner, KARL THEODOR ALBERT:

German Lutheran theologian, of importance in the
history of the newer constructive theology; b. at
SchkOlen, near Naumburg, Mar. 3, 1806; d. in
Switzerland June 24, 1871. Along with the con-
sciousness that in the modem critical period a spe-
cial task was laid upon theological science, he found
his life-work in the conviction that in order success-
fully to meet the ever-growing opposition there was
requisite a wider development of the Christian
ethical content; and that the first requisite was to
give full play to the radically decisive ethical fac-
tor in Christianity and give it in contemporary
ecclesiastical and scientific consciousness the place
which it holds by intrinsic right in the Christian
scheme.

After the completion of his education at Leipsic
(marked by special attention to Kant) he was in-
fluenced by his further studies in Berlin (under
Schleiermacher, Hegel, Neander, Marheineke), and
by his reception into the Wittenberg Theological
Seminary (under Heubncr and Richard Rothe).
It was here that he wrote his first book: Hugo von
St. Victor und die theologischen Richiungen seiner
ZeU (Leipsic, 1832), which is valuable for its ex-
position of the union of mysticism and gnosis be-
fore the Reformation in the school of St. Victor,
and for its bearing on the struggles and aims of
our time. This theme is continued in the treatise
(in the TSK) Ueber Gersons mystische Theologie,
which he composed in his first pastoral charge
(Kreisfeld, near Eisleben), 1832, as well as in the
academic treatise Richardi a S, Vidore de contem-
plaiione doctrina^ which, along with some treatises
on practical theology (1843-44), and some sermons,
he published at Gottingen, whither he had been
called in 1835 as professor of theology and univer-
sity preacher.

Called in 1844 to Kiel, to succeed Domer as piO-
fessor of systematic theology, he wrote there nis
principal work, Die christliche Dogmatik aus dem
christologischen Princip dargestelU (Gottingen, 1849).
In Christ the God-man, Liebner finds the solution
of the spiritual struggle of our time. Here, where
the divine dwells in the human in bodily substance,
he discerns the truth and fulness of religion, per-
sonally absolute religion; the ethical appears to
him as the inmost and profoundest essence of Chris-
tianity, as its absolutely deepest and richest con-
tent, in fact the center-point of all things divine
and human, the principle governing all manner of
being and thought, in the immanent and permanent
vital process in God and in the world. By the aid
of this thought he sees how the conceptions men
have of God and religion correspond; how subor-
dinate and one-sided ideas of God can beget none
but subordinate and partial ideas of religion: the
physical conception of God as being, causality, and
the like, begetting a mere physical conception of re-
ligion (feeling of dependency, of the infinite in the
finite); the logical conception, a merely logical re-
ligion (perception, knowledge of the divine, etc.);
the exclusively ethical conception of God, an ex-
clusively ethical conception of religion (external
positivism and moralism, formal orthodoxy and
rationalism). In view of these partial ideas which

THE NEW 8CHAFF-HER20G

dilute, if not dinntegrate and dissolve, the essence
of Christianity, Liebner brings to bear the eatire
force of coutemplative and speculative reasouing
in order to conceive as a whole the organic coopera-
tion of the physical, toKicsl, and ethical, and there-
by to maintain the full, unmaimed, and undiluted
effect of Christianity.

Starting from tlic principle of the Incsmation,
Liebner now more lucidly exhibits the relation of
faith and knowledge, showing how the one postu-
lates and presupposes the other; bow faith can as
httle be void of thought as can God; snd how
Christianity is a redemption both for mind and
heart. Participation in the life of salvation is also
participation in the ideas of salvation which are
inseparably connected with it, every divine gift and
grace is at the same time a task to be worked out
by humao effort; so wo are to work out, as the
proper content of thought, the salutary ideas im-
manent in the facts of salvation, under constant
and formative guidance of God's word and of the
Spirit who leads into all truth. As faith without
works is dead, so is it also dead without knowledge.
On the ground of such faith rests, for Liebner's the-
ology, the certainty that theology itself, as the
scientific self-consciousness of Christianity, must
also find its scientific principles in its own peculiar
content, the Gospel, with full confidence that the
vital Christian fund of faith is susceptible of scien-
tific elaboration. In this consciousness, his theol-
ogy disarmed prejudices against faith on the one
hand and knowledge on the other, by showing in
the relation between God and the universe. Creator
and creature, God and man, spirit and nature, free-
dom and necessity, etc., how the atomistic con-
ception of diversity is unable to discern or compre-
hend the idea of unity; how it severs and dismem-
bers unity, and is in the last analysis a conception
of death and decay. He shows equally how the
monistic conception of unity loses sight of and eon-
founds diversity: whereas faith, when compre-
hended in its vital truth and depth, manifests itself
as the deepest ground and motive for n truly or-
ganic philosophy, which does justice to both diver-
sity and unity. These fundamental ideas are espe-
ciaJly expanded in his Introduetio in dogmaiicam
ckristianam (Leipsic, 1854-55), which be wrote at
Leipsic, whither he had been persuaded to go after
declining calls to Marburg and Heidelberg.

In 1S55 he was appointed court preacher and
vice-president of the Superior Consistory of Saxony.
The manner in which he embraced this position as
an opportunity to increase his already richly
blessed labors appears from his writings: Ueber
dan Wcsen ilcr Kirdunvmtotion. a memorial to the
official viKitors (1S57); Udier den Stand der chriat-
lichen Erkennlnis in dcr deutecken ei-angeliicken
Kircke, an address before the Conference at Eisen-
ach in 1S59, incidentally describing the construc-
tive work of the new era (Dresden, I860); his
Reformation sermon in 1864; a second volume of
sermons, Predigl'Bcitriige lur Fiirilentng t/rr Er-
kennlnis Chriali in der Gcmeirute (1861). and the
Jahrblieher /iir deiUsehe Theohgic which he founded
in conjunction with Dorner, Ehrenfeuchter, and
others, for the support of his constructive theology.

BiiuoaaAFHT: U. M. Ralinc 2wr friBiMmng a . , .
A. Lubncr. DmdMu 18TI: C. Schwara. Zur Oeada
^tr nnulcn Theoloeie. pp. 371 sqc].. Leipoie. 1S64:
tlQcke. Dii Doffmalik do 19. Jatirh^uiderlM. pp. 2S0 >
Gothft. 1S67.

LffiTZMAHH, Uta'man, HAHS: German Pi
Mtant; b. at Dilsseldorf Mar. 2, 1875. He was
ucated at the universities of Jena (1S93) and B<
(1894-97; lie. theol., 1896), and after teaching
a gymnasium at Bonn in IS9S— 99, became prii
decent at the university in the aame city in IS
Since 190S he has been professor of church hist
at Jena, He has edited Kleint Texte/iir theologu
VorUtungen und UAungen (Bonn, 1902 sqq.; £
transl.,Jl/aiejTais /or Uie Use of Theological Leebc
and Studaile, C^bridge, 1902 sqq.) and Ha
buck mm Neuen Tetlament (in collaboration v
H. GieasmaDD, £. Klostermann, F. Niebei^all, i
P. Wendland; Tilbingen, 1906 eqq.), and has w
ten: Der Menadieruohn (Tubingen, 1896); CaUt
Milt«Uungen Hber ihre GetehichU und tiamUchri/di
Uiberlieferung (1897); ApoUinaria r<on Laodieta r
seine SchuU, i. (1904) ; and Daa Lebfn dea heili
SiTTtevn StyliUa (Leipsic, 1908).

LIFE ASD ADVERT UmOII. See Adventiots
LIFTinf, SYKOD OF: The second Austras
synod held during the reign of Carloman, aFf
encly in 743, at Lifting, in the nixteeoth ccnti
colled Lestines, the modem £!atinnes (7 m. s.e.
Hons). Belgium. Many things occur in its a
which do not really belong there, and others hi
scant independent value, being mere confinnatii
of the first Austrasian synod of the previous yt
It marked an important step in advance, howet
in that the principles of church government aires
fixed in the earlier synod were now more accural
defined as an adherence to primitive usage. Dir
dependence on the canons of the earlier Fath
(i.e., the ecumenical councils) was expressly pos
lated and the attitude assumed toward unlaw
marriages prepared the way tor the entrance of i
Roman code into the kingdom of the Franks. S
more important was the legal aspect, which p
equally momentous for Church and State, inasmu
as it involved the moot question of the enormc
secularization of the eighth century. They seem
have begun chiefly «ith Charles Martel, who i
vested laymen with bishoprics. Aft«r the death
Charles the process of restitution began in Austras
when the newly consecrated bishops were rei
stated in the possessions of the Church, althoui
the greater portion still remained in the hands
laymen as preairitE, In Neustria, on the olh
hand, those who held ecclesiastical estates retaini
their illegal property until the accession of Pepi
who gradually put an end to this state of alTaii
partly by actual restitution and partly by the sy
tem of precaria which he could revoke at pteosui
even though seculariiation was still practised '
some extent both by him and Carloman.

The provisions of 742 and 743 are important i
inaugurating a real, though limited, restitution ac
as guaranteeing a regular mode of procedure. J
the synod Carloman reached an agreement with II
bishops. Those who had received ecclesiastic
fiefs from the king held them only for life, tl

486

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Liebnar
liiffhtfbot

bishoprics reverting to the Church at death, while
the incumbents were required to pay taxes and to
keep the buildings in repair. Even in case of re-
version, however, the king could, if obliged by
necessity, again grant a bishopric as a frecaria, the
clergy being obliged in the great majority of cases
to obey the royal will. Yet the synod secured
better conditions for the German Church than pre-
vailed in Neustria, and neither the bishops nor the
pope protested. In the latter years of his life
Pepin promised that both the secular and regular
clergy should retain their property, although this
made no material change, the fiefs remaining in the
same hands and the provisions for reversion being
disregarded. Even at the end of the ninth century
a great part of the property of the Church was in
the hands of the king and had then been considered
practically his own for a hundred years. The ap-
plication of secularized ecclesiastical property, as
established at Liftins, contributed in no small
measure to the extension of the system of benefices,
and this synod thus became important in its bear-
ing on the development of the feudal system of the
Middle Ages. (A. Hauck.)

Bibliography: The decisions are given in MOH., Leg.,
aeotio ii 1, p. 26, no. 11. Consult: G. Waits, Deut9€he
Verfcutunoagest^Uhte, iii. 35 sqq., 8 vols.. Kiel, 1844-78:
P. Roth, OetchichU dt» BenefixialweaenM, Erlangen, 1850:
idem, FeudalitAt und UnUrthanenvrrband, Weimar, 1863;
idem, in Mandiner hittarischeM JahrbucK i (1865). 275;
Hefele, ConcUienge^chichte, iii. 525; Rettberg, KD, i. 306.

LIGGINS» JOHN: Protestant Episcopalian; b.
at Nuneaton (9 m. n.e. of Coventry), Warwickshire,
England, May 11, 1829. He was educated at the
Episcopal Academy, Philadelphia, and the theo-
logical seminary at Alexandria, Va. He was or-
dered deacon in 1855 and ordained priest two years
later. After being curate at the Church of the As-
cension, New York City, for a short time in 1855,
he went to China as a missionary, remaining in that
country until 1859. He then spent a year in Japan,
where he was the first Protestant missionary. Be-
cause of impaired health he returned to America in
1860, and has since devoted his energies to literary
work. In addition to contributing to The Spirit
of MissioTU from 1862 to 1900 and to the American
Church Sunday School Magazine since 1885, he has
written: One Thousand Familiar Phrases in Eng-
lish and Japanese (Boston, 1860); Missionary Pic-
ture Gallery (1870); Oriental Picture Gallery (1870);
England's Opium Policy (New York, 1883); Gems
of Illustration from the Sermons and Writings of Rev,
Dr. Guthrie (1885); and The Great Value and Suc-
cess of Foreign Missions (1889).

LIGHTFOOT, JOHH: English BibUcal critic
and Hebrai.st; b. at Stoke-upon-Trent (38 m. n. by
w. of Birmingham), Staffordshire, Mar. 29, 1602;
d. at Ely, Cambridgeshire, Dec. 6, 1675. After
completing his education at Christ's College, Cam-
bridge, he taught at Repton, Derbyshire, for two
years and then took orders. Appointed curate of
Norton-in- Hales, Shropshire, he became chaplain
to the Hebraist Sir Rowland Cotton, who urged
him to study Hebrew and other Semitic languages.
He accompanied Cotton when he removed to Lon-
don, and then became rector of Stone, Staffordshire,
for about two years, but in 1628 changed his resi-

dence to Homsey, Middlesex, in order to be able
to consult the rabbinical collections at Sion Col-
lege, London. During his residence at Homsey
he wrote his first work, dedicated to Cotton and
entitled Erubhin, or Miscellanies^ Christian and
Judaicalf penned for Recreation at vacant Hours (Lon-
don, 1629). In the following year he was pre-
sented to the rectory of Ashley, Staffordshire, which
he held twelve years, after which he settled in Lon-
don and became rector of St. Bartholomew's. Pres-
byterian in his sympathies, he took the parliamen-
tary side in the Civil War and was a member of the
Westminster Assembly. After a year at St. Bar-
tholomew's, he was appointed rector of Great Mun-
den, Hertfordshire, and held it for the remainder
of his life. In 1650 he was chosen master of St.
Catharine Hall, Cambridge, and four years later
became vice-chancellor. He again sided with the
Presbyterians in the Savoy Conference of 1661, but
accepted the Act of Uniformity in the following
year'. In 1667 he was appointed a prebendary at
Ely. His Oriental library was bequeathed to Har-
vard College, but was burned in 1769.

Lightfoot was a prolific writer and is noteworthy
as the first Christian scholar to call attention to the
importance of the Talmud. His chief works, in ad-
dition to the one already mentioned, are as follows:
A Few and New Observations on the Book of Genesis
(London, 1642); A Handful of Gleanings out of the
Book of Exodus (1643) ; Harmony of the Four Evan-
gdists among themselves and xmth the Old Testament
(3 vols., 1644-50); Harmony , Chronicle, and Order
of the Old Testament (1647); The Temple Service as
itstoodintheDaysof our Saviour (1049); The Tem-
ple, especially as it stood in the Days of our Saviour
(1650); Harmony f Chronide, and Order of the New
Testament (1655); and the work which has done
most to preserve his fame, Hora Hebraica et
Talmudica (6 vols., Cambridge and London, 1658-
1678). The first edition of his collected works,
those originally in Latin translated into English,
was edited by G. Bright and J. Strsrpe, 2 vob.
London, 1684; and a Latin edition, including those
at first written in English, was prepared by J.
Texellius, 2 vols., Rotterdam, 1686. A complete
edition of his writings was made by J. R. Pitman,
13 vols., London, 1822-25. It shoiUd also be noted
that Lightfoot revised the Samaritan version of the
Pentateuch for Walton's Polyglot Bible.

Bibliography: A Life is prefixed to the Work; ed. of 1684,
and one may be found in vol. i. of the Pitman edition;
D. M. Welton, John lAghtfoot, the Engluh HebraUt, Lon-
don« 1878. Consult further: W. M. Hetherington, H%»-
tory of the Weetminater Aeeembly of Divinee, Edinburgh,
1878; A. F. Mitchell. The Weetmiruler AaeenMy; ite Hi»-
tory and Standards, London, 1883; DNB, xxxiii. 220-231.

LIGHTFOOT, JOSEPH BARBER: English ec-
clesiastic and scholar; b. at Liverpool Apr. 13,
1828; d. at Bournemouth (6 m. s.w. of Christ-
church), Hampshire, Dec. 21, 1889. He was the
son of an accountant, and entered Trinity College,
Cambridge, in 1847. In 1849 he became scholar
of Trinity; 1851, B.A., senior classic, and chan-
cellor's medalist; in 1852, fellow of Trinity; 1854
M.A., and was ordained deacon; 1854, was one of
the founders of the Journal of Classical and Sacred
Philology; 1857, tutor of Trinity; 1858, was or-

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

dained presbyter, and became select preacher ia
Cambridge; in 1861, Hulaeui professor af divinity at
Cambridge, and chaplain to the prince consort; 1862,
was appointed examininf; chaplain to Bishop Tait of
London, and honorary chaplain in ordinary to the
queen; 1866 and 1869-79, examining chaplain to
Tait, who had nov become archbbhop of Canter-
bury. From July, 1870, to Nov., 1880, be acted as
one of the revisers of the Elngliah New Testament;
from 1871 to 1879 was canon of St. Paul's, and in

1874 and 1875 select preacher at Oxford. In

1875 he gave up the Hulsean professorship and
became Lady MancBiret professor of divinity at
Cambridge, with which was combined the rectory
of Terrington St. Clement's, Norfolk; in 1875 be was
made deputy clerk of tbe closet to tbe queen. On
Apr. 25, 1879, he was consecrated bishop of Durham.

Lightfoot was shy and reserved, yet was very
successful as a professor. The students flocked to
his lectures and he held them by his rich thoughts,
his wide knowledge, and his sympathetic and in-
spiring style of address. As a preacher in St.
Paul's the same characteristics secured him a bear-
ing. The fact is moreover not to be overlooked,
that his four volumes of sermons are as good when
read as when beard. In 1870 he showed his liking
for church history by founding three scholarships, on
the subject " m itself and in connection with general
history." As bishop he gathered six or eight students
at a time around him in hia palace at Bishop Auck-
land, where the chaplains instructed them. He made
it his aim to preach in every church in his diocese.

His work as canon of St, Paul's and hia coaneo-
tion with Tait had prepared him for the charge of
a diocese, and Durham was a very important one.
He did all he could to prepare for the long-needed
division of the diocese, and the necessary funds
were at length secured for the foundation of the
see of Newcastle; J. W. Pease, a Quaker, made the
munificent pift of the estate of Benwell Tower as a
residence for the new bishop, Tlien Lightfoot set
to work to build the churches still needed in his
diocese. At a meeting at Uurhnm he declared that
twenty- five churches and miss ion- rooms were
needed and he subscribed a large sum himself;
nearly £30,000 were subscribed in that meeting,
and in five years twenty-five churches or mission
chapels were built or building. As a thank-offer-
ing after the first seven years of his episcopate, he
himself founded a church in the town of Sunder-
land, lie furthered strongly the creation of a
diocesan fund to unite all the foundations for
church purposes in the diocese, for churches, schools,
insurance, pensions for clergymen, and the like; his
own share in it was £500 a year, and besides he
left the greater pnrt of his property to it. He in-
creased the niunber of the rural deans, and ap-
pointed a Kccond archdeacon in 1882. When at
Terrington he had in 1878 and 1879 spent £2,140
to renew the chancel of the church, and at Duriuim
he spent much money in beautifying the episcopal
palace. He furthered in every way the temperance
and While Cross movements.

In the year 18C.5 his commentary on Galatinns
came out (10th ed,, London, 1893). Philippians
came out in 186S (lOth ed,, IS91), and Ooloseians

and Philemon 1875 (3d ed., 1890). Tbeae TOhuu
contained tbe Greek text, s very full conunentu;
and important special essays. Hia Cfamnri ',
Rome appeared in 1869, &n appendix with tt^ ae
matter from Bryennios in 1877 (again in 1890
two volumes). The Apottoiic FaiJten came «
in two parts (Part I., vols, i., ii.; Part II., voki
iii.. 1886-1890). As a, reviaer he wrote A Fre
Revitum qf the Neu) TestoTneta, 1871 (2d ed., 18T
New York, 1873, 3d ed., with new appendix, Lo
on, 1891). He was against a half-he&rted revisi
and opposed vigorously the use of the youn|
Greek text. His essays against Cassels' Sup
tuUiiTol Rdigum (see SnrKRNATTJBAt Rkugion) g
peared as a book m 1889. Five volumes of s
mons, essays and notea have been published sii
his death. Caspab Rkn£ Ghegobt.

Bibuooupbt: BMop LyA^oat <uionynunB) Lood
ISM; DNB, KxxUi, 232-240; J S Stniie in CkurA
viae. Inil 173 «».; F. W. F^rmr, in C^„umpcr^
nta. Ivu. 170 aqq.. nipnxlueBd in Magatini cf Cbiw
LitanKinv. i 380: W. Sudmy. in BnoUA HitUrial
viev. Y, 200 MM.

LIGHTS, USE OF, IN WORSHIP: From n
early times during service the altar has been lighti
even in day-time, at first generally by lamps, la
by candles. In the fourth century the custom
giving distinction to religious functions by met
of illumination appeare to have been generaL T
reading of the Goapels, baptism, the celebration
the Lord's Supper, festivals such as Blaster and P»
tecost, the consecration of churehea, the instal
tion of bUhops, etc., gave regular or eitraordina
occasion therefor. Tbe vigils especially offered
favorable opportunity. Indeed, even at an eai
period, the institution of tt^ " eternal light " »
pears, indicating a stdl earlier date for the orij
of the custom. The pmctical requiremeDta trf t
early morning services, the primitive custom
celebrating the Eucharist in the evening, IIk ei
ployment of lamps in the oeremonies at the sepi
chers in the catacombs, the religious significan
given to light in the Bible and the example of ti
seven-branched candlestick rendered light a coi
stituent of the liturgy as early as the third centur;
At first the altar was surrounded by oindleslici
and hanging lamps; not until the twelfth centur
were the candlesticks placed upon the altar itael
There were in the Roman churches at an earl
period candlesticks of varied forms and of grea
material and artistic value. Paulus Silentiariu
(ed. Becker, Bonn, 1837) describes the brillian
lightmg of the St. Sophia in the time of Justinian
At the services for the dead also the use of light:
was introduced at an early period.

In tbe medieval church this custom increase!
and became more definite, especially in the placing
of candles before pictures and reliquaries, a custon
which had its beginnings in QuiBtian antiquity; ic
the Easter candles, in the so-called Tenebra lights
during Holy Week, and in the death lamps. The
festival of (Jandlemaa was created especially for the
consecration of candles.

The lamps found in so great numbers in the
catacombs were for private use; they arc almost
all of clay and were given an elongated form from

487

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Liffhtfoot
Liffnori

the fourth century on. The base is ornamented
in relief, both of a secular and religious character
(V. Schultze, Arch&ologie der aUchriHlichen Kunst,
pp. 292 sqq., Munich, 1895; M. Bauer, Der Bit-
derachmuck fruhchrisUicher Thonlampenf Greifs-
wald, 1907). On the other hand the bronze lamps,
preserved from Christian antiquity and distin-
guished by more graceful forms and a more artistic
conception, must, in part, have served for ecclesi-
astical purposes. A complete change shows itself
in the Middle Ages; lamps were not indeed entirely
abandoned, but candlesticks, brackets, and can-
delabra took their place. The forms reflected the
influence of Roman and Gothic art. The candle-
sticks with several, sometimes even with seven,
branches are more impressive. For a brighter
illumination of churches chandeliers were used at
an early period. Prominent examples of this style
are foimd in Hildesheim, Combourg, Aix-la-Cha-
pelle, and other places. In the Gothic period the
candelabra and chandeliers became more orna-
mental and more subject to the influence of archi-
tectural form; the Renaissance secularized the
traditional forms. At the present day, in S3rmpathy
with the reaction in favor of medieval architecture,
there is a return to the older designs. The Re-
formed Chiu^hes, from the beginning, rejected the
use of altar-lights as papistical, while the Lutheran
Church maintained the custom as it was.

Victor Schultze.

Biblioorapht: Bingham, Orioine», VIII., vi. 21. XI., iv.
14; XIL, iv. 4; XVI., iv. 17; XX., viu. 6; XXIIL, ii. 6;
F. Bock, Der KrorUeuchter dea Kaiaer§ Friedrich Bar-
baro9aa, Leipaio. 1864; W. Mdhlbauer, Qeachidite und
Bedeutung der WactuluJUer bei den ArircAJicAen Funktionerit
Atigsburgf 1874; C. Cahier, Nouveaiix m^langee d'cwchS-
ologie, pp. 188-228, Paris. 1875; V. Schultse, Die Rata-
komben^ pp. 488 sqq., Loipsio, 1882; H. Otto, Uandbuch
der kirchlichen KunetarchAologie, i 156 sqq., Leipsic, 1883;
C. Rohault de Fleury. La Meeee, vi. 1-58, 8 vols., Paris,
1883-89; V. Thalhofer. Handbuch der kaiholiachen Litur-
oik, i. 666 aqq., Freiburg, 1887; S. Beissel. Kunet und
Lihtrgie in Jtedien, pp. 247 sqq.. Freiburg. 1890; H. Theilar,
The Candle ae a Symbol and Sacramental in the Catholic
Chweh, New York, 1909; DC A, u. 993-998, 1564.

LIOUORI, W'gHL-6'ri, ALFONSO MARIA DI, AITD
THE REDEMPTORIST ORDER.

L Alfonso Maria di Liguori.
Early Life (f 1).

Foundation of the Redemptorist Order (f 2).
Episcopate and Later Life (f 3).
Moral. Pastoral, and Ascetic Works (f 4).
Dogmatic, Apologetic, and Homiletic Works (§ 5).
IL The Redemptorist Order.
Early History ((1).
Spread in Northern Europe (§ 2).
Present SUtus (( 3).
Redemptorists in America (§ 4).

I. Alfonso Maria di Liguori Alfonso Maria di

Liguori, commonly known as St. Alphonsus, the

most influential Roman Catholic moralist of the

eighteenth century, was bom at Marianella, a

suburb of Naples, Sept. 27, 1696, and died near

Noccra (8 m. n.w. of Salerno) Aug. I, 1787. The

third son of well-bom and pious pa-

I. Early rents, he received an excellent educa-

Life. tion at the hands of the Oratorians.

His progress in philosophical and legal

studies was such that he took his doctor's degree

at the age of seventeen, and began to practise law

with every prospect of a brilliant career; but he
deserted it in 1723 to prepare for the priesthood,
which he received on Dec. 21, 1726, after a year
spent in the Neapolitan house of the Propaganda.
In 1729 he entered the Chinese College under the
same direction, and devoted himself to the life of a
missioner in southem Italy, founding pious associ-
ations to be directed by catechists appointed
by himself. This part of his life was marked
by visions and revelations, one of which, through
a mm at Scala near Amalfi, directed him not
to return to Naples, but to remain where he was
for the purpose of founding a new order of mis-
sion-priests in aid of neglected souls. In pursuance
of this admonition he proceeded (Nov. 9, 1732)
to found the Congregation of the Most Holy
Redeemer.

The new order was confined to the small town
of Scala for two years, and its very existence was
threatened by attacks from various quarters. The
Propaganda expelled Liguori as a rest-
2. Founda- less innovator, and the archbishop of
tion of the Naples spoke unfavorably of the new
Redempto- undertaking. Only two of Liguori's
rist Order, original companions remained stead-
fast; but be went forward undiscour-
aged, and soon was able to establish a second house
at Villa Schiavi in the diocese of Cajazzo, and a
third (1735) at Ciorani in that of Salemo. The
vows were first solemnly taken on July 21, 1742,
when Liguori was unanimously elected superior-
general for life. Papal confirmation was given by
Benedict XIV. (Feb. 25, 1749), though the Nea-
politan government refused to accept the brief.
The order made rapid progress, especially in the
kingdom of the Two Sicilies, where the founder
was unwearied in missionary labors, his influence
being seen not only in the foundation of new houses,
but also in the winning of various classes of the
community — the clergy, secular and regular, the
nobility, the laboring classes, and even the prison-
ers in the jails — ^to participation in his spiritual
exercises. He won his power over them partly by
his ardent devotion and by the skilful tactics em-
ployed in his missions, and partly by mild treat-
ment of penitents in the confessional, together with
the habit of encouraging them to frequent recep-
tion of the Sacrament, both of which points were
contrary to the rigorist practise of that part of the
Italian clergy which was inclined to Jansenistic
views.

In 1762, much against his will, Liguori was named
by Pope Clement XIII. to the bishopric of Sant'
Agata de' Goti. He tumed over the direction of
his congregation to a vicar-general, Andrea Villani,
and applied his zeal to the care of his
3. Episco- diocese, using every means to promote
pate and piety and education within it for thir-
Later Life, teen years, until, on the ground of fail-
ing health, Pius VI. relieved him of
the burden of the episcopate in 1775, after which he
lived in ascetic retirement and poverty, refusing his
episcopal pension, in the house of his order at San
Michele de' Pagani near Nocera. His later years
were troubled by a division in his order arising from
the discord between the liberal Neapolitan govern-

I«lffnori
n&th

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

488

ment and Pius VI., and he did not live to see the re-
union of the two branches into which it split. Nine
years after his death the title of " Venerable '' was
conferred upon him by Pius VI.; he was beatified
by Pius VII. in 1816, and canonized in 1839 by
Gregory XVI.; while Pius IX. added his name to
those of the doctors of the Church in 1871, and his
works were specially commended by Leo XIII. in
a brief of Aug. 28, 1879. It is easy to see w^hy
Liguori's teaching has been so acceptable to mod-
em ultramontanism: the '^ learning and piety "
conmiended in these papal utterances are closely
allied to the Jesuit type of devotional literature
and probabilist ethics, and he takes a strong stand
in favor of the doctrines of the Immaculate Con-
ception and papal infallibility. His works are
nevertheless characterized, as might be expected
from the rapidity of their production, by gross
carelessness and inaccuracy in citations, as well as
by unthinking acceptance of traditional errors and
superstitions, as has been admitted by strict Ro-
man Catholic critics in both the eighteenth and the
nineteenth centuries.

The theological works of Liguori may be divided
into four principal groups: moral; pastoral and
ascetic; dogmatic and apologetic; and homiletic.
The principal work of the first class appeared first
as a new edition of H. Busenbaum's Medulla theo-
logice moralis^ with notes by Liguori
4. Moral, (Naples, 1748); the second edition, re-
Pastoral, vised and greatly enlarged (2 vols.,
and Ascetic 1753-55), bears his name as author —
Works. Theologia moralise concinnata a R. P.
Alphanso de Ligorio . . . per appen-
dices in Medullam R. P. H. Busenbaum. Nine edi-
tions in all Appeared during Liguori 's life, and the
nineteenth century saw a large number of reprints,
condensations, translations, etc., so that in one
form or another the work is used as the basis of
moral instruction in many Roman Catholic insti-
tutions. Other works in moral theology were the
practical instructions for confessors, published first
in Italian, Istruziane e pratica per un confessore
(3 vols., Naples, 1757), and then in Latin, Homo
apostolicus, instructus ad audiendas confessiones
(Bassano, 1759); and certain controversial trea-
tises in defense of his system, which until 1762 was
simple probabilLsm, later developing into equiprob-
abihsm (see Probabilism).

To the class of pastoral and ascetic theology be-
long, besides the Homo apostolicus, which may be
classed under this head, the Instructio ordinanr
dorum (Naples, 1758); Institutio catechistica (Bas-
sano, 1768); La vera sposa di Gcsu Crista, for nuns
(Venice, 1781); and a numl)er of small vernacular
tractates on devotion to the Sacred Hearts of
Jesus and Mary, visits to the Blessed Sacrament,
the W:iy of the Cross, etc. The best-known work
of this class, much admired by Lijijuori's adherents
and sharply attacked from the other side, is Le
Glorie di Maria (2 vols., Naples, 1750), in which he
follows the Jesuit Pepe in teaching what amounts
to the thesis tliat the help of Mary is necessary to
salvation, and supports it by a vast mass of un-
critically accepted stories.

The earliest of the dogmatic and apologetic wri-

tings of Liguori was the Breve dissertazione contro
gli errori dei modemi incredidi, written in 1756 and
directed against the pantheism of Spinoza and the
philosophy of Berkeley, Leibnitz, Wolf,
5. Dogmat- etc. A more extensive work along the
ic» Apolo- same lines appeared a 3rear later under
getic, and the title Evidema della/ede, ossia ver^
Homiletic iihdeOafede, In 1767 he published a
Works, new edition of this in three books, in
which besides materialism and English
deism the French philosophers Helvetius and Vol-
taire were attacked, and in 1772 a fourth book was
added against the deists. At short intervals ap-
peared another series of polemical works: a Latin
treatise (under the pseudonym Honorius de Honorio)
against N. von Hontheim, VindicicB pro auprema
Romani poniifids potestate contra Justinum Febron-
turn (Naples, 1768), defending not only the pri-
macy but the infalhbility of the pope; Opera dom-
matica contro gli eretici pretest ri/ormatori (1769), a
defense of the dogmatic decrees of the Council of
Trent; the Trionfo delta chiesa (3 vols., 1772), a
history and refutation of heresies; and a work com-
mending unity of religious belief in nations, en-
forced if necessary by their rulers, with sp>eeial
praise of the example of Louis XIV., La Fedelta
de* vassaUi verso Dio li rende fedeli anche al loro
principe (1777).

As a homilist Liguori began the publication of
sermons for every Sunday and greater festival, in
Italian, in 1769, and extended the series to four
volumes, besides other smaller collections. As a
religious poet and composer Liguori enjoyed some
reputation. His ** Recitative and Duet between
the Soul and Jesus Christ '' and " Passion Can-
tata " have recently been published, the former in
Stimmen axis MarionLaach, xlix. 441, and the latter
at Paris in 1900.

n. The Redemptorist Order. The ascetic prac-
tises originally prescribed by Liguori for his fol-
lowers were partially mitigated in the constitutions
drawn up by him after 1742, but not a little of the
primitive rigor remained in force. In common with
the Jesuit order, from whom he borrowed a num-
ber of points, he prescribed a fourth vow in addition
to the usual ones of poverty, chastity, and obedi-
ence— not to accept any dignity or ben-
I. Early efice outside of the congregation ex-
History, cept by the express command of the
pope or the superior-general, and to
remain in the congregation until death unless dis-
pensed by the pope himself. The unconditional
obedience to the infallible pope here expressed and
taught in Liguori 's writings led to difficulty in the
later years of his life and brought about the division
already alluded to. The Neapolitan branch was
required by the government to submit to certain
changes in the rule. No overt resistance was made,
except by a few fathers who left their house at
Illicetto and migrated to the Papal Stutcs. Pope
Pius VI., however, required strict adherence to tlie
statutes, and went so far as to declare the Neapoli-
tan branch excluded from the congregation and de-
prived of its privileges, while Liguori himself was
sentenced to deposition from his office as superior
and to expulsion from the order. This harsh decision

480

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

LUraori
liifith

was obeyed in the Papal States and Sicily, while most
of the Neapolitan members proved recalcitrant.
Liguori himself yielded meekly and counseled obe-
dience; but the breach was not healed until an
accommodation was reached between Rome and
Naples three years after the founder's death. In
the autumn of 1790 the Neapolitan government for
the first time recognized the bull of Benedict XIV.
confirming the statutes, and in the next year Pius
VI. sanctioned the reunion of the order.

Before Liguori 's death, the extension of the con-
gregation beyond the limits of central and south-
em Italy was planned out, and carried into effect

under the auspices of Clemens Maria

2. Spread Hoflfbauer, who is justly considered

in Northern as the second founder of the order.

Europe. He was bom at Tasswitz in Moravia

Dec. 26, 1751, and was at first a baker,
but got a taste for theology and the beginning of his
education at the Premonstratensian house of Bruck
where he was employed, and after two years among
the hermits of MQhlfrauen and a period of com-
bined work at his trade and study in Vienna went
to Rome, where, with two companiom;, he joined
the Redemptorists in 1782. In 1785, having been
ordained priest, he was sent to Vienna to found a
house there, but on account of the Emperor Jo-
seph's hostility went to Warsaw, where the congre-
gation soon had two churches and before the end
of the century twenty-five members. The work
spread, and PIofTbauer was named vicar-general for
Germany and Poland in 1792; but the Napoleonic
wars destroyed what had been done, and Hoff-
bauer was obliged to go to Vienna, where at the
time of the Congress he was the rallying-point of
the reviving Catholicism, and contributed largely
to keeping it Roman in opposition to the attempt
to found an independent German Church. He
died Mar. 15, 1820, and in the same year the order
established a college and obtained possession of a
church in Vienna under the guidance of Joseph
Constantin Passerat, a Frenchman, Hoflfbauer's
most gifted disciple. The order continued to grow
in Austria, and besides numerous houses for men
began to establish some for women. The female
branch is traced back to the early years of Liguori's
ministry at Scala (see above), where the commu-
nity under his guidance obtained papal confirma-
tion in 1750; and he had founded a second house
in 1766 in his see city of Sant' Agata. The Re-
demptorist nuns increased in number imder Pas-
serat's care and spread to Belgium, Holland, and
France. The male order gained a rapid extension
in the German states, especially in Bavaria, where
it took the place of the Jesuits who had been ex-
pelled. It spread also to Switzerland, Holland,
Belgium, France, England, and the United States.
Their resemblance to the Jesuits, which in spite of
some fundamental distinctions is an obvious one as
to purpose and methods, brought about the ex-
clusion of the Redemptorists from Germany dur-
ing the Culturkampf from 1873 to 1894, when, on
the motion of the Bavarian government, made
after consulting the aged Dollinger, who declared
that there was no essential connection between
the two, and that the reasons which made the

Jesuits dangerous to the State did not exist in
the case of the younger order, the prohibition was
removed. No other important obstacle to their
growth came up in the latter half of the nineteenth
century.

The congregation now numbers about 150 houses,
divided into twelve provinces — three in Italy (Ro-
man, Neapolitan, Sicilian); two Ger-

3. Present man (northern or Rhenish- Westphalian
Status, and southem or Bavarian, the former

with colonies in South America); one
Austrian; one Belgian (with colonies in Canada and
the West Indies); one Dutch (with a colony in
Surinam); one French, including Spain and the
western states of South America; one English, in-
cluding Scotland, Ireland, and Australia; and two
North American (Baltimore and St. Louis). The
Paulist Fathers (see Paul the Apostle, Congre-
QATiON of) may be considered an offshoot of the
Redemptorists, the separate organization (estab-
lished in 1858) having been intended to meet more
closely special American conditions.

(O. ZOCKLERf.)

The first Redemptorist convent in the United
States was established in Detroit in 1832, and such
has been the development of the order that at
present (1909) it comprises two independent prov-
inces, viz., that of Baltimore and that of St. Louis.
There are 38 convents and 2 colleges besides 2
novitiates and 2 houses of study. The

4. Redemp- total number of the fathers is 338, of
torists in the professed students and novices 111,
America, lay brothers 124, lay novices and pos-
tulants 51. The Redemptorists have

convents in most of the large cities, and, although
parishes are generally conducted in connection with
these houses, the fathers make a specialty of preach-
ing-missions or retreats in parishes throughout the
country. There are two vice-provinces of the
order in the Dominion of Canada, viz., one at-
tached to the Belgian province, the other to that
of Baltimore; convents 9, fathers 68, novices 21,
lay brothers 52.

Bibliography: Collectiona of the Works in Italian have
been published: Monza. 1819; Venice. 1830; Naples,
1840; and 3 vols, at Turin, 1887 sqq.; iii French at Tour-
nai, 1895 sqq.; in German in 42 vols., Regensburg. 1842-
1847; and in English in 22 vols., at New York. 1887-96
(vols, xxiii.-xxiv. contain the Life). A very complete
collection of the " Letters " was made at Rome, 1887
sqq. On the life of Liguori consult the works by K.
Dilgstrom, 2 vols., Regensburg. 1887 (the best); A. M.
Tannoja. 3 vols.. Naples, 1798-1802 (by a scholar of
Liguori); Villecourt. 4 vols., Toumai. 1813; P. V. A.
Gratini. Rome, 1815; Jeancard. I^ouvain, 1829; Ris-
poli, Naples. 1839; M. A. Hugues, MOnster. 1857; Bain-
train. Toumai. 1879; O. Gisler, Einsiedeln. 1887; Q.
Schepcrs, Mainz. 1887; A. Capecelatro, 2 vols., Rome.
1893; A. de MefTert. Maim. 1901; A. des Retours, Paris,
19a3: A. C. Berthe, St. Louis, 1906; KL, viL 2023-52;
and Encyclopogdia BrUannica, xiv. 634-639.

On the onier consult: K. Mader. Die Kongregatum de»
heUioaten Erlt>9er§ in Oeaterreich, Vienna, 1887; F. Ratte.
Der heiliffe AlpfunuuB und der Redemptoriaten-Orden,
Luxemburg. 1887; A. Zapf, Dis Redemptoritten, Erlan-
gen. 1894; F. Dumortier, Let Premi&et Ridemptoriatinea,
LUle, 1884: M. A. Hugues. Dis Kloaterfrauen Maria Vie-
taria und Afarianna, Freiburg. 1883; Heimbuoher. Orden
und Kongreoationen, ii. 313 sqq., 331 sqq., 498; Currier,
Reliffioua Ordera, pp. 466 sqq.. 673 sqq.

LILITH. See Demon, I., §S 3-4.

liilUe
liindMiy

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

490

LILLIB, JOHN: American Presbyterian; b. at
Kelso (38 m. s.e. of Eklinburgh), Roxburghshire,
Scotland, Dec. 16, 1812; d. at Kingston, N. Y.,
Feb. 23, 1867. He was graduated at the Univer-
sity of Edinbui^h (1831; D.D., 1855); studied the-
ology, and taught until 1834, when he emigrated
to America. He then finished his theological studies
at New Brunswick, N. J., and was ordained minis-
ter of the Reformed (Dutch) Church at Kingston,
where he labored untU he accepted the presidency
of the grammar-school of the University of the City
of New York (Aug., 1841). He had chaige of the
Broadway, afterward Stanton Street, Reformed
(Dutch) Church (1843-48), and, in addition, edited
the Jewish Chronicle (1844-48). He labored upon
the revised version of the American Bible Union
(1851-57); and in 1857 he reentered the pastor-
ate, taking chai^ of the Presbyterian Church of
Kingston. Lillie, who was acknowledged to be
one of the best Biblical scholars in the United
States, prepared for the American Bible Union val-
uable new versions and philological commentaries
upon I-II Thessalonians, I-III John, II Peter,
Jude, and Revelation (also on I Peter and James;
but these were never printed). He wrote Lectures
on the Epistles to the Thessalonians (New York,
1860); and translated, with additions, C. A. Au-
berlin and C. J. Riggenbach upon Thessalonians (in
the Lange Commentary, 1868). His Lectures on
the First and Second Epistles of Peter, with a Bio-
graphical Sketch by Dr. Schaff and James Inglis
(1869) were published posthumously.

LIMBORCH, lim'bOrH", PHILIPPUS VAN:
Dutch Remonstrant theologian; b. at Amsterdam
June 19, 1633; d. there Apr. 30, 1712. He was the
son of a lawyer, Frans van Limborch, and Geer-
truida Bischop, a niece of Episcopius, and was ed-
ucated at Leyden and Utrecht for the law, after-
ward, when he had made up his mind to become a
Remonstrant minister (see Remonstrants), study-
ing under Vossius and Barlseus in Amsteixiam. In
1657 ho accepted a call to Gouda, and ten years
later he returned to Amsterdam; but after a few
months of pastoral ministry be became a professor
in the Remonstrant seminary (Apr. 19, 1668). Here
he held a position of influence for forty-five years,
and his deep theological learning attracted many
students. He was the leading Remonstrant theo-
logian of the seventeenth century. His fame rests
chiefly on his Theologia Christiana ad praxin pieta-
tis ac promotionem pads chrisiiance unice directa
(.•Vmsterdam, 1686; Eng. transl., A Compleat Sys-
tem, or B<xly of Divinity, 2 vols., London, 1713,
republished, Macclesfield, 1807). He had a remark-
able conversation with Isaac Orobio, a Spanish Jew
who had been obliged to flee from the Inquisition
and had established himself in Amsterdam as a phy-
sician, and published a report of it under the title
De veritaie religionis christiance, amica coUatio cum
erudito Judceo (Gouda, 1687). Against the Roman
Catholics he maintained the right of freedom in relig-
ious investigation, and himself showed a moderate
and tolerant spirit toward those who differed from
him. He shows little sympathy with the philosophy
of his age — at least with Descartes and Spinoza
— though he was much attracted by Locke's works

and exchanged interesting letters with him. He

wrote an excellent biography of £pis<»piu8, and i

short history of the S3mod of Dort, as an introdue-

tion to the letters of the Ekiglish delegates Hala

and Balcanqual, besides editing the second part oi

the theological writings of Episcopius, the whole

Opera theologica of Curoellseus, and the PrcBstai^

Hum ac eruditorum virorum epistolce theologicm d

ecdesiasticce. H. C. RoGGSf.

Bibuoorapht: Besides the works mentioned in tlw test,
Limborch wrote HiHoria InquiHUoniB, 2 parts, Amstar-
dam, 1692. Eng. transl. by 8. Chandler, London, 1731.
The funeral oration by J. Le Clere was publiabed Amste^
dam, 1712, and is found in the tranel. of the Thtolotk
ChrUtiana, ut sup. Consult: A. dea Amorie van dcr
Hoeven, DiMtertatio de PhiL a Limborch, ib. 1843; Nieeran.
Af^moiret, xL 30 sqq.; C. F. St&udlin, OeatAickte det ili»-
\oQMi»^ W%a»enthaftef^ i. 207 sqq., iL 87 aqq., GdttinieeD,
1810-11, Ens. tnmsL, HitA. cf Theclooical Knamiedoe sW
LUeraiure, Edinburgh, 1835.

LDCBUS: A name applied in Roman Catholie
theology to a place of detention for such souls as
are incapable, through no fault of their own, of en-
trance into heaven. Outside of hell (see Futubi
Punishment), the prison of those who have died
in stubborn enmity against God, it is taught thst
there are three places of detention : Purgatory (q.v.)
for those who are in process of piirificaticm to ren-
der them fit for heaven; the lAmbus patrum, or
place where those who died before the Atonement
were detained; and the Limbua infantium (or
puerorum), where the souls of infants dying with-
out baptism are. It is taught that there is no
actual suffering in the two latter places, and thus,
although the souls therein are excluded from the
Beatific Vision, they are at the opposite extreme
of the " under-world " from hell — on its border
{limbus). The Limbus patrum is held to have
ceased to exist when Christ " went and preached
unto the spirits in prison " (I Pet. iii. 19; see De-
scent OF Christ into Hell). The state of in-
fants in the Limbus infantium is regarded as one of
complete natural happiness; of the supematuni
bliss of heaven they have not been made capable
by baptism. See Infant Salvation.

Biblioorapht: The subject u treated in the literBtnre
under the articles to which reference is made in the text
— Future Punishment; Puroatort, etc

LINCK (LINK, LINCK VON COLDITZ), WBI-
CESLAUS (WENZEL, VINCILAUS): Lutheran
preacher and theologian; b. at Colditz (25 m. s.e.
of Leipsic) Jan. 8, 1483; d. at Nuremberg Mar. 12,
1547. In 1498 he entered the University of Leip-
sic, then joined the Augustinian friars, and in 1503
went to Wittenberg to continue his studies, where,
six years later, he lectured on the " Sentences " of
Peter Lombard, and was dean of the faculty when
Luther took his doctor's degree in 1512. In the
following years he was temporary prior of the Au-
gustinian monastery in Wittenbei^g while Luther
was its subprior; and the sermons which he preached
at that time were praised by Luther for their pop-
ularity and fertility of imagination. WTien his
activity at Wittenberg terminated in 1516, Linck
accompanied his patron Staupitz on several tours
of visitation, and in 1517 was called as preacher to
Nuremberg. The sermons which he delivered
there, especially on Palm Sunday and in Advent^

401

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

liiUie
Llndaay

1518, show the consciousness of the Reformation
atniggling to gain expression. All Linck's work
was done in Luther's spirit, and the monastery of
the Augustinians at Nuremberg became one of the
earliest strongholds of the new creed, while he him-
self took an active part in the negotiations between
Cardinal Cajetan and Luther. When Staupitz re-
signed as vicar-general of the German Augustin-
ians in 1520, Linck was chosen to fill his place, and
in this capacity made visitations in Thuringia and
Saxony. In spite of his rather delicate position,
he remained faithful to Luther and his cause. In
1521 he started from Munich on an extensive visi-
tation, in the course of which he became acquainted
with Albrecht DQrer in Antwerp. On his return
he found the public mind agitated over the ques-
tion of monasticism which the fanatics wished to
reject altogether. In his perplexity Linck asked
the advice of Luther, and the latter sought to de-
fend his point of view by appealing to the Gospels,
although he did not approve of the lawless meth-
ods of the innovators. In 1522 Linck convoked a
chapter at Wittenbei^ in which Luther's stand-
point was generally adopted, since it was main-
tained that the Bible transcended human authority
and tradition, and that each one might leave the
monastery at his o^n will, while other anti-Catho-
lic teachings were also adopted. A second chap-
ter was convoked by Duke Geoi^ a few months
later at Grinuna to restrict the measures adopted
at Wittenbei^, but it was too late. Whole con-
vents were in a state of dissolution, and Linck was
powerless to stay the tendency of the time, while
he was forced to bear the responsibility for the
Wittenberg resolutions, thus rendering his f>osition
as provincial more and more untenable. At this
time Elector Frederick offered Linck the position
of Evangelical preacher at Altenburg, and after
long hesitation he resigned his f>ositioii as provin-
cial and entered upon his new calling in 1523. The
Roman Catholics still predominated in Altenburg
and the churches were in their hands, so that Linck
could not execute the regular functions of the minis-
try, but was obliged to content himself with preach-
ing. Within a short time, however, the Evangelicab
had acquired the right to share in the use of the
Church of St. Bartholomew, while in 1523 com-
munion was celebrated in both kinds and the first
Lutheran baptism in the German language took
place. Linck, who in the mean time had married, did
all in his power, by sermons as well as by treatises,
to further the Lutheran cause, so that other churches
were soon ceded to the Lutherans and he began to
oi^nize a regular system. He paid special atten-
tion to the reform of education, the relief of the poor,
and the suppression of begging. In 1525 he was
called as preacher to Nurembei^, his second period
of activity here lasting almost twenty-two years.
In the beginning he was involved in the question
of the remarriage of clergymen who were widowers,
then agitating Luther and other Evangelical theo-
logians. Provost Dominicus Schleupner of St.
Sebald in Nuremberg had married again after the
death of his first wife, and his action had caused
some sensation. In Nurembei^ twenty-eight anony-
mous theses attacked him, and Luther was asked

to reply, his own treatise on the subject, as well
as one by Osiander and Linck, being circulated
widely throughout the city. Linck's arguments
were noteworthy for their clear and moderate tone
and laid stress upon the theory that ministers have
no requirements of morafity and sanctity other
than those binding on the Christian laity.

In 1524 Nurembei^ had broken definitely with
the Roman Catholic Church, and in Mar., 1525,
the Lutherans held a conference which closed the
monasteries and issued calls to Evangelical preach-
ers. At first Linck preached at the monastery of
St. Catharine, but was called within the same year
(1525) to the position of first preacher in the Church
of the Holy Ghost. There again, as in Altenbui^,
he manifested much zeal in strengthening the
Evangelical cause. Sermons for children were in-
troduced in his church, and the rooms of the Au-
gustinian monastery were changed into a high
school. At the same time Linck took an active
part in polemical writings against the Anabaptists
and against non-Lutheran interpretations of the
Lord's Supper. He was also involved in repeated
disputes with Osiander, but his friendship with
Luther always retained its old intimacy. In 1539
Linck received a call to Leipsic, but declined it, on
the advice of Luther. In the following year, after
his reconciliation with Osiander, the pair took part
in the colloquies of Hagenau and Worms, but Osian-
der again went too far in his vehemence and invec-
tives, so that he was immediately recalled, and both
were reprimanded at their return.

Among the numerous writings of Linck, special
mention may be made of the following: Artikel und
Pasitionen (Grinmia, 1523), a pamphlet dating
from the time of his activity at Altenburg and con-
taining a concise summary of his teachings; Vam
Reiche GoUea (1524); UrUerrichiung der Kinder,
so zu GoUes Tische gehen tvoUen (1528), Dos Ave
MariOf wie mans christlich gtbrauchen und die Kin-
der lehren soil (1531); BapsUgeapreng; atis dem
Ceremonien-Buch (Strasburg, 1539); and Aiialegung
dea AUen TeetamenU (1543-45). (R. BENDiXENf.)

Biblxoorapht: Dr. W. Reindell began the collection of
Linck 'a Werke, vol. i., Marburg. 1894, and has alao written
Doktor WemeaHaua Linck von ColdiU, part t, ib. 1892.
The life by H. W. Caselmann isin M. Meurer. LeUnderAW-
vdSer der htShenHKen Kirdte, Leipeio, 1863. A very rich
Liat of literature is given in Hauck-Heraog, RE, xL 605-fi06.

LINDSAY, THOMAS MARTIN: United Free
Church of Scotland; b. the son of Rev. A. Lindsay,
1843. He received his education at the University
of Edinburgh; became examiner to the same insti-
tution, where he was later assistant to the professor
of logic and metaphysics; became professor of
church history in the Free Church College, Glasgow,
1872; and principal of the United Free Church Col-
lege, Glasgow, 1902. He was also for fifteen years
convener of the Foreign Mission Committee of the
Free Church of Scotland. Among his publications
are handbooks on Acts (Edinburgh, 1884-85), Mark
(1884), Luke (1887), and on the Reformation (1882);
Luther and the German RefamuUion (1900); The
Church and the Ministry in the Early Centuries (Cun-
ningham lectures, London, 1902); and History oj
the Reformation (2 vols., Edinburgh, 190&-O7).

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

LINDSEY, THEOPHILnS: Englieh Unitarian;
b. at Middlewich (21 m. e. of Chesler) June 20.
1723; d. in London Nov. 3. 1808. He wm edu-
cated at Leeds and at St. John's College, Cam-
bridge, where he was elected fellow in 1747. He
became curate of a chapet in Spitol Square, L
don, and ahortly afterward was made chaplain
the duke of Somereet, to whose son, the future sec-
ond duke of Northumberland, he was tutor from
1750 to 1753. He waa then preaented to the
lory of Kirkby Wiske, Yorkshire, but resigned
three yeara later to become rector of Piddletown,
Dorset In 1762 he declined the proffered chap-
lAJQcy to the duke of Northumberland, and in the
following year accepted the rectory of Catterick,
Yorkahire. Meanwhile the latitudinarlanism which
Lad hitherto characterized him had become Uni-
tartanism, largely through the influence of liia wife's
Bt«pfatber, Archdeacon Francis Blackbume. On
Nov. 28, 1773, he preached liis farewell eermon i
Catterick and went to London, where he began 1
preach Uaitarionism, a permanent chapel being
opened for him in 1778; he remained tliere until
hifl resignation in 1793. His chief works arc: '~
Book of Common Prayer Reformed (London, 1774);
Apology on Resigning the Vicarage of CaUeriek,
YorkikiTt (1774); A Sequel to the Apology (1776);
ThM Catechitt, or an liuptiry into the Doctrine of the
Seriptures concerning the Only True God (1781);
Jlialorical View of the Slate of the Unitarian Doc-
trine and Wonhip (1783); Vindicia Frieatiryan
(2 parta, 1784-90); Convenationa on Chriatia
JdoUUry (1792); and Conversatione on the Divine
Government (1802).
BrBLioaRAPHTi T. ficlaham. Mrmain of B/rd. T. Lirw

LUTES, EDWin STEVEnS: Protestant Epis-
copal bishop of Newark, N, J.; b. at Naugaliick,
Conn., Nov. 23, 1845. He was educated at Yale
(A.B., 18T2) and ut Berkeley Divinity School, MiJ-
dletowQ. Conn., from which he was graduated in
1874. He was ordered deacon and priested in the
latter year, arai waa then rector successively of
Christ Church. West Haven, Conn. (1874-79), and
of St. Paul's, New Haven, Conn. (1879-1903). In
1903 he was coiiHccrated bishop of Newark.

LiriGARD, JOHH: Roman-Catholic historian;
b. at Winchester Feb. 5, 1771; d. at Hornby (9 m.
e.o.e. of Lancaster), Lancashire, July 13, 1851.
He studied at tlie English College at Douai from
1782 to 1793, but fled from France on account of
the Revolution and returned to England ua tutor
in the family of Lord SCourlon. There he remained
Hntil, in 1794, he went to Crookhall, near Durham,
where some of those driven from Douai had gath-
ered, and eonipleted Ills theological studiei. He
was ordained priest in 1795, and, having declined
a flattering call to London, taught natural and
moral philosophy in Crookhall, where he was also
vice-president and prefect of studies. In 1803 the
college vran removed to L'shaw, Durham, and he
accompanied it. In 1810 he w.ia chosen president,
but in the following year retireil to Hornby, where
lie spent the remainder of his life, <lcvoting himself
to historical studie-i and declining both the profes-

sorship of Sacred Scripture and Hebrew at tlie
Roj^i College of St. Patrick at Maynooth and the
presidency of the seminary at Old Hall Green. In
1817 and 1825 he visited Rome and was received
with great distinction, some believing that hjs ap-
pointment as a cardinal was reserved in petto.

The chief works of Lingard were as follows:
Anliguiliea of the Anglo-Saxon Church (2 vols.,
Newcastle, 1806; 3d ed., proctically a new work,
under the title The Hiatory and AntiquiHea nf the
AnghySaxon Church, 2 voU., London, I84S); Col-
lection of Tracts on several Subjects connected vnth
the Cirii and Religious Principles of the Calhotiea
(London, 1813): History of England, from the finl
Invasion by the Romans to the Accession of WHliaiit
and Mary in 168S (8 vols., 1819-30; 6th ed., 10
vols., 1854-55); Supplementum ad Bretnarium Ro-
manum adjedis offidis Sanctorum Anglia (1823);
A new Version of the Four Gospels (1838); and
Catechetical Instructions on the Doctrine and Wor-
$hip of the Catholic Chwrdt (1836). His History k
characterized by accuracy, care, and impartiality,
although he was charged by extreme Protestenta
with perversion of the truth and by extreme Ro-
man Catholics with undue concessiona to the
Protestants.
BinuODnAPHT: 1. GiUow, Biblioiiraphical DitHmiarv s/ £•«.

CaAolia. iv. 354-Z7S, LopdoQ. a. d.; DXB, jtiiiii. 320-

323 (witli cilatioD of tcaiured refETcncet).

LIHUS: The immediate successor of St. Pete-
according to all lists of Roman bishops, although
the duration of hia office is very uncertain. In his
church history, Eiisebius counts twelve yeara, but
fourteen in hia chronicle; the Catalagus Liberianus
aHsig:is him twelve years, four monlha and twelve
days, and Jerome eleven years. The date of the
beginning of hia pontificate is also differently fixed
according to the varying calculations of the death
of St. Peter. As the Roman Church knew nolhing
about an episcopal constitution in the beginning of
the second century, Linus, if he nctu.nlly existed,
waa simply a presbyter of the Church, but when,
to combat heresies, a continuous succession of
bishops Vine assumed from the Aposlle Peter, he
waa made a bishop in the later sense, and identi-
fied with the Linus of II Tim. iv. 21. His alleged
epitaph is generally recognized as possessing no
historic value. (A. Haock.)

BiBI.ionRtPKT: It. A. Lipains. Dit Popttrmrifknitu da
EMMlnua und drr von ihm abhOngiaen Ckronistm, Kiel.
ISflS; idem, Chronebieu ia ramucAen Bisch-ife, ib. 1 SSB:
J. B. Lishtroot. Apmlolie FaHiiri, put I., S. CIrmtnl i4
Rarnt. i. 201 eqq.. LopdoD. IseO: Uanuck. in Siin-net-
berifhle drr BertiTier Akadcmie. 1SQ2: idem. LitlfraluT,
a, I, pp. 70 Bqq,; Bower, Poprt. I iS: DCB. iii. 726-729.

LinZ, lint-s, PEACE OF: A treaty concluded
Dec. 16, 1645. at Linz (98 m. w. of Vienna! between
Ihe Emperor Ferdinand III., as Icing of Hungary.
and George Rakoczy, prince of Transylvania. It
is important aa forming one of the legal Ixi^s of
the Evangelical Church in Hungary. The Protes-
tant Rakoczy, who aimed to secure the Hungarian
throne, formed on olTenHive and defensive alliance
with Sweden and France in Apr.. 1643, against
Ferdinand, and was aided by the Sublime Porte, of
which he was a vassal. Alleging the grievances of
hia countrymen and especially the oppression of the

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Protestants, be levied a large army, which he plnced
under the leadership of Johannes Kemenyi, while
Sweden sent him troops led by Dugloss and France
supplied him with funds. Despite success at first,
RKkoczy found it advisable to open negotiations
with his opponents in Oct., 1044. In December
Ferdinand won the Turkish ^vemment over ta hia
aide, and Rakoczy succeeded in inducing Ferdinand
to accept his terms, which dealt chiefly with the
unrestricted liberty of the Hungarian Church, the
treaty being confirmed by Rakoczy at Weissenburg
Oct. 20, 1&)6. By iu terms he bound himself to
withdraw from the Franco-Swedish alliance, to re-
move his forces from (he imperial domains, and to
restore the districts and cities which he luui taken.
Id return, he and his sons received two heritable
counties and five for life. The most important por-
tion of the treaty, however, wo.'^ the granting of
religious freedom to tlie EvangeUcaJ Church in Hun-
gary. The unrestricted use of tbeir churches, belts,
and buriul-ji luces was granted to the Protestants;
those who had been compelled to accept Roman
Catholicism were lo be permitted to retiini to their
former beliefs; pastors and preachers could no longer
be expelled from their charges, and those who had
been driven out might cither be reinstated or re-
placed by others of their own persuasion. Churches
which had been confiscated from the Protestants
were lo be restored, but this clause, affecting 400
btiilillngs, roused such opposition on the part of the
Jesuits that the Protestants were obliged to content
themselves with ninety. Supplementary articles in
the treaty enacted a 6no of 600 florins for violations
of its provisions concerning the Protestants. Tho
diet which considered the final details of this treaty,
BO important for the Protestants of Hungary, did not
adjourn until July 17, 1647. (K. KLOpFBLt.)

BiBUODB*mr: I. Kklana. Hiiloria critica return Hutt-
eoria, ixii. 233 sqq.. 42 vols., Dudftpait. 1T70-1S17; J.
DuiDODt. Cifrpt univtraal diptomatitpm du droit dta ^etu.
Ti. I, pp. 33t sqq., 8 Tola.. The tlscue. 1730-31; J.Mii-
Imh, Dit ReligiimimTTm in Uiean. i. 30 »qq., Rr«Eii»-
burg, IfMfi; QathiiJtIe der evanffetitcAtn Kirche in Un-
gam. pp. 109 Kiq., Berlin. 1SS4; Siiliuai. Aria it dacn-
irl«7itt pour Bervir h I'hialairt de t'altiattce dt G. Raeoeji unu
la Francaii it la SuMoii. BudBpem. 1874: 8. Linberger,
GeKkirhIc drm EvanatUumM in Unaam, pp. C7 mi- ib. 1880.

LIPPE, lip'pe (LIPPE-DETMOLD): A princi-
pality of northwestern Germany; capital Detmold;
area 460 square miles; population (1905) US.-'irT,
of whom 139.127 were Reformed or Lutherans,
5,477 Roman Catholics, and 733 Jews. Lippe be-
came Christian in the time of Churlema^e. and, like
other German stales, it was dominated throughout
the Middle Ages by the papacy. Some of the cities
of the principality early accepted the Reformation,
particularly Lcmgo. which adopted the Brunswick
ehurch order in 1533; and in 1538 a church order
that hod been worked out by two Lutheran clergy-
men at the instance of the regents of Lippe was
accepted by the nobility and the cities. Through
the Interim (q.v.) the reform movement suffered a
rererae; but in 1571 Count Simon VI. introduced
a new church onler which recognized as binding the
Augsburg Confession and its Apolo;^, the Schmal-
kald Articles, and Luther's catechism. Later
Count Simon went over to the Reformed faith.

Throughout the country and in the cities, with the
exception of Lemgo, the Heidelberg catechism
now replaced that of Luther; and in I5S4 a Re-
formed church order was introduced. The Re-
formed Church, which numbers forty-one parishes,
now has a modem synodal constitution. The Lu-
theran Church, with five parishes, is under the
state consistory at Detmold, forming a synodal dis-
trict of its own. The Roman Catholic Church num-
bers ten congregations, which ate under the bishop
of Paderbom. There are all together some fifty
beneficent institutions in the principality, includ-
ing the SophienhauB at Saliuflen, the Rettungs-
haus at Grilnau, and the state Diakonissenanstalt
at Detmold. There are gymnasia at Detmold and
Lemgo, a Realschule at Sahuflen, and a seminary
for teachers at Detmold, as well as several city
high schools for girls. There are 126 Evangelical
elementary schools, eleven Roman Catholic schools,
and ten Jewish schools (F. H. Brajjdbb.)

BiouooaApur: O. Preuu aod A. Fnlkmuin. Lipintthe Rt-
oalm. fi vein.. Delmold, IStlO sfiq.; H. OeoiBii. BeitrOea
mr KirchintKichichte in Lippe, Lemgo. IB601 A. Dnvu,
ShcAuAIi da- Kirclirn . . . det tippadun Landft. ib.
1881 : A. FaliDBD. Beilr&De lur Gfdiiehit da ForOtntyimii
Lippe. Detmold. IKI2: J. Kniwn. ataat utid kaUiBlivlit
JCirchs in Lippe. SluttEUl, lOOS.

LIPSCOMB, lips'cnm, ANDREW ADGATE:
American Methodist Protestant divine and edu-
cator; b. at Georgetown, D. C, Sept. 6, 1816; d.
at Athens, Ga., Nov. 24, 1S90. He was licensed to
preach in 1834. and remained in the ministry till
1849 when failing health compelled him lo resign.
He then opened an academy for young ladies at
Montgomery, Ala. He was president of the Female
College at Tuskegee, Ala. {1856-59), chancellor of
the University of Georgia (1860-74), and professor
of art and criticism in Vanderbilt University, Nash-
ville, Tenn. (1874-S5). Among his works are: The
Sixial Spirit of ChnstianUy (Philadelphia. 1846);
Studita in the Forty Days between Chriat'» Returrtc-
tion and Aucention (Nashville, 1884); and Sludiet
SuppUmerUary lo the Studies in the Forty Days between
ChrUt'a Remrreclionand Asrension (Nashvilie, 1885).

LIPSIDS, lip'^-trs. FRIEDRICB REINHOLD:
German ProlesUnl; b. at Jena Oct. 3, 1873. He
was educated at the universities of Leipsic and
Jena from 1893 lo 1897 (lie. theol., Jena, 1898);
was assistant pastor at Weimar (1897-98) ; privat-
doccnt for systematic theology at the university of
Jena (1898-1906); became in 1906 pastor of St.
Martini-Kirche. Bremen. He has edited R. A, Lip-
sius' Glauben und Wissen (Berlin, 1897). and has
written Vor/ragen der syatematigdicn Theologif (Frei-
burg, 1899); KriliJt drr tlieologUchcTt BrkcnTitnit
(1904); and DiVAefi^ioRfJesAfoni^niua (Berlin, 1907).

LIPSIDS, RICHARD ASELBERT: German
Protestant theologian; b. at Gera (34 m. s.s.w. of
Leipsic) Feb. 14. 1830; d. at Jena Aug. 19, 1892.
He descended from a family of Saxon theologians,
and received his early education from his grand-
father, A. G. W. LipsiuB, preacher in Bemstadt, and
in the " Thomana " of Leipsic where his father waa
teacher of religion. In 1848 he entered the Uni-
versity of Leipsic. Though be came successively
under the influence of Fichte, Hegel, and Kant, the
teachings of Schleiennatiber and Rothe and the

I<ip«iiui
Idtany

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

tenets of the Congregation of Brethren kept him
from a one-sided moralism and induced him " to
preserve a place for religious mysticism in the
sanctuary of his heart." While Lipsius during the
time of his studies stood for the views of the " me-
diating theology/' he later followed the tenden-
cies of historical criticism. The spirit of free in-
vestigation which he inherited from his father and
his study of the writings of Baur exercised an irre-
sistible influence upon him, although he was not a
slavish follower of the latter. In 1855 he estalx-
hshed himself as privat-docent at the University
of Leipsic, and four years later was appointed ad-
junct professor there; in 1861 he was called to
Vienna as professor of systematic theology, and in
1863 became a member of the Austrian Council of
Education; in 1864 he was chosen deputy of the
faculty to the first general synod and cooperated
in the establishment of a liberal church constitu-
tion. The obdurate refusal of the government to
incorporate the theological faculty in the univer-
sity induced Lipsius in 1865 to accept a call to Kiel.
At the Kiel assembly of 1867 he showed himself a
champion of the Prussian Union. A polemical en-
counter with Bishop Koopmann, the head of the
Holstein Lutherans, induced him to give up his
position in Kiel, and to accept in 1871 a call to
Jena, where he remained until his death. Besides
his studies, he took a prominent part in the prac-
tical questions of the day, and was one of the
founders of the Evangelical Alliance.

He devoted himself to the study of the docu-
ments of primitive Christianity and published nu-
merous works on them. It was not as a historian,
however, that he became the acknowledged leader
of Jena theology, but as a systematic theologian.
In his theological system he starts from the stand-
point of the critical (though not unreservedly
Kantian) theory of perception. He admits that
perception of objects is subjectively conditioned,
but rejects Kant's dualism of phenomena and
*' things-in-themselves "; he rather holds that by
thought an objective order of law is grasped, and,
applying the same contrast in the sphere of the phi-
losophy of religion, he distinguishes between final
and absolute being. The latter receives a positive
content only through religious experience. The
truth of religious concepts can not be demonstrated
philosophically, but the unity of the human spirit
demands the blending of the scientific and religious
perceptions into a harmonious whole. In this con-
nection metaphysics as a theory of the universe
is indispensable, but the harmonious blending of
those two perceptions can succeed only approxi-
mately, as may be seen from the idea of God; the
scientific definitions remain here always negative,
and the religious definitions figiu-ative. No super-
natural interference breaks the coherent develop-
ment of the world, and that which on the basis of
an inner need becomes for the religious man a di-
vine revelation, represents for science nothing but
a psychic phenomenon. The relation between God
and man remains a holy " mystery." Hence it is
evident that dogmatics is not a science without
presuppositions, but can represent faith only from
the standpoint of faith, although in a piu-ified form.

Amons the worlu of Lipsius may be named: Die jwulitM-
9di€ RechtfertiffunoBlOire (Leipaie, 1853); De Clemetdu Ro-
mani epiatola ad CoritUhioe prion di»qui»mo (1855); U^btr
dot VerhOlinia dtr drei eyriechen Briefe dea IgnaHoe mu den
abrigen Recenaionen der IgtuUianiadien lAUeratur (1850);
Der OnogUeimnua, aein Wesen^ Unprung und Entwiduhtmaa-
oang (1860); Zur QueOenkTitik de§ Epiphanioa (Viemia,
1865); Die Papatverteichniaae dea EuaAioa und der ven ikm
abhdngioen Chroniaten kriHach unteraw^ (Kiel, 1868);
Chronologie der rUmiadien Biackdfe bia zur MiUe dea vierten
Jahrhunderta (1860); Die Pilatua-Acien kritiach unter-
aucht (1871); Glaube und Lehre, Theoloffiache Streitaehrift'
en (1871); Die Quellen der rdmiatAen Petrua-aoQe kritiaA
unterauchi (1872); Die Quellen der &Ueaten Ketxen/eatkidUe
(Leipflio, 1875); Lehrbudi der evanoelia^-pn^eaianiiadte*
DogmaUk (BnmBwick, 1876); DoomaHache BeOritffe aur Ver-
theidiffung und Erl&uterung meinea Lekrbud^ea (Leipeac,
1878); Die edeueniacke Abgar-aaoe kritiach UTUerauehi (Bnui»-
wiok, 1880); Die Apokrypken, Apoatelgeachiekien und Apoa-
tellegenden (1883-00); Phihaophie und ReUgian (Leipeic
1885). In connection with Die Apokrvphen^ Apoatdgeadkidtt-
en, LipsiuB edited together with M. Bonnet the Greek and
Latin texts {Ada apoddorum apocrypha, part %., Ada Petri,
Pauli, Petri dPaulx, Pauli d Thedae, Thaddaei, Leipde, 1801,
by Lipsius alone). He further published Hauptpunkte der
chriatlichen Olaubenalekre (2 ed., Brunswick. 1891) and Gla^-
ben und Wiaaen (ed. F. R. Lipsius, Berlin, 1897). He founded
in 1875 and edited the JahrbQeher ftir proteatantiache TKeokh
gie, and from 1885 was editor of the Theoloffiadter Jahrea-

''*'^'- (F. R. Lipsius.)

Biblioorapht: G. Richter and F. Nippold, Zu?ei GedHtki-
niareden, Jena, 1893; A. Neumann, Grundlagen und Grund~
xikge der Wdtanachauung von . . . Lipaiua, Brunswick,
1896; £. Pfennigsdorf, Vergleidt der dogmatiaehen Sya-
teme von . . . Lipaiua und . . . RitadU, C^otha, 1896;
U. Fleisch, Die . . . Orundlagen der dogmatiaehen Sya-
teme von A. E. Biedermann und . . . Lipaiua, Beriin,
1901; H. Lddemann, in Addition to MUndiener aUge-
meine Zeitung, xcii., no. 2(X); Ecke, in Kirchliche Monata-
achrift, xciv. 798-817. Further references are given in
Hauck-Hersog, RE, xL 520.

LITANY.

Greek Clhurch (( 1).

Roman Catholic Church ({ 2).

Churches of the Reformation (( 3).

The Litany is a prayer of supplication, especially
in responsive form. With the Greeks lUaneia de-
notes a processional prayer, an act of prayer con-
nected with the procession, or the procession itself.
The term is used in the first sense by Chrysostom,
Eustratius (6th cent.), Simeon of Thessalonica (d.
1429), and Codinus, while it denotes the procession
in the Chrontcon Paschaley Malalas^

I. Greek Georgius Cedrenus, and Michael Glycas.

Church. In the acts of the fifth Council of Con-
stantinople, as well as in Philotheus,
Simeon of Thessalonica, and Theodorus Lector, it
designates the prayer connected with the procession,
which here implies not only the procession outside
the church but also the passing of light-bearers,
priests, deacons, and choristers to the narOiex,
where the litany was recited, a usage established as
early as the dbuncil of dbnstantinople in 536. This
custom still continues, and in this minor procession
the litany is recited at the close of the great ves-
pers before the chief feasts, and also in such pro-
cessions as those of burial. This litany, also called
ectene, or " deacon's litany," is essentially the
prayer for the whole Church found in the ancient
Oriental liturgies (Apostolic Constitutions, viii., and

496

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Lipcius
I«itany

the liturgies of Mark and James) and is recited as
a Bidding Prayer (q.v.) by the deacon, the con-
gregation responding with the ejaculation Kyrie
deiaon, " Lord have mercy " (see Liturqics, III.,
i 5). The processional litany is distinguished from
the edene of the mass by its invocation of the Viigin,
St. John the Baptist, the Apostles, the great high
priests, and all saints, as well as by the very fre-
quent repetition of the ejaculation *' Lord, have
mercy! " The litany is recited by the deacon and
the response is sung by the choir.

In the Roman Catholic Church the term litany
has several connotations. The invocation Kyrie
deison, Christe eleison and the supplications in the
ancient liturgy made at the bidding of the deacon,
corresponding to the Greek ectene, are both called
litany, although the latter was tech-
2. Roman nically known as the deprecation.

Catholic The term litany was frequently ap-

Church, plied to the processions of supplica-
tion, and a distinction was accordingly
drawn between the ** greater litany ** on St. Mark's
Day (Apr. 25) and the '* lesser litanies " which are
recited on the three Rogation Days (q.v.). The
word was likewise employed with extreme fre-
quency in its modem connotation of the responsive
prayer beginning with KyrU eleison^ and this use
finally gained supremacy, the term Htany as a
designation of a circuit with prayer being super-
seded by " procession " about the twelfth century.
The older designation of the processions as litanies
was retained, however, in the " greater Htany "
and the " lesser Htanies,'' the former being a sub-
stitute for the pagan robigcUia or festival of Apr. 25,
and apparently instituted by Pope Liberius (352-
366) rather than by Gregory the Great, and the
latter the survival of the Roman ambarvalia or
procession around the fields. The custom of proces-
sions, which had almost fallen into desuetude, was
revived by Mamertus about 470, while Leo III.
(795-816) reoiganized the spring rogations accord-
ing to Gallic usage and introduced them throughout
the Catholic Church. The name ** greater " and
" lesser," the former denoting a procession of one
day and the latter of three, is explained by the rela-
tive antiquity of the two.

The origin of the form of prayer now known by
the name of litany is uncertain. It is usually as-
sumed that it is a development and transforma-
tion of the Greek edene^ although the hypothesis
has been advanced that its long lists of saints and
its response " pray (or, intercede) for us," are sur-
vivals of the formula recited by the Pontifex Maxi-
mus according to the indigUamentaf or old books
of direction for worship, so that they can not be
older than the fourth century; but no correspond-
ing formularies can be cited from the indigitamenla.
It ia not impossible that the Western procession (in
contradistinction to the oriental) was not a devel-
opment of the prayer called Htany, but had an inde-
pendent origin, which seems to have been derived
from pagan models. Later the processional litany
was amplified from the *' deacon's litany" and was
separated from the procession, although this Htany
was most tenacious in places where a procession
once actually existed. The htany usually began

with the invocation Kyrie eleison, Christe deiaon, or
** Oxnst, hear us," which preceded the invocation of
the saints, the people responding after each name
''pray for us." Certain perils and dangers were
then enumerated, to which the congregation re-
sponded with the deprecation " Lord, deliver us,"
and these were followed by a series of petitions for
blessings with the response ''hear us, we beseech
thee," the whole concluding with the Agnus Dei
(q.v.) and the Kyrie eleison. This general scheme
was modified in many ways. The names of the
saints invoked varied according to place and cir-
cumstance, and the litany, according to the number
of times each was invoked, was termed ternary,
quinary, and septenary.

The litany was essentially penitential, and it
never lost this character, whence it was frequently
connected with the seven penitential Psalms. It
was extraordinarily popular and was used on the
most varied occasions, such as the blessing of the
baptismal water on Holy Saturday, the dedication
of a church, ordination, coronation, baptism, con-
fession, visitation of the sick, extreme unction, and
the ordinal. It originally opened the mass, as is
shown by the Constitutions of Cluny and the Stowe
Missal, the same usage prevailing at Milan. It is
clear, in the light of all evidence, that the Kyrie
which now follows the Introil in the ordinary of the
mass is a remnant of the processional litany. The
popularity of the litany resulted in the composition
of many new ones, some of them in metrical form
and occasionally deviating widely from the model
and spirit of the Church. The public use of new
litanies was consequently made conditional on eccle-
siastical approbation, and the only litanies now
officially sanctioned in the Roman Catholic Church
are the Litany of the Saints (approved 1601), the
Litany of Loreto (approved 1587), the Litany of
the Most Holy Name of Jesus (approved 1862),
and the Litany of the Sacred Heart (approved Apr.
2, 1899). The Litany of the Saints, in its present
form, is the liturgical litany par excellence, and is
used on such occasions as the conferring of major
orders, the blessing of the font on Holy Saturday
and Whitsun Eve, as well as on the Rogation Days
and St. Mark's Day. The form adopted was fixed
in 1596, with a few additions made in 1683 and
1847, and contains sixty-three invocations of saints
with the response " pray for us." The Litany of
Loreto is devoted to the Virgin and receives its
name from the fact that for centuries it has been
sung on Saturdays in the Holy House of Loreto.
Each penitential recitation of it gives an indul-
gence of 300 days, and its repetition on five desig-
nated feasts of the Virgin confers a plenary indul-
gence. The Litany of the Most Holy Name of
Jesus, which, according to the Roman Catholic
view, originated in the fifteenth century, likewise
gives an indulgence of 300 days. These three lit-
anies are also used in fituigical services and pro-
cessions, but are simg only in Latin. There are in
addition a number of litanies with episcopal sanc-
tion, such as those for brotherhoods, which are re-
cited in the vernacular at non-liturgical public
devotions.

In the first period of the Wittenberg Reforma-

lattlcjohn

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

496

ormatioiL of this litany, although no copy of this
edition is known to be extant, but
there is no ground for assuming that he issued the
Latin text of it as he proposed to do. The German
litany was also appended to the third edition of his
smaller catechism, but was later omitted, although it
then found its way into the hymnals, doubtless with
its author's approval. The Latin version, in like
manner, was almost certainly contained in the
hynmal of Klug published in 1529 and no longer ex-
tant. It may well have included the German version
as well, like the later editions of the work and a num-
ber of other hjmmab of the same period. The ex-
tension of the litany through middle and north
Germany by means of the hymn-books was rapid,
but it was comparatively rarely found, on the other
hand, in southern or southwestern German hym-
nody. There, however, it was spread by the church
orders, the more important ones all containing it.
The original Lutheran Utany was closely similar to
the Roman Catholic Litany of the Saints, except
that all invocations of the saints, as well as petitions
for the pope and the dead, were omitted. On the
other hand, the petitions are more speciaUzed and
more concrete than in the older litany, which is,
nevertheless, far the richer.

In the northern and central parts of Germany
no uniformity whatever prevailed in the time of the
recitation of the litany. Wednesday and Friday
w^ere, on the whole, the favorite days, although it
might also be recited on Tuesday, Sunday festivals,
and at vespers on Saturday. Local usage in many
cases prescribed it for special days, while numerous
church orders required it to be said occasionally,
although no special day was designated. The place
which the litany occupied in the North and Middle
German liturgy likewise varied. It might be re-
cited alone, either in the morning or the evening,
after the lesson, epistle, or sermon, and before or
during the communion. An equal lack of uniform-
ity prevailed in southern and southwestern Ger-
many, but there the litany, in harmony with the
intention of Luther, retained its original character
of a penitential prayer more than in the north, so
that in Strasburg it followed the confession and
absolution. The litany was subject, furthermore,
to numerous local modifications, petitions being in-
serted or omitted practically at pleasure.

In Wittenberg the German litany was chanted
by the choir-boys, while the congregation sang the
responses, although ultimately one part of the choir
chanted the petitions and the other responded.
The Latin litany was sung only in the latter fashion.
In the seventeenth century the Latin litany was
discarded altogether, and in case there was a trained
choir, the pastor, kneeling or standing with his face
toward the altar, intoned the petition, while the
congregation, led by the choir, sang the responses.
If for any reason the litany was not sung, it might

■

be recited or read. These modes of repeating the
htany graduaUy supplanted the singing of it, but
on the whole, though it is still retained in almost
all modem German Htiurgies, it has lost its hold in
great measure on the congregations because of its
monotony.

The Reformed Chureh had httle sympathy with
the litany, and rejected it almost without exception,
so that wherever Calvinism gained supremacy over
Lutheranism, the Htany was abolished.

The Moravians have two htanies, the " Church
Litany " and the " Litany of the Life, Passion, and
Death of Jesus Christ." The former is used in a
double form, a shorter version having been made
in 1873, while the latter is derived from the " Litany
of Wounds " composed by Zinzendorf in 1744.

(P. Drews.)
The litany of the English Book of Common Prayer
was originally intended to be a distinct office. A
rubric in the firet prayer-book (1549) ordered it to
be said on Wednesdays and Fridays, before the
communion-office. It was then placed after the
conmiunion-office, and in 1552 put in the place it
now occupies, with the direction that it was to be
" used upon Sunda3r8, Wednesdays, and Fridays,
and at other times when it shall be commanded by
the ordinary." The clause in Ekiward's prayer-
book, ** From the tyranny of the Bishop of Rome
and all his detestable enormities," was omitted in
1559.

Bibuoorapht: On litanies in genera] oonsult: Binsham,
Origenet, XIII.. i. 10-12; E. Mart^ne, De anHquU eedeaitg
ritilnu, Antwerp, 1763; M. Gerbert. Viiu9 lUurgia Ale-
ntannica, parts ii.-iii., San Bias, 1776; idem. Monumenia
veteria lihwffioB AlemannicaSt part ii., ib. 1779; A. J.
Binterim, DenkwQrdUfkeiten, iv. 1, pp. 555 sqq.. Mains.
1827; C. W. Augusti, DenkuHlrdUfkeiten, x. 26 eqq.. Leip-
sic, 1829; T. F. D. Kliefoth. LUuroiadta Abhandlungen,
V. 301 sqq., 373 sqq.. 398 sqq.. vl 152 sqq.. 225 sqq.. 296
sqq., viii. 66 sqq.. 8 vols., Schwerin, 1858-69; J. M.
Neale, EsBaya on Litwrffiology and Church Hiatory, Lon-
don, 1863; A. P. Stanley, Chritiian Inatitutiona, chap,
xii.. New York, 1881; G. Rietschel, LekHnu^ der Liiur-
ffik, i. 200-201 et passim, Berlin, 1900; F. Spitta. in
Monatachrift fQr GotUadienat und kirdUidie Kunat^ vi
(1901), 375 sqq.; L. Duchesne, Chriatian Wordtip, pas-
sim, London, 1904.

On the Lauretanian Litany consult: J. Sauren, Die
lauretaniacfie Litanei, Kempten, 1895; A. de Santi. Le
Litanei Lauretane, Rome, 1897; J. Braun, in SHmmen aua
Maria Loach, Iviii (1900), 418-437. On the litany of the
Brethren cf. J. T. Mttller, in Monatachrift fQr Gotteadienat
und* kirchlie?ie Kunat, vii. 1902. On the Anglican Litany
oonsult: J. H. Blunt, Annotated Book of Common Prayer,
London, 1903; J. N. McCk)rmick, The JAtany and the Lift,
Milwaukee, 1904; F. Procter and W. H. Frere, New Hiai.
of the Book of Common Prayer, London, 1905. No raiaU
part of the literature cited under Liturqt necessarily deals
with the litany.

LITHUANIA. See Russia.

LITTLE, CHARLES EUGENE: Methodist Epis-
copalian; b. at Waterbury, Vt., Apr. 7, 1838. He
was graduated in 1860 from the theological depart-
ment of Boston University (then at Concord, N. H.).
was ordained deacon (1862) and elder (1864), and
has held pastorates at Dannemora, N. Y. (1860-61),
OintonviUe, N. Y. (1862-63), Fair Haven, Vt.
(1865-67), Newmarket, N. J. (1867), Eighth Avenue
Church, Newark, N. J. (1868-70), Hackettstown,
N. J. (1871, 1875-77), Nyack, N. Y. (1873-74),

REUGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Uttlijob

Park Church, ElUabeth, N. J. (1878-80), Cente-
nary Church, Newark, N. J. (1881-83), Calvary
Church, East Orange, N. J. (1884-86), Grace Church,
Port Richmond, Staten Island (1887-91), Lafayette
Church, Jersey City, N. J. (18B3-96), Weat Side
Avenue Church, Jersey City (1897-1901), Arling-
ton, N, J. (1902-05), Hackensack, N. J. (1905), and
"Verona, N. J., ance 1905. He has written: Biblical
Lighla and Side Lights (New York, 1883); Hidor-
iad Lighlg (1880); and Cydopedia of Claseijled
Data (1900).

LITTLE SISTERS OF THE POOR, THE: A
leligious order of women which had ita origin in
Saint Servan, near the coast town of St. Malo in
Brittany. In 1840 the village priest, M. ie Pailleur,
first interested Jeanne Jugun, a humble servant
girl, and a few other pious women in the care of
some of the aged poor people of the locality, and
In 1842 a bouse was bought to serve as a refuge for
the aame. The work, though undertaken without
any definite or far-reaching plan, and utterly with-
out reeourcea, save the alma contributed by a far
from opulent surrounding population, developed
with an unlooked-for rapidily. The spirit of pov-
erty and the unselfish devotedness which charac-
terized the founders of the work soon made them
very popular, and in the course of ft few years they
were organized on the lines of a religious congrega-
tion which in twenty years spread to most of the
cities of France, and even to Belgium and England.
The object of the organization is the establishment
and maintenance of permanent homes for the des-
titute aged and infirm of both sexes without dis-
tinction of creed or nationality. To be admitted
to these homes the applicants must be " respecta-
ble," i.e., of good moral character, and, as a rule,
tbey must be over sixty years of age. They are
supported and cared for personally by the sisters
who depend entirely on cliarity tor their mainte-
nance. The rule of the community, which Li based
Dn that of St. Augustine, received the solemn ap-
probation of the Holy See July 9, 1854. The order
was legally recognized by the French government
in 1856, and it finds place among the few congrega-
tiotts which survived the legislation enacted against
the religious communities in France in 1905 and
1906.

The order was introduced into the United States
in 186S when their first home was opened in Brook-
lyn, and in 1907 the American mcmbetBhip num-
bered 800 sisters with two provincial headquarters,
one in Brooklyn and the other in Chicago. They
conduct fifty homes for the aged in the various
cities of the Union, chicfiy in those of the East
and Middle West, the total [mmber of inmates being
over 9.000, Jamrs F. Driscoll.

BtBuoURAPD'T: J. P. Ui^ne, Eruri/elopMit thtoloovpu, vol.
xxiii.; DictianrvirB dea ordres retiijitui, vol, iv (uj)d«r
" Petit«ii Boeun dee Pbuvks "). Parin, \S59; L, Aubi-
ueau, L^viaii€KhTeib]j,tmtn, Dit klfingn Schieeaigm drr
Armen, RegeiuburB, 1871: Smaiaa dirtionnairt d'Si*.
toirt tt dt ftographu, ib. 1S74; Q. TtBtiingcr, Gcaehiditt
il€rlirMidunAnwnpfffaf.pi>.Slg sqq., Fraibun. 1SS4;
Qfflaal CalMatic DirKlon, far At VruUd SIbIcm. MilwBukw.
IB09: BaunanI, E. ZWiTcra ri Us /aitdaliont dtn PttUa
5mr( da pamm. Psrii. ISCM; Ueimbucbei. Orda und
Kenertnationtn, ii. 3SS-3S9.

VI.— 32

LITTLEDALE, RICHARD FREDERICK:
Church of England; b. in Dublin Sept. 14, 1833;
d, in London Jan. 1 1, 1890. He studied at Trinity
Collie, Dublin (B.A., 1854; M.A., 1858; LL.D.,
1862; D.C.L., Oxford, 1862). He was curate of
Thorpe Hamlet, Norfolk (1856-57), then of St.
Mary the Virgin, Soho, London (1857-61); but,
being compelled by iU-bealth to abandon parochial
work, he devoted himself to religious literature, and
became a volimunoua writer. As an opponent at
the Church of Rome, he attracted much attention.
Among his works may be mentioned: Rdi^UM
Communities of Women in the Early Church (Lon-
don, 1862); Cf^cM of the Holy EaiOem Church
(1863); The Mixed Chalice (ISHa); The North Side
of the Altar (1864); Catholic Ritual in the Church
of England (1865); The Elevation of the Honi (1865);
Early Christian RiiiuU (1867); Commentary on the
Paalmt (in continuation of Dr. Neale's, vols, ii.-
iv., 1868-74); Cammeniary on the Song of Songs
(1869); Reiigitnis .Education of Women (1872);
Papers on Sisterhoods (1874-78); Laat Attempt to
reform the Church of Rome from within (1875) ; Ul-
tramonianx Popular Literature (1876); An Inner
View of the Vatican Council (1877); Plain Reatont
against joining the Church of Rome (1879); A Short
History of the Counril of Trent (1888); The Pelrine
Claims: a Critical Inquiry (1889). He contributed
to the Encydopirdia Britannica (9lh ed.); edited
Ansehn's Cur Deus Homot (1863); and shared in
editing The Priests' Prayrr-Book (1864); The Pea-
pie's Hymnal (1867); Liturgies ofSS. Mark, Jamei,
Clement, ChrysosUm, and Basa (1868-69); The Chris-
tian Patsoi^ (IS73)] and T'fte AflarManuai(1877).
3. C. H, King,
■mtriialiH. Ldd-

Eneuctopaedia. t>. HSi.

LITTLEJOHH, ABRAM HEWKIRK: Protes-
tant Episcopal bishop of Long Island; b. at Flor-
ida, N. Y., Dec. 13, 1824; d. at WiUiamstown,
Mass., Aug. 3, 1901. He was educated at Union
College (B.A., 1845) and at Princeton Theological
Serairary. He was ordained deacon in 1848 and
priest the following year. While deacon he ofl^
ciated at Amsterdam, N. Y,, and at Meriden, Conn.
He was rector of Christ Church, Springfield, Mass.
(1850-51); St. Paul's Church, New Haven, Conn.
(1851-60); and Church of the Holy Trinity, Brook-
lyn, N. Y. (1860-69). During his tectorate in New
Haven he was professor of pastoral theology in the
Berkeley Divinity School at Middletown, Conn.
He was consecrated as the first bishop of the new
diocese of Long Island (Jan. 27, 1869), having pre-
viously been elected bishop of Central New YorkJ
but declined the position. He had oversight of the
American Protestant Episcopal churches on the
Continent (1874-86). His principal works are:
Condones ad Clerum (New York, 1881); Individ-
iudism: its Growth and Tendencies (1881; lectures
before the University of Cambridge) and The Chris-
tian Ministry at the dose of the I9tk CetUury (1884;
lectures on the Bishop Paddock foundation, Gen-
eral Theological Seminary, New York).
Biai.ioaii*™i; W. 8. Perry, Thr EiHtrapalt in Amrrita.

p. 19&. New Vark. ISaa.

Idteay
lattlcjohn

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

496

tion processions and litanies were retained, al-
though they were discarded by 1525. Four years
later, however, a revised Htany was restored in
Evangelical worship by Luther himself, the imme-
diate occasion being a threatened in-
2. Churches vasion of the Turks. He evidently
of the Ref- published a separate German version

ormatioiL of this litany, although no copy of this
edition is known to be extant, but
there is no ground for assuming that he issued the
Latin text of it as he proposed to do. The German
litany was also appended to the third edition of his
smaller catechism, but was later omitted, although it
then found its way into the hymnals, doubtless with
its author's approval. The Latin version, in like
manner, was almost certainly contained in the
hynmal of Klug published in 1529 and no longer ex-
tant. It may well have included the German version
as well, like the later editions of the work and a num-
ber of other hjmmab of the same period. The ex-
tension of the litany through middle and north
Germany by means of the hymn-books was rapid,
but it was comparatively rarely found, on the other
hand, in southern or southwestern German hym-
nody. There, however, it was spread by the church
orders, the more important ones all containing it.
The original Lutheran Htany was closely similar to
the Roman CathoUc Litany of the Saints, except
that all invocations of the saints, as well as petitions
for the pope and the dead, were omitted. On the
other hand, the petitions are more specialized and
more concrete than in the older litany, which is,
nevertheless, far the richer.

In the northern and central parts of Germany
no uniformity whatever prevailed in the time of the
recitation of the litany. Wednesday and Friday
were, on the whole, the favorite days, although it
might also be recited on Tuesday, Sunday festivals,
and at vespers on Saturday. Local usage in many
coses prescribed it for special days, while numerous
church orders required it to be said occasionally,
although no special day was designated. The place
which the litany occupied in the North and Middle
(jerman liturgy likewise varied. It might be re-
cited alone, cither in the moniing or the evening,
after the lesson, epistle, or sermon, and before or
during the communion. An equal lack of uniform-
ity prevailed in southern and southwestern Ger-
many, but there the litany, in harmony with the
intention of Luther, retained its original character
of a penitentiiil prayer more than in the north, so
that in Strosburg it followed the confession and
absolution. The litany was subject, furthermore,
to numerous local modifications, petitions being in-
serted or omitted practically at pleasure.

In Wittenberg the German litany was chanted
by the choir-boys, while the congregation sang the
responses, although ultimately one part of the choir
chanted the petitions and the other responded.
The Latin litany was sung only in the latter fashion.
In the seventeenth century the Latin Htany was
discarded altogether, and in cose there was a trained
choir, the pastor, kneeling or standing with his face
toward the altar, intoned the petition, while the
congregation, led by the choir, sang the responses.
If for any reason the litany was not sung, it might

be recited or read. These modes of repeatizig the
litany graduaUy supplanted the Hinging of it, but
on the whole, though it is still retained in almost
all modem German hturgies, it has lost its hold in
great measure on the congregations because of its
monotony.

The Reformed Chureh had little sympathy with
the litany, and rejected it almost without exception,
so that wherever Calvinism gained supremacy over
Lutheranism, the Utany was abolished.

The Moravians have two Utanies, the " Church
Litany " and the " Litany of the Life, Passion, and
Death of Jesus Christ." The former is used in a
double form, a shorter version having been made
in 1873, while the latter is derived from the " Litany
of Wounds " composed by Zinzendorf in 1744.

(P. Drews.)
The litany of the English Book of Common Prayer
was originally intended to be a distinct office. A
rubric in the first prayer-book (1549) ordered it to
be said on Wednesdays and Fridays, before the
conmiunion-office. It was then placed after the
conununion-office, and in 1552 put in the place it
now occupies, with the direction that it was to be
" used upon Sundays, Wednesdays, and Fridays,
and at other times when it shall be commanded by
the ordinary." The clause in Eki ward's prayer-
book, ** From the tyranny of the Bishop of Rome
and all his detestable enormities,'' was omitted in
1559.

Bibuoorapht: On litanies in genera] oonsult: Binsham,
Oritfenet, XIII., i. 10-12; E. Mart^ne. De anHquU eedeaug
rOOmc. Antwerp, 1763; M. Qerbert. Viiu9 Uiurgia Ale-
mannica, parts ii.-iii., San Bias, 1776; idem, Montunenia
veteria lihurffia Alemannicas, part ii., ib. 1779; A. J.
Binterim, DenkwQrdUfkeiten, iv. 1, pp. 555 sqq.. Mains.
1827; C. W. Augusti, DenkuHlrdigkeiten, x. 26 sqq.. Leip-
sic, 1829; T. F. D. Kliefoth, LUuroiadta Abhandlunoen,
V. 301 sqq., 373 sqq., 398 sqq., vl 152 sqq., 225 sqq., 296
sqq., viii. 66 sqq.. 8 vols., Schwerin, 1858-69; J. If.
Neale, Enay on Liturffiology and Chttrch History^ Lon-
don, 1863; A. P. Stanley. ChrUtian InaiituUonM, chap,
xii.. New York, 1881; G. Rietsohel, LehHnu^ der Liiur-
ffik, i. 200-201 et passim, Berlin. 1900; F. Spitta. in
MoncUackrift fUr GoUeadientt und kirchliehe KunMi, vi
(1901), 375 sqq.; L. Duchesne, Chriatian Wor^ip, pas-
sim, London, 1904.

On the Lauretanian Litany consult: J. Sauren, Die
lawretaniache Litanei, Kempten, 1895; A. de Santi. Le
Litanei Lauretane, Rome. 1897; J. Braun, in Stimmen aua
Maria Loach, Iviii (1900). 418-437. On the litany of the
Brethren of. J. T. Mailer, in Monattckrift fOr Gotieadienst
und* kirchliehe Kunat, vii. 1902. On the Anfclican Litany
consult: J. H. Blunt, Annotated Book of Common Prayer,
London, 1903; J. N. McCk)rmick, The JAtany and the Life,
Milwaukee, 1904; F. Procter and W. H. Frere. New Hiai.
of the Book of Common Prayer, London, 1905. No raaall
part of the literature cited under LrruROT necessarily deals
with the litany.

LITHUANIA. See Russia.

LITTLE, CHARLES EUGENE: Methodist Epis-
copalian; b. at Waterbury, Vt., Apr. 7, 1838. He
was graduated in 1860 from the theological depart-
ment of Boston University (then at Concord, N. H.),
was ordained deacon (1862) and elder (1864), and
has held pastorates at Dannemora, N. Y. (1860-61),
Clintonville, N. Y. (1862-63), Fair Haven, Vt.
(1865-67), Newmarket, N. J. (1867), Eighth Avenue
Church, Newark, N. J. (1868-70), Hackettstown,
N. J. (1871, 1875-77), Nyack, N. Y. (1873-74),

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDU

JAtmnr

XllttUjOlL

Park Church, Elizabeth, N. J. (1878-80), Cente-
nary Church, Newark, N, J. (1881-83), Calvary
Church. East Orange, N. J. (1884-86), Grace Church,
Port Richmond, Stal«n hlnnd (I887-G1), Lafayette
Church, Jereey City, N. J. (1892-96), Weat Side
Avenue Church, Jersey City (1807-19OI), Arling-
ton, N. J. (1902-05), Hackensack, N. J. (1905), and
Verona, N. J., since 1905. He has written; BiblietU
Lights and Side [jig}da (New York, 1883); Hislor-
ical Lights (1SS6); and Cydoptdia of Clarified
Dales (1900).

LITTLE SISTERS OF THE POOR, THE: A
religious order of women which had its origin in
Saint Servan, near the coast town of St. Malo in
Brittany. In 1840 the village priest, M. le Pailleur,
first interested Jeanne Jugan, a humble servant
girt, and a few other pious women in the care of
Bome o( the aged poor people of the locality, and
in 1842 & houee was bought to serve as a refuge for
the same. The work, though undertaken without
any definite or far-reaching plan, and utterly with-
out resources, save the alms contributed by a far
from opulent surrounding population, developed
with an unlooked-for rapidily. The spirit of pov-
erty and the unselfish devotedness which charac-
terized the founders of the work soon made them
very popular, and in the course of a few years they
were oi^anixed on the lines of a religious congrega-
tion which ia twenty years spread to most of the
cities of France, and even to Belgium and England.
The object of the organization is the establishment
and maintenance of permanent homes for the des-
titute aged and infirm of both seses without dbi-
tinction of creed or uutionaUty. To be admitted
to these homes the applicants must be " respecta-
ble," i.e., of good moral character, and, aa a rule,
they must be over sinty years of age. They are
supported and cared for personally by the sisters
who depend entirely on charity for their mainte-
nance. The rule of the community, which is based
on that of St. Augustine, received the solemn ap-
probation ot the Holy See "July 9, 1854. The order
was legally recognized by the French government
in 1856, and it finds place among the few congrega-
tions which survived the Icgislatioii enacted against
the religious communities in France in 1905 and
1906.

The order was introduced inio the United States
in 18GS when their first home was opened in Brook-
lyn, and in 1907 the American membership num-
bered 800 sisters with two provincial headquarters,
one in Brooklyn and the other in Chicago. They
conduct fifty homes for the aged in the various
cities of the Union, chiefly in those of the East
And Middle West, the total number of inmates being
over 9,000. James F. Dhiscoio.

Biblioohafht: J. F. Migne, EnciKlap^it OiiotoaUiut, vol.

DRku. L^fubeafhreUmngen, Die kUii
^m<n, KcseDsburg. 1S71; Nmvtau dicli.
lain tl lit gmaraphit. ib. 1874; G. lUtainf
derLirMiclun Armtnjijlegi, pp. 518 sqq.. Fi
Qm^ai Calholit Diriclory /or At Vniltd HlaU
1909; Bsunard. B. LHi/vrr: ct Iri fondaliai
Smn da pauvre,, Paris. ISM; Heimbuclit
Kantrtgalianen, a. 383-389.

VI.— 32

Sehwatern c/tf
tionnatrg d'hit'
nger, GetdticJilt

LITTLEDALE, RICHARD FREDERICK:

Church of England; b. in Dublin Sept. 14, 1833;
d. in London Jan. 11, 1890. He studied at Trinity
College, Dublin (B.A., 1854; M.A., 1858; LL.D.,
1862; D.CL., Oxford, 1862). He was curate of
Thorpe Hamlet, Norfolk (1856-57), then of St.
Mary the Virgin, Soho, London (1857-61); but,
being compelled by ill-health to abandon parochial
work, he devoted himself to religious literature, and
became a voluminous writer. As an opponent of
the Church of Rome, he attracted much attention.
Among his works may be mentioned: Religioua
Comm-uniiiea of Women in the Early Chureh (Lon-
don, 1862); Offices of the Holy Eastern Church
(1863); The Mixed Chalice {\mS); The North Side
of the AUar (1864); Catholic Ritual in the Church
of Engtavd (imsy, The Elevation of the Host (1865);
Early Christian Ritual (1867); Commentary on the
Pialms (in continuation of Dr. Neale's, vols, ii.-
iv., 1868-74); Commentary on the Song qf Songt
(1869); Religious .Education of Women (1872);
Paper* on Sisterhoods (1874-78); Laal AUanpt to
reform the Church of Rome from within {m7 5): Ul-
tramoiilane Popular Literature (1876); An Inner
Vievi of the Vatican Council (1877); Plain Reasons
againsl joining tht Church of Rome (1879); A Short
History of the CounaJ of Trent (IB88); The Petrine
Claims: a Critical Inquiry (ISSS). He contributed
to the Encyclopedia Britannica (9th ed.); edited
Ansehn's Cur Deus Homot (1863); and shared in
editing The Priests' Prayer-Book (1864); The Peo-
ple'a Hymnal (18&7); Liturgies of SS. Mark, James,
Clement, Chryio»Um,and Basil (1868-69); The Chris-
tian Passover {1S73): and The Altar Manuam877).

BiBUoaBAFin: D/fB. miuL 3M-36S: O. C. H. King,
The CKaracler af Dr. T.iltledole « a Conlrm'mialiel. Loo-
iIdd. 1888. FurlliFr Lilcrature is indiailed in RjchiudsoD,
Encgclotiaedia. p, 034.

LITTLE JOHM, ABRAM BEWKIRK: Protes-
tant Episcopal bishop of Long Island; b. at Flor-
ida. N. Y., Dec. 13, 1824; d. at WiUiamstown,
Mass., Aug. 3, 1901. He was educated at Union
College (B.A., 1845) and at Princeton Theological
Seminary. He was ordained deacon in 1848 and
priest the following year. While deacon he offi-
ciated at Amsterdam, N. Y., and at Mcriden, Conn.
He was rector of Christ Church, Springfield, Mass.
(1850-31); St. Paul's Church, New Haveo, Conn.
(1851-eO); and Church of the Holy Trinity, Brook-
lyn, N. Y. (1860-69). During his rectorate in New
Haven he was professor of pastoral tbeotc^ in the
Berkeley Divinity School at Middletown, Conn.
He was consecrated as the first bishop of the new
diocese of Long Island (Jan. 27, 1869), having pr^
viously been elected bishop of Central New Yorl^
but declined the position. He had oversight of the
American Protestant Episcopal churches on the
Continent (1874-86). His principal works are:
Condones ad Clerum (New York, 1881); Individ-
ualism: Us Growth and Tendencies (1881; lectures
before the University of Cambridge) and TkeChris-
fian Ministry at the close of the 19lh Century (1884;
lectures on the Bishop Paddock foundation. Gen-
eral Theological Seminary, New York).
niBLTO(jH«PHiri W. G. Ferry, The Epitctpale in ^fiMrion,

lattlcjohn

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

tion processions and litanies were retained, al-
though they were discarded by 1525. Four years
later, however, a revised litany wjis restored in
Evangelical worship by Luther himself, the imme-
diate occasion being a threatened in-
2. Churches vasion of the Turks. He evidently
of the Ref- published a separate German version
ormation. of this litany, although no copy of this
edition is known to be extant, but
there is no ground for assuming that he issued the
Latin text of it as he proposed to do. The German
litany was also appended to the third edition of his
smaller catechism, but was later omitted, although it
then found its way into the hymnals, doubtless with
its author's approval. The Latin version, in like
manner, was almost certainly contained in the
hymnal of Klug published in 1529 and no longer ex-
tant. It may well have included the German version
as well, like the later editions of the work and a num-
ber of other hynmals of the same period. The ex-
tension of the litany through middle and north
Germany by means of the hymn-books was rapid,
but it was comparatively rarely found, on the other
hand, in southern or southwestern German hym-
nody. There, however, it was spread by the church
orders, the more important ones all containing it.
The original Lutheran litany was closely similar to
the Roman CathoHc Litany of the Saints, except
that all invocations of the saints, as well as petitions
for the pope and the dead, were omitted. On the
other hand, the petitions are more specialized and
more concrete than in the older litany, which is,
nevertheless, far the richer.

In the northern and central parts of Germany
no uniformity whatever prevailed in the time of the
recitation of the litany. Wednesday and Friday
were, on the whole, the favorite days, although it
might also be recited on Tuesday, Sunday festivals,
and at vespers on Saturday. Local usage in many
cases prescribed it for special days, while niunerous
church orders required it to be said occasionally,
although no special day was designated. The place
which the litany occupied in the North and Middle
German liturgy likewise varied. It might be re-
cited alone, either in the morning or the evening,
after the lesson, epistle, or sermon, and before or
during the communion. An equal lack of uniform-
ity prevailed in southern and southwestern Ger-
many, but there the litany, in harmony with the
intention of Luther, retained its original character
oC a penitential prayer more than in the north, so
that in Strasburg it followed the confession and
absolution. The litany was subject, furthermore,
to numeroiLs local modifications, petitions being in-
serted or omitted practically at pleasure.

In Wittenberg the German litany was chanted
by the choir-boys, while the congregation sang the
responses, although ultimately one part of the choir
chanted the petitions and the other responded.
The Latin litany was sung only in the latter fashion.
In the seventeenth century the Latin Htany was
discarded altogether, and in case there was a trained
choir, the pastor, kneeling or standing with his face
toward the altar, intoned the petition, while the
congregation, led by the choir, sang the responses.
If for any reason the litany was not sung, it might

be recited or read. These modes of repeating tk
htany graduaUy supplanted the singing of it, bd
on the whole, though it is still retained in tinea
all modem German liturgies, it has lost its hoU m
great measure on the congregations because of h
monotony.

The Reformed Church had little sympathy vitl
the litany, and rejected it aknost without ezoeptiaii,
so that wherever Calvinism gained supremacy OT«r
Lutheranism, the litany was abolished.

The Moravians have two litanies, the "Oustfa
Litany " and the '' Litany of the Life, Passicxk, and
Death of Jesus Christ." The former is used ini
double form, a shorter version having been muk
in 1873, while the latter is derived from the *' litaoy
of Wounds " composed by Zinzendorf in 1744.

(P. Drews.)
The htany of the English Book of Common Prayer
was originally intended to be a distinct office. A
rubric in the first prayer-book (1549) ordered it to
be said on Wednesdays and Fridays, before the
conununion-office. It was then placed after the
conmiunion-offioe, and in 1552 put in the place it
now occupies, with the direction that it was to be
" used upon Sundays, Wednesdays, and Fridays,
and at other times when it shall be conmianded bj
the ordinary." The clause in £ki ward's pn.y&-
book, " From the tyranny of the Bishop of Rome
and all his detestable enormities/' was omitted in
1559.

fiiBLiooRAFEnr: On litanies in flreneral ooxunilt: Binstum.
Orioenea, XIII., i. 10-12; £. Mart^ne, £>€ aniiquiB 9odbam
riiihuM, Antwerp, 1763; M. Qerbert. Vitu* titurvia AU-
mannica, parts il-iii., San Blaa, 1776; idem. Monumnit
veteria UturgioB Alemannica^ part ii., lb. 1779; A. J.
Binterim, DenkwOrdUfkeiten^ iv. 1, pp. 555 eqq., Mftiu,
1827; C. W. Auguflti, DenkurtirdiokeUen. x. 28 aqq.. Lap-
sic, 1829; T. F. D. Kliefoth, lAturffimtAe Abhandbmgn.
V. 301 sqq.. 373 sqq., 398 sqq.. vt 152 aqq., 225 aqq.. 29B
sqq., viil 66 sqq., 8 vols.. Schwerin, 185a-€9; J. M.
Neale, Enaya on Liturgiolooy and ChurtX HxMtory, Loa-
don, 1863; A. P. Stanley, ChriMtian InstihUiofU, chap,
xii.. New York, 1881; G. Rietachel, Lehrbuch der lANt-
oik, i. 200-201 et passim, Berlin, 1900; F. Spitta, is
Monatathrift fUr Ootieadienat und kirdkUehe Kunst, ti
(1901), 375 sqq.; L. Duchesne, Chriatian WarAip^ pa»-
sim, London, 1904.

On the Lauretanian Litany consult: J. Sauren, Di*
laitretaniache Litanei, Kempten, 1895; A. de Santi, Le
lAtanei Lauretane, Rome, 1897; J. Braun, in SHmmen mu
Maria Loach, Iviii (1900). 418-437. On the litany of the
Brethren cf. J. T. M Oiler, in Monat9chrift far Gottetdimd
und*kirchliche Kunat, vii. 1902. On the AnsJican Litan;
consult: J. H. Blunt, Annotated Book of Common Prayfr,
London, 1903; J. N. McCormick, T?ie Litany and the Life,
Milwaukee, 1904; F. Procter and W. H. Frvre, New Hid.
of the Book of Common Prayer, London, 1905. No small
part of the literature cited under LrruRoT necessarily deab
with the litany.

LITHUANIA. See Russia.

LITTLE, CHARLES EUGENE: Methodist Epis-
copalian; b. at Waterbury, Vt., Apr. 7, 1838. He
was graduated in 1860 from the theological depart-
ment of Boston University (then at Concord, N. H.),
was ordained deacon (1862) and elder (1864), and
has held pastorates at Dannemora, N. Y. (186(01-61),
Clintonville, N. Y. (1862-63), Fair Haven, Vt.
(1865-67), Newmarket, N. J. (1867), Eighth Avenue
Church, Newark, N. J. (1868-70), Hackettstown,
N. J. (1871, 1875-77), Nyack, N. Y. (1873-74),

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Park Church, EliMbeth, N. J. (1878-80), Cente-
nary Church, Newark, N. J. (1881-83), Calvary
Church, East Orange, N.J. (1884-86), Grace Church,
Port Richmond, Statin Inland (1887-01), Lafayette
Church, Jereey City, N. J. (1S92-96), West Side
Avenue Church, Jersey City (1897-1901), Arling-
ton, N. J. (1902-05), Hackensack. N. J. (1905), and
Verona, N. J., since 1905. He has written; Biblical
lAghlt and Side Lights (New York, 1883); Hislor-
Mwi Lightt (1886); and Cydoperlia of Clarified
Dcae* (1900).

LITTLE SISTERS OF THE POOR, THE: A
rehgioUB order o! women which had its origin in
fiaint Servan, near the coast town of St. Malo in
Brittany. In 1840 the village priest, M. le Pailleur,
first interested Jeanne Jugan, a humble ecrvant
^rl, and a few other pious women in the care of
Aome of the aged poor people of the locality, and
in 1842 a house was bought to serve as a refuge for
the same. The work, though undertaken without
any definite or far-reaching plan, and utterly with-
out resources, save the alms contributed by a far
from opulent surrounding population, developed
with an unlooked-for rapidity. The spirit of pov-
erty and the unselfish devotedness which charac-
terized the founders of the work soon made them
very popular, and in the course of a few years they
were organized on the hnes of a religious congrega-
tion which in twenty years spread to most of the
cities of France, and oven to Belgium and England.
The object of the organization is the establishment
and maintenance of permanent homes for the des-
titute aged and infirm of both sexes without dis-
tinction of creed or nationality. To be admitted
to these homes the applicants must be " respecta-
ble," i.e., of good moral character, and, as a rule,
they must be over sixty years of ago. They are
supported and cared for personally by the sisters
who depend entirely on charity for their mainte-
nance. The rule of the community, which is based
on that of St. Augustine, received the solemn ap-
probation of the Holy See July 9, 1854. The order
■was legally recognized by the French government
in 1866, and it finds place among the few congrega-
tions which survived the legislation enacted against
the religious communities in France in 1905 and
1906.

The order was introduced into the United States
in 186S when their first home was opened in Brook-
lyn, and in 1907 the American membership num-
bered 800 sisters with two provincial headquarters,
one in Brooklyn and the other in Cliicngo. They
conduct fifty homes for the aged in the various
cities of the Union, chiefly in thoiie of ibe East
and Middle West, the total number of inmates being
over 9,000. James F. Driscoll.

BlBUDOBAPHY: J. P. Hiine, Enei/elapMii Oiralegiij^. vol.
xxiii.; Djctionnnirm dem nrtirrt reiioieuj:, voi. ir (und^r
" PstilH 8wun do Pauvnn "), Puw. 1S5B: L. Aubi-
IKBU. Ltbmtbete^rtilningtn, Die ktfintn Sckuetlern det
Armm. Reftoibatf, IS71: Wouewu dirtiannairi dhit-
ttrin tt dt ftosrapkU. ib. 1874; C. RstiinitBr, GeidiichU
dtrlirMidm Armenvfirtr . pp. 518 Bqq.. Praburji, 1A8t;
OJUcial CaHtalic Dirtclory fur tkt United Slalet. MilwaukM.
IW9l Bsunud. B, Lrlitm rl Iri fandalintu drt Priiln
Siwur, da patnrei. Puix. 1904; Heimbucher. Ordea and

VI.-

LITTLEDALE, RICHARD FREDERICK:
Church of England; b. in Dublin Sept. 14, 1833;
d. in London Jan. II, 1890. He studied at Trinity
College, DubUn (B.A., 1854; M.A., 1858; LL.D..
1862; D.C.L., Oxford, 1862). He was curate of
Thorpe Hamlet, Norfolk (1856-57), then of St.
Mary the Virgin, Soho, London (1857-61); but,
being compelled by ill-health to abandon parochial
work, he devoted himself to religious ht«rature, and
became a voluminous writer. Ab au opponent of
the Church of Rome, he attracted much attention.
Among his works may be mentioned: Religiavt
Communitie* of Women in the Early Church (Lon-
don, 1862); Officer of the Holy Eastern Church
(1863); The Mixed Chalice (imsy. The North Side
0/ the AUar (1864); CathiAic Ritual in the Church
of England (1865); The Elenation of the Host (1865);
Early Chrietian Ritual (1867); Commentary on the
P»alm» (in continuation of Dr. Neale's, vols, ii.-
iv., 1868-74); Commentary on the Song of Songt
(1869); Rdigioua .Edwalion of Women (1872);
Papers on Sisterhoods (1874-78); Last Attempt la
reform the Church of Rome from within {1875); Ul-
tramontane Popular Literature (1876); An /nn«r
View of the Vatican Council (1877); Plain Reasons
against joining the Church of Rome (1879); A Short
History of the Council of TrenHlSSS); The Petrine
Claims: a Critical Inquiry (1889). He contributed
to the Encydopadia Britannica (9th ed.); edited
Anselm's Cur Dewi HomoT (1863); and shared in
editing The Priests' Prayer-Book (1864); The Pei>-
pie's HymnaHimr); Liturgies of SS. Mark, James,
Clement, Chrysoaom,and BasU (1868-69); The Chris-
tian Passover (\S7S); and The Altar ManuaHl877).
BiBuodHtpni: DNB. Miciii. 304-305; O. C. H. King,
Tin Charailir of Dr. LiOMalt at a ContrimrrMialiil. Lon-
don. 188S. KurlbFrlilersture is indicated ia Richiudwa.
EnrvHopafdia. p. 034.

LITTLE JOHB, ABRAH flEWKIRE: Protes-
tant Episcopal bishop of Long Island; b. at F'lor-
ida, N. Y., Dec. 13, 1824; d. at WiUjamstown,
Mai!s,, Aug. 3, 1901. He was educated at Uniou
College (B.A.. 1845) and at Princeton Theological
Seminary. He was ordained deacon in 1848 and
priest the following year. While deacon he offir
ciated at Amsterdam, N. Y,, and at Meriden. Conn.
He was rector of Clu-ist Church, Springfield, Mass.
(1850-51); St. Paul's Church, New Haven, Conn.
(1851-60); and Church of (he Holy Trinity, Brook-
lyn. N. Y. (1860-60). During hb rectorale in New
Haven he was professor of pastoral theology in the
Berkeley Divinity School at Middletown, Conn.
He was consecrated as the &mt bishop of the new
diocese of Long Island (Jan. 27. 1869), having pre-
viously been elected bishop of Central New York",
but declined the position. He had oversight of the
American Protestant Episcopal churches on tha
Continent (1874-86). His principal works are:
Condones ad Clerum (New York, 1881); Individ-
tialism: its Growth and Tendenries (ISSl; lectures
before the University of (Cambridge) ondThe Chris-
tian Ministry of the close of the I9lh Century (1884;
lectures on the Bishop Paddock foundation. Gen-
eral Theological Seminary, New York).
BlBLior.BM-HV: W. S. PfiT>-. Tlu: Episapati in Amaiea,

p. t»G, Stw York, ISeS.

liitnxvio*

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

I. Fundamental Principles.

Importance and Delimitation of

LitUTKY (§ 1).
Theory of Litursy (S 2).
Relation of Litursy to Doctrine

(5 3).
Exemplification by the Lutheran

Liturgy (( 4).

LITURGICS.*

Christian Use of the Term ({ 5).
II. Historical Development.

Service in Temple and Synacogue

(5 1).

Development of the Christian Serv-
ice (5 2).

Medieval Elaborations (( 3).

After the Reformation (5 4).

in. Liturgical Formulaft.
Amend 1).
The Doxolosies (| 2).
Alleluia (| 3).
Hoaanna (| 4).
Kyrie Eleieon ( § 5).
Pax vobiacum, Dominos vobi*
(§6).

I. Fundamental Principles: Proclamation of the
Gospel, prayer, and the administration of the Sac-
raments belong to the essence of the Church and of
public worship as well. If the body of Christ is to
be truly edified, the officiating ministers and every
member of the congregation must be

1. Impor- quickened continuaUy by the Spirit of
tance and God. The precise manner, however,
Delimita- in which the principal elements of di-

tion of vine service are combined into a
Liturgy, harmonious whole is of less vital im-
portance. Nevertheless, side by side
with ecclesiastical wisdom and orthodox belief, a cer-
tain sense of the value of constant types and modes
of confessional expression is a factor of moment,
which, in its turn, reflects a common need that finds
its support in the force of historic tradition. Thus
arises the liturgy, or the form of worship in eccle-
siastical communities. In a restrictive sense, the
idea denotes the composite aggregate of the per-
manent elements of worship outside the sermon;
that is, the parts which, in harmony with the prin-
ciples of religious logic, are comprised in the official
Chiu'ch manual, or liturgy proper. By an exten-
sion of the liturgical idea, the entire order of
public worship, including the sermon, is thus desig-
nated. In the latter case, however, only the rela-
tive position of the sermon, and not its content, is
considered, the theme and style of the sermon being
independent of fixed definition (see Homiletics;
Preachinq). Equally outside the realm of litur-
gies is the fact that the commimion is celebrated
according to Christ's institution; but the questions
as to whether the words of institution shall be re-
cited, whether a formula of distribution shall be
employed, and whether an altar or a table shall be
used, are distinctly liturgic. Indeed, it was only
through the liturgy that the consecration itself be-
came an integral element of the divine service. At
the same time, in virtue of its peculiar solemnity,
the Lord's Supper (q.v.; see also Eucharist;
Mass) became the central point of liturgic arrange-
ment, so that the term " liturgy " found its prin-
cipal application in connection with the celebration
of the Eucharist.

The result of a liturgy was reached neither by

divine revelation nor by canonical enactment.

The worship of the early Chm^h re-

2. Theory veals an exuberance of spiritual life
of Liturgy, and a great diversity of spiritual gifts,

but in so amorphous a state that Paul
found himself obliged to urge uniformity in worship
(I Cor. xiv.). Though Paul by no means estab-
lished a working principle for the regulation of public

* This article should be read in connection with the arti-
cles Mars (for the Roman Catholic development), Agenda,
Eucharist, and Lord's Supper (for the Protestant side).

worship, the liturgical tendency was inherent in
factor of historic conservatisin which began to ei
itself from the very first, as is shown, for instai
by the custom, derived from the synagogue cust
(see below, II., § 1), of oongr^ational respona
the prayers of thanksgiving. The tendency
create some permanent order, the significance
which should reach beyond the local and transic
implanted itself with formative and regulal
power in the administrative organism of the ^
itual life. Nevertheless, this process never gau
the character of a law; nor were liturgical elabc
tions so abstract that spontaneously personal <
ments could not find a place in the official prayi
It is obvious that the composers of particular lit
gical forms must remain in the background. 1
notwithstanding all this, each liturgy is characi
istic of the ecclesiastical community to which
appertains; nor must it be forgotten that 1
phraseology of the sermon has a decided infiuei
upon liturgical expression. Moreover, this fes
robe of ceremonial practise, woven by custom,
ceives its interwoven warp and woof of symboli
and artistic ornament. This is not to be adjudg
worldly or unevangelical; since here, too, is d
cemed rather a vital impulse, proceeding from t
divine cosmic dispensation and influencing adva
tageously the domain of spiritual benefits. T
same tendency, in a narrower sense, has given i
tistic adornment to such liturgical objects as t
altar, the pulpit, and the sacred vessels, and h
employed special colors in a symbolic scheme
emphasize the proper nature of the festival se
sons (see Paramsnta; Symbolism). A redundant
of these subsidiary devices, to the repression
what is essential to worship, is, however, reprehe:
sible. The Reformation rightly returned to sir
plicity in this respect, the Reformed Church mo
decidedly than the German, though even Luthe
for all his unrestrained appreciation of the artist
and s3rmbolic, contrived to observe the requisi^
bounds. See Worship.

In considering the relation between the liturg

of the Church and its doctrine, it is clear that mod

fications of doctrine can not remain without infli

ence upon the liturgy, as is attestc

3. Relation by the history of worship at evei

of Liturgy turn. The more the comprehensio

to Doctrine, of the salvation wrought by the deat

of Christ recedes into the backgrounc

the shallower becomes the substance of the Euclu

ristic prayers. The more strictly the Reformatio

returned to the Scriptures and to Christ's purpoG

in the institution of the Eucharist, the more du

tinctly was this reflected in the revision of Evai

gelical liturgies. On the other hand, if the tru

character of an ecclesiastical community is to b

499

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Utorglos

truly known, litui^ as well as doctrine must be
considered. It may be laid down as a general
principle that the closer the adherence to the sim-
ple sense of the Scriptures, the fewer will be the
liturgical elaborations in question. The question
as to what is essential to a liturgy is not abstract,
but should be answered with reverent regard for
historic and conservative forms. For even if his-
toric usage were abandoned and a course of abso-
lute innovation were adopted, nevertheless, the
new forms thus created would themselves exhibit
a marked tendency to resist subsequent innovations.

The present status of the Lutheran liturgy shows
evidence of the influence of the principles of con-
servative reform. In some respects there has been
a reaction as regards Luther's altera-

4. Exem- tions in the Deutsche Mesae, in favor

plification of still older forms. To the introit of
by the the Mass there corresponds in the

Lutheran Evangelical order of worship, after

Liturgy, the opening hymn, an antiphon in
Scriptural phraseology adapted espe-
cially from the Old Testament. In this the dis-
tinctive character of the feast or the church season
concerned must be reflected from the very first.
The Conflteor, instead of remaining a priestly act
of preparation, became a congregational confession
of sin — again a return to the pre-Lutheran liturgy.
The Kyrie and Gloria following the Confiteor were
incorporated in the Lutheran liturgy. The saluta-
tion Dominiia vobiscunif together with the response
Et cum spirUu tuoy both omitted by Luther, were
very early restored in the Evangelical liturgies.
The reading of Scripture has no longer for it^ mission
the familiarization of the congregation with the
Bible, but is designed solemnly to remind them of
this treasure, with the accompaniment of responses
which may be freely supplemented on occasion. The
" voice of Scripture " is followed by the " voice of
the Church," the recitation of the Apostles' Creed
for which, however, a hynm of like purport, such as
Luther's Wir glauben all an einen GoU^ may be sub-
stituted. In the communion service, Luther still
spared the ancient Preface, and also accepted the
Agnus Dei. But even in this domain, a refined
liturgical sense decided largely in favor of earlier ec-
clesiastical usage. For instance, the Lord's Prayer
was reinstated in its rightful place, before the Pax
and the distribution, while the form of distribution
was again duly honored. In every direction there
was careful insistence upon historic connection, in
harmony with Protestant tenets.

With reference to the application of the term

" liturgy " to the sphere of divine service, the

Christian use of the word is based on the Septua-

gint, which translates the Hebrew

5. Christian ^aboda^ in relation to the Temple serv-

Use of the ice, by leitourgia. In the New Testa-
Term, ment, however, the word does not
occur in connection ^nth ceremonial
affairs, but indicates the service which the Christian
renders to God in faith and obedience, as in Heb.
viii. 2, 6; Phil. ii. 17; Rom. xv. 16; or with reference
to brotherly support, as in Rom. xv. 27; Phil. ii.
25, 30; II Cor. ix. 12. The relation to ceremonial
practises recurs most closely in Acts xiii. 2; though

here, too, the idea of ceremonially regulated usage
is to be rejected. The ecclesiastical use of the term
reverts principally to the Old Testament, signifi-
cantly implying a transfer of pre-Christian legal-
ism to the Christian dispensation. Hence the cur-
rent expressions for Levitical and priestly acts were
applied to divine worship, especially in order to
designate the central and sacrificial act. More-
over, leitourgia and leitourgein were once more em-
ployed in the ceremonial sense. The Western
Church early borrowed the term to designate the
Eucharist. The Evangelical confessions gave pref-
erence to the term ccerimonia; and it was only
under the influence of Humanism (q.v.), beginning
with the sixteenth century, that the word liturgia
came into ciu-rent use, first among the Roman
Catholics, and later among the Protestants. The
term is now often used in a widened sense, and the
phrases baptismal, marriage, confirmation, and
burial liturgies are loosely employed. For the his-
tory of Lutheran liturgies see Agenda.

Hermann Herino.
n. Historical Development: The first Chris-
tians, being members of the Jewish Church, fol-
lowed naturally the Jewish manner of worship.
The services to which they were accustomed were
those of the Temple (q.v.) and of the Synagogue
(q.v.). The temple service was elaborate, and was
for the purpose of worship; the syna-
I. Service gogue service was simple and was for
in Temple the purpose of instruction. The tem-
and Syna- pie contributed to liturgical develop-
gogue. ment the tradition of a noble service,
in a stately building, with vested clergy,
with prayers accompanied by the symbol of Incense
(q.v.), with praises sung from the book of psalms,
with an altar, and with the varied interest and sig-
nificance of an ordered sequence of feasts and fasts.
The fact, however, that the temple was in Jerusar
lem, and that it was destroyed and its services
ended forever in 70 a.d., gave its liturgical prece-
dents a minor part in the making of the primitive
Christian devotions. These were patterned mainly
upon those of the synagogue. The synagogue was
a plain building, having a platform at the further
end. On the platform were seats for church oflB-
cials, and in the midst was a pulpit. Over the pul-
pit himg an ever-burning lamp, and back of the
pulpit, behind a curtain against the wall, was a
chest containing the rolb of the sacred books. The
ordinary service began with the Shema, a habit-
ual, daily devotion, like the Lord's Prayer, consist-
ing of three passages of Scripture, Deut. vi. 4-9,
xi. 13-21; Num. xv. 37-41. After this came the
Shemoneh eerehf or eighteen benedictions, each with
a recurring phrase or refrain, followed by an Amen
as a congregational response. This was succeeded
by the first lesson, taken from the Law, read in
seven parts by seven readers, each pronouncing a
few verses, the verses being translated into Aramaic,
iKith explanation, comment, and application. The
second lesson was a single reading from the Proph-
ets, translated and explained as before (cf. Luke
iv. 16 sqq.). With a collection for the poor, and
a benediction, perhaps with some singing of psEdms,
the service ended.

Litnxvloa

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

500

To this service the Christians added a Litui^gy
of Christ in the Holy Communion; and a Liturgy
of the Holy Ghost in the short-lived enthusiasm of
the speaking with tongues, and a Lituigy of God
the Father in the agapS, or love-feast,
2. Develop- which assembled the faithful as the
ment of the family of God to the enjoyment of his
Christian blessings. (See Agape; Eucharist;
Service. Lord's Supper). The synagogue
service grew into the homiletical in-
troduction to the Holy Conmiunion, called the
Missa Catechumenorum, with the reading of pas-
sages from the Epistles and the Gospels, followed
by a sermon. It affected also the daily prayers.
These daily devotions, which came to be called the
Divine Office, had their beginning in the observ-
ance of hours of prayer. Two such hours were sug-
gested by the natural instincts of the religious life:
the morning, at cock-crowing, called matins; the
evening, at candle-lighting, called vespers. These
were at first observed in private or as times for
family worship; but presently they were kept in
the consecrated quiet of the church, people com-
ing in at these seasons and saying their prayers,
each person by himself. Gradually, other seasons
of devotion began to be observed. First, the vigU,
which in its original form was a night of prayer
before Easter, and then came to precede ordinary
Sundays, and then to be a time of spiritual prepa-
ration for saints' days. On these occasions the
morning prayer was in two parts, one in the night,
called matins or noctums; the other at dawn,
called lauds. Then, to meet the eagerness for the
privilege of prayer, three hours were kept in the
day: the third hour, nine o'clock, called terce, re-
membering the disciples on the Day of Pentecost;
the sixth hour, twelve o'clock, called sext, remem-
bering St. Peter on the housetop; the ninth hour,
called none, remembering how Peter and John
went into the temple at the hour of prayer. Thus
there were six times for daily prayer: matins, lauds,
terce, sext, none, and vespers. The next step was
to make these individual devotions public and con-
gregational, and to have them led by the clergy.
Of course, for busy people, such a continual exer-
cise of prayer was impossible. For them, as is
common to-day, the daily devotions were for the
most part the private prayers which they said at
the cock-crow and at the candle-lighting. The
faithful who went to church six times a day were
mainly ascetics, whose chief interest and occupa-
tion in life was the act of prayer. Presently, these
devout persons were gathered into groups and so-
cieties, and disappeared from sight in monasteries.
There they added to the six daily services two
morc^: Prime, as the prayers before the daily chap-
ter meeting, and Compline, before going to bed.
Thus the cycle was completed. It had never had
much place in the experience of the ordinary lay-
man. It was understood to be intended for the
clergy and for the members of religious orders.

The heart of the daily services was the book of
psalms. To recite or sing these psalms was the
purpose for which the faithful met at the appointed
hours. The psalter was arranged to be gone over
in a week. To the psalms w^ere added Scripture

readings, and a few prayers, with versides and !^

spouses. The Latin Church introduced hymns in mt

ter, and lengthened lauds and vespers with commeQ

orations of the saints. And the saints

3. Jfedieval in rapidly increasing numbers, daisw

Elaboni- their rights in the services, havioi
tions. lessons and prayers appropriate i
their virtues. And the Little Office c
the Viigin paralleled all the eight services with &
order of its own. These enrichments came 10 the
fulness in the thirteenth century. They made i
necessary to use a great number of books in tb
conduct of the service: the psalter, the antiphon^
the hynmal, the Bible, the collect book, the pn
cessional; and for direction, the consuetudinkr
the ordinal, and the directoriiun. With the rise t
the Franciscans in the thirteenth century, and tl
free movement of persons committed to the life 1
religion, it became necessary to bring this Utuipc
hbrary into some condensed, compact and portab
form, and the Breviary (q.v.) was the result. Tl
order for the Holy Cooununion had been similar]
enriched and was correspondingly simplified io ti
Missal (see Mass).

As the era of the Protestant Reformation can

on, the need of further Utuigical revision was fe

by many, and steps in that direction were take

both with and without ecclesiastical authority

Thus in 1535, Cardinal Quignon at ii

4. After request of Pope Clement VI I. undei
the Refor- took are vision of the breviary. Qen

matioiL ent died before the completion of thi
work, and it was dedicated to Pop
Paul III., who formally permitted the secular cleig;
to substitute it for the breviary unreformed. Qujg
non altered some things and some he added; h
removed some legends from the lectionary; he ar
ranged to have the Bible read at length and not
as had come to be the usage, in detached frag"
ments; he arranged the psalter so as to be read
in course and not interrupted by substituting special
psalms. Also he took out two-thirds of the saints^
days and all the offices of the Virgin, and omitted
a great number of versicles, responses, invitationes,
and antiphons. In a second edition, however, be
restored the antiphons by request of the theological
faculty of Paris. This was the authorized breviary
of the Western Church untU it was superseded in
1568 by the present book, made by a commissioD
of the CouncU of Trent. In 1543, Archbishop Her-
man of Cologne (see Herman of Wied) published
a directory of public worship, in sympathy with
the Reformation. This was composed at his re-
quest by Butzer and Melanchthon, on the basis of
a form compiled by Luther, called the Nuremberg
Liturgy. The book contained forms of prayer and
a litany, with directions for the administration of
the sacraments, and for other services, with many
explanations. One of its characteristic features was
the addressing of exhortations to the people. This
book was disallowed by the Church, and the arch-
bishop was expelled. These two Uturgical revisions
were in the hands of Archbishop Cranmer during
the preparation of the English Book of Conunon
Prayer, and he made great use of both. For the
history of this work see Common Prater, Book of.

501

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

I«itiirffios

Meanwhile, both in England and on the Continent
the conditions of ecclesiastical strife were inducing
among many a liturgical reaction. The Lutheran
Church, indeed, held to many of the traditions of
devotion, but the Calvinistic churches of Switzei^
land and France, and the Puritan churches of
England and Scotland, abandoned the old forms
and adopted for the most part an extemporaneous
worship. This was an incident in a bitter con-
tention, and proceeded not so much from a dislike
of the ancient prayers as from a dislike of the people
who insisted on them. This dislike the course of
time has mitigated, and at present there is a gen-
eral return in most of the Protestant churches to
the liturgical treasures which the fathers left
behind. George Hodges.

UL Liturgical Formulas: Under this head it
b convenient to group together several traditional
phrases frequently used in divine worship, and ap-
pearing again and again in the most various litur-
gies.

The Hebrew amen, when used adverbially in the
Scriptures (e.g., Num. v. 22; Deut. xxvii. 15; Ps.
xli. 13), has the force of strong affirmation or as-
sent, usually to the words spoken by another, al-
though it may also be used as a pre-
I. Amen, liminary affirmation of the speaker's
own, occurring frequently in this sense
in the words of Jesus. Its litui^cal use is the
former. It is thus found in the Jewish rites, as an
assent by the congregation to the content of a
prayer. The Christian Church borrowed this usage,
keeping the Hebrew form, the meaning of which
was always familiar to theologians, though perhaps
not always to the people at large, for whom a
translation was sometimes appended, as in the
Coptic lituigies. Its primitive use as conveying
the assent of the whole congregation to the prayer
of any member (cf. I Cor. xiv. 16) remained when
the utterance of the prayer became the office of a
distinct clerical class, as is shown by nearly all the
Eastern liturgies. An exceptional case is the
liturgy contained in the eighth book of the Apos-
tolic Constitutions, where the '* Amen " is assigned
to the congregation after three prayers only — the
Trisagion (q. v.), the prayer of intercession, and the
formula of administration. In the modem Greek
Church, the " Amen ** is taken from the congrega-
tion and given to the choir — and then in compara-
tively few places. In some Eastern baptismal
rites, as still among the Nestorinns, it seems to have
been customary for the congregation to say Amen
after each part of the baptismal formula; in the
present Eastern Church it is thus pronounced by
the priest, having lost its original meaning and be-
come a mere concluding word. The most obvious
retention of the old usage in the West occurs in the
Mozarabic Liturgy (q.v.), where some of the re-
sponses are indeed assigned to the choir, but the
congregation is bidden to answer in other cases,
especially with " Amen." In the present Roman
rite, the ** Amen *' belongs either to the assistants
or to the choir, or is pronounced by the priest him-
self, as in the formula of administration at com-
munion and at the end of the Lord's Prayer in the
mass. Luther interpreted the " Amen " in the

sense of his own doctrine of faith, as " an expres-
sion of firm and hearty belief," and the Reforma-
tion restored the use of it in a number of cases,
though not in all, to the congregation. In the
Anglican Book of Common Prayer it occurs at the
end of every prayer as the response of the people,
except after the first Lord's Prayer in the Commu-
nion Office.

In continuation of the old synagogal custom, the
primitive Christians closed every important litur-
gical prayer with a doxology, and the custom was
extended to sermons also. The simplest form was
"to thee (or "to whom") be glory throughout
all ages " (cf. Rom. xi. 36; Phil. iv. 20; Didache
ix. 2, 3; Apostolic Constitutions II.,
2. The xxii. 11). A number of formulas grew
Doxologies. up in the course of time, differing ac-
cording to the influence of the dogma
of the Trinity. While from the second to the be-
ginning of the fourth century the form " to' thee
be glory in the Holy Ghost through Jesus Christ "
was usual, when it became possible to suspect
Arianism in such a phrase, it was changed to one
which completely coordinated the three Persons,
" Glory to the Father, and to the Son, and to the
Holy Ghost." The Oloria Patrx, known as the les-
ser doxology to distinguish it from the Gloria in
exceUiSf was slow to find its way into all the
Eastern liturgies. Thus it is not found in the
Clementine liturgy of the Apostolic Constitutions
or in that of St. James, and even the ninth-
century liturgies of St. Chrysostom and St. Basil
do not contain it. It is of frequent occurrence,
on the other hand, in the Nestorian and Ar-
menian liturgies and in the present liturgy of
St. Chrysostom, as well as less often in the vari-
ous Jacobite rites. The second half, " As it was
in the beginning, is now, and ever shall be, world
without end. Amen," does not occur in the Elast,
and is probably of Roman origin. The Synod of
Vaison (529) asserts that its use was universal in
Italy and Africa, and directs its introduction into
Gaul. It is not in the Mozarabic lituigy, where the
formula runs " Glory and honor to the Father, and
to the Son, and to the Holy Ghost throughout all
ages." In the Eastern rites the doxology was used
in many different places. The Roman liturgy, on
the other hand, lays down fixed rules for its use.
It occurs regularly at the end of each psalm, and
the first half of it in the responsorics of the day and
night hours; in the Mass it occurs in the prepara-
tion, after the Introit or anthem sung at the be-
ginning of the communion service in th^ Roman
Catholic Church, and after the Lavabo psalm. The
custom of using it thus at the end of psalms or
parts of psalms is first attested by John Cassian
(before 426), and next by Pope Vigilius (d. 555).
The assertion of medieval liturgiologists that the
practise was introduced by Pope Damasus is pos-
sibly true. As the Gloria Palri has a more or less
festival or triumphant character, it is wholly or
partly omitted on occasions of mourning, as in Holy
Week and in services for the dead; in the latter
case the Greeks still use it. Luther seems to have
ignored the Gloria Patrif although modem Lutheran
liturgies put it after the introit. The Gloria in eax

lAtvLTgiem

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

50d

ceUiSf or Greater Doxology, by an unknown author,
occurs in the Eastern liturgies, which vary in the
position assigned to it, and also forms the opening
of a service for morning prayer found in the Apos-
tolic Constitutions (VII., xlvii.), the pseudo-Atha-
nasian De virffiniiate, and the Codex Alexandrinus.
The Latin version used in the Mass, said to have
been made by Hilary of Poitiers, is slightly altered
from the original. According to the Liber ponti-
ficaliSf Pope Telesphorus (q.v.) prescribed the use
of the angelic hynm as found in Luke ii. 14 for the
Christmas service, and Pope Symmachus (q.v.) of
the expanded form for all Sundays and feasts of
martyrs. It was then to be used only by bishops;
priests might recite it only at Easter and in their
first Eucharist. At the end of the eleventh cen-
tury its use was permitted to priests at all times
when it was liturgically prescribed. By the pres-
ent Roman use, it is omitted on all days not of a
festal character. Luther retained it in his Formula
miaacB, but does not mention it in his Deutsche
Mease, though this may be because it was taken by
many as going with the Kyrie. Most of the Lu-
theran service-books retained it, and so did the Re-
formed; Zwingli provided that it should be intoned
by the minister in German, and then taken up by
the men and women of the congregation alter-
nately. In the Anglican Book of Common Prayer
it was removed from the beginning to the end of
the communion service; and in the American it
was also permitted to be used as an alternative to
the Qloria Patri after the psalms.

The Hebrew formula halleluyah, " praise ye Yah-
weh," which was frequently used in Jewish worship,
passed over untranslated into the Christian serv-
ices. The earliest indication of this use is Rev.
xix. 1-8. In the earliest definitely liturgical use it
occurred after the reading of the
3. Alleluia, epistle and at the time of commu-
nion. In the Eastern Church it is
still used even in penitential seasons and in serv-
ices for the dead. For the West the earliest evi-
dence is Tertullian, De oratione, xxvii. Here, with
the stronger emphasis laid on ecclesiastical sea-
sons, it is not surprising that in the African Church
it became customary to omit it in Lent (Augustine,
Enarratio in Psalmos ex. cxLviii.), while another
passage of Augustine {Epist. ad Janvariumy Iv.)
implies that in his day it was regularly sung be-
tween Easter and Pentecost, and occasionally at
other times. According to Sozomen {Hist. eccL,
VII., xix.), it was sung at Rome only on Easter-
day, and this statement is accepted by Cassiodorus
(c. 570) and supported by a mention of Vigilantius
(c. 400) in Jerome (Contra Vigilantium, i.), although
Johannes Diaconus, in the fifth century, speaks of
its being used at Rome during the whole paschal
season. According to the most probable inter-
pretation of a passage in Gregory the Great's letters
(MPLj Ixxvii. 956), it would seem that in the pon-
tificate of Damasus (366-384) the eastern custom
of singing Alleluia throughout the year found foot-
ing in Rome, and that in the fifth century it began
to be restricted to the paschal season, while Greg-
ory permitted a wider use. This may be recon-
ciled with the statement of Sozomen by supposing

that he referred to a special anthem containing the
word ** Alleluia," and not to the word itself. Ac-
cording to present Roman usage, the word is
omitted altogether from Septuagesima to Easter,
being replaced at the beginning of the choir ofiKoes
by ** Praise to thee, O Lord, King of eternal glory."
In the paschal season, on the other hand, it is
frequently used, being appended to antiphons, ver-
sicles and responses, and to the gradual and offer-
tory in the Mass. Luther retained it in the Fomy-
ula missoB with the gradual, and in the later
Lutheran services it is usually placed after the
epistle, except in Passion-tide — although Luther
prescribed it even here.

Hosanna as a word of praise occurs in the an-
cient litui^gies only in the anthem known as Bene-
dictus (Matt. xxi. 9); and here it is absent from all
the liturgies belonging to the Egyptian t3rpe and

from many of the Syrian class; it was
4. Hosanna. unknown at Antioch in Chrysostom's

time, at Jerusalem in Cyril's, and in the
Byzantine liturgies of the fifth to the eighth centuries
as reconstructed by Brightman. It is found, on the
other hand, in the Didache (x. 6) and correspond-
ingly in the Apostolic Constitutions (VII., xxvi. 1;
also VIII., xiii. 3); in the Byzantine liturgies of
St. Basil and St. duysostom; in the liturgy of St.
James; in the Armenian and Nestorian liturgies,
and in the ninth-century Byzantine. Except in
the two first-named sources, it occurs uniformly
after the Trisagion or Sanctus, There is reason to
believe, however, that this is a later innovation,
and that the primitive usage is preserved in the
Clementine lituigy of the Apostolic Constitutions,
where it occurs inmiediately before the adminis-
tration, following the proclamation ** Holy things
to holy persons." It is even possible that just as
the Jews sang Ps. cxviii. 25 sqq. after the Passover
meal, so the Christian Benedidus was originally
sung at the conclusion of the whole service; and
this theory is supported by the fact that in the
Armenian liturgy and that of the Coptic Jacobites
the phrase '^ Blessed is he that cometh in the name
of the Lord " is placed after the communion of the
people. In the West the Benedidus is found in all
the most various types of liturgical production,
almost without exception in connection with the
Sanctus. The only noteworthy variant phenome-
non is that in the Galilean liturgy it seems not to
have been sung by the choir, as the Sanctus was,
but to have more often formed the beginning of a
coUectio post Sanctus recited by the priest — or per-
haps, having been already sung, it was repeated by
him to connect the prayer with what had gone be-
fore. Luther retained both Sanctus and Benedio-
tus in his Formula missce, but placed them after the
words of institution; in the Deutsche Messe he does
not mention the Benedictus. In the later Lutheran
service-books the Sanctus and Benedictus usually
follow the preface. The Anglican Prayer-Book
retains the Sanctus but omits the Benedictus; it is
very frequently, however, at the present time, sung
immediately before the consecration, as is the
Agnus Dei after.

The prayer *' Lord have mercy upon me " or
** us " (Gk., Kyrie eleison me or hlmas) occurs a

608

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

I«lturffios

number of times in the Old and New Testaments,
and probably formed a recognized part of the Jewish
ritual, from which it passed over into the Chris-
tian. The way in which it is men-
5. Kyrie tioned by the authorities for the seo-
Eleison. ond half of the fourth century — the
Apostolic Constitutions (VIII., vi. 1, 2,
viii. 3), Chrysostom, and the Peregrinatio SUvicB
(ed. Gamurrini p. 78, Rome, 1888) — implies old-
established and wide-spread use. Prayers in the
form of litanies seem to have grown up, in which
this response was made by the people to the
deacon; they were frequently of an intercessory
character. The use of the Kyrie eleison as an
independent prayer seems to have been later. In
this way it is used twelve times in the litui^ of
St. James, and three times in that of St. Mark
and the Alexandrian liturgy of St. Basil, before
the act of conmiunion; it also occurs in the prep-
aration and the dismissal, and was used some-
times in solemn processions. The Greek form is
preserved throughout in the Coptic, Abyssinian,
and Syriac liturgies. As for Western usage, it may
be inferred from the Peregrinatio SilvicB that the
Latin form Miserere Domine but not the Greek was
familiar to her Gallic fellow countr3rmen. The
same inference may be drawn from the next oldest
witness, also Gallic, the second Synod of Vaison
(529), which prescribes the " more frequent use "
of the Kyrie eleison at mass and morning and even-
ing prayers. It was familiar to the Gallic monks,
as is shown by the Reyula ad monachos of Bishop
Aurelian of Aries (d. 550), where it appears as an
independent prayer, sung three times, so also in
the rule of St. Benedict. This development on
different lines from the East is shown again by a
passage in Gregory the Great's letters (IX., xii),
from which the conclusions follow that the Latins,
unlike the Greeks, had by this time the response
Christe eleison; and that Gregory was thinking not
of the response to the deacon's bidding-prayer, but
of an independent formula repeated a definite num-
ber of times. This number is first positively fixed
by a ninth-century ordo published by L. Duchesne
{Origines du cidte chrHierty p. 442, Paris, 1889), in
which it is directed to be sung nine times, three for
each invocation, as it is to-day in the Roman mass.
Before the discovery of this orrfo, Honorius of Autun
(d. 1120) was the oldest witness known for the nine-
fold Kyrie. In the Milanese liturgy the Kyrie ap-
pears after the Gloria in excelsis, after the Gospel,
and at the end, three times in each place. In the
Mozarabic liturgy it occurs only in one mass, where
it is probably due to Roman infiuence. In a word,
the general use of the prayer probably grew up in
Rome and spread thence throughout the West.
In the Eastern form of a response to the deacon it
oociu^ in the African liturgy, in the Celtic as ex-
hibited in the Stowe Missal, and in a Lenten litany
at Milan. Luther retained the Kyrie eleison nine
times in the Formula misses, but only three times
in the Deutsche Messe; and thus it remains (in
either German. Latin, or Greek) in nearly all Lu-
theran service-books. The Reformed liturgies
dropped it altogether, and the Anglican ritual,
while retaining it in the Litany, the Visitation of

the Sick, and the (lurching of Women (omitted
in the latter place by the American book), substi-
tuted in a corresponding position the recitation of
the Conmiandments with the response after each
"Lord, have mercy upon us, and incline our
hearts to keep this law." In the American
ritual, however, the Kyrie is to be said if the smn-
mary of the Decalogue (Matt. xxii. 37-40) is sub-
stituted in the Ante-Communion for the Decalogue
itself.

The Jewish form of salutation " Peace be unto
you," used by the risen Christ to his disciples (John
XX. 19, 21, 26), passed into liturgical usage as the
greeting of the bishop to the congre-
6. Pax gation at the beginning of public wor-
vobiscum, ship. In the form eir^trie pasin, " peace
Dominus be to all," it is found in nearly all
vobiscum. Extern liturgies, usually with the
response " And to thy spirit." The
formula was frequently used at the beginning of a
new division of the service; thus it occurs ten times
in the liturgy of St. Mark. In the West Pax vobis
or vobiscum is attested by Augustine, Optatus of
Mileve, and Ambrose, but it was gradually replaced
by Dominus vobiscum (derived from II Thess. iii. 16),
probably originating at Rome, and originally used in
the introduction to the Preface, where it appears in
the Canones Hippolyti (in Greek), in the Gelasian
and Gregorian sacramentaries, and in the first Ordo
RomanuSy as well as in the oldest Milanese liturgy.
It is likewise found in the Ethiopic and Egyptian
liturgies, and, in an extended form, in the Moz-
arabic, but does not occur in the Syrian or Byzan-
tine rites. In the Roman Mass of to-day the old
custom of the kiss of peace, though preserved only
in a symbolic form, is accompanied by the phrase
" the peace of the Lord be always with you," with
the response " And with thy spirit." The Dominus
vobiscum is used regularly before collects, both in
the mass and in the choir offices; when the latter
are recited by laymen without a priest, the versicle
and response *' O Lord, hear my prayer " ** And
let my cry come unto thee " are substituted; just
as in the early Middle Ages a distinction was made
between Pax vobiscum as the episcopal and Dominus
vobiscum as the priestly salutation.

In the Formula misses Luther retained the Pax
vobiscum and the response before the Preface, but
not after the Gloria^ while in the Deutsche Messe he
ignored it entirely. The majority of Lutheran
liturgies of the sixteenth century, like Zwingli, on
the other hand, retained it after the Gloriay but not
before the communion. Modem Lutheran litur-
gies likewise place it after the Gloria before the
collect. In the Anglican Prayer-Book the Dominus
vobiscum and its response are placed after the Creed
in morning and evening prayer, and it is also used
in confirmation. (P. Drews.)

Dibuoorapht: I.-IL: Much literature that ia pertinent
will be found cited under Breviary; ComioN Prater,
Book of; Eucharist; Litant; Lord's Supper; Mam;
and Worship. A vast body of sources and discussions is
indicated in the three sections of the BriHah Muaeum Cat-
alogue devoted to liturgies, the entries being admirably ar-
ranged for consultation under convenient captions, making
reference easy. The following list comprises principally
later works. Lists of Mss. are: W. H. J. Weale, BibHa-
graphica liturgica etUaloffus miMolium ritut Latini, London,

I«itur^os
Xiiudffer, S«int

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

504

1886; H. Ehrensberger, BwUiotheea lUuroica, Carlsruhe.
1889; BMiotheea mtmco—liturgica^ London, 1804 (a list of
muflioal and Latin liturgical manuacripta of the Middle Ages).

Among the aouroes may be named: James Brogden,
IUu9traUon» of the Liturgy and RihuU of the United Church
of England and Ireland during the Seventeenth Century^
London, 1842; W. Palmer, Originee LUurguxB; or, An^
tiquiHee cf the Englieh Ritual, 2 vols., ib. 1845; P. Hall,
Fragmenta Liturgica, DocumerUe lUuetraHve of the Liturgy
cf the Church of England, 7 vols.. Bath, 1848; W. Trol-
lope. The Oreek Liturgy of St. Jamee, Edited with an Eng-
Ueh Introduction and Notee; together voiih a Latin Vereion
of the Syriae Copy, and the Oreek Text reetored to ite orig-
inal Purity and €uxompanied by a literal EngUeh Trane-
lation, 8 vols., Edinburgh, 1848; The Eaetem Liturgy of
Vie Holy Catholic, Apoetolic, eimplifled and aupplemented
by Jamee Ferretti of Damaecue, London, 1866; The Book
of Common Order of the Church of Scotland, commonly
Known ae John Knox'e Liturgy and the Direetory for the
Public Worehip of Ood Agreed upon by the Aaeen^ly of
Divinee at Weatminater; Notee by O. W. SproU and T.
Leiahman, Edinburgh, 1868; 8. C. Malan, Divine Liturgy
cf the Armenian Church of St. Oregory, London, 1870;
F. E. Warren. The Liturgy and Ritual cf the Celtic Church,
8 vols.. New York, 1882; J. M. Neale. The Liturgiee of
8L Mark, 8L Jamee, St. Clement, St. Cfuryeoetom, St. Baeil
and the Church of Malabar; tranelated with Introduction
and Appendicee, London, 1883; C. A. Swainson, The
Oreek Liturgiee, chiefly from Original Autharitiee. With
an Appendix containing the Coptic Ordinary Canon of the
Maee from two Manuecripte in the Britieh Mueeum, ed.
and transl.. Dr. C. Besold, ib. 1884; The Divine and
Sacred Liturgiee of John Chryeoatom and Baail the OreeU.
with an Eng. trand., ed. J. N. W. B. Robertson, ib. 1886;
A. Maltsev, ^ie gdttlichen Liturgien Johannea Chryaoa-
tomoa, BaaUioa dee Oroaeen und Oregorioa Dialogoe, Ber-
lin. 1890;. idem. Die Liturgien der orthodox-katholiechen
Kirche'dBa Morgenlandea, Berlin, 1894; H. A. Wilson, .
The Oalaaian Sacramentary, Liber eacramentorum Ro-
mance eecleaia, ed. wUh Introduction, critieal Notee, and
Appendix with two Facaimilea, New York, 1894; C. E.
Hammond. Liturgiee Eaatem and Weetem, Oxford, 1896;
F. E. Warren. The Liturgy and Ritual of the Ante-Nicene
Church, London. 1897; F. Cabrol and H. Leclercq. Mon-
umenta eccleaiae liturgica, Paris. 1900; E. C. N. Barfoed,
Oldkirkene Liturgier, Copenhagen. 1902; Benedictional of
Archbiahop Robert of Rouen, ed. H. A. Wilson in Pvblica-
tiona of the Henry Bradahaw Societu, vol. xxiv.. London.
1903; V. Staley, Hierurgia Anglicana; Documenta and
Extracte illuatrative of the Ceremonial of the Anglican
Church after the Reformation, edited by Membera of the
Ecdeaiaatical Society, ib. 1903; Die neatorianiache Tauf-
liturgie ina Deutache Hbersetzt von O. Diettrich, Giessen,
1903; A. Baumstark, Liturgia Romana e liturgia deWEaar-
caio. II rito detto Patriarchino e le origini del Canon Miaaa
Romano, Rome. 1904; A. Schoenfelder. Liturgiache Biblio-
thek; Sammlung gotteadienatiuher BUcher aua dem deutachen
MittdaUer. Paderborn, 1904; C. Wordsworth and H. Little-
hales. Old Service Booka of the Engliah Church, London,
1904; The Eaat Syrian or Neatorian Rite, tranal. by A. J.
Maclean, ib. 1905; Ordo Romanua primua, with Introduction
by E. G. C. F. Atchley, ib. 1905; Rituale Armenorum, the
Adminiatration of the Saeramente and the Breviary Ritea of
the Armenian Church, edited by F. C. Conybeare, Oxford,
1905; The Divine Liturgy cf the Holy Apostolic Church of
Armenia, Translated by two Armenian Priests, London.
1908; D. Levi. The Form of Prayers for the New Year. Day
of Atonement, Fecut of the Tabernacles, etc., according to the
Custom of the German and the Polish Jews ae read in their
Synagoguea and used in their Familiea. Carefully revised
by I. Levi, 6 vols., London, n.d.

Discussions of the subject are: F. Ehrenfeuchter,
Thcorie des christiichen Cultus, Hamburg, 1840; T. Klie-
foth, Theorie dee Cultua der evangeliachen Kirche, Lud-
wigslust, 1844; idem, Liturgiache Abhandlungen, 8 vols.,
Schwerin, 18.54-62; C. \V. Baird. Eutaxia, or. The Pretby
lerinn Lituruies: Historical Sketches, New York, 1855. re-
printed under the title. A Chapter on Liturgies: His-
torical Sketches, with an introductory Preface and an Ap-
pendix by Rev. Thos. Binney^ London. 1856; H. Alt,
Der chrisUiche Kultus nnch seinen verschiedenen ErU-
wickelunfisformen und seinen eimelnen Theilen, 1 vols.,
Berlin, 1860; Ivan Borovnitsky, Origin and Composition
of the Roman Catholic Liturgy, and ita Difference from thai

of the Orthodox Churdi, London, 1863; J. M. Neale. Baaaj^
on Litwrgiology and Church Hiatory: with an Appendix
on liturgical Quotationa from the laapoetolie Fathere hy J.
Moultrie, 8 vols., ib. 1867; F. Probet, Liturgie der drei
eraten diriatlidten Jahrhunderte, TQbingen, 1870; H. C.
Romanoff, The Divine Liturgy of St. John Chryeoatom^ ib.
1871; T. Bernard, Coura da liturgie romaific, Paris,
1884-93; P. L. P. Gu^ranger. Inatitutiona liturgiguea, ib.
1885; idem, The Liturgieal Year, Worcester, 1895; H.
Hering, H^fabuch aur Einfiihrung in daa liturgiacke
Stadium, Wittenberg, 1888; P. Freeman, The Frindplea
of Divine Service, London, 1889; H. M. Luckock. The
Divine Liturgy, ib. 1889; F. Probst, Liturgie dea vierien
Jahrhunderte und deren Reform, MQnster, 1893; V. Thai-
hofer, Handbuch der katholiadien lAturgik, FreibuDg, 1894;
L. Clugnet, Dictionnaire grkc-fran^ie dea noma liturgiguea
an uaage dana Vfgliae grecque, Paris. 1895; A. Ebner,
QueUen und Farachungen tur Geaehichte dea Miaaale Ro-
manum im Mittelalter, Freiburg, 1896; F. Mag&ni L'An-
tica liturgia Romano, Milano. 1897-99; J. Comper. A
Popular Handbook of the Origin, Hiat., and Structure cf
Liturgiee, London, 1898; G. Rietschel. Lehrbuth der
Liturgik, 2 vols., Berlin. 1899; F. Cabrol, Le Livre de la
priire antique, Paris, 1900; idem, Dictionnaire; J. W. Legg.
Some Local Reforma of the Divine Service Attempted on
the Continent in the Sixteenth Century, London, 1901; L.
Duchesne, Chriatian Worahip, a Study of the Latin Liturgy
up to the time of Charlemagne, ib. 1904; Neraee Ter-
Mikaelian, Daa etrmeniache Hymnarium. Studien xu aeiner
geschiehtlichen EntwuMung, Leipsic, 1905; F. Cabrol. Lea
Originea liturgiguea, Paris, 1906; P. C. Yorke, The Roman
Liturgy, a Hiat. and Explanation of the Ceremoniea and
Prayer a, San Francisco. 1906; P. Drews, Die clementini-
ache Liturgie in Rom, TQbingen, 1906; W. H. Frere, The
Principlea of Religioue Ceremonial, London. 1006; V.
Staley, Studiea in Ceremonial: Eaaaya iUttatrative of Eng-
liah Ceremonial, London. 1907; H. B&uerle, Liturgie:
Theorie dea r&miach-koUholiadien KtUtua, Regensburg,
1908; C. P. A. Burnett. Ritual and Ceremonial, London.
1908; L. Duchesne. Originea du culte chrHienne, Paris.
1908; J. Braun, Die liturgiache Gewandung im Occident und
Orient nach Uraprung und Entvncklung, Verwendung und
Symbalik, Freiburg. 1908; Beitr&ge eur Kenntnis der byzan-
tini»chen Liturgie, Berlin. 1908.

IIL: For the Amen the most notable contribution bin
Cabrol, Dictionnaire, fasc.. vi.. cols. 1554-73. Consult
also: Bingham, Originea, XV., iii. 26; Thalhofer, ut sup.,
i. 512 sqq.; H. W. Hogg, in JQR, ix (1896). 1-23; E.
F. von der Golts, Daa Gtbet in der &ltesten Christenhcit.
pp. 157 sqq., Leipsic, 1901; DC A, i. 75-76. On the Dox-
ology consult: Chase, in TS, i. 3 (1891). 168 sqq.; Bing-
ham, Originea, XIV.. L 8, ii. 1-2; V. Thalhofer, ut sup..
L 490 sqq., ii. 77 sqq.; E. C. Achelis. Lehrbuch der prak-
tiachen Theologie, i. 394, Leipsic, 1898; E. F. von der
(jolts, ut sup., pp. 157 sqq.; DC A, i. 577-579. For Al-
leluia consult: Cabrol. Dictionnaire, fasc. v.. cols. 1226-
1246; Bingham, Originea, XIV., iL 4; V. Thalhofer. ut
sup., i. 515 sqq., ii. 100 sqq.; CMahony, in Dublin Re-
• view, cxx (1897), 345-350; L. Duchesne. Chriatian Wor-
ehip, London, 1904; DC A, i. 55-56; DB, u. 287; EB, ii.
1943-44. On the Hosanna consult: V. Thalhofer, ut
sup., ii. 185; Bingham. Originea, II., ix. 3, XIV.. ii. 5;
DCA, i. 785; DB, ii. 418-419; EB, ii. 2117-20; DC A, i. 749-
751. On the Kyrie eleiaon consult: V. Thalfhofer, ut 8up.,
i. 495-500; E. C. Achelis, in Monatsschrift fUr Gottea-
dienat und kirchliche Kunat, iv. 161 sqq.. 211 sqq.; L.
Duchesne, Chriatian Worehip, London. 1904. On the
Pax vobiscum consult: Bingham, Originea, XIII., viii.
13. X. 8. XIV., iv. 14. XV., iii. 2; V. Thalhofer, ut sup..
i. 503 sqq.. ii. 82. 85, 422; DCA, i. 572.

LIUDGER, lOd'ger (LUDGER), SAINT: Mis-
sionary to the Frisians and first bishop of Mini-
ster; b. in Frisia, probably between 740 and 750;
d. at Billerbeck (15 m. w.n.w. of Miinst^^r) Mar.
26, 809. He was educated at Utrecht, and thence
went, about 767, to York, where for a year he en-
joyed the instruction of Alcuin and was ordained
deacon. After remaining there for some time
longer, he returned to Frisia and was employed as
a missionary among his fellow coimtrymen by

505

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

liitnr^cs
liindffer. Saint

Alberic, the successor of his old teacher Gregory.
When Alberlc was consecrated bishop of Utrecht
at Cologne in 777, Liudger was ordained priest and
spent seven years at Dockum, although he passed
the autumn of each year at Utrecht as a teacher
in the school of that city. An invasion of the
Saxons under Widukind in 784 forced him to leave
Frisia, and he went to Rome and Monte Cassino,
where he spent two and a half years in the famous
monastery, although he himself did not become a
monk. On his return, Charlemagne, to whom he
was reconunended by Alcuin, gave him as a new
sphere of activity the five Frisian districts of Hug-
merchi, Hunusga, Fivilga, Emisga, and Federitga,
as well as the island of Bank. There he worked
with eminent success, extending his labors as far
as Fosetesland (Heligoland), his center of admin-
istration being the abbey of Lotusa (doubtless the
modem Zele, 14 m. e. of Ghent). After the country
of the Saxons had become so far pacified that the
establishment of bishops became feasible, Liudger,
who seems previously to have declined the bishopric
of Treves, was consecrated to the see of southern
Westphalia with his episcopal seat at Mimigema-
ford, the modem Miinster, his diocese including
the five Frisian districts in which he had formerly
labored. The precise date of this event is un-
certain, but in Jan., 802, a document terms him
abbot, the first to designate him bishop being dated
Apr. 23, 805. Of his episcopal activity little is
known. He built a cathedral at Mimigemaford
and probably erected a church of the Virgin at
Ueberwasser. His chief foundation, however, was
the monastery of Werden on the Ruhr, but here

again the date is imknown, although a document
of May 1, 801, shows that the relics which he had
brought from Rome were already there. The only
literary work of Liudger was his biography of his
teacher Gregory (A5B, Aug., v. 254).

Later tradition made Liudger a Benedictine and
asserted that he baptised Widukind, calling him
by his own name. A reminiscence of this legend
is found in the third " adventiu^ " of the Nibelr
ungerUied, where the Saxon duke is called Liude-
g^r. He is also connected traditionally with the
diocese of Halberstadt, of which his brother Hilde-
grim, really bishop of Ch&lons and rector of Werden,
is said to have been bishop, while Liudger himself
is described as establishing the Liudgeristift in
Helmstadt, although this seems to have been merely
a colony from Werden, founded in the beginning
of the tenth century with Liudger as its patron
saint. (G. Uhlhorn f.)

Biblioorapht: Special study has been made of the souroee
by W. Diekamp. who has collected the early Vitee in (?e-
9chidU9queUen det BUthuma MUnster, vol. iv., Mflnster,
1881. aim published separately, ib. 1882. The Vita are
collected with less completeness, with commentary, in A SB,
Mar., iii. 626-661; in MPL, xdx. 769-796; and ed. G. H.
Perts, in MOH, Script., ii (1829). 403-425. Modem dis-
cussions are: C. Krimphove. Leben und Wirken de» tieiligen
Lvdgerua, MQnster. 1860; idem. Der ?ieilio€ Ludgerut, ib.
1886; A. HUfling. Der heUige Livdoer, ib. 1878; L. T. W.
Pingsmann. Der heUige Liudgenu, Freiburg, 1879; K. F.
von Richthofen. UrUerwuehungen Hber friesiMche ReehU'
getchidiU. ii. 1. pp. 376 sqq.. 398 sqq.. Berlin, 1882; G.
F. Maclear. ApoBtlee of Mediavtd Europe, pp. 143-160,
London, 1888; E. Knodt. Sturm, An»gar, Liudger, GQters-
loh. 1900; HiaUnre liiUraire de la France, iv. 359-362.
V. 659-661; Hauck, KD, ii. 317 sqq., 369 sqq.; DCB,
iU. 729-731; Neander, CkriBiian Chtxrch, iil 79-81; Ceil-
lier, Autem aacria, zil 218, ziii. 66.

END OF VOL VI.

Jjitany
liittlcjohn

THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

496

tion processions and litanies were retained, al-
though they were discarded by 1525. Four years
later, however, a revised litany was restored in
Evangelical worship by Luther himself, the imme-
diate occasion being a threatened in-
2. Churches vasion of the Turks. He evidently
of the Ref- published a separate German version

onnation. of this litany, although no copy of this
edition is known to be extant, but
there is no ground for assuming that he issued the
Latin text of it as he proposed to do. The German
litany was also appended to the third edition of his
smaller catechism, but was later omitted, although it
then found its way into the hymnals, doubtless with
its author's approval. The Latin version, in like
manner, was almost certainly contained in the
hymnal of Klug published in 1529 and no longer ex-
tant. It may well have included the German version
as well, like the later editions of the work and a num-
ber of other hymnals of the same period. The ex-
tension of the litany through middle and north
Germany by means of the hymn-books was rapid,
but it was comparatively rarely found, on the other
hand, in southern or southwestern German hym-
nody. There, however, it was spread by the church
orders, the more important ones all containing it.
The original Lutheran litany was closely similar to
the Roman Catholic Litany of the Saints, except
that all invocations of the saints, as well as petitions
for the pope and the dead, were omitted. On the
other hand, the petitions are more specialized and
more concrete than in the older litany, which is,
nevertheless, far the richer.

In the northern and central parts of Germany
no uniformity whatever prevailed in the time of the
recitation of the litany. Wednesday and Friday
were, on the whole, the favorite days, although it
might also be recited on Tuesday, Sunday festivals,
and at vespers on Saturday. Local usage in many
cases prescribed it for special days, while numerous
church orders required it to be said occasionally,
although no special day was designated. The place
which the litany occupied in the North and Middle
German liturgy likewise varied. It might be re-
cited alone, either in the morning or the evening,
after the lesson, epistle, or sermon, and before or
during the communion. An equal lack of imiform-
ity prevailed in southern and southwestern Ger-
many, but there the litany, in harmony with the
intention of Luther, retained its original character
oi a penitential prayer more than in the north, so
that in Strasburg it followed the confession and
absolution. The litany was subject, furthermore,
; to numerous local modifications, petitions being in-
serted or omitted practically at pleasure.

be recited or read. These modes of repeating the
litany gradually supplanted the mnging of it, but
on the whole, though it is still retained in almost
all modem German liturgies, it has lost its hold in
great measure on the congregations because of its
monotony.

The Reformed Church had little sympathy with
the litany, and rejected it almost without exception,
so that wherever Calvinism gained supremacy over
Lutheranism, the litany was abolished.

The Moravians have two litanies, the " Church
Litany ** and the " Litany of the Life, Passion, and
Death of Jesus Christ.'' The former is used in a
double form, a shorter version having been made
in 1873, while the latter is derived from the '* Litany
of Wounds ** composed by Zinzendorf in 1744.

(P. Drews.)
The litany of the Ekiglish Book of Common Prayer
was originally intended to be a distinct office. A
rubric in the first prayer-book (1549) ordered it to
be said on Wednesdays and Fridays, before the
communion-office. It was then placed after the
communion-office, and in 1552 put in the place it
now occupies, with the direction that it was to be
" used upon Sundays, Wednesdays, and Fridays,
and at other times when it shall be conmianded by
the ordinary." The clause in Ekl ward's prayer-
book, '^ From the tyranny of the Bishop of Rome
and all his detestable enormities,'' was omitted in
1559.

Bibuoorapht: On Utaniee in general oonsult: Bin^imm,
Oriaene; XIII., L 10-12; E. Marifene, 2>€ anHguU eedena
riUbuB, Antwerp. 1703; M. Gerbert. Vitua liturvia Ale-
mannica, parts ii.^ui., San Blaa, 1776; idem, Monttmenia
veteria liturfficB Alemannicas, part ii. ib. 1779; A. J.
Dinterim, DenkwHrdigkeiUn, iv. 1. pp. 555 aqq.. Mains,
1827; C. W. Augusti. DankwOrdigkeUim, x. 26 sqq., Leip-
sic, 1829; T. F. D. Kliefoth, lAturgiacKe Abhandbtngen,
V. 301 sqq., 373 sqq., 398 sqq., vi. 152 sqq., 225 aqq.. 296
sqq., viii. 66 sqq., 8 vols., Sohwerin, 1858-69; J. M.
Neale, EMay* on LUurgioloov and Church Hiatory^ Lon-
don, 1863; A. P. Stanley, CkrUtian InaiUutian*, chap,
xii.. New York, 1881; G. Rietsohel, Lekrtntch der LOkt-
oUc, l 200-201 et passim, Berlin, 1900; F. Spitta, in
MonaUchrift fQr OoUeadientt und kirt^idie Kutiat, vi
(1901), 375 sqq.; L. Duchesne, Chriatian Worakip, pas-
aim, London, 1904.

On the Lauretanian Litany consult: J. Sauren, Die
lauretaniaehe LUanei, Kempten, 1895; A. de Santi, Le
LUanei Lauretane, Rome, 1897; J. Braun, in Stimmen aua
Maria Loach, Iviii (1900), 418-437. On the litany of the
Brethren cf. J. T. M Oiler, in Monatachrift fQr OotteadienaL
und*kirchliehe Kunat, vii. 1902. On the Anglican Litany
consult: J. H. Blunt, Annotated Book of Common Prayer.
London, 1903; J. N. McCormick, The Litany and the Life,
Milwaukee, 1904; F. Procter and W. H. Frere. New Hiat.
of the Book of Common Prayer, London, 1905. No small
part of the literature cited under Ltturgt necessarily deals
with the litany.

LITHUANIA. See Russia.

LITTLE, CHARLES EUGENE: Methodist Epis-
copalian; b. at Waterbury, Vt., Apr. 7, 1838. He
was graduated in 1860 from the theological depart-
ment of Boston University (then at Concord. N. H.),
was ordained deacon (1862) and elder (1864), and
has held pastorates at Dannemora, N. Y. (186(0^-61),
CaintonviUe, N. Y. (1862-63), Fair Haven, Vt.
(1865-67), Newmarket, N. J. (1867), Eighth Avenue
Church, Newark, N. J. (1868-70), Hackettstown,
N. J. (1871, 1876-77), Nyack, N. Y. (1873-74),

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Park Church, EUiobeth, N. J. (1878-80). Cente-
nary Church, Newark, N. J. {1881-83), Calvary
Church, East Orange, N. J. (1884-S6), Grace Church,
Port Richraond, Staten Island (1887-91), Lafayette
Churoh, Jersey City, N. J. (1892-96), West Side
Avenue Church, Jersey City (1897-1901), Arling-
ton, N. J. (1902-05), Hackensack, N. J. (190S), and
Teroaa, N. J., since 1905. He baa written: BiMieal
Lights and Side highU (New York, 1883); Histor-
■ical LighU (1886); and Cyclopedia of Clarified
D<ae» (1900).

LITTLE SISTERS OF THE POOR, THE: A
religious order of women which had its origin in
Saint Servan, near the coaat town of St. Malo in
Brittany. In 1840 the village priest, M. le Pailleur,
first interested Jeanne Jugan, a humble servant
girl, and a few other pious women in the care of
Bome of the aged poor people of the locality, and
in 1842 a house was bought to serve w. a refuge for
the same. The work, though undertaken without
any definite or far-reaching plan, and utterly with-
out resources, save the alms contributed by a far
from opulent surrounding population, developed
with an unlooked-for rapidity. The spirit of pov-
erty and the unselfish devotedness which charac-
terised the founders of the work soon made them
very popular, and in the course of a few years they
were organized on I he lines of a religious congrega-
tion which in twenty years spread to most of the
idties of France, and even to Belgium and England,
The object of the organization is the establishment
And maintenance of permanent homes for the des-
titute aged and infirm of both sexes without dis-
tinction of creed or nationaUty. To be admitted
to these homes the applicants must be " respecta-
ble," i.e., of good moral character, and, aa a rule,
tbey must be over sixty years of age. They are
supported and cared for personally by the sisters
■who depend entirely on charity for their mainte-
nance. The rule of the community, which is based
on that of St. Augustine, received the solemn ap-
probation of the Holy See July 9, 1854. The order
was legally recognized by tim French government
in 1856, and it fixids place among the few congrega-
tions which survived the legislation enacted against
the religious communities in France in 1905 and
1906.

The order was introduced into the United States
in 186S when their first home was opened in Brook-
lyn, and in 1907 the American membership num-
bered 800 aistera with two provincial headquarters,
one in Brooklyn and the other in Chicago, Tbey
conduct fifty homes for the aged in tlie various
cities of the Union, chiefly in those of the East
and Middle West, the total number of inmates being
over 9,000. James F. Driscoll.

BiaLioGiupar; J. P. Migne, EneyelojMit (A/o^ifw. val.
xwli.; Dtctvmnairt da oriira TtUairux, vnl. iv (under
"I>ati(« Sneun Aft, PHuvna "), Paru, IS59: L. Aubi-
Dc&u. LibtnMbttdirtibungen. Die kUinen Schvrwtern drr
Anneti, Rcggnehurg. 1871: jVoureau diriionnairii d'hit-
loin rt dt arograpKit. ib. \&7i\ G. Ratiinger, GtKhiehU
itrLiTcUidun Arnenvfitf. pp. SIB ■qq., Fniburn, 1884;
Official Calkolic Dirtclory /" Oie Vmbd Slalrt. Milmukee,
1909; Baunanl. E. Lrlihm H hi fotidatiowi da Fttilei
Smn da patnrii, Puia. 1U04; Heimbucber, Ordm und
Kctionnatiovn. ii. 388-38S.

VI.— 82

LITTLEDALE, RICHARD FREDERICK:

Church of England; b. in Dublin Sept. 14, 1833;
d. in London Jan. 11, 1890. He studied at Trinity
College, Dublin (B.A., 1854; M.A., 1858; LL.D.,
1862; D.C.L., Oxford. 1862). He was curate of
Thorpe Hamlet, Norfolk (1856-57), then of St.
Mary the Virgin, Soho, London (1857-fil); but,
being compelled by ill-health to abandon parochial
work, be devoted himself to religious Uterature, and
became a voluminous writer. As an opponent of
the Church of Rome, he attracted much attention.
Among his works may be mentioned; Religiout
Communities of Women in the Early Church (Lon-
don, 1862); Offices of the Holy Baslam Church
(1863); The Mixed Chalice (imS); The North Side
of the AUar (1864); Catholic Ritual in the Church
of EngloTid {1805); The Elevation of the Host {1865);
Early Christian Ritual (1867); Commentary on tiie
Psalms (in continuation of Dr. Neale's, vols, ii.-
iv.. 1868-74); Commentary on the Song of Song*
(1869); Religious .Ediitatioa of Women (1872);
Papers on Sisterhoods (1874-78); Last Attempt to
re/orm the Chwch of Rome /rom within {187 B); Ul-
tramontane Popular Literature (1876); An Inner
View of the Vatican Council (1877); Ploin Reasons
against joining the Church of Rom« (1879); A Short
History of the Council of Tretd {1888); The Petrine
Claims: a Critical Inquiry (1889). He contributed
to the Encydopadia Britannica (9th ed.); edited
Anselm's Cur Deus HamoT (1863); and shared in
editing The Priests' Prayer-Book (1864); The Pea-
ple't Hymnal (1867); Liturgies of SS. Mark, Jamet,
Clement, Chrysostom.and Basil (1868-69); The Chris-
tian Passovtr {187 Z); and The Altar Manual {1877).

Diblioqhai-hy: DNB. ixiiiL 304-385: O. C. H. Kini;
TItrt ChariKtir of Dr. LUUtdaU as a Cmlravmialitt, Lon-
dun. IS8S. Further liUntun is iodicaud in Rictuudson.
Encudopaedia, p, 034.

LITTLE JOHn, ABRAH HEWEIRX: Protes-
tant Episcopal bishop of Long Island; b. at Flor-
ida, N. Y., Dec. 13, 1824; d. at Williamstown,
Mass., Aug. 3, 1901. He waa educated at Union
College (B.A„ 1845) and at Princeton Theological
Seminary. He was ordained deacon in 1848 and
priest the following year. While deacon be offi-
ciated at Amsterdam, N. Y., and at Meridcn, Conn.
He was rector of (Thrist Church, Springfield. Mass.
(1850-51); St. Paul's Church, New Haven, Conn.
(1851-60); and Church of the Holy Trinity, Brook-
lyn, N. Y. (1860-69). During his rectorate in New
Haven he was professor of pastoral theology in the
Berkeley Divinity School at Middletown, Conn,
He was consecrated as the first bishop of the new
diocese of Long Island (Jan. 27, 1869), having pre-
viously been elected bishop of Central New York;
but declined the position. He bad oversight of the
American Protestant Episcopal churches on the
Continent (1874-86). His principal works are:
Coneiones ad Clerum (New York, 1881); Individ-
valism: its Groujth and Tendencies (18S1; lectures
before the University of Cambridge) ttnd The Chris-
tian Ministry al the clone of the I9th Century (1884;
lectures on the Bishop Paddock foundation, Gen-
eral Theological Seminary, New York).

p. IBS, New York, IMS.

■Ilimiiiniiii

3 2044 048 228 316

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Full text of "The new Schaff-Herzog encyclopedia of religious knowledge : embracing Biblical, doctrinal, and practical theology and Biblical, theological, and eclesiastical biography from the earliest times to the present day, based on the 3d ed. of the Realencyklopädie"

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